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111960

3701662

On the Diurnal Tides of Port Leopold, North Somerset. [Abstract]

507

507

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Samuel Haughton

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111960

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111960

Biography

Meteorology

Biography

II . " On the Diurnal Tides of Port Leopold , North Somerset . " By the Rev. SAMUEL HATGHTON , M.A. , F.R.S. , Fellow of Trinity College , Dublin . Received November 7 , 1861 . ( Abstract . ) The present is the first of a series of communications on the tides of the Arctic Seas which the author hopes to lay before the Royal Society . The MS . materials at his disposal embrace both the Atlantic and Pacific Arctic Tides , for which he was indebted to the Tlydrographer , Captain Washington , R.N. , to Captain Collinson , R.N. , Captain Sir F. Leopold M'Clintock , R.N. , and Captain Rochfort Maguire , R.N. The present paper discusses fully the diurnal tide of Port Leopold , which is most remarkable from the proportion which it bears to the semidiurnal tide , a proportion which is unusually large . From the discussion of this tide , the author is enabled to announce with confidence several results or laws which he had previously obtained and published from the discussion of the small diurnal tides of the coasts of Ireland . These results are given in detail in the paper itself . In the concluding portion of the paper , the author calculates , from received dynamical theories , the depth of the Atlantic Canal , from the proportion of the Solar to the Lunar coefficient , from the Diurnal Solitidal and Lunitidal Intervals , and from the Age and Acceleration of the Luni-diurnal Tide . He hopes to forward shortly the discussion of the Semidiurnal and Parallactic Tides of the same locality .

111961

3701662

On the Posterior Lobes of the Cerebrum of the Quadrumana. [Abstract]

508

508

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Henry Flower

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111961

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111961

Neurology

Anatomy 2

Neurology

III . " On the Posterior Lobes of the Cerebrum of the Quadrumana . " By WILLVr T IENRY FLOWER , Esq. , F.R.C.S. , Conservator of the HIunterian Museum , Royal College of Surgeons . Communicated by Dr. SAIARPEY , Sec. R.S. Received November 20 , 1861 . ( Abstract . ) The substance of this paper is contained in one presented to the SocietyJune 20th , 1861 ( see Abstract in 'Proceedings , 'vol . xi.p . 376 ) , with which further observations since made have been incorporated . A more detailed description of the posterior lobes of the brain of Cereopitleecus , Iacaccus , and Cebus is given , as well as an account of the same parts in Presbytes and Ilapale . It is shown that the brain of the last-named and that of Man , placed at the opposite ends of an extensive series , present in the posterior lobes certain well-marked common characters , but that in the Marmoset this portion of the brain is proportionally more elongated , the calcarine fissure is more deeply cut , the hippocampus minor more prominent , and the posterior cornu patent to a greater extent . The author having had an opportunity of dissecting the brain of a Lemur in a recent condition , has substituted a description of the cerebral characters of this animal for that of the Galago previously given , which having been long preserved in spirit , was not so well adapted for the purpose . In possessing a well-marked Sylvian fissure , a median lobe , a calcarine sulcus , and in the general character of the convolutions , the brains of members of this family are evidently formed upon the type common to the brain of Mail and the higher families of Quadrumana ; but while the gradations of this type are tolerably regular and unbroken between Homo and Hapale , the Lemurs do not follow in the same line of degradation , and should rather be placed as a small subseries parallel to the lower part of the large series , but separated from it by the shortness of the posterior lobes , large size of the olfactory bulbs , and inferior characters of the cerebellum . A Table is added , showing the comparative length of the posterior lobes in certain Quadrumana and other Mammalia , measured upon a plan described in the paper .

111962

3701662

On the General Forms of the Symmetrical Properties of Plane Triangles. [Abstract]

509

509

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Thomas Dobson

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111962

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111962

Formulae

Biography

Mathematics

V. " On the General Forms of the Symmetrical Properties of Plane Triangles . " By THOMAS DOBSON , Esq. , B.A. , Head Master of the School-Frigate 'Conway , ' Liverpool . Communicated by Capt. E. A. INGLEFIELD . Received December 3 , 1861 . ( Abstract . ) The symmetrical properties of plane triangles have been fully expounded in a series of six papers dated 1835 , 1836 , 1842 , 1843 , 1845 , and 1848 respectively , in the ' Lady 's and Gentleman 's Diary , ' published annually by the Stationers ' Company of London . Either from being the work of different hands , or from the earlier papers having been written before the importance of symmetry in mathematical formulae was duly appreciated , the series of papers leaves much to be desired as to uniformity of method . By assuming the usual expressions for the area of a triangle , as in the present paper , with a few other expressions of an equally elementary nature , all the well-known symmetrical properties of plane triangles may be readily deduced , by a little skill in the combination of algebraical symbols , without leaving the plane of the triangle . But the author has preferred to use a method which is at once general , simple , and uniform . This consists in referring the symmetrical points connected with a triangle to an indefinite plane , and establishing by an elementary process certain general formulae , each of which can be made to yield several cognate plane properties when different definite positions are assigned to the plane of reference .

111963

3701662

Note on Ethylene-Dichloride of Platinum

509

512

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

P. Griess|C. A. Martins

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1860.0111

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111963

10.1098/rspl.1860.0111

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111963

Chemistry 2

Biography

Chemistry

V. " Note on Ethylene-Dichloride of Platinum . " By P. GRIESS , Esq. , and C. A. MARTINS , Ph. D. Communicated by Dr. HOFMANN . Received December 16 , 1861 . About thirty years ago , Zeise obtained , by the action of dichloride of platinum upon alcohol , a compound which he found to have the following composition , C2 -I Pt , Cl , . This formula was corroborated by the analysis of a series of compounds which this body forms with the chlorides of some of the metals . The chloride-of-potassium compound , according to Zeise 's researches , contains C2 H1 Pt2 C12 , KC . The chloride-of-ammonium compound has an analogous composition . Zeise further observed that his platinum compound unites directly with ammonia , producing a substance of the formula C2 H,4 Pt2 C12 , NI3 . The correctness of these formule Liebig , relying on certain theoretical conceptions , has called in question . The discussion which followed his remarks has , however , in no way decided the constitution of these compounds . We have undertaken to prepare and analyse some new double compounds of this series , in order if possible to elucidate the constitution of Zeise 's bodies . We first endeavoured to establish the nature of the gas which under various conditions is evolved from Zeise 's compounds . For this purpose we exposed the potassium-salts above mentioned to a temperature of 200 ? , and collected the gas which was evolved , over bromine water . In this manner an oily liquid was obtained , which was easily proved to be identical with dibromide of ethylene . The formation of the gas seems to ensue according to the followingequation , CH Pt C12 , KCIPt2 C l , + KC1 + C , H , . The formation of ethylene-gas , as well as the analysis of several salts which we prepared , seems to indicate that the original formulae given by Zeise are correct , and that the existence of the group ( C2 H)2 0 assumed by Liebig in these substances is not supported by experimental evidence . We have succeeded in combining ethylene-dichloride of platinum ( this is the name which we propose for Zeise 's compounds ) with monoand diatomic bases . We have also combined this substance with the chlorides of the bases . The bodies thus obtained may be arranged in two series , comparable in many respects with certain classes of compounds which proto . chloride of platinum forms with organic bases . If ethylene-dichloride of platinum be viewed as the chloride of a monoatomic radical thus , ( C2 H4 Pt C1 ) C1 , a very simple relation between the derivatives of this substance and some of the compounds of protochloride of platinum becomes perceptible . First Series . Compounds of protochloride of platinum . PtCl H4 NC1 , PtCl ( , C I1I ) } NC1 , PtCl ( C2 II , ) N , C1 , 2Pt C1 ao t3}N pt } NC1 ( Ce 6 ) 1 Ha NC1 Pt j ( C0 11)2 H2 N01 Pt Pt J 114 NCl Pt2.J Compounds of ethylene-dichloride of platinum . ( C02 H Pt2 C1 ) , Cl H4 NCI , ( C , H4 Pt2 C1)C1 ( c0 Th ) } NCI , ( C2 H4 Pt4 C0C)0 ( C2 H4 ) } N2 C1 , 2[(C , 11 Pt2 C1)C1 ] Second Series . ( C2 H4 Pt2 1 ) } ) ( C , H1 ) H12 NCI ( C,2 H4 Pt , C1 ) ( 2 H1)2 'H > NC1 ( C 24 Pt2 01 ) ( C2 11 ) ] H14 NCI ( C2 H4 Pt2 C1)J The compounds of ethylene-dichloride of platinum with ammonia and chloride of ammonium here mentioned have already been described by Zeise ; the remainder , as well as the greater number of the protochloride-of-platinum bodies , are new . The detailed examination of these compounds , which are for the most part beautifully crystallized , is not yet completed ; but we take this opportunity of mentioning an observation which seems to give a more decided support to the view we have expressed regarding the relation of the series of ethylene-dichloride-of-platinum and that of the protochloride-of-platinum compounds . If the aqueous solution of the easily soluble body 02H N2 C12 , ( C,2 H4 Pt2 Cl)C be boiled , a considerable quantity of gas is immediately cooled , and at the same time beautiful yellow , difficultly soluble needles are deposited containing HI4 N2 C1 . Pt2 J This reaction may be explained by the following equation : NC 2 Cl,2[(C1tC)C 1 N2 C1,2+ 2C2 + Cl , I2Pt Cl. 2HN C12 , 2 [ ( C114 Pt , C1 ) C1]1 =2PtC . 6 Pt2 _____ _____t __..k_ ______ Dichloride of ethylene-diammonium , and Ethylene-diplatammonium . ethylene-dichloride of platinum . In conclusion it deserves to be noticed that the compounds of acetylene with subchloride of copper and other salts , which have been observed by Boettcher , Berthelot and others , may probably be classed with the group of the ethylene-dichloride of platinum . It is with the intention of testing this view that we are now engaged in an investigation of the deportment of protochloride of platinum with olefiant gas . The observations described in this Note were made in Professor Hofmnann 's laboratory .

111964

3701662

On the Development of Striped Muscular Fibre in Man, Mammalia, and Birds. [Abstract]

513

516

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. Lockhart Clarke

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111964

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111964

Biology 3

Neurology

Biology

I. " On the Development of Striped Muscular Fibre in Man , Mammnalia , and Birds . " By J. LOCKHART CLARKE , Esq. , F.R.S. Received November 21 , 1861 . ( Abstract . ) In the domestic fowl , until the beginning of the fifth day of incubation , the so-called voluntary muscular tissue consists only of a crowded multitude of free nuclei imbedded in a finely granular blastema ; the nuclei are round , oval , pyriform , and somewhat angular , with granular contents . On the fifth and sixth days of incubation , fibres become superadded under two forms,1st , as processes extending from the ends , or from the sides of nuclei ; 2nd , as narrow bands , either uniformly delicate and pale , or bordered by darker outlines , and containing nuclei at variable intervals . They are most numerous near the surface of the layer , and probably belong , at least partly , to the muscular layer of the skin . In every case their first stage of development is conducted on one general plan , which consists in the fibrillation of the blastema along the sides of nuclei , to which the fibrillee so formed become adherent . Sometimes these fibrillae or lateral fibres enclose a single nucleus with conical processes of blas . tema , so that the object occasionally presents some resemblance to a fusiform nucleated cell . More frequently , however , they enclose a linear series of nuclei at variable distances from each other , but cemented together by blastema , which sometimes assumes around each a more or less definite shape . In the formation of the paler fibres , however , a series of neighbouring nuclei may sometimes be seen first to collect round themselves granular masses of a more or less fusiform appearance , and then to coalesce with each other , in an oblique or alternately imbricate way . Sometimes a series of the nuclei themselves overlie each other in al imbricate form like a number of coins , and are cemented together by a common layer of blastema . In the early part of the seventh day of incubation , numerous fibres of a much larger and more striking description suddenly make their appearance in the nucleated blastema . They originate , however , on the same general plan as the others , in a fibrillation of the blastema between , or along the sides of , a variable number of nuclei ; but the process goes on to form aggregate masses of a much larger kind , and of a more or less oval , fusiform , or cylindrical shape , in which the nuclei are ultimately enclosed . Some of these bodies have a very striking resemblance to organic muscular-fibre-cells , which , according to my own opportunities of observation , are developed on the same general plan , that is , by the formation of sarcous substance , first , in the shape of fibres or lateral bands along the sides of a nucleus more or less encrusted with blastema , so that the organic muscularfibre-cell would appear to represent an early stage in the development of the striped muscular fibre . As incubation advances , the fibres acquire a tubular investment of the contractile or sarcous substance , which gradually increases in thickness or depth , and appears on each side as a band of corresponding breadth . As they grow in length , they also contract in diameter , and become of uniform structure throughout ; while their nuclei rise nearer to the surface , and assume a more oval form . At this period the marks of striation , either longitudinal or transverse , are only faint and occasional , By the fourteenth day of incubation , the entire substance of the fibres separates into longitudinal fibrillse , which in turn become shortly resolved into particles or sarcous elements . After this the fibres continue to grow in thickness by the addition , to their surfaces , of new fibrillie , which , as usual , are formed around nuclei encrusted with blastema cementing them , in such cases , to the original fibre . In mammalia , although there are some particular but unimportant differences in the development of muscular fibre , the general plan is the same as in birds . The nuclei-at least in the ox , sheep , and pig-are larger , and have more distinct cell-walls or enveloping membranes . The fibres of the sheep or pig first make their appearance , in the foetus of from half to three-quarters of an inch in length , as thick and nearly parallel threads lying amongst a densely crowded mass of free nuclei . When isolated , these fibres are seen to be attached to one or more of the nuclei by a variable quantity of blastema . Sometimes a single nucleus with conical processes of delicate granular substance is first enclosed by fine fibrillse or lateral bands , which present somewhat the appearance of a cell-wall , so that the object has a certain resemblance to a nucleated fusiform cell with a fibre originating from one of its extremities . Sometimes several nuclei are cemented in a group around a fibre , and become subsequently covered by other fibres of the same kind ; and sometimes they lie in linear series , either at some distance apart , or overlying each other to a certain extent like a series of coins . The lateral bands or fibres enclosing the nuclei extend around them as a tubular investment , which grows in thickness from without , but not always uniformly on all sides . In the process of longitudinal growth , the nuclei multiply by subdivision , become generally more oval , and approach nearer to the surface of the fibre , which at the same time contracts in diameter . The subsequent changes they pass through are nearly similar to those which occur in the chick . In man the development of muscular fibre proceeds on the arm general plan as in birds and mammalia , but differs from that of both in certain unimportant particulars . In the early stages there is no distinct appearance of those oval , cylindrical , and irregular masses observable in the chick on the seventh day of incubation and in the mammal at a corresponding period . In this respect there is a greater resemblance between the two latter classes than between man and either . In the human foetus , from about half to three-quarters of an inch in length , the first stage of development may be seen to commence by the formation of fine lateral bands or fibrillae along one or both sides of one nucleus or more . When , however , there are more nuclei than one enclosed by the same lateral bands , they are always disposed in linear succession , with their longer axes in the direction of the fibre , and never occur in irregular groups , as is sometimes the case both in birds and mammals , in which , consequently , the same kind of fibres are often broader at first . Thus formed , they lie side by side in bundles of different sizes , to which new fibres or new fibrille are being continually added by a renewed process of development . Every fibre is the rudiment of several fibrillae . At this period each lateral band constitutes a single fibrilla , which is often 2r resolved into sarcous elements of great distinctness and beauty , while new and similar fibrillae are developed along its sides in the way already explained . The subsequent series of changes do not differ materially from those that occur in the inferior classes . It is evident that this description of the development of muscular fibre is entirely opposed to the cellular theory of Schwann ; while it agrees in some points with that of Lebert ( Annals des Scien . Not . 1849-50 ) , but more with that of Savory ( Phil. Trans. 1855 ) . In no instance have I found that nucleated cells , properly so called , are concerned in the office of development ; for the finely granular blastema attached to the nuclei , although it frequently assumes the shape of a fusiform cell , is not invested with a cell-wall , in the proper sense of the word . Such an envelope , however , is sometimes simulated by the investing sarcous substance or fine lateral fibrille when they are first laid down on the sides of the fusiform mass and meet each other at each extremity to form a single fibre or process . Indeed , according to my own observations , as already remarked , this is precisely the mode in which the organic muscular-fibre-cell is developed ; so that the striped muscular fibre , instead of being the product of nucleated cells , would appear to be itself , at first , an instance or mode of cellformation , which finds its prototype in the organic muscular fibrecell , and in which the cell-wall is substituted and represented by the investing sarcous substance . ,

111965

3701662

On the Influence of Temperature on the Electric Conducting Power of the Metals. [Abstract]

516

518

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. Matthiessen|M. Von Bose

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111965

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111965

Electricity

Thermodynamics

Electricity

II . " On the Influence of Temperature on the Electric Conducting Power of the Metals . " By A. MATTHIESSEN , Esq. , F.R.S. , and M. VON BosE . Rleceived December 5 , 1861 . ( Abstract . ) In the first part of the paper we have described the apparatus used for the experiments , together with the precautions taken to ensure correct results ; in the second we have given the results obtained with the pure metals-silver , copper , gold , zinc , tin , arsenic , antimony , bismuth , mercury-and the metalloid tellurium . The conducting power of the wires , or bars of each , was determined at about 12 ? , 25 ? , 40 ? , 550 , 70 ? , 85 ? , and 100 ? C. ; and from the mean of the eight observations made with each wire ( four at each temperature on heating , and four on cooling ) , we deduced a formula by the method of least squares for the correction of the conducting power for temperature . It was found that the conducting power or resistance of a metal does not decrease or increase in direct ratio to the temperature , as stated by Becquerel* , Arndstent , and Siemens , who assume that the formula for the correction of resistance for temperature between 0 ? -1000 may be expressed by X=x+yt , but that , on the contrary , the formula must be X=w+yt+ yt2 , where X is the resistance at t degrees , x the resistance at 0 ? , and y and y constants . One fact seems to have escaped the observation of former experimenters , namely , that when a wire of a metal is heated for the first time to 100 ? and again cooled , an alteration in the conducting power takes place ; with most metals it is necessary to heat them for several days before their conducting power becomes constant . In the third part we have deduced from the results obtained , the law that all pure metals in a solid state vary in conducting power to the same extent between 0 ? and 100 ? C. In cases where very great accuracy is required , it is absolutely necessary to experiment on the conductor itself ; for we have found almost the same differences between formulae obtained for wires of the same metal as between the mean of those deduced for the different metals . This behaviour may be attributed to the fact that the molecular arrangement is not the same even in wires of the same metal ; for we find that copper wires , when kept at 100 ? for several days , behave very differently from each other : thus , in the case of the three copper wires experimented with , wire 1 increased in conducting power almost to the same extent as if it had been annealed , wire 2 partially so , and wire 3 hardly at all . With bismuth , wire 1 increased its conducting power 16 per cent. ; wire 2 , 19 per cent. ; and wire 3 , 12 per cent. Again , in the case of cadmium , which becomes quite brittle and crystalline at 800 ( for cadmium may be powdered in a hot mortar ) , we found the formula for each wire very different . On the other hand , the formula of the wires of those metals which , after being kept at 100 ? for some time , show a very slight or no alteration in the conducting power on again being cooled , agree very closely with each other . Compare those of lead , tin , and mercury . Metalloids conduct electricity better when heated than when cold . Iittorf* proved this to be the case with selenium . Gas-coke and graphitet , and the gasesS , follow the same law . Tellurium , when first heated to 70 ? or 80 ? C. , behaves as a metal , that is to say , it loses in conducting power up to that temperature , when it then begins to gain . The temperature of the turning-point becomes lower after each day 's heating , until , as with the first and third bars experimented with , it is below the lowest temperature at which observations were made . Taking the first observed conducting power of each bar -=100 , we found that the conducting power of bar 1 had decreased after thirteen days ' heating to 4 , where it then remained constant ; that of bar 2 , after thirty-two days , became constant at 19 ; and that of bar 3 , after thirtythree days , at 6 . With bar 2 the conducting power decreased up to 29 ? '4 , when it began again to increase . The behaviour of tellurium is therefore intermediate between that of the metals and that of the metalloids .

111966

3701662

Notes of Researches on the Poly-Ammonias.--No. XIX. Aromatic Diamines

518

525

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. W. Hofmann

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1860.0115

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111966

10.1098/rspl.1860.0115

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111966

Chemistry 2

Biography

Chemistry

III . " Notes of Researches on the Poly-Ammonias."-No . XIX . Aromatic Diamines . By A. W. HOFMANN , LL. D. , F.R , S. Received December 16 , 1861 . Whilst engaged in the examination of the polyatomic ammonias of the ethylene-series , I have repeatedly endeavoured to produce the diatomic bases corresponding to the aromatic monamines . The composition and general characters of these compounds were sufficiently indicated by the examination of ethylene-diamine . The simple relation which the latter body bears to ethylamine , C2 H , ( C2 Hl4 ) ' Ethylamine IH N , Ethylene-diamine H2 N2 , 12 J could leave no doubt regarding the existence of a series of diatomic aromatic ammonias similarly related to aniline and its homologues . * Pogg . Ann. lxxxvi 214 . t Phil. Trans. 1858 , p. 586 . + Ann. de Chim . et de Phys. ( 3 ) xxxix . 355 . The second column of the following Table sets forth the series of substances thus theoretically suggested : Phenylamine C6 H5 ( Aniline ) j jf Tolylamine C7 71 HI N , ( Toluidine ) IE JN Xylylamine C8 19 } ( Xylidine ) IL N , II N , ( C , 114)"V Phenylene-diamine H2 N2 , H , ( C7 11)"1 Toluylene-diamine H1 , N , I29 J Xylylene-diamine ( C8 , II " H , I-IX IN , . The method for producing these diatomic compounds appeared likewise obvious . Bearing in mind the simple transformation of benzol into nitrobenzol and aniline , C6 He CH N 0 , C6 EH1 2N Benzol . Nitrobenzol . Phenylamine . the idea very naturally suggested itself , to look to dinitrobenzol as the source from which phenylene-diamine might reasonably be expected to arise . C , H6 C , H14N 02 C6 H1 H4 NN O2 1 , N Benzol . Dinitrobenzol . Phenylene-diamine . Nor have chemists failed to pursue the path pointed out by theory . In conjunction with Dr. Muspratt I have myself , many years ago , examined this reaction . We did not , however , succeed in producing the desired result , although our exertions were rewarded by the discovery of nitrophenylamine ( nitraniline ) , C0 Ho C , , N2O C H , N O , 66 4-1 -2 6 _XTf_4TT X Benzol . IN U2 Dinitrobenzol , 112 N Nitrophenylatnine . which , being the first basic nitro-compound with which chemists became acquainted , withdrew our attention for the time from the original object of the inquiry . Nitrophenylamine being obviously the first product of the action of reducing agents on dinitrobenzol , it appeared very probable that the further reduction of the nitro-base or the prolonged treatment of dinitrobenzol itself might furnish the compound . I have repeatedly tried to accomplish the final reduction of nitrophenylamine by the protracted action of sulphide of ammonium or potassium , without , however , obtaining definite results . Nor have Messrs. Church and Perkin , who have examined the action of nascent hydrogen upon dinitrobenzol , been more successful . Their experiments have led them to the discovery of an interesting new compound , nitrosophenyline ; but the formation of a diatomic ammonia was not observed . M. Zinin , on the other hand , to whom science is indebted for the important discovery of the reduction of nitro-compounds , has been more fortunate : by exhausting the action of sulphide of ammonium upon dinitrobenzol , this chemist has in fact obtained a substance to which he attributed the formula set forth for phenylene-diamine . The properties of the body described by Zinin under the name of semibenzidam , are , however , far from those which might have been anticipated in the case of such a compound . Distillation of an alcoholic solution of dinitrobenzol with sulphide of ammonium , according to Zinin ( Gerhardt , Traite , vol. iii . p. 104 ) , leaves a brown resinous substance , soluble in water and containing much free sulphur . By dissolving it in boiling alcohol or ether , the compound is deposited , on cooling , in yellow flakes , melting under water to a brown resinous mass , which , on exposure to the atmosphere , rapidly assumes a green colour . This certainly is not the phenylene-diamine of our theoretical conceptions ; and more than a year ago , when submitting to the Society some experiments on the action of nitrous acid upon nitrophenylene-diamine* , I was led to express this opinion:--"Those chemists who have had an opportunity of becoming acquainted with the well-defined properties of ethylene-diamine , will not be easily persuaded to consider the uncouth dinitrobenzol-productsometimes appearing in brown flakes , sometimes as a yellow resin , rapidly turning green in contact with the air-as standing to smooth phenylamine in a relation similar to that which obtains between ethylene-diamine and ethylamine . " I have in no way to retract the opinion then expressed . The diatomic ammonia of the phenyl-series has obviously never been observed in a pure state . Phenylenediamine and the homologous diatomic aromatic bases are as welldefined substances as their collateral monamines . This class of bodies is , in fact , characterized by an extraordinary crystallizing power , -both the bases and their salts being easily obtained in crystals , which are often capable of measurement . It was under peculiar circumstances that my attention was drawn again to the study of the aromatic diamines . I am indebted to Dr. Alphons Oppenheim for the communication of a specimen of a crystallized base , which had been obtained as a secondary product in the Aniline Works of M. Ch. Collin of Paris . The first combustions proved to me that this substance was one of the diatomic compounds which I had repeatedly endeavoured to produce . The crystals were found to contain ( C07 C7 H , o N2 H , N2 , H , which is the formula of toluylene-diamine , the primary diamine of the toluyl-series . The intimate relation of this compound with the ethylene-bases , which I have lately studied , induced me to pursue the subject further . M. Ch. Collin has had the kindness to furnish me with a most liberal supply of this interesting substance , accompanied by a very lucid and elaborate statement of the circumstances under which it is produced , drawn up by Dr. Coblentz , the chemical director of the factory . I have thus been enabled to verify the formula above given by the analysis of several salts . There could be no doubt about the reaction which , in the manufacturing processes of M. Collin , had given rise to the formation of this substance . It obviously owed its origin to dinitrotoluol accidentally produced from the toluol invariably present in commercial benzol . Experiments have not failed to verify this view . Dinitrotoluol , prepared by the usual process from toluol , when distilled with a mixture of iron and acetic acid the method of reduction now generally adopted in the manufacture of aniline has furnished the crystalline alkaloid of M. Collin with all its properties . The identity was proved moreover by analysis . The rest is rapidly told . The examination was at once extended to the dinitro-compounds of the homologues of toluol , and more especially to dinitrobenzol . The behaviour of these substances under the influence of acetate of iron , as might have been expected , is perfectly analogous to that of dinitrotoluol . It is my intention to lay before the Society a detailed account of the diatomic bases which are thus produced . For the present I will mention only some of the properties of phenylene-diamine and toluylene-diamine , in order to give an idea of the general character of this class of bases . Phenylene-diamine . Freshly distilled , it presents itself as a slightly coloured heavy oil , which , like phenylamine , has a tendency to assume a brown coloration on exposure to the atmosphere . The ' base remains liquid often for days , and then gradually solidifies into a mass of crystals , which become hard and white by washing with ether . The fusing-point of phenylene-diamine is 63 ? . Its boiling-point is near 280 ? ; it distils without alteration . This substance is very soluble in water and alcohol ; the solutions have a distinctly alkaline reaction . It is far less soluble in ether . Phenylene-diamine contains C611 , Nf----C6 114 } 6 Il N2 = 112 } N2 N It N , . This base , as might have been expected , is diacid . A beautifully crystallized sulphate was found to contain [ ( C6 114)"N2f( The dichloride is very soluble in water , but was easily crystallized from concentrated hydrochloric acid . It was found to contain(C61H4 ) " IN L -[( 11 N2I C12 . Addition of dichloride of platinum to the solution of the chloride furnishes the platinum-salt , which crystallizes in splendid needles of the composition [ ( C. I- ) } N ] Cl 22Pt Cl2 . Phenylene-diamine is remarkable for the facility with which its salts , as well as its other derivatives , crystallize . In this respect it worthily emulates its monatomic correlative , phenylamine . The bromide and iodide are separated at once , in the form of crystalline masses , when phenylene-diamine is brought in contact with the respective acids . The salts thus produced crystallize splendidly from water , and more especially from alcohol . The nitrate and oxalate are not less beautiful . The salts of phenylene-diamine are readily decomposed by the fixed caustic alkalies ; the base is thus separated in oily globules , which only gradually solidify . Ammonia likewise separates the phenylene-diamine from its saline compounds ; the slightest excess , however , redissolves it , and the solution is apt to become brown , and then contains products of transformation . This observation explains in a measure why the diatomic base cannot be conveniently obtained by the usual method of reduction by , sulphide of ammonium . Toluylene-diamine . This substance is a crystalline solid . It dissolves freely in water , forming an alkaline solution . It is likewise soluble in alcohol , and less so in ether . Toluylene-diamine is one of the most beautiful compounds I have ever seen . From boiling water it crystallizes in needles , which frequently acquire an inch in length . Like phenylene-diamine , this compound is apt to assume a yellowish tint in contact with the air . Crystallization from water does not remove this tint , which only yields to treatment with animal charcoal . The aqueous solution of toluylene-diamine rapidly acquires a dark-brown colour . The new substance fuses at 990 , and distils without change ; the boiling-point is above 280 ? , a little higher than that of phenylenediamine . I shall , however , determine the boiling-points more accurately as soon as I shall have procured myself larger quantities of both substances . The analysis of toluylene-diamine has led to the expression C7 Ilo N2 , = ( C7 I , ) " } This formula was verified by the examination of a sulphate crystallizing in perfectly well-formed , long and rather thin prisms , apt to assume a beautiful pink colour , which were found to contain [ ( 1 " }N2 ] ( SO , ) " . The nitrate forms long needles , [ ( C7 IIo ) " ) , j " N , [ ( 7HG " }N2 ] ( NO3)2 , very soluble in water and alcohol . The bromide crystallizes in short prisms , likewise soluble in water and alcohol , having the composition [ ( C7 '16 ) " NJ Br , . L 116.1 i ' The chloride is more soluble and somewhat less easily crystallized from water , but it may , like the corresponding phenylene-diamine compound , be crystallized from hydrochloric acid . It contains [ r-(CN , , 1 , , The platinum-salt crystallizes in golden scales . It is somewhat soluble in water , and is therefore conveniently washed with alcohol . The formula of this substance is ( C7 6 ) " }N , C2 , 2PtCl , . The substances of which I have submitted a short account to the Society are capable of furnishing an almost endless variety of derivatives . They are acted upon by cyanogen , chloride of cyanogen , by the chlorides of the acid radicals ( chloride of acetyl and chloride of benzoyl ) , by the iodides of the alcohol-radicals , by disulphide of carbon , &c. , forming a series of substances most of them remarkably well crystallized . Their composition being nearly always indicated in advance by theory , it is not my intention to examine these various derivatives in detail , but I shall avail myself of the two easily accessible diamines which I have described , for the purpose of establishing by a few numbers the chief characteristics of the diatomic bases corresponding to the aromatic monamines . I propose more especially to examine the deportment of these substances under the influence of nitrous acid . The action of nitrous acid upon aniline furnishing phenyl-alcohol , n6 +5 o ++ , CH N+ HNO , -02C6 }3 + O+ II +N , there is some hope of meeting , in the analogous decomposition of phenylene-diamine with the diatomic phenylene-alcohol ( phenylglycol ) , ( Co IL)"}C , 1 ff H2 N2+ 2HNO2(C } 02+21 } O+N4 ) . The facility with which acetate of iron effects the reduction of nitro-compounds in cases in which the sulphide of ammonium acts but slowly , or is altogether inadmissible on account of secondary de . compositions which it may induce , suggests this method for the production of the aromatic bases of higher atomicity , which are at present unknown . Trinitronaphtaline might thus yield a basic compound , ( C0lo IH)'"l C1O H1N , = 113 N3 ; 113 and even the triatomic base of the phenyl-series might possibly be obtained in this manner ; for although we have not at present trinitrobenzol at our disposal , we could submit the nitro-bases themselves to further amidation . I have satisfied myself by experiment that phenylene-diamine may be just as well obtained by the reduction of nitraniline as of dinitrobenzol ; and it deserves therefore to be ascertained whether dinitraniline will yield the compound ( Co 113 ) 'C H9 N3= 3 N , 3J which would be the first aromatic triamine . In conclusion , I may be permitted to express my best thanks to MM . Ch. Collin and Coblentz for the liberal manner in which they have furnished me the materials for the experiments described . By facilitating the scientific elaboration of the new diatomic compounds , these gentlemen have endeavoured most gracefully to acknowledge the debt of gratitude which the aniline-industry owes to theoretical inquiries in organic chemistry .

111967

3701662

Contributions towards the History of the Monamines.-- No. V. Action of Chloracetic Ether on Triethylamine and Triethylphosphine

525

532

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. W. Hofmann

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1860.0116

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111967

10.1098/rspl.1860.0116

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111967

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

I. " Contributions towards the History of the Monamines."No . V. Action of Chloracetic Ether on Triethylamine and Triethylphosphine . " By A. W. HIOFMANN , LL. D. , F.R , S. Received December 16 , 1861 . I am indebted to Mr. C. E. Groves for a considerable quantity of the ethyl-bases , which he has prepared by the action of ammonia upon iodide of ethyl , in order to test on a large scale the method of separating the three compounds by means of oxalic ether* , which have lately proposed** This circumstance has enabled me to submit these substances , and more especially diethylamine and triethylamine , to a more thorough examination than they had hitherto received . Reserving a detailed communication upon this subject to a future occasion , I beg leave to submit to the Royal Society a short account of some of the substances observed in the course of these experiments . Action of GCloraeetic Ethier upon Triethylamine . A mixture of triethylamine and chloracetic ether , both carefully dried , was exposed in a sealed glass tube for several hours to a temperature of 100 ? . On cooling , the mixture was found to have deposited some crystals ( chloride of triethylammonium ) , and on opening the tube a small quantityfof a gas , burning with a green-edged flame , escaped . Repeated experiments showed that these phenomena are due to secondary reactions . The principal product of the action of chloracetic ether upon triethylamine is the chloride of an ammonium containing in the place of the hydrogen three equivalents of ethyl and one equivalent of a complex atom consisting of the elements which in chloracetic ether are united with the chlorine , ( 2 115IN 0211 X5 } C2 ! 2 . 1 ? = Co 2E N( C1 . 02 MJ JL -(C Aj ( C ] H ) 02 Ji The nature of the reaction was fixed by the analysis of the platinum-salt of this complex metal . Addition of dichloride of platinum to the aqueous solution of the product of the reaction produces a rather difficultly soluble crystalline precipitate , which by several crystallizations may be obtained in a state of perfect purity , the platinumsalt of triethylammonium , which is exceedingly soluble , remaining in the mother-liquor . The new platinum-salt crystallizes in splendid , well-formed crystals of rhombic habitus . They were found to contain C,1 H22NO2Pt C3= [ ( C2 1 , )3 , ( C H2 N ] ci , Pt C12 The chloride corresponding to the platinum-salt is readily obtained by the action upon it of sulphuretted hydrogen . By evaporation in vacuo over sulphuric acid , it remains in the form of long needles , extremely soluble both in water and alcohol . From the latter solvent it may be recrystallized . The crystals , however , owing to their deliquescent character , are but little adapted for analysis . I have therefore been satisfied to corroborate the formula of the platinumsalt by the examination of the corresponding gold-compound . The gold-salt crystallizes in needles , which , since they fuse at 100 ? , have to be dried in vacuo . Formula : Clo 2 NO2Au Cl-2 [ ( CH)(C 2i 2)N]Cl , Au Cl , . I have not been able to obtain the base corresponding to this series of salts . The chloride , when treated with oxide of silver , yields chloride of silver and a solution which , on evaporation , solidifies into a radio-crystalline compound . Although perfectly neutral to test . paper , this substance forms , with hydrochloric and hydriodic acids , well-defined salts which belong , however , to another series . The oiquid obtained by the action of oxide of silver , in addition to the crystalline compound , contains alcohol which may be separated by fractional distillation . The crystalline substance formed under the above circumstances is rather deliquescent , and was therefore not submitted to analysis . To obtain some insight into its nature , the platinumand gold-salts , as well as the beautifully crystallized nitrate and iodide , were examined . Their analysis has proved that these salts differ from the saline compound formed by the action of chloracetic ether upon triethylamine , by the substitution of hydrogen for an equivalent quantity of ethyl , -a difference of composition which might have been inferred from the elimination of alcohol in the process of transformation . The new set of salts containing only three equivalents of ethyl , I may , for the sake of convenience , designate them as the triethylated compounds in contradistinction to the former class , which are tetrethylated . The platinum-salt is readily obtained by dissolving the triethylated base in hydrochloric acid , and adding dichloride of platinum . The precipitate may be crystallized from boiling water without decomposition . The salt forms beautiful rhombic prisms of the composition C8 I,8 NO2 Pt C13= [ ( C , 15)3(CI2HI2 2)N ] Ci , Pt C12 . The gold-salt crystallizes in needles difficultly soluble in cold , easily soluble in boiling water , in which they fuse . Their composition is analogous to that of the platinum-salt , C8 , I1NO , Au Cl4= [ ( 0C H5 ) , ( C2 H 02)N ] Cl , Au C1 . The nitrate is formed by dissolving the triethylated compound in nitric acid , evaporating the solution to dryness , dissolving the residue in alcohol , and adding ether , when the salt crystallizes out in splendid needles very soluble in water . The combustion of the compound led to the formula,8 H , , N , 0 , = [ ( C2 H)3 ( C2 1122)]NO3 . The only additional salt of this series which I have examined is the iodide . It is formed by dissolving the triethylated compound in hydriodic acid , evaporating , washing the crystalline residue with strong alcohol , and recrystallizing from boiling alcohol . The crystals are generally well-formed ; they are extremely soluble in water . The composition of this salt presents some interest . Analysis proved it to contain C N6,35 N2 = [ ( CA21 ) ( 02 II2 2)NI , C 17 NO2 . From the analysis of these salts it is evident that the action of oxide of silver upon the compound of triethylamine with chloracetic ether is twofold : in the first place , the chloride is converted into the corresponding base ; in the second place , this base loses an equivalent of ethyl , which separates in the form of alcohol : r'0 c2H2 O2 Ag 0+ 10 ( C2 )3( dN ] +H}+ =AgCl+ L(c . 11 5)2 ' ] jo+ ( C2 ) } Ho. =Agc+ H0 + The crystalline substance which remains after treatment of the tetrethylated chloride with oxide of silver would thus be the monatomic base Hj[ 532(C II)(-I2 122)N ] } There is , however , some reason to believe that the compound is decomposed in the moment of the formation , and that the crystals contain one molecule of water less , being in fact [ C02 12)3 ( C 2 I2 ) 0 } o } 0= ( C , 11 ) , ( C , I o20)N= C , -I , NO , . The crystalline product has no alkaline reaction whatever ; moreover , we have seen the body C8 I-7 NO2 associated with the iodide in the compound above described . I lay some stress upon these facts , since they would lend at once an additional interest to the compound under consideration , which would thus appear in the light of triethylated glycocoll , c , H11 NO , = C H2 ( C2 115)3 NO2 . It deserves to be noticed that normal glycocoll exhibits a tendency to form compounds similar in constitution to the iodide above described , one of the hydrochloric acid compounds being represented by the formula [ C2 H1 N 02 ] C1 + C , ,2 NO , . The new triethylated compound , whatever its constitution may be , is remarkable for its stability . Ebullition with the strongest potash is without effect upon it . I have boiled it with fuming nitric acid for hours without producing any alteration . A current of nitrous acid passed through the nitric acid solution leaves it unchanged . Evaporated to dryness , the residue gave , with hydrochloric acid and platinumor gold-solution , the original platinumand gold-salts . When submitted to the action of heat , the triethylated compound is entirely decomposed . A powerful alkaline liquid distils , whilst a charred residue remains behind . The alkaline distillate contains a highly volatile base , forming with hydrochloric acid and dichloride of platinum a rather soluble salt . I infer from some preliminary platinum-determinations that the base thus obtained is by no means triethylamine . Further experiments are necessary to clear up the nature of this substance , the examrination of which is likely to throw some light on the constitution of the compound whence it is derived . Action of Chloracetic Ether upon Triethylphosphine . The reactions which I have described were also applied to triethylphosphine . Repetition of all the phenomena previously observed with triethylamine . Triethylphosphine and chloracetic ether combine with evolution of heat and formation of a brownish liquid of considerable consistency . If somewhat larger quantities are to be mixed , it is desirable to moderate the action by the presence of a volume of anhydrous ether , equal or greater than the aggregate bulk of the two liquids . Dissolved in water , separated by filtration or distillation from the excess of chloracetic ether employed , and mixed with dichloride of platinum , the new chloride furnishes a beautifully crystallized platinum-salt , which , after several crystallizations from boiling water , exhibits the composition C1o I22 , PO , Pt CI1= [ ( C02 H ) ( c2 2 ? P c ] , Pt Cl. Submitted to the action of oxide of silver , the chloride contained in this platinum-salt undergoes the same change which was observed in the corresponding nitrogen compound , [ ( C21 ) . , ( 11 tI)N]C1 +}0+}0 -[(0 H '1 P^A 11 Itct tn It is scarcely necessary to point out the perfect analogy of the new phosphoretted compounds with the corresponding bodies in the nitrogen-series . Whatever view be entertained of the latter , must also be taken regarding the former . Conceived in the anhydrous condition , the product obtained by the action of oxide of silver upon the chloride may be considered as phosphoretted glycocoll with three equivalents of ethyl in the place of three of hydrogen , 8 1117 P02=02 112 ( C2 1,5)3 PO2 The phosphoretted compound resembles in its properties the substance derived from triethylamine . The aqueous solution , when evaporated in vacuo , solidifies into a radiated crystalline mass . have been satisfied to fix the composition of this body by the analysis of the well-crystallized platinum-salt , which was found to contain CD H , PO , . Pt Cl-= [ ( C , H)(C2 )P]C1 , Pt C12 , and by that of the iodide . The latter was formed by precipitating the platinum-salt by sulphuretted hydrogen , decomposing the chloride formed in this manner by oxide of silver , and dissolving the triethylated compound in hydriodic acid . The solution was evaporated to dryness , the residue washed with absolute alcohol and recrystallized from the same liquid . This iodide is more soluble and less beautiful than the corresponding compound in the nitrogen-series . Analysis showed , however , that it has an analogous composition , viz. C1 H1135 P2 04 I-= [ ( C2 H5)3 ( 2 2)P ] 1,0 C8 H17 P02 . Whatever view may be taken respecting the composition of the compounds described in the preceding pages , it is obvious that chloracetic ether , in its action on triethylamine and triethylphosphine , exhibits the deportment of one molecule of hydrochloric acid , and that the complex atom , 04H,0 , =0C,2H , ( 0 1 , ) 0 , which in chloracetic ether is united with one equivalent of chlorine , represents in the compounds thus produced one equivalent of hydrogen . These substances are ammonium-salts of double substitution , the compound atom , which replaces one of the hydrogen equivalents of the ammonium , containing itself an equivalent of ethyl , substituted in this atom for the hydrogen originally present . Compounds of a similar construction have been previously obtained . In his beautiful researches on the amidic acids , M. Cahours has proved that the ethers of benzamic , toluylamic , and cuminamic acids exhibit the same tendency to combine with acids which characterizes the amidic acids themselves . In these ethers the ethyl-atom may be exchanged at pleasure for hydrogen and metals ; it obviously has been introduced into the molecular system of these bodies by what may be called a secondary substitution . The constitution of the compounds obtained from the first salts by the action of oxide of silver is less transparent . It may be that there is between these two classes a relation similar to that which obtains between amidic ethers 2 Q and amidic acids . But they may be , as I have pointed out , interpreted in another way . The question thus presented is accessible to experiment , being capable of solution in a variety of ways ; and it appears useful to postpone further speculation upon this subject until it may be raised upon a broader experimental foundation .

111968

3701662

Additional Observations and Experiments on the Influence of Physical Agents in the Development of the Tadpole and the Frog

532

537

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Higginbottom

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1860.0117

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111968

10.1098/rspl.1860.0117

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111968

Chemistry 1

Biology 2

Chemistry

II . " Additional Observations and Experiments on the Influence of Physical Agents in the Development of the Tadpole and the Frog . " By JOHN HIGGINBOTTOM , Esq. , F.R.S. Received Dec. 24 , 1861 . In a former paper " On the Influence of Physical Agents on the development of the Tadpole of the Triton and the Frog , " which the Royal Society honoured with a place in the Philosophical Transactions for 1850 , experiments were detailed to prove that the ovum of the frog ( the Rana temporaria ) underwent its metamorphosis in the absence of light , contrary to the experiments of Dr. W. F. Edwards of Paris , related in his work 'On the Influence of Physical Agents on Life . ' My most satisfactory experiment was made in a rock cellar 30 feet deep , where no solar light ever entered ; the mean temperature of the cellar was 51 ? Fahr. , -I believe , the lowest temperature at which the transformation could be effected . The ova of the frog , just deposited , were placed in the cellar on the 11th of March , and on the 31st of October the first was fully developed in the form of a frog ; while other ova deposited on the same day , which were placed in a shady part of a room at 60 ? Fahr. and covered with several folds of black calico , were fuilly developed on May 22nd , twenty-three weeks earlier than those in the cellar . The experiment proved that the development of the frog depended upon the temperature , and not upon the presence of light . I found by other experiments that those in the light , and those deprived of light , were equally developed if placed at the same temperature . I observed that an excess of light retarded the development . 1 . On the Influence of Light on the Ovumn My formerexperiments not being parallel with those of Dr. Edwards , I was desirous of following his steps . Dr. Edwards says , in his work 53 above referred to , Part iv . chapter 15 , 'On the -Ifluence of Light upon the Development of the Body , ' " This process , previous to birth , is generally carried on in the dark ; there are , however , animals whose impregnated eggs are hatched , notwithstanding their exposure to the rays of the sun . Of this number are the Batrachians . I wished to determine what influence light independent of heat might exert upon this kind of development . With this view I placed some spawn of the frog in water in a vessel which was rendered impermeable to light by dark paper . The other vessel was transparent ; they were exposed to the same degree of temperature , but the transparent vessel received the rays of the sun . The eggs exposed to the light were developed in succession ; of those in the dark , none did well ; in some , however , I remarked unequivocal indications of the transformation of the embryo . " Dr. Edwards does not mention the depth of water in the vessel in which he put the spawn of the frog , which he " rendered impermeable to light . " If it were a few inches in depth , it would materially prevent the transformation of the embryo . I commenced my experiment in a pool which had been the habitat of frogs ( the Rana temporaria ) for several years . Experiment st.-I put a quantity of spawn , just deposited , into a box perforated with small holes , so as to admit a free current of water through it , and placed it about 3 feet below the surface of the water ; all the ova perished . The next experiments were made in an aquarium 20 inches deep , containing seventeen gallons of water at 60 ? Fahr. Experiment 2nd.-A quantity of spawn was put into the water , which fell to the bottom of the aquarium ; the spawn when first deposited by the frog , is specifically heavier than the water* . The ova enlarged as usual , but did not arrive satisfactorily through the branchial state ; most of the ova appeared to undergo no change whatever . Experiment 3rd.-Some spawn was placed 8 inches below the surface of the water ; but none of the ova passed through the branchial state . Experiment 4th.-A quantity of spawn was placed on rock work near the surface of the water . Nearly all the ova passed satisfactorily through the branchial state to the formation of tadpoles ; each of the experiments was made at the same time and at the same temperature . Experiment 5th.-A quantity of spawn was put into two round shallow dishes , each containing two pints of water , which were placed on the stand of the aquarium at the same time as in the former experiments ; nearly all did well ; and during the full branchial or fish-like state , great numbers of the embryos had placed themselves close to the margin of the water , forming a dark circle , with their branchiae nearly exposed to the atmospheric air . They do not appear to feed during this period on the jelly their first food ; atmospheric respiration seems more needful than food for their existence for several days during their full branchial state* . There are two distinct metamorphoses from the ovum to the full development of the frog : the first from the branchial or fish-like state to that of the tadpole ; the second from the tadpole to that of a frog , the first requiring for its existence a close approximation to the atmospheric air , the second requiring full atmospheric respiration , to which I shall hereafter refer . The branchial state continues about nine days , from the first buddings of the branchibe to their absorption . About the seventh day the branchiae are absorbed on the right side , indeed so quickly that I have observed that scores have lost them during one night , whilst the branchiae on the left side have apparently been perfect ; but these in their turn become absorbed during the next day ; the respiration of this newly formed tadpole now depends on the internal gills and cutaneous surface . The gill-opening for the passage of water is very apparent on the left side , but there is none on the right . 2 . On the Influence of Light on the Tadpole . The experiments of Dr. Edwards indicate that a decided influence is exerted by light upon the metamorphosis of Batrachians , since , according to his statement , when tadpoles which had arrived at nearly their full growth were secluded from the influence of light , but supported with aerated water and food , they attained an extraordinary size , without undergoing any metamorphosis . The following is Dr. Edwards 's experiment:- " I procured a tin box , divided into twelve compartments , each of which was numbered and pierced with holes so that the water might readily pass through the box , A tadpole ( which had been previously weighed ) was put into each compartment , and the box was then placed in the River Seine , some feet below the surface . A large number were at the same time put into an earthen-ware vessel , containing about four gallons of Seine water , which was changed every day ; these tadpoles were at liberty to rise to the surface and respire air , and they soon went through their metamorphosis . Of the twelve placed in the box under water , ten preserved their form without any progress in their transformation , although some had doubled or trebled their weight . It should be observed that at the time when the experiment was begun , the tadpoles had attained the size at which the change is about to take place . Two only were transformed , and these very much later than those which , in the earthen vessel , had the liberty of respiration in air . " Dr. Edwards concludes that the presence of solar light favours the development of form . The situation in which Dr. Edwards placed the tadpoles , " some feet below the surface of the river " in his experiment , would inevitably prove unsuccessful in the full development of the frog . I have always found the transformation , both of the triton and of the frog , equal in the same temperature , both in the light and in the absence of light , if placed in shallow water ; but during their metamorphosis they must be allowed to rise to the surface of the water to obtain air , or they become asphyxiated . I therefore placed stones in the vessel , and allowed them to leave the water for the purpose of atmospheric respiration . The metamorphosis of the tadpole , when at its full growth , requires about fourteen days to bring it to the condition of a frog . About the termination of that period , the diminution of the body is so great , and also the absorption of the expanded caudal extremity is such , as to diminish cutaneous respiration . Respiration by the lungs becomes absolutely necessary to prevent the animal from becoming asphyxiated , which would be the case if it remained in the water-requiring then not an aquatic , but an atmospheric medium of respiration . It may be observed that after the tail is partially absorbed , leaving only a portion of the solid part , the asphyxiated state has commenced : the little animal , with open mouth , gasps for breath ; but if removed into atmospheric air , the mouth is directly closed , and respiration is effected through the nostrils with perfect freedom ; the animal is restored directly , jumps about and is lively . 3 . On the Influence of the absence of Light on the Tadpole and on the Frog . This time I commenced my experiments in three rock cellars , formerly only in one . The cellars in Nottingham , cut out of solid rock , are most favourable for experiment ; no solar light ever enters , and they are not subject to any great change of temperature . The deepest cellar is 30 feet deep , the mean temperature 51 ? Fahr. ; the middle cellar is 18 feet deep , its mean temperature 53 ? Fahr. ; the uppermost cellar 9 feet deep , mean temperature 56 ? Fahr. June 11th . In each cellar I placed a shallow glazed earthenware vessel , containing two pints of water , with grass for chlorophyll for food , changing the water every second day . In each vessel I put twenty tadpoles , approaching the period of their metamorphosis , following the example of Dr. Edwards , -a much easier method than commencing with the spawn . In the uppermost cellar ten were fully developed in the form of a frog on the 8th of September , and were on the stones , having left the water . In the middle cellar ten were fully developed on the 22nd of September . In the lowest cellar eight only had left the water , being fully developed on the 20th of October . In the following year , July 1st , I made a similar experiment in the same cellars , three weeks later . The tadpoles were of a large size . I obtained the same result , the full development of the frog in the absence of light ; but in this experiment I had another object in view , that of observing the growth and obtaining the exact weight of the tadpoles before , during , and after their metamorphosis into a frog . Dr. Edwards said that in his experiment " the tadpoles attained an extraordinary size , doubling or trebling their usual full weight ; " but he unfortunately does not mention any particular weight , or how long the tadpoles were preserved alive ; in fact there is nothing definite . During my several years of experiments I did not observe any remarkable increase of weight or size as mentioned by Dr. Edwards , although my first experiment was from the ovum to the full development of the frog , and the two last when the tadpoles were approaching the period of their development . In my first experiment on the ovum , I never obtained a tadpole more than 8 grains in weight in the absence of light ; but I found in a pool in the neighbourhood a number of tadpoles , some between 11 and 15 grains in weight ; seven of them weighed 15 grains each . Of these large tadpoles I took twenty for my experiment , weighing altogether 264 grains , and averaging about 13 grains each . After their transformation the frogs weighed 93 grains , averaging about 4grains each , -those of 15 grains in the tadpole state only weighing 5 grains as frogs , having lost two-thirds of their weight during their metamorphosis . Subsequent experiments have been in accordance with the above .

111969

3701662

Note on Internal Radiation

537

545

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George G. Stokes

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1860.0118

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111969

10.1098/rspl.1860.0118

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111969

Formulae

Fluid Dynamics

Mathematics

III . " Note on Internal Radiation . " By GEORGE G. STOKES , M.A. , Sec. R.S. , Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge . Received December 28 , 1861 . In the eleventh volume of the 'Proceedings of the Royal Society , ' p. 193 , is the abstract of a paper by Mr. Balfour Stewart , in which he deduces an expression for the internal radiation in any direction within a uniaxal crystal from an equation between the radiations incident upon and emerging from a unit of area of a plane surface , having an arbitrary direction , by which the crystal is supposed to be bounded . With reference to this determination he remarks ( p. 196 ) , " But the internal radiation , if the law of exchanges be true , is clearly independent of the position of this surface , which is indeed merely employed as an expedient . This is equivalent to saying that the constants which define the position of the bounding surface must ultimately disappear from the expression for the internal radiation . " This anticipation he shows is verified in the case of the expression deduced , according to his principles , for the internal radiation within a uniaxal crystal , on the assumption that the wave-surface* is the sphere and spheroid of Huygens , In the case of an uncrystallized medium , the following is the equation obtained by Mr. Stewart in the first instance . Let 1 , R ' be the external and internal radiations in directions OP , OP ' , which are connected as being those of an incident and refracted ray , the medium being supposed to be bounded by a plane surface passing through 0 . Let OP describe an elementary conical circuit enclosing the solid angle aq , and let 8q ' be the elementary solid angle enclosed by the circuit described by OP ' . Let i , i ' be the angles of incidence and refraction . Of a radiation proceeding along PO , let the fraction A be reflected and the rest transmitted ; and of a radiation proceeding internally along P'O let the fraction A ' be reflected , and the rest transmitted . Then by equating the radiation incident externally on a unit of surface , in the directions of lines lying within the conical circuit described by OP , with the radiation proceeding in a contrary direction , and made up partly of a refracted and partly of an externally reflected radiation , we obtain R cos i= ( 1 -A ' ) t ' cos i ' 0 ' + ARE cos i 1 , or ( l-A)Rcosia-=(l-A')R'cosi'l p ' ... . ( 1 ) In the case of a crystal there are two internal directions of refraction , OP . , OP2 , corresponding to a given direction PO of incidence , the rays along OP1 , OP2 being each polarized in a particular manner . Conversely , there are two directions , P , O , P , O , in which a ray may be incident internally so as to furnish a ray refracted along OP , and in each case no second refracted ray will be produced , provided the incident ray be polarized in the same manner as the refracted ray OP1 or OP2 . In the case of a crystal , then , equation ( 1 ) must be replaced by ( I -A ) R cos i =(=(1 -A , ) R , cos i + , q+(1 -A , ) R2 cos i , 0y ( 2 ) In the most general case it does not appear in what manner , if at all , equation ( 2 ) would split into two equations , involving respectively I1 and R2 . For if an incident ray PO were so polarized as to furnish only one refracted ray , say OP1 , a ray incident along P1O and polarized in the same manner as OP1 would furnish indeed only one refracted ray , in the direction OP , but that would be polarized differently from PO ; so that the two systems are mixed up together . But if the plane of incidence be a principal plane , and if we may assume that such a plane is a plane of symmetry as regards the optical properties of the medium* , the system of rays polarized in and the system polarized perpendicularly to the plane of incidence will be quite independent of each other , and the equality between the radiation incident externally and that proceeding in the contrary direction , and made up partly of a refracted and partly of an externally reflected radiation , must hold good for each system separately . In this case , then , ( 2 ) will split into two equations , each of the form ( 1 ) , R now standing for half the whole radiation , and R ' , A ' , &c. standing for RJ , A1 , &c. , or R2 , A2 , &c. , as the case may be . It need hardly be remarked that the value of A is different in the two cases , and that R ' has a value which is no longer , as in the case of an isotropic medium , alike in all directions . In determining according to Mr. Stewart 's principles the internal radiation in any given direction within a uniaxal crystal , no limitation is introduced by the restriction of equation ( 1 ) to a principal plane , since we are at liberty to imagine the crystal bounded by a plane perpendicular to that containing the direction in question and the axis of the crystal . Mr. Stewart further reduces equation ( 1 ) by remarking that in an isotropic medium , as we have reason to believe , A'=A , and that the same law probably holds good in a crystal also , so that the equal factors I-A , 1--A ' may be struck out . Arago long ago showed experimentally that light is reflected in the same proportion externally and internally from a plate of glass bounded by parallel surfaces ; and the formulae which Fresnel has given to express , for the case of an isotropic medium , the intensity of reflected light , whether polarized in a plane parallel or perpendicular to the plane of incidence , are consistent with this law . In a paper published in the fourth volume of the Cambridge and Dublin Mathematical Journal ( p. 1 ) , I have given a very simple demonstration of Arago 's law , based on the sole hypothesis that the forces acting depend only on the positions of the particles . This demonstration , I may here remark , applies without change to the case of a crystal whenever the plane of incidence is a plane of optical symmetry . It may be rendered still more general by supposing that the forces acting depend , not solely on the positions of the particles , but also on any differential coefficients of the coordinates which are of an even order with respect to the time , -a generalization which appears not unimportant , as it is applicable to that view of the mutual relation of the ether and ponderable matter , according to which the ether is compared to a fluid in which a number of solids are immersed , and which in moving as a whole is obliged to undergo local dislocations to make way for the solids . On striking out the factors 1-A and I -A ' , equation ( 1 ) is reduced to R ' cos i B. = ... a ... ..(3 ) -Cos , f o & In the case of an isotropic medium , R and R ' are alike in all directions , and therefore the ratio of cos i c9 to cos i ' cq ' ought to be independent of i , as it is very easily proved to be . The same applies to a uniaxal crystal , so far as regards the ordinary ray . But as regards the extraordinary , it is by no means obvious that the ratio should be expressible in the form indicated-as a quantity depending only on the direction OP ' . Mr. Stewart has , however , proved that this is the case , independently of any restriction as to the plane of incidence being a principal plane , on the assumption that the wave-surface has the form assigned to it by Huygens . It might seem at first sight that this verification was fairly adducible in confirmation of the truth of the whole theory , including the assumed form of the wave-surface . But a little consideration will show that such a view cannot be maintained . IIuygens 's construction links together the law of refraction and the form of the wave-surface , na manner depending for its validity only on the most fundamental principles of the theory of undulations . The construction which tIuygens applied to the ellipsoid is equally applicable to any other surface ; it was a mere guess on his part that the extraordinary wavesurface in Iceland spar was an ellipsoid ; and although the ellipsoidal form results from the imperfect dynamical theory of Fresnel , it is certain that rigorous dynamical theories lead to different forms of the wave-surface , according to the suppositions made as to the existing state of things . For every such possible form the ratio expressed by the right-hand member of equation ( 3 ) ought to come out in the form indicated by the left-hand member , and not to involve explicitly the direction of the refracting plane : and as it seemed evident that it could not be possible , merely by such general considerations as those adduced by Mr. Stewart , to distinguish between those surfaces which were and those which were not dynamically possible forms of the wave-surface , I was led to anticipate that the possibility of expressing the ratio in question under the form indicated was a general property of surfaces . The object of the present Note is to give a demonstration of the truth of this anticipation , and thereby remove from the verification the really irrelevant consideration of a particular form of wave-surface ; but it was necessary in the first instance to supply some steps of Mr. Stewart 's investigation which are omitted in the published abstract . The proposition to be proved may be somewhat generalized , in a manner suggested by the consideration of internal reflexion within a crystal , or refraction out of one crystallibed medium into another in optical contact with it . Thus generalized it stands as follows : Imagine any two surfaces whatsoever , and also a fixed point 0 ; imagine likewise a plane II passing through 0 . Let two points P , P ' , situated on the two surfaces respectively , and so related that the tangent planes at those points intersect each other in the plane IT , be called corresponding points with respect to the plane II . Let P describe , on the surface on which it lies , an infinitesimal closed circuit , and P ' the " corresponding " circuit ; let 6q , 6q ' be the solid angles subtended at O by these circuits respectively , and i , i ' the inclinations of OP , OP ' to the normal to II . Then shall the ratio of cos iaq to cos i'aq ' be of the form [ P ] : [ P ' ] , where P depends only on the first surface and the position of P , and [ P ' ] only on the second surface and the position of P ' . Moreover , if either surface be a sphere having its centre at 0 , the corresponding quantity [ P ] or [ P ' ] shall be constant . It may be remarked that the two surfaces may be merely two sheets of the same surface , or even two different parts of the same sheet . Instead of comparing the surfaces directly with each other , it will be sufficient to compare them both with the same third surface ; for it is evident that if the points P , P ' correspond to the same point P1 , on the third surface , they will also correspond to each other . For the third surface it will be convenient to take a sphere described round 0 as centre with an arbitrary radius , which we may take for the unit of length . The letters P , , i , , q , will be used with reference to the sphere . Let the surface and sphere be referred to rectangular coordinates , O being the origin , and II the plane of xy . Let x , y , z be the coordinates of P ; X , 7r , ' those of P1 . Then x , y , z will be connected by the equation of the surface , and , , , by the equation 422+ 2= 1 . According to the usual notation , let dz dz d , z d2z d2z d=I die .2-r , die d 2t . The equations of the tangent planes at P , P1 , X , Y , Z being the current coordinates , are z-z=p ( X)+q ( Y-y ) , sX+nY tZ= 1 ; ' and those of their traces on the plane of xy are pX+ qY=x+ qyz , 4X+ ? Y=1 ; and in order that these may represent the same line , we must have = I , ... ( 4 ) px+qy-z px+qy-z ' To the element dxdy of the projection on the plane of xy of a superficial element at P , belongs the superficial element dS= V1 +p2+ q2 dxdy , and to this again belongs the elementary cos vdS solid angle -- , where p=OP , and v is the angle between the normal at P and the radius vector . Hence the total solid angle Cos vAa within a small contour is - ' / Ip2"+ dxdy , the double integral being taken within the projection of that small contour . Also cos i== ? Hence Pz COs v cozs i cos= a/ 1 +P2q2+ dxdy ; cos i 3~ ? =--~-V ' 1 < L and applying this formula to the sphere by replacing z V/ .lt . +2 . by 1 , v by 0 , and p by 1 , we have cos z1=fff4dd/ , l the double integral being taken over the projection of the corresponding small area of the sphere . Now by the well-known formula for the transformation of multiple integrals we have t ? ; ( l= / d~ dn d ddxdyJdy dyx > 4 and therefore cos io zcos vV1 +pj+(/ cos8 ifl 3dd Ci dr t drl\ P\x die die dx/ But the first of equations ( 4 ) gives ( px + qiy-z)dp-p(xdp +ydq ) d ' ( px+qy-z)2 _ { ( qy-z)r-pys}dx+ { ( qy-z)s-pyt } die . ( px+ -qy_-)2 Similarly , _ ( px-s)t--qs } die +{ ( px-z)s-qxr } d ( px +qy-y ) Hence clt d tr ld qcl dVx die die dx~(px + qyz ) ' where V= { ( qy--)r-pys4 { ( px-z)ts { ( qy--z)s-pytJ } ( px-z 8-qxr = { ( qy--)(px-z)--pqxy ( rt--s ) Z=(z-px qy)(rt s2 ) . Hence cos iS _Z COS , / / 1 - ? p2 q2 ( z-x--qy)3 cos i1qp p3 z(rt-s2 ) But if are be the perpendicular let fall from O on the tangent plane at P , S-px--qy =V 1 -+2 +q2 . r , and therefore Cos i_ cos v. Wa ( +-p2 + q2)2 Coszlb1 p3 rt-_s2 But -==p cos v. Also the quadratic determining the principal radii of curvature at P is ( rts2)V2 + ( & C.)v ( 1 +p2 2)2-O ; and therefore if v , , v , denote the principal radii of curvature , w ( 1 +pl + q2)2 ( 1 ? -2p2+ rt--s " Hence cos i/ 4 =cos4 . v v , : , ... ... ... ( 5 ) and COS i ' ' COS 1C COS zi C , 'COS Y ' . V1V , c,..(6 ) cos iY'( cos iz1 Cos iji cos4 S6 Cosi~q0-cos iC'O & p cosi Oj/ )coss~r~.v~va~ which proves the proposition enunciated . In the particular case of an ellipsoid of revolution of which n is the axial and m the equatorial semi-axis , compared with a sphere of radius unity , both having their centres at 0 ' , one of the principal radii of curvature is the normal of the elliptic section , which by the properties of the ellipse is equal to m m , m denoting the semi-conjugate diameter ; and the other is the radius of curvature of the elliptic section , onr - ' Also w is the perpendicular let fall from the centre on the tangent line of the section . Hence from ( 5 ) or ( 6 ) cos im s4 mm ms w4m . 4n mn cos '0-~'-p4 n mnn2p4 p4 since zm ' = mn . This agrees with Mr. Stewart 's result(p . 197 ) , since the Re and -R of Mr. Stewart are the same as the R ' and R of equation ( 3 ) .

111970

3701662

On the Intensity of the Light Reflected from or Transmitted through a Pile of Plates

545

556

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George G. Stokes

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1860.0119

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111970

10.1098/rspl.1860.0119

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111970

Optics

Formulae

Optics

IV . " On the Intensity of the Light reflected from or transmitted through a Pile of Plates . " By GEORGE G. STOKES , M.A. , Sec. R.S. , Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge . Received January 1 , 1862 . The frequent enmployment of a pile of plates in experiments relating to polarization suggests , as a mathematical problem of some interest , the determination of the mode in which the intensity of the reflected light , and the intensity and degree of polarization of the transmitted light , are related to the number of the plates , and , in case they be not perfectly transparent , to their defect of transparency . The plates are supposed to be bounded by parallel surfaces , and to be placed parallel to one another . They will also be supposed to be formed of the same material , and to be of equal thickness , except in the case of perfect transparency , in which case the thickness does not come into account . The plates themselves and the interposed plates of air will be supposed , as is usually the case , to be sufficiently thick to prevent the occurrence of the colours of thin plates , so that we shall have to deal with intensities only . On account of the different proportions in which light is reflected at a single surface according as the light is polarized in or perpendicularly to the plane of incidence , we must tack account separately of light polarized in these two ways . Also , since the rate at which light is absorbed varies with its refrangibility , we must take account separately of the different constituents of white light . If , however , the plates be perfectly transparent , we may treat white light as a whole , neglecting as insignificant the chromatic variations of reflecting power . Let p be the fraction of the incident light reflected at the first surface of a plate . Then Ip may be taken as the intensity of ' the transmitted light* . Also , siniee we know that light is reflected in the same proportion externally and internally at the two surfaces of a plate bounded by parallel surfaces , the same expressions p and 1 -p will serve to denote the fractions reflected and transmitted at the second surface . We may calculate p in accordance with Fresnel 's formulae from the expressions O1 sin ifcS =g si e1 =s-in ' ( i -i ' ) o=tan ' ( i -it ) ( 2 ) sin ( i+i ) io , tan2 ( +zi ) t ) according as the light is polarized in or perpendicularly to the plane of incidence . In the case of perfect transparency , we may in imagination make abstraction of the substance of the plates , and state the problem as follows:-There are 2m parallel surfaces ( m being the number of plates ) on which light is incident , and at each of which a given fraction p of the light incident upon it is reflected , the remainder being transmitted ; it is required to determine the intensity of the light reflected from or transmitted through the system , taking account of the reflexions , infinite in number , which can occur in all possible ways . This problem , the solution of which is of a simpler form than that of the general case of imperfect transparency , might be solved by a particular method . As , however , the solution is comprised in that of the problem which arises when the light is supposed to be partially absorbed , I shall at once pass on to the latter . In consequence of absorptioni , let the intensity of light traversing a plate be reduced in the proportion of 1 to 1 -qdLx in passing over the elementary distance dx within the plate . Let T be the thickness of a plate , and therefore T sec i ' the length of the path of the light within it . Then , putting for shortness e-qTsecic= , h the e edneed ( 3 ) I to g will be the proportion in which the intensity is reduced by absorption in a single transit . The light reflected by a plate will be made up of that which is reflected at the first surface , and that which suffers 1 , 3 , 5 , &c. internal reflexions . If the intensity of the incident light be taken as unity , the intensities of these various portions will be p , ( _p)2pg ( i -p)2 p3 g4 , &c. and if r be the intensity of the reflected light , we have , by summing a geometric series , r=p( -p ) , Pg.(4 ) Similarly , if t be the intensity of the transmitted light , t_(1 -p).(5 and we easily find r=p+gpt ; r+t= l_(I-p)(l-g9 ) 1-pg which is in general less than 1 , but becomes equal to 1 in the limiting case of perfect transparency , in which case g-1 . The values of p , i , and q in any case being supposed known , the formulae ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) , ( 4 ) , ( 5 ) determine r and t , which may now therefore be supposed known . The problem therefore is reduced to the following:-There are m parallel plates of which each reflects and transmits given fractions r , t of the light incident upon it : light of intensity unity being incident on the system , it is required to find the intensities of the reflected and refracted light . Let these be denoted by +(m ) , { ( m ) . Consider a system of m+n plates , and imagine these grouped into two systems , of m and i plates respectively . The incident light being represented by unity , the light +(m ) will be reflected from the first group , and +(m ) will be transmitted . Of the latter the fraction +(n ) will be transmitted by the second group , and p(n ) reflected . Of the latter the fraction 4(m ) will be transmitted by the first group , and +(m ) reflected , and so on . Hence we get for the light reflected by the whole system , 0(m ) + ( 4m)20(n ) + ( 4im)20p()(m)n)2 + and for the light transmitted , +(m)+(n ) + 4(m)p ( n)4(m)4(n ) ? ? 4 ( m)(q6n)2(+m)24(n ) + ^.* which gives , by summing the two geometric series , +(m +n)-c(rn)+ ( 4 , m)2(n ) ( 6 ) m+ )i4-(m)9(n ) ( 7 ) We get from ( 6 ) 0(n+n){1-O(m)p(n)}=O(m ) +O(n){(tPm)2-(pm)21 ; and the first member of this equation being symmetrical with respect to m and n , we get , by interchanging m and n and equating the results , +(m ) + +(n ) { ( 4m)2_(qm)2 } =0(n ) + +(m ) { ( 4fn)2_ ( On)21 or 1+ ( M)2_ 1+ ( u)2-=(n)2 , I which is therefore constant . Denoting this constant for convenience by 2 cos a , we have ( 4m)2 1-2 cos M. +(m ) + ( Om)2.(8 ) Squaring ( 7 ) , and eliminating the function 4 by means of ( 8 ) , we find _l1-j(m)O(n)t 2 { 1-2 cos a. *(m+n)J [ O(m +)]2t = { 1-2cosa X.(m ) + ( Om)2t { 1-2 cos..(n)+(q ? n)2t . ( 9 ) From the nature of the problem , m and n are positive integers , and it is only in that case that the functions 0 , 4 , as hitherto defined , have any meaning . We may , however , contemplate functions q , 4 of a continuously changing variable , which are defined by the equations ( 6 ) and ( 7 ) ; and it is evident that if we can find such functions , they will in the particular case of a positive integral value of the variable be the functions which we are seeking . In order that equations ( 6 ) , ( 7 ) may hold good for a value zero of one of the variables , suppose n , we must have q(0)=O , 4 ( 0)= 1 . The former of these equations reduces ( 9 ) for n=O to an identical equation . Differentiating ( 9 ) with respect to n , and after differentiation putting n= 0 , we find 0p(0)0(m ) { 1-2 cos a. O(m ) + ( On)2 } +cos a. '(rn ) -q(m)M/ ( #(r ) =cosa a. t(0 ) 1 -2 cos X , ( b(m)+ ? ))2t , or dividing out by +(m ) cos a , ( for +(m)=cos a would only lead to #P(m)=cosM=0 , +(m)=C , ) +'(m ) = -1(0 ) { 1-2 cos a +(m ) + ( , / , m)2t ... . ( 10 ) Integrating this equation , determining the arbitrary constant by the condition that +(m ) =0 when m= 0 , and writing / 3 for sin a. o'(0 ) , we have p ( m)-sin ( * e ( ( 1 ) Substituting in ( 8 ) and reducing , we find ( +M)2 = sin2 a ( 12 ) sin ' ( q.+ m3).(12 But ( 8 ) was derived , not from ( 7 ) directly , but from ( 7 ) squared ; and on extracting the square root of both sides of ( 12 ) , we must choose that sign which shall satisfy ( 7 ) , and therefore we must take the sign + , as we see at once on putting m=n=O . The equation ( 12 ) on taking the proper root and ( 11 ) may be put under the form ~~(m ) 4i(m ) I. ~(13 ) sin ( 2n , / 3)si a)siii ( a+ rn/ 3 ) and to determine the arbitrary constants a , 3 we have , putting m= 1 , and +(m)= r , + ( m)=t , r _(t41 sin/ 3 sina sin ( +a* the sides represent in magnitude the intensity of the incident , reflected , and refracted light in the case of a single plate , and then , leaving the first side and the angle opposite to the third unchanged , multiply the angle opposite to the second by the number of plates ; the sides of the new triangle will represent the corresponding intensities in the case of the system of plates . I say quasi-geometrical , because the construction cannot actually be effected , inasmuch as the first side of our triangle is greater than the sum of the two others , and the aingles are imaginary . To adapt the formulam ( 13 ) , ( 14 ) to numerical calculation , it will be convenient to get rid of the imaginary quantities . Putting Vs { ( 1 +r+t)(l +r-t)(1 +t-r)(l -r--t ) } =A , A 15 ) we have by the common formulae of trigonometry , cos= ; sn== ; 2r Sia -2r whelnce , putting 2r(1+r-t.A)a,. . * * pler form . If r+ t differ indefinitely little from 1 , a and / 3 will be indefinitely small . Making a and / 3 indefinitely small in ( 13 ) and ( 14 ) , and putting 1 -r for t , we find q ? ( m)= +(m)= 1 ... ( 19 In this case it is evident that each of the 2m reflecting surfaces might be regarded as a separate plate reflecting light in the proportion of p to 1 , and therefore we ought also to have , writing 2m for m and p for r in the deniominators of the equations ( 19 ) , o(m ) 4(m ) 1 *.(20 ) 2mp -p 1+(2m-l)p It is easy to verify that when g= 1 ( 4 ) reduces ( 19 ) to ( 20 ) . The following Table gives the intensity of the light reflected from or transmitted through a pile of m plates for the values 1 , 2 , 4 , 8 , 16 , 32 , and co of m , for three degrees of transpareney , and for certain selected angles of incidence . The assumed refractive index jU is 152 . B=1-eqT is the loss by absorption in a single transit of a plate at a perpendicular incidence , so that B =0 corresponds to perfect transparency . The most interesting angles of incidence to select appeared to be zero and the polarizing angle w =tan-1 , u ; but in the case of perfect transparency the result has also been calculated for an angle of incidence a little ( 2 ? ) greater than the polarizing angle . O denotes the intensity of the reflected and 4 that of the transmitted light , the intensity of the incident light being taken at 1000 . For oblique incidences it was necessary to distinguish between light polarized in and light polarized perpendicularly to the plane of in dence ; the suffixes 1 , 2 refer to these two kinds respectively . For oblique incidences a column is added giving the ratio of 4 , to i , which may be taken as a measure of the defect of polarization of the transmitted light . No such column was required for 0=0 and i=w , because in this case 4 , =1000 . tno 0 % t.O 040 0n 00o w : : . to00 VI 00 0 11 I4 II to Cs tI 00 oI tH tt I I~~~~~~~~o 60 ItoH Hs to o to OO 0 % , dC '0 00 L 0~ t to~ I 1H~H tHH > s 00 0 HO Q to to 0 to0 C so H0 in %O %O %O lO to 0 to~ 1 0 % %0 00 to *'aueI HI H 74 X0 DH to OH00 to to 1 > .W sto to tH000 QO ' 00 0 0 % ON 0 % 000 tO 0%0 el 0 % 0 % 0+ H~~~~~~v H 00 tO 0H HCIA 00 ( ) H00 00 C *0 H0o to H+ t-n to 0 0 . to..1 to t , 00 , , % 0 C%i '.Hn 04e0 to 0W J9 I to *1 HHH to H0U II I Hf oo 00 % tO H0I tt~~~~~~~~ 000 0 el 0 ' o0 VO H0 0if0 't H1 oHt tt 0 0.~~0 tt 00 s0_ ~~ ~ _8 jo HHHC 00 to t The intensity of the light reflected from an infinite number of plates , as we see from ( 18 ) , is a-1 ; and since a is changed into a-1 by changing the sign of a or of A , a-I=1 ( 1 +r2_t_-)A ) ... . . ( 21 ) 2r which is equal to 1 in the case of perfect transparency . Accordingly a substance which is at the same time finely divided , so as to present numerous reflecting surfaces , and which is of such a nature as to be transparent in mass , is brilliantly white by reflected light , -for example snow , and colourless substances thrown down as precipitates in chemical processes . The intensity of the light reflected from a pile consisting of an infinite number of similar plates falls off rapidly with the transparency of the material of which the plates are composed , especially at small incidence , Thus at a perpendicular incidence we see from the above Table that the reflected light is reduced to little more than one half when 2 per cent. is absorbed in a single transit , and to less than a quarter when 10 per cent. is absorbed . With imperfectly transparent plates , little is gained by multiplying the plates beyond a very limited number , if the object be to obtain light , as bright as may be , polarized by reflexion . Thus the Table shows that 4 plates of the less defective kind reflect 79 per cent. , and 4 plates of the more defective as much as 94 per cent. , of the light that could be reflected by a greater number , whereas 4 plates of the perfectly transparent kind reflect only 60 per cent. The Table shows that while the amount of light transmitted at the polarizing angle by a pile of a considerable number of plates is materially reduced by a defect of transparency , its state of polarization is somewhat improved . This result might be seen without calculation . For while no part of the transmitted light which is polarized perpendicularly to the plane of incidence underwent reflexion , a large part of the transmitted light polarized the other way was reflected an even number of times ; and since the length of path of the light within the absorbing medium is necessarily increased by reflexion , it follows that a defect of transparency must operate more powerfully in reducing the intensity of light polarized in , than of light polarized perpendicularly to the plane of polarization . But the Table also shows that a far better result can be obtained , as to the perfection of the polarizationi of the transmitted light , without any greater loss of illumination , by employing a larger number of plates of a more transparent kind . Let us now confine our attention to perfectly transparent plates , and consider the manner in which the degree of polarization of the transmitted light varies with the angle of incidence . The degree of polarization is expressed by the ratio of 4 , to 4 ' , which for brevity will be denoted by X. When X=1 there is lno polarization ; when X=O the polarization is perfect , in a plane perpendicular to the plane of incidence . Now 4 ( which is used to denote 4 , + or 4 , as the case may be ) is given in terms of p by one of the equations ( 20 ) , and p is given in terms of i-it and i+i ' by Fresnel 's formulae ( 2 ) . Put then , from ( 1 ) , di di ' dO d -* f ~~~~~=CO *f.Cos ifco idw , suppose , tai i tan i tan i-tan i tan i+ tan c whence dO = sinOd , duin= ; ... . ( 22 ) and we see that i and w increase together from i=0 to i= 7 . We have also sin ' O 2sn 2 sin ' O v1-sin 0 , dp = sn l3(sin C cos OdO-sin H cos ad ) _2s ( cos 0-cos a)di ; sin u sin3 a sin a tan ' 02 taatan ( a sec2 OdO-tan 0 sec2 ? da ) sin2 0 COSar Cos r cos3 02 ( coscs-cosO)dwr cos 3d Now cos 0-cos a or 2 sin i sin it is positive ; and cos a is positive from i=0 to i=w , and negative from i= r to i-2 . But ( 20 ) shows 2 ' that 4 decreases as p increases . From i= 0 to i-= , pJ increases and P2 decreases , and therefore 4 , decreases and 4,3 increases , and therefore on both accounts X decreases . When i=V7 , dPis still positive , and di therefore Lld4 negative , but 42 has its maximum value 1 , so that on passing through the polarizing angle X still decreases , or the polarization improves . When the plates are very numerous , 4'2= I at the polarizing angle , and on both sides of it decreases rapidly , whereas 41 , which is always small , suffers no particular change about the polarizing angle . Hence in this case X must be a minimum a little beyond the polarizing angle . Let us then seek the angle of incidence which makes Xa minimnum in the case of an arbitrary number of plates . We have from ( 20 ) and ( 2 ) , sin ae-sin2 0 sin2 a COS2 0+ ( 2m-I ) sin2 0 cos2 a Xsin ' a+ ( 2m1 ) sin2O sin2 a cos2 0-sin2 0 cos2 a _si2aeros20+(2rn-l)sin20cos2er 1 I2n . ( 23 ) sin2 a+ ( 2rn-l)sin2 0 cosec2 0+ ( 2m-1 ) cosec2 are Hence X is a minimum alolng with cosec2 0+ ( 2m1 ) cosec2 a. Differentiating , and taking account of the formulae ( 22 ) , we find , to determine the angle of maximum polarization , the very simple equation Cos 0 sin2 a+(2m-l)cos a sin20=0 ... . ( 24 ) For any assumed value of i from w to 2 ' this equation gives at once the value of m , that is , the number of plates of which a pile must be composed in order that the assumed incidence may be that of maximum polarization of the transmitted light . The equation may be put under the form tanea sinor 1 tan 0 sin * / P ] . P2 ' Now we have seen that both P , and p2 continually increase , and therefore m continually decreases , from i=w to i=2 . At the first of these limits P2= 0 , and therefore m= m. At the second P2=P2= 1 , and therefore m= 1 . Hence with a single plate the polarization of the transmitted light continually improves up to a grazing incidence , but with a pile of plates the polarization attains a maximum at an angle of incidence which approaches indefinitely to the polarizing angle as the number of plates is indefinitely increased . Eliminating m from ( 23 ) and ( 24 ) , we find X=-cos 0 cos,.(25 ) which determines for any pile X , the defect of maximum polarization of the transmitted light , in terms of the angle of incidence for whicn the polarization is a maximum . We have , from ( 25 ) , ( 22 ) , and ( 24 ) , d%l -(sin2 0 cos a-+ sin2 acos 0 ) dz-2(m1 ) cos a sin2 0 dw , and cos a is negative . Hence X , decreases as w ( and therefore i ) decreases , or as m increases . For m=1 , i=and X , =i-'2 ; for M= ac , cos a=0 , and therefore X , =0 , or the maximum polarization tends indefinitely to become perfect as the number of plates is indefinitely increased . For a given number of plates the angle of maximum polarization may be readily found from ( 24 ) by the method of trial and error . But for merely examining the progress of the functions , instead of tabulating i for assumed values of m , it will serve equally well to tabulate rn for assumed values of i. The following Table gives for assumed angles of incidence , decreasing by 5 ? from 90 ? , the number of plates required to make these angles the angles of maximum polarization of the transmitted light , and the value ofXl , which determines the defect of polarization . i= 90 ? ? 850 80 ? ? 750 70 ' 65 ? ? 60 ? ? 56 ? ? 40'(=W ) m= 1 1330 1P944 2-913 4-921 9 775 30-372 c Xi , =*433 *422 390 *337 *265

111971

3701662

On the Calculus of Symbols.--Second Memoir. [Abstract]

556

557

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. H. L. Russell

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111971

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111971

Formulae

Biography

Mathematics

I. " On the Calculus of Symbols."-Second Memoir . By W. H. L. RUSSELL , Esq. , A.B. Communicated by ARTHUR CAYLEY , Esq. Received January 7 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) This memoir is the continuation of one on the calculus of symbols which I had the honour to lay before the Society in December 1860 , and which has since been published in the 'Philosophical Transactions . ' I commence this paper with some extensions of the method given in the former memoir for resolving functions of non-commutative symbols into binomial factors . I then explain a method , analogous to the process for extracting the square root in ordinary algebra , for resolving such functions into equal factors . I next investigate a process for finding the highest common internal divisor of two functions of non-commutative symbols , or , in other words , ol finding if two linear differential equations admit of a common solution . After this , I give a rule for multiplying linear factors of non-commutative symbols , analogous to the ordinary algebraical rule for linear algebraical factors . I then resume the consideration of the binomial theorem explained in the former memoir . Two new forms of this binomial theorem are here given ; and the method bywhich these forms are proved identical will , I hope , be considered an interesting portion of symbolical algebra , and as exhibiting in a remarkable manner its peculiar nature .

111972

3701662

On Internal and External Division in the Calculus of Symbols. [Abstract]

557

558

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Spottiswoode

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111972

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111972

Formulae

Biography

Mathematics

II . " On Internal and External Division in the Calculus of Symbols . " By WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE , Esq. , M.A. , F.R.S. Received January 8 , 1862 . ( Abstract ) . Continuing my researches in the calculus of symbols , I have been led to investigate the most general case of division , viz. that wherein a function of any degree n in r is divided , ( 1 ) internally , ( 2 ) externally , by another function of any other degree m in ~r . The investigations here subjoined give ( 1 ) the various terms of the quotient , together with their laws of derivation both by actual division and otherwise ; ( 2 ) the final remainder , and thence the conditions that the divisor may be a factor , internal or external as the case may be , of the dividend . An example has been added in each case by way of illustrating the processes . A remarkable reciprocal relation subsisting between the functions ( D ) , of the coefficients ( 6 ) of the dividend , and the corresponding functions ( AP ) of the coefficients ( 4 ) of the divisor is exhibited , at the end of the paper . I have confined myself throughout to that branch of the calculus wherein the functions treated of are arranged according to powers of r ; that wherein they are arranged according to powers of p has been already more fully discussed by Mr. Russell .

111973

3701662

On the Absorption and Radiation of Heat by Gaseous Matter.--Second Memoir. [Abstract]

558

561

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Tyndall

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111973

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111973

Thermodynamics

Chemistry 1

Thermodynamics

III . ' On the Absorption and Radiation of Heat by Gaseous Matter."-Second Memoir . By JOHN TYNDALL , Esq. , F.R.S. Received January 9 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) Resuming with a new apparatus his experiments on the influence of chemical combination on the absorption and radiation of heat by gases , the author in the present investigation first examines the deportment of chlorine as compared with hydrochloric acid , and of bromine as compared with hydrobromic acid , and finds that the act of combination , which in each of these two cases notably diminishes the density of the gas , and renders the coloured gas perfectly transparent to light , renders it more opake for obscure heat . Hie also draws attention to the fact that sulphur , which is partially opake to light , is transparent to 54 per cent. of the rays issuing from a source of 100 ? C. , while its compound , heavy spar , which is sensibly transparent to light , is quite opake to the rays from a source of 100 ? C. He demonstrates , in confirmation of Melloni , the transparency of lampblack in thin layers , and shows how irreconcilable its deportment to radiant heat is with the idea generally prevalent at the present day , that lampblack absorbs heat of all kinds with the same intensity . He has repeated all his experiments with gases , using a different source of heat , and finds the result still more pronounced than formerly , that the compound gases far transcend the elementary ones in absorptive power . Taking air as unity , ammonia at 30 inches tension is 1195 , -this latter figurerepresenting all the heat that issued from the source . A layer of amminoia 3 feet long is perfectly black to heat emanating from an obscure source . The coloured gases chlorine and bromine , though much superior in absorptive power to the transparent elementary gases , are exceeded in this respect by every compound gas that has been hitherto examined . When instead of tensions of 30 inches we compare tensions of 1 inch , the differences between the gases come out still more strikingly . At this tension , for example , the absorption of sulphurous acid is eight thousand times that of air . The author also records a new and extensive series of experiments on the absorption of radiant heat by vapours . The least energetic , as before , he finds to be bisulphide of carbon , the most energetic boracic ether . He shows that the absorption of the latter vapour , which is quite transparent , is , at 0'1 of an inch of tension , 600 times the absorption of the densely coloured vapour of bromine , while in all probability it is 186,000 times that of air . The author was led by a series of perplexing experiments , which are fully described in the memoir , to the solution of the following remarkable and at first sight utterly paradoxical problem , " To determine the absorption and radiation of a gas or vapour without any source of heat external to the gaseous body itself . " When air enters a vacuum , it is heated by the arrest of its motion : when a vessel containing air is exhausted by an air-pump , chilling is produced by the application of a portion of the heat of the air to generate vis viva . Let us call the heating in the first case dynamic heating , and the chilling in the second case dynamic chilling . Let us further call the radiation of a gas which has been heated dynamically , dynamic radiation , and the absorption by a gas which has been chilled dynamically , dynamic absorption . A thermo-electric pile being placed at the end of the experimental tube , and the latter being exhausted , the gas to be examined is permitted to enter : the gas is heated , and if it possess any sensible radiative power , the pile will receive its radiation and the galvanometer connected with the pile will declare it . Proceeding in this way with gases , the author found that the radiation thus manifested , and which was sometimes so intense as to urge the needle of the galvanometer through an arc of more than sixty degrees , followed the exact order of the absorptions which he had already determined . After the heat of the radiating column of gas had wasted itself by radiation , the air-pump was worked at a certain rate ; the rarefied gas within the tube became chilled , and the face of the pile turned towards the chilled gas became correspondingly lowered in temperature . The dynamic absorptions of various gases were thus determined , and they were found to go strictly hand in hand with the dynamic radiation . In the case of vapours the following method was pursued . A quantity of the vapour sufficient to depress the mercury column 0'5 of an inch was admitted into the tube , and this was heated dynamically by allowing dry air to enter until the tube was filled . The radiation of the vapours thus determined followed exactly the same order as the absorption which had already been measured . The dynamic absorption of the vapour was obtained by pumping out in the manner just described , and it was found to follow the same order as the dynamic radiation . In these experiments tne air bore the same relationship to the vapour that a polished silver surface does to a coat of varnish laid over it . Neither the silver nor the air , both of which are elements , or mixtures of elements , possesses the power of agitating in any marked degree the luminiferous ether . But the motion of the silver being communicated to the varnish and the motion of the air being communicated to the vapour , molecules are agitated which have the power of disturbing in a very considerable degree the ether in which they swing . The author shows , by strict experiments , that the dynamic radiation of an amount of boracic ether vapour possessing a tension of only 1 12 510 oo th of an atmosphere is easily measurable . Ile also shows , and explains the fact , that with a tube 33 inches long the dynamic radiation of acetic ether considerably exceeds that of olefiant gas , while in a tube 3 inches long the dynamic radiation of olefiant gas considerably exceeds that of the ether . Aqueous vapour has been subjected to a special examination , and the author finds it a common fact for the aqueous vapour contained in the atmosphere to exercise 60 times the absorption of the air itself . In fact , the further he has pursued his attempts to obtain perfectly pure and dry air , the more has the air approached the character of a vacuum . The author further points to the possibility of determining the temperature of space by direct experiment . Scents of various kinds have been examined . Dry air was passed over bibulous paper moistened by the essential oils and carried into the experimental tube . Small as the amount of matter here entering the tube is known to be , it was found that the absorption by those odours of radiant heat varies from 30 times to 372 times that of the air which formed its vehicle . In fact the author remarks that the absorption of terrestrial rays by the odour of a flower-bed may exceed in amount that of the entire oxygen and nitrogen of the atmosphere above the bed . Ozone has also been subjected to examination . The substance was obtained by the electrolysis of water , and from decomposing cells containing electrodes of various sizes . Calling the action of the ordinary oxygen which entered the experimental tube with the ozone unity , the absorption of the ozone itself was in six different experiments 21 ; 36 ; 47 ; 65 ; 85 ; 136 . The augmenting action of the ozone accompanied the diminution of the size of the electrodes used in the decomposing cells . The author points out the perfect correspondence of these results with those of M. Meidinger by a totally different method of experiment . The paper contains various reflections on the nature of this remarkable substance .

111974

3701662

Remarks upon the Most Correct Methods of Inquiry in Reference to Pulsation, Respiration, Urinary Products, Weight of the Body, and Food

561

575

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Edward Smith

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1860.0123

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111974

10.1098/rspl.1860.0123

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111974

Biochemistry

Biology 2

Biochemistry

I. c " Remarks upon the most correct Methods of Inquiry in reference to Pulsation , Respiration , Urinary Products , Weight of the Body , and Food . " By EDWARD SMITH , M.D. , LL. B. , F.R.S. , Assistant Physician to the Hospital for Consumption , &c. , Brompton . Received January 9 , 1862 . Having been engaged in several researches into the vital actions of the human system , which have extended over lengthened periods , I have necessarily formed opinions as to the best methods of inquiry , and have noticed some circumstances which tend to induce incorrect results . On consideration it has appeared to me that it might serve the interests of science as much to solicit the attention of present and future investigators to the circumstances connected with the mode of inquiry , as to adduce the facts which the inquiries have elicited ; for it cannot be doubted that nearly all the errors which have found place in this department of physiology have been due to deficiency in the methods of inquiry , whereby only a part of the results arrived at were obtained from actual observation ; and hence much valuable labour has been lost and science has been led into erroneous channels . I have therefore ventured to lay before the Royal Society , with a view to publication in its 6 Proceedings , ' a short summary of the conditions which I believe to be essential to the elimination of truthful results in inquiries connected with the rate of pulsation and respiration , the quantity of air inspired , of carbonic acid expired , and of urinary water and urea excreted , the weight of the body , and the influence of foods ; and in so doing I purpose first to consider the inquiries into the daily quantities of each of them , and then to refer to each subject separately . 1 . The determination of the daily quantities . In none of the subjects for inquiry will observations made at one or a few periods of the day enable us to infer the total daily quantities , since there are scarcely any two hours in which the quantities remain unchanged ; and although the variations , for the most part , follow a definite course , the progression is not so uniform that , even under the most favourable circumstances , they may be safely inferred . The rate of pulsation and respiration varies in such a manner that it is increased after each meal during about two hours , and then declines for about an equal period , unless food be in the meantime taken . There is a less proportionate increase and decrease after the early dinner and tea than after breakfast , and at about 8 or 9 P.M. the rate falls rapidly and continually until the middle hours of the night . The nearest approach to a stationary rate occurs-lst , in the middle hours of the night , with a tendency to increase ; 2nd , after rising and before breakfast , with a tendency to decrease ; and 3rd , in the afternoon , when the midday meal has been deferred , with a tendency to increase at the usual meal-hour . The least stationary periods are the three or four hours following each meal , and the late hours in the evening . In the total absence of food throughout a whole day , the rate remains nearly stationary from the hour of rising in the morning until about 9 P.M. , with a tendency to change at the usual meal-hours . The quantity of air inspired and of carbonic acid expired is subject to similar variations ; but the increase after the early dinner is less , and that after tea is greater than that of the rate of pulsation , and the rate is more constant before breakfast and throughout a day of fasting . The rate of evolution of urea is less uniform than that of either of the above-mentioned subjects of inquiry , since it depends more upon the conditions of the preceding day , and upon the variations in the amount of fluid ingesta . It is , however , the least during the night , and then in the morning before breakfast , but it is not stationary at the latter period . It rapidly increases after breakfast for the space of about three hours , and then decreases even more rapidly , and continues low , notwithstanding the early dinner , until the tea hour , after which it again rises , and finally it falls at about 9 or 10 P.M. until the night-rate is attained . The rate of production of urinary water follows the order of that of the emission of urea , except that the increase in the afternoon is much less , and there is an approach to uniformity of production after about 3 P.M. Hence , with the exception of the excretion of urea after the early dinner and of urinary water in the afternoon , there is a progressive increase followed by a progressive decrease in all the subjects of inquiry after each meal , and therefore several such alternations occur ( luring each day . There is also a low rate in the night and immediately before each meal . The only correct method of determining the daily quantities is to collect the whole . This may be effected at rest , or with mixed rest and exertion , in reference to the urea and urinary water . So also in reference to the air inspired and carbonic acid expired , except that as to the latter the degree of exertion must be limited , and attention to the daily duties of life nearly intermitted . I do not think that the total number of pulsations and respirations can be recorded except by the process of counting , since the registering instruments are liable to fail , and an error cannot be corrected . The nearest approach to correct results , short of the foregoing , will be made by observations taken at regular and frequent periods during the 24 hours ; but the period of intermission must not exceed one hour , and it need not be more than a quarter of an hour . A rough estimate may be obtained by taking the average of the four maxima and four minima of the rate of pulsation and respiration , and the quantity of air and carbonic acid , if the inquiry be limited to the 18 working hours of the day , viz. 6 A.M. to midnight . If the meals be taken at 8A.M . , 1 ? , 5 , and 8P.M . , the periods of inquiry will be 8 and 101 A.M. , 1 , 34 , 5 , 7 , 8 , and 10 P.M. 2s The determination of percentage quantities is worthless for this purpose , unless the total quantities of air or urinary water be also ascertained and employed in the calculation . As the per-centage quantities vary greatly , it is necessary that the daily quantities be determined to a uniform hour ; and the best period is that which immediately precedes breakfast . 2 . General considerations affecting each subject of inquiryo PULSATION AND RESPIRATION* . In instituting any inquiries into the rate of pulsation and respiration , the following conditions are required : The posture of the body must be uniform ; and as the sitting posture has a rate nearly intermediate between that of lying and standing , it should be universally preferred , except in inquiries into the influence of sleep , or on the sick often confined to the couch , when inquiries in the lying posture are alone practicable . The posture should remain quite unchanged during the whole time of the inquiry , also for at least five minutes before its commencement , if the person has been previously at rest , and fifteen minutes in the case of previous exertion . The attention must be withdrawn . Care should be given to ascertain if the rate is influenced by a feeling of nervousness , or by any other disturbing cause ; and if so , the inquiry must be deferred until the rate has become uniform . There are also conditions , however absurd it may appear , when the observer is liable to mistake the pulsation in his thumb or finger for that of the person under inquiry . The rate should be counted during two minutes if practicable , and in no instance less than one minute . Half a respiration should be recorded ; and the counting should be commenced only from a long line on the watch dial . It is often very difficult to count the respirations during quiet sleep in the night , and even during wakefulness , in many women , notwithstanding close observation of the movements of the ale of the nose and of the upper part of the chest ; and in such cases the hand must be slightly applied to the chest . Coughing , yawning , and dreaming temporarily accelerate the pulse . It occasionally occurs that the rate of respiration or pulsation becomes doubled or halved ; and intermitting pulsation often occurs in children and feeble persons during sleep , whether by night or day . In comparing the rates upon different days , care must be taken that the inquiries are all made at rest , at the same hour , in the same posture , and at the same period after meals ; and even then the results will be liable to great variation . No comparison can be made of the rates at different periods of the year , nor indeed on any two consecutive days , if there have been any considerable atmospheric changes or material variation of the daily habits . With increase of temperature the rate of pulsation increases , whilst that of respiration declines . The effect of moderate exertion continues for several minutes , and of severe exertion for about half an hour . An unusual rapidity of pulsation in one half of the day will be attended by the opposite state in the other half , if the conditions have been changed at those periods , -as , for example , an increase from exertion , followed by rest , or a decrease from fasting , followed by food . Extreme differences of 30 pulsations per minute occur in the 24 hours . The chief objection to the use of instruments to register the rate is their liability to miss the record from the difficulty of closely applying them to the wrist or chest , and the great variations in the extent of pulsatory and respiratory movement in sleep and wakefulness . The usual practice amongst medical men of ascertaining the rate of pulsation , regardless of posture of the body , of meals , and of the hour of the day , is evidently liable to the greatest error . In order to obtain even approximately correct results , the visit should be made at about the same hour daily , and the inquiry pursued always in one posture . QUANTITY OF AIR INSPIRED * . The same attention to posture is required as that noted under the previous heading . It is more satisfactory to measure the inspired than the expired air , since no correction is required for expansion by heat . Moreover , when the object is to ascertain the vital capacity of the lungs , it is important to remember that the inspiratory force at the end of a deep inspiration is greater than the expiratory force at the end of a deep expiration . It is necessary to cover or close the nose , since otherwise a portion of air is unconsciously inhaled through it . If a tube be inserted into the mouth for the purpose of inspiration , the lips must be closely pressed against it , and particularly at the angles of the mouth ; but there are many persons who cannot close the lips perfectly with a tube placed in the mouth . When it is desired to measure ordinary inspiration , it is advisable to use a mask which encloses the chin , nose , and mouth , so that inspiration may proceed easily and naturally through both openings . The sides of the mask must be made of lead , so thick that when pressed upon the features it will retain its position ; and it should be lined with sheet caoutchouc , the better to adhere to the skin . The face must be well introduced into the mask , and the thumbs placed under the chin whilst the forefingers cover the free edge of the mask so as to press the lead to the face and prevent any ingress or egress of the air either at the bridge of the nose or on the sides . Persons with large beards , and those with very thin and sunken cheeks , cannot use the mask effectually . After the mask has been worn for some time the vapour condenses within it , and the fluid trickles beneath the chin , when it will be very difficult to prevent a little air entering until the mask shall have been removed and wiped . The mask may be held upon the features by bands which cross the head transversely and longitudinally . Care must be taken that the valves close well and act easily . If the mask has been laid aside for some time , the valves will have curled up ; and it will be necessary to place it in lukewarm water for half an hour , or to pour water upon the dry valves . The measuring-instrument should offer but a very small amount of resistance to the expired current of air ; so that , if it be a gas-holder , as in Hutchinson 's and Davy 's spirometer , it should be accurately counterpoised at every part of its progress ; or if it measure and register ordinary inspiration , the adverse pressure should not exceed 2-ths of an inch of a column of water . The person must breathe normally , by the aid of previous training and by abstracting the attention . If there should be any sense of constriction about the chest , it may be inferred that the respiration is not normal , and that the chest is either too much collapsed , so that the act of expiration is too prolonged , or it remains expanded above the ordinary degree , and the act of expiration is shortened . The sense of ease and satisfactory respiration must be at all times present . -Ience practice and intelligence are necessary . The experiments must embrace several minutes at a time ; for a respiration rarely ends at a complete minute , and must therefore be recorded as a fraction , and the attention cannot be abstracted in the short period of one minute . Results obtained from observations of so short a duration cannot be uniform . The aim must be to ascertain the precise number of respirations and the quantity of air inspired then occurring . To control the respiration by inspiring a predetermined number of times per minute , or by breathing with an assumed uniformity of depth , is to render the act and the results alike unnatural . It is doubtless possible to fix the number of respirations , but it is impossible to regulate the quantity of air inspired except by the aid of a spirometer . The effect of exertion may be accurately determined by fixing the mask upon the face with bands , and by carrying the spirometer in the arms , or fastened upon the back with knapsack straps . The instrument must not exceed a very few pounds in weight . The distance to be traversed must be accurately measured , and subdivided into short distances also accurately measured , so that , with the watch in hand , the rate may be tested every half minute and over every small part of the course . Eaeh subdivision should be a known part of a mile , and at the rate selected must be traversed in a given number of seconds . Thus , at the rate of two miles per hour , a course of 58yards would be traversed every minute ; and if that be subdivided into six equal parts , each one would be walked over in a very little less than ten seconds . THE CARBONIC ACID EXPIRED* . The remarks already made in reference to posture and rest are also applicable to this subject . It is impossible so to regulate the respiration that a fair average of the carbonic acid evolved may be made from inquiries of one or two minutes ' duration , both from the impossibility of withdrawing the attention , and of obtaining an exact proportion of the expiration in so short a time . We almost always found that the rate of respiration was greater during the first than during subsequent minutes ; and this was no doubt attended by a change in the quantity of carbonic acid expired , and it was due to the action of the mind . Five minutes is the shortest period during which such an inquiry should be continuous , and ten minutes would be better if the duration of each experiment should not interfere with the necessary frequency of repetition ; but the latter might be an essential character of the inquiry . An inquiry of five minutes duration may be repeated every twelve minutes . The apparatus ' required must be capable of containing the products of respiration during five or ten minutes , or must absorb them as fast as they are emitted . There must be no adverse pressure upon the respiration . In collecting the expired air in a bag , there will be the fallacy of not being able to empty the bag completely ; and unless special care be taken , there will be an adverse pressure from the weight of the sides of the bag , and from their cohesion . Moreover , it is impossible to measure the expired air by such means ; and if it be passed through a spirometer , there will be a fallacy from the pressure required to move the instrument ; or if it be passed into a graduated tube , there will be a change of bulk from temperature and pressure . If only a part of the collected air be submitted to analysis , it will be very difficult to obtain a fair sample , since the specific gravities of the component gases vary much . In seeking the absorption of the gas , it is essential that the expired air should not be forced through a layer of fluid , since the adverse pressure upon the respiration would cause either defective expiration or an increased effort to expire , and in both cases error , but in opposite directions , would occur . No arrangement of solid absorbents with moistened surface can be so made that it shall absorb all the carbonic acid during the process of expiration . No combination of tubes within tubes , with a view to increase the absorbing surface , can be arranged within a manageable space and weight suited to this purpose . Hence it is requisite that the expired air be passed over a fluid ; and the fluid must be capable of rapidly and certainly absorbing the gas , and offer so large a surface that it may be found by experiment capable of absorbing the whole of the carbonic acid during the period of expiration . The air should be exposed in thin layers to the surface of the absorbent , and only a small column of it be offered at the same moment , so as to allow a long period to elapse before each small portion of the expired air shall have traversed the whole surface . A test apparatus should be attached at the end , and the test be occasionally applied during the inquiry , so as to ascertain if any unknown cause of error exists . Any portion of the absorbing fluid which may have been carried along by the current of the previously dried air must be arrested before the air escapes into the atmosphere , and no element of the expired air , besides the carbonic acid which the absorbent might retain , must be allowed to enter the absorbing apparatus . By this method the amount of carbonic acid is determined by the increase of the weight of the absorbing apparatus ; and hence it is necessary that the latter be such that it may be weighed to not less than the --th of a grain . Gutta percha is the only known substance of which the apparatus may be constructed , since it is not greatly acted upon by the caustic alkali , may be readily formed by the aid of the hot iron , and does not allow the fluid to flow over the floors of the chamber with the readiness observed when glass or metal is used , during the act of weighing . The only practical absorbent is a solution of caustic potash , and its speceific gravity should be 1 270 . The atmospheric air which will enter the various parts of the apparatus when not in use , must be expelled by blowing expired air through them before they are counterpoised as a preliminary to the inquiry . The expired air must not be reinspired . Hence boxes such as that employed by Scharling are inapplicable ; for , however rapid the current of air which is drawn though the box , it is quite certain that some portion of the air will be again and again inspired , and moreover the dilution of the air charged with carbonic acid renders the absorption of the gas much more difficult , whilst the determination of the carbonic acid remaining in the box is always a circumstance of great difficulty . When a mask is worn , it should not have a capacity larger than necessary to contain the features , or it will retain expired air , which must be reinspired . When respiring through a tube placed in the mouth , it is exceedingly difficult to prevent the escape of air , whether as it is introduced into or withdrawn from the mouth , and the results cannot be relied upon . If the nose be left unclosed , a variable and unknown quantity of air will enter and leave by that aperture . The effect of exertion may be readily ascertained by using a tube 15 feet in length attached to the mask and the analytical apparatus . The apparatus must be placed in a central position , and a space of 30 feet marked out in a right line , and this must be walked over at a defined rate of speed . The potash.box must be made of larger size than that required for experiments upon quiet respiration , or two sets of the apparatus must be used at the same time . In the latter case there will be danger of adverse pressure from the air passing through so many vessels ; and if the exertion in breathing be considerable , it will be impossible to measure the inspired air at the same time . The tubes must be of sufficient diameter and of smooth material , and be filled with expired air before the experiment commences . These observations also apply to experiments upon voluntary respiration , where the force , depth , and rapidity exceed that at rest . A space of 1000 to 1500 superficial inches of absorbing surface will be necessary with exertion , whilst 700 inches is sufficient at rest . There is a variation in the quantity of carbonic acid expired on different days of the week , so that there is an increase after a day of rest . There is also a variation with the season of the year , so that the evolution is the greatest in the spring , then in the winter , and then in the autumn , and it is the least at the end of summer . It increases with cold , and decreases with heat . Ience the quantities evolved at various seasons cannot be compared , neither indeed those in a short period of days , if there have been any considerable changes of weather or habits . The only mode by which the rate of evolution in different days and in different seasons may be compared is by making observations in the morning before food has been taken , and in absolute rest , so as to isolate the effects of season and meteorological phenomena from every other influence except the small effect of the conditions of the previous day . This method is almost without fallacy . URINARY WATER AND UREA* . The urinary water should be collected in tall and narrow glasses which are graduated to -kth of an ounce , and covered to prevent evaporation . When travelling , -oth of the quantity emitted at a time may be reserved , and the larger portion thrown away . The glasses must be used during defeecation ; and hence such inquiry cannot be accurately made in women . The various quantities must be retained and collected to the exact termination of each 24 hours ; and after they have been mixed and reduced to the temperature of the air , a sample should be taken for analysis . As the urine decomposes readily in warm weather and when the specific gravity is very low , the analysis must not be deferred later than two days ; but in the opposite conditions four days may elapse . There are very great and rapid variations in the quantity of urine evolved ; so that large and small quantities may alternate daily , or a sequence of increase or decrease may be established , or one may follow the other for many days . Hence a correct daily average can only be obtained after perhaps ten days of inquiry : and the quantity observed in one season will not apply to that of any other season ; so that the effect of season can only be ascertained by continued inquiries through the year . Rest , diminished ingestion of fluid , increased ingestion of animal solids , increased temperature and atmospheric pressure , profuse discharges from the skin or bowels , and increased bulk of the body from whatever cause , all other things being equal , will lessen the excretion of urine . The contrary conditions , each one , other things being equal , will increase the excretion of urine . The action of any two of these agents , each in an opposite direction , will modify the influence of the other . It must not be inferred that there will be lessened excretion of urine because there is increased excretion of fluid by other outlets , as the skin , unless it be proved that there was no increase in the quantity of fluid ingested and no diminution in the bulk and weight of body . Urinary water is largely and quickly excreted when fluid is drank without any solids having been taken on that day , viz. before breakfast , but to a much less extent if solids have been previously taken , and still less when solids are taken with the fluid . The maximum rate of emission must be sought for between the breakfast and 1 P.M. , and by experiments made not less frequently than a quarter of an hour . The minimum quantities occur in the night , and continue for much longer periods . All graduated glasses , alkalimeters , and pipettes should be graduated and carefully proved by the observer before using them , and this may be conveniently and most accurately effected by the balance . In pursuing Liebig 's volumetric method for the determination of urea in the urine , it is essential that the operator have graduated the mercurial solution himself , or have made himself familiarly acquainted with the tint of colour to which it is graduated by repeatedly testing it with the proper quantities of pure urea . Moreover , as the recollection of the precise tint to which the solution was graduated fades from the memory , the test quantity of urea should be used from time to time to renew it . The urea to be used must be proved to be perfectly pure . The solution should be made in a quantity of several gallons , and be drawn from the carboy by a siphon with the smallest apertures , so that the standard strength may be preserved . The quantity in daily use for the supply of the alkalimeter should not exceed a few ounces , and the alkalimeter must be washed out with distilled water after each operation has been finished . Care must be taken to force out the bubble of air which is retained in the neck of the exit-pipe before the operation begins . If it be possible , the analyses should always be made in the same amount and kind of light , since otherwise there will be an incorrect perception of the proper tint . The direct rays of the sun , and even too bright an indirect light , must be avoided as much as a deficiency of light . It is not possible to use artificial light . The thickness of the layer of the solution of carbonate of soda should be uniform , since there will be a difference in the tint and the rapidity of its production in the shallower and the deeper parts . From one to two minutes must be allowed for the production of the colour when it approaches the standard tint . Dr. Guy 's spatula is to be preferred to Dr. Beale 's suction-tube , sinceit retains a less quantity of the thick fluid from the previous immersion . It often occurs , in the analysis of coloured urine ( as in urine of high specific gravity ) , that the distinction of the tint is not well appreciated if the solution be added in quantities of one division only ; and hence it is often better for the experienced investigator to add two divisions of the solution at a time , so as to produce a little excess of colour , and then to compute and deduct the excess . In urine of low specific gravity , the tint is quickly and distinctly produced by half a division of the solution . The specific gravity of healthy urine is a ready guide to the addition of the first and large quantity of the solution . In a healthy person , and one of regular habits and under ordinary conditions , the daily quantity of chloride of sodium which is eliminated and must be deducted from the urea is tolerably uniform ; and the quantity having been ascertained by numerous trials , it may be used for the same person as a constant quantity , where absolute accuracy is not essential , and thus the labour will be materially lessened . With urine of a specific gravity from 1012 to 1025 , it is convenient to add by the pipette an ounce of urine to ? ounce of the baryta solution . When the specific gravity exceeds 1025 ( in the absence of sugar ) , equal parts should be used ; when it is below 1012 , it is needful to add 3 or 4 parts of urine to 1 part of baryta solution , and with diabetic urine 4 parts should always be added . A quarter of an ounce of the mixed fluids should be taken with the pipette , and the number of divisions of the mercurial solution used to produce the tint must be multiplied by the following factors to determine the amount of urea per ounce : With equal parts of each multiply by ... ... ... ... ... 8 With 2 parts of urine and 1 part of solution of baryta 6 multiply by ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . With 3 parts of urine and I part of solution of baryta 51 33 multiply by ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... With 4 parts of urine and 1 part of solution of baryta multiply by ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... J Considerable and constant practice is essential to correct and comparable results . The periods of the formation and the elimination of urea are different , and there is no known method of showing the former . The urea from metamorphosis of tissue and from the transformation of food is a mixed and varying product , and the two sources cannot be dissociated . The direct relation of urea is with food , since , in the absence of exertion , it nearly represents the nitrogen in the food supplied , less that remaining in the feeces . The elimination of urea chiefly varies with the quantity of urine , and therefore will be influenced by the same agencies as affect the discharge of urine . Hence the duration of inquiries to determine the normal daily rate of elimination at distant periods of the year , must be the same as that indicated in reference to the urine . There are great and frequent variations in the daily elimination of urea in a person of the most regular habits ; and as the effect of any agent is often carried on to the following day , inquiries which may be made for a short period before breakfast will not faithfully represent the conditions of that day . WEIGHT OF BODY* . The only satisfactory method of determining the weight of a person day by day , is to weigh him naked directly after he has passed urine and before he has taken]anyjingesta , and to do so as nearly as possible at the same hour every morning . The error which will be due to the varying amount of faeces contained in the bowel will still exist , but it cannot be large , and by no method can it be entirely removed . The person cannot weigh himself unless stand-scales with a multi* See Phil. Trans. 1861 . plying lever be employed . It will usually suffice to weigh to ? or I oz , The weight of the body will be influenced by the quantity of food taken , and by all the circumstances already noted in reference to the emission of urine . HIence the body is heaver at night than in the morning , also after a day of rest than after labour , in warm than in cold weather , and in all conditions in which the bulk of the body is increased , and the elimination of fluid lessened . There is a close relation between sudden changes in the quantity of urine evolved and the weight of the body . Among the excretions which cause a variation in the weight of the body , the carbonic acid , although a gas , must not be overlooked ; and so far the weight will vary as the conditions above mentioned vary the production of carbonic acid . Hence , upon the whole , the determination of the weight at night is attended by greater liability to error than in the morning , and the latter period would alone suffice for the inquiry . A variation in the weight occurs almost daily , and under some circumstances it amounts to from 1 to 2 lbs , The varying weight of the body represents the varying quantity of the fluid and solid excretions , the fat and the fluids in the blood-vessels and tissues , besides the nitrogenous elements of the body . Under the discipline of a prison , there is the highest proportion of nitrogenous tissues to the weight of the body . FOOD* . The effect of food upon the system may be sought in two ways:1st , the general effect of the ordinary dietary , which will represent the actual condition of the body in the individual or in the masses , but not the separate influence of any food . This is of great importance when considered in relation to the community , and may show its actual state under ordinary conditions . For this purpose the methods of inquiry already referred to under the different subjects will suffice . 2nd , the effect of separate articles of food only . This can only be ascertained in the absence of every agent acting upon the system , except the one in question . Hence the food must be taken alone , and before any other food has been eaten on that day , viz. before breakfast . The inquiry must also be made with precisely a uniform degree of exertion , and therefore at rest only , and in the absence of all excitement and meteorological changes . If an unusual kind or quantity of food be given , it will probably disturb the system and give inaccurate results . It is necessary to give a moderate dose , and in the customary form . The effect of all agents is temporary , and that of all kinds of food begins quickly and attains its maximum within 1 to 2k hours . If the maximum effect only be sought for , that period will suffice for the inquiry ; but if the average or total influence be desired , it will be necessary to continue the inquiry until the whole period of increase and decrease , or vice versa , have passed over . In either case the experiments must be made every few minutes , and be regularly repeated . The maximum quantities are easily attainable , but the true average or the total effect is scarcely if at all so , since it is difficult or impossible to ascertain the precise period of the termination of the effect . Hence only one dose of the food can be given on the same day , when great accuracy is desired . A second period may be found at about 4 hours after the breakfast ; but , although it is next in value to the period before breakfast , it cannot be implicitly relied upon , since no proof could be obtained that the vital functions had subsided from the breakfast increase to their lowest point before the inquiry began . All such experiments must be tested by morning inquiries . Whenever there is a sense of craving for food , or any disturbedfeeling , it is highly probable that the vital actions are varying , apart from the influence of the food , and the inquiry should be terminated . The addition of water to the food does not vary the results connected with the respiration , except so far as it may enable the food to enter the circulation quickly . If the solution of the food have been imperfect , the subsequent ingestion of water alone will cause an increase in the effect equal to that of taking more food .

111975

3701662

On the Motions of Camphor on the Surface of Water. [Abstract]

575

577

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Charles Tomlinson

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111975

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111975

Chemistry 1

Optics

Chemistry

II . " On the Motions of Camphor on the Surface of Water . " By CHARLES TOMLINSON , Esq. , Lecturer on Science , King 's College School , London . Communicated by Dr. WILLIAM ALLEN MILLER , Treasurer and V.P.R.S. Received January 15 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) The object of this paper is to show that the phenomenon in question is a much more general one than is commonly supposed ; that the explanations hitherto given of it have been insufficient or erroneous . The author endeavours to explain the real nature of the phenomenon in a series of experiments and observations , and to establish the following propositions : I. That the camphors , or stearoptens of the volatile oils , present phenomena of rotation and progression when thrown on the surface of clean water in a chemically clean vessel . II . That these phenomena belong also to certain salts , and to a variety of vegetable and other substances containing a liquid that diffuses readily over the surface of water . III . That solutions of camphor in benzole , in some of the essential oils , &c. , present phenomena of rotation and progression on the surface of water-a property which also belongs to creosote , and to some other liquids that do not contain camphor . IV . That the motions of camphor may be imitated by placing on water miniature rafts or coracles of inert substances , such as talc , tinfoil , paper , &c. , smeared with or containing the eleoptens of volatile oils , or indeed any volatile liquid , such as ether , alcohol , chloroform , &c. , provided there be some communication and adhesion between such liquid and the surface of the water . V. That the camphors , &c. , being slightly soluble in water , that is , the adhesion of the water partly overcoming the cohesion of the camphor , a film of camphor is thus detached from it , and spread over the surface of the water the moment that the camphor comes in contact therewith . VI . That the dimensions and form of this film depend on those of the piece of camphor operated on ; and , in general , the film separates more easily from broken surfaces and angles of the fragment than from a smooth natural surface , just as the crushed or broken surface of a crystal is more soluble than a perfect crystal . VII . That such films being constantly detached from the camphor so long as it is in contact with the water , displace each other ; the preceding film being conveyed away by the adhesion of the water in radial lines , these produce motion , by reaction on the fragment , causing it to rotate after the manner of a Barker 's mill . VIII . That these radial lines or jets being of unequal intensity , the direction and intensity of the motion will follow that of their resultant . IX . That the jets or films of camphor can be rendered sensible by various means-as by fixing the camphor partly submerged in water , and dusting the surface lightly with lycopodium powder : a series of horizontal currents produced by the films will then be made visible , which films or jets cause the camphor , when free to move , to rotate on a vertical axis . X. That the motions of the fragments of camphor on water are greatly influenced and complicated by their mutual attraction and by the attraction of the sides of the vessel . XI . That the film of camphor diffused over the surface of the water is very volatile , disappearing as fast as it is formed , chiefly into the air , only a very small portion being retained by the water . Hence camphor wastes away much more quickly at the surface of the water than in water alone or in air alone , because at the surface the film is being constantly formed at the expense of the camphor , and is spread out to the united action of air and water . XII . That whatever interferes with evaporation lowers or arrests the motions of the camphor and the allied phenomena ; so , on the contrary , whatever promotes evaporation exalts these phenomena . Effects which are displayed with great energy on a bright and sunny day , are produced either sluggishly or not at all on a wet , dull , or foggy one . XIII . That a fixed oil forming a film on water will displace the camphor film , and so permanently arrest the motions of the camphor ; but a volatile oil will only arrest the motions while it is present and undergoing evaporation . XIV . That the presence of the camphor film on water will , in some cases , prevent the formation of other films , the liquids that would otherwise form them remaining lenticular . -XV . That the camphor film , and other films , in many cases repel each other on the surface of water . XVI . That the motions of camphor on the surface of water are accelerated by the action of the vapour of benzole , and some other volatile substances : such vapours , condensing in the liquid form on the camphor , and then being diffused by the adhesion of the water , react on the camphor .

111976

3701662

On Magnetic Calms and Earth-Currents. [Abstract]

578

582

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Charles V. Walker

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111976

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111976

Meteorology

Electricity

Meteorology

" On Magnetic Calms and Earth-Currents . " By CHARLES V. WALKER , Esq. , F.R.S. , F.R.A.S. &c. Received February 3 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) The author uses the word " calm " in a negative sense , " not storm " , and states that very few notable earth-currents have attracted attention since the date of his original communication to the Royal Society , which was read on February 14 , 1861 . Referring to that communication , he calls attenti on to the London , Tonbridge , and Dover-London lines of telegraph , making an angle of direction with each other of 149 ? , and by means of which a few groups of observations were made , from which the prevailing direction of earth-currents was determined to be approximately N.E. or S.W. He wished to multiply these observations and to modify them , which he was well able to do from the circumstance that the Dover -London telegraph wires enter his own private office at Tonbridge , where , by means of the necessary apparatus , he is able at any moment , when the wires are not occupied by telegrams , to obtain possession of the whole wire from end to end , Dover-London ; or either section , London-Tonbridge , or Dover-Tonbridge , - the two former being the limiting lines , or those making the greatest available angle with each other , and the last , which is intermediate , being useful in confirmation of the observations made on the other two . The telegraph needles have been rarely affected of late , the earthcurrents which form the subject of the present communication being feeble . In order to their examination it was therefore necessary to prepare a delicate galvanometer , which is properly connected with the telegraph wire , and furnished with the simplest possible apparatus for bringing it into action whenever occasion serves . It is within arm 's length of the author when in his office . The pressing-down of a spring allows any earth-current that may be present to enter the galvanometer ; a brass plug , placed in holes 1 , 2 , and 3 , gives possession of the whole line , or either of its sections . The needle is deflected on the side marked " ' up " or " down , " according as the current collected is moving up or down the line ; and in all the Tables given in this communication the letters " u " or " d , " placed beside the degrees of deflection , give the direction of the current in the above popular terms . The galvanometer , with its appliances , accompanies this communication , and is placed on the table as in situ , and will at a glance give an idea of the arrangement , of which also the author gives a plan . A Table is given of earth-currents collected at Tonbridge , in October 1861 , on the lines in question , together with the Meteorological Register of the month . An analysis of these observations follows , included with which is an analysis of all observations of a like character that were made in the subsequent month of November . A few cases are recorded in which the earth gave no sign of current . No stress is laid on this , because a closer investigation with more delicate instruments might have given positive results . The contents of the Table are divided into Normal , Abnormal , and Exceptional . Out of a total of 276 observations , 230 gave normal results , confirming the conclusion already arrived at , that the prevailing direction of earth-currents was approximately N.E. or S.W. Whether one or other of these directions prevailed more or less at different periods of the day did not appear , the observations not being sufficiently consecutive . Father Secchi 's views of the relation between metereological phenomena and magnetic variation are referred to . The author has reason to conceive that sunshine or cloud , heat or cold , influence the relative values of the current collected from different parts of the same district ; in connexion with which he refers to a group of night observations , which form part of the series made in October , and also to the want of consistency in the relation between two derived currents collected at the same time from different parts of the same plane . He gives a few extracts from the Table , showing how very variable are the relations ; for instance , 15 ? : 15 ? ; 15 ? 0 : 30 ; 15 ? : 35 ? ; 13 ? ? 38 ? ; 18 ? : 21 ? ; and soon . Professor Loomis 's " Eighth Article " on the subject is referred to ; and the correspondence between the results at which he arrives by other processes , and those to which Mr. Walker arrives by the methods herein described , are given . In addition to the currents whose direction has been already noted , 42 cases occurred of currents which , for distinction sake , are called Abnormal , and which were equally definite in character . They are found in the S.E. and N.W. quadrants ; but the probable place in these quadrants could not be determined with any approach to accuracy from the lack of other lines of telegraph immediately at command . Four diagrams are given in illustration of the normals and abnormals . The authdr mentions that the South-Eastern Railway Company have cordially entertained the proposition , to which he has previously referred , of the Astronomer Royal ; and that he is now preparing to erect wires for Mr. Airy , terminating respectively near Dartford and Croydon , and which by combination will give an angle of 36 ? or 107 ? , the former , however , being without the range of normal direction . The consecutive observations to be made on these wires promise to be very instructive . The porcelain-ebonite insulator that will be used is described ; a specimen is on the table . Among the 276 October-November observations , four cases occurred . which are exceptional and do not admit of similar discussion . Subsequent observations may explain these . Next follows a survey of the N. and S. boundaries of a plane , the mean dimensions of which are 56 miles x 20 miles , bounded on the N. by the Thames , and on the S. by the Dover-Tonbridge line of railway . This was accomplished by aid of the earth-plates at Ramsgate and London , to the former of which access was had at Tonbridge , when required , by means of a switch at Ashford Junction . A Table is given of observations made during November and December , which show that the plane of the current is at least 20 miles wide , and the direction is consistent at either limit of the plane . Tonbridge being very nearly midway on a line joining London and Hastings , gave the opportunity of making observations on the whole or on either half of a same line of country . The results collected in November and December are given in a Table , and show a conformity in direction in the whole and in both halves , but a marked excess in value in the London-Tonbridge as compared with the Hastings-Tonbridge section . These differences are considered by the author as probably due to the different geological conditions of the country on either side of Tonbridge . Sections kindly furnished by Mr. Robert Hunt are referred to . These differences indicate the influence of local conditions , as the differences previously mentioned point at the interference of meteorological variations . In order to satisfy himself that he was dealing with currents collected bonad fide from the earth , and in no way from the atmosphere , arrangements were made with the clerks at Ashford to detach the observing wire from the earth there when required . A considerable number of observations were made during October , November , and December , the results of which are tabulated . Whether the current , as shown by the galvanometer , was weak or strong , it in every instance entirely ceased when the wire at Ashford was detached from the earth and held insulated ; so that no portion of the result was derived from any other source than the earth . These observations were made at all periods of the day and night , and in all weathers . Powerful artificial currents were repeatedly made to flow into the earth by the earth-plates , in order to see whether any effects of polarization were produced ; but the value of the earth-current , as observed before any such experiment , remained unchanged . That the currents collected are in no way due to the electromotive power of the earth-plates themselves , is shown by the absence of any sign of a tendency for one or other direction . They are independent in character and in value of all such influences . To prevent misconception , a list of the earth-connexions used at the several stations that enter into the present investigation is given . The author considers it may be premature to regard the subject as tolerably exhausted , as far as the means at his command are concerned ; but at this moment he does not notice any other salient point within his reach . When the proposed special wires are ready for Mr. Airy , and consecutive observations are made and compared with the march of the magnetometers , the subject will be within the reach of the able hands of Mr. Airy ; and we may be well assured that the various questions connected with it will be ably discussed by him . The results comprehended in this and the previous communication are briefly summed up as follows:1st . That currents of electricity are at all times moving in definite directions in the earth . 2nd . That their direction is not determined by local causes . 3rd . That there is no apparent difference , except in degree , between the currents collected in times of great magnetic disturbance and those collected during the ordinary calm periods . 4th . That the prevailing directions of earth-currents , or the currents of most frequent occurrence , are approximately N.E. and S.W. respectively . 5th . That there is no marked difference in frequency , duration , or value , between the N.E. and the S.W. currents . 6th . That ( at least during calm periods ) there are definite currents of less frequency from some place in the S.E. and NoW . quadrants respectively . 7th . That the direction of a current in one part of a plane on the earth 's surface ( at least as far as the S.E. district of England is concerned ) coincides with the direction in another part of the plane ; and if the direction changes in one part , it changes in all parts of the plane . 8th . That the relation in value between currents in a given part of the plane and currents in another given part is not constant , but is influenced by local meteorological conditions , and varies from time to time . 9th . That the value of the current of a given length , moving in a given line of direction , is not necessarily the same as of a current of the same length on the same line of direction produced , and that their relative value depends on the physical character of the earth interposed between the respective points of observation , and is tolerably constant . 10th . That the currents which have formed the basis of these investigations are derived currents from true and proper earthcurrents , and neither in whole nor in any appreciable part have been collected from the atmosphere , nor are due either in whole or in any appreciable part to polarization imparted to earth-plates by the previous passage of earth-currents or of powerful telegraphic currents ; nor are they due to any electromotive force in the earth-plates themselves . 11th . That the earth.currents in question ( at least the powerful currents present at all times of great magnetic disturbance ) exercise a direct action upon magnetometers , just as artificial currents confined to a wire exercise a direct action upon a magnet .

111977

3701662

On the Dicynodont Reptilia, with a Description of Some Fossil Remains Brought by H.R.H. Prince Alfred from South Africa in November 1860. [Abstract]

583

585

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

R. Owen

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111977

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111977

Anatomy 2

Geography

Anatomy

" On the Dicynodont Reptilia , with a Description of some Fossil Remains brought by H.R.H. Prince Alfred from South Africa in November 1860 . " By Professor R. OWEN , F.R.S. &c. Received January 23 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) In this paper the author describes some fossil remains obtained , at the suggestion of H.R.H. the late Prince Consort , by H.R.H. Prince Alfred , during his journey in South Africa . They are referable to two genera of Dicynodont Reptilia . The first specimen is an unusually perfect specimen of the skull , retaining the lower jaw in connexion with the tympanic pedicles , of a species of Ptychognathus , showing distinctive characters from previously described species , and which the author dedicates to its discoverer under the name of Ptychognathus Alfredi . The anatomical characters of this fossil were described in detail . It was obtained from a greenish sandstone , probably Triassic , of the Rhenosterberg , South Africa . The second specimen is the skull , with the lower jaw , also in situ , of a true Dicynodon , referable by its size to the largest known species ( Dicynodon tigriceps , Ow . ) . The right maxillary and zygomatic arch having been partially removed in quarrying the rock containing the fossil , a further detachment of the matrix brought into view the descending cranial plate of the frontal , the interorbital septum , the upper surface of part of the bony palate with the pterygoid , and the rhinencephalic continuation of the cranial cavity . The presphenoid projects forward as a compressed plate , exceeding in relative length and extent of ossification that in Chelonia , and more resembling that in Crocodilia , Anterior to the pre . sphenoid is the vomer , which expands laterally to join the palatines and pterygoids . Other cranial characters deducible from the present and not shown in previous specimens are noticed . As a whole , the skull exemplifies the near equality in size of this extinct twotusked reptile of South Africa with the existing Walrus ; and it shows that in the structure of the bony palate , as in some other parts of the skull , the Dicynodon combines Crocodilian with Chelonian and Lacertian characters . The specimen above described was obtained by H.R.I. Prince Alfred , from the Karoo beds , in the district of Graaf Reinet , South Africa . The author next proceeds to describe the pelvis of a Dicynodon equalling in bulk the D. tigriceps , and most probably belonging to that species . It includes , with five sacral vertebrae , the last of those of the trunk which supported free ribs , showing that there are no vertebrae having the character of lumbar ones in Dicynodon . The length of the six successive centrums was 1 foot 2 inches . The ribs of the first sacral vertebra resemble in size and shape the human scapula , but are much thicker ; their expanded terminations , 6 inches in breadth , underlap or pass anterior to the iliac bones , to which this rib has been attached by syndesmosis . The ribs of the succeeding sacral vertebrae are shorter and thicker , and abut against the ossa innominata , as far back as the ischial tuberosities . The ilium , ischium , and pubis have coalesced to form one bone , as in some lizards and in mammalia ; and , as in the latter class , the symphysis at which the ischio-pubic portion of each os innominatum joins its fellow is continuous ; the pubic symphysis is not separated from the ischial symphysis . But ossification has advanced further than in any mammal , to the complete obliteration of the obturator foramina , which in most reptiles are represented by very wide vacuities . The pubic bones show an oblique perforation near the acetabulum , homologous with that which co-exists with large obturator openings in most lizards . The brim of this singularly massive pelvis measures 10 inches in antero-posterior , and 11 inches in transverse diameter : the outlet measures 4 inches in antero-posterior , and 9 inches in transverse diameter . In the comparison of this , at present , unique type of pelvic structure , it is interesting to observe , in connexion with the mammalian tusks in the skull , a mammalian condition of the symphysis pubis , and also a mammalian expansion of the iliac bone . In the number of sacral vertebrae Dicynodon resembles the Dinosaurian reptiles , as well as some mammalia ; and hence it may be inferred that , like the Megalosaurus and Iguanodon , a heavy trunk was in part supported on a pair of large hind limbs , the weight thereupon being transferred by a larger proportion of the vertebral column than in the prone crawling crocodiles and lizards of the present day . The author , from certain associated fossils , deduces a probability of the triassic age of the sandstones including the above-described South African Reptilia , and remarks that it is in a sandstone of triassic age in Shropshire where fossil remains occur of a reptile which , in biting with trenchant edentulous jaws , also pierced its prey by a pair of produced weapons analogous to the tusks of Dicynodon . Of this reptile , the Rhynchosaurus articeps , Ow . , the author describes the skull , vertebrse , and some other bones , which have been lately discovered in the New Red Sandstone of Grinsill , Shrewsbury . The remains of the limb-bones in this specimen bespeak a reptile capable of progression on dry land , as well as of swimming in the sea-of one that might leave impressions of its foot-prints on a tidal shore . This paper is illustrated by numerous drawings .

111978

3701662

Notices of Some Conclusions Derived from the Photographic Records of the Kew Declinometer, in the Years 1858, 1859, 1860, and 1861

585

590

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Edward Sabine

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1860.0127

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111978

10.1098/rspl.1860.0127

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111978

Meteorology

Biography

Meteorology

I. " Notices of some Conclusions derived from the Photographic Records of the Kew Declinometer , in the years 1858 , 1859 , 1860 , and 1861 . " By Major-General EDWARD SABINE , P.R.S. Received February 6 , 1862 . The discussion of the magnetic observations which have been made in different parts of the globe may now be considered to have established the three following important conclusions in regard to the magnetic disturbances : viz. , 1 . That these phenomena , whether of the declination , inclination , or total force , are subject in their mean effects to periodical laws , which determine their relative frequency and amount at different hours of the day and night . 2 . That the disturbances which occasion westerly and those which occasion easterly deflections of the compass-needle , those which increase and those which decrease the inclination , and those which increase and those which decrease the magnetic force have all distinct and generally different periodical laws . 3 . That there exists a periodical variation in the relative amount of disturbance in different years , contituting , a cycle of about ten terrestrial years , which has been found to correspond , both in the duration of the period and in the epochs of maxima and minima , with a periodical variation in the appearance of spots on the solar disk . In the introductions prefixed to the several volumes containing the observations made at the colonial observatories , the concurrent testimony of the disturbances of the three magnetic elements to these conclusions is fully exhibited ; and in reference particularly to the third , viz. the decennial variation , a resume has been given in the second St. Helena volume , pages cxxii to cxxxvi . In that resume , the particular form of the previously announced decennial variation is more fully traced , and , from the analysis of the observations , shown to be of the following character . If we begin with the part of the cycle to which the maximum of disturbance belongs , we find , first , three consecutive years in each of which the aggregate amount of disturbance ( measured from a constant value ) is nearly the same ; then , two years of diminished disturbance ; and then , three years in each of which the aggregate amount is nearly the same , but is considerably less than in the two preceding years , and very considerably less than in the three commencing years . The three years of minimum are then succeeded by two of medium disturbance , and these by the recommencement of three years of maximum amount . Thus , for example , referring to the years in which the colonial observatories were in action , 1841 and 1842 were years of medium disturbance ; 1843 , 1844 , and 1845 years of minimum , differing little from each other ; 1846 and 1847 years of medium , and 1848 , 1849 , and 1850 years of maximum . The general analogy of these particular features with Schwabe 's observations of the solar spots , commenced in 1826 ( showing , on the one hand , the number of groups of spots , and on the other hand , the number of days free from spots in each year ) , may be examined by a reference to the table in the third volume of 'Cosmos ' ( English translation ) , page 292 , and is as satisfactory as , from the nature of the subject , could well be expected** The discontinuance of the colonial observatories occasioned a temporary suspension of investigations which are now admitted to have been of very high interest ; but by the liberality and public spirit of the British Association , and by the aid of occasional grants of money from the Royal Society , apparatus for their resumption was completed at the Kew Observatory in 1857 , and the investigations were recommenced on the 1st of January , 1858 . The results obtained from the photographic records of the Kew declinometer in 1858 and 1859 , with a full description of the methods and processes employed in their elicitation , were communicated to the Royal Society in 1860 , and are printed in vol. x , of the 'Proceedings , ' pp. 624-643 . The two years which have since elapsed have furnished similar results for the years 1860 and 1861 , strictly comparable with those of 1858 and 1859 , having been obtained with the same instruments and by the same methods . We have now , therefore , the observations of four consecutive years from the Kew Observatory , and we are thereby enabled to infer , by the comparison of the aggregate amount of disturbance in each of those years , the progression of the decennial variation up to the close of 1861 . The aggregate amounts of disturbance in the four years were severally as follows:1858 , January 1 to December 31 , 7263-7 mins . of arc . 1859 , , , , 7637'3 1860 , , , , , 7540-2 , , 1861 , , , , , 6461-6 , , The observations of preceding years had led to the expectation that 1858 , 1859 , and 1860 would be the three years of maximum , in which succeeding , 1846 and 1847 , is well shown by the results of the hourly observations made in those years at the Hobarton Magnetic Observatory . Minutes of arc . 1841 , Jan. 1 to Dec. 31 ; aggregate values 54419 t 47614 . 1842 , , , , , , , ,4080-8 J4761'4 1843 , , , , , , , , 21834 1844 , , , , , , , , 2948'6 2565-2 . 1845 , , , , , , , , , 25637J 1846 , , , , , , , , 37355 309 1847 , , , , , , , , , 4883'4 4309 5 The aggregate values which are here given are the amounts in each year of the disturbances exceeding 2f13 , reckoned from the normals of the several months and hours . the aggregate amounts of disturbance would differ but little , and that 1861 would be the first year of medium , showing an aggregate amount of disturbance considerably below 1858 , 1859 , and 1860 . This expectation has been realized ; and we have now before us the prospect that the present year , 1862 , will prove to be the second year of medium , with an aggregate amount of disturbance nearly resembling that in 1861 , but a little less ; and that 1863 , 1864 , and 1865 will be years of minimum , differing little from each other in the amount of disturbance , and all lower than the preceding years 1861 and 1862 on the one hand , or the succeeding years 1866 and 1867 on the other . Hence we see the importance of maintaining , during the remaining portion of the decennial period , the photographic records of the Kew Observatory , with as little change as may be practicable in the instruments and methods which have been employed during the first portion . The Table which is printed in vol. x. of the Proceedings , page 627 , shows the aggregate values of the disturbances in 1858 and 1859 distributed into the several solar hours of their occurrence , and distinguishing between the disturbances which produce westerly and those which produce easterly deflections of the compass-needle . It also exhibits the ratios of disturbance at the several hours to the mean of the 24 hours taken as the unit . The subjoined Table contains the same particulars for thefour years , 1858 to 1861 , inclusive . It has of course a somewhat higher authority than the earlier table , inasmuch as ratios obtained from the records of four years are to be preferred to those derived from two years only . But the principal point of interest in comparing them with each other is the evidence which their correspondence affords , of the substantial truth of the two first of the three general conclusions adverted to in the commencement of the present communication , viz. , the periodicity of the disturbances in respect to the several hours of solar time , and the distinct character of the laws which regulate the disturbances producing westerly deflections , and those producing easterly deflections . The principal features of both classes of disturbance are the same , whether viewed in the record of the two or of the four years . Regarded from either point of view , both classes follow progressions manifestly dependent upon the hours of solar time , the progressions of the westerly and those of the easterly deflections being as manifestly governed by distinct and different laws . The westerly deflections have their chief prevalence from 5 A.M. to 5 P.M. , or during the hours of the day , the ratios at all the other hours being below unity . The easterly deflections , on the other hand , prevail chiefly during the hours of the night , the ratios being for the most part below unity at the hours when the westerly are above unity , and , conversely , above when the westerly are below . The easterly have one decided maximum at 11 P.M. , towards which they steadily and continuously progress from 5 P.M. , and from which they as steadily , and continuously , recede until 5 A.M. the following morning . The westerly appear in both records to have a double maximum , one about 6 or 7 A.M. , the other about 2 or 3 P.M. TABLE showing the aggregate Values of the larger Disturbances of the Declination at the different hours of solar time in 1858 , 1859 , 1860 and 1861 , derived from the Kew Photographic Records ; with the Ratios of Disturbance at the several hours to the mean hourly value taken as the Unit . Westerly deflections Easterly deflections in tw Local in four years . in four years . otios o year astronoLocal civil mical time , time . Ag , regate Ratis te Ratios . Westerly . Easterly . values . values . Hours . Min . of arc . Min , of arc . Hours . 18 860-5 1'55 210-9 0-33 1-85 0-37 6 A.M. 19 904-9 1-63 221'1 0-34 1-83 0-38 7 A.M. 20 769-7 1-38 219'8 0-34 1-48 0-36 8 A.M. 21 732'1 1-32 234-3 0-36 1-23 0-38 9 A.M. 22 640-0 1-15 245-7 0-38 1-26 0-33 10 A.M. 23 696-3 1-25 228-9 0-35 1-21 0'39 11 A.M. 0 855-5 1-54 234-7 0-36 1-38 0-54 Noon . 1 9470 1'70 218-3 0-34 1-44 0-48 1 P.M. 2 941-6 1-69 263-6 0-41 1-53 0-54 2 P.M. 3 954-5 1-72 197-5 0-30 1-71 0-34 3 P.M. 4 847'1 1-52 265-7 0-41 1-35 0-44 4 P.M. 5 595-1 1-07 332-6 0-51 1-15 0-51 5 P.M. 6 458-7 0-82 477-8 0-74 0-94 0-91 6 P.M. 7 272-0 0-49 798-6 1-23 0-37 1-19 i7 P.M. 8 196-0 0-35 962-6 1-49 0-22 1-56 8 P.M. 9 230-9 0-42 1184-1 1-83 0-29 1-79 9 P.M. 10 148-6 0-27 1512-8 2-33 0-20 2-25 10 P.M. 11 121-9 0-22 1615-2 2-49 0-12 2-38 11 P.M. 12 266-5 0-48 1471-3 2-27 0-49 2-21 Midnight . 13 245-7 0-44 1352-7 2-09 0-47 1'98 1 A.M. 14 306-7 0-55 1291-9 1-99 0-49 1'80 2 A.M. 15 287-6 0-52 988-0 1-52 0-51 ].45 3 A.M. 16 407-1 0-73 702-7 1-08 0-97 0-95 4 A.M. 17 662-9 1-19 322-5 0-50 1-53 0-45 5 A.M. Mean hourly 556-2=1-00 6481 =100 values The main object of the Table is to exhibit the amounts of disturbance and the ratios at the several hours , derived from the photographic records of the four years ; but , in order to facilitate the examination of the correspondence in these respects of the results severally deducible from the two and from the four years , the ratios of westerly and of easterly disturbance at the different hours which were derived from the photographic records in 1858 and 1859 are added , being reproduced from the table in vol. x. In discussions published elsewhere the preponderance of westerly over easterly deflection , or the converse , has been inferred to be a geographical characteristic rather than an accidental feature . All the stations in North America , at which investigations have hitherto been made , concur in showing a considerable predominance of easterly deflections , whilst at Pekin in Northern Asia the converse is observable . Regarding Kew as the only representative station in the British Islands ( the only one in which this investigation has been made ) , it is deserving of notice , that we find in this locality no constant or decided predominance of either class of disturbance over the other . There is indeed a slight preponderance of easterly values on the average of the four years , but not of such amount or regularity as to give it the character of a decided feature .

111979

3701662

On the Action of Chloride of Iodine on Iodide of Ethylene and Propylene Gas

590

591

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Maxwell Simpson

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1860.0128

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111979

10.1098/rspl.1860.0128

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111979

Chemistry 2

Fluid Dynamics

Chemistry

II . " On the Action of Chloride of Iodine on Iodide of Ethylene and Propylene Gas . " By MAXWE , LLJ SIMPSON , M.B. Communicated by Dr. FRANKLAND . Received February 18 , 1862 . I have already shown* that the cyanides of the diatomic radicals can be prepared by submitting their bromides to the action of cyanide of potassium . In the hope of forming the cyanides of the triatomic radicals in a similar manner , I subjected the bromides of several of these latter radicals to the action of the same reagent . Finding , how ever , the reaction not quite satisfactory , it occurred to me that the iodides of these radicals mtight possibly yield better results . With this view I endeavoured to prepare the teriodide of aldehydene ( Co H3 I , ) , by exposing iodide of ethylene to the action of chloride of iodine , expecting that the teriodide would be formed by virtue of the following reaction : C , H11 I2+C11= C , H3 3+ H C1 . My expectations , however , were not realized , the product of the reaction being a body which I shall call chloriodide of ethylene ( C4 H4 I C1 ) . The experiment was performed in the following manner : Action of Chloride of Iodine on Iodide of Ethylene.--A solution of chloride of iodine in water containing a trace of free iodine was agitated vigorously with a quantity of iodide of ethylene , till the latter became black and changed into a fluid oil . This was then washed with dilute potash and distilled . Almost the entire liquid passed over between 146 ? and 1520 Cent. It gave , on analysis , results which correspond perfectly with the formula I have given above . I obtained 12'43 instead of 12'55 per cent. of carbon . If we regard the constitution of iodide of ethylene as C , 1I3 1 , III , the reaction which gives birth to this body becomes perfectly intelligible . It is simply the substitution of chlorine for iodine in hydriodic acid : C H3l I , 111 I+= CI H,3 I , H C1+I I. Chloriodide of ethylidene is a colourless oil . It has a sweet taste , and is slightly soluble in water . It boils at about 147 ? Cent. It is a remarkable fact that neither this body nor Dutch liquid is formed when iodide of ethylene is exposed to the action of chlorine-water . I have also subjected propylene gas , derived from amylic alcohol , to the action of chloride of iodine , and find that an oily body is formed in large quantity , which contains iodine . This I am at present engaged in studying . The action of chloride of iodine on propylene gas obtained from glycerine appears to be similar .

111980

3701662

Letter to the Council from Sir George Everest, C.B., on the Expediency of Re-Examining the Southern Portion of the Great Indian Arc of the Meridian; and Report of a Committee Thereupon

591

598

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George Everest

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1860.0129

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111980

10.1098/rspl.1860.0129

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111980

Biography

Astronomy

Biography

Letter to the Council from Sir George Everest , C.B. , On the Expediency of re-examining the Southern Portion of the Great Indian Arc of the Meridian ; and Report of a Committee thereupon . [ Towards the close of the last session of the Royal Society a letter was addressed to the President and Council by Colonel Sir George Everest , C.B. , advocating the expediency of re-examining the portion of the Great Indian Arc of Meridian which was surveyed by the late Colonel Lambton , and collecting in one volume the results of that part of the survey . The Council , having taken this letter into consideration , appointed a committee , consisting of the Astronomer-Royal , Professor W. H. Miller , and Professor Stokes , to consider and report on the subject . The report was laid before the President and Council early in the present session ; and by their direction the letter of Sir George Everest and the report of the Committee are here printed . ] Letter of Colonel Sir George Everest , C.B. 10 Westbourne Street , Hyde Park , W. April 8th , 1861 . SIR , In a letter which I took occasion to address to you some time back * , some remarks are made to which I am desirous to draw the attention of the President and gentlemen of the Council of the Royal Society . They are contained in page 7 of the printed copy of that letter ; and as they relate to a subject of considerable importance in the estimation of myself and many others , I hope no apology will be necessary for the present intrusion . To enter into a long narrative of my reasons for the statements therein made would but be to repeat what I have frequently urged on other occasions ; but in this place it will perhaps be sufficient to mention that , 1st , the details of such portions of the late Colonel Lambton 's operations on the Great Arc of India to the south of Damargida , as have been printed , are only to be found in a dispersed state in the volumes of the Asiatic Researches of Calcutta ; and if it is intended that these should be permanent data , they ought to be collated and combined into one volume , in keeping with that relating to the portion north of Damargida , which was printed by me in 1847 , at the expense and by the desire of the late East India Company . 2nd . The details of all trigonometrical operations conducted by Colonel Lambton are to be found in manuscript , in the copies of what are denominated the General Reports of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India , which are deposited amongst the records at the India House ; and as , in transcribing , there is always a liability to clerical errors , therefore a volume such as is here suggested ought to be drawn up after a rigorous comparison with the manuscript ; and further , wherever it may be practicable , the observations registered in the General Reports should be compared with those originally noted in the Fieldor , as they are called , Angle-Books of the department . 3rd . There certainly has been one error , if not more than one , committed in the computations ; but where such error or errors exist it is impossible to say a priori : the only decisive mode of detection must consist in a thorough recomputation . 4th . All the celestial observations for amplitude made by Colonel Lambton were reduced many years ago ; but I need hardly point out that the constants and formulae for aberration , precession , nutation , &c. , have undergone vast alterations since that period , and of course corresponding recomputations would now be necessary . This would not have been needed if the observations at each limit of the Arc of 'Amplitude had been made simultaneously by two instruments on the same set of stars , one instrument at each limit , as has been done in the two Arcs north of Damargida ; but it becomes of importance when not only the years , but the seasons of observations were different . If this were effected , we should at least have the satisfaction of knowing that the most had been made of the late Colonel Lambton 's operations , which indeed might fairly rank with those of MM . Bouguer and De la Condamine , or MM . Maupertius , Clairaut , and others , though , from the inferiority of instruments and other causes , of course they could not be classed for accuracy with those of a more modern date . In proper time and place I have abundance to say on this subject ; but it will be evident that the revision and recomputation here suggested constitute a task beyond the power of any individual , and are indeed a state affair , which , now that India and all belonging to it has been taken under the control of Her Majesty 's Government , can only be accomplished as other state concerns usually are . What , therefore , I venture to recommend is , that the President and gentlemen of the Council of the Royal Society should take this subject into their consideration , as a national question falling peculiarly under their superintendence , and that in their capacity as the parent Society and leading scientific body of Great Britain , they should use their influence to have such measures effected as in their judgment may seem meet . Perhaps a recommendation from the Royal Society-to the Secretary of State for India would be the proper course to be pursued ; but in any case it seems very clear that it is not creditable to leave this subject in its present disjointed state . India furnishes the largest extent of territory accessible to Great Britain in which arcs of the meridian can be measured , and there can be no question that from Cape Comorin to the Himalayan Mountains one uniform triangulation ought to be formed . The most effectual method of accomplishing this desirable purpose would assuredly have been that which I counselled the Government of India to adopt in 1842 ; but as my proposal was rejected , it only remains to make the most of the materials we actually possess . As to now giving effect to my proposal , which was to revise the whole series south of Damargida with the same instruments and observers as had been employed in the northern portion , there would be difficulties which did not then exist . Not to speak of the fact that there are none of the observers of that day at present available , it must be remembered that the station-marks of the Bedu base and the Damargida Observatory were then fresh and intact , as were indeed the other station-marks in general ; but the natives of India have a habit peculiar to human beings in that state of society , of attributing supernatural and miraculous powers to our instruments , and the sites which have been occupied by them . In cases of death or any other natural visitations they often offer up prayers to those sites ; and if the object of their prayers be not conceded , they proceed to all sorts of acts of destruction and indignity towards them : nay , as in all cases where it was practicable , my station-marks were engraved on the solid rock in situ , they have been known to proceed in bodies armed with sledge-hammers , and beat out every vestige of the engraving ; so that it is by no means certain that the marks which designate the limits at Damargida and Bedu could now be detected . I will not trouble you with any further remarks , but , with full confidence that the Royal Society will , after giving the subject due consideration , take such measures as the case may seem in their wisdom to require , I beg to subscribe myself , Sir , Your very obedient Servant , GEORGE EVEREST . To the Secretary of the Royal Society . Report of the Committee . The Committee to whom it was referred by Minute of the President and Council of the Royal Society of the date of June 13 , 1861 , to consider and report on a letter by Colonel Sir George Everest , C.B. , dated April 8 , 1861 , relating to the steps proper now to be taken in reference to Colonel Lambton 's Survey of an Arc of Meridian in India , and on the subjects therewith connected , have to offer the following Report : 1 . The Committee have examined the principal printed books on the subject , namely , The several volumes of the Asiatic Transactions , containing the details , to the extent to which in works of similar character they are usually published , of Colonel Lambton 's Surveys . The recalculation of the celestial amplitudes by Bessel in No. 334 of the 'Astronomische Nachrichten . ' The two printed volumes by Sir George Everest , containing the details of his own Indian Survey with much information on Colonel Lambton 's Survey . A former letter addressed by Sir George Everest to the Secretary , and printed in the ' Proceedings of the Royal Society ' for January 27 , 1859 ( vol. ix . pp. 620-625 ) . The Committee have also been favoured by Sir George Everest , at a personal interview which that gentleman at their request most kindly granted them , with very important oral information on the instruments , the methods of proceeding , and other particulars relating to Colonel Lambton 's and to his own survey ; and they have been permitted by him to peruse a most valuable document , partly of private and partly of semi-official character , addressed to him by Mr. De Penning , formerly Chief Assistant to Colonel Lambton in the conduct of the Survey . 2 . The Committee will first advert to the observations and primary deductions from them ( of the nature of adopted angles , &c. ) in Colonel Lambton 's surveys . And in regard to these , they have no hesitation in stating their opinion that no good whatever would be done by general examination of the angle-books . It is evident from Mr. De Penning 's statements that the utmost care was used , and the best judgment of the Officers was exercised , at a time when all the 2u qualifying circumstances of the separate observations were known to them , and that any attempt to depart from their conclusions at the present time would probably lead to error . The Committee remark that the exhibition ( in the Asiatic Researches ) of the adopted angles with the corrections required to make the sum of the angles in each triangle equal to two right angles , renders it impossible that any clerical or typographical error can escape discovery : if any such should be found , of which the proper correction is not obvious and certain , they think it proper that reference should be made to the manuscripts now preserved in the Archives of the Department of State for India ; but they recommend nothing further . 3 . In regard to the accuracy of the calculations of the sides of the triangles , founded on the adopted angles to which allusion is made above , there appears to be no check except the verifications by the measure of widely-separated bases ; and the comparison of these , as presented in the Asiatic Researches , shows a degree of accordance which the Committee , guided by the results of Sir George Everest 's experience , consider satisfactory . Still they remark that the form in which these calculations are printed makes their verification extremely easy , and the Committee recommend that they be verified . Of the next step of calculation , namely the computation and aggregation of successive portions of the meridian ( including the astronomical determinations of azimuth ) , there appears to be no check whatever ; and the Committee recommend that this important calculation be repeated , and in a different form , if the officer entrusted with such revision should ' think it desirable . 4 . The details of the base-measure reductions , as founded on Colonel Lambton 's ' statements of the measuring process , admit of easy verification ; and the Committee recommend that they be verified . But the evaluation of all these measures , for application to the estimate of the length of Arc of IMeridian at the level of the sea , requires that the elevation of the bases be very approximately known . The portions of the Arc surveyed respectively by Colonel Lambton and Sir George Everest , join each other at Damargida ; and there is a large discordance between the elevation of this station , as given first by Colonel Lambton , and secondly by Sir George Everest and Sir A. Waugh . Guided by the information which Sir George Everest has furnished , on the inadequacy of the vertical circles of the instrua ments employed by Colonel Lambton , on the want of attention to atmospheric circumstances , and on the want of simultaneity in reciprocal observations ( all which considerations have been carefully kept in view in Sir George Everest 's and Sir A. Waugh 's observations ) , the Committee recommend that Colonel Lambton 's determinations of height of base be rejected , and those of Sir George Everest and Sir A. Waugh be adopted ; and that the resulting corrections be made to the estimated lengths of Meridian Arcs , as far as , in the judgment of the Officer revising this work , it is now possible to do it . 5 . The reductions of astronomical observations for celestial amplitude of arcs and absolute determination of latitude admit of easy examination ; and the Committee recommend that they be thoroughly verified . The Committee recommend that the original numbers of these observations , as well as those of celestial azimuths , be verified by collation with any manuscripts of the Survey which may now be preserved in England . 6 . The reduction of the Latitude-observations was corrected several years ago by Bessel . The Committee are of opinion that additional accuracy can now be given to these corrections . First , the proper motions of the stars are now better known than they were in Bessel 's time . Secondly , the value of the coefficient of Nutation used by Bessel is now universally abandoned by astronomers : The alteration made in the result by the use of corrected values of these elements would probably be small ; but , remarking that they can be introduced with great facility , the Committee recommend that the corrections be made . 7 . The Committee have had personal experience of the great inconvenience caused by the dispersion of Colonel Lambton 's accounts of the survey-operations through numerous volumes of the Asiatic Researches ; and viewing the limited circulation of that work in continental libraries , they are inclined to believe that very few men of science have it in their power to form a correct judgment as to the value of Colonel Lambton 's great work . The Committee therefore recommend that , when the verifications and corrections which they have particularised shall have been made , the whole be published in one volume , in a form as nearly similar as circumstances permit to those describing Sir George Everest 's operations and results , and in sufficient number ( say 500 copies ) to allow of their being presented to all the known Libraries , Academies , and Observatories of importance , throughout the world . 8 . The Committee unhesitatingly express their opinion that the expense attending all the recommendations which they have made would be small in comparison with the scientific value of the result . And even in the event of ulterior operations ( to which they proceed to allude ) being ultimately sanctioned , the adoption of the course which they have recommended would give valuable facilities . 9 . The Committee think it right , however , to call the attention of the President and Council to the general quality of Colonel Lambton 's Surveys , which , though executed with the greatest care and ability , were carried on under serious difficulties , and at a time when instrumental appliances were far less complete than at present . There is no doubt that at the present time the Surveys admit of being improved in every part . The Standards of length are better ascertained than formerly , and all uncertainty on the unit of measure can be removed . The base-measuring apparatus can be improved . The instruments for horizontal angles used by Colonel Lambton were inferior to those now in use ; and one of them was most severely injured by an accidental blow , the result of which was more distinctly injurious because the circle was read by only two microscopes . Allusion has already been made to the circumstances of observation affecting the altitude of stations . Though the astronomical observations were probably good for their age , yet new observations conducted with such instruments and on such principles as those adopted by Sir George Everest would undoubtedly be better . The Committee therefore express their strong hope that the whole of Colonel Lamubton 's Survey may be repeated with the best modern appliances . The expense of such a work would be considerable ; but no Arc of Meridian yet measured has such claims on the attention of the patrons of science as the Indian Are , from its proximately equatorial position , and from its anomalies and the reference of them to the attraction of the Himalaya Mountains . " G. B. AIRY . " s W. H. MILLER . " C. G. STOKEs . "

111985

3701662

Errata: Obituary Notices of Fellows Deceased

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Biology 3

Agriculture

Biology

NOTICE TO THE BINDER . In this Volumne the following pages are to be cancelled:-Pages 83 , 227 & 228 , 275 & 276 , 457 , 491 , 519 & 520 . The Plate to Dr. Beale 's Paper , p. 386 , is Plate III .

111986

3701662

A General Catalogue of Nebulae and Clusters of Stars for the Year 1860.0, with Precessions for 1880.0. [Abstract]

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. F. W. Herschel

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Astronomy

Biography

Astronomy

III . " A General Catalogue of Nebulxe and Clusters of Stars for the Year 1860'0 , with Precessions for 1880 0 " . By Sir J. F. W. HERSCHEL , Bart. , F.R.S. Received Oct. 16 , 1863 . ( Abstract . ) This Catalogue contains all the nebulue and clusters of stars which its compiler has been able to find anywhere described , and identified in posi . tion sufficiently to warrant their inclusion , with exception of a few which , having been observed by Lacaille or others with telescopes of very small power , have been obviously nothing but insignificant groups of small stars indistinctlv-seen . The number , of objects comprised in it is 5078 , including -1st . 2508 nebuln and clusters described by the late Sir Wm. I-lersehel in his Catalogues of Nebulse communicated to the Royal Society . 2ndly . Those comprised in the lists published by Messier , discovered by himself , Mairan , Oriani , and others , to the number of 102 . 3rdly . Those contained in M. Auiwers 's list of " New Nebulae " ( Verzeichniss nieuer Nebelflecke ) at the end of his Catalogue of Sir Wm. Ieerschel 's nebulee ( about 50 in number ) , and those few of Lacaille 's nebule which seem entitled to be regarded as such from the description given of then . 4thly . A great many nebulae pointed out by Lord Rosse in his paper in Phil. Trans. 1861 , their places bei'g inidicatec with sufficient probable precision to low of 'their being re-observed and idenitified . 5thly . 125 Inew nebulue obligingly commuunicated by M. D'Arrest , of his own discovery , for inclusion in this -Catalogue ; and some few others ( some very remarkable ones ) collected from various sou-rees , as announiced from time to time by their respective discoverers . And 6thly . 15 nebule not before described , communcated by Professor Bond , which are included in a small supplementary list . The remainder will be found described and their places ( reduced to 1830 ) given in the Catalogue of Nebulue and Clusters communiicated to the Royal Society by the compiler in 1833 , and in his ' Results of Astronomlcal Observations at the Cape of Good Hope , ' published in 1847 . The places of the objects containied in the present Catalogue were in the first instance brought up by its compiler to the coimon epoch ( 1830 ) , availing himnself , so far as respects the nebulae of Sir Wm. Herschel 's catalogues , of a reduction to 1800 of all the individual observations of each nebula , by his sister the late Miss Caroline Herschel , which reduction , arranged in the form of a catalogue in zones , together with the originals of all the " ' sweeps " in which the observations are contained , and a synoptic register of those of each niebula in separate sheets for reference , withother origin al papers elucidatory of the above-mentioned documents , as well as the whole series of Sir Win . I-erschel 's observations of Messier 's nebule , accompany this communication for future reference . In order , however , to renider the catalogue so compiled available for future observation , it was con1sidered desirable to bring the whole up to a later epoch . The computations necessary for this purpose being very extensive and of a nature to be safely entrusted to other hands , the Royal Society , on the application of the compiler , readily and most liberally consented to supply the funds for defraying the necessary expense of this operation . On consultation with the Astronomer Royal , it was resolved that the places having been first roughly brought up to 1860 , the places so obtainied should be used to compute the precessions for 1880 , 6y the aplication of which to the original places the final and exact places for 1860 should be obtained and entered up . This will secure the availability for the use of observations , of the present Catalogue , without fear of material error up to the year 1930 at least . The actual computation was executed by Mr. Kerschner , one of the computists employed at the Royal Observatory , the Astronomer Royal kindly undertaking the arrangement and supervision of the work . The computations were made on printed forms , and are preserved for reference . The Catalogue is arranged in general order of right ascension-in columns , containing a current general number , four columns of synonyms and references to the original authorities ; the right ascension , precession in R.A. , and the number of observations on which this element relie 's ; . a similar set of columns for the North Polar distance , and a brief . description , in abbreviaited language , of the object , deduced from a careful comparison inter se of all the descriptions given in the original observations . Lastly , are appended two columns , the one containing the total number of times the object has been seen by Sir Win . Herschel and by the author of the present paper ; the other , references to a series of notes annexed at the end of the Catalogue , and to a general list of places where engraved figures of the objects will be found . The notes so appended contain remarks on every particular brought under discussion as affecting the evidence on which the adopted places rest , and whatever else may be considered requiring explanation in reference to each object . In particular they give the results of a very careful comparison of the present Catalogue with the elaborate catalogue ( for 1830 ) of M. Auwers , already mentioned , of the existence of which the compiler was not aware till the whole of the computations had been completed and the present Catalogue arranged and copied out . This comparison has led to the detection ( as might very reasonably be expected ) of several instances of mistaken identification of stars of comparison , and some few of numerical error , and has so far resulted in the expurgation and improvement of both catalogues . A general list of figured nebulse , with references to the works in which the figures are to be found , and lists of errata and corrections discovered in the various works consulted , concludes the work .

111987

3701662

Note on Kinone

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A. W. Hofmann

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Chemistry 2

Tables

Chemistry

IV . " 1 Note on Kinone . " By A. W. HorMANN , LL. D.T F.R.S. Received June 23 , 1863 . The easy 'and perfect transformation of beta-phenylene-diamine into kinione , which I have pointed ouLt in a former communication , has induced me to examine the action of oxidizing agents upon other derivatives of the phenyl-series . Aniline , when submitted to the action of a mixture of peroxide of manganese and sulphuric acid , furnishes very appreciable quiantities of kinone , which sublimes , the residue containing the sulphates of ammonium and manganese . C6 H7 N +02 Co 14 02+ H3 N. Aniline . Kinone . This equation represenits , however , only one phase of the reactioni . The result , in a measure , depends upon the mode of experimenting : one part of aniline , four parts of peroxide of manganese , and four parts of stulphuric acid diluted with its own bulk of water were found to be appropriate proportions . But the amount of kiinone is always limited , the greater portion of the aniline undergoing further alterations . The experiment succeeds mtlch better with benzidine . Oni heat'ing the mixture of this base with the oxidizingc agents , torrents of kinone are instantaneously evolved , which Condense in the receiver into magnificent yellow needles . The quantity of kinone thus obtained corresponds to the amount of benzidine employed . C12H1 N2+N 1120+03=2 14 0+2 I-13 N. Beizidine . Kinone . The transformation of aniline into kinonie , very natutially suggested the idea of examining the behaviour of these two bodies with onie another . The reddish-brown liquid obtained by dissolving kinone in aniili ie very rapidly solidifies into a crystalline mass . The crystalline product of the reaction proved to be insoluble in water , alcohol , and ethler , and several solvents which I tried , so that purification by crystallizationi became inipossible ; it was therefore found to be convenient to accomplish the reaction in the presence of a large quantity of boiling alcohol . The brown liquid deposits on cooling reddish brown almost inetal-lstrous scales , which by washing with cold alcohol become perfectly pure . The analysis of this substance shows that it has the following composition.(Co 11 , ) . , 18 E14N 02 ? 3 ( Co 112 02 ) " }Nx 1-12 ) The complementary product of the reaction was discovered without difficulty in the mother-liquor of the reddish-brown crystals . The saline residue which is lcft on evaporating this liquid with h-ydrochloric acid , is a mixture of hydrochlorate of aniline and hydrrokinone . They are easily separated by treatment with ether , which dissolves the hydrokinione , leaving the aniline-salt as an insoluble residue . The ethereal solution , when evaporated , yields colourless needles of hydrokinone possessing all the characteristic properties which distinguish this remarkable body . Addition of ferric chloride to their aqueous solution produces at olnce the green prisms , with goldeln lustre of the intermediate hydrokinone . The action of kinone upon aniline is therefore represented by the following equation:2C6 i-I7N+3 CB 614O2=C1 is14N2 ? 2+2C , 11 ? 02 Aniline . Kinone . Brown crystals . I-Tydroliinone . The study of this reaction has induced me to repeat an experiment mentioned by M. Hesse in his beautiful researches on the kinione group* . By submitting aniline to the action of chloranile ( tetrachlorkinonie ) , M. IlHesse has obtainied a compound crystallizing in reddish-brown scales , the general properties of which resemble those of the kinone derivative above described . The composition of the compouind form-ed with chlor . anile M. Ilesse represents by the formula ( C'6 115 ) , 1C 42 112 1 014 04N15:= ( C6 Cl 2 02)"12 N5_ I cannot confirm this somewhat complicated expression . In studying the action of chloranile upon aniline , I have observed all the phenomena described by M. Iesse : the compound formed had all the properties which lbe assigns to it , but was found on analysis to contain about 2 per cent. of carbon less than he had observed . The substance examined by me contained ( C6 1_15)21 C18 11 12 Cl2N2 02= ( C6 Cl2 02 ) " N2 1-12 J This is the formula of the kinone derivative with two atoms of hydrogen replaced by chlorine . The action of chloranile on aniline is therefore , in a measure , analogous to that of kinone . 4C 6117 N+C 6C C140 2= C18E112 C12N2 02+ 2 C6 7 N , HC1 Aniline . Chloranile . Ilydrochlorate of aniline . The formula which I propose to substitute for that of M. Ilesse is mioreover supported by the result obtained in studying the deportment of chloraniile under the influence of ammonia . This gives rise to the formation of chloranilamide discovered by Laurentt , and represented by the formula ( CO C12 02 ) " C ? ? 114 Cl2 N2 02= H2 N 2 . H }2N I have ascertained that toluidine furnishes , both with kinone and chloranile , anialogous compounds . The higher percentage of carbon observed by M. Hesse may possibly find a satisfactory explanation in the contamination with toluidine of the aniline which has served for his experiments . Commercial aniline invariably contains more or less toluidine .

111988

3701662

Researches on Colouring Matters Derived from Coal-Tar.--I. On Aniline-Yellow

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A. W. Hofmann

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Chemistry 2

Biography

Chemistry

V. " Researches on Colouring Matters derived from Coal-tar . L. On Aniline-yellow . " By A. W. HOFMANN , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received June 29 , 1863 . In a short paper submitted to the Royal Society in the commencement of last year , I have described a few experiments on the remarkable new colouring matters derived from aniline , which of late have attracted such general attention . This paper had more particularly reference to anilinecrimson , the industrial production of which , in the hands of Mr. E. Nicholson , has reached so high a degree of perfectionl that the analysis of this compound and of its numerous salts presented no serious difficulty . But the problem was not solved by establishing the formula of rosaniline and its salts : by far the more important obstacles remained to be conquered ; the molecular constitutioni of rosaniline , on which at that time I had not evenl been able to offer any hypothesis , and the genesis of this well-defined triamine from aniline , had still to be traced . Since that time considerable progress has been made towards the solution of this problem . Some of the latest observations which I have had the honour of submitting to the Royal Society will doubtless help to untie this knot . Nevertheless many doubtful points still remain to be cleared up , and I found it desirable for the better elucidation of the subject to investigate simultaneously several of the other artificial organic colouring matters , in order to trace if possible arnalogies of composition and constitution in these substances , which , it was reasonable to hope , would throw some light upon the principal subject of the inquiry . The present moment appeared to be particularly appropriate for an investigation of this kind . The International Exhibition has brought together a collection of these new bodies , such as no other occasion could possibly have assembled in one place and at one time , displaying in a remarkable malner the rapidity with which the industry of our time assimilates and , in many cases , anticipates the results of pure science . I have commenced the study of a few of the , new colouring matters which several of the distinguished exhibitors of these compounds have placed at my disposal-a study which has beeni greatly facilitated by the zeal and experimental skill of a young chemist , Dr. A. Geyger , who has assisted me in these experiments . Owing to the number of these substances , and in some cases the dffiiculties of the reactions to be disentangled , some time must elapse before their investigation can be finished , and I therefore beg leave to submit to the Royal Society the results of these researches as they present themselves . These Notes must necessarily be of a somewhat fragmentary character ; but I hope to collect the results thus gradually accumulating , and to lay them before the Royal Society in more logical order and a more elaborated form . I begin the account of this series of experiments with the description of a yellow colouring matter which is obtainied as a secondary product in the manufacture of rosaniline . Chry8aniline.-It is well known that even in the most successful operation , and whatever the process of preparation may be , the rosaniline produced is only a small percentage of the aniline employed . Together with the crimnson-colour a large proportion of a resinous substance of feebly basic properties is formed , the generally ill-defined characters of which have hitherto baffled all attempts at a thorough investigation , This mixture contains nevertheless several individual compounds , which may be extracted with boiling water , and subsequently separated by treatment with reagents . Mr. E. C. Nicholson has thus isolated a magnificent yellow colouring matter . Considerable quantities of this interesting body , Mr. Nicholson with his usual liberality has placed at my disposal , for which my best thanks are due to him . The yellow colouring matter , for which , on account of the splendid golden-yellow tint it imparts to wool and silk , and in order to record its origin , I propose the name of chrysaniline , presents itself in the form of a finely divided yellow powder , closely resembling freshly precipitated chromate of lead , perfectly uncrystalline , scarcely soluble in water , which it just colours , easily soluble in alcohol and in ether . This compound is a welldefined organic base , which forms with the acids two series of crystallized saline compounds . The most characteristic salts of chrysaniline are the nitrates , more especially the mononitrate , which is difficultly soluble in water , and crystallizes with facility . It was from this compound , purified by half a dozen crystallizations , that I prepared the chrysaniline foranalysis . An aqueous solution of the pure nitrate decomposed with ammonia yields the chrysaniline in a state of perfect purity . The analysis of this substance , dried at 1000 , has furnished results which may be translated into the formula C20 H137 N3 . This expression is corroborated by the examination of several salts , more especially the beautiful compound which this base produces with hydrochloric acid . Hydrochlorate of Chrysaniline.-Oni adding concentrated hydrochloric acid to a solutioni of chrysaniline in the dilute acid , a scarlet crystalline precipitate is produced , coinsisting of minute scales very soluble in water , less soluble in alcohol , almost insoluble in ether . These crystals constitute the diacid chloride of chrysaniline , C20 I174 N2 , 2E1C1 . Under conditions not yet sufficiently defined , this substance is precipitated with water of crystallizationi as c20 1117 N3 , 21I01+1 2 O ? For analysis these salts were dried at 1000 or 120 ? , at which temnperature they remain quite unlchaniged . When heated more stronigly they lose hydrochloric acid . When the diacid chloride is maintained for a fortnight between 1600 and 180 ? , the weight of the salt again becomes constant . The residuary yellow crystalline powder , differing from the original hydrochlorate only by its somewhat diminished solubility in water , was by analysis found to be the pure monacid hydroeblorate of chrysalniline , c 20 1117 N31 1-C 1 . The crystalline compounds which chrysaniline forms with hydrobromie acid and hydriodic acid are perfectly analogous to the salts produced by hydrochloric acid . I have not analyzed them . The nitrates of chry8aniline are the fiinest salts of this base ; these compounds crystallize with the utmost facility in ruby-red needles , which are remarkably insoluble in water . A dilute solution of nitric acid ( 1 grm. of HNO3 in a litre of water ) , when mixed with moderately dilute solutions of the chloride , yields immediately a crystalline precipitate , so that soluble chrysaniline salts might be used as a test for nitric acid . For the same reason nitric acid is conveniently employed in separating chrysaniline from the crude liquid obtained by boiling out the secondary products of the manufacture of rosaniline . Nevertheless the preparation of the nitrates presents uniusual difficulties , and I have lost much time in endeavouring to fix the conditions under which the monacid and the diacid salts may be separately produced . On boiling an excess of free chrysaniline with dilute nitric acid , a solution is obtained depositing , on cooling , needles which are the mononitrate , C00 1117 N , 31N03 , in a state approaching purity . On pouring the solution of this salt into cold concentrated nitric acid , a salt is at once precipitated which crystallizes in ruby-red prisms very similar to ferricyalnide of potassium , and constitutes the nearly pure dinitrate , 20 1117 3 ( I-IN03)2 . But here also analysis exhibits slight discrepanicies , indicating the presence of traces of theformer compouind . By treatment with water the dinitrate gradually loses its nitric acid , and after two or three crystallizations it is converted into the mononitrate . The sulphate is very soluble , scarcely crystalline . The platinum-salt is a splendid scarlet crystalline precipitate , which , from hot and rather dilute solutions containing much free hydrochloric acid , is often deposited in very fine and large plates . All my attempts to obtain this substance in a state of purity have failed . The platinum percentages vary with every new preparation , indicating the formation of a monochloroplatinate and a dichloroplatinate , combining with more or less water of crystallization . The composition of chrysaniline places this substance in immediate juxtaposition with rosanilinie and leucaniline . These three triamines simply differ by the amount of hydrogen which they contain . Chrysaniiline. . C20 17 N3 Rosaniliie ... . C.20 I-Jo19 N3 Loucaniline.020 " 21 N3 . Chrysanilline is monacid or diacid ; rosaniline monacid or triacid , but with essentially monacid predilections ; leucaniline forms exclusively triatomic compounds . The formula of chrysaniline suggests the possibility of transforming this substance into rosaniline and leucaniline , or of producing chrysaniline from rosanililne or leucaniiline . Up to the present moment this transformationi bas not been experimiientally accomplished . The constitution and genesis of chrysaniline remaini to be made out .

111989

3701662

Researches on the Colouring Matters Derived from Coal-Tar.--II. On Aniline-Blue

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Chemistry 2

Biography

Chemistry

VI . " Researches on the Colouring Matters derived from Coal-tar . II . On Aniline-blue . " By A. W. HOFMIANN , LL. D. , F.P.S. Received June 30 , 1863 . Among the several stages which mark the development of the industry of coal-tar colours , the discovery of the transformation of anilitnc-red into aniline-blue will always hold a prom-inent position . This transition , for the first time observed by MM . Girard and De Laire * , two young French chemists of M. Pelouze 's Laboratory , and subsequenltly matured by M. Persoz , De Laynes , and Salvetatt , has become the foundation of an enlormous industrial production , which , having received a powerful impulse by MM . Relnard Brothers and Franic in France , and more recently by Messrs. Simpson , Maule , and Nicholson in this country , has rapidly attained to proportions of colossal magniitude . The transformation of aniline-red into anililne-blue is accomplished by a process of great simplicity , and consists , briefly expressed , in the treatment at a high temperatuLre of rosaniline with an excess of anililne . The mode of this treatment is by no means indifferent . Rosaniiline itself cannot in this malner colnveniently be converted into the blue colouring matter ; the transformation is , however , easily accoimplished by heating rosaniline salts with aniiline , or , vice versa , rosaniline with salts of aniline . Again , the nature of the acids with which the bases are combined is by no means without influence upon the result of the operation ; manufacturers give a decided preferenice to organic acids , such as acetic or benizoic acids . The production of the new colouring matter on a very large scale has already elicited a good , deal of most valuable information regarding the phenomena which characterize the transition of rosaniline into its blue derivative ; again , the several processes of purification to which the crude product is submitted have throwln much light upon the chemical character of the compound . MM . Girard and De Laire , whose names are so intimately associated with the development of the new colour-industry , have pointed out that the passage from red to blue is attended by an evolution of torrents of ammonia ; and Mr. Nicholson , who combines the genius of the manufacturer with the habits of the scientific inquirer , has ascertained that the blue colouring matter is invariably a saline compound of a base itself colourless , like rosaniline . But the relations between the two colourless bases , and consequently the nature of the reaction by which rosaniline is converted into the blue colouring matter , had hitherto remailled unknown . It was therefore with great pleasure that I accepted the kind offer of my friend Mr. Nicholson to supply me with the necessary materials for the elucidation of this question . The salt transmitted to me , and which Mr. Nicholson had prepared himself , was the chloride . IHydrochlorate.-This compound is an indistinctly crystalline powder of a bluish-brown colour , which at 100 ? becomes pure brown . It is perfectly insoluble in water , cold or boiling-so much so , indeed , that it imparts no colour to the water with which it is washed . It is likewise insoluble in ether , but dissolves , although with difficulty , in alcohol , which assumes the magnificent deep-blue tint characteristic of this colouring matter . The boiling saturated alcoholic solutioni deposits the chloride on cooling in the form of imperfect crystalline granules . The alcoholic solution , when evaporated , leaves the compound as a thin film , which reflects the light with a peculiar metallic , half-golden , half-coppery lustre . The hydrochlorate has the same composition whether dried in vacuo or at 1000 . Several analyses made with specimens of different preparations lead unmistakably to the expressioni 38,2N3 Cl. This formula containis the history of aniline-blue , pointing out as it does not only its chemical character and the relation in which it stailds to rosaniline , but explaining also , in the most satisfactory manner , the reaction by which the passage fromred to blue is accomplished . The simple and natural interpretationi of the formula which I have giveu . , exhibits the new compound in the light of the hydrochlorate of triphenylic rosaniline 8 , 038 1132 3 Cl-C20 16 ( C6 115)3 N3 , 110 when the process of transformation becomes represented by the equation 20 19 N3 , HC1 +3 C6 7N= C20 116 ( C6 11)3 N3 , 1C1 3-1,3 N. Rosaniline-salt . Aniline . Salt of triphenylic rosaniline . Ammnonia . ' The relation between aniliuie-red and aniline-blue is already pointed out in a short note submitted to the Royal Society a few weeks ago.-A . W. H. Free Base.-The separation of the base from the hydrochlorate presents no difficulty . This salt dissolves in alcoholic ammonia , giving rise to a wille-yellow solution . This liquid contains the base in the free state , together with chloride of ammnorium . On ebullition the blue colour reappears , the salt being reproduced with evolution of ammonia . Addition of water , on the other hand , produces a white or greyish precipitate , consisting of triphenylic rosaniline . The best mode of procuring this compound in a state fit for analysis is to pour the concelntrated solution of the hydrochlorate in ammoniacal alcohol into water , when the base separates as a curdy mass which soon collects upon the surface of the liquid . During the process of washing , and especially of drying , even in vacuo , the greyish powder gradually assumes a blue tint . The vacuum-dry substance , when exposed to 1000 , assumes a deep brown colour , which it retains on cooling ; at 100 ? it slightly fuses , but does not change weight . Triphenylic rosaniline shows a tendency to crystallize , but hitherto I have not been able to obtain it in distinct crystals . The solution in alcohol and also in ether ( which dissolves the base with the greatest facility ) have , even on spontanieous evaporation , deposited the base in the form of an almost amorphous residue . Analysis assigns to this base the composition which corresponds to that of the hydrochlorate previously examined , nlamely C38 133 3 20 16 ( CG 615)3 N3 , H12 0 Triphenylic rosaniline is thus seen to separate from its salinie combinations in the state of hydrate , exactly like rosaniline itself . I have endeavoured to obtain further confirmation of these results by the analysis of several salts of triphenylic rosaniline . These salts were invariably prepared by treatmenit of the free base with the free acids . They resemble in their properties the hydrochlorate-so much so , indeed , that they could not possibly be distinguished without analysis . The nitrate is perhaps a little more , the sulphate a little less soluble in alcohol than the hydrochlorate . The following salts were submitted to analysis : Hydrobromate . C38 H32 N3 Br =C20 H116 ( C H6)3 N3 , N IBr . IHydriodate . 038 132 N3I =C20 1110 ( C6 115 ) N3 , III Nitrate . C38 1132 N4 03 = 20 1116 ( C6 H1)3 N3 , H1N03 . Sulphate . C76 1 64 NO SO _C20 I1 ( CO 115)3 N3 1 -I IS C I-INS76 64 64 C20 51 ( C6 11)3 N3 3 II I Rosaniline , it will be remembered , forms , in additioni to its ordinary monatomic compouindls , a series of triatomic salts , which are more soluble and comparatively colourless . I have vainly endeavoured to prepare similar compounds with the triphenylic derivative of rosaniline . Action of r educing agents upon Triphenylic Rosaniline.-Remembering the facility with which rosaniline is attacked by reducing agents , and the valuable help which the exa -ination of the leucaniliine thus produced afforded in establishing the formula of rosaniiline , I was led to study the deportment of the triphenylic derivative under similar circumstances . This substance indeed is readily reduced both by nascent hydrogenl and by sul phide of ammonium . The alcoholic solution of the chloride , when left in contact with zinc and hydrochloric acid , is rapidly decolorized . The clear liquid when mixed with water yields a white , scarcely crystalline precipitate , which may be freed from chloride of zinc by washing , and separated from accidenital impurities by solution in ether , in which it is easily soluble . If the reductioni be effected by siilphide of ammonium , the product is apt to be contaminated with sulphur and secondary products . In this case the separation has to be accomplished by treating the crude mass obtained in the reaction with bisulphide of carbon , which dissolves both the sulphur and the product of the reduction , leaving behind a brown resinlous substance , the nature of which is not yet investigated . The mixture remaining after the evaporationi of the bisulphide of carbon is repeatedly boiled with soda , which dissolves the sulphur ; the residuary compound is then finally purified by solution in ether , from which it is deposited onspolntaneous evaporation in the form of a friable resin . Unfortunately this compound is no longer basic , so that it was impossible to combine it with acids ; but its combustion has furnished nuLmbers agreeing exactly with the composition assigned to it by theory , namely C30H , N-=C0 ills ( Co 1Ii5 ) , N,3 . 38 I33 3= 20 E8(d533 The compound accordingly is triploenylic leucaniline . It will be observed that the triphenylic derivative , like leucaniline -itself , is anhydrous-a constancy of behaviour in the normal and derived compounds which has already been pointed out in the case of rosaniline and its phenylic derivative . Under the influence of oxidizing agents , the hydrogenetted body is rapidly reconverted into the cow-pound from which it has been obtained . The experiment succeeds best with platinum-chloride . The colourless solution of triphenylic leucaniline , when boiled with a few drops of dichloride of platinum , inmmediately assumes the splenldid blue colour which distinguishes the salts of the non-hydrogenletted base . The transformation of aniline-red into aniline-blue possesses a variety of initerests . A lively imagination might feel tempted to speculate oln the relation between colour and composition ; but there are other questions claiming more immediately the attention of the expecrinmentalist . Up to the present monment chemists were uliacquainted with a method of phenylation . The chloride , bromide , and iodide of the phenyl-series have been but imperfectly studied ; but we are sufficiently acquainted with them to know that they are far from possessing the plastic character of the corresponding compounds of the methyland ethyl-series , which confers such value upon these stubstances as agents of research . We are unable to substitute phenyl for hydrogen by processes borrowed from the experience gathered in experimenting with the ordinary alcohols . Diphenylamine and triphenylamiine are substances existing at present only in the conception of the chemist . It was reserved for the peculiar , I might almost say instinctive mode of experimenting belonging to industry to fill up this blank . The transformation of rosaniline into aniline-blue suggests some other questions which must not altogether remain unnoticed here , although I hope to enter more fully into this subject elsewhere . Does this transformation simply involve an interchange between the hydrogen and pheniyl atoms , or does the rosaniliine molecule lose ammonia , which is replaced by aniline ? I do not pretend to answer this question ; but I beg leave to record some experiments as materials towards the solution of the problem . Methlylie , Eithylic , and Arnylic Derivatives of Rosaniline . The interpretation of the results delineated in the previous pages legitimately suggested the study of the behaviour of rosaniline under ordinary processes of substitution-in other words , the treatment of this base with the iodides of methyl , ethyl , and amyl . I will not describe the pleasure with which I observed the intense blue colour of the mixture of rosaniline with these iodides when , after a day 's digestion , I took the sealed glass tubes from the boiler . The action of iodide of methyl and ethyl is readily accomplished at 100 ? C. ; iodide of amyl requires a temperature of from 1500 to 1600 . The presence of alcohol facilitates the reaction . Up to the present moment I have only examined in detail the action of iodide of ethyl . The product of this action is an iodide which dissolves with a magnificent blue colour in alcohol . The tinctorial powers of this solution are scarcely inferior to that of rosanliline itself ; and industry will probably not disdain to utilize this latest indication of scienice . The blue ethylated derivative of rosaniline , as might have been expected , presents in its properties greater analogies with rosaniline itself than the triphenylic compounid . This analogy suggested difficulties in the separation of the two substances which it appeared better to avoid . The iodide produced by the reaction was therefore at once decomposed by soda , and the ethylic derivative , together with the unaltered rosanilinie , again suibmitted to the action of iodide of ethyl . After this process had been once more repeated , the alcoholic solution of the final product was precipitated by water , which separated a soft resin4like substance , solidifying OIn cooling with crystalline structure , and exhibiting a very peculiar metallic lustre intermediate between those presented by the sIts of rosaniline and of its phenylic derivative . Crystallization from dilute spirit furnished the iodide in the pure state . The results obtained in the combustion and iodine determination of this substalnce agree with the formula 28 s8 3 20 10 ( C2 5)3 32 3-5 3j showing that the frequent repetition of the process of ethylation had produced , not the hydriodate of triethylic rosaniline , but the ethyliodate of this substance , -a result which appeared particularly welcome , inasmuch as it threw at the same time considerable light upon the degree of substitution which belongs to rosaniline itself . The facts elicited by the study of the action of iodide of ethyl upon rosaniline open a new field of research , which promises a harvest of results . The question very naturally suggests itself , Whether the substitution for hydrogen in rosaniline of radicals other than methyl , ethyl , and amyl , may not possibly give rise to colours differing from blue ; and whether chemistry may not ultimately teach us systematically to build up colouring molecules , the particular tint of which we may predict with the same certainty with which we at present anticipate the boiling-point and other physical properties of the compounds of our theoreticalconceptions ? This idea appears to have floated in the mind of M. E. Kopp when , with remarkable sagacity , he concluded his paper on Aniline-red* in the following terms:- " The hydrogen of this substance being replaceable also by methyl , ethyl , and amyl , &c. , we may anticipate the existence of a numerous series of compounds , all belonging to the same type , and which might constitute colouring matters either red , or violet , or blue . " Conceptions which only two years ago appeared little more than a scientific dream , arepnow in the very act of accomplishment . I propose to continue these researches , and intend in a later communication to submit to the Royal Society the results obtained in the study of two other colouring matters derived from rosaniline , viz. anilinegreen and aniline-violet .

111990

3701662

Account of Magnetic Observations Made between the Years 1858 and 1861 Inclusive, in British Columbia, Washington Territory, and Vancouver Island. [Abstract]

14

15

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

R. W. Haig

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111990

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111990

Meteorology

Biography

Meteorology

I. " Account of Magnetic Observationis made between the years 1858 and 1861 inclusive , in British Columbia , Washington Territory , and Vancouver Island . " By Captain R. W. HAIG , R.A. Communicated by the President . Received November 4 , 1863 . ( Abstract . ) This paper contains the results of magnetic observations made between the years 1858 and 1861 inclusive , in British Columbia , Washington Territory , and Vancouver Island . The results are tabulated ; and from them the direction and position of the lines of equal dip , total force , and declination or variation are determined . Three maps at the end show the position of these lines , the stations of observation , and the observed values of the three magnetic elements at each station .

111991

3701662

On Plane Water-Lines. [Abstract]

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17

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. J. Macquorn Rankine

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111991

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111991

Fluid Dynamics

Biography

Fluid Dynamics

II . " On Plane Water-LDines . " By W. J. MACQUORN RANKINE , C.E. , LL. LD . , F.R.SS . L. & E. , Assoc. Inst. N.A. , &c. Received July 28 , 1863 . ( Abstract . ) 1 . By the term " Plane Water-Line " is meant one of those curves which a particle of a liquid describes in flowing past a solid body when such flow takes place in plane layers . Such curves are suitable for the water-lines of a ship ; for during the motion of a well-formed ship , the vertical displacements of the particles of water are small , compared with the dimensions of the ship ; so that the assumption that the flow takes place in plane layers , though not absolutely true , is sufficiently near the truth for practical purposes * . 2 . The author refers to the researches of Professor Stokes ( Camb . Traiis . 1842 ) , " On the Steady Motion of an Incompressible Fluid , " and of Pro* As water-line curves have at present no single word to designate them in mathematical language , it is proposed to call them Neoids , from vn 's , the Ionic genitive of vavs . fessor William Thomson ( made in 1858 , but not yet published ) , as containing the demonstration of the general principles of the flow of a liquid past a solid body . 3 . Every figure of a solid , past which a liquid is capable of flowing smoothly , generates an endless series of water-lines , which become sharper in their forms as they are more distanit from the primitive water-line of the solid . The only exact water-linies whose forms have hitherto been completely investigated , are those generated by the cylinder in two dimensions , and by the sphere in three dimensions . In addition to what is already known of those lines , the author points out that , when a cylinder moves through still water , the orbit of each particle of water is one loop of an elastic curve . 4 . The profiles of waves have been used with success in practice as waterlines for ships , first by Mr. Scott Russell ( for the explanation of whose system the author refers to the Transactions of the Institution of Naval Architects for 1860-62 ) , and afterwards by others . As to the frictional resistance of vessels having such lines , the author refers to his own papers -one read to the British Association in 1861 , and printed in various engineering journals , and another read to the Royal Society in 1862 , and printed in the Philosophical Tralnsactions . Viewed as plane water-lines , however , the profiles of waves are not exact , but approximate ; for the " solitary wave of translation , " investigated experimentally by Mr. Scott Russell ( Reports of the British Association , 1844 ) , and mathematically by Mr. Earnshaw ( Camb . Trans. 1845 ) , is strictly applicable to a channel of limited dimensions only , and the trochoidal form belongs properly to an endless series of waves , whereas a ship is a solitary body . 5 . The author proceeds to investigate and explain the properties of a class of water-lines comprising an endless variety of forms and proportions . In each series of such lines , the primitive water-line is a particular sort of oval , characterized by this property , that the ordinate at any point of the oval is proportional to the angle between two lines drawn from that point to two foci . Ovals of this class differ from ellipses in being considerably fuller at the ends and flatter at the sides . 6 . The length of the oval may bear any proportion to its breadth , from equality ( when the oval becomes a circle ) to inifinity . 7 . Each oval generates an endless series of water-lines , which become sharper in figure as they are further from the oval* . In each of those derived lilnes , the excess of the ordinate at a given point above a certain minimum value is proportional to the angle between a pair of lines drawn from that point to the two foci . 8 . There is thus an endless series of ovals , each generating anl endless series of water-lines ; and amongst those figures , a continuous or " fair " cturve can always be found combining any proportion of length to breadth , from equality to infinity , with any degree of fullness or filnelness of entrance , from absolute bluffniess to a knife-edge . 9 . The litnes thus obtained present striking likenesses to those at which naval architects have arrived ugh practical experience ; and every successful model in existing vessels can be closely imitated by means of them . 10 . Any series of water-lines , including the primitive oval , are easily and quickly constructed with the ruler and compasses . 11 . The author shows how to construct two algebraic curves traversing certain important points in the water-lines , which are exactly similar for all water-lines of this class . One is a rectanigular hyperbola , having its vertex at the end of the oval . It traverses all the points at which the motion of the particles , in still water , is at right angles to the water-lines . The other is a curve of the fourth order , having two branches , one of which traverses a series of points , at each of which the velocity of gliding of the particles of water along the water-line is less than at any other point on the same water-line ; while the other branch traverses a series of points , at each of which the velocity of gliding is greater than at any other point on the same water-line . 12 . A certain point in the second branch of that curve divides each series of water-lines into two classes , -those which lie within that point having three points of minimum and two of maximum velocity of gliding , while every water-line which passes through or beyond the same point has only two points of minimum and one of maximum velocity of gliding . Hence the latter class of lines cause less commotion in the water than the former . 13 . On the water-line which traverses the point of division itself , the velocity of gliding changes more gradually than on any other water-line having the same proportion of length to breadth . Water-lines possessing this character can be constructed with any proportion of length to breadth , from 4/ 3 ( which gives an oval ) to infinity . The finer of those lines are found to be nearly approximated to by wave-lines , but are less hollow at the bow than wave-lines are . 14 . The author shows how horizontal water-lines at the bow , drawn according to this system , may be combined with vertical plane lines of motion for the water at the stern , if desired by the naval architect . 15 . In this , as in every system of water-lines , a certain relation ( according to a principle first pointed out by Mr. Scott Russell ) must be preserved between the form and dimensions of the bow and the maximum speed of the ship , in order that the appreciable resistance may be wholly frictional and proportional to the square of the velocity ( as the experimental researches of Mr. J. R. Napier and the author have shown it to be in wellformed ships ) , and may not be augmented by terms increasing as the fourth and higher powers of the velocity , through the action of vertical disturbances of the water .

111992

3701662

On the Degree of Uncertainty Which Local Attraction, If Not Allowed for, Occasions in the Map of a Country, and in the Mean Figure of the Earth as Determined by Geodesy: A Method of Obtaining the Mean Figure Free from Ambiguity, from a Comparison of the Anglo-Gallic, Russian, and Indian Arcs: And Speculations on the Constitution of the Earth's Crust. [Abstract]

18

19

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. H. Pratt

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111992

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111992

Astronomy

Fluid Dynamics

Astronomy

III . 'On the degree of uncertainty which Local Attraction , if not allowed for , occasions in the Map of a Country , and in the mean figure of the Earth as deternmined by Geodesy : a method of obtaining the mean figure free from ambiguity , from a comparison of the Anglo-Gallic , Russian , and Indian Arcs : and speculations on the Constitutioni of the Earth 's Crust . " By the Venerable J. H. PRATT , Archdeacon of Calcutta . Communicated by Professor STOKES , Sec. R.S. Received Oct. 5 , 1863 . ( Abstract . ) After referring to a former paper in which he had shown that , in the Great Indian Arc of meridian , deflections of the plumb-linie amounting to as much as 20 " or 30 " would be produced if there were no sources of compensation in variations of deiisity berneath the surface of the earth , and after alluding to a remarkable local deflection which M. Otto Struve had discovered in the neighbourhood of Moscow , the author proceeds to consider , in the first instance , the effect of local attraction in mapping a country according to the method followed by geodesists , in which differences of latitude and longitude are determined by means of the measured lengths of arcs , by substituting these lengths and the observed middle latitudes in the known trigonometrical formulm , using the mean figure of the earth , although the actual level surface may di er from that belonging to the mean figure in consequelnce of local attraction . he concludes that no sensible error is thus introduced , eitherin latitude or longitude , if the arC do not exceed 121j ' of latitude or 150 of longitude in extent , but that the position of the map thus formed on the terrestrial spheroid will be uncertain to the extent of the deflection due to local attractioni at the station used for fixing that position . In the Great Indiani Arc this displacement might amount to half a mile if the deflections were as great as those calculated from the attraction of the mountains and the defect of attractionl of the ocean , irrespective of subjacent variations of denisity ; but the author shows in the next two sections that some cause of compensation exists which would rarely allow the actual uncertainty to be of any considerable amount , unless the station used for fixing the map were obviously situated in a most disadvantageous position . The author then proceeds to examine the effect of local attractioni on the mean figure of the earth ' considering , more particularly the eight arcs which have been employed for the purpose in the volume of the British Ordnance Survey . I-e supposes the reference station of each arc to be affected to an unknown extent by local attractioni , and obtains formulae giving the elements of the mean figure obtained by combining the eight arcs , these formulae involving eight unknown constants expressing the deviations due to local attraction at each of the selected stations . By substituting reasonable values for the unknown deflections , he shows that local attraction s competent to affect the deduced mean figure to ai very sensible extent . He then institutes a comparison between the results afforded by those three of the eight arcs which are of considerable extent , namely , the AngloGallic , Russian , and Indian Arcs . For each arc in particular he deduces values of the principal semiaxes of the earth , involving an unknown constant expressing the effect of local attraction at the reference station of the arc . In order that the three pairs of semiaxes shouldagree , there are four equationis to be satisfied by means of three disposable quantities ( namely , the three unknown attractions ) . On combining these four equations by the method of least squares , the unknown deflections come out extremely small , and the values of each semiaxis deduced for the three arcs separately come out very nearly equal to one another , and therefore to their mean . These mean values the author ventures to assume are the mean semiaxes of the earth . They are as follows : a=20926180 , 6=20855316 feet , giving ? =295.3 where a is the equatorial , and 6 the polar semiaxis , and e the ellipticity . The author concludes with certain speculations respecting the constitution of the earth 's crust . On adopting the mean figure determined as above explained , the errors of latitude to be attributed to local attraction at each of the fifty-five stations of the eight arcs , which will be found at p. 766 of the Ordnance Survey volume , come out very small . With respect to the Great Indian Are , it is especially remarkable that the residual defiections are insignificant , while those calculated from the action of the causes visibly at work are considerable . It would seem as if some general cause were at work to increase the density under the ocean , and diminis'h the density under mountainous tracts of country . The author conceives that , as the earth cooled down from a state of fusion sufficiently to allow a permanent crust to be formed , those regions where the crust contracted became basins into which the waters ran , while regions where expansion accompanied solidification became elevated without any consequent increase in the total quantity of matter in a vertical column extending from the surface down to a given surface of equal pressure in the yet viscous mass below . The author considers that the deviations of latitude at the other principal stations of the measured arcs , if not positively confirmatory of , are at least not opposed to this view .

111993

3701662

On the Meteorological Results Shown by the Self-Registering Instruments at Greenwich during the Extraordinary Storm of October 30, 1863

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21

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

James Glaisher

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0010

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111993

10.1098/rspl.1863.0010

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111993

Meteorology

Agriculture

Meteorology

IV . " 'On the Meteorological Results shown by the Self-registering Instruments at Greenwich during the extraordinary Storm of October 30 , 1863 . " By JAMES GILAISHER , F.R.S. , F.R.A.S. , &c. Received November 23 , 1863 . In the vear 1841 Osler 's anemometer was erected at the Royal Observatory , Greenwich , and from that time , up to the year 1860 , the greatest pressure on the square foot recorded was 25 lbs. In February 1860 one of 28 lbs. was registered , which was the greatest up to October 30 of the present year ; on that day a pressure of no less than 291 lbs. took place c during a heavy squlall of wind and rain , which passed over the observatory at 3h . 30m . P.M. At this time , moreover , the readings of the several other self-registering meteorological instruments at the Royal Observatory , Greenwich , exhibited very large changes , and of so remarkable a character , that the Astronoimer Royal expressed a wish that I should bring them unLder the notice of the Royal Society . The following are extracts from the several registers of the day mentioned : At 6h . A.M. , on October 30 , the barometer read 29 32 in . , and it commenced falling slowly after this time , reaching 29 30 in . at 8h . A.M. The decrease then became more decided , and a steady fall was experienced 29 10 in . was reached by Okh . P.M. , and 28 96 in . by 2h . P.mi . ; from 2h . P.M. to 3bh . P.M. the decline was very rapid ; and the minimum reading , 28 80 in . , was reached at the latter time . After 3h . 30m . P.M. the barometer turned to increase rapidly ; at 3h . 39m . P.M. it read 28 85 in . ; at 4h . P.m. , 28 92 in . ; 4h . 20m . P.M. , 29 00 in . ; at 5h . P.M. , 29-07 in . ; and afterwards a gradual increase took place to 29 30 in . by 11h . P.M. At 8h . A.M. , with the first indications of decided barometric fall , the wind commenced to blow strongly from S.W. ; at 8b . 20m . A.M. it had reached a force of I lb. on the square foot ; shortly after , 2 lbs. , and at 8h . 30m . A.M. 3 lbs. A force of 1klb . to 3 lbs generally prevailed , till 9h . 25m . A.M. ; at 9h . 30m . A.M. a gust of short durationi was experienced of 15 lbs. , which produced a decline of temperature of 2 ? . From 9h . 35m . A.M. to 9h . 50M . A.M. the pressure of the wind varied between 3 lbs. and 5lbs . ; from 1 lb. to 3 lbs. from 9h1 . 59m . A.M. to Oh . 45m . P.M. ; there was no pressure for two or three minutes about Oh . 50m . P.m. ; the wind them again commenced blowing , strongly , reaching 4 lbs. at Oh . 55m . P.M. , and from 3 lbs. to 5 lbs. from lh . P.M. to lh . 15m . P.M. , the pressure was generally 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. from lh . 15m . P.M. to 2h . P.M. ; from 2h . Om . P.M. to 2h . 45m . P.M. it varied between 4 lb. and 2 lbs. ; the wind again commnenced blowing strongly , reached 3k lbs. at 2h . 50m . P.M. , 4 lbs. at 3h . P.M. , 5 lbs. at 3h . 1Gm . P.M. , 7 lbs. at 3h . 16m . P.M. , 12 lbs. at 3h . 20m . P.M. , 13 lbs. at 3h . 23m . P.M. , 11 lbs. at 3h . 2Gm . P.M. , 17 lbs. at 3h . 29ni . P.M. , and 292 lbs. at 3h . 30m . P.M. ; then declinied suddenly , pressing with forces varying between 6 lbs. and 9 lbs. from 3h . 35m . P.M. to 3h . 45m . P.M. , and 4 lbs. to 6 lbs. from 3h . 45m- . P.M. to 4h . P.M. ; another gust at 4h . 1OGm . P.M. reached 8 lbs. ; again declined to 4 lbs. at 4h . 15m . P.M. ; after this time , till 5h . P.M. , the pressure varied between 2 lbs. and 4 lbs. , betweeni 2 lbs. and 3 lbs. from 5h . P.ml . to 6h . P.M. , from k lb. to 2 lbs. ( with occasional lulls ) from 6h . P.M. to 7h . P.M. , from 2 lbs. to 4 lbs. from 7h . P.M. to 9h . P.M. ; scarcely any pressure was recorded between 9h . P.M. and lOh . P.M. , and from lOh . P.M. to 11h . P.M. the amnount varied between 1k lb. to 3 lbs. At the time of the great gust , viz. 3h . 30m . P.M. , the barometer reached its minimum , 28 80 in . ; the temperature declined rapidly ( from 53*k at 3h . 15m . P.M. to 46f by 4h , P.M. , and to 430 by 5h . P.M. ) ; and the direction of the wind immediately changed to the amount of 90 ? , following the direction of the sun , or from S.S.W. to W.N.W. At the Radcliffe Observatory , Oxford , the barometer-reading at 6h . A.M. was 29-18 in . , and decreased to 28 80 in . at 2h . 30Mm . ; it then suddenly increased to 28 85 in . at 211 . 35m . , and to 29 25 in . by 1 lh . P.M. At 2h . the direction of the wind was S. ; at 3h.:30m . it was W. , and continued W. till 4hi . 30m . , and then returned to S.W. by 5b . The temperature at 2h . was 5lV , declined to 430 at 2h . 30m . , and to 4lP by 5b . The general changes of temperature agree very closely with those at Greenlwich ; but , as in the case of the barometer , those at Oxford preceded those at Greenwich by one hour nearly . The general fact frequently nioticed of a chanlge in the direction of the winid simultaneously with a sudden and great pressure , and for the most part in one direction ( that is to say , in the direction of the sun 's motion , or N. to E. to S. ) , is very remarkable , and not easily accounlted for .

111994

3701662

Anniversary Meeting

21

42

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111994

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111994

Biography

Geography

Biography

GENTLEMEN , WHEN I had last the honour of addressing you at the Anniversary Meeting in 1862 , I acquainted you that a communication had been received by your President and Council from the Duke of Newcastle , Her Majesty 's principal Secretary of State for the Colonies , requesting the opinion of the Royal Society on the scientific importarnce of the results to be expected from the establishment of a Telescope of great optical power at Melbourne , in the Coloniy of Victoria , for the observation of the nebule and multiple stars of the Southern I-lemisphere . The communication was founded on a despatch from Sir Henry Barkly , K.C.B. , Governor of Victoria , soliciting on his own part and on that of the Visitors of the Melbournle Observatory , the opinion of the Royal Society on this subject , and also on the most suitable construction of the telescope , both as to the optical part and the mounting , its probable cost , and the time required for its completion . It had happened that in 1853 the Royal Society and the British Association had united in an earnest representation to Her Majesty 's Government of the scientific importance of establishing in some convelienit locality in I-Ier Majesty 's dominlions , from whence the southern nebule and multiple stars could be observed , a telescope of the requisite optical power ; and in a preparatory correspondence , which was printed at the time , and in which the principal persons interested in such researches had participated , the best form of telescope , its probable cost , and all particulars relating to it , had been largely discussed . The representation thus concurred in by the two principal scientific bodies of the United Kingdom was not successful in securing the desired object ; but the correspondence then printed was still fitted to supply in great measure in 1862 the information on which the President and Council could ground their reply . The discussion in 1853 had terminated in the appointment of a committee , consisting of the Earl of Rosse , Dr. Robinson , and Messrs. Lassell and Warren de la Rue , to suiperintend the construction of the telescope , in the event of the recommendation of the two Societies being favourably received . But as it was possible that the opinions previously entertained might have been in some degree modified by subsequent consideration or by more recent experience , the correspondence with those gentlemen was reopened , and their replies have formed a second correspondence , which , like the first , has been printed for the information of those Fellows of the Society who take a special interest in the subject . Availing themselves of these valuable communications , the President and Council replied to the Colonial Office by a report dated Decemlber 18 , 1862 . They have been since informed that copies of the report and of the corresponidence have been sent to Melbourne for the iniformationi of the gentlement with whom the proposition originated . It is quite possible that the thoughtful discussions embodied in the correspondence referred to nay be found to have a prospective value not limited to the occasion which has given rise to them . The considerations which apply to a telescope for the observation of the Southern Nebule at Melbourne are no less applicable to one which might be established on a site from whence a great part of the Southern Nebulh could also be obh served ( as well as those of our own hemisphere ) , but enijoying the immense advantage conferred by elevation into the higher and less dense strata of the atmosphere . Such sites are to be found in the Nilgiris at elevations of several thousand feet , combining also convenient accessibility and proximity to the resources of civilized life . It may be hoped that at some not distanit day the -subject will receive the consideration which it deserves from those who are entrusted with the governmenit of that now integral part of the British empire . 1-laving learnt that a series of pendulum experiments at the principal stations of the Great Russiani Arc were in contemplation , I availed myself of aln opportunity of informing M. Savitsch , by whom the operations were to be conducted , that the Invariable Pendulums which had beeni employed in the English experiments were now in the possession of the Royal Society , and , being unemploved , would , I was persuaded , be most readily lent by the Society on an application to that effect being made . The constants of these instruments , including the coefficient in the reduction to a vacuum , having been most carefully determined , they were ready , with the clocks and stands belonging to them , for immediate use , and would have the further advantage , that experiments made with them in Russia would be at once brought into direct connexion with the British series extending from 790 50 ' N. to 62 ? ? 561 S. latitude . The communication was most courteously received and replied to . It appeared , however , that a detached invariable pendulum had been already ordered by the Russian Government from M. Repsold , of Hamburg , shorter than the English pendulums for convenience in lalnd transport , and with two knife-edges and two fixed lenses , symmetrical in size and sh-ape but one light and the other heavy , and so arralnged that the times of vibration should be the same on either knife-edge in air of the same temperature and density . M. Savitsch expressed his desire to bring this pendulum in the first instance to Kew , and to secure thereby the connexion of his own with the English series , where also he would have the opportunity of testing the exactness of the correction for buoyancy by vibrating his pendulum on both its knife-edges in the vacuum-apparatus which is now established at Kew . It is much to be desired that a similar series of pendulum experiments to those about to be undertaken inL Russia should be made at the principal points of the Great Indian Arc ; and the steps which are understood to be in progress in providimg new inistruments for the verification of the astronomical and geodesical operations of the Trigolnometrical Survey of India , and to give them a still greater extension , would seem to present a most favourable opportunity for the combination of penidulum experiments . In such case the pendulums of the Royal Society might be made available with excellent effect . The large size of our printed volumes in the present year gives no uinfavourable and , I think , no unfair idea of the present scienitific activity of the Society ; for I believne it may be safely said that our Council has not been less vigilant and cautious than heretofore in the selection of the papers to be printed . Although miuch care has been given to keeping the expenses of illustration within reasonable boiunds , the cost of the Society 's publications has been this year unusually high ; yet I am glad to be able to state that our whole expeniditure within the year has fallen withini our income . With your permission , I will briefly advert to a few of the subjects which have occupied the Society 's attention in the past year . The researches of Kirchhoff and Builsen have renidered it in a high degree probable that we shall be able to obtain much insight into the chemical nature of the atmospheres of the brighter fixed stars , by observing the dark lines in their spectra and comparing them with the bright lines in the spectra of elementary , and perhaps also of compound , bodies in the state of ineandescent gas or vapour . The interest of such an inquiry is obvious ; but the difficulties involved in it are very great . The quantity of light coming from even such a star as Sirius is so small , that without the use of a powerful telescope the spectrun obtained would be too faint to bear sufficient enlargemenit to show properly the fixed lines . The apparent diurnal motion of the stars causes much embarrassmenit , uiless the instrument be mounted equatoreally , and fturnished with a clock movement . The control of the experiments on incandescent bodies requires a thorough knowledge of chemistry , so as to avoid being , misled by impurities in the substances examined , and to be prepared to interpret decompositions or combinations which may take place under unusual circumstances , and which may be manifested only by their effects . Nor can the astronomical and physical parts of the inquiry be well dissociated , so as to be separately undertaken by different individuals ; for the most elaborate drawings can hardly convey a faithful idea of the various aspects of the different dark and bright lines , whilch yet must be borne in mind in instituting a comparison in cases of apparent coincidence . It is fortunate , therefore , that the inquiry has beeni taken up by two gentlemen working in concert . In a short paper read to the Society on the 26th of last February , and published in the Proceedings , Mr. iIuggiis and Dr. filler have described and figured the spectra of three of the brighter stars ; and this part of the inquiry will doubtless be continued . In a paper since presented to the Society , Mr. Huggins describes the means employed for practically determining with accuracy the positions of any stellar lines which may be observed , with reference to knownl points of the spectrum , and has given beautifuil maps of the spectra of twenlty-four of the elementary bodies under the action of the inductive discharge , reserving others for a future communication . Wheni the inquiry is completed , it is possible that we may obtain an amount of knowledge , respecting the constitution of those distant heavenly bodies , of which we have at present little colnception . Professor Tyndall has given us the fourth of a series of papers 1upon the relation of Gases and Vapours to Radiant IHeat . In the course of these inquiries , he has shown that the ' different aeriform bodies , eveni though colourless , exert very different degrees of absorptive action on the rays of heat , and that certain portions of these heat-rays are more powerfully absorbed than others-rays from objects at a low temnperature being more easily absorbed than those from objects at an elevated temperatuire . He has also proved that gases radiate as well as absorb , and , in conformity with what is known in the case of solids , that in gaseous media also there is equality in the powers of radiation and absorption . Bodies which exert an absorbent effect in the liquid form preserve it in the gaseous state . If further experiments should confirm Prof. Tyndall 's views upon the absorptive action of aqueous vapour upon radiant heat of low intensity , these results must materially modify some of the views hitherto held upon the meteorological relations of aqueous vapour . The Bakerian Lecture , by Mr. Sorby , is entitled by him " On the Direct Correlation of Mechanical and Chemical Forces . " In this paper are embodied a series of observations upon the influence of pressure upon the solubility of salts , in which he has obtained results analogous to the changes observed in the freezing-point of liquids under pressure . He finds , in cases where , as is usual , the volume of the water and the salt is less than the volume of the water and the salt separately , that the solubility is in Icrea sed by pressure , but that , in cases where ( as when sal-ammoniac is dissolved in water ) the bulk of the solution is greater than that of the water and salt taken separately , the solubility is lessened by a small but measurable amount . On the contrary , salts which expand in crystallizing from solution must , under pressure , overcome mechanical resistance in that change ; and as this resistance is opposed to the force of crystallization , the salt is rendered more soluble . The extenlt of the influence of pressure , and the mechanical value of the force of crystalline polarity , were found to vary in different salts . Mr. Sorby also indicates the results of the action of salts upon certain carbonates unider pressure , and purposes pursuing his researches upon chemaical action under pressure . This paper may therefore be regarded as the first of a series upon a highly interesting and irnportant branch of investigation , for which Mr. Sorby appears to be specially fitted , from his combining the needful geological knowledge with the skill in manipulation required in the physical and chemical part of the inquiry . The extamiination of the bright lines in the spectra of electric discharges passing through various gases , and between electrodes of various metals , has of late years attracted very general attention . Each elementary gas and each metal shows certain well-maIked characteristic lines , from the presence or absence of which it is commonly assumed that the presence or absence of the element in question may be inferred . But the question may fairly be asked , Has it been established that these lines depenid so absolutely on chemical character that nolne of them can be common to two or more different bodies ? [ las it beeni ascertaimed that , while the chemical natur-e of the bodies remains unchanged , the lines niever vary if the circumstances of mass , density , &c. are changed ? That evidence have we that spectra are superposed , so that we observe the full sum of the spectra which the electrodes and the medium would produce separately ? To examiine these and similar questionis in the only unirnpeachable way ( that of actual experiment ) formed the object of a long and laborious research by Dr. Robinson , the results of which are contained in a paper in our Transactions . In the course of this research , Dr. Robinson had occasion to take carefiul measures of the positions of all the bright lines visible ( and not too weak to measure ) in a great number.of spectra-those , namely , of the induction . discharge passing between electrodes of twenty different metals , as well as graphite , most of which were observed in each of five different gases ( including air ) , and for each gas separately at the atmospheric pressure and at the low pressure obtained by a good air-pump . On taking an impartial survey of this great assenmblage of experimental facts , Dr. Robinson inclines to the opinion that the origin of the lines is to be referred to some yet undiscovered relation between matter in general and the transfer of electric action ; and that while the places of the lines are thus determined independently of particular circumstances , the brightness of the lines is modified , according to the special properties of the molecules which are present , through a range from great intensity down to a faintness which may elude our most powerful means of observation . By a discussion of the results of the magnetic observations mailntained for several years past at the Kew Observatory with an accuracy previously unattained , and by combining these with the earlier results of the observations at the British colonial observatories , I have been enabled to trace and , as I believe , satisfactorily to establish the existence of an aninual variation in the three elements of the earth 's magnetism , which has every appearance of being dependent upon the earth 's position in her orbit relatively to the sun . Substantiated by the concurrent testimony of observations in both hemispheres , and in parts of the globe most widely distant from each other , this conclusion furnishes an additional evidence of a cosmical magnetic relation subsisting between the earth and other bodies of the solar system , and thus extends the scope and widens the basis of sounld induction upon which the permanent relationis of magnetical science must rest . To Dr. Otto Torell , Professor of Zoology in the University of Lund , we are indebted for a communication of much interest , informing us of the progress made by an expedition appointed by the Swedish Government at the recommendation of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm , to execute a survey preliminary to the measurement of an arc of the meridian at Spitzbergen . The objects of the preliminary survey were to ascertain whether suitable angular points for a triangulationi could be found from Ross Island at the extreme north , to Ihope Island at the extreme south of Spitzbergen , and to determine on a favourable locality for the measurement of a base-line . The result of the first year 's exploration has been the selection of stations , on hills of moderate height and easy access from the coast , for ninle triangles shown in the sketch accompanying Dr. Torell 's paper , including Ross Island in the extreme north , and extending over about 1 ? ? 350f of the proposed arc of 4-degrees . A convenient locality has also been found for the base-line . The continuation of the preliminary survey to the extrenme southern limiit is to be the work of the summer of 1864 . The report of the Geodesical Surveyors has shown that the northern portion presents no impediments which may not be surmounted by courage and perseverance ; and with regard to the souithern portion , the knowledge already acquired is conisidered to justify the expectation that the result of the second year 's exploration will be no less favourable . Should such be the case , it is anticipated that the necessary steps will be taken for carrying into execution the measurement of the arc itself . I may perhaps be permitted to allude for a moment to the peculiar interest with which I must naturally regard the proposed undertaking . The measurement of an arc of the meridian at Spitzbergen is an eniterprise which nearly forty years ago was a cherished project of my own , which I had planned the means of executing , and which I ardently desired to be permitted to carry out personally . I may well therefore feel a pectuliar pleasure in now seeing it renewed under what I regard as yet more promising auspices , -whilst I cannot but be sensible of how little I could have anticipated that I should have had the opportunity , at this distance of time , and from this honourable chair , of congratulating the Swedish Government and Academy upon their undertaking , and of thanking Dr. Torell for having traced its origination to my early proposition . It is well remarked by IDr . Torell , that the triangulation , should it be proceeded with , will not be the oinly result of the years of scientific labour at Spitzbergen . There are , indeed , many important investigations for which the geographical circumstances would be eminently favourable . Two such may be specified , for which we may reasonably aniticipate that full opportunity would be afforded , and for which the requisite instruments of precision are neither costly nor cumbersome . One is a more exact determination of the data on which our Tables of Astronomical Refraction are founded . The other is the employment of Cagnoli 's method for determining the figure of the earth by occultationis of the fixed stars* . This last would be tried under circumstances fnr more favourable than those contemplated by its original proposer , by reason of the high latitude of the northern observer the greater number of stairs in the moon 's path , now included in our catalogues , of which a special ephemeris might be made and the much greater amount of concerted corresponding observations which might now be secured . The advantage peculiar to this mode of determination is , that it is exemnpt from the influence of local irregularities in the direction and force of gravity which embarrass the results of the measurements of degrees and of penduluLm experiments . As a third and thoroughly distinct method of investigation , it seems at least well deserving of a trial . Swedish naturalists are not likely to iundervalue the interest attaching to careful examinations of the constancy or variation of the elevation of land above the sea-level ; and I may therefore venlture to refer them to a paper in the Phil. Trans. for 1824 ( Art . xvi . ) , written from Spitzbergen itself in July 1823 , containing the particulars of a barometrical and trigonometrical determination of the height ( approximately 1644 English feet ) of the well-defined summit of a conspicuous hill in . the vicinity of Fairhaven . The barometrical comparison was repeated on several days , the barometer on the summit of the hill being stationary , and the observation of the two barometers strictly simultaneous , the stations being visible from each other by a telescope . 'rile height as givern by the two methods , barometrical and trigonometrical , was in excellent accord . The hill may be identified with certainty by the plarn which accompanies the paper referred to : it is of easy access , and may be remeasuired with little difficulty . It will be remembered that a few years ago the attention of the Royal Society was called by the Foreign Office to the circumstance of several glass bottles with closed necks having been found on the shores of the west coast of Nova Zembla , leading to a conjecture that they might afford some clue to the discovery of the missing ships of Sir John Franiklin 's Expedition . The iniquiries instituted by the Royal Society traced the bottles in question to a recent manufacture in Norway , where they are used as floats to the fishing-nets employed on that coast . These floats , accidentally separated from the nets , had been carried by the streamcurrent which sets along the Noirwegian coast round the North Cape , and thus afforded evidence of the prolongation of the current to Nova Zembla . The Swedish Expedition , in the course of its summer explorationi , found on the northerni shore of Spitzbergen several more of these bottle-floats , some of which even bore Norwegian marks and names , supplying evidence , of considerable geographical interest , of the extension of the Norwegian stream-current to Spitzbergen , either by a circuitous course past the shores of Nova Zembla , or by a more direct offshoot of which no previous knowledge existed . It is thus that step by step we improve our-knowledge of the currents which convey the waters of the more temperate regions to the Polar seas and produce effects which are traceable in many departments of physical geography . The application of gun-cotton to warlike purposes and engineering operations , and the recent improvements in its manufacture , have been the subject of a Report prepared by a joint Committee of the Chemical and Mechanical Sections of the British Association , consisting chiefly of Fellows of the Royal Society . The Report was presented at the Meeting in Newcastle in September last , and is now in the press . The Committee had the advantage of personal communication with General von Lenk , of the Imperial Austrian Artillery , the inventor of the system of preparation and adaptation by which gun-cotton has been made practically available for warlike purposes in the Austrian service . On the invitation of the Committee , and with the very liberal permission of the Emperor of Austria , General von Lenk visited England for the purpose of thoroughly explaining his system ; and we have in the Report of the Committee the information , thus gained directly from the fountain-head , of the results of his experience in the course of trials extending over nany years , together with additional investigations by individual members of the Committee . The advantages which are claimed for gun-cotton over gunpowder for ordnance-purposes and mining-operations are so many and so important as to call imperatively for the fullest investigation . Such an inquiry , however , in its complete sense , is both beyond and beside the scope and purposes of a purely scientific body ; and the British Association have done well ( whilst reappointing the Committee to complete certain experiments which they had devised with the view of clearing up some scientific points which are still more or less obscure ) in pressing on the attention of Her Majesty 's Govermuent the expedienicy of instituting under its own auspices a full and searching inquiry inito the possible applications of gun-cotton in the public service . The absence of smoke , and the entire freedom from the fouling of the gun , are points of great moment in promoting the rapidity of fire and the accuracy of aim of gunis employed in casemates or in the between decks of ships of war ; to these we must add the innocuous character of the products of combustion in comparison with those of gunpowder , and the far inferior heat imparted to the gun itself by repeated and rapid diseharges . With equal projectile effects , the weight of the charge of gun-cotton is but onie-third of that of gunpowder ; the recoil is stated to be reduced in the proportion of 2 to 3 , and the length of the gun itself to admit of a diminution of nearly one-third . These conelusions are based on the evidence of long and apparently very carefully condcuted courses of experiment in the Imperial Factory in the nieighbourhood of Vienna . The results appear to be especially deserving the attention of those who are engaged in the important problems of facilitating the employment of guns of large calibre and of great projectile force in the broadsides of our line-of-battle ships , and in reducing , as far as may be possible , the dimensions of the ports . In the varied applications of explosive force in military or civil engineerin g , the details of many experiments which bear on this branch of the inquiry are stated in the Report of the Committee , and appear to be highly worthy of consideration and of further experiment . It cannot be said that the advantages now claimed for gun-cotton are Iltogether a novel subject ; of discussion in this counitry . When the material was first introduced by Schonlbein in 1846 , its distinctive qualities in comparison with gunpowder were recognized , although at that period they were far less well ascertainled by experim-ent than they are at present . To the employment of gun-cotton as then known there was , however , a fatal drawback in its liability to spontaneous combustion . The elaborate experiments of General voni Lenk have shown that this liability was due to imperfection in its preparation , and ceases altogether when suitable processes are adopted in its manuCacture . Perfect gun-cotton is a definite chemical compound ; and certain processes for the removal of all extraneouis matter and of every trace of free acid are absolutely indispensable . But when thus prepared it appears to be no longer liable to spontaneous combustion , it can be transported from place to place with perfect security , or be stored for any length of time without danger of deterioration . It is not impaired by damp-and may be submerged without injury , its origirnal qualities returning unchanged on its being dried in the open air and at ordinary temperatures . A scarcely less important point towards the utilization of gun-cotton and the safety with which it may be employed in gunnery is the power of modifying and regulating its explosive energy at pleasure , by means of variations in the mechanical structure of the cartridge , and in the relative size of the chamber in which it is fired . The experiments made by the Austrian Artillery Commission , as well as those for blasting and milning , were conducted on a very large scale ; with small arms the trials appear to have been comparatively few . There can be no hesitation in assenting to and accepting the concluding sentence of the Committee 's report . " The subject has neither chemically nor mechanically received that thorough investigation that it deserves . There remain many exact measures still to be made , and many important data to be obtained . The phenomena attending the explosion of both guni-cotton and gunpowder have to be investigated , both as to the temperatures generated in the act of explosion and the nature of the compounds which result from them , under circumstances strictly analogous to those which occur in artillery practice . " I proceed to announce the awards which the Council has made of the Medals in the present year ; and to state the grounds on which those awards have been made . The Copley Medal has beeni awarded to the Reverend Adam Sedgwick , for his observations and discoveries in the Geology of the Palaeozoic Series of Rocks , and more especially for his determination of the characters of the Devonian System , by observe ations of the order and superposition of the Killas Rocks and their Fossils , in Devonshire . Mr. Sedgwick was appoiinted Woodwardiani Professor of Geology in the University of Cambridge in the year 118 , since which time , up to a recent period , comprising an interval of upwards of forty years , he has devoted himself to geological researches with an ability , a persistent zeal , and untiring perseverance which place him amongst the foremost of those enminent men by whose genius , sagacity , and labours the science of Geology has attained its present high position . To duly appreciate his earlier work as a geological observer and reasoner , we must recall to recollection the comparative ignoralnce which prevailed forty or fifty years ago , to the dispersion of which his labours have so largely conitributed . Geology was then beset by wild and untenable speculations on the one band , whilst on the other even its most calin and rational theories were received by many with distrust or with ridicule-and by others with aversion , as likely to interfere with those convictions on which the best hopes of m-an repose . Under such circumstances Geology needed the support and open advocacy of men who , by their initellect and acquirements , and by the respect attached to their individuial characters , their profession , or social position , might be able on the one hanid to repress wild fancies , and on the other to rebut the unfounded assertions of those who opposed the discussion of scientific truth . SuLch a man was Professor Sedgwick , and such was the influence he exerted . It may be well to make this allusion on an occasion like the present , because it often happens , not unnaturally , that those who are most occupied with the questions of the day , in an advancing science , retain but an imperfect recollection of the obligations due to those who laid the first foundation of our subsequent kinowledge . More than fortv years have passed since Professor Sedgwick began those researches among the older rocks of Enilaiand which it became the main purpose of his life to complete . In 1822 was begun that full and accurate survey of the Magnesian Liinestone of the North of Enigland which to this day holds its high place in the estimation of geologists as the foundation of our knowledge of this important class of deposits , whether we regard their ori-in ) , form of deposition , peculiarities of structure , or organic contents . Contemporaneously with this excellent work , he examined the Whin Sill of Upper Teesdale , showed its claims to be treated as a rock of fulsion , and discussed the perplexed question of its origin . Advancingto one of the great problems which occupied his thoughts for many years , he combined in 1831 the observations of the older rocks of the Lake Mountains which he had commnenced in 1822 , and added a special memoir on the great dislocations by which they are sharply defined and separated from the Pennine chain of Yorkshire . Memoirs followed in quick succession on the New Red Sandstone of the Vale of Eden ; on the stratified and unstratified rocks of the Cumbrian Mountains , and on the Limestone and Granite Veins near Shap . Thus , thirty years since , before the names of Cambrian and Silurian were ever heard , under which we now thankfully class the strata of the English lakes , those rocks had been vigorously assailed and brought into a lucid order and system which is to this day unchanged , though by the game hands which laid the foundations many important additions have been made , one of signal value in 1851 the lower palhozoic rocks at the base of the carboniferous chain between Ravenstonedale and Ribblesdale . Perhaps no district in the world affords an example of one man 's researches begun so early , continued so long , and ending so successfully . By these persevering efforts , the Geology of the Lake district came out into the light ; and there is no doubt , and can be no hesitation in ascribing to them the undivided honour of the first unrolling of the long series of deposits which constitute the oldest groups of British Fossiliferous Rocks . Still more complete , however , was the success of that work which was undertaken immediately afterwards on the coeval rocks of Wales ; by which Professor Sedgwick and Sir Roderick Murchison , toiling in separate districts , unravelled the intricate relations of those ancient rocks , and determined the main features of the successive groups of ancient life which they enclose . These labours began in 1831-32 , and in 1835 the two great explorers had advanced so far in their research as to present a united memoir to the British Association in Dublin , showing the progress each had made in the establishment of the Cambrian and Silurian systems , as they were then called ; Professor Sedgwick taking the former , and Sir Roderick Murchison the latter for his special field of study . In 1843 Professor Sedgwick produced two memoirs on the structure of what he then termed the Protozoic rocks of North Wales . Many excellent sections were given in detail in these memoirs ; those exhibiting the structure of the westerrn part of the district about Carnarvonshire being principally taken from his observations in 1831-32 , while the more detailed sections of the eastern part were from those of 1842-43 . These two papers gave the complete outline or framework , as it were , of the geological structure of this intricate region . In several subsequent years he continued to fill uip this outline with further details , observed almost entirely by himself , giving numerous general and local sections , by which he determined the dip and strike of the beds , normal and abnormal , and all the great anticlinal and synclinal lines on which the fundamental framework depends . Further and still minuter details were subsequently given , as was to be expected , by the Government Surveyors ; but the general arrangement , finally recognized on the map of the Survey , is essentially the same as that previously worked out by his unaided labours . It was a principle always advocated by Professor Sedgwick , that the geological structure of a complicated district could never be accurately determined by fossils alone without a detailed examination of its stratification . He always proceeded on this principle ; nor ( from the paucity of organic remains ) would it have been possible on any other principle to have determined the real geological character of those older districts which he investigated so successfully . His arrangement and nomenclature of the Cambrian rocks in North Wales ( the Lower Silurians of Sir Roderick Murchison ) are given in his " ' Synopsis of the Classification of the British Palseozoic Rocks , " 1855 . It possesses the weight which must always be recognized as appertaining to the authority of the geologist who , by his own labours , first solved the great problem of the physical structure of the district . There are other important memoirs of Professor Sedgwick 's of which time forbids more than a very passing notice . The memoir " OOn the Structure of large Mineral Masses , " published in 1831 , was the first , and remains to this day the best descriptive paper which has yet appeared on joints , planes of cleavage , nodular concretions , &c. Always attentive to the purpose of preparing a complete and general classification of the Palaeozoic Strata , Professor Sedgwick at an early period in his career printed a memnoir " On the Physical Structure of the Older Strata of Devon and Cornwall ; " and another " On the Physical Structure of the Serpentine District of the Lizard . " Of later date are several papers writteni by him , conjointly with Sir Roderick Murchison , respecting the Devonian System . The principal of these , published in 1840 , comprised the work of several previous years , and made known the true nature of the Culin Beds of North Devon , as belonging to the Carboniferous series , and their position in a trough of the subjacent rocks , which rocks , on account of their position and their organic contents , were concluded to belong to the Devonian , or Old Red Sandstonie period , a conclusion which was at first controverted , but was ultimately admitted . In another memoir by the same authors in 1828 , they conclude that the coarse old red conglomerate along the north-western coast of Scotland and in Caithness is of about the same age as the Old Red Sandstone of South Wales and Herefordshire , and therefore of the Devonian period . They also published in 1840 an account of their general observations on the Palseozoic Formations of Belgium and the Banks of the Rhine , the results of which were considered to harmonize with those derived from other localities . Finally , we may notice another joint memoir by these authors in 1830 , " On the Structure of the Eastern Alps , " which , however , had no immediate relation to the researches on the Palaeozoic formations . It will be observed that the memoirs which have been noticed are for the most part pervaded by a certain unity of purpose . The investigations were not on points of merely local interest , but were essential for the elucidation of the geological history of our planet during those early periods of which the records are most difficult to unfold . Few persons perhaps can have an adequate idea of the difficulties he had to contend with when he first entered North Wales as a geologist . Geologically speaking , it was a terra incognita of which he undertook to read the geological history before any one had deciphered the characters in which it is written . Moreover , besides the indistinctness and complexity of the stratification , and the obscurity which then prevailed as to the distinction between planes of stratification and planes of cleavage , there was also the difficulty of what may be called ' " mountain geometry"-that geometry by which we unite in imagination lines and surfaces observed in one part of a complicated mountain or district with those in another , so as to form a distinct geometrical conception of the arrangement of the intervening masses . This is not an ordinary power ; but Mr. Sedg'wick 's early mathematical education was favourable to the cultivation of it . We think it extremely doubtful whether any other British geologist forty years ago could have undertaken , with a fair chance of success , the great and difficult work which he accomplished . Such are the direct and legitimate claims of Professor Sedgwick to the honour conferred upon him by the award of the Copley Medal . But there are also other claims , less direct , but which it would be wrong to pass altogether unnoticed . It is not only by written docuiments that knowledge and a taste for its acquirement are disseminated ; and those who have had the good fortune to attend Professor Sedgwick 's lectures , or may have enjoyed social intercourse with him , will testify to the charm and interest he frequently gives to geology by the happy mixture of playful elucidation of the subject with the graver and eloquent exposition of its higher principles and objects . PROFESSOR SEDGWICK , Accept this Medal , the highest honour which it is in the power of the Royal Society to confer , in testimony of our appreciation of the importance of the researches which have occupied so large a portion of your life , and which have placed you in the foremiost rank of those eminent meni by whose genius and labours Geology has attained its present high position in our country . The Council has awarded a Royal Medal to the Reverend Miles Joseph Berkeley for his researches in Cryptogamic Botany , especially in Mycology . Mr. Berkeley 's labours as a cryptogamic botanist for upwards of thirtyfive years , during which they have been more especialty devoted to that extensive and most difficult order of plants the Fungi , have rendered him , in the opinion of the botanical members of the Council , by far the most eminent living author in that department . These labours have consisted in large measure of the most arduous and delicate microscopic investigation . Besides papers in various journals on Fungi from all parts of the globe , and in particular an early and admirable memoir on British Fungi , the volume entitled I Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany , ' published in 1857 , is one which especially deserves to be noticed here . It is a work which he alone was qualified to write . It is full of sagacious remarks and reasoning ; and particular praise is due to the special and conscientious care bestowed on the verification of every part , however minute and difficult , upon which its broad generalizations are founded . Mr. Berkeley 's merits are not confined to description or classification ; there are facts of the highest significance , which he has been the first to indicate , and which in many cases he has also proved by observation and by experiments . We refer to his observations on the development of the reproductive bodies of the three orders of Thallogens ( Algaw , Lichens , and Fungi ) , and on the conversion under peculiar conditions of certain forms of their fruit into others ; to the exact determination of the relations , and sometimes of the absolute specific identity of various forms of Fungi previously referred to different tribes ; and to the recognition , in many species and genera , of a diversity of methods of reproduction in giving origin to parallel series of forms . As intimately connected with the life-history of Fungi , the intricate subject of vegetable pathology has been greatly elucidated by him ; and he is indeed the one British authority in this department . His intimate acquaintance with vegetable tissues , and with the effects of external agents , such as climate , soil , exposure , &c. , has enabled him to refer many maladies to their source ; and to propose methods , which in some cases have proved successful , of averting , checking , and even curing diseases in some of our most valuable crops . In this line of research he has also demonstrated , on the one hand , that many so-called epiphytal and parasitic Fungi are nothing but morbid conditions of the tissues of the plant ; on the other hand , that microscopic Fungi lurk and produce the most disastrous results where their presence had been least suspected . MR. BERKELEY , I present you with this Medal , in testimony of the high opinion which the Botanical Members of the Council of the Royal Society entertain of your researches in Cryptogamic Botany , especially Mycology ; in which latter department your writings entitle you , in their judgment , to be considered as the most eminent living author . The Council has awarded a Royal Medal to John Peter Gassiot , Esq. , for his researches on the Voltaic Battery and Current , and on the Discharge of Electricity through Attenuated Media . These contributions , most of which are recorded in our Transactions , are of high value , and in some respects peculiar . Their experimental part has been conducted on a scale of magnitude and power unimatched since the days of Davy and of Children , with apparatus of the highest perfection , and with consummate dexterity and skill ; and the discussion and interpretation of the facts observed are characterized by sound theory and sober judgment . It would trespass too much orn your time were I to give a detailed account of them , and I shall only select a few which are examples of what Bacon has called " Instantihe Crucis , " such as , when the mind is undecided between several paths , point out the true one . 1 . The first decides a question which was long debated with great vehemence , whether the energy of the Voltaic Battery arises from the contact of its metals , or from chemical action . The first of these opinions was mainly supported by the fact that , when two dissimilar metals are made to touch , they show signs of opposite electricities when separated . Mr. Gas . siot showed , in 1844 , that the same occurs when the metals are separated by a thin stratum of air without having been in previous contact . 2 . The identity of voltaic with frictional electricity was denied by many , because it gave no spark through an interval of air . Davy had indeed asserted the contrary in his I Elements of Chemical Philosophy , ' but his statement seems to have been doubted or unheeded . Mr. Gassiot , in the Transactions for 1844 , has put the fact beyond dispute ; he showed that by increasing the number of cells and carefully insulating them , sparks can be obtained even with the feeblest elements . With 3520 cells , zinc and copper excited with rain-water , he obtained sparks in rapid succession through -I-th of an inch of air ; and a little later added to this a fact of still higher significance , that by exalting the chemical action in the cells , the same or even greater effect could be produced by a much smaller series . The battery of 500 Grove 's cells which was constructed for these experiments is probably in some respects the most powerful that was ever made . 3 . The currents produced by electric or magnetic induction are of the highest interest , and the employment of them as a source of electric power is almost daily enriching physical science with precious results . In this new field Mr. Gassiot has been one of the most successful explorers . So early as 1839 he showed that the induction current gives a real spark , and he found that in the flame of a spirit-lamp it could strike at a distance of 4ths of an inch . 4 . The splendid phenomena produced by the discharge of the induction current through rarefied gases or vapours are well known ; in particular the stratification of the light . The cause of this is not yet fully uniderstood , but Mr. Gassiot has made some very important additions to our knowledge of it in the Bakerian Lecture for 1858 and his subsequent communications to the Society . Among these may be named his explanation of the occasionally reversed curvature of the strata , and his discovery of the Reciprocating discharge , which , seeming single , is composed of two , opposite in direction , but detected by the different action of a magnet on each of thema beautiful test , which is of wide application in such researches . Again , the Torricellian vacuum which he used at first , even when absolutely free from air , contains mercurial vapour : by applying to his tubes a potent freezing mixture , he found that as this vapour condensed , the strata vanished , the light and transmission of electricity decreased , till at a very low temperature both ceased entirely . It follows from this that a perfect vacuum does not conduct-a fact of cosmical importance , which had been surmised before , but not proved ; and the desire of verifying this discovery led him to a means of far higher rarefaction . A tube containing a piece of fused hydrate of potassa is filled with dry carbonic acid , exhausted to the limit of the air-pump 's power , and sealed ; then by heating the potassa , the residual carbonic acid is mostly , or even totally absorbed . Vessels so exhausted , though still containing vapour of potassa , and perhaps of water , have a better vacuum than had beeni previously obtained , and often cease to conduct till a little of the alkali is vaporized by heating them , and the gradual progress of the exhaustion gives a wide range of observation . 5 . The current of an induction machine is necessarily intermittent , and it has been supposed that the strata are in some way caused by the intermittence , and are possibly connected with the mode of action of the contactbreaker . Mr. Gassiot has , however , shown that they are perfectly developed in the discharge of an extended voltaic battery through exhausted tubes . The large water-battery already mentioned shows them in great beauty ; the discharge , however , is still intermittent . 6 . The same appearance is exhibited by a Grove 's battery of 400 wellinsulated cells ; but in this case a new and remarkable phenomenon presents itself . At first the discharge resembles that obtained from the waterbattery , and is like it intermittenit ; but suddenly it changes its character from intermittent to continuous ( so far at least as carn be decided by a revolving mirror ) , and everything indicates that we have now the true voltaic arc . The discharge is now of dazzling brilliancy , and is strat~fed as before , whence it appears that strata are capable of being produced by the true arc discharge . 7 . This change is accompanied by a remarkable alteration in the heating of the two electrodes . Mr. Gassiot had previously showni that , in the ordinary voltaic arc , formed in air of the usual pressure , the positive electrode is that which is the more heated , whilst in the discharge of an in(luction machine , whether sent through air at the ordinary pressure between electrodes of thin wire , or through an exhausted tube , it is the negative . The discharge through the large Grove 's battery , so long as it was intermitteit , agreed with the induction discharge in this character as in others , that the negative electrode was that which became heated ; but when the discharge suddenly and spontaneously passed from the intermittent to continuous , the previously heated negative electrode became cool , and the positive was intensely heated . These brief references will suffice to show what a high place Mr. Gassiot holds amongst those who are investigating this new track , which promises such great advance in our knowledge of those muolecular forces in the study of which all physical science must ultimately centre . I may be permnitted to add , that in his whole career he has sought not his own fame , but the advancement of science ; he has rejoiced as much in the discoveries of others as in his own , and aided them by every appliance in his power . I cannot refrain from mentioning a recent instance in which this liberal and unselfish spirit has been strikingly exhibited . He has had executed a grand spectroscope , furnished with no less than nine faultless prisms , a design in which he has been ably seconded by the skill of the optician Mr. Browning , to whom the construction was entrusted . This magnificent instrument he has placed at the disposal of any Fellow of the Society who may happen to be engaged in researches requiring the use of such powerful apparatus . The instrument is at present at the Kew Observatory , where it is in contemplation to undertake the construction of a highly elaborate map of the spectrum . Mr. Gassiot is still pursuing his electrical researches , and we may be assured that he will feel this acknowledgment of his labours by the Royal Society not merely as a recompense for that he has accomplished , but as an obligation to continued exertion and new discoveries . MR. GASSIOT , You will receive this Medal as a mark of the deep interest which the Royal Society takes in the investigations in which you are engaged , and of the high value which it attaches to the results with which you have already enriched our Transactions . These are the grounds on which the Medal has been awarded to you by the Council , But it may be permitted to me to express the hope that you will also associate with it-as it is impossible that we should not do the Society 's recognition of the generous and kindly spirit which has manifested itself , as elsewhere , so also in all your pursuit of Science ; and of which one memorial amongst others will remain in future times connected with the Society , in the establishment of the Scientific Relief Fulnd . On the motion of Professor Owen , seconded by Mr. Gwyn Jeifreys , it was resolved- " That the thanks of the Society be returned to the President for his Address , and that he be requested to allow it to be printed . " The Statutes for the election of Council and Officers having been read , and Dr. W. Far and Mr. Evans having been , with the consent of the Society , nominated Scrutators , the votes of the Fellows present were collected , and the following were declared duly elected as Council and Officers for the ensuing year : President.-Major-General Edward Sabine , R.A. , D.C.L. , LL. D. Treacsurer.-William Allen Miller , M.D. , LL. D. *c of William Sharpey , M.D. , LL. D. *ert l George Gabriel Stokes , Esq. , M.A. , D.C.L. Foreign Secretary.-Prof . William Hallows Miller , M.A. Other Members of the Council.-James Alderson , M.D. ; George Busk , Esq. , Sec. L.S. ; Col. Sir George Everest , C.B. ; Hugh Falconer , M.A. , M.D. ; John Hall Gladstone , Esq. , Ph. D. ; Joseph Dalton Hooker , M.D. ; Henry Bence Jones , M.A. , M.D. ; Prof. James Clerk Maxwell , M.A. ; Prof. William Pole , C.E. ; Archibald Smith , Esq. , M.A. ; Prof. Henry J. Stephen Smith , M.A. ; The Earl Stanhope , P.S.A. , D.C.L. ; Prof. James Joseph Sylvester , M.A. ; Thomas Watson , M.D. , D.C.L. ; Prof. Charles Wheatstone , D.C.L. ; Rev. Prof. Robert Willis , M.A. On the motion of Mr. Brayley , seconded by Mr. Balfour Stewart , the thanks of the Society were voted to the Scrutators . 9 ss C ' J ss4+C:Cl C. C 0C CD : O : : : : : : : * : : C , ... a_~ . X. H **.8.B.** ... ... ... ... *.***.* ... ... ... *.*'*** o. . *PH A *. . * C ) C ) lf cl C4 N qz Iliq 00 C > cli C > r--i r--4 oo Cl C , CIZ , ! -O r--q to tC , I C*I - , C:tq m Cq r--4 r---f C > 00 " -t C CO M Co 0 00 UCl < : : > 00 cl ' C -"q 01 I--q 00 Cq 14t o CK ) bo oo cd 'D OD 14 v g : , PT4 5D P- , 0 bi ) r , 4 0 , C3 IIIL4 ( 81 rn r-q C ) cd rn C. ) P-1 o to g. , 45 cd cd 4 10 cd P4 cd o0 cd to Cd C ) 0 ; -4 bn bn fj ; ;j bD C ) Pq r-d . C ) 0 4-0 -.5 -M O. . 0 Eq pq pq pq pq pq Aq Oq OQ H4 poq r--q r--4 ZH o N. V-Z cn r-i 00 r-.q to lr CD Co 1 ! zH -Iliq Cq 41 ce C):J pq , C 11 =:- : V V , C , W 4S pq 00 E-1 C > 4.1 q ) TI ) qz W. . 9 ( Z 0 P4 Q ) g ( 3 ) g EH Z ) GD O C ) WzM0 to cd 4 ) W0 C > 0 ow Q 4-1 P-4 00RMM0M cd o C ) O 4 : : 'd r1:1 E-i d ( Z ) 4-M c. C ) Cd -4-0 C ) U ) --j:z O'N.-I.g bD Q ) PA P C/ 2 4 pq Scient/ l Relief Fund . Investments up to JuLly 1863 , New 3 per Cent. Annuities ... ... ... ... ... . ? 5/ 300 0 0 ? 5300 0__0 Dr. ? s. d. Cr . ? s. d. To Subscriptions and DiviBy Grants ... ... . 75 00 dends ... ... ... ... ... . . 377 17 0 Purchase of Stock ... ... ... 74 90 Balance ... ... ... ... 228 8 0 ? 377 17 0 ? 377 17 0 The following Table shows the progress and present state of the Society with respect to the number of Fellows : Patron Having Paying Paying and Foreign . corn ? 2 12s . ? 4 Total . Honorary . pounded . annually . annually . December 1 , 1862. . 5 49 327 4 275 660 Since compounded ... ... +2 ... ... -2 Since elected. . +1 +3 +7 + 11 +22 Since admitted ... ... +1 +1 Since readmitted ... ..+ I+I Since withdrawn ... ... -2 -2 Since deceased ... -3 -12 -10 -25 November 30 , 1863 . 6 49 324 4 274 657

111995

3701662

On the Spectra of Some of the Chemical Elements. [Abstract]

43

44

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Huggins

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111995

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111995

Atomic Physics

Chemistry 2

Atomic Physics

I. " On the Spectra of some of the Chemical Elements . " By WILLIAM HUGGINS , Esq. , F.R.A.S. ComniLnicated by Dr. W. A. MILLER , V.P. and Treas.:R.S . Received November 5 , 1863 . ( Abstract . ) The author has beeil engaged for some time in association with Prof. W. A. Miller in observing the spectra of the fixed stars . For the purpose of comparing the spectra of these with the spectra of the terrestrial elements , no maps of the latter were found that were conveniently available . Kirchhoff 's maps and tables , besides their partial incompleteness , were not suited for night work when the sun could not be simultaneously observed . The author adopts the linles of the spectrum of commoon air as the fiducial points of a standard scale to which the spectra of the elements are referred . The air-spectrum has the advantage of being always visible with the spectra of the metals without increased complication of apparatus . The observations were made with a spectroscope of six prisins of heavy glass of large size . The total deviationof the light with this train of prisms is for the D ray about 1980 . The telescope and the collimator have both an aperture of 17 inch . The focal length of the telescope is 16.5 inches . The measures were partly takeni from the readings of a finely divided arc of brass , which the arm carrying the telescope traverses , and partly from the readings of a wire micrometer attached to the eye-ened of the telescope . The scale of measurement adopted gives five divisions for the interval between the components of the double line D. The excellent performance of this instrument is shown by the great distinctness of the finer lines of the solar spectrum . All those mapped by Kirchhoff are seen , and many others in addition to these . The spark of an induction coil was employed , inito the secondary circuit of which a battery of nine Leyden jars was introduced . The Leyden jars are arranged in three batteries of three jars each , and the batteries connected in series . The relative intensities and distinctive characters of the lines are represented by figures and letters , placed against the numbers in the Tables . The spectrum , which extends from a to EL , is divided , and forms two maps . The air-spectrum and the principal solar lines are placed at the top of each map , and below these the spectra of the following metals : Sodium , potassium , calcium , barium , strontium , manganese , thallium , silver , tellurium , tin , iron , cadmium , antimony , gold , bismuth , mercury , cobalt , arsenic , lead , zinc , chromium , osmi-ium , palladium , and platinum . The lines of the air-spectrum are referred to the components of air to which they severally belong . Anl unexpected result was observed : two strong lines of the air-spectrum , one of them a double line , were seen to be common to the spectra of oxygen and nitrogen . These gases were obtained from different sources with identical results . The strong red line of the air-spectrum is shown to be due to the presence of aqueous vapour , and to coincide with the line of hydrogen . The carbonic acid in the air is not revealed by spectrum analysis . Three pairs of lines and osne band of haze are given in the sodium spectrum in addition to the double D line . As these might be due to impurities of the commercial sodium employed , the observation was confirmed by an amalgam of sodium prepared by the voltaic method from pure chloride of sodium . Two of these pairs of lines have been recognized in the spectrum of a saturated solution of pure nitrate of soda . The two stronger pairs appear to agree in position with solar lines having the following numbers in Kirchhoff 's scale:-864-4 and 867 1 , and 1 15052 and 1154-2 . The spectrum from electrodes of potassium contains many new lines . For the spectra of calcium , lithium , and strontium , metallic calcium , lithium , and strontium were employed . Barium was mapped from an amalgam of barium prepared by electricity from chloride of barium . The following metals were employed in the form of electro-deposits upon platinum.:-manganese , silver , tin , iron , cadmium , antimony , bismuth , cobalt , lead , zinc , and chromiunm . Care was taken that the other metals should be reliable for purity .

111996

3701662

On the Acids Derivable from the Cyanides of the Oxy-Radicals of the Di- and Tri-Atomic Alcohols

44

48

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Maxwell Simpson

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0013

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111996

10.1098/rspl.1863.0013

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111996

Chemistry 2

Biography

Chemistry

II . " On the Acids derivable from the Cyanides of the Oxy-radicals of the Diand Tni-atomic Alcohols . " ' By MAXWELL SIMPSON , A.B. , 1.B.1 . F.R.S. Received November 7 , 1863 . From every glycol it is possible to obtain two radicals-one monatomic , the other diatomic . From every glycerine it is possible to obtain three radicals , which are respectively mono- , diand tri-atomic . The compounds which these radicals form with the metalloids have been long since prepared and thoroughly studied . Our knowledge of the compounds which they form with cyanogen , whose behaviour so much resembles the metalloids , is not in so forward a state . At present we are only acquainted with a few of the cyanides of those of them which are destitute of oxygen , and the acids they form when submitted to the action of potash . The object of the present investigation is to extend our knowledge in this direction . With this view I propose to myself the following questions Is it possible to prepare also the cyanides of the oxy-radicals of glycol or glycerine ? And if it be possible , is the action of potash on these cyanides analogous to its action on the ordinary cyanides ? If the foregoing questions be answered in the affirmative , we shall then be able to obtain in this way , from every glycol , two , and from every glycerine three acids . A glance at the following Table will make this intelligible : Diatomic Alcohol ( Glycol ) . Cyanide . Acid . Chlorhydrine of Glycol C4 H1 0 Cl C10 Cy 6 6 ? 6 Chloride of Ethylene..114 C12 04 H4 Cy2 C8 H6 08 Succinic* ( bibasic ) . Triatomic Alcohol ( Glycerine ) . Cyanide . Acid . Monochlorhydrine ... . C0170 0C 61H 7 04 Cy C08 16 06 Dichlorhydrinie ... ... C. 116 02 C12 C0 116 02 Cy2 C10 I18 016 ( Bibasic ) Trichlorhydrine ... ... Co 11 , Cl , co 1I5Cy3 C12 EsA , ( Tribasic ) t In the present paper I propose to take up the study of the acid 01 11 ? 0 in the glycerine series , which I succeeded in preparing in the following manner:_ A mixture of ohe equivalent of dichlorhydrine and two equivalents of pure cyanide of potassium , together with a quantity of alcohol , was maintained at the temperature of 1000 Cent. for twenty.four hours in wellclosed soda-water bottles . At the expiration of this time it was found that all the cyanide of potassium had been converted into chloride . The contents of the bottles were then filtered , and to the filtered liquor , which no doubt contained the body C6 16 02 Cy , in solution , solid potash was added . To this , heat was applied in such a manner as to prevent the escape of the alcohol by evaporation ; and its application continued till ammonia ceased to be evolved . As soon as this was observed , the alcohol was distilled off , and the residue treated with nitric acid , which was afterwards removed by evaporation at a low temperature . The nitric acid accomplishes two objects . it destroys in a great measure the tarry matter which is present in large quantity , and at the same time sets free the organic acid combnined with the potash . The free acid was then separated from the nitrate of potash by means of alcohol . On evaporating the alcohol a dark-coloured residue was obtained , which was dissolved in hot water and treated with chlorinie . Finally a silver-salt of the acid was prepared by the following kind of fractional precipitation : About one-third of the neutralized acid was first precipitated by the cautious addition of a solution of nitrate of silver . The liquor was then filtered , and the remainder of the acid was converted into the silver-salt . By these meanis I obtained , instead of a browni , a perfectly white precipitate , which yielded an acid in colourless crystals when decomposed by sulphuretted hydrogen . Dried at 1000 Cent. these crystals gave on analysis numbers which agree tolerablv well with the formula C10 It , ? , , as will be seen from the following Table : Theory . Experiment . I. II . CIO ... . . 40-54 41962 41961 8*5 40 a1 7 5.16 10 The ether of this acid is readily prepared by passing hydrochloric acid gas through its solution in absolute alcohol . On evaporating the alcohol anl oily residue was obtainied , which was washed with a solution of carbonate of soda and distilled . The greater portion passed over between 295 ' and 300 ? Cent. The analysis of this portion gave numbers which indicate the formula C160 10(04 115 ) 10 ' Theory . Experiment . I. II . CIE ; * ? .52'94 54'61 54,32 E1 . , 7 84 8 09 6.91 010 The foregoing research was finished many months ago , but I delayed publishing it in the hope of being able to anniounce at the same time the formation of lactic acid by a similar process . I find , bowever , from the 'Annalen der Chemie und Pharniacie ' of last month that I have been anticipated by Wislicenus , who has succeeded in forming lactic acid in the manner I have just described .

111997

3701662

First Analysis of 177 Magnetic Storms, Registered by the Magnetic Instruments in the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, from 1841 to 1857. [Abstract]

48

50

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George Biddell Airy

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111997

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111997

Meteorology

Fluid Dynamics

Meteorology

I. " First Analysis of 177 Magnetic Storms , registered by the Magnetic Instruments in the Royal Observatory , Greeliwich , from 1841 to 1857 . ' By GEORGE BIDDELL AIRy , Astronomer Royal . Received November 28 , 1863 . ( Abstract . ) The author first refers to his paper in the Philosophical Transactions , 1863 , " On the Diurnal Inequalities of Terrestrial Magnetism as deduced from Observations made at the Royal Observatory , Greenwich , from 1841 to 1857 . " These results were obtained by excluding the observations of certain days of great magnetic disturbance ; it is the object of the present paper to investigate the results which can be deduced from these omitted days . The author states his reasons for departing from methods of reduction which have been extensively used , insisting particularly on the necessity of treating every magnetic storm as a coherent whole . And he thinks that our attention ought to be given , in the first instance , to the devising of methods by which the complicated registers of each storm , separately considered , can be rendered manageable ; and in the next place , to the discussion of the laws of disturbance which they may aid to reveal to us , and to the ascertaining of their effects on the general means in which they ought to be included . The author then describes the numerical process ( of very simple character ) by which , when the photographic ordinates have been converted into numbers , any storm can be separated into two parts , one consisting of waves of long period , and the other consisting of irregularities of much more rapid recurrence . He uses the term " Fluctuation " in a technical sense , to denote the area of a wave-cuirve between the limits at which the wave-ordinate v-anishes . The Waves , Fluctuations , and Irregularities , as inferred from separate treatment of each storm , constitute the materials from which the further results of the paper are derived . Table I. exhibits the Algebraic Sum of Fluctuations for each storm , with the Algebraic Mean of Disturbances , and Tables II . and III . exhibit the Aggregate or Mean for each year , and the Aggregate for the seventeen years . The Aggregate for the Northerly Force is negative in every year . That for the Westerly Force is orn the whole negative ; the combination of the two indicates that the mean force is directed about 100 to the east of south . That for the Nadir Force appears negative , but its existence is not certain . Some peculiarities of the numbers of waves with different signs are then pointed out . For Westerly Force and also for Nadir Force , the numbers of +waves and -waves are not very unequal ; but for Northerly Force there are 177+waves and 277-waves . In Nadir Force it is almost an even chance whether a storm begins with a +wave or with a -wave ; and the same with regard to its ending ; in Westerly Force the chances at beginning and ending are somewhat in favour of a+ wave ; but in Northerty Force two storms out of three begin with a -wave , and ten storms out of eleven end with a -wave . The beginnings and ends of the storms are also arranged by numeration of the combination of waves of different character in the different elements ( as , for instance , Westerly Force + with Northerly Force - , Northerly force + with Nadir Force + , &c. ) ; but no certain result appears to follow , except what might be expected from the special preponderances mentioned above , leaving the relative numbers of the combinations a matter of chance in other respects . Tables IV . , V. , VI . exhibit the Absolute Aggregates of Fluctuations and Absolute Means of Disturbances without regard to sign . In interpreting these it is remarked that the large mean force in the northerly direction necessarily increases the Aggregate and diminishes the Number of Waves . With probable fair allowance for this , it appears that the Numbers of Waves are sensibly equal , that the Sums of Fluctuations are sensibly equal , and that the Means of Disturbances are sensibly equal for Westerly Force and for Northerly Force . But the Number of Waves for Nadir Force is less than half that for the other forces ; while the Sum of Fluctuations is almost three times as great as that for the others , and the Mean of Disturbances almost three times as great . Attempts are made to compare the epochs of the waves in the different directions , but no certain result is obtained . Tables VII . , VIII . , IX . exhibit for each storm , and for each year , and for the whole period the Number of Irregularities , the Absolute Sum of Irregularities , and the Mean Irregularity . It appears that the value of Mean Irregularity is almost exactly the same in the three directions , that the number of irregularities is almost exactly the same in Westerly Force and in Northerly Force , but that the number in Nadir Force is almost exactly half of the others . It is certain that the times of Irregularities in the Westerly and Northerly directions do not coincide . There appears some reason to think that Nadir Irregularities frequently occur between Westerly Irregularities . In Table X. theAggregates of Fluctuations andlrregularities are arranged by months , but no certaini conclusions follow . In Table XI . the Wa-ve , disturbances and the Irregularities are arranged by hours ; for the Wavedisturbances resuilts are obtained which may be compared with those of previous investigators ; in Table XII . it is shown that these may be represented by a general tendency of wave-disturbances , different at different hours , which general tendency is itself subject to considerable variations . For the Irregularities it is found that the coefficient is largest in the hours at which storms are most frequent . It does not appear that any sensible correction is required to the Diurnal Inequalities of the former paper on account of these disturbed days . The auithor then treats of the physical inference from these numerical conclusions . And in the first place he states his strong opinion that it is impossible to explain the disturbances by the supposition of definite galvanic currents or definite magnets suddenly produced in any locality whatever . The absolute want of simultalneity ( especially in the Irregularities ) , and the great difference of numbers between the Waves and Irregularities for the Nadir Force ( in which the Irregularities are just as strongly marked as in the Westerly and Northerly , and the Wave-disturbances are much more strongly marked ) , and those for the other Forces , appear fatal to this . It is then suggested that the relations of the forces fouind from the investigations above , bear a very close resemblance to what might be expected if we conceived a fluid ( to which for facility of language the name " Magnetic Ether " is giveln ) in proximity to the earth , to be subject to occasional currents produced by some action or cessation of action of the sun , which currenits are liable to interruptions or perversions of the same kind as those in air and water . I-le shows that in air and in water the general type of irregular disturbance is travelling circular forms , sometimes with radial curreiits , but more frequienitly with tangential currents , sometimes with irncrease of vertical pressure in the centre , but more fre.quently with decrease of Vertical pressure ; and in co nsidering the phenomena which such travelling forms would present to a being over whom they travelled , he thiniks that the magnetic phenomelna would be in . great measure imitated . The author then remarks that observations at five or six observatories , spread over a space less than the continent of Europe , would probably suffice to decide on these points . He would prefer self-registering apparatus , provided that its zeros be duly checked by eye-observations , and that the adjustments of light give sufficient strength to the traces to make them visible in the most violent motionis of the magnet . For primary reduction he suggests the use of the method adopted in this paper , with such small modifications as experience may suggest .

111998

3701662

On the Sudden Squalls of 30th October and 21st November 1863

51

52

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Balfour Stewart

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0015

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111998

10.1098/rspl.1863.0015

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111998

Meteorology

Electricity

Meteorology

II . " On the Sudden Squalls of 30th October and 21st November 1863 . " By BALFOuUR STEWART , M.A. , 1F.R.S . , Superintendent of the Kew Observatory . Received December 10 , 1863 . The 30th of October was windy throughout , and in the afternoon there was a very violenit squall . The barograph at the Kew Observatory , as will be seen from Plate 1 . which accompanies this communication , records a very rapid fall in the pressure of the atmosphere , which appears to have reached its lowest point about 3h 9 ' P.m. , G. M. T. At this moment , from some cause , possibly a very violent gust of wind , the gas-lights in the room which contairned the barograph went out , and were again lit in a quarter of an hour . During this interval the barometer bad risen conisiderably ; and indeed the barograph curve , although unfortunately incomplete , presents the appearance of any extremely rapid rise . It may therefore perhaps be supposed that there was a very sudden increase of pressure accompanied with a violent gust of wind at the moment when the gas went out , which would be about 3h 9gm P.M. , as above stated . In a paper communicated to the Royal Society on November 23 , Mr. Glaisher has remarked that at Greenwich the time of maxirmum depression of the barometer was 3h 30 ' P.M. , while at the Radcliffe Observatory , Oxford , it was 2h 30m P.M. This would indicate a progress of the storm from west to east , in accordance with which Kew should be somewhat before Greenwich as regards the time of maximum depression . This anticipation is therefore confirmed by the record of the Kew barograph which has been given above . The indications of the Kew self-recording electrometer during this squiall show that about 2h 39m P.M. the electricity of the air , which before that time had been very slightly negative , became rapidly positive , then quickly crossed to negative , became positive again , and once more crossed to negative about 3h 3m P.M. recrossing again from strong negative about 3h 5lm P.M. , after which it settled down into soomewhat strong positive . It is well , however , to state ( what may also be seen from Plate I. ) that the variationls of this instrument between 3 ] 3m P.M. and . 3h 51m P.M. were so rapid as not to be well impressed upon the paper . At Kew there is often occasion to move the dome , so that we cannot well have an instrument which records continuously the direction of the wind ; but we have a Robinson 's anemometer , which records the space traversed by the wind , and thus enables us to find its velocity from hour to hour , though not perhaps from moment to moment . A reference to Plate I. will show an increase in the average velocity of the wind during this squall . A somewhat similar squall took place in the afternoon of Saturday , November 21st , about 4 o'clock . In this case the Kew barograph presents a rapid ( and , in the curve , ragged ) fall of the atmospheric pressure , which reached its minimum about 4h 45m P.M. There was then a very abrupt and nearly perpendicular rise of about five hundredths of anl inch of pressure , or rather less , after which the rise still went on , but only more gradually . Through the kindness of the Rev. R. Main , of the Radcliffe Observatory , I have been favoured with a copy of the trace afforded by the Oxford barograph during this squall , in which there appears a very sudden rise of nearly the same extent as that at Kew , but which took place about four o'clock , and therefore , as on the previous occasion , somewhat sooner than at Kew . This change of pressure at Oxford was accompanied by a very rapid fall of temperature of about 8 ? Fahr. The minimum atmospheric pressure at Kew was 29 52 inches , while at Oxford it was 29 28 inches . It will be seen from the Plate that at Kew the electricity of the air fell rapidly from positive to negative about 4h 30m P.M. , and afterwards fluctuated a good deal , remaining , however , generally negative intil 5h 22m P.M. , when it rose rapidly to positive . We see also from the Plate that there was an increase in the average velocity of the wind at Kew during the continuance of this squLall . To conclude , it would appear that in these two squalls there was in both cases an exceedingly rapid rise of the barometer from its minimum both at Oxford and at Kew , this taking place somewhat sooner at the former place than at the latter ; and that in both cases the air at Kew remained negatively electrified during the continuance of the squall , while the average velocity of the wind was also somewhat increased .

111999

3701662

On the Equations of Rotation of a Solid Body about a Fixed Point

52

64

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Spottiswoode

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0016

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=111999

10.1098/rspl.1863.0016

http://www.jstor.org/stable/111999

Formulae

Agriculture

Mathematics

" On the Equations of Rotation of a Solid Body about a Fixed Point . " By WILLIAM SPOTTISWOODE , M.A. , F.R.S. , &c. Received March 21 , 1863.* In treating the equations of rotation of a solid body about a fixed point , it is usual to employ the principal axes of the body as the moving system of coordinates . Cases , however , occur in which it is advisable to employ other systems ; and the object of the present paper is to develope the funidamental formulae of transformation and integration for any system . Adopting the usual notation in all respects , excepting a change of sign in the quantities F , G , H , which will facilitate transformations hereafter to be made , let A=Em(y ' +z ' ) , B =m(z ' +x ' ) , C= m(X y2 ) , -F = 2nmyz , -G= 2mzx , -H= 2mxy ; and if p , q , r represent the components of the angular velocity resolved about the axes fixed in the body , then , as is well known , the equations of motion take the form A'It +H dq +G dt -F(q'-r ' ) + ( B ? -C)qr+rp-H pq , +H d+ B-fd +F drt =-G(r'-p')-Hqr ( C-A)rp ? Fpq , ( 1 ) +G JrF q+ +C dr = -H ( p'q ' ) + GqrFrp + ( A-fB)pq . J dt dt dt To obtain the two general integrals of this system : multiplying the equations ( 1 ) by p , q , r , respectively adding and integrating , we have for the first integral A.p2+Bq'+Cr'+2(Fqr+Grp + Hpq ) = h , ... . ( 2 ) where A is an arbitrary constant . Again , multiplying ( 1 ) by Ap +Hq+Gr , Hp+Bq ? Fr , Gp+ Fq + Cr , respectively adding and integrating , we have for the second integral ( Ap+Hq+Gr ) ' ? ( Ep+Bq ? Fr)'+ ( Gp ? Fq+Cr)2=k ' , . ( 3 ) where k ' is another arbitrary constant . This equation may , however , be transformed into a more convenient form as follows : writing , as usual , %=BC-F , 33=CA-G ' , C=AB-H , V= AH G ? =GH-AF , & =HF-BG , 34=FG-CH , HB F. ( 4 ) A+B+C =S , GF C and bearing in mind the inverse system , viz VA=33-Iff 2 VB=(ta-Q , VC=a33-2 , 2 VF=QTAt-a5 , VG=- ; Iff-33 & , VHl=ff & -C34i ( we may transform ( 3 ) into the following form:(AS-33-Q)p+ ? 2(FS + ? i)qr r+ ( BS C A)q 2+ 2(GS + ( & )rp ... .(6 ) + ( CS-A 33 ) ? +2(HS ? + 3)pq=p k ' , j which in virtue of ( 2 ) becomes ( la -A)pa + ( 33_ q2 , +( )r2 +2(f gr + & rp +3 pq ) h2 _Sh . ( 7 ) This form of the integral is very closely allied with the inverse or reciprocal form of the first integral ( 2 ) , and is the one used below . In order to find the third integral , we must find two of the variables in terms of the third by means of ( 2 ) and ( 7 ) , and substitute in the corresponding equation of motion . The most elegant method of effecting this is to transform ( 2 ) and ( 7 ) simultaneously in to their canonical forms . If al pi 7 ' a2 k2 72 be the coefficients of transformation , and if Cn be the determinant formed by them , the terms iinvolving the products of the variables will be destroyed by the conditions ( A ... F* ( A. . 3 a2r3Pi34)- , I ... 2 . ( 8 ) ( S-A A gAfS fSXX02xy 71Y2 ) =O . , ( g** * The coefficient of -03 Hence ( dividing throughout by V ) ( 10 ) becomes 03+2.SO'+(S2+)+S ; V =0 ; or , what is the same thing , ( O_pS)3_S(O+S)2+4 > ( O+S)_V -0 ; ..(1 ) or , as it may also be written , A-(O+S ) , H. , G =0 . 1 , B-(O + S ) , F G , F , C-(0+S ) It will be seen by reference to ( 9 ) that the values of 0 determined by this equation are equal to the ratios of the coefficients of the squares of the new variables respectively in the equivalents of ( 2 ) and ( 7 ) . The coefficients of transformation are nine in number ; if therefore to the six equations of condition ( 8 ) we add three more , the system will be determinate . Let three new conditions be ( A ... F ... 1tt 2)21 ( A*-F*38 ... S ) F. . I *** ( 12 ) ( A ... F ... X l Yl , J them the variable terms of ( 2 ) will take the form of the sum of three squares , and the roots:of ( 11 ) will be the coefficients of the transformed expression for ( 7 ) . Or , if 0 , 02 , 0 , be the roots of ( 11 ) , ( 2 ) and ( 7 ) take the forms 2+ Yq12 + r22= , ( 13 ) Op+ ? Qq+0 r 2-h-St In order to determine the values of the coefficients of transformation Ca , a , a2 , we have from ( 9 ) , ( _AO3)o+ X-l0 > x + ( txGO)a,2=0 ( H-0 ) ? + ( 33--B 0)+(JFaF0)c.(2=0 , * the expression becomes V(A+O)+Tq S & -(F & +Gf)lO+FGO ? D V4 + ( Cp +H4 ? )0 C010 =a1 : VE+TR =tVG+T & , whence the system ca : cm a2 =V(A+o)+Ta VEI ? T =VG +T & VH +T V(B+O)+T33 UP +Tj ( 15 ) VG +T & : VF +TS V(C+0)+T J with similar expressions for 2P P ; i , ry 7r2 , obtained by writing 01 , T1 ; 0 , T , respectivly for 0 , T. Returning to the equations of motion ( 1 ) , and transforming by the forminl ip= r1+P q1+yrt1 , g-1S+ll+7lGyS * . * with similar expressions for the two other equations . Multiplying the system so formed by y , Vi ' yv respectively and adding , the coefficients of p1 ' , q'I will vanish , and that of r%l will =1 in virtue of ( 12 ) ; and as regards the right-hand side of the equation , the coefficient of p,2 Aa , + Ha + GaG a , a y HaJ+B a , +fF ax , yL Gca+Fa , + Ccz , p a.2 va which , omitting common factors , ( S+O)A+ +(S+0)0 , VA+T % +VO , VA+T29+VQ2 ( S + O)H +I . VH +T ? , VH+Tj ( S+O)G + & , VG+T & VG+T2A ={(S+0)0 oVH+TI VH+T2 RI +VO | Vl TT23(S+0)ll+ % VG+TQ & VG+T'CT | VG+T2 & ( S+O)G+eTh V02 |(S+O)H+1 VH+TY ( S+O)G+ & VG+T & { ( S + O)OV(T2-T ) +Vo(V -T2(S + 0 ) ) +V02(T(S + 0)-V ) } ( fi-fJG ) =V(02o){T(S +)0V}(ll H-G ) . But T(S+0)-V=(S+0)(02+S0+ ? )-V_=(S+O){(S+0)2-(S+0)+b}-V =(S+0)3_S(S+0)2+.(S+0)-V _0 . Hence , finally , the coefficient of p12 vanishes . So likewise the coefficient of q12 = A+H1+GP32 P. =O . HP+BP1+F13F / 31 VI GP+F P+CP2 fs And that of r21Ay+Hy7+G 7GY y0 . Hy +B y1+ F7+ F v1 yy Gy/ +F yl+CY2 72 72 Similarly the coefficients of q1 rl , and r , p1 will be found to vanish ; and lastly , the coefficient of p1 q1 =a . { A ( 3172-271)+ llQ2y-j372)+ G(3yj-j1,7 ) } + a{l(f172-/ 271 ) +1( -32y p2 ) +F ( / 71-/ PI7 ) } + a. { G ( I31Y2 4 2r1 ) +F ( 32/ 72 ) + C(Py1-1Y)I ) } -3 { A(71a.2-y2a- , ) +H(y2a.-yM2 ) ? G(7a1-71a ) } -/ 31{H(ya2-y2a.1 ) +B ( y2a--va2)+F(v(LEr a ) } -2{G ( y1a.22al ) +F ( 72CX-Ya.2)+C(Ya1-y,1a . ) } , which , by reference to ( 9 ) , may be transformed into o { ( Az+Hl + Ga)2+ ( Ea + Ba + Fac , )2+(Ga + Fax + Ca , )2 -(A13 ? 11131+GP2)2+(1113+ B13+F132)2+(GC3+F131+C132)2 } o { ( A2 + Hp12 +C 122+ 2Fae + 2GB a+2 F1a ; C)S -(A}32 + B112+ C/ 32 + 2FO1332 + 2G/ 32 + 2H13-31)S ? ( ( HX_2ip9 ) + ( ~3 _)(a12_12 ) + ( C)(2 2 ) + 2Jf(ala -11132 ) +2 ( aa -13213 ) + 2p(aa , -P133 )I ; in which the coefficient of S vanishes in virtue of ( 12 ) ; so that the coefficienit ofpl , qL *~~~3 ( " ) C O_ ) cc)Xp p ) } but , by ( 12 ) , Hence the coefficient in question ? ( 0(01)*(18 ) and the equationis of motion become p1 =n ( 01 2)ql ? 13 ) qlE= O ( -02 > whence the equations of motion ( 19 ) become I= V-li(01 02)1qJ '*1 ' In order to compare these results with the ordinary known form , we must make F=O , G=O , H10 , P1=Aip , q1=B3q , r-1C r ; which values reduce ( 13 ) to the following : ( Atp )2+ ( B'q)2+ ( Cr9 , )2= ' -(B+ C)Ap'-(C+ A)Bq'2-(A+B)Cr ' =k2Sh ; which last is equivalent to ( A-S ) ( Ap ) + ( B-S(B- ) + ( CS)(Cj )2=k-Sh , or A(AIp)2 + B(B lq)2+ C(CUr)2 2 . Also , on the same supposition , V=ABC , 0=-(B+C ) , 01=-(C+A ) , 0 , =-(A+B ) , which , when stubstituted in the above , give Ap1'=(ABCf ) -(B-C)B2C'qr , BiPq=z . , . or Ap'=(B-C)qr , Bq'=(C-A)fp , Cr ' ( A-B)pq , as usual . It remains only to determine the absolute values of the coefficients of transformation , the ratios of which are given in ( 15 ) . For this purpose let V(A + 00 ) + To%=AO ) VF_+Toff = o0 , V(B +00 ) +T033 o0 VG +T T =O & . ex ( 22 ) V(C +00 ) +ToC =Co V1I+To0=Po J Then , from ( 15 ) , __________ ? _~ = ______9 _______ Wo . , o __ __P _ ( A. . H.](Xj )= ( A ... E 0 ) ( oeoyA 2l ( A ... 3]loRIoC ) 2(A. . Cpo)303fo)2 ( A ... K & o0Rf ; o0 ) ( A ... 11 ... ( ..io/ F= From these relations it follows that ; 0_ & 02= ? . 0 -330(5 ; = ? ** ( 23 ) 030-No 2= O , SO & O-0 CO340=0O , which relations may be also verified as follows : & 0_qo_ ( 00(VG+TO & )(Vll+ ? TO2 ) -(VA+T0 ? +V00)(VF+Toff ) = V2J ? VTO(G3 +IG -A-F % ) ? To2VF-Vo(VF +Toff ) V{Vg-To(Sf + BF ) +TT2F-VOOF-Vj+ST , ffT } ; Since G+ F33 + CY=0 , IQ ? +BSJ+F ? F ; =O , and ( 0+ S)T-V=O , or OT=V -ST . Hence & oRIo-O-O=VFjTo2-T V0o } =VF{T0o(S + o0)-V00 } -0 . From these relations it follows that the first denominator , viz. ( A , B , C , F , G , -1.0(50)2 =AT 2+ B & 2+ C02C02+r(FM0QO + G & f+ H%Igo ) -=o{A%o+B330 +CCO+2(FfO+G & o+ll0o } =-O7V{A2+B 2+C2 +2(r2+ G2+h2 ) + 3TO+ S00 } =g0V{S2-2 +3TO+ 800 } - & V 30Q2+4S00+++ S ' } =-0V{(S + 00)(S + 300 ) + } . Hence , writing ( S ? 00)(S+ 300 ) + S= So , we have , finally , Ct=E 71= al-OS a2=W From this we may obtain the following system : =1 _ ? a=G 0 00 ~~0 0 ____ _-$ with similar expressions for , / 3 ) P2 ; v ' v1 72 obtained by writing the suffixes 1 and 2 respectively for 0 . By means of these we may write the equations connecting the variables as follow : 1+1 1o | ? pI + 33 q+ S2l . ( 25 ) _ol_ d2 C2 _Ot JPlQ ( t 1 Lastly , to complete the transformations , the values of p1 , q1 , r1 should be determined in terms of p , q , r. Now %034 + 031+ Off , =(VA +TOR+ V00)(VH + T1 ) + ( VIH +TOV)(VB +T1B + TO1 ) + ( VG+To & ) ( VF+T1 > ) = V2{(A + B)H+ FG } +TOT1{(a+ 3 ) ? + Ir } + V2H(0o + 01 ) + V3(OT2 + OITo ) = V2(SH +R ) +TOT , ( . + VH ) + V21H(0o + 01 ) + W ( 0OT , + oITo ) =V { V(S + 00 + 01 ) + TOT , }IH + ( V0oT , + V0OTo + 4ToTI + V2 ) =T0T1{ [ -(S + O0)(S + 01)(S + 02 ) + V]H + [ OO(S + O0 ) + 01(S + 01 ) +S+ ( S + 00)(S + 0)]RI } , since V=To(S+00)=T1(S+ 0 ) =T2(S+ 02 ) . Moreover by ( 11 ) we have ( S + 00 ) ( S +01 ) ( S+ 02 ) =V , and consequently the coefficient of H vanishes . And it may be noticed , as a useful formula for verification , that , from the relations last above written , we may at once deduce the following : TOTIT , = V2 . Again , the coefficient of 3I . may be thus written : ( S+00+02)(S+00)+(S+00 ? 01)(S+01)S+S ( S+00)(S+01 ) ( S + 02)(S + 00)(S + 00)(S + 01 ) =-(S +0o)(S +00)-(S +02)(S +01)-(S +00)(S +02 ) +S ' =0 , F. in virtue of ( 11 ) . Hence the whole expression vanishes , or g%ON , + 10331+ ( 509 - ? ... ..(26 ) and similarly Moreover , in virtue of ( 23 ) , we have %02 + Ro2 ? + & 2= %O . , ! Hence multiplying ( 25 ) first by A , , NO , rO respectively and adding , secondly by PI 331 ; fl thirdly by i2 ' o we shall obtain the iniverse system J ]1 ? =i_ , OP+ AOq+ GQo ? Y I 1g I+I & ? j > ( 2 ) , 1 & 2 P +fflq+ C2 , r Returning to the integrals ( 13 ) , we derive ( 01 _O)q,2 + ( 02 -O)r12 h2_(S+ 0 )h , ( 0201)212 + ( O -0)P 2=k 2-(S + 1)k , ( 0 -O 2+( ) ? 01_0h)q -2-2-(S+02)h . Let n~~~~ 2X1 , '/ ( S +Oh cosx ; then ql =2 and 2 --(S ? o)h 2 ' __-_($+9)k 01-0 k2-(S+02)h */ 02 0o0 02 P ( S + 0)I Sibstituting in the equatLions of m-otion ( 21 ) ( e. g. the 'first of them ) and dividing throughout by sin X,2 -(S+ 02)4 , we have dX___ _ _____ __ 01-0 k2-(S+0 ) 2V dt a t ? V\/ -0 I( )'X or 2_ + IX2_ ( s + O)hd 01-0 h ( S+ 02 ) / / 2 ' O1-0 k2_(S+0)h mX then x=am ( tv V7 7S+ ? o)Jh+f ) and p=/ '-S + Dhco$ am 2-(l/ S -( tt _sin am ( > / ( V2(S + 0)ht + ) . rl= V Ozj~ 0)kAam VIc2 -(5+0)h/ a * ? f These , then , are the integrals of the equations of motion when no external forces are acting . The next step is to determine the variations of the arbitrary constants , due to the -action of disturbing forces , when , as in the case of nature , those forces are small . With a view to this , it will be con venient to change the arbitrary constants into the following , Vk2-(S+02)Ah=r Vk2I-(S+t0)h= , whence ( 0-02)A=m 2t ( 0-02)k2 ( S+ 0)2(S +02 ) 2 ; also , for brevity , let =4 ~ ~~~~~~ 00 li 02_I am(Unt+f)= , 01 02=kl Theni the equations of motion become __ / oo cos am(lnt+f ) , _1 t 6Now it is known by the theory of elliptic functions that d cos amx --sin am xA am x , dx d sin am x= cos arn XA amr , a _--k'sinmScosamx , dx Whence P1 , Q1 , R1I being the moments of the disturbing forces about the present axes , cos dm+ dt~ ~ V'0-0 . dm dn df )1 in d +m Co A/ 74 ? tUf dtX+mo ~ ) & dt ~dtIJ GO tdn sin dn I cdf ) } Q1 s/ -( fl , nx 1 s1ncosXxk(tdt t - } Et-g AX -nkl sin X cos-X ( t-J -t ) From these we derive dm Tt V00 co X+101-o Q1 sin X , I"Uax It d-f + d)- , v/ fw-f > Pl sin X+A/ fIT~ Q Cos X , dn n sin o cos X AXt -/ 02-0RA ? f , X - , c ? SX or dn --P1 0i-0 msinxcosx AX 01-02 ( AX)2 Vo-o , P1sinx+V0-0 QcosX } R 01-0 1 sin X cosX{ V02-QX ? 0 -0 , ( AX)2 02Pi5inX ? V0i-02Qicos % } S { v/ oP1cosX+\/ " o02Q1 sinX}dt . And lastly , df_ dn 1 - & \/ O-01 *sinXV QCOS dt tA f { & / \ P1 co s x+ '0Q1 sin , X d

112000

3701662

Experiments, Made at Watford, on the Vibrations Occasioned by Railway Trains Passing through a Tunnel

65

83

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

James South

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0017

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112000

10.1098/rspl.1863.0017

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112000

Measurement

Geography

Measurement

" Experiments , made at Watford , on the Vibrations occasioned by Railway Trains passing through a Tunnel . " By Sir JAMES SOUTH , LL. D. , F.R.S. , &c. , one of the Visitors of the Royal Observatory of Greenwich . Received June 17 , 1863* . In the year 1846 an attempt was made to obtain the consent of the Lords of the Admiralty to run a railway through Greenwich Park , distant only 860 feet from the Royal Observatory , which would in the opinion of many competent judges have been most injurious to that Establishment . Such consent their Lordships refused ; but as I was assured on high authority that this attempt was to be repeated , and that too with the fullest confidence of success on the part of its projectors and supporters , I determined to make experiments which might bear more decisively on the question of railway tremors , as affecting that Observatory , than those previously made by myself and others . For this purpose it seemed indispensable that the station selected for making them should geologically resemble that of Greenwich , and that the astronomical means employed to detect the existence and determine the intenisity of the tremors should be , optically , at least equal to the telescope of the Greenwich Mural Circle . As much importance"was attributed by the advocates of this railway to the supposed power of a tunnel to render the vibrations imperceptible , it was also desirable that it should be one of the conditions of these trials . Having but little more than a popular knowledge of geology , I relied on my old and valued friend the late Mr. Warburton , who had recently been President of the Geological Society , to guide me in the choice of a station ; and it was on his authority that I fixed on the Watford Tunnel and its immediate vicinity . There , under a light gravelly soil of 18 or 20 inches deep , lies a bed of gravel of considerable but variable thickness , sometimnes compact , at other times loose , and immediately under it chalk with occasional flints . The tunnel , of which the bearing is 41§ 19t to N.W. of the meridian , and by my measurement is 1812 yards long , passes principally through chalk ; its arch is about 24 feet in diameter , the crown of it being about 215 feet above the rails . The thickness of the brickwork is about 18 inches ; the meani thickness of the chalk above the crown of the arch about 50 feet , whilst that of the gravel , though subject to great irregularity , may perhaps be regarded as 14 feet . If so , we have outside the tunnel above the horizontal plane of the rails 87 feet of chalk , flint , gravel and soil , constituting an assemblage of which the power of transmitting tremors must be comparatively feeble . There are five shafts in the tunnel , four of which are circular , 8-5 feet diameter , and one quadrangular , about 26 feet by 34 . The tuinnel runs under the park of the Earl of Essex ; and though I had not the honour of a personal acquaintance with the Noble Earl , nor any introduction to him , yet on learning my objects he transmitted to me by return of post , from Carlsbad , a carte-blanche to erect my observatory wherever I pleased , though it were in the very heart of his choicest game preserves . To him therefore is mainly due whatever benefit may accrue to science or to the Royal Observatory from the experiments recorded in this communication . The point I selected was 302 yards distant from the centre of the line ; and the perpendicular from it on the axis of the tunnel meets that at a point 567 yards from the southern or London end of the tunnel , 124.5 yards from the Tring or north enzd , and 594 5 from the fourth shaft . This is the centre of the Observatory which I erected there : it is of wood , as small as is consistent with the necessary accommodation , both for portability , and that it might be less agitated by the wind . It is quadrangular , 12 feet by 10 , and its length is in the meridian ; the eaves are 85 feet , and the ridge of the roof 10 feet above the floor , this last-being 4 iilches above the grounid , which is nearly level with that over the tunnel . The roof is covered with tarpaulins very well secured , so as not to be torn by a gale of wiYd . In the south and west sides are four wilndows , which can be opened or shut at pleasure , to light the Observatory by day , or to see powder or other signals at night . In the roof is no opening ; but in its northern side there is one which can be shut as required : it is little larger tihanwhat is absolutelynecessaryto allow the reflected rays from thePole-star to pass uninterruptedly to the observer 's eye through its whole revolutioni . At its centre , parallel with its sides and resting on the undisturbed gravel 4 feet below the surface , is a mass of brickwork laid in excellent Roman cement , 8 by 3,5 feet at bottom , 7 by 3-5 at top , its length ruinning east and west . On this stand two piers of similar brickwork , 18 inches by 14 , and 46 inches higher than the floor : they are capped by two Portland stones of similar horizontal section 8 inches thick . In the interior faces of these stones are firmly fixed the Y-plates , which carry the Is on which the instrument 's pivots rest . Eighteen inches north of the brick massive , but in the same plane with its base , is the centre of the base of another pier , brought up also in Roman cement , 24 inches from N. to S. , 18 from E. to W. ; and it rises 12 inches above the floor . The upper surface is perfectly horizontal , and serves to support a vessel which contains mercury . Both this pier and the massives are insulated from the floor , and touch the ground only at their bases . The mercury-vessel was 18 inches by 43 , with its length in the meridiani . The transit-instrument of the Campden Hill Observatory is far too precious to be exposed to the risks of such an expedition ; I therefore had one constructed which might be considered an excellent substitute . The objectglass ( which under favourable circumstances will bear a power of 1000 ) is 87 inches focus and 4 75 aperture . The tran-sverse axis is 31 inches ; and the Y has sufficient azimuthal motion to enable me to follow the Pole-star in its whole course , so that at any hour ( if clear ) I could have the reflected image of the star in the mercurial vessel ready to testify against the tremors caused by a train . Supported by timber passing into the ground , but unconnected with the floor and convenient to a writing-desk which occupies the S.E. angle of the building , stands a journeyman clock . It is set by my excellent gold pocketchronometer , Molyneux No. 963 , and rarely deviates from that more than oneor two-tenths of a second in three or four hours . The clock of the Watford Station was compared with the chronometer , going and generally returning , for the purpose of identifying particular trains . These details will , I hope , suffice to prove that every precaution was taken to obtain accurate results , and that those which I did obtain may be fairly considered as identical with what would have been found in a first-class observatory under the same circumstances of locality and traffic . I was at my post to commence observations on December 22nd , 1846 ; but that and the three following nights were starless . The 26th was fine , but , owing to the irregularity of the trains , and the want of well-organized signals , I could only satisfy myself that all was in good working order , and that the trains caused great disturbance . For thirteen following nights I was at my post , but in vain ; all was dark , with the thermometer from 220 to 310 . On January 11th , 1847 , it cleared , and I observed seven trains with decisive results , being able to announce their presence before it was known to my assistants , who were on the watch outside the observatory . The Pole-star 's image as reflected from the mercurial surface , when no train was near , appeared As a very small , perfectly steady disk , thus . ( I. ) which as the train approached broke up into a quin } . ( 2 . ) tuple , thus-As the disturbance increased , the form be- ' came linear at right angles to the length. . ' eo O o. . ( 3 . ) of the mercury-vessel , thus ... j00 When the train was considerablyadvanced I -iu the tunnel , a cross formed , thus- . ( 4 . ) And when near the perpendicular from the ] observatory , three parallel lines of disks ap*0.00 " " . , ... ( 5 . ) peared , thus.j still parallel to No. 3 . As the tremors became more distant , these transformations of the image take place in a reverse order , until the star resumes its original disk-like form . These results were strongly conspicuous even in a fully illuminated field , and equally so whether the magnifying power was 60 , 200 , or 750 . The phenomena are very striking , from the contrast between the smaller images , which are blue , while the larger ones are reddish , and from the sudden way in which they break out . The nights of the 13th and 14th were fine , and so thoroughly confirmed my previous observations that I felt it my duty to lose no time in informing the late Lord Auckland , then First Lord of the Admiralty , of the preceding details and of my conclusions from them , that a tunnel did not prevent great tremors from being propagated from it when a train was traversing it , certainly to the distance of 643 yards , and probably much fuLrther . The impression which these facts -made on his Lordship he expressed in the following letter . Copy of a Letter from the Earl of Auckland to Sir James South . " Admiralty , January 26th , 1847 . " SIn , -I have to return you many thanks for the very interesting report which you sent to me of your experiments upon the distance to which the vibration caused by steam-carriages within a tunnel extend ; and I cannot but admire the enterprise and ability with which these experiments were conducted . They would be quite conclusive if the question of carrying a tunnel through Greenwich Park were again to be agitated . " I am , very faithfully yours , " ' To Sir James South , A e. Syc . " " AUCKLAND . " The reserve with which I spoke of that further distance arose from the circumstance that I was not in possession of the exact measurements of the tunnel and the position of its shafts . 'I had twice applied for them in vain to the railway authorities , and was obliged at last to execute the measures myself * This consumed some time , and the observations were not completely resumed till February 24 , 1847 . The process was this . About 600 yards before the entrance of the tunnel a rocket was fired as a signal for attention . At the instant that the engine passed the south end of the tunnel , one of Lord Essex 's game-keepers fired one barrel of 'his gun , and the other about a second after , which was necessary to distinguish this from the shots of poachers , who were often at work around me . Similar shots were fired when the engine was at the centre of the 4th shaft ( which could be seen from above ) . The times of these signals were taken by an assistant . During this time I was at the telescope , and noticed the second when any peculiar phase of disturbance appeared . The computation of the distance of the engine from the eye at a given time is very simple . From the known distance of the south end of the tunnel and the 4th shaft from the eve , we know the times taken by the sound of the gun to reach the observatory . The temperature was during the whole series so near 32 ? that the velocity of sound for that temperature , 36313 yards , may be used without sensible error . The effect of wind must also have been insensible . Hence the signal from the south entrance was 15 77 too late , that from the shaft 19-84 . Correcting the times and dividing by their difference the distance of the shaft from the entrance , 162 yards , we have the velocity of the train ( which , however , I have given in miles per hour , as affording a more familiar measure of the disturbing power ) . Then the difference of the time of phase and corrected time of entrance gives the place of the engine on the line , and the perpendicular is given . In the following record of the observations , the first column contains the number , the second the times , the third the facts observed , and the fourth gives the distance , then follow occasional remarks . In the disturbances , I specially recorded as most definite the cross ( 4 ) , and the arrangement of bars of parallel stars ( 5 ) . The slighter disturbances which precede or follow the former were seldom entered , though quite sensible . 1847 , February 24._I . No. Time . Observations . Yards . Remarks . hmsI7 I8 43 Cross very distinct . 845 Velocity II'oo , miles an hour ; weight 7 19 21 Shaft gun . of train 77 5 tons ; twelve carriages . 7 22 . 57 South gun . 27 23 8 Lost sight of cross ... 704 II . 37 34 ? Cross ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 699 Velocity I6-6 miles ; train 69-5 tons , 34 8 Shaft gun . 231 feet long ; ten carriages . There . 36 31 South gun . mometer 24 ' . 4 36 48 Lost sight of cross ... ... . 780 III . 57 44 40 Cross ; star very faint ... 68o Velocity 13 8 miles . Star invisible to 44 44 Shaft gun . the naked eye . Train 58'5 tons ; 47 38 South gun . engine I4-5 tons ; length i85 feet . 67 47 42 Lost cross ... ... ... 678 February 24.-IV . No. Time . Observations . Yards . Remiiarks . hms7 59 6 Shaft gulni . Velocity II'4 miles ; train 89'5 tons ; 82 30 Star became visible . enlgine i8 ditto ; length 308 feet . 82 34 South gun ; star bright . Wind E. Tlherm . 24g . 783 Io Cross disappeared. . 834-5 1847 , February 27.-I . 7 28 o Slhaft gun . Velocity I5'4 miles ; train 54 to^ns ; 29 7 Cross first seei , but star enginie 14'5 tons ; length of train very faint . 17z feet . 30 34 Soutll guln . 87 30 44 Cross lost ; star very faiiit ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 722 II . 97 44 43 Cross seen ... ' . " " ' ' 736 Velocity 25z 6 miiiles ; tailn 49-5 tons ; 7 4451 Shaft gun . engillc 145 tons ; length of train I0 45 8 Cross very strong ... ... 470 150 feet . I1 45 27 Line veiry stronlg . 326 46 24 South guni . I2 46 46 Cross lost . 915 III . 13 7 56 2I Cross seen . 706 Velocity 17-6 miles ; train 270 5 tons ; 56 3i Souith gtin . two engines z9'5 tolls ; length of 14 57 45 Coss very strong 3I4 traini 663 feet ; 37 carriages . S8 46 Shaft gun . I51 58 53 Cross lost ... ... . 736 IV . I6 83 36 Cross very strong 736 Velocity 3I'7 miles ; train IIz tons ; 3 44 Shaft gun . engine 2I tons ; length of train 17 46 Cross very fine . 377 394 feet ; carriages 17 . Wind N.E. i8 4 I4 Triple line , upper and Thermometer 26 ? . lower stars blue . 3I9 4 59 South gun . I95 28 Cross lost ... ... ... ... . . o86 V. 20 8 IO 56 Cross seen ... ... ... ... ... 7z7 |Velocity i87 miles ; train 51-5 tons ; II 8 South gun . engine I2'5 tons ; length of train 21 sI 56 Triple line strong . 322 187 feet . A train of empty cattle13 15 Shaft gun . waggons . Cross lost from cloud ... lost March 11.-I . No. Time . Observations . Yards . Remarks . h ra s 23 7 I8 44 Cross very distinct ... 802 Velocity 17-7 ; train 147-5 tons ; en . I9 6 South gun . gin 125 tons ; length of train 355 2I 20 Shaft gun , cloud . feet . II . 8 25 3 Shaft giin , cloud . Velocity 33-0 miles ; train I22 tons ; z6 I5 South gun , cloud cleared enginie zI tons ; lengtli of train 41 6 23 z6 32 Cross lost by cloud ... ... 92I feet . Cross so strong , lbut for the cloud it might have been seen I5 or even more seconds longer . 1847 , March 12.-I . 24 6 56 22 Cross very distinct ... ... z 822 Velocity z8 33 miles ; train 68 tons ; 56 38 South gun . engine 15 tons ; length of train 23 1 25 56 52 Cross very strong ... ..46I feet ; many carriages but mostly 26 57 i6 Star tossed about 3 or 4 empty , many wheels and axles ; of its diaineters ... 3O24 agitation excessive . Seemed to 58 2 Shaft gun . keep time with the jolts of the 27 58 8 Cross lost ... 766 train . II . 28 7 13 15 Cross plain . 8I Velocity 35-5 miles ; train 59-5 tons ; 13 26 Shaft gun . engine 15 tons ; length of train I92 29 13 44 Cross very strong 392 feet . Train does not stop at Wat30 I3 56 Triple line very strong . 305 ford . 31 14 20 0Cross very stronig ... . . 480 I 43 3 Southl gunl . 32 14 58 Cross lost ... ... ..1074 III . 33 7 57 i6 Image much agitated ... 1077 Velocity 30 9 miles ; train 's weight 34 57 30 Cross . 877 1 24 . tOnsl ; two enlgines 2I tons and 57 47 Shaft gun . I4 tons ; length of train 375 feet . 35 58 o Cross very strong 478 Wind N. , very weak . Thermometer 36 58 IO Parallel lines ( 5 ) very 3 O.5 , strong . 374 37 58 I6 ( 5 ) still stronger. . 329 38 58 25 ( 5 ) ten Iiiues , quite cover field of telescope ... ... 3o2 39 58 45 Cross very strong . 431 59 4 South gun . 40 59 14 Cross strong. . 803 4I 59 31 Cross lost . 1045 March 12.-IV . No. Time . Observations . Yards . Remarks . hm s 42 8 40 1x Cross . X ... ... ... . 855 Velocity 37-7 miles ; train 5o tons ; 40 24 Shaft gun . engine I4z5 tons ; train 's length 43 40 38 Cross very strong ... , 428 I5z feet . 44 40 54 Parallel lines ; image trembles ... ... ... ... . . 3o0 The image trembled very much du45 41 10 Strong lines.v.v 4I6 ring the whole time of passage 41 z7 South gun . through the field . 46 4I 48 Cross lost..II. . 1847 , March 15.-I . 47 7 21 14 Cross ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1176 Velocity 20'5 miles ; train x25*5 tons ; 48 22 6 Cross strong.686 engine z2 tons ; length of train 409 22 io Shaft gun . feet ; i8 carriages . 49 22 37 Line brilliant ; changed 430 suddenly to 50 22 50 Parallel lines ( 5 ) 349 5I 23 5 ( 5 ) very strong . 303 52 23 I5 ( 5 ) still strong ... ... ... 311 53 23 22 Cross very strong 335 54 24 6 South gun ; cross very strong . 55 24 51 Cross still seen ... ... ... 1 078 II . 56 7 25 55 Cross ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 775 Velocity zz-6 miles ; train 20og5 tons ; 26 io South gun . length of train 172 feet ; slow goods 57 27 I Parallellines verystrong 3o3 train . 58 27 so Do . do . very beautiful ... 324 27 55 Shaft gun . 59 28 x8 Cross lost. . 92z III . 60 7 31 19 Cross ... ... ... .0 ... ... xo32 Velocity zrI6 miles ; train9I 5 tons ; 6i 31 52 Cross very strong 706 engine 14-5 tons ; train 's length 31 58 Shaft gun . 3I9 feet . 62 32 30 Single line very strong 384 63 32 32 Changed to ( 5 ) parallel lines . 371I5 64 32 48 ( 5 ) very strong ... ... ... 308 33 48 South gun . 65 34 22 Cross lost . 992 IV . 66 7 43 37 Cross . 786 Velocity 14-8 miles ; train 49'5 tons ; 67 43 44 Cross strong.740 engine 14'5 tons ; train 's length 43 57 Shaft gun . Io feet ; six carriages . 68 44 22 Line strong . 502 69 45 0 Cross very strong ... ... 328 70 45 I8 Traceof ( s)parallellines 302 7I 45 37 Line very strong ... ... ... 336 72 45 52 Cross strong ... 391 46 38 South gun . [ leaving the tunnel . 73 46 42 Cross lost ... ... ... ... ... 679 I never saw it cease so soon after March 15.-V . No. Time . Observations . Yards . Remarks . hms 74 8 I0 i6 Cross ... ... ... ... ... ..1029 Velocity 33-O miles ; train Io6 tons ; 75 I0 35 Cross very strong ... ... 741 engine zi tons ; train 's length 364 I0 42 Shaft gun . feet . 76 I0 52 Line very strong ... ... ... 504 77 i I6 ( 5 ) brilliant ... ... ... ... . , 303 II 54 South gun , cross very strong . 78 I2 I6 Cross lost ... ... ... ... . 997 VI . 79 8 25 57 Cross ... .'.'.'.'. . 854 Velocity 15'9 miles . This train could 26 25 Shaft gun . not be identified . 80 28 I2 Cross very strong ... ... 394 28 54 South gun . 8i 29 Iz Cross lost . 782 VII . 8 ' 8 4.I 29 Cross.9z6 Velocity 23-7 miles . Newcastle Ex41 55 Shaft gun . press . 83 42 z2 ( s ) parallel bars . 406 43 35 South gun . 84 44 2 Cross lost . 950 1847 , March 16.-I . 85 6 44 49 Cross ... ... 1157 Velocity 34miles ; train 75 tons ; en45 z2 Shaft gun . gin iS tons ; length of train 282 86 46 8 Cross very strong 393 feet . 46 z8 South gun ; cross very strong . 87 46 58 Cross last seen. . 57 II . 88 6 54 14 Cross..935 Velocity 24-8 miles ; train 67 tons ; 54 42 South gun . engine 54 tons ; length of train 89 55 34 ( 5 ) parallel lines ... 3 14 231 feet . 56 i8 Shaft gun . 9o 56 42 Lost cross , but cart within hearing 959 III . 9I 6 58 I8 Cross ... ... ..| 915 Velocity 11-4 miles ; train 322 tons ; 59 9 Shaft gun . engine 14 tons ; train 's length 857 92 7o ii Line very strong . 382 feet . A heavy goods train . 93 0 20 ( s ) very strong ... ... ... 3 5z 94 0 30 ( 5 ) magnificent ... ... ... 328 95 0 40 Cross very strong ... ... 38 96 0 55 Cross double..--.very 309 beautiful . 2 36 South gunI ; cross very strong . 97 44 Cross lost ... ... ... ... ... 0 . Ii| March 16.-lV . No. Time . Observationis . Yards . Remarks . hms 98 78 50Cross ... ... ... ... ... . . 870 Velocity zi,9 miIes . 8 30 Soutit gun . Io iS Shlaft gun . 99 Io 38 Lost cioss ... ... ... . 878 V. IOO 7 I8 32 Cross. . 1038 |Velocity 25-7 miles ; weight of train 19 5 Shaft guin . 69 5 tons ; engine I4 5 tons ; train 's so 37 Souith gun . length 194 feet . IOI 2I 5 Lost C0oss ... ... ... ... ... 988 VI . 102 7 42 2 Cr-oss ... ... ... ... ... . . 824 VelocitY 35 8 miles ; train 53-5 tons ; 42 14 Shaft gun . enginie 145 tons ; traini 's length I03 42 43 ( 5 ) ... ... ... ... ... . 305 I68 feet . 43 20 SouIth gun . 104 43 45 Lost cross ... ... ... ... ... 1079 VII . 1O5 8 3 ! 42 Cross . 846 Velocity 369 miles ; train 98-5 tons ; 31 55 Shaft gun . engine Ii tons ; length of traini i2z IO6 32 9 ( 5 ) ' ' ... ... ' ' . ' ' ' " . 4A28 feet . Wind S.E. ; fresh . 32 59 South gun . 107 33 22 Lost cross ... ... ... ... ... Isa8 VTIII . IO8 8 43 48 Cross very faint ... ... ... 668 Velocity 20-I miles ; tirain 55 75 tons ; 43 5 ? Shaft guin . engine 2.375 tOlns ; train 's lengtl 45 48 South guin . 146 feet . Trem-ors uniusually small . log 46 8 Lost the cross ... ... ... ... 821 1847 , March 17.-I . 110 6 42 45 Cross ... ... ... ..|..055 Velocity 33-9 miles ; train IO4 tons 43 12 Shaft gun . enginie I9 tons ; leng-th of traini | IsI 43 40 ( 5 ) beautifuil ... ... ... ... 318 362 feet . I 12 43 55 ( 5 ) ditto ... ... ... ... ... ... 337 44 22 South guin ; cross very stronig . 113 44 54 Cross lost ... ... ... II66 II . 1 I4 66 Cross ... ... ... ... ,.|O 1076 Velocity z8'7 miles ; train 70 tons ; 56 I SoUth gun . etnginc 12 tons ; train 's lengtl 247 ; IIISI 56 37 ie of staL s vnry beaue 3o4 . feet . Winid S.E. ; scarcely sensitifil . se ble ; image very unisteadv . |6 56 46 ( 5 ) ... ... ... | 315 1 57 234 Clsaft ver . s 832 |1 17 |57 35 2 Coss still veg-y stroig ... . 83 II I8 7 47 Clross l0st ... ... ... ... ... , ICO4 March 17.-III . No. Time . Observations . Yards . Remarks . hm s II9 7 IO 23 Cross ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 828 Velocity 22 9 miles ; train 74 5 tons ; IO 43 South gun . engine I2V5 ; train 's length I 7I feet . 120 II 32 Cross strong . ' . ' ' . 302 I2 II 45 Line strong . 336 I2 27 Shaft gun . I22 I2 47 Cross lost.892 1847 , March 18.-I . I23 6 i8 I2 Cross well seen . 961 Velocity 27-3 miles ; train 's weight i8 38 South gun 87 tons ; engine I5 tons ; length 124 19 25 ( 5 ) strong . 3I4 of train 345 feet . 125 20 3 Cross strong ... ... ... ... 666 20 5 Shaft gun . I26 20 20 Cross still strong ... ... ... 875 I27 20 26 Cross lost ... ... ... ... ... 95o The image oscillating in everydirection . II . iz8 6 38 32 Cross strong ... ... ... ... 902 Velocity 30-4 miles ; train 78 tons ; 38 5 Shaft gun . engine ig tons ; length of train 246 129 39 20 ( 5 ) very strong ... ... ... 331 feet . 4o 9 South gun . 130 40 II Strong cross ... ... ... ... 692 I31 40 24 Cross lost . 870 II[.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 132 655 II Cross ... ... ... ... ... . 992 Velocity 2-56 miles ; train 63 tons ; I33 55 32 Line strong . 746 engine I4 tons ; train 's length ziz 55 It 3 Sotuth gun . feet . 134 56 22 Cross very strong ... ... 307 135 56 33 ( 5 ) beautiful ... ... ... ... 3 13 57 x6 Shaft gun . I36 57 43 Cross lost . 1003 IV . I37 7 14 12 Cross strong ... ... ... ... 824 Velocity 3I6 miles ; train 72'5 tons ; 14 25 Shaft gun . engine I4-5 toIsI ; train 's length 138 15 0 ( 5 ) beautiful ... . . , . , 303 254 feet . 139 I5 12 ( 5 ) still fine.343 140 15 26 Cross strong ... . . 484 15 40 South gun . 14I i6 7 Cross lost ... .,1057 V. 142 7 2I 59 Cross ... ... ... ... . . | 705 Velocity 22 ? 9 miles ; a light goods 22 7 South gun . train . 143 22 45 Cross strong . 326 23 51 Shaft gun . I44 24 5 Cross lost . 830 March 18.-VI . No. Time . Observations . Yards . Remarli-s . hms 145 7 36 54 Cross ... ... ... ... ... . . 888 Velocity 18+2 miles ; train 's weight 84 37 26 South gun . tons ; engine i6 tons ; train 's length 146 38 20 Cross stron . 311 187 feet . All the inages inosculated 147 38 30 All confusion . 303 during the train 's passage through 148 38 40 Line very strong . 320 the tunnel ; yet when it was gone 39 . 37 Shaft gun . the star was perfectly steady . Wol149 40 3 Cross lost . 895 verton goods train..~~~~~~~Vl VII . 150 7 41 o Cross ... ... . . | 896 Velocity 29'7 miles ; train 's weight 15 ! 4I 13 Cross strong.* '.'.'.72I 6z-5 tons ; engine 14'5 tons ; train 's 4I I9 Shaft gun . length 204feet . As in last the images 152 41 43 ( 5 ) *.-.* ... . . 373 inosculated ; even the lines of ( 5 ) ran 153 42 0 ( 5 ) stroig.303 into each other . Peterborough light 42 39 South gun . train . 154 43 14 |Cross lost.1141 VIII . 155 7 59 5 Cross . I II Velocity 40'2 miles ; traini i28 tonS ; x56 59 25 Cross very strong 740 engine I9 tons . ; length of train 458 59 3 ! Shaft gun . feet . I57 80 I0 ( 5).367 0 30 South gun . 158 0 54 Cross lost . II5 Ix . 159 8 38 36 Cross ... ... ... ... ... . . 8x8 Velocity 4l-6z miles ; train 6I25 tons ; 38 46 Shaft gun . enginie 23-75 tons ; length of train x6o 39 o Cross very strong 4o6 144 feet . x6x 39 I0 ( 5 ) ... ... ... ... ... ... 310 I62 39 I8 Cross ... ... . ' ... 48 ! 1 39 43 South gun . 163 40 3 Cross lost.1 1076 1847 , Alarch 19.-I . I64 6 39 55 Cross seen ... ... . | 858 Velocity 37 9 miles ; train 9275 tolls . ; 40 8 Shaft gun . enlgine 23 75 tons ; train 's length i65 40 0o Line very distinct . 6o6 284 feet . I66 40 25 Cross extremely bright| 390 41 o South gun . I67 41 37 1Cross lost ... ... ... ... ... I ziz8 Observed by the Marquis of Blandford March 19.-II . No. Time . Observations . Yards . Remarks . hms i68 6 56 52 Cross . 919 Velocity 3288 miles ; train 67 tons ; 57 12-5 South gun . engine i4 tons ; train 's length 731 I69 57 30 Cross very bright ... ... 397 feet . 170 57 49 ( 5 ) very distinct ... ... . 306 58 2.5 Shaft gun . 171 58 44 Cross lost ... ... ... ... ... . . 978 Observed by the Marquis of Blandford . III . 172 7 15 20 Cross ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 697 Velocity 3z I miles ; train 68-5 tOlns ; 15 24 Shaft gun . engine I4 tons ; train 's length 234 173 I5 45 Cross still distinct ... ... 383 feet . 174 I5 55 ( 5 ) slightly ... ... ... ... ... 313 I6 38 South gun . 175 i6 46 Cross lost ... ... ... ... ... 78i Observed by Lord Alfred Churchill . IV . 176 7 24 4o Cross . 1042 Velocity 24-0 miles ; train 98-5 tons ; 177 24 57 Cross very strong . 848-5 engine i'tons ; train 's length 16 25 i8 South gun . feet . This night very unfavourable . 178 26 5 Cross extremely strong 302 Many observations lostfrom clouds , 179 26 IO ( 5 ) ... ... ... ... ... ... 3o9 and the stars when seen often faint . 26 57 Shaft gun . I80 27 26 Cross lost ... ... ... . . 1005 1847 , March 22.-I . i8I 7 22 I2 ! Cross ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 759 Velocity z3'6 miles ; train 86'5 tons ; 22 24 -South giin . engine I12.5 tons ; train 's length 203 182 23 22 Cross strong.323 feet . 24 5 'Shaft gun . I83f 24 33 Across lost ... ... ... ... ... 964 II . 184 7 38 32 Cross ... ... ... ... 2. . 105 Velocity 20-7 miles ; train 68 tons ; I85 39 IO Cross strong ... ... ... ... 668 engine I4 5 tons ; train 's length 233 39 1z Shaft gun . feet . i86 40 12 ( 5). . 304 41 7 South gun . 187 41 36 Cross lost . 950 III . i88 7 58 20 Cross . 827 Velocity 3I14 miles ; train 88 tons ; 58 33 Shaft gun . engine 2I tons ; length of train 288 I89 59 4 ( 5 ) beautiful . 311 feet . 59 47 South gun . 190 6o 8 Cross lost. . 97l G March 29.-I . No. Time . Observations . Yards . Remarks . hms I9I 6 54 58 Cross 837 Velocity 33-I miles ; train Iog tons ; 55 13 South gun ; cross very two engines , 15 tons and 13 tons ; strong . train 's length 334 feet . I92 55 4 ? Cross extremely strong. . 310 193 56 o All lost in a flare ... ... 374 56 25 Shaft gun . 194 56 49 Cross lost ... ... ... ... . . , I057 II . 595 7 36 o Cross ... ... . . 0 849 Velocity 33-4 miles ; train 67 5 tons ; 36 I4+ Shaft gun . engine 14-5 tons ; train 's length 196 36 40 Cross very strong 333 226 feet . At 36m 45S the stars lost 37 25 South gun . shape and were inosculated with 197 37 43 Cross lost ... ... ... ... ... 940 each other . III . 7 47 43 Shaft gun . Velocity zo'8 miles ; train 48 tons ; '98 48 0o Cross first seen ... ... ... 4z6 engine 13 tons ; traini 's length 150 199 48 41 Cross strong . 30z feet . It was stopped by the police 49 37 South gun . at the entrance of the tunntel , and 200 49 39 Cross lost ... ... ... ... ... 677 went slowly through it-"crawling , " in the words of the signal-nan . IV . 201 846 Cross ... ... ... . 698 Velocity 33X4 miles ; train 92X5 tons ; 04 lo Shaft gun . engine I5 tons ; train 's length 328 202 4 45 Cross strong . 30 feet . 5 2i South gun . 203 5 44 Cross lost ... ... ... ... ... IOI8 V. 204 8 33 12 Cross . 774 Velocity 39-5 miles ; train 55-5 tons ; 33 20 Shaft gun . engine 2I tons ; train 's length 144 34 20 South gun . feet . 'Ine night unfavourable from 205 34 37 Cross lost_ ... ... ... ... ... 978 clouds . 1847 , March 30.-I . 2o6 6 49 ? 6 Cross. . 771 Velocity ? 9go miles ; train 12z tons ; 49 36 Shaft gun . engine I8 tons ; train 's length 404 207 50 IO ( s)twofaintparallellines 314 feet . 2o8 50 so Stars entirely confused . 302 Observed by the late Professor James , l 50 58 South gun . McCullagh , of Trinity College , 209 I i6 ICross lost ... ... ... ... ... .1 899 Dublin . March 30.-II . No. Time . Observations . Yards . Remarks . hms 2IO 6 57 57 Cross ... ... ... ... ... . 940 Velocity 38'4miles ; train 89'5 tons ; 211 58 IO Cross strong ... 714 eingine ig tons ; length of train 293 58 I6 South gin . feet . 212 58 40 ( 5 ) but confused ... ... ... 313 59 x8 Shaft gun . 213 59 36 Cross lost ... ... ... . . 1014 Observed by Prof. James McCullagh . III . 2I4 72 2 ! Cross ... ... ... ... . . 798 Velocity 2g-o miles . ; a pilot engine . 2 I4 Shaft gun . 215 3 36 South gun . Star which had been faint was now totally clouded . Observed by Prof. James McCullagh . IV . 2I6 7 17 25 Cross. . 883 Velocity 43'I miles ; train 49'5 tons ; 17 38 Shaft gun . engine 14'5 tons ; length 150 feet . 217 17 58 ( 5 ) ... ... ... .330 I8 33 South gun . 2I8 I8 48 Cross lost.969 V. 219 7 44 17 Cross . * -924 Velocity 28'3 ; train 53-5 tons ; engine 44 39 Shaft gun , cross very 14-5 tons ; length of train 167 feet . strong . 220 45 8 ( 5 ) brilliant . All the 346 stars blue except the cenitre . 22 I 45 27 ( 5 ) clianges to cross 31:6 46 3 Souith gun . 222 46 26 Cross lost.958 VI . 223 8I9 Cross.965 iVelocity 34-4 miles ; train 114-5 tons ; I 30 Shaft gun . engine zi toils ; length of trail 408 224 I 44 ( 5 ) ... ... . . , ... ... 446 feet . 225 2 12 ( 5 ) very strong . 335 2 39 South gun . 226 3z Cross lost ... ... ... ... ... 0 IO29 VII . 227 8 39 20 Cross | I..6 Velocity 45-6 miles ; train so 5 tons ; 39 34 Sliaft gun . engine I5 tons ; train 's length I52 228 39 55 ( ). . 313 feet . Newcastle Express . 40 26 South gun . 229 | 40 47 |Cross lost ... ... ... ... ... i| I6 Date . Across ( 5 ) ( ) Cross xi ri ' ri ' begins . begins . ends . ends . velo . weight . i847 . yards , yards . yards . yards . m'iles . tons . Feb. 24 845 ... . . 704 S. lEO0 77-5 699 ... ... 780 a. i 6'6 69'5 68o ... . 67'8 S.13'S 58'5 ... . . ~8 34'5 S. I11I4 89'5 Feb. 2 7 ... . . 722 S. 15'4 54'0 736 ... . 915 a. z5'6 49'5 706 ... . 736 w. 17'6 270'5 736 319 ... io86 a. 31-7 11z 727 32 . , . cloud i8'7 ' 51'5 Mar. S oz. , , , , cloud 17'7 147'5 cloud ... . . 921-f S.33'0 1 -2 Mar. i2 Szz 303. . 766 N. 28'3 68 Silr 305 . , 1074S . 3 53 59'5 877 374 302+ 104.5 S. 30-9 124 Image much agitated at 855 30z 416 103 ! S. 3 7'7 50 1077 yards . MNar.xI5 1176 349 311+ 1078+ S. 2-0'5 12535 Train very long . 775 303 32z4+ 922 N. 2zz'6 209'5 1032 37 ' 308+ 992 S. 2 '6 g '5 786 302 ... 679 s. I14 , S 49.5 1019 303 ... 997 s. 33'0 xo6 854 ... ... 782 S. 15'9 9z6 406 ... 950 S. 23'7 Jar . i6 1157 , ... . . 1157 S. 3 54 75 935 314 ... 959 N. 24'S 67 915 352 308+ 1110 s. I'-4 . 3l Train-ver lonig . 870 ... . . 878 N. '19 1038 . , . , 988 S. 57 69'5 84 305 , 1079.3 5'8 5 3'5 846 428 ... xo8 5 . 36'9 98'5 Lo-ng trainU . 668.,. . 8i S. 20 ' ! 55-75 Mkar . 17 1055 318 337+ 1166 S. 3 3'9 104 Rtather long . 1076 315 ... 1004 N. '87 70 82,8 ... ... 9g N. 2z '9 74-'5 Mar. iS8 961 31T4 f950 N. z7'3 87 Image oscillating . 902z 313I 870 S. 30'4 78 992 313. . 1003 JN . 25-6 63 84 303 343 1057 s5 , 316 72 '5 705 ... , 830 N. 2 '. . Light goods train . SoS 303 32.0 895 N. i8'z 84 . Imiages conifused . 896 373 303+ 1141 s. 297 6z'3 -Ditto ditto . 1111 ... ... 111 5 . 40'2 128 Long traini . SiS 310 ... 1076 S. 41-6 61i2z5 Mar. 19 859 T. . u1x8 S. 379 97 { Observed bythe Marquis 919 306. . 978 N- . 32-8 67 jof Blandford , 697 3 13 . 781 S. 3Z.i 1 68 5 Observed by Lord Alfred 1042 , 309. . 1005 jN . 24'0 98'5 Churchill . Mar.zz2 759 ... ... 964 . N. 23'6 86'5 1025 j 04 ... 950 S. 20-7 68 827 32z ... 972 S. 3I-4 88 Mar.z29 837 374 ... 1057 N. 33 0 Lonig train . 849 -. . 940 S. 33'4 I675 li ages confused . 4z6 ... . . 677 S. oS48 Stopped at entrance 698 ... ... 1 S. 3 34 923 ' 774 ... ... 978 S. 39'5 55'5 Clouidy . Mar. 4Q 771 314 ... 899 S. 29 12 beve yPrfso 940 313 ... 1014 N. 38'4 895 James M0Cullagh . 798 - ... ... . S. 29 pilot 883 330. . 969 s. 43'I 49'5 924 346 3x6 958 S. 28'3 5 3'5 965 446 335 1029 ' 5 . pp3q4 14-5 Long and heavy engi'ne . 916 313 . iii6 S. 45'6 50'5 That these results may be more easily appreciated , I have condensed the most importalnt of them into the preceding Table , which gives in one view the distance at which that amount of disturbance begins and ends which produces the cross , that at which the far greater one occurs causing the appearance ( 5 ) ( a system of three or more parallel rows ) wherever it does appear , and the velocities and weights of the trains when known . It is evident from this Table that the tremor which is sufficient to produce that disturbance of the mercury which shows a cross of stars is propagated to considerable distances-in one case to 11 76 yards ; and 24 per cent. of the entire are above 1000 . Such distances do not pass the northern end of the tuninel , but go far beyond the southern . In the latter case the vibrations are excited while the train is in arn open cutting ; and those who suppose that the tinnel has much power in deadening them would of course expect that they would be sensible at a greater distance than at the other end . This does not seem , however , to be the case : and the Table shows that in this respect there is very little difference , if we take into account another cause of inequality , namely , that the tremor is manifested further at the exit than at the entrance of the train . The column headed " Exit " shows by s. that the exit was at the South end , and the entrance at the North . Now , when the observations are examined where both were noted , we find that the limit of the cross is greater at the exit than at the entrance in 29 out of 39 , or 74 per cent. of s. , and 12 out of 16 , or 75 per cent. of N. The reason of this , I suppose , is that the long-continued action of the train on the rails tends to produce a greater and more prolonged undulation in the mercury . But the equal percentage shows that there is really no protecting power in the tunnel against the lateral propagation of tremors , whatever may be the case immediately above the crown . In general one might expect trains to produce disturbance in proportion to their speed and their weight . To a certain degree this is true ; but the exceptions are sufficient to show that other influences must be taken into consideration . Examples of high speed with comparatively small effect are afforded by the observations on March 18 , II . ; 19 , III . ; and 29 , V. Others of the reverse conditions are given by February 24 , I. , II . ; March 18 , VI . ; and specially March 16 , III . , in which with a velocity of only 11 4 miles the cross was shown at 1110 yards . This it may be remarked is a decisive proof that any plan of protecting an observatory by slackening the speed of trains passing near it is entirely useless , even if it could be enforced . It is probable that one cause of this high disturbing-power in slow trains is that already referred to , the long-continued accumulation of vibration , the quick ones passing beyond distance before the mercury has got into full vibration , the others having full time to do their work though with less intrinsic force . On this account also long trains are more disturbing than short . The engine is not so paramount a disturber as might be expected , the heaviest , and even a pair of them , not causing more tremor than occurs with the smaller ones . In taking the cross of stars as the test of disturbance , I must observe that I do so , not because it is the earliest which appears , but because it marks distinctly an agitation greater than what is likely to occur at an observatory subject to ordinary perturbations . These produce in such a mercuiryvessel as I used a single line of stars perpendicular to the length of the vessel . It should seem that then only one set of undulations fit to produce these images is excited in the mercury , the direction of which is regulated by the sides of the vessel * . The existence of the cross shows that a secolnd set of waves perpelndicular to the first has been developed : this always happens if the sides of the vessel are equal ; and its occurring when they are so unequal as in the present case seems to indicate a corresponding excess of the power which causes them . If the agitation be still greater , it seems as if each of the images which form the cross became the origini of a row of secondary images , the result of which is the form ( 5 ) , a series of parallel rows of stars varying from two to ten , or even filling the whole field . This token of ultra disturbance isconfined between lines making angles of 45 ? with the perpendicular to the rails-in other words , to distances under 427 yards , and when the train is nearly in the centre of the tunnel . It is ( except in two instances ) only seen when the cross is visible beyond 1000 vards : when the agitation is still further increased the images vibrate in every direction , and with yet more of it the whole becomes a mass of nebulous light ; of both which some examples may be found in these observations . The opinion maintained by the late Mr. Robert Stephenson , that much of these railway tremors were due to the sound of the train , although not probable , induced me to try some experiments by firing cannon , maroons , and rockets at various distances . One of these cannons ( for I had two , each of a pound calibre ) heavily loaded , at 300 yards produced ( 5 ) , cross , and line simultaneously with my hearing the reports ; but all disturbance was over in about 1-5 second . At 2020 yards there was the cross synchronous with the report , and of the same momentary character ; and even at 3000 yards the cross could be traced . This seems to have been due to the momentary impulse of the sound-wave , for the continuous roar of two-pound rockets fired at 82 feet from the mercury , though very loud , disturbed it very little ; while the explosions of eight ounces of powder in their heads about 800 yards above the ground produced all , the ( 5 ) , cross , and line . A still more interesting experiment was , firing the cannon in the tunnel at the point where the perpendicular from the observatory met it . In this case two disturbances were seen-one propagated through the ground , the other through the air with about a second of time interval . The sound probably made its way chiefly through the shafts ; but even had they been closed , it seems unquiestionable that the report , and of course the sound of a train , would travel through the earth * . I should have prosecuted these researches further , especially in reference to the velocity with which these tremors are propagated through the ground , but that Lord Auckland 's letter to me led me to hope that all danger to the Royal Observatory was past , never to return . I therefore contented myself with reducing the observations I had made . As , however , the Railway Moloch seems never likely to be satiated with victims , and as the observatories of Oxford , Armagh , and again that of Greenwich have been marked for sacrifice , it seems to me a duty to place before the public the facts which had been collected at a great expense of labour , nand some pecuniary outlay . They were made without any bias , or any motive but a desire to ascertaini the actual truth ; and in addition to their bearing on practical astronomy , I hope that they may not be without use in reference to some other departments of science . An interesting fact was observed with the maroons . They were fired vertically from a mortar twenty feet from the observatory , and had fuses which gave them . flight for six seconds . The mercury showed the usual intense disturbance when the mortar was fired , and also at the explosion of the maroons in the air . But there was also an initerrnediate disturbance which I cannot explain but by supposing it to be as it were an eclio of the earth-wave caused by the dischlarge of the mortar and reflected from the masonzry of the tunnel . I showed it to the Marquis of Blandford , to Lord Alfred Churchill , and to Professor James MeCullagh ; unfortunately the nights Dr. Robiinson and Mr. Warburton accompanied me to Watford , not a sin-le star was visible . On repeating the experiments at Campdeni Hill , notling of the sQrt occurred ,

112001

3701662

Extract of a Letter to General Sabine from Dr. Otto Torell, Dated from Copenhagen, Dec. 12, 1863

83

84

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Otto Torell

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0018

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112001

10.1098/rspl.1863.0018

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112001

Biography

Reporting

Biography

I. " Extract of a letter to General Sabine from Dr. OTTO ToRELL , dated from Copenhagein , Dec. 12 , 1863 . " Received Decenmber 18 , 1863 . The Swedish Diet has given the necessary money to complete the survey for the measurement of an Arc of the Meridian at Spitzbergen . When the proposal was submitted to the Diet by our Government , at the instance of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm , it was passed without opposition in the three first houses of the Diet ( viz. the Nobles , the Clergy , and the Burghers ) . In the fourth house ( the Peasants ) , only one Member opposed the proposal , on the ground of the high amounit of the BuLdget . He was replied to by seven or eight other Members , advising that the house should not oppose a grant which had for its object to advance science . in consequence the money was also voted by the House of Peasants . There is every reason to expect that the question of the practicability of the undertaking will be settled in the next summer , and I hope that the result may be satisfactory . The Diet has with the same liberality given the necessary money for the Swedish share in the proposed large Middle-European Triangulation from Palermo to Trondjem , and has also made a grant of the money which will be required to erect a new Astronomical Observatory at the University of Lund . I expect therefore that the excellent astronomer at the University , Mr. Moller , will read with intense interest the correspondence regarding the Melbourne Telescope , which even to me has been of great interest .

112002

3701662

Results of Hourly Observations of the Magnetic Declination Made by Sir Francis Leopold M'Clintock, R.N., and the Officers of the Yacht 'Fox,' at Port Kennedy, in the Arctic Sea, in the Winter of 1858-59; and a Comparison of These Results with Those Obtained by Captain Maguire, R.N., and the Officers of H.M.S. 'Plover,' in 1852, 1853, and 1854, at Point Barrow. [Abstract]

84

86

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Major-General Sabine

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112002

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112002

Meteorology

Biography

Meteorology

II . " Results of hourly Observations of the Mag , netic Declinationi made by Sir Francis Leopold M'Clintock , R.N. , and the Officers of the Yacht 'Fox , ' at Port Kennedy , in the Arctic Sea , in the Winter of 1858-59 ; and a Comparison of these Results with those obtained by Captain Maguire , R.N. , and the Officers of H.M.S. ' Plover , ' in 1852 , 1853 , and 1854 , at Point Barrow . " By Major-General SABINE , R.A. , President . Received December 21 , 1863 . ( Abstract . ) NWhen about to undertake a voyage to the Arctic Sea in 1857 , in the yacht 'Fox , ' in search of the ships of Sir John Franklin 's expedition , Captain M'Clintock requested that the Royal Society would supply him with such information and instructions as might enable him to make the best use of the opportunity which the voyage was likely to afford for the prosecution of magnetical and meteorological observations . As the present communication is limited to a discussion of the hourly observations of the declination made by Captaini M'Clintock and his officers from December 1 , 1858 to March 31 , 1859 inclusive , the portion of the instructions with which Captain M'Clintock was supplied which relates to such observations forms an appropriate introduction . It is followed by a full statement from Captain M'Clintock himself of the circumstances under which an observatory was established on the ice at a distance of 220 yards from the ship , and hourly observations maintained during five months of the arctic winter , being only discontinued when , on the return of a more genial season , the services of both officers and sailors were required in prosecuting the more immediate objects of the expedition . On the return of the 'Fox ' to England , the observations were sent , through the Royal Society , to the Woolwich establishment for the reduction and publication of magnetic observations . The results of the observations treated of in this paper are discussed in comparison with those obtained from similar observations made by Captain Maguire and the officers of IJ . M.S. 'P lover ' at Point Barrow , on the shore of the Arctic Sea , 1200 miles distant from Port Kennedy ( Captain M'Clintock 's Station ) , in the winters of 1852-53 , and 1853-54 , published in the Phil. Trans. for 1857 , Art . xxiv . The first point established conclusively by this comparison is , that , after due allowance has been made for the difference in the antagonistic force of the horizontal portion of the earth 's magnetism by which any disturbing action on the declination-magnet is opposed at the two stations , the intensity of , the disturbing force is considerably less at Port Kennedy than at Point Barrow-that is to say , less at the station which is nearest to the points of 900 of dip , and of the maximum of the total terrestrial magnetic force , than at the station which is more distant from those points . The indication thus derived from the magnetic record at the two stations accords with the fact of the far greater frequency of the aurora at Point Barrow , where in the two winters its appearance is recorded on six days out of every seven , whilst the proportion at Port Kennedy is not more than one day in four . For the purpose of examining the periodical laws of the disturbances at Port Kelnedy , those which exhibited the largest differences from their respective normals of the same month and hour , amounting to between one-fourth and one-fifth of the whole body of the hourly observations , were separated from the others , and were subjected to analysis in the customary manner . It is thus shown that both at Port Kennedy and at Point Barrow the disturbances so treated form themselves into distinct categories of easterly and westerly deflection , the curve representing the easterly deflections having the same general form and single maximum as that of the easterly deflections at Kew , exhibited in P1 . XIII . fig. 1 of the Phil. Trans. for 1863 , Art . XII . ; and the westerly curve having the same general form and double maximum as is seen in fig. 2 of the same Plate , representing the westerly deflections at Kew . A remarkable correspondence is pointed out in regard to the hours at which the maxima of easterlv and westerly deflection take place at Port Kennedy and Point Barrow . The maximum of easterly deflection occurs at the same hour of absolute time at the two stations ; and the maximum of westerly deflection at the same hour of local time at the two stations . The author concludes by taking a general review of the phenomena of the solar-dlurnal variation , particularly in the vicinity of the dip of 90 ' , where the geographical and magnetical directions of the magnetic needle are often strongly contrasted . At Port Kennedy the normal direction of the magnet is 350 to the east of south , and at Point Barrow 410 to the west of north : the contrast at the two stations in this respect is therefore nearly as great as can exist in any part of the globe , wanting only 60 of 180 ' , or of being diametrically opposite . The solar-diurnal variation at these stations furnishes an apt illustration of the author 's exposition . He further takes the occasion of the phenomena of the disturbance diurnal variation at Port Kennedy , and at Nertschinsk in Siberia , to show __ the caution which is lnecessary in endeavouring to derive the epochs of the decennial period from the magnitude of the diurnal range of the declination-magnet , and the preference due to the variation in the amount of the disturbances in different years .

112003

3701662

Examination of Rubia munjista, the East-Indian Madder, or Munjeet of Commerce. [Abstract]

86

87

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Stenhouse

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112003

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112003

Chemistry 2

Agriculture

Chemistry

I. " Examination of Rubia munjista , the East-Ilndian Madder , or Munjeet of Commerce . " By JOIIN STENIIOUSE , LL. D. , F. R.S. Received December 21 , 1863 . ( Abstract . ) As a portlon of this paper has already appeared in the ' Proceedings , ' vol. xii . p. 633 , I shall confine myself in , this abstract to briefly noticing the additional observations which I have subsequently made . By numerous analyses of munjistine crystallized out of spirits and dried at 100 ? C. , and likewise of sublimed munjistine , I find that its formula is C16 H6 06 . This result has been confirmed by analyses of the lead-salt , the formula of which I find to be 5(C16 11H 0 , ) , 6 PbO , exactly corresponding to the purpurine compound described by Wolff and Strecker* . A comparison of the subjoined formula of alizarine , purpurine , and munjistine , Alizarme C20 H[6 06 Purpurine . Ce* 1 . 16 C 6H Munjistine ... . . C6 116 06 , indicates the very close relationship between these three substances , the , only true colouring principles of the different species of madder with which we are acquainted . Tinetorial Power of Munrtjeet . From a numerous series of experiments I have just completed , I find that the garancine from munjeet has about half the tinctorial power of the garancine made from the best madder , viz. Naples roots . These , however , yield only about 30 to 33 per cent. of garancine , while munjeet , according to my friend Mr. IHiggin of Manichester , yields from 52 to 55 per cent. The actual amoulnt of colouring matter in munjeet and the best madder are very niearly the same ; but the inferiority of munjeet as a dye-stuff results mainly from its conitaining only the comparatively feeble colouring matters purpurine and munjistine . The latter in large quantity is positively injuLrious ; so mulch is this the case , that when the greater part of the munjistine is removed from munljeet-garancine by boiling water , it yields much richer shades with alumina , mordatts . Purpureine . When purpurinie is dissolved in dilute ammoniia , and exposed to the air for about a month in a warm place , ammonia and water being added from time to time as they evaporate , the purpurine disappears , whilst a new colouring matter is formed , which dyes unmordanted silk and wool of a fine rose-colour , but is incapable of dveing vegetable fabrics mordanted with alumina . This new substance , which , from its mode of formation and physical properties , is so analogous to orceine , I have called puqzpureine . When pure , it forms fine lonlg needles of a deep crimson colour , insoluble in . dilute acids , slightly soluble in pure water , and very soluble in alcohol and in water renidered slightly alkaline . Professor Stokes has examined purpureiine optically , and finds the spectrum the same in character as that of purpurine , but differenit in position , the balnds of absorption being severally nearer to the red end . From the analyses , purpureine seems to yield the formula C 11H24 N2020 . Nitropui:purine . When purpurine is dissolved in a small quantity of nitric acid , spec . grav . about *135 , and heated to 1000 C. , it gives off red fumes , and on being allowed to cool , a substanice separates in fine scarlet prisms , somewhat like chromate of silver , only of a brighter colour . It is quite insoluble in water , but slightly soluble in spirit ; it is , however , soluble in strong nitric acid . When heated , it deflagrates . From this circumstance , Ind considering its mode of formation , it is evidently a nitro-substitution coiipound . I have therefore called it nitropurpurine . When alizarine and munjistine are sulbjected , in the manner above described for purpurine , to the joint action of ammonia and oxygen , substantive colours are produiced , neither of which are crystalline . Action of Bromine on Alizarine . Wheni alcoholic solutions of alizarine are mixed with water , and aqueous solution of bromine added , a yellow precipitate is produced ; the solution filtered from this , after expelling the spirit by heat , deposits a deep orangecoloured crystalline compound , which , from the analyses of six specimens prepared at different times , I find has the composition 60 16 Br2 018 C20 16 2(C20 H5 BrO6 ) . Purpurine , when treated with bromine in a similar manner , does not yield a corresponding compound .

112004

3701662

On the Magnetic Variations Observed at Greenwich

87

90

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Professor Wolf of Zurich

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0021

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112004

10.1098/rspl.1863.0021

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112004

Meteorology

Tables

Meteorology

sent them from my Sun-spot-ratios r in the same way that I had succeeded in doing with those obtained at numerous other stations ( see different Nos. of my " Mittheilungen fuber die Sonnenflecken " ) , and I obtained the formula vi=91 95+09056.r.+ 5. . ( I ) The comparison contained in the Table between the observed values and the values computed by formula ( I ) gave me , however , a strikingly less good accord than I had obtained for Munich , Prague , Christiania , &c. and this induced me to try how it would be if I formed groups of the years " rich , " " medium , " and " poor " in sin-spots , and compared for each group the mean variation with the mean ratio . Thus Sun-spots . Calculated by ( II ) . Years . Mean . Number . Mean r. vI . vI . Diff. 184I-I842 Medium 24'6o II'70 I 1'28 +0 ? 4z I843-I844 Poor ... io'8o I i6o IO44 +i-I6 I845-I846 Medium 4000 I8 . iz 5I 2 ' , z +o.63 1847-I849 Rich ... 9I80 I5.8o I5-38 +0 ? q 185o-1852 Medium 59 53 I2.50 13'4I -Og9I 1853-1854 Medium 28'45 I 1V30 II 52 -012z I855-I857 Poor IOo90 9 43 10-44 -I'O0 Sum of squares 3'9919 And I then obtained the formula v1=9 ' 78+Q0061l.r..(II ) the comparison of which with the values derived from the observations shows a much better accord , without the individual years being much worse represented than by ( I ) . It follows that the Greenwich observations also give on the whole a march corresponding to that of the sun-spots , but at the same time with materially greater deviations than appear in the continental stations which I have previously treated . When I communicated to Professor Airy the unexpected resullt of my calculations , he called my attention to the circumstance that his variations were absolute ones , i. e. the means of the differences between the daily extremes , while the variations at other stations which I had employed were probably obtained from observations at definite hours ; and on my informing him that such was really the case , he gave me in addition the Means of the Declinations which corresponded at Greenwich to the prescribed hours of Gottingen time . It is from these subsequently communicated values that I have derived the maxima and minima and their differences entered in the Table under v3 . The calculation of the quantities in v ; then led me to make the formula v=-667+0039 . ? ;.(III ) and the comparison in the Table of the values computed by this formula with those derived from the observations does in fact show a much greater accord . I was , however , further led to infer that the constaiits in the formula , which I had perceived to vary slowly with the lapse of time at other stations , must at Greenwich also have changed materially in the 17 years ( 1841-1857 ) , and thus I was finally led to construct the formula v2=6 66-0123(t1849 ) + [ 0038-OOO1(t-1849)].r , ( IV ) which , as the Table shows , suits very well with the observations . For application to loniger periods it will still require some further modification , and , in particular ' , to be augmented by corrections from the term ( t1819)2 . In conielusioni , I also comnputed the variations for the years 18158-1862 by all the four formulae , and have entered them in the Table for future comparison . II . " On the Magnetic Variations observed at Greenwich . " By Professor WOLF of Zurich . Communicated by G. B. AiRy , F.R.S. , Astronomer Royal . Received December 21 , 1863 . ( Translation . ) In April 1863 Professor Airy kindly communicated to me the Mean daily variations of the Declination as given by the Greenwich Observations 1841-1857 , and as entered in the subjoined Table under v1 . , . r 0C ci 10 00 0 )C On 0 'm 00 -0 000C0 000000 -oooo m--oooo o C7N b Cbbbb elC%t o1 0 t-Nc 0 in ON t-.0CO oI0..j4-10 CN . 0 -. . c. 6o 't o,6 6os , bb oo c ; o i , ,b w bBilotI0 , I t , C. , . , 0.I-oo 0m 0 00000 C-00"0Cn0 ~~ _o.O ! 7 " P i : 9 ! 4 ! 4 w4OqO0 C " OtOO I___________ __+_ h++7+_ I_I iII_ ce mH H00 b00v 00 0.00CO 0 0o oo Co *Ps 00 0H C , , in0-00 No Un Q - ; I ce ______ __o ___ __n CN 00 C_ _____))00 0N0Oa0 ? 0 0,00 0 08 P 00 CC.0 H COC OC OC OC oo CC O CO -O oCo e'Nn 00 C 0 . O0 O1 NO Nn | *S C , ? ? ? ? ? C ? 0 tO 00 C , 0C in t-.O n. , Co ''- ' UC2.n _ _,0 C % mO C1 CO 00C0 OCOC CO C0 % 00C0N~ 0+ cn 0 0m 00 I++++++III+I ++ I IC0Ni-Cro J0 cv 00 000-00.00 ~~ 9.CO 0 ~~~~~~~~- . ~~0 00 Po N-Co b Co N 'o CO v00 o 0.4 o.0t-C4 C0 t-C 0-000 4Mo N-C , O CO - ? " *Cq00 00 0b N-0CO C-A b C.0b0 oN0 > E__________.0 _______ds H.o m O0 oo . 00C o to " D C0t.C e COo00 o in t oo oo C0 o. 0 ' -I C1 0C0 ooAo0oHoooo4 ce p b. . o ; n , ~00 0-.I-~00C.CON-C C00 CO -( ? N OC ... ..CO . 0 ) CO Co o ... ^ N-0 0.0 CO.--j o N00 : . CO M~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. . I. . , 00 )r-q 0)-nelr.00.AC 0 Cd I. . tQ In t 0000 0 00 0 00 000 0 t0 0o00 00 0000000000 1 naturally lost no time oc in to thd no Ct reprN Ci M..t0 o I ' HHtAn CN C , % tin oo ? I4m Xnl,0 00+ 7N 0t t-v el m V+ x , r00 C , , 00 'I-E Io+ Io t-.1 o+ '+ d+ '4 < t- > do In On xn on io I ' 10 > I naturally lost no time-in proceeding to try whether I could not repre-

112005

3701662

A Description of the Pneumogastric and Great Sympathetic Nerves in an Acephalous Foetus. [Abstract]

90

93

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Robert James Lee

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112005

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112005

Neurology

Biology 2

Neurology

I. " A Description of the Pneumogastric and Great Sympathetic Nves in an Acephalous Fmetus . " By RO1BEIRT JAMES LEE , Esq. , B.A. Caitab . Communicated by RtOBERT LEE , M.D. Pteceived November 20 , 1863 . With Supplement , received Januaiy 20 , 1864 . ( Abstract . ) The author observes that hitherto no account has been given of the origin and distribution of the par vagum or pneumogastric nerve in any ii-stance of a fttuIs born with brain entirely or partially wanlting . This reasoln has been thought sufficient for comnmuniicating to the Royal Society the description of a dissection of the pneumogastric and sympathetic nerves in a fretus born at the full period , in which the cerebellum and medulla oblongata were absent . At the time of birth it cried , moved , and for the space of on1e hour might be said to live . All the thoracic and abdominal , iscera were found properly formed , and the upper and lower extremities properly developed . The eyes , niose , and mouth were present . The head , when regarded as a whole , seemed as though the posterior and superior parts had been entirely removed , thus leaving the spinal cord and base of the slkull exposed . Some tough cerebral matter , covered only by a dense membrane , was seen in two small masses exposed in the cranium , not continluous with the spinal cord ( which terminated abruptly at the base of the craniium and was enitirely exposed at this point ) , but separated from it by a bony prominence arising from the floor of the cranial cavity . After the removal of the extremities , the abdomeln was opened and the viscera of the abdomilnal cavity removed . The anterior halves of the ribs were cut away , and the thorax with its contents washed and immersed in alcohol . The dissection was conducted in that liquiid , with theassistance of an ordinary lelns magnifving six diameters . The pneumogastric nerve having been traced down the neck and thorax , was found to be distributed in the usual way . Its several ganglia , its communications with the sympathetic , and its branches to the larynx , trachea , bronchi , and oesophagus , appeared in no respect different from what is their usual condition in a perfectly formed foetus of the same age . Certain ganglionic enlargements formed on the superior laryngeal and recurrent nerves were likewise seen as they have been described by Dr. Robert Lee . Respecting these two principal branches of the pneumogastric in the neck , the author observes that , if they be separately examined , each will be found to be composed of two portions-one descending , the other lascending-which unite and form a single cord to be again divided into ; many filaments for the supply of various parts . From this he concludes that the pneumogastric is not derived from the brain ; for otherwise we should expect to find branches from it composed only of descending fibres , whereas we find its two chief branches equally made up of fibres from above and from below . The hypoglossal , glossopharyngeal and communicating branch of the accessory of the eighth pair were disposed as usually . The sympathetic nerve was also dissected in the neck and thorax , and found to present its usual arrangement ; but , besides its commonly recog . nized ganglia , the author discovered certain other bodies connected with it in the thorax , which he considers to be nervous ganglia , and which he thus describes:- " Just beneath the costal pleura some small stellate bodies are seen lying internal to the ganglia of the sympathetic , and at variable distances from them . Their size is that of a small pea , colour pink , and structure apparently nervous . From the circumference of one of them , fine vessels or nervous tubes are seen to radiate and join in some cases the ganglia of the sympathetic . In the angles of the rays are some pigmentary particles of brown colour , not connected , however , with the central mass . Many of these bodies are found in different parts of the thorax ; and there can be no doubt of their nature , from their intimate connexion with the sympathetic . " The dissection of the nerves supplying the stomach , liver , and alimentary canal was completed in those viscera removed , with the heart and lungs , from a foetus of six months in which neither brain nor spinal cord were present . The stomach had numerouis filaments ramifying on its surface , which could be traced down to the lining membrane . Similarly the liver was found to be pervaded with numerous fibres which followed generally the course of the blood-vessels . Portions of the intestinal canal of the foetus first described were examined ; so that there is every reason to believe that this foetus was supplied with nerves in the neck , thorax , and abdomen in the same manner as one endowed with those parts thought most essential to life , the cerebellum and medulla oblongata . Since the foregoing paper was communicated , the author has had the opportunity of examining two anencephalous foetuses which had been preserved for many years in the Museum of St. George 's Hospital . In the first specimen examined the bones forming the roof and sides of the cranium were wanting , as well as the greater part of the basis behind the foramen magnum ; the brain was absent , and the bony cavity was not formed . In this iinstance nerves were seen passing through foramina in the basis of the cranium . There was no spinal canal , though a membrane from which nerves proceeded occupied the position of the spinal cord . At the commencement of this there was a round body of the size of a small bean , of nervous substance , which was exposed most clearly before the preparation was removed from the bottle in which it had been preserved . The connexion was easily seen between this body and the spinal membrane , and nerves proceeded from its under surface in different directions . There were small pieces of cartilage , apparently portions of vertebrae , found here and there in the spinal region , but there was no sacrum , and the rectum was exposed , Such were the general appearances presented by this foetus . In other respects it was well developed . The large venous and arterial vessels were seen to supply appropriate parts . The pneumogastric nerves were traced by following their branches in the neck upward and downward . That on the left side was seen perforating the floor of the cranium , with a ganglionic enlargement formed on it soon after it issued from the canal , and thence passing downwards to supply the usual organs . The nerve on the right side was not clearly traced through the floor of the cranium ; but as there was an opening corresponding to that on the left side , there is no reason to doubt the similarity between the two nerves . A question which naturally presented itself on perceiving the small round body described above , was whether this might not correspond to the medulla oblongata . That this is not probable appeared from the fact that the pneumogastric nerves left the cranium at a distance of nearly two inches from it , and no connexion could be seen to exist between them and that body . No history has been preserved of this foetus ; so that whether it showed any signs of independent existence cannot be ascertained . The distribution of the nerves in the thorax presented nothing very abnormal , the various parts being supplied with their proper branches . The sympathetic nerve was of small size on both sides , and its extent greatly diminished . The second of these dissections bore some resemblance to the foetus described in the paper , with the exception that there was no trace of cerebral matter whatever . A membrane from which nerves proceeded was all that was seeu . There was a proper canal for the spiinal cord , but it had no osseous covering . The deep groove bifurcated at the cranial extremity into grooves of half its size , which took a direction at right angles to that of the former . The left pneumogastric nerve was seen passing through the base of the cranium to the surface , where it appeared to have come from the membrane from which other nerves proceeded . After descending to the cervical region and giving off the recurrent , the principal branch was not continued to the lungs and oesophagus , but directly to the ganglion of the sympathetic in the upper part of the thorax , so that the sympathetic chain of ganglia in the thorax appeared to be simply a continuation of the pneumogastric . To compensate for this absence of nervous supply on the left side , the nervous plexuses on the roots of the lungs were found to be enormously increased on the opposite side . A large branch ascended from the solar plexus and united with the divisions of the right pneumogastrici The splanchuiic on this side was large , and was composed of filaments from the upper thoracic ganglia , not merely from those below the sixth . The action of the heart and the functions of the liver , kidneys , and other organs must have continued during the uterine existence of the faetus . The author expects to be afforded further means of prosecuting his dissections of the nerves of acephalous monsters , in which case he will communicate the results of his examinations to the Royal Society .

112006

3701662

On the Conditions, Extent, and Realization of a Perfect Musical Scale on Instruments with Fixed Tones

93

108

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Alexander J. Ellis

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0023

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112006

10.1098/rspl.1863.0023

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112006

Agriculture

Formulae

Agriculture

II . " On the Conditions , Extent , and Realization of a Perfect Musical Scale on Instruments with Fixed Tones . " -By ALEXANDER J. ELLIS , B.A. , F.C.P.S. Communicated by C. WHEATSTONE , Esq. , F.R.S. Received January 7 , 1864 . EULER* , perceiving that the relative pitches of all musical notes might be represented by 2m . 3n . 5P , formed different " I genera musica " by allowing n and p to vary from O to fixed limits . His " genus diatonicum hodiernum " ( op . cit. p. 135 ) limits n to 3 and p to 2 , and consists of 12 tones . These tones and 12 others are contained in his " genus cujus exponens est 2- . 37 . 52 , , " that is , which limits n to 7 and p to 2 . He has further ( i1 . p. 161 ) given a scheme in which each manual of an instrument should represent two sounds , the primary belonging to the first 12 tones , and the secondary to the additional 12 . He says ( ib. p. 162 ) , " Soni secundarii summo rigore ab iisdem clavibus edi nequeunt , quia vero tam parum a primariis discrepant , ad eos exprimendos hae claves sine isensibili harmonice jactura tuto adhiberi possunt . Nam etiamsi ab acutioribus auribus comma secu diasckisma , quibus intervallis soni secundarii a primaris differunt , distingui queat , tamen quia soni secundarii cum primariis neque in eademn consonantia neqaGe in duarum consonantiarum successione misceri possunt , error etiam ab acutissimo auditu percipi non poterit . " It will appear in the sequel that these assertions , when tested by experiments on instruments with fixed tones , are all incorrect . The musical scale has formed the subject of many recent investigations * ; but I have been unable to find a complete account of the necessary coiw ditions to be fulfilled by a perfect scale , the least number of fixed tolnes required , and the practical means of producing them uncurtailed without inconvenience to the performer , although instruments which produce a limited number of just tones have been practically used by Gen. Perronet Thompson , Mr. Poole , Prof. Hlelmholtz , Prof. Wheatstone , myself , and others . This is therefore the subject of the present paper . The following notation is employed . I have introduced it for the purpose of supplying a want which has been greatly felt by all writers on the theory of music . It is founded on the principle of retaining the whole of the usual notation unaltered , but restricting its signification so as to prevent ambiguity , and introducing the smallest possible number of additional signs to express the required shades of sound with mathematical accuracy , selecting such signs as are convenient for the printer , and harmonize with the ordinary notation of accidentals on the staff . A letter , as C , called a ntoie , will represent both a certain tone and its pitch , defined to be the liunuber of double vibrations in one second , to which the tone is due . The letters D , E , F , G , A , B represent other tones and pitches , so that 8D=9C , 4E=5C , 3F=4C , 2G=3C , 3A=5C , 8B=15C . Small and numbered letters will be so used that 1I 1418 c=_c =C _1=. . a2C=4 C4 =8 ell and similarly for other letters . The pitch of c is that of the " tenor or middle c , " usually written on the leger line between the treble and bass staves ; and the other letters are noted on the staff as usual in the scale of C major . The following symbols always represent the fractionis , and are called by the names written against them : 1 . Following a Note . 135 = sharp , or greater limma . -12-8 _ -18 = flat , or hypolimma . x== double sharp ; b= b. = double flat . 2 . Preceding a Note . t 81 = acute , or comma . 80 1= = grave , or hypocomma . 639§ 63septime ( an inverted 2 ) . 32808 1-001129150390625 schisma . 327168 3278 0 99887212315 = hyposchisma . The name and pitch of the tones represented by any such notes as 80 135 25 +c# = grave csharp = C.c.l2 =2c , teb-=acute e flat =_ 8( . e. , 135 = 4e , and the ratio of their pitches to the corresponding notes in the scale of C major is therefore precisely indicated . In ordinary musical notation on the staff , it is only necessary to prefix the signs t , 1 , Z , , L , to those already in use . These symbols suffice for writing any tone whose index is the producit 2m . 3n . 5p . 72 ( see Tables I. and 1II . ) . For equally tempered tones , when it is necessary to distinguish them , the sign 11 is prefixed to the usual names , and read " equal . " Since 11g : c > 27 : 1=0 998871384584 x3 and L:c 0 99887212315 x 2 , Ve may without sensible error consider lyg = 16g , and hence represent the equally tempered scale C , d ! 2,2 IId , lljj , IeI , lelf , If# , l , 1Y 0 ) 11fa , lbb , 1lb by ncacl atig _2 relative pit1ces or interval , nd a1 questin2b s o5tb m In calculating relative pitches or inltervals , and in all q^uestions of temperament , it is most convenient to use ordinary logarithms to five places , becauise the actual pitches , and the length of the monochord ( which is the reciprocal of the relative pitch ) , can be thus most easily found . In Table I. the principal intervals are given as fractions , logarithms , and degrees . If we call 0-00568 one degree , then 53 degreess030Q104=log 2-0-00001 , and 31 degrees-017608=log a3-000001 . If we moreover represenit the addition and subtraction of 0-00035 ( or one-sixteenth of a degree ) by an acute or grave accent respectively , then 17 ' degrees=0 09691 =log , and 1 ' degree=0 00533=_log8 8-0 00007 . Two numbers of degrees which differ by a single accent of the same kind , as 17 ' , 17 " represent notes whose real interval is a schisma ( thus e has 17 ' degrees ; and dx , =T ? e , has 17 " degrees ) , having a difference of logarithm=0-00049 or 0 ' degrees + 0-00014 . By observing this , degrees may be very conveniently used for all calculation of intervals between tones of pitches represented by 2 " ' . 3 " . 5 " . Table IV . contains a list of tones which differ from each other by a schisma , and will be useful hereafter . The conditions of a perfect musical scale are not discovered by taking all the tones which can be expressed by one of Euler 's " Cexponents , " nor by forming all the tones which are consonant with a certain tone , and then all the tones consonant with these , as Drobiscli has done . Such processes produce many useless , and omit many necessary tones . Since modern music depends on the relations of harmonies , and not on scales , it is necessary to find what consonant chords of three tones are most closely connected Three tones whose pitches are as 4 : 5 : 6 , or 10 12 : 15 form a major or minor consonant chord respectively . The same names are used when any one or more of the pitches is multiplied or divided by a power of 2 , notwithstanding the dissonant effect in some cases . Thus , C : E : G4 : 5 ; 6 is a major , and c : te:g=10:12 : 15 is a minor chord , and the same names are applied toe::g " : C4=5 : 2x 6 : 22 X4 , and G te : : 15 : 2x 12 : 22 x 10 , although these chords are really dissonant ( Helmholtz , ib. p. 333-4 ) . I shall consequently use a group of capitals , as CGE G , to Tepresent a major chord , and a group of small letters , as ? tefg , to represent a minor chord , irrespective of the octaves . The three notes in this order , being the first , third and fifth of the major or minor scale commencing with the first , are called the first , third and fifth of the chords respectively . Both chords contain a fifth , a major and a minor third . If the interval of the fifth is contained by the same tones in a major and minor chord , as There are consonant chords of four tones , such as gb d2 f2 and these are insisted on by Poole ( loc. cit. ) ; but , though they are quite consonant and aoreeable , and much pleasanter than the dissonant chords by which they are replaced , such as gb dtf2 , they do not form a part of modern music , for reasons clearly laid down by H Imholtz ( op . cit. p. 295 ) . Dissonant chords mnst always arise from the union of tonies belonging to two consonant chords , or from the inversions of consonant chords ; and therefore their tones are determined with those of the others . C E G , c tet g , or A E , ac e , the chords are here termed & ynonymous . If the interval of the major third is contained by the same tones , as CE G , ae e ; or tEb G tBt , C tel g , they are termed relative . If two chords , major or minor , have the fifth tone of the one the same as the first tone of the other , as FA C , CE G ; fta7 c , c te5 g ; fta5 , CE G ; FA C , c te g , they are here termed dominative . If a chain of three such dominative chords 'be formed ( as FA C , CE G , GB D , or f tab c , c tee g , g t6L d , the minor and major chords being interchanged at pleasure ) , the first is called the subdominant , the second the tonic , and the third the dominant . Three such chords contain seven tones , and if such octaves of these tones are taken that all seven tones may lie within the compass of one octave they form a scale , of which 24 varieties can be formed by varying the major and minor chords , and beginning with the first of any one of the three chords . These scales include all the old ecclesiastical modes and several others . If all three chords are major and the scale begins on the first of the tonic chord , the result is the major scale , C , D , E , F , G , A , 1X , c. If all three chords are minor and the scale begins on the first of the tonic chord , the result is the minor descending scale , c ' , t 6 , g , f , te ' , d , c. If the first and second are mninor , and the third major , or if the first and third are major and the second minor , we have the two usual ascending minor scales , c , d , teb , f , g , tab , 6 , c , or c , d , te , f > , g , a 6 , eq. Three major chords may therefore be considered to represent a major scale , but both major and minor chords are necessary for the various minor scales . If to each of three domninative major chords we form the relative and synonymous minor chords , the synonymous and relative majors of these , and the relative minor of this synonymous major , we shall have a group of 9 major and 9 minor chords , which I shall call the k7ey of the first of the tonic chord . Thus the following is the Key of C. RELATIVE MA . Synonymous PRIMARY Relative SYNO N. MA . ( Sub- ) Rela(of Syn . Mi . ) . Minor . MAJOR . Minor . ( of Rel . Mi . ) . tive Minor . tAb C tEb f tab eFA C:cl f aSD +FJ A tb tcd tf $ tEb G tBb Cteb gCEGaceA tC# E tfo a cs tBbID tF gtb dGBDe gb E +GB O These chords contain 16 tones , which , when reduced to the compass of the same octave , form the complex scale c , tc# , td , d , teD , e , f , ( tf ) , $tf t g , Jg# , take , a , t6 , ( lb ) , c > , of which the acute fourth ( tf ) , and the grave seventh ( lb ) , have been enclosed in parentheses , as being of rare occurrence . , From this complex scale 54 scales of 7 tones each may be formed , similar to the 24 scales already named . A selection of 12 tones , suich as c , t14 , d , ted , e , f , If , g , tab , a , 6I , , 6 , c0 forms the so-called chromatic scale , which , however , has no proper existence except in equal temperament . Now proceed to form a series of seven dominative major chords , as E1ITGSB , 4 IDF FAC , CEG GIG BD , DFf tA tC city . and form the five related chords of each as before . The result will be five keys , as those of BL , F , C , G , D , such that the primary major scales of each wilI have either two major chords , or one major chord in common with the originial primary major scale . I call these five keys the postdominant,.subdominant , tonic , dominant , and stuperdominant keys , and the whole group of 21 major and 21 minor chords , with the 30 tones which they contain , I term the systern of the first tone of the toici chord of the original primary major scale , which tone may be called the tonic of the system . A piece of muisic is written in a certain system . , determinied by the compass or quality of tone of the instruments or voices which have to perform it , and rarely exceeds that system . It is only in the system that the true relation of the tones of a piece of music , the course and intentioni of the modulation , and the return to the original key or scale can be appreciated . I have not yet found these relations fully expressed in any theoretical work on music ; but their full expression was necessary to the solution of the problem here proposed . It will be found practically that only II systems are used in music . These are , in dominative order , the systems of 42Db , ic , Ei , Bb , F , C , G , D , tA , tE , tBJ , which contain the II keys of the same name , together with the 4 keys of +0C , G7 , and tF# , tCB . In Table V. , columns III . to VIII . , the whole of the major and minor chords of these 15 keys are exhibited in dominative order ? . This Table , therefore , furnishes the tones which mutst be contained in a perfect musical scale of fixed tones , or the conditions of the problem . on examination it will be found that these six columns contain 72 different notes . Hence the extent of a perfect scale is fixed at 72 tones to the octave . It is therefore six times as extensive as the equally tempered scale . Some means of reducing this unwieldy extent is required . The most obvious is that proposed by Euler , in the passage already quoted , namely , the use of certaini tones for others which differ from them by a comma or diaschisma . Such substitution within the same chord creates intolerable dissonance . But in melody and in successions of chords it might seem feasible . I have had a concertina tuned , so that the three chords of The u-se of the eqLially tempered scale has muiELch climinished the fee6ing for th relations otf the system , by confoLudinu tonies originally distinct , and has thus led to the confusion of the corresponding niotes . Thus such a note tas jgy will have to be readl as jg# , g , tu ; T4b , a or tcO , according to the requhirements of the system , for all six tones are representec by one on the eqLually tenpered seal . ? The Table of ey-relationships ( ToncG7tenveivazncltsc/ h , tte-t ) in Gottfried Webr 's lIeoric clr Tonsetzktwst ( 3rd ed. 1830 , vol. ii . p. 8G ) , may be form from Table V. , by suLppressing , the sigons , Ii supposing all the niotes to represent temiipered tones , contracting the n mies of the chords to their first notes , and extending the Table indefinitely in all directions . the major scale of D are played as GB D , D F , tA , and A +Cj E , instead of tA C : tE . The dominant chord is therefore too flat by a comma , and in passing from the chord of A to that of D , as in the ordinary cadence , the note A has to be changed into tA . If A is the highest or lowest note in the chords , the effect is decidedly bad . The flatness of the " leading note " 4C# , in place of C# , although only a comma in extent , is felt as annoying in the sLiccession +c+ , d. The result is such that it would not be worth while to invent new instruments with such a defect in common scales . On the same instrument I have the three chords of the major scale of A tuiied as D F# tA , A +C# E , E+G# B , in which the subdominant chord is now a comma too sharp . As the subdominant is a much less important chord than the dominant , the effect is better , but trouble arises from having occasionally to alter the tonic note A itself . Even the dissonance of the dominant seventh , when played as E+GS Bd is perceptibly harsher than the correct E+G# B td ( both forms lie on the instrument ) , although the added seventh d now forms a true minor third with the fifth B , whereas the correct note td forms a dissonant Pythagorean minor third with the same note B. When , however , the first E is omitted , the chord of the diminished fifth 4G# B 4d is not so pleasant as GB d. Again , on the same instrument , instead of having 4D +FA , as the synonymous major of +df a in the scale of a miinor , I have only D F1 $ tA , which is a comma too sharp . The rarity of the chord , however , renders the bad effect of less importance . Again , I am obliged to modulate from D major to td minor instead of d minor . Even here the error of a comma is perceptible . The general result , therefore , is that commatic mbstitution , even within the same melody or succession of chords , is inadmissible in just intonation . Professor I-Ielmholtz ( op . cit. pp. 433 & 484 ) has suggested what may be termed schismatic substitution , or the use of one note for another which only differs from it by a schisma , the eleventh part of a comma . Having one concertina tuned to equal temperament , and another to just intervals , the equation Jlg= Lg has enabled me to test this suggestion by practice . I find that in slow chords , the altered fifth c j6g , the altered major third 16b 6 , and the altered minor third e L6g are all decidedly , though only slightly , dissonant . In rapid chords the effect would be necessarily much less perceptible . Such chords as CESG , e Ig b are far superior either to the Pythagorean C tE C , teg tb ( of which I can produce the counterparts F tA4 C , df ta ) , or the still worse tempered chords C IIE I1 G , Ile I1g lb. If we modified Professor Helmholtz 's suggestion , and , where practicable , used only entire chords which are too flat or too sharp by a schisma , so that the schismatic errors would only occtur in harmonies where a note was prolonged from a chord to which it belonged into another for which it was too sharp or too flat by a schisma , then there could be no objection whatever to schismatic substitution , which would be quite inappreciable in melody . Now schismatic substitutio-n will materially reduce the numilber of diffferenit tonies required . By referring to Table IV . it will be seen that all the tones in Table V. , lines 1 to 8 , throughout all the columns are exactly one schismaflatter than the corresponding tones in lines 10 to 17 . Hence we only require the tones in lines 5 to 13 in order to reproduce the whole Table , with the help of schismatic substitution . It is , however , more convenient to use columns III . , IV . , lines 14 to 17 , in place of columns I. and II . , lines 5 to 8 ; and columns VII . , VIII . , liines I to 4 , in place of columns IX . and X. , lines 10 to 13 . In this case only 48 tones will be required . If the schismatic substitution of 4f , ab , cb for e : , gy , tb were allowed , which would introduce three schismatic errors of no great importance , the number of tones would be reduced to 45 , which is the lowest possible number of tones by which a complete scale can be played . All these tones are enumerated in Table III . There are several ways of realizing such a scale in whole or in part* . The following appears to be the most feasible , as it would render the mere mechanism of playing a perfect scale on an organ or harmonium easier than that of playing the tempered scale on the same instruments . On a board of manuals similar to that now in use for the organ , introduce two additional red manluals ( of the same shape as the black , but with a serrated front edge to be recognizable by blind and colour-blind performers , as in some cases on General Perronet Thompson 's organ ) in the two gaps between B and U , and between E and F , so as to make 14 manuals in all . Let there be 16 stops worked as pedals with the foot , as in Mr. Poole 's Euharmonic Organi ( loc. cit. p. 209 ) . Let one of these stops give the equally tempered tones to the manuals , so that any piece could be played in the tempered scale , and thus compared with the same piece when played with just intervals . Let the 15 other stops give the tones required for the 15 keys tC to C# , as shown in Table II . , and be numbered 7b , 6 b ... 1 b , natural , 1 ... 7 # . When any pedal is put down , let the seven white manuals give the seven tones of the primary major scale of the corresponding key , and the seven coloured manuals give seven out of the nine other tones required to complete the key , omitting the acute fourth ( which would be found in the key of the dominant ) and the grave seventh ( which would be found in the key of the subdominant ) . To the right of each white manual let there be its conjugate coloured manual , of such a value that , if the seven tones of the major scale be indicated by the numbers 1 to 7 , the tones corresponding to the manuals in any key may be Coloured. . 1 II 2 t3b 14# 15# t6b t7b White ... . 123456 7 . Table II . shows the tones associated with the manuals in each stop ; capital letters indicate white manuals , small letters black , and small capitals red* , By this arrangement the fingering of every key would be the same . The performer would disregard the signature except as naming the pedal , and play as if the signature were natural . Table V. would inform him whether the accidentals belonged to the key , its dominant , or any other key ; and if they indicated another key , he would change the pedal . It would be convenient to mark where a new pedal had to be used ; but no change would be required in the established notation ? . Mr. Poole 's organ , which suggested the above arrangement , has 11 stops , from 5b to 5# , and only 12 manuals , which appear to be associated with the following tonies on each stop : Black1. . 3/ 2 ( t2# , ) ( 4# , ) t,5# g7b WAhite. . 1234567 The two manuals whose notes are put in parentheses are inadequately described . Mr. Poole 's scale does not include the synonymous minor chords , which he plays by commatic substitution . Another method of realizing such a scale is by additional manuals and additional boards of manuals . Thus three boards of manuals , each with 23 manuals , containing the tones in Table V. cols . III . to VIII . , lines 4 to 8 , 7 to 11 , and 10 to 14 respectively would be nearly complete . The manuals might be similar to those on General T. Perronet Thompson 's Eiiharrnonic Organ , which has 3 boards , with 20 , 23 and 22 manuals respectively , and contains the chords in Table V. cols . III . , lines 6 to 11 ; IV . 6 to 12 ; V. , VI . , VII . , 5 to 12 ; VIII . and IX . , 6 to 12 ( four chords belonging to col . IX . , lines 6 to 9 , are not in the Table , but can be readily supplied , as well as the additional lines 0 , 1 , niamed below ) . Euler 's " genus cujus exponens est 2- . 37 . 52 , " as developed in his T'entamen , p. 161 , must be considered as adapted for an instrument with two boards of ordinary manuals , such as some harmoniums are now constructed . His " soni primarii " would occupy the lower , and his " I soni secundarii " the uipper board . If to these we add their schismatic equivalents , enclosed in brackets , and distinguish white and black manuals by capital an(I small letters as in Table II . , Euler 's scheme will appear as follows , where the notation interprets his arithmetical expressions of pitcl ( " soni " ) , and not his notes ( " signa sonora " ) , which are too vaguie . EULER'S DOUBLE SCHEME . Upper Board . Schism . Equiv.al ... [ I el Td , > , ID , ef , F > , IF , tl# , I G/ , a5l , 103 , 1551c aSoni Secuindarii " B$ : , ct , Cx , dZ ? tE , E#1t ; ffl F x , r/ 2 t-41 tacl tB . Lower Board . " Soni Primarii " . 0 , tc# , D , td# , En IF f , G , ig , A , aC , B Schism . Equival ... [ htP ' , ttd , Ebb , te5 , JF21 t d2 , 41Ig , A ? b , a0 , tBk , tb > , tI I Although it is evident from his notation that Euler regarded schismatic equivalents as identities , he has not especially alluded to them . The above scheme would contain Table V. col . V. , lines 0 to 14 , and the major thiird trF tA4 in 15 ( with the schismatic error of 1 ? B > ? TD F for B > 9 tD F ) , col . VI . 1 to 15 ; VII . 9 to 24 ; VIII . 10 to 24 ; IX . 18 to 24 ; III . -1 to 5 ; IV . 0 to 6 . It would be therefore niearly complete in major scales , but would have only td , a , e , 6 , fi , c4 , g : minor , and their comparatively useless schismatic equivalents . It would have no single complete key , and would therefore require many commatic substitutions in modulation , and the use of the Pythagorean major third in the major chords of the comparatively common minor scales of Tf , tc , tg . If only the " soni primarii " of the lower board are used the substitutions become very harsh , as for example A# D F , D F:A for B5 tD F , D F$ tA . Euler 's " soni primarii " may be compared with Rameau 's scale * , which was as follows , c , t tD , te5 , E IF Tf ? j GI t4l A , f 6 > , B , and therefore only colntained the following perfect harmonies , and two perfect scales , A major and a minor : -tD FFAC tdfa tDtF$ , A tLt GLtB , c tbg CEG ace A4ICcE gtb GB egb E4IG#B . Prof. Helmholtz has tuned an harmoniium with two boards of manuals , somewhat in Euler 's manner , as follows : HELMHOLTZ'S DOUBLE SCHEME . Upper Board . Schism . equiv. [ tjC , db , t-D , die , ^b F , q9j tGI a5 , Al 61 ( 62 Tones tuned. . BZ , tc# , Cx , d : , tE , tE# , tf# ) , Fx , g , Gx , ta , tB . Lower Board . Tones tuned. . C , c$ , D , td ) , E , E : , f# , G , tg# , tA , at , B Schism . equiv. [ t_Db , tdb , Ebb , 1eb , J^ tF , to , Abb , take , 0fb , tb5 , I 0 ] This scheme has nearly the same extent and the same defects as Euler 's . The concertina , invented by Prof. Wheatstone , F.R.S. , has 14 manuals to the octave , which were originally tuned thus , as an extenision of Euler 's 12-tone scheme . C ' , tc# , D , td# , E , ) F , f , G , yGI , A , fatO , B , tbO . It possessed the perfect major and minor scales of C and E. The harshness of the chords tB9 ' D , F , D F$ A , for lb tD F , D F4 tA has , however , led to the abandonment of this scheme , and to the introduction of a tempered scale . I have taken advanitage of the 14 manuals to contrive 4 different methods of tuning , so that 4 concertinas would play in all the commoi major and minor scales . Two of these I have in use , and find them effective and very useful for experimental purposes . The following gives the arrangement of the manuals in each , together with the scales possessed by each instrument , major in capitals , and minor in small letters . Where commatic substitution makes the dominant chord too flat in major scales , parentheses ( ) are used ; where it makes the subdominant chord too sharp , brackets [ ] are used . Minor scales in brackets have only the subdominant tone too sharp . The major chord GBD and the tone C being common to all four instruments , determine their relative pitch . The method of tuning these and all justly intoned or teleon * instruments is very simple . C being tuned to any standard pitch , the fifths above and below it are tuned perfect . To any convenient tone thus formed , as C itself , form the major thirds above , as EL , $0# , tB# , &c. , and below as tAb , tFb &c. , and then the fifths above and below these tones . The namnes of the tones thus tuned are apparent from Table V. This tuning is much simpler than any system of temperament , and can be successfully conducted by ear ornly , taking care to avoid all beats in the middle octave e to C2 . SCHEME FOR FouR CONCERTINAS . 1 . tAb Concertina . Manuials. . C b6 , _D d > , E te , F Prf , G jg , A ta7 , B tbb , Scales ... .D > , tAL , tE > , ( t^B ) , [ F ] , C ; [ h ] , f , c. 2 . tB > C1oncertina . Manuals. . C te , D c# , tE 1r'2 , F f : , G tg , tA ta5 , B fbt , Scales ... . tE > , tB , tF1 ( tC ) , [ G ] , D ; [ c ] , g , d. 3 , C Concertina . Manuals. . C ; te , tDd , E tdj , F f$ . G t4 ) A rta , B b5n Scales . II , C , G,1 ( D ) , [ A ] , E ; [ td ] , a , e. 4 . D Concertina . Manuals C c# , D td# , E te , EB : ft , GO g# , tA at , B tb , Scale ... .e GI DI tA , [ tE ] [ B]~:F# [ e ] b , ft In Table III . the first column shows the number of degrees of any tone , two tones whose degrees differ by one-sixteenth being schismatic equivalents . The second column contains the notes of the tones . The third column contains the loogarithm . of the ratio of their pitch to that of c , whence the ratio itself , the absolute pitch , and the length of the monochord are readily found . In the fourth column E marks Euler 's primary , and E2 his secondary tones ; H , H2 the tones on Helmholtz 's lower and upper board ; T , the 40 tones of General T. Perronet Thompson 's Enharmonic Organ ; Pi the 50 tones of Mr. Poole 's Euharmolnic Organ ; t , the 72 tones of Table V. , cols . III . to VIII . ; 8 , the 24 tones out of these 72 which may be played as their adjoining schismatic substitutes without injuring the harmony ; se , the 3 tones which , if played as their schismatic equivalents , would produce a slight but sensible error ; t , not followed by either s or se , the 45 tones which form the minimum number of a justly intoned or teleon scale ; et , the 12 tones of the equally tempered scale . The seven tones of the major scale of C are printed in capitals in the second column . TABLn I.-Principal Musical Intervals . Name . Example . Ratio , or Log. Deg . Unison , ... , , , , , ... . . c : c 1:1 1:1 '00000 0 ? T Schisma ... ... . , , , , , , , tB a : G 32805 : 32768 39 , 5:211 00049 0 ' t4 iDiaschisma ... ... ... . . c : B# 2048 : 2025 211:34,52 00491 1 " t Comma ... , , , , , te : G 81:80 34:24.5 *00540 1 ' t ? Pythagorean Comma ? ttB3 : c 631441:52488 312 : 219 '00589 1 tt4 Diesis ... ... ... db : tcl 128 : 125 27 : 53 01030 2 " ' t Minor Semitone. . t , jet : c 25:24 52 23.3 '01773 3 " j4Limma ... ... ... ... . . c tB 256:243 28:35 '02263 4 : harp , or Greater Limma c : : 135:128 335 . 27 '02312 4 ' tL7W Equal Semitone* . e lc 1V2 : 1 *294 : 349 , ,57 02509 4-7Greater Semitone ... . a : B1 6 : 15 24 3 . 5 02803 5 ' Greatest Semitone ... ... t4 : c 2187 ; 2048 37:211 '02852 5 Greatest Limma ... . 6 . td : c : 27 : 25 33 : 52 03343 6 " Minor Tone ... ... ... ... o : d 10 9 2.5 : 32 04576 8 ' Greater Tone ... ... ... ... d : c 9 : 8 32 : 23 05115 9 Extended Tone ... ... ... g : f 8 : 7 23 : 7 05799 10 } Contracted 3rd ... ... ... . gf d 7:6 7 : 2 . 3 06695 114 Pythagorean Minor 3rd f : d 32 : 27 25:33 '07379 13 Minor 3rd A ... ... ... g : e 6:5 2.3:5 07918 14 ' Major 3rd ... ... ... ... . . e : c54 5:22 '09691 17 ' Pythagorean Major 3rd . to : c 81 : 64 34:2 '10231 18 Fourth , or Perfect 4th ... f : c43 23 3 '12494 22 False 4th ... ... . , , , , , , , , d : A 27 : 20 32 22.5 '13033 23 ? Contracted 5th ... ... ... . f : b 7 : 5 7:5 14613 25r Diminished 5th ... ... . . f : b 64::4 26 : 32 5 '15297 27 ' False 5th ... ... ... . . a : d 40 : 27 232 5:33 '17070 30 ' Eqcjal 5th ... .j . lig c V27 : 1 *214 : 37 . 5 '17560 31 ' Fifth , or Perfect 5th g : c32 3 : 2 '17609 31 Pythagorean Minor 6th:tE 128 : 81 27 : 34 19872 35 Minor 6th.a : E85 23:5 '20461 36 ' Major 6th ... ... ... ... . a : c53 5 : 3 '22185 39 ' Pythagorean Mlajor 6th ta : c 54 : 32 2 . 33 , : 25 '22724 40 Diminished 7th ... ... ... . f : 128 : 75 2 : 3 . 52 23215 41 " Extended 6th ... ... ... . d:gF 12:7 22 . 3:7 '2340841-3 Perfect 7th ... ... . . gf : G 7 : 4 7 : 22 '24304 424 Minor 7th ... ... ... ... . . f : G 16:9 24 : 32 '24988 445 Acute Minor 7th ... ... . . tbb : c 9 : 5 32:5 '25527 45 ' Major 7th ... ... ... ... . . b : c 15 : 3.5:23 '27300 48 ' Octave ... ... ... ... ... . a : C21 2:1 '30103 53 ? Hence the symbol ? for Pythagoras , with the t ( comma ) prefixed . @ Approximately . =P1 u 4 . > . . > . 4+:4-14t +4+4+4+4 +4 +P4 +4q +4 R PP PR : 0i ____________________4 -4 4 -1 -F 02 tmI Ae 1--2n ee d-%n 11 d AU4 " eM ce e Ca -H-+-+H+ - , ~~~~ +-4-4_HI_ _ __ __ __,.._ __ | |________ _____ < 4-______ 4 +-H-++4+44--+ 4-4cd C o_ _ _)I ________________ _L1m 5a . III I$L O~~~ * ... p.c Ij +4+4+ O ( Q _ . _ , _ __ __ ... ... ... . . ____ P-4 ~~~~Og ~~~~~00 4-WCWCcccH4+C4 IC4 C+eC+~44C9 CH 0 +44-~~~~~+-I +++ 6j ~~~~~~~~~~+4-+H--l-++-+ 4 4 , C , A V. 1II AAAN o om 0 II . _ 0 " ~~~~~~~~~~++ 1++ 4 4---4--4--~ 00I _4 I-..I a _____..'-,.-.-.- ... - . U0 +4+4 0I2 4-+ ++ 4-+ +-+ ++ -4--+440 +4+4+4+4 +4 +4+4+44+4+4+4 + +4+4-+4 -~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~ --4 4 ; -+ I+ 4IP-4V1 3Ma Cd ++ 4+4+44+4+ +43 __ *~~~~I~ __ __zCN qy 4xo(Ct TABLE III . Genleral List of Musical Tones . Deg . Note . Log. Remarks . Deg . Note . Log. Remarks . 0C 00000 E , H , T , P , t , et . 19 ' tte 10770 t. 0 ' fb : 00049 t , s. 20 " ttf 11365 t. r tc 00540 T , t. 20 " ' te 11464 T. 2 " ' ttc : 01233 T. 204 gf 11810 P. 21 gtdb 01579 P. 21 ' tf 11954 T , P , t. 3 ' ttdb 01724 t , s. 21 " e 12003 E2 , H , P , t , se . 3 " , tc : 01773 E , T , P , t. 22 F 12494 E , T , P , t. 4 tdb 02263 P , t , s. 22 ' te : 12543 H2 , t , s. 4 ' c 02312 E2 , H , T , P , t. - . llf 1et=_e_ . I ~~~~22 17 If 12543 et=te~ . 4-v jjc~ -02509 et. . ___________ _____ ____02509_et . 23 ' tf 13033 T , t. 5 ' d7 02803 T , t. 237 gtg 14073 P. 5 tc : 02852 Hf2 , P , t , s. 25 " tf : 14267 T , P , t. 7 " , ttd 04036 t. 26 to 14757 P , t , s. 77 gd 04431 P. 26 ' f : 14806 E , H , T , P , t. 8 ' td -04576 T , P , t. __ 8t cx 044625 E2 f2 ; t , 2 26-1 ljf : 15051 et . 8 Ilid -05017 et . 27 ' gt.15297 T , t. 8 lld 27 tfb 15346 E2 , H2 , PI t s. 9 ' ebb 05066 t , s. 28 ' ttf : *15886 t. 9D 05115 E , H , T , P , t. 29 " ttg 16530 t. 10 ' td 05655 t. 29 " ' tf x l6579 T. 11 " ' ttd : 06349 T. 294 gg 16925 P. 117 geb 06695 P. 30 ' tg 17070 T , P , t. 12 ' teb 06839 t , s. 30 " fx 17119 E2 , 1H2 , Pt s. 12"1 td : -06888 El HI T , P , t. 31 ' abb -17560 t , s. 13 e5 -07379 T , P , t. 13 ' d > 07428 E2 , 12 , p , t , s. 3OTA lig 17560 1t=a2 . 13~ ld : 07526 et . 3'1 G 17609 E , H , T , P , t. ____ ____________ 32 ' tg -18149 t. 14 ' te5 07918 T , t. 33 " ' Qlg : 18843 T. 14 td : 07967 t , s. 337 ga5 19189 P. 16 " te 09151 T , P , t. 34 ' ta1 19333 t , s. 164 gte 09547 P. 34 " Tg# 19382 E , H , T , P , t. 17 t1f 09642 t , s. 35 & 19873 T , P , t. 17 ' E 09691 E , H , T , P , t. 35 ' g 19922 E2 , H2 , P , t , se . 172 Ile 10034 et . 351 1I14 20068 et . 18 1e 10181 t , s. 36 ' tgb 20412 T , t. 18 te -10231 E2 , H2 , T , P , t. 36 tg : -20461 t , s. TABLE III . ( continued ) . Deg . Note . Log. Remarks . Deg . Note . Log. Remarks . 38 ta 21645 T , P , t. 45 ' tb~ 25527 T , t. 3846 gta 22040 P. 457 gc C 26567 P. 39 ' A 22185 E , T , P t. 47 " lb 26761 ' T , P , t. 39 " ' gX *22234 H2 , t , s 48 tcb 27251 t , s. -.T lla 22577 et . 48 ' B 27300 E , H , T , P , t. 39 Ia -22577 et.274-40 ' bbb~ 22675 tt ~ 48-1 Ilb *27594 et . 40 ta 22724 E2 , H , T , P , t. 49 ' cb 27791 t. 41 ' tta -23264 t. 49 tb 27840 E2J H2 , P ) t7 Se . 42 " ttb5 23908 t. 50 ' tb -28380 t. 42 ta# -23958 T. 51 Ilec -29024 t. 424 gb5 -24304 P. 51 " ' tb# 29073 T. 43 ' jb7 -24448 P , t , s. 514 so -29419 P. 43"1 a# 24497 E , H , T , P , t. 52 ' to -29563 T , P , t. 44 bb 24988 T , P , t. 52"1 b# 29612 E , EH2 , P ) t , S. 44 ' ta# -25037 E2 H2 , P , t , s. 44j Ila# 25086 et .

112007

3701662

On the Osteology of the Genus Glyptodon

108

108

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Thomas Henry Huxley

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0024

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112007

10.1098/rspl.1863.0024

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112007

Agriculture

Anatomy 2

Agriculture

I. " On the Osteology of the genus Glyptodon . " By THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY , F.R.S. Received December 30 , 1863 . In 1862 the author communicated to the Royal Society an account of the more remarkable features of the skeleton of a specimen of the extinct genus Glyptodon which had been recently added to the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons ; and he then promised to give a full description of the skeleton , illustrated by appropriate figures , in a memoir to be presented in due time to the Royal Society . The present communication consists of Part I. , and Sections 1 and 2 of Part II . , of the promised memoir . Part I. contains the history of the discovery and determination of the remains of the Hoplophoridue , or animals allied to , or identical with Glyptodon clavipe8 . Part IT . is destined to comprehend the description of the skeleton of Glyptodon clavipe8 ( Owen)-Biyplophorus Selloi ? ( Lund ) ; and the Sections 1 and 2 now given contain descriptions of the skull and the vertebral column . The preliminary notice already published in the Proceedings ( Dec. 18 , ; 1862 , vol. xii . p. 316 ) will serve as an abstract . [ To face p. 108 . TABLE IV.-Schismatic Equivalents . Sc = tB : Whence and ? d=tce x Itcl =b k4tc = d= ? Te = dx ? ttdi = ltc cX = td f= te 1 ? tdl =c d : = eb ? Wg = tfx ? el ' =d 1td : = teb ? Ra= gx ? T tel = td : je= tf ? b = tax ? 1 tfl =e jte = f ? fb = te 1 tf : = 4c = T6b s ? tgto =fjS fx = tg 16d = eb 1T abb =gl 0-i = ab le = tf ? tel = tgl ' t~ t 1f = Ig 'IF tb| = ap 1 gx =a lg= a|b 11 b ? l= ta ; ta = bb lba= tbvb Itb = cl ISb=tct b ctc itb : =c TABLE V.-Related Systems . MAJOR . Minor . MAJOR . Minor . MAJOR . Minor . MAJOR . Minor . MAJOR . Minor . II I. I II . I IlI . IV . V. VI . VII . VIII . IX . X. IC|b Ebb G| abb cbb eb | Abcb Eb7 tf abb tb |Fb tA T IC |tdl tfb ab ItDb TIF ITO 116b ld Tf |||1 12l ' 1)7iD[ el'g bl El ' tGo Bl ' tel ' e l ' tg7 tol ' tEl [ Gl [ al tel teb tAt [ O tEl tIf tat ' ij 23D 22 F7 tA'l b dl'l ' fl Bl ItD5 F7 tgl b[ ld tGO 413l tD tel tgl tb tEl ' HTG tB1 tte tel ' ttg 34 |tA 7 Co tE_l fl tabb e7 El Al cb tl ' fL > a7 tUl ' IF Al ' tbl idl tf tBlB tTD tF Ittg tbO ttd 4 |5 'E tbb | cb tebb g| c7 El Gl'| ac eb Al tC El ' tf at te tF tA TC tid tf la 56 tW717 D7 tf gl7 tbl'ld ' Gl Bl Dl'eb be El tG Bl tc el Ig tC tE iG ta te te 67 ttAl tC ' db tfl tab Dl F tAl bdf f Bb tD F ig bl td tG tB tD te tg tb 78t ltEl tGl'tao tct tel tAl ' tEl f ta cFAC td fa tD tF : A tb td tf 89 tEl G tB ' c tel g0EGaCeA tC : E |f : a tc |9 10 tB D tF g tb dGBDegbE tG B tc e tg Ct tEEtGi ta : t te : 10 11 tF tA tC d tf ta DFtAbd f : b IDi I : $g1 ; . I d:t D : Tel 1g : Tb : 11 12 tC tE tG ta te te tA CO tE f ta c ; F#ft AIcfa tD FtX AE tfx ad tfx 12 13 tG tB tD te tg tb tE GB tB c teg CEGa tCX E if xd tex 13 14 tD tF : ttA tb td tf : tB Djt tF p4t tb d : G$1 B : D::g b$ E# lGx B : Tex e ; : lgx 14 15 ttA tC~ ttE tf F tta tc , tF# tA : tCO d$tf ta : D~ Fx tAt bd fX B : tDX Fx tgx b~ tdx 15 16 ttE tGttB te tte tg : tC# tE : tG : tai te te : tA : CX tE : fx ta : CX FX AX Cx tdx fx ax 16 17 ttB tDl ttF# tg#ttb td# tG# tB# tu'l te# tg tb# tE~ Gx tBt cx te# gx Cx Ex Gx ax cX ex 17 l I. | II . III . IV . V. VI . VIT . VIII . IX . X.

112008

3701662

On the Great Storm of December 3, 1863, as Recorded by the Self-Registering Instruments at the Liverpool Observatory

109

110

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Hartnup

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0025

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112008

10.1098/rspl.1863.0025

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112008

Meteorology

Measurement

Meteorology

II . " On the Great Storm of December 3 , 1863 , as recorded by the Self-registering Instruments at the Liverpool Observatory . " By JOHN IIARTNUP , F.R.A.S. , Director of the Observatory . Comr municated by General SABINE , P.R.S. Received January 21 , 1864 . [ This Paper is accompanied by a diagram , which is deposited , for reference , in the Archives of the Royal Society , and of which the auithor gives the following explanation . ] The accompanying diagram exhibits the strength and direction of the wind , the height of the barometer , and the rain-fall for three days preceding , two days following , and during the great storm of December 3 , 1863 , as recorded by the self-registering instruments at the Liverpool Observatory . The barometer-tracing is a facsimile of the original record produced by King 's self-registering barometer ; the force and direction of the wind and the rain-fall have been taken from the sheets of Osler 's anemometer and rain-gauge ; the time-scale for the anemometer has been slightly increased to adapt it to that of the barometer , and the scale of wind-pressure for each five pounds has been made uniform , instead of leaving the spaces greater or less according to the strength of the springs as in the original record . The tracings of the recording-pencils for the direction of the wind and the rain-fall are faithfully represented , but it is scarcely possible to copy the delicate shadings and every gust recorded on the original sheets by the pencil which registers the force of the wind ; all the heavy pressures are , however , correctly represented , and may be taken from the diagram as accurately as from the original sheets . The figures at the lsottom of the diagram show the readings of the dryand wet-bulb thermometers and the maximum and minimum thermometers as recorded at the Observatory during the six days ; the wetand dry-bulb thermoneters were read each day at 8 and 9 A.M. and at 1 , 3 and 9 P.M. ; the registering dry thermometers were read and readjusted each day at 1 P.M. The time marked on the diagram for all the instruments is Greenwich mean time . For four days previous to the 30th of November the barometer had been high and steady , the readings ranging from 30,13 in . to 30 33 in . , the latter at noon on the 29th being the highest ; from this time to midnight the fall was slow and pretty uniform ; from midnight November 29 to iniight December 5 the changes of barometric pressure , the strength and direction of the wind , and the rain-fall are shown on the diagram . The fall of the barometer on the day of the great storm was rapid from midnight to 6 A.M. ; heavy rain and hail fell from 3 ' 30m to 7".20 ; and from 5h 501 to 6 " 4511 it was nearly calm , during which time the wind shifted from E. through S. to W. Between 6 " 45m and 8h 15 , the pressure of the wind increased from 0 to 16 lbs. on the square foot , and at about twenty-five minutes past eight it increased froimi 16 to 43 lbs. in the shiort space of two or three minutes ; the baroneter , being at its minimum , suiddenly rose about three-hundredths of an inch , and during the heaviest part of the storm it colntinued to rise at the rate of about one-tenth of an inch an hour . The oscillations in the mercurial column , as will be seen by the diagram , were large and , frequent deuring the storm , onie of the most remarkable being immeidiately after 10 1 A.M. and niearly coincident with two of the heaviest gusts of wind ; the depression in , this case amounted to between fur and five hundredlths of an inch , the rise following the fall so quickly that the clock moved the recording-cylinder only through just sufficient space to cause a double lilne to be traced by the penicil . minutes past eight it increased from 16 to 43 lbs. in the short space of two or three minutes ; the barometer , being at its minimum , suddenly rose about three-hundredths of an inch , and during the heaviest part of the storm it continued to rise at the rate of about one-tenth of an inch an hour . The oscillations in the mercurial column , as will be seen by the diagram , were large and . frequent during the storm , one of the most remarkable being immediately after 10'1 A.M. and nearly coincident with two of the heaviest gusts of wind ; the depression in this case amounted to between four and five hundredths of an inch , the rise following the fall so quickly that the clock moved the recording-cylinder only through just sufficient space to cause a double line to be traced by the pencil .

112009

3701662

On the Criterion of Resolubility in Integral Numbers of the Indeterminate Equation f=ax\lt;sup\gt;2\lt;/sup\gt;+a\lt;sup\gt;\#x2032;\lt;/sup\gt;x\lt;sup\gt;\#x2032; 2\lt;/sup\gt;+a\lt;sup\gt;\#x2032;\#x2032;\lt;/sup\gt;x\lt;sup\gt;\#x2032;\#x2032; 2\lt;/sup\gt;+2bx\lt;sup\gt;\#x2032;\lt;/sup\gt;x\lt;sup\gt;\#x2032;\#x2032;\lt;/sup\gt;+2b\lt;sup\gt;\#x2032;\lt;/sup\gt;xx\lt;sup\gt;\#x2032;\#x2032;\lt;/sup\gt;+2b\lt;sup\gt;\#x2032;\#x2032;\lt;/sup\gt;x\lt;sup\gt;\#x2032;\lt;/sup\gt;x=0

110

111

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

H. J. Stephen Smith

fla

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112009

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112009

Formulae

Headmatter

Mathematics

III . " On the Criterion of Resolubility in Integral Numbers of the Indeterminate Equation f= ax ' + a , x"2 + a'"272xx + 2b'x ? § 2b11x'x = 0 . " By H. J. STEPHEN SMITH , M.A. , F.R.S. , Savilian Professor of Geometry in theUniversity of Oxford . Received January 20,1864 . It is sufficient to consider the case in which f is an indefinite form of a determinant different from zero . We may also suppose that f is primnitive , i. e. that the six numbers a , a ' , a " , 6 , 6 ' , 6 " do not admit of any common divisor . We represent by aI the greatest common divisor of the minors of the matrix off , by AUQ the determinant off , and by & F the contravariant off , i. e. the form & 2 will then be the determinant of F , and Af its contravariant . By & 2 , A , and UA we denote the quotients obtained by dividing S2 , A , and S2 A by the greatest squLares contained in them respectively ; co is any uneven prime dividing 2 , but not A ; a is any unleven prime dividing A , but not Q , ; and 0 is any uneven prime dividing both a2 and A , and consequently not dividing & 2A . We may then enunciate the theorem " The equationf 0 will or will not be resoluble in integral numbers different from zero according as the equations included in the formule ( a ) ( a ) ( v ) ( fifi ) ( 0 )/ ( lt ( are or are not satisfied . " The symbols ( nd , ( ) , and ( IA ) are the quadratic symbols of Legendre ; the symbols ( X ) ) ( f ) , ( L ) ( / )are generic characters off ( see the Memoir of Eisenstein , " Never Theoreme der hoheren Arithmetik , " in his 'Mathematisehe Abhandlungen , ' p. 185 , or in Crelle 's Journal , vol. xxxv . p. 125 ) . The theorem includes those of Legendre and Gauss on the resolubility Proc.yASoc . VoL7JIT.1f . October S. t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~q ASh07 6X.'iX/ Z-7 s K,4 h-150--J ii ' b hon f~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7'Z l , X , T. T-ft ? uicJ , +2 L1%7.X of equations of the form ax2+a'x'2+a"x"~2=0 ( Legendre , Theory des Nombres , vol. i. p. 47 ; Gauss , Disq . Arith , arts . 294 , 295 , & 298 ) . It is equally applicable whether the coefficients and indeterminates off are real integers , or complex irntegers of the type p+ qi . It will be observed that iff , f ' , f'i ... are forms contained in the same gelnus , the equationsf0 , f -0 , f"= 0 , &c. are either all resoluble or all irresoluLble .

112010

3701662

Results of a Comparison of Certain Traces Produced Simultaneously by the Self-Recording Magnetographs at Kew and at Lisbon; Especially of Those Which Record the Magnetic Disturbance of July 15, 1863

111

120

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Senhor Capello

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0027

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112010

10.1098/rspl.1863.0027

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112010

Meteorology

Tables

Meteorology

IV . " Results of a Comparison of certain traces produced simultaneously by the Self-recording Magnietographs at Kew and at Lisbon ; especially of those which record the Magnetic Disturbance of July 15 , 1863 . " By Senhor CAPELLO , of the Lisbon Observatory , and BALFOUR STEWART , M.A. , F.R.S. Received January 14 , 1864 . The National Portuguese Observatory established at Lisbon in conuexion with the Polytechnic School , and under the direction of Senhor da Silveira , has not been slow to recognize the advantage to magnetical science to be derived from the acquisition of self-recording magnetographs . Accordingly that institution being well supported by the Portuguese Government , despatched Senhor Capello , their principal observer(one of the writers of this communication ) , with instructions to procure in Great Britain a set of selfrecording magnetographs after the pattern of those in use at the Kew Observatory of the British Association . These instruments were made by Adie of Londoni , and when completed were sent to Kew for inspection and verification , and Senihor Capello resided there for some time in order to become acquainted with the photographic processes . The instruments were then taken to Lisbon , where they arrived about the beginning of last year , and they were forthwith mounted at the Observatory , and were in regular operation by the beginning of July last . It had been agreed by the writers of this paper that the simultaneous magnetic records of the two observatories at Kew and Lisbon should occasionally be compared together , and the opportunity for such a comparison soon presented itself in an interesting disturbance which commenced on the 1 5th of July last . The curves were accordingly compared together , and the results are embodied in the present communication . We shall in the first place compare the Kew curves by themselves , secondly the Lisbon curves in the same manner , and lastly the curves of the two Observatories together . Compare ison of IKew Curves . The disturbance , as shown by the Kew curves , commenced on July 15thg at 91 13.5 ' G.M.T. , at which moment the horizontal-force curve recorded an abrupt augmentation of force . The vertical component of the earth 's magnetic force was simultaneously augmented , but to a smaller extent ; while only a very small movement was visible in the declinationi curve . The disturbance , which began in this manner , continued until July 25th , if not longer ; but during the period of its action there was not for any of the elements a very great departure from the nlormal value ; probably in this respect the declination was more affected than either of the other components . While frequently there is an amount of similarity between the different elements as regards disturbances of long period , yet there is often also a want of likeness . If , however , we take the small but rapid changes of force , or peaks and hollows , as has been done by one of the writers of this paper in a previous communication to the Royal Society ( Phil. Trans. 1862 , page 621 ) , we shall find that a disturbance of this nature which increases or diminishes the westerly declination at the same time increases or diminishes both elements of force . This will be seen more distinctly from the following Table , in which + denotes an increase and a diminution of westerly declination , horizontal , and vertical force respectiv , ely , and the proportions are those of the apparent movements of the elements on the photographic paper . TABLE I. Greenwich Horizoital Vertical-force Date . Mean Time . Declination . force . change =unity in each instance . I863 . July 17 2 46-5 I ' O I-9 -ItO 17 2 53 5 -1.1 -20 -1.0 17 3 21-5 -10 2 . 0'O 17 7 58 5 not similar . -2 0 -I'O 17 i6 13 0 +3'5 +2z . + io I8 21 23-5 + 3-0 +2-0 I'0* I9 0 155 not similar . +1I8 + Ir0 19 2 13-5 +11 +I@9 +1'0 19 2 38-o +II +17 + I10 I9 3 22-5 + I-0 + . I9 + 1.0 I9 17 51.0 4-z-8 + ? Z0 +I-0t I9 I8 o0o +3-6 +20 +I10t I9 20 29-5 ? 3-2 +2-0 +1I0 20 3 21-0 + I'0 + ? I6 + I10 20 }8 52-5 +4-0 + 2z2 + I'0 21 0 22O -i6 -2.3 -1.0 2 2-01 21 to:i:i I.4 -2*I -'0 21 5 38-0 +1 4 +2-0 + 1-O 22 I9 20 5 4-0 -2'0 -1 '0 22 19 32 5 -34 So -1.0 22 z1 40-0 +3 5 +2-0 + I'0 23 I8 34 5 +3 5 +2-2 +-0 23 I9 26-5 + 34 +2'0 + Io0t 24 3 310 + 1I2 +2-0 + I10 24 i6 445 +3 . 1 +2'0 +I Ot From this Table it will be seen that the signs are always alike for the different elements , and also that the small and rapid movements of the horizontal force are double of those of the vertical force-a result in conformity with that already obtained by one of the writers in a previous communication . On the other hand , the declination peaks and hollows do not bear an invariable proportion to those of the horizontal and vertical force , bnt present the appearance of a daily range , being great in the early morning hours , and small in those of the afternoon . Indeed this is evident by a mere glance at the curves , which , it so happens , present unusual facilities for a comparison of this nature . Comparison of Lisbon Curves . 1 . Declinationand vertical-force curves.-The peaks of the waves , or the elevations in the curve of declination , are always shown in hollows or depressions in the vertical-force curve , and vice versa . We have never seen an instance to the contrary either in the curves under comparison or during the whole time of the operation of these instruments . This curious relation is exhibited in a Plate appended to this communication , from which it will be seen that we have not only a reversal , but also a very nearly colnstant ratio between the ordinates of the two curves . At Lisbon therefore an increase of westerly declination corresponds to a diminution of vertical force , and vice versa ; also an alimost constant proportion obtains between the corresponding changes of these two elements . 2 . Bifilar and Declination Curves.-July 15 . A great disturbance , which at 8 ' 37'l Lisbon mean time , or 9h 13mI 5 Greenwich mean time , abruptly and suddenly augmented the horizontal force . The curve of the declinationi continues nevertheless nearly undisturbed for about 30 minutes after this , and only at 9h 41 5 G.M.T. it commences to descend very slowly . July 16.-At about 13h 6m G.M.T. , a very regularly shaped prominence of some duration occurs in the declination , but is quite invisible in the horizontal force . July 17.-We see in the bifilar curve half-a-dozen small peaks reproduced in the declination in the same direction , but to a smaller extent . July 18.-One or two accordant peaks . A large prominence of some duration in the declination at about 17 " 56'n G.M.T. is reproduced as a slight depression in the horizontal force . July 19.-A reproduction in the declination of several small peaks of the horizontal force ; nevertheless there are others also small -which one does not see there , or only reproduced to a small extent . Not much accordance between the great and long-continued elevations and depressions . July 20..-An accordance between the small peaks . July 21.-The same . July 22.-The curve is well marked with small peaks . Coincidence of several small peaks , but a want of agreement between the more remarkable peaks . The , peaks of the horizontal force more developed than those of the declination . July 23.-The same appearance of the horizontal-force curves . One remarks on 22nd and 23rd that the small peaks of the declination and horizontal-force are more numerous and more developed in the morning hours . July 24.-Agreement between the small peaks . A strong disturbance about 1O2 G.M.T. , no agreement between the waves . A well-marked promiaence of declination ( 1 5kh ) does not alter at all the horizontal-force curve . We derive the following conclusions from the comparison which we bhave made between the Lisbon curves:1 . The waves and the peaks and hollows of declination are always reproduced at the same instant in the vertical force , but in an opposite direction ; that is to say , that when the north pole of the declination-needle goes to the east , the same pole of the vertical-force magnet is invariably plunged below the horizon , and vice vers4 . During five mouths of operation of these instruments , there has not been an example of the contrary . 2 . The more prominent disturbances of the horizontal force do not in general agree with those of the declinationi or vertical force either in dulration or time . It is certain that when one of the two elements ( bifilar or declination ) is disturbed , the other is also ; and sometimes one appears to see even for several periods of one of the curves , an imitation of the general march of the other ; but when this is examined a little more milnutely , and rigorous measures are attempted , one easily perceives that the phases do not arrive at the same time , but sometimes later and sometimes earlier , without any fixed rule . In the same curve one generally sees contradictions of this kind . Nevertheless it is certain that the agreement in direction and time is more complete when the elevationis or depressions are of shorter duration . 3 . The small peaks and hollows are generally simultaneous for the three curves . The direction of these is the same for the horizontal -force and declination , while that for the vertical force is opposite . The ratio in size of the peaks and hollows is generally variable between the horizontal force and the declination , while it is always constant between the latter and the vertical force . Our next deduction requires a preliminary remark . It has been shown by General Sabine , that if the disturbances of declination at various places be each divided into two categories , easterly and westerly , these obey different laws of daily variation , this difference not being the same for all stations . This would seem to indicate that for every stationl there are at least two simultaneous disturbing forces acting independently , and superposed upon one another . This interesting conclusioni , derived by General Sabine , appears to be verified by the behaviour of the Lisbon curves . From the relation , always invariable , between the waves of declination and vertical force , as well as from the almost total absence of agreement between these two curves and the horizonital force , one has a right to conclude1 . That there is approximately only one indepenident force which acts at Lisbon , if we consider the vertical plane bearing ( magnetic ) east and west . Now the ratio of the disturbing forces for the vertical force and declination is , in units of force , between 26 : 48 and 26 : 36 . This would give the inclinationi of the resultant between 29 ? and 360 . 2 . The absence of agreement in time , and the variability in direction , between the waves of the horizontal force and those of the declination and vertical force , appear to lead to the conclusion that there is another disturbing force besides that already mentioned , which acts in the direction of the magnetic meridian and almost horizontally . Comparison of the Kew and Lisbon Ourves ( 14-24 July ) . l. florizontal force ( north and sotuth disturbing force).-The curves of the horizontal force atKew and at Lisbon exhibit a very great similitude * , as will be seen at ornce from ' the Plate appended to this communication . Almost all the waves and peaks and hollows are reproduced at both places . At the same time one does not see the same resemblance during the great disturbance of 15th July . In the commencement , and for the first four hours , there is a resemblance for all the waves , but from that time until 2 9k " G.M.T. one remarks little agreement between the different elevations and depressionis . But from 19h intil the end of the disturbance the likeness reappears . There are , however , one or two cases of small resemblance in the other curves , but these are of short duration . In order to demonstrate the similarity between the two curves , reference is made to Table TI . , in which the principal points are comparedtogether with respect to time ; that employed being the meali time for both stations . From this Table it will be found that the average difference between the local times of corresponding points is 34mn3 , while that due to difference of longitude is 35rn3 . We attribute this apparent want of simultaneity to various causes ( 1 ) Loss of time in the commencement of movements of the registering cylinder . ( 2 ) Difficulty in estimating precisely the commencement of certain curves . ( 3 ) It was only in the month of August that the exact Lisbon time of the astronomical observatory was obtained by a telegraphic connexion . ( 4 ) To these must be added the uincertainty in estimating the exact tairning-point of an elevation or depression of a blunt or rounid d form . [ To face page 15 TAB3LE II.-Comparison of the time of the princilpal corresponding po'ints of the Hlorizontal-Force Curves at Kew and at Lisbon . ihmh mur hmn hmhmh mhm hhmhm hli hm i mm r hrm hmh mhm hm'~h mh m Xew . 910 ~~~~9 15 9 34 10 17 14-3 13 43 17 51 19 42 20 40 JulY 15 ... Lisbon ... . 837 8 42 9'I 9 431'91I310175 19 10 20 9 Differences 0 33 0 33 0 33 0 34 0 34 . 033 0 36 0 32 0 31 rKew ... . . 023 0 32 1 24 1 40 2 33 2 58 3 50 4 09 4 42 9 50 18 43 20I i6 Lisbon ... . . 44 24 o4 1 21 55 2 22 31 33 3 144 91I2 I8 61 92.2 IDifferences 0 39 0 38 0 38 0 38 0 38 0 36 0 37 0 38 0 38 0 38 0 37 0)3 9 ( Kew ... . . 130 1 32 13756 21 i2 z225 2 42 2 51 3 20 46546 38 6 59 767 22 7 57 11 00 11 1211I51 1 7 ... Lisbon ... . 057 1 00 I31 22 1 39:15 128 21I6 2.47-5 3 32 509g 646 25 6 32 6 48 7 2z5 10 25 103 81II1 i8 ~Differences 0 33 0 32 0 34 0 34 0 33 0 34 0 34 0 35 03 V5 0 34 0 33 0 34 0 34 0 34 0 34 0 34-5 0 35 0 34 0 33 FKew ... . . 1 23 14 8255 52 6 43 1 21 0 114 56 T 8..Lisbon ... .0 47 1I 1 29 5 x15 67 ii 135 14 20 ~Differences 0 36 0 37 0 36 0 37 0 36 0 35 03 6 19 . Kew ... ... 23 o- . 014 21 I2 3 21 4 42 5 48 1 03 5 1312z 19 17 202:8 21 58 Lisbon ... .2250 2z341 1 38 2445301314 94 21 24 Differences 0 34 0 33 0 34 0 34 0 33 0 35 0 34 0 35 0 35 0 34 0 34 Kew ... . . 012 2 42 3 19'5 4 15 4 58 51I3 10 33 11 04 18 51.1 ~~~('9 ) 20 ... ] Lisbon ... .2340 2 10 2 465 3 42 423 4 39 9 58 102 zi8 i8-5 jDifferences 0 32 0 32 0 33 0 33 0 35 0 34 0 35 0 35 03 25 FKew ... ... I 32-5 2 00-5 5 36-5 7 00 10 45 1 147 15I 21 ... Lisbon ... .0 57 1 24-5 5 00 6 22 10 12 II II 14 26 Differences o3 55 0 36 0 36-5 0 38 0 33 0 36 0 35 FKew ... . . 124 4 02 56 8276 127,57 1 549 162z7 19 19 19 31 21 38-5 22 ... Lisbon ... .0 513 29 4 33 7 53 1z 2.6 i1 5I8 1 556 iS 47 i8 58 zi1 Differences 0 33 0 33 0 33 0 33 031I 031I 0 31 0 32 0 33 03 3'5 FKew ... ..2 32 31I1 3 35 747 I81 0121I134 12211 I6 I0 o I8 33 215-2 23 ... Lisbon ... .I 57 2 37 3I6 29 6 42 9 40 II I II 48 15 37 i8 00 21 19 Differences 0 35 0 34 0 34 0 35 0 36 0 32 0 33 0 33 0 33 0 33 0 33 Kew ... ... 3 29-5 414 50 5 25 5 56 8 40 953 'I 2-7 12 54 62 i84j 24. . Lisbon ... . 2 56 3 49 4 19 4 53 5 23 86 92 z10O55 I1223 I5 48 18 8 ____ ~~~Differences~ 03 35 0 32 0 31 0 32 0 33 034 033 032 031 0 35 03 3 The following Table exhibits approximately the proportion between the disturbance-waves of the horizontal force at Lisbon and at Kew . TABLE III . Proportion between the disturbance-waves of the horizontal force reduced at both places Date . to English units ( Lisbon wave = unity ) . July 15 . Variable between 1 : 1P3 and 1 : 1P9 16 . , 1:18 aid 1 : 19 17 . , , 1:1l6 18 . , , 1:19 and 1 : 25 19 . , , 1:17 20.,9 1:I 1 a ' and I : 2-0 21 . , , l:I and I : 20 22 . , , 1:17 23 . , , 1:20 24 . , , I:2-0 Mean . 1:.18 From this Table it will be seen that while this proportion is variable , yet one may generally regard the disturbing force at Kew as greater than that at Lisbon in the proportion of 18 to 1 . 2 . Declination ( east and west disturbing force).-The declinationcurves for Kew and Lisbon are very like each other , and the waves as well as the peaks and hollows are for the most part simiultaneously produced in the two collections of curves . Since , however , at Kew the waves are greater , one does not always easily perceive the resemblance . Certain peaks or waves very prominent at Kew , are reproduced but slightly at Lisbon ; but a careful scrutiny shows that all , or very nearly all , of the Kew waves and peaks occur at Lisbon also . In Table IV . we have a comparison of the principal points of the decliniation-curves with respect to time . From this Table it will be found that the average difference between the local times of corresponding points is 34m.0 , that due to difference of lolngitude being 35Ifl3 . The following Table exhibits approximately the proportion between the disturbance-waves of the declination at Lisbon and at Kew . TABLE V. Proportion between the disturbance-waves Date . of the declination reduced at both places to English units ( Lisbon wave=unity ) . Jutly 15 . Variable from I : 1-8 to 1 : 2,1 16 . , , 1:1-5 1 7 . , , 1 : 14 to 1 : 1P6 18 . , , 1:15 19 . , , 1:15 20 . I:l7 21 . , , 1 : l3 22 . I : 1-4 23 . , , 1 : 18 -i . i , 1 : 16 Mean . eJl 16 [ To face.page 116 . TABLE IY.-Comparison of the times of the principal corresponding points of the Declination Curves at Kew and Lisbon . him h mh m hm h mi h mm hmh mi mh mlr him him hm him ( Kew ... ... .10 15 13 15 146 17 47 x8o I8 53 19 49 21 51 July 15 ... Lisbon ... ... 9 35 1 236 I3 56 170o8 17 21 i8 i6 1 91i . 21 17 ~Differences . 0 40 039 0 40.039 0 39 0 37 037 0 34 Kew . 0 i8 ~~~~~2 17 20351 12 48 14 I1 62 82 2.0 13 216 i 6. . ( '5 ) Lisbon ... ... 23 41 1 41 154 31i6 12 14 13 37 15 45 17 52 . 19 37 20 42 ~Differences..0 37 0 36 0 36 035 034 0 34 0 37 034 036 0 34 r ~~~~~(i6 ) ( x6 ) IKew ... ... . 2275 5 2-349 1 46 2452 52 3 20 3 59 5 40 5 57.S 33 3'1Il i6ir 15-8 37 19 51 ILisbon ... ... 2221 231i6 II 2I1 2 20 2 48 3 22 555 22 S0 10 39 15 39 xS 6 19 20 IDifferences ... 0 34 0 33 0 35 0 34 0320 32 0 37 0 35 0 35 0 33 0 32 0 32-5 0 31 0 31 ( '7 ) { Kew ... ... .23 20 0 22 273 37 71i8 859 33 12 50 13 58 15 43 16 41 17 54 x8 ... ~~('7 ) ( '7 ) Lisbon ... ... 2246 23 48 1 33 ' 3 3 ' 6 44 7 32 8 58 121 . 6 13 24 15 11 i6 j 17 22 Differences . 0 34 0 34 034 0 34 034 0 33 0 35 034 034 0 32 031 0 32 ( ~~~~(i8 ) Kew ... ... .23270 00 14 2 12 7236-5 3271 5 45 9 14 17 49'5 17 58'5 1S 3 202 -8 19 ... ~~(i 8 ) ( iS8 ) Lisbon ... . . 22745 23 42 I 36-5 72 22 46 5 12 8 39 17 i8 17 25 17278 19 56 ~Differences ... 0 35 0 32 0 35-5 0 34'5 0 35 0 33 0 35 03 V5 0 33'5 0 35 0 32 ( Kew ... ... . 054 3 19'5 356 41Ir3 5 5210 59 1 23 1151x851 19 24 20 25 21 4 20 Lisbon ... . . ox8 2 46'5 3 722 3 41 520 10 23 11 56 14 26 x8 x8'5 IS 53-5 1 9511 20 31 ~Differences 0 . o36 0 33 034 0 32 032 0 36 035 0 35 0 32-5 0 305 034 0 33 [ Kew ... ... . 0 205 2 10 2 13 4 19 5 36-5 7 12 II 5 ' 127 i6 x2 17 28 20 15 21. . Lisbon ... ... 23 47 1 36 140 3 46 50o'5 6 38 10 31 1134 1r5 39 16 55 '944 LDifference-s ... 0 33'5 0 34 0 33 0 33 0 35 0 34 0 34 0 33 0 33 9 33 03 1 Kew ... ... .23 20 0 42 3 51 568 26 12-56 14 11 16 58 17 39 18 47 199 13 185 2.2 ... ( 2.1 ) Lisbon ... . . 22 48 083 17 4 33 7 51 12 ? -22 13 36 16 25 17 6 I1814 18 47 18 58 21 5 ~Differences ... 0 32 0 34 0 3:5 0 33 0 35 0 34 0 35 0 33 0 33 0 33 0 32 0 33 0 33'5 rKew ... ... ..2 24 309g 3 34 72z6 9 23 1 054 1 132 14 36 183 3 I1925 19 50 2 150 2 3 ... Lisbon ... . . 15 22 34 3 00 6 52 8 48 10 22 10 59'5 1438 Ir 152 19 i8 21 17 ~Differences. . 032 035 0 34 0 34 035 0 32 0 32-5 033 0 32 p33 032 0 33 Kew ... ... . 114 3 29'5 41i8 6 2 . 8 36 11 20 12 30 15 36 16 43 i~ 8 19 27 20 22 21 39 24..Lisbon ... . . 040 2-57 3 46 5 28 8 15 04 153 i6 6 ' Ij38 55 19 50 21 6 ~Differences ... 0 34 0 32'5 0 32 0 34 0 34'5 0 32 0 37 0 35 0 36'5 330 32 0 32 0 33 It would thus appear that the declirnation at Kew , judging from the waves , is subject to greater disturbing forces than at Lisbon in the proportion of 1 6:1 . This ratio is not , however , quite so great as that for the horizontal force . 3 . Vertical disturbing force.-The curves of vertical force are nearly quite dissimilar . Sometimes the general march of the curves appears to coincide during some time ; but in these cases we do not find an appreciable general agreement for the majority of the various points of the wave . On the other band , the small peaks and hollows of the Kew curves are generally reproduced in those of Lisbon , but in the opposite direction , that is to say , a sudden augmentation of the vertical force at Kew corresponds to a sudden diminution of the same at Lisbon , and vice versed . In Table VI . we have a comparison of the principal points of the verticalforce curves with respect to time . TABLE VI.-Comparison of the time of the principal corresponding points of the Curves of Vertical Force at Kew and Lisbon . [ Kew ... . hmhm hm h lim hm July 15 ... l Lisbon ... No simil arity . Differences Kew. . 2 21 21I 17 I6 . Lisbon.147 20 45 Differences 0 34 0 32 FKew ... ... ... 2 45 ? ? 2 52 3 20 7 57 I6 II'5 17 ... Lisbon ... ... 2I-5 2 I95 2 49 7 23 15 39 L Differences 0 3335 0 325 0 31 0 34 0 325 F Kew ... ... ... 7*00 9*3-3 2I 22 i 8 ... Lisbon ... ... 6 29 9 00 20 50 Differences 0 31 0 33 0 32 KEew ... . . O*I0*10 2z 12 2 36'5 3 21 17 4935 17 58 5 19 ... Lisbon . 23 38 1 36'5 2 02 2 46 17 i8 17 25 Differences 0 32 0 35-5 0 3435 0 35 03 I5 0 3335 KKew ... ... ... 195 x8 51 22 03 20.i . Lisbon . 2 46-5 i8 i8'5 21 31 Differences 030 32-5 0 32 FKew . 2 IO 5 3635 6 43 21 . Lisbon . I 36 . 1365 O1I5 6 og0 [ Differences 0 34 0 35 0 34 Kew ... ... ... 5 o6 8 24 12 56 19 I9 I9 31 21 38-5 22 1 Lisbon ... . 4 33 7 51 1222 18 46 I8 57 21 4 LDifferences ? ? 33 0 33 0 34 0 33 0 34 0 34-5 F Kew. . I8 33 i8 37 21 54 23 ... Lisbon ... ... I8 OI i8 05 21 22 Differences 0 32 0 32 0 32 Kew . 3 295 4 10 5 59 I6 43 z4 ... Lisbon ... ... 2 56 3 37 5 26 I6 8-5 Differences 0 3335 0 33 0 33 0 3435 From this Table it will be seen that the average difference between the local times of corresponding points is 33111 . , while for the horizontal force this was 34 ' 3 , and for the declination 34'-O , the mean of the three being 33m-8 . The measurements from which these numbers were obtained were made at Lisbon independently for each element : another set of measurements , made at Kew , but of a less comprehensive description , gave a mean difference in local time of 33mr 7 , which is as nearly as possible identical with the Lisbon determination . We have already observed that we attri bute the difference between 33m8 and 351fl.3 , the true longitude-difference of local times , to instrumental errors , and not to want of simultaneity in the correspon-ding points . In Table VII . we have a comparison in magnituide and sign of the peaks and hollows at the two stations . From this Table it will be seen that the magnitude of these is generally greater at Kew than at Lisbon . The curious fact of the reversal in direction of the vertical-force peaks between Kew and Lisbon has been already noticed . We shall now in a few words recapitulate the results which we have obtained . 1 . In comparing the Kew curves together for this disturbance , the peaks and hollows of the horizontal force always bear a definite proportion to those of the vertical force , the proportion being the same as that observed in previous disturbances . On the other hand , the declination peaks and hollows do not bear an invariable proportion to those of the other two elements , but present the appearance of a daily range , being great in the early morning hours , and small in those of the afternoon . The peaks and hollows are in the same direction for all the elements . 2 . In comparing the Lisbon curves together , the elevations of the declination-curve always appear as hollows in the vertical-force curve , and vice versed , and there is always a very nearly constant ratio between the ordinates of the two curves . The horizontalforce curve , on the other hand , presenits no striking likeness to the other two . We conclude from this that there are at least two independent disturbing forces which jointly influence the needle at Lisbon , but that the declinatiori and vertical-force elements are chiefly itifluenced by one force . The peaks and hlollows are generally simultanieous for the three curves . The direction of these is the same for the horizontal force and declination , while that for the vertical force is opposite . The ratio in magnitude of the peaks and hollows is generally variable between the horizontal force and the declination , while it is always constant between the latter arid the vertical force . 3 . When the Kew and Lisbon curves are compared together , there is a very striking likeness between the horizo-tal-force curves , onie perhaps somewhat less striking between the declination-curves , and very little likeness between the vertical-force curves . It is perhaps worthy of note that This Table has been constructed with the following values of K , the coefficient for one inch . KEW . LISBON . English unit . English unit . Horizontal force ... K=o-o41 ... SK ( 17 an(l i 8 ) ... =o-o66 For the other days K o-o04I Declination ... ... . . K=o-o2.4 ... o ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... K -o4o Vertical force ... ... K=o0c24 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... K=o-oz6 o 0 ' O'0 a'0 " ~ 0 ' 0 ' " 0 ' . '0 0 '0 0000 " . 01 . ~-o 00 t.000 0000 000 00 00 00 000000= oC : 000 c0 0 n0 0000000000b b0 00 bbo bbbb tbo b bo bb 5 ) _ , _______________ _.0n 1-V%oso 00 In1-n 00 00 OO 0 00000 0 4 . 00.000-1-+ o ' ) N-S j0 C.0 . 0 ~~ . 0~~~~~ 00000 000p pP ) 00 000 0000 00 01 bobbo oo obo o oo booo obo ooooo0oo ---of ' 'o ' 'o , W ooo 'o oo S e~~~~~~~+++ IIIIIIIIII1++1 ++IIII o4 c ppp o oo oo 0000 O o00 00 00ooo 00 00 00.0 . 00000 0000 - . o0 o0 00 0+ 5o o_oo o.1-so i 0o o** oo 00 oo* Cs*~ . ~'0 0 ' . 0 0 ' . 0'.0 00 't '0 00 0t 00 00 00 000 00 0000 0000 00 00 00 00 00 b boob bbbbb b bbbb b boob bobo w X.o~ oo oooooo o : oooo in o o^ o o : o* OOOn0o0~n QO OsOO , O OO O O , 4 . ) 0 ~~~~~~.4 000 0.0 P0 P9 0000 0B oo ob b ob ob ooo oo ooo oooo OXOO tn O0o II%lr"or li oo L O.U ) . ~ 'O O 00 , 0O 0.0,0 'I -.0 ooo , OO-00.0 -0 0 O. . 0 . 000 0 ... . __ _~~0 00 00 00 00 0 00 00 00 000 0000000 oo oo un oos_ o , o ve oom ce * cr~~~~~~oo oo or OooooOoooo0 00 0ooO IAn0 0 : : OO O0O '.O OOOOOOOOO ( a r00 '0 *-0 00 -00 -0 'O *0a0 00 00 N0 0.0 00 00 0 00000 000000000000 U. O 0,0.000 0OOOO0 01 0 O-.0.00 0000 0 ? C1ff 1+t++++++ f+f +1+1+++++. . o % I-o o0oJO++ 88 D88 el -d0~000 000 0000000000 Fm sX bob 0 00 oo0 o0 o0 oo 0o ooo0 ooo oo000 0%n . U " '0 -'-'n O00 in o " -'noi -~00 *0 0 000000000 pp p00 00a0 00 bbbooooo oo oo ooooob bo oo o H. O bbo o +o bbbbb+ +ob+ bb + +b.CC000 0 " , ,o o 'oo I-D ooo Cooo Ioo D ooo , 'o o o. 0oooo'oooo0o el0 ooo0 -o o " o oo 0 00.00 *OOOOoPOOoOo-oooooO 000 0.0..-a cn . ) 0++WO 000 0O+00000O __ OO'O~ the Lisbon horizontal-force curve , in which we may suppose two independent forces to be represented , is probably on the whole the most like the corresponding Kew curve . Corresponding points occur at the same absolute time for both stations . The disturbanice-waves for the horizontal force and declination are greater at Kew than at Lisbon . The Kew peaks and hollows are simuiltaneously produced at Lisbon in all the elements , but to a smaller extent than at Kew ; also the direction is reversed in the case of the vertical force , so that a sudden small increase of vertical force at Kew corresponds to a diminutioni of the same at Lisbon . The writers of this paper are well aware that before the various points alluded to in their communication can be considered as established , a more extensive comparison of curves must be made . But as the subject is new and of great interest , they have ventured thus early to make a preliminary communication to the Royal Society . They will afterwards do all in their power to confirm their statemenits , which in the meantime they submit to this Society as still requiring that proof which only a more prolonged investigation can afford . Note regarding the Plates . Increasing ordinates denote increasing westerly declination , and also increasing horizontal and vertical force . The following are the scale coefficients applicable to the different diagrams : Horizontal force , Kew . One inch represents 0041 English unit . Ditto Lisbonl . , , , , 0035 , , forJuly15 Ditto do . , , 0 , ( P066 , , for July 17 . Ditto do . , , , , 0 041 , , for the other curves . Declination do . , , , , 0040 Vertical force do . 0 , , , ( 026

112011

3701662

Experiments to Determine the Effects of Impact, Vibratory Action, and a Long-Continued Change of Load on Wrought-Iron Girders. [Abstract]

121

126

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Fairbairn

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112011

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112011

Measurement

Meteorology

Measurement

" Experiments to determinie the effects of impact , vibratory action , and a long-continued change of Load on Wrought-iron Girders . " By WILLIAM FAIRBAIRN , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received January 20 , 1864 . ( Abstract . ) The author observes that the experiments which were undertaken , nearly twenty years ago , to determine the strength and form of the Tubular Bridges which now span the Conway and Menai Straits , led to the adoption of certain forms of girder , such as the tubular , the plate , and the lattice girder , and other forms founided on the principle developed in the construction of these bridges . It was at first designed that the ultimate strength of these structures should be six times the heaviest load that could ever be laid upon them , after deducting half the weight of the tubes . This was considered a fair margin of strength ; but subsequent considerations , such as generally attend a new principle of construction with arn untried material , showed the expediency of increasing it ; and instead of the ultimate strength being six times , it was in some instances increased to eight times the weight of the greatest load . The proved stability of these bridges gave increased confidence to the engineer and the public , and for several years the resistance of six times the heaviest load was considered an amply sufficient provision of strength . But a general demand soon arose for wrought-iron bridges , and many were made without due regard to first principles , or to the law of proportion necessary to be observed in the sectional areas of the top and bottom flanges , so clearly and satisfactorily shown in the early experiments . The result of this was the construction of weak bridges , many of them so ill-proportioned in the distribution of the material as to be almost at the point of rupture with little more than double the permanent load . The evil was enhanced by the erroneous system of contractors tendering by weight , which led to the introduction of bad iron , and in many cases equally bad workmanslhip . The deficiencies and break-downs which in this way followed the first successful application of wrought iron to the building of bridges led to doubts and fears as to their security . Ultimately it was decided by the Board of Trade that in wrought-iron bridges the straini with the heaviest load should not exceed 5 tons per square inch ; but on what principle this standard was establishled does not appear . The requirement of 5 tons per square inch did not appear sufficiently definite to secure in all cases the best form of construction . It is well known that the powers of resistance to strain in wrought iron are widely different , according as we apply a force of tension or compression ; it is even possible so to disproportion the top and bottom areas of a wrought-iron girder calculated to support six times the rolling load , as to cause it to yield with little more than half the ultimate strain or 10 tons on the square inch . For example , in wrought-iron girders with solid tops it requires the sectional area in the top to be nearly double that of the bottom to equalise the two forces of tension and compression ; and unless these proportions are strictly adhered to in the construction , the 5-ton strainl per square inch is a fallacy which may lead to dangerous errors . Again , it was ascertained from direct experiment that double the quantity of material in the top of a wroughtiron girder was not the most effective form for resisting compression . On the contrary , it was found that little more than half the sectional area of the top , when converted into rectangular cells , was equivalent in its powers of resistance to double the area when formed of a solid top plate . This discovery was of great value in the construction of tubes and girders of wide span , as the weight of the structure itself ( which increases as the cubes , and the strength only as the squares ) forms an important part of the load to which it is subjected . On this question it is evident that the requirements of a strain not exceeding 5 tons per square inch cannot be applied in both cases , and the rule is therefore ambiguous as regards its application to different forms of structure . In that rule , moreover , there is nothing said about the dead weight of the bridge ; and we are not informed whether the breakingweight is to be so many times the applied weight plus the multiple of the load , or , in other words , whether it includes or is exclusive of the weight of the bridge itself . These data are wanting in the railway instructions ; and until some fixed rinciple of construction is determined upon , accompanied by a standard measure of strength , it is in vain to look for any satisfactory results in the erection of road and railway bridges composed entirely of wrought iron . The author was led to inquire into this subject with more than ordinary care , not only on accouint of the imperfect state of our knowledge , but from the want of definite instructions . In the following experimental researches he bas endeavoured to ascertain the extent to which a bridge or girder of wrought iron may be strained without injury to its ultimate powers of resistanice , or the exact amount of load to which a bridge may be subjected without endanrgering its safety-in other words , to determine the fractional strain of its estimated powers of resistance . To arrive at correct results and to imitate as nearly as possible the strain to which bridges are subjected by the passage of heavy trains , the apparatus specially prepared for the experiments was designed to lower the load quickly upon the beam in the first instance , and next to produce a considerable amount of vibration , as the large lever with its load and shackle was left suspended upon it , and the apparatus was sufficiently elastic for that purpose . The girder subjected to vibration in these experiments was a wrought-iron plate beam of 20 feet clear span , and of the following dimensions : Area of top. . 4 30 square inches . Area of bottom ... ... ... . . 2'40 Area of vertical web ... 90 Total sectional area. . 860 Depth ... ... . . 16 inches . Weight ... ... . 7 cwt . 3 qrs . Breaking-weight ( calculated). . 12 tons . The beam having been loaded with 6643 lbs. , equivalent to one-fourth of the ultimate breaking-weight , the experiments commenced as follows Experiment T. Experiment on a wrought-iron beam with a changing load equivalent to one-fourth of the breaking-weight . Number of Deflection Date . cLanges of produced by Remarks . Load . Loatd . I 86o . March 2I ... ... 0 017 Strap loose on the 24th March . April 7 . 202,890 0-17 Strap broken on the zoth April . May I ... . 449,280 o-i6 May 14 ... ... . . 596,790 o i6 The beam having undergone about half a million changes of load by working continuously for two months night and day , at the rate of about eight changes per minute , without producing any visible alteration , the load was increased from one-fourth to two-sevenths of the statical breakingweight , and the experiments were proceeded with till the number of changes of load reached a million . Experiment II . Experiment on the same beam with a load equivalent to two-sevenths of the breaking weight , or nearly 31 tons . Number of Deflection , Date . changes of in inches . Remarks . Load . i86o . May 14 o oZ In this experiment tho number of May. . 85,82o 0 2a changes of load is counted from o , June 9. . 2 , . z36,460 ozi although the beam had already undergone 596,790 changes , as shown in the preceding Table . June z6 . ' 403 , z'1 o.a3 The beam had now suffered ono million changes of load . After the beam had thus sustained one million changes of load without apparent alteration , the load was increased to 10,486 lbs. , or -2ths of the breaking-weight , and the machinery again put in motion . With this additional weight the deflections were increased , with a permanent set of 05 inch , from *23 to *35 inch , and after sustaining 5175 chanones the beam brok-e by tension at a short distance from the middle . It is satisfactory here to observe that during the whole of the 1,00,1 75 changes none of the rivets were loosened or brokeni . The beam broken in the preceding experiment was repaired by replacing the broken angle-irons on each side , and putting a patch over the broken plate equal in area to the plate itself . A weight of 3 tons was placed on the beam thus repaired , equivalent to onie-fourth of the breaking-weight , and the experimenits were continued as before . Experiment III . Number of Detion , Permanent Date . changes in ches . set , in Remarks . of Load . _ inches . icg6o . August 9 Experiment IV . Number of Deflection , Permanent Date . cihanges i inches . set , Remarks . of Load , in inchles . i86I . October i 8 ... ... 0 0-20 Novemnber I 8 ... I26,000 0'z0 0 December i 8 . 37,000 0'20 ii862 . January 9 ... ... 313,000 . , , , , ... . Broke by ten sion across the bottom web . Collecting the foregoing series of experimrents , we obtain the following summary of results . Summary of Results . 4~~~ Weight N Strain De onii midNumber per sq Strain Deflec4 < : Date . dle of the of ionch P. " 'Q-'TcOp s tion h Remarks . ba , in oflLoad tchinchles . _tons. . on top . I From March 596,790 462 2'58 '7 14 , i86o ... J2 From May 14 to June 3.50 403,2IO 5'46 3'05 *23 26 , i86o ... j 3 From July I Broke by tension a short 25 to July 4+68 5,175 7'3I 4.o8 '35 distance from the cen28 , i86o ... J tree of the beami . Beam repaired . 4 Aug. 9 , I86o 4-68 158 71 4-08 ... The apparatus wa cciS Aug. ii & I2 3-58 25,742 3 59 3'I 2 *22 dentally set in motion . 6 From Aug. I 13 , 1860 to z296 3,124,100 4'62 2Z58 *I8 Oct. i6 , i86i J7 From Oct. iS8 , 20T:Broke by tension as be7 861 to Jan. 3I 6 ' fore , close to the plate 862.J . 3i3 , ooc 34 riveted over the pro900 1 x8vious fracture . From these experiments it is evident that wrought-iron girders of ordinary construction are not safe when submitted to violent disturbalnces equivalenit to one-third the weight that would break them . They , however , exhibit wonderful tenacity when subjected to the same treatment with onefourth the load ; and assuming therefore that an iron girder bridge will bear with this load 12,000,000 changes without injury , it is clear that it would require 328 years at the rate of 100 changes per dav before its security was affected . It would , however , be dangerous to risk a load of oie-third the breaking-weight upon bridges of this description , as , according to the last experiment , the beam broke with 313,000 changes ; or a period of eight years , at the same rate as before , would be sufficient to break it . It is more than prohable that the beam had been injured by the previous 3,000,000 changes to which it had been subjected ; and assuming this to be true , it would follow that the beam was iundergoing a gradual deterioration which must some time , however remote , have terminated in fracture . After the beam had thus sustained one million changes of load without apparent alteration , the load was increased to 10,486 lbs. , or -2ths of the breaking-weight , and the machinery again put in motion . With this additional weight the deflections were increased , with a permanent set of 05 inch , from *23 to '35 inch , and after sustaining 5175 changes the beam broke by tension at a short distance from the middle . It is satisfactory here to observe that during the whole of the 1,005,175 changes none of the rivets were loosened or broken . The beam broken in the preceding experiment was repaired by replacing the broken angle-irons on each side , and putting a patch over the broken plate equal in area to the plate itself . A weight of 3 tons was placed on the beam thus repaired , equivalent to one-fourth of the breaking-weight , and the experiments were continued as before . Experiment III . Number of Permanent Date . changes Deecthei . set , in Remarks . of Load . inchs inches . 86o . August 9 ... ... 158 ... ... ... ... ... . . The load during these changes was equivalent to 10 , 500 Ibs . , or 4'6875 tons at the centre . With this weight the beam took a large but unmeasured set . August ii 1 ... . . 2,950 During these changes the load August 13 ... ... 25,900 0'22 ? in the beam was 8025 lbs. , or 3'58 tons . August I3 ... ... 25,900 o'I8 o Load reduced to 2 96 tons , or i December I ... 768 , Ioo o'8 0oo1 th the breaking-weight . I861 . March ... ... ... 1,602,000 o'I8 o'oI May 4 ... ... ... . 2,0,000 0I7 o'oI September 4 ... 2,77,754 0o17 o'oI October I6 ... ... . 3,150,000 0o17 o'oI At this point , the beam having sustained upwards of 3,000,000 changes of load without any increase of the permanent set , it was assumed that it might have continued to bear alternate changes to any extent with the same tenacity of resistance as exhibited in the foregoing Table . It was then determined to increase the load from one-fourth to one-third of the breaking-weight ; and accordingly 4 tons were laid on , which increased the deflection to '20 . Experiment IV . Number of . Permanent Deflection , Date . changes i inces . et , emarks . of Load . in inch.es . i86I . October 8 ... ... o 0'20 November 8 ... iz6 , ooo 020z 0 December i8 ... 237,000 o'zo I862 . January 9 . 0 3,00 ... ... ... ... ... Broke by tension across the bottom web . Collecting the foregoing series of experiments , we obtain the following summary of results . Summary of Results . *4 P4 4^ Date . O _1 Weight Number on midofer die of the h oa , beam , in changes beam , in of Load . tons . Strain per sq . inch on bottom . Strain per sq . inch on top . Deflection , in inches . Remarks . I From March 2I to May 2 596,790 ' 4'62 2'58 'I7 14 , i86o ... J2 From May 14 to June 3'50 403,210 5'46 3'05 '23 26 , i86o ... J3 From July Broke by tension a short 25 to July 4'68 5 , I75 7'3I 4'08 *35 distance from the cen28 , I86o ... tree of the beam . Beam repaired . 4 Aug. 9 , i86o 4'68 158 7-3 4'08 ... The apparatus was acci5 Aug. II & I2 3'58 25,742 3'59 3'12 i2zz dentally set in motion . 6 From Aug. I3 , i86o to 2*96 3,124,100 4'62 z258 '18 Oct. I6 , I86I 7F rom Oct. , Broke by tension as bei86i toJai . 400 313 , ooc 3-48 o fore , close to the plate 9 , I862 20 3 ctur.riveted over the pre9 , I~~~ x862~~~ ... vious fracture . From these experiments it is evident that wrought-iron girders of ordinary construction are not safe when submitted to.violent disturbances equivalent to one-third the weight that would break them . They , however , exhibit wonderful tenacity when subjected to the same treatment with onefourth the load ; and assuming therefore that an iron girder bridge will bear with this load 12,000,000 changes without injury , it is clear that it would require 328 years at the rate of 100 changes per day before its security was affected . It would , however , be dangerous to risk a load of one-third 1864 . ] 125 the breaking-weight upon bridges of this description , as , according to the last experiment , the beam broke with 313,000 changes ; or a period of eight years , at the same rate as before , would be sufficient to break it . It is more than prohable that the beam had been injured by the previous 3,000,000 changes to which it had been subjected ; and assuming this to be true , it would follow that the beam was undergoing a gradual deterioration which must some time , however remote , have terminated in fracture .

112012

3701662

On the Calculus of Symbols.--Fourth Memoir. With Applications to the Theory of Non-Linear Differential Equations. [Abstract]

126

126

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. H. L. Russell

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112012

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112012

Formulae

Biography

Mathematics

I. " On the Calculuis of Symbols.-Fourth Memoir . With Applications to the Theory of Non-linear Differential Equations . " By W. H. L. RUSSELL , A.B. Communicated by Professor CAYLEY . Received July 31 , 1863 . ( Abstract . ) In the preceding memoirs on the Calculus of Symbols , systems have been constructed for the multiplication and division of noln-commutative symbols subject to certain laws of combination ; and these systems suffice for linear differential equations . But when we enter upon the conisideration of nonlinear equations , we see at once that these methods do not apply . it becomes necessary to invent some fresh mode of calculation , and a new notation , in order to bring nion-linear functions into a condition which admits of treatment by symbolical algebra . This is the object of the followinD memoir . Professor Boole has given , in his ' Treatise on Differential Equations , ' a method due to M. Sarrus , by which we ascertain whether a given non-linear function is a complete differential . This method , as will be seen by anyone who will refer to Professor Boole 's treatise , is equivalent to finding the conditions that a non-linear function may be externally divisible by the symbol of differelntiation . In the following paper I have given a notation by which I obtain the actual expressions for those conditions , and for the symbolical remainders arising in the course of the division , and have extended my investigations to ascertaining the results of the symbolical division of non-linear functions by linear functions of the symbol of differentiation .

112013

3701662

On Molecular Mechanics

126

135

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Joseph Bayma

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0029

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112013

10.1098/rspl.1863.0029

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112013

Fluid Dynamics

Biography

Fluid Dynamics

II . " On Molecular Mechanics . " By the Rev. JOSEPH BAYMA , Of Stonyhurst College , L-ancashire . Communicated by Dr. SHARIPEY , Sec. R.S. Received January 5 , 1.864 . The following pages contain a short account of some speculations on molecular mechanics . They will show how far my plan of molecular mechaniics has been as yet developed , and how much more is to be done before it reaches its proper perfection . Of course I can do no more than point out the principles on which , according to my views , this new science ought to be grounded . The proofs would require a volume , and the more so , as existing wide-spread philosophical prejudices will make it my duty to join together both demonstration and refutation . But there will be time hereafter , if necessary , for a complete exposition and vindication of the principles on which I rely ; at present it will be enough for me to state them . The aim of " molecular mechanics " is the solution of a problem which includes all branches of physics , and which may be enunciated , in general terms , as follows : " From the knowledge we gain of certain properties of natural substanlces by observationi and experiment , to determine the intrinsic constitution of these substances , and the laws according to which they ought to act and be acted upon in any hypothesis whatever . " In order to clear the way for the solution of this problem , three thiligs are to be done . First . From the known properties of bodies must be deduced the essential principles and intrinsic constitution of matter . Secondly . General formulas must be established for the motions of any kind of molecular system , which we conceive may exist in rerum natura . Thirdly . We must determine as far as possible the kinds of molecular systems which are suited to the different primitive bodies ; and be prepared to make other applications suitable for the explanation of phenomena . Of these three things , the first , which is the very foundation of molecular mechanics , can , I think , be done at once . The second also , though it requires a larger treatment , will not present any great difficulty . The third , however , in this first attempt , can be but very imperfectly accomplished ; for sciences also have their infancy , nor am I so bold as to expect to be able to do what requires the labour of many : I shall only say so much as may suffice to establish for this sciernce a definite existence and a proper form . In order to give an idea of my plan , I will now say a few words on each of these three points . I. PRINCIPLES or , MOLECULAR MECHANICS . First , then , ( to say nothing of the name of " molecular mechanics , " which will be justified later , ) in all bodies we find these three things , exten8ion , inertia , and activejpowers , to one or other of which every property of bodies may be referred . In order therefore to arrive at a clear idea of the constitution of natural substances , these three must be diligently investigated . Extension.-I have come to the following conclusions on this head , which , I think , can be established by eviident arguments drawn from various considerations . 1 . All bodies consist of simple and ulnextended elements , the sumn of which constitute the ab8olute ma-ss of the given body . The extension itself , or volume , of the body is nothing but the extension of the space included within the bounding surfaces of the body ; and the ext ension of space is nothing but its capability of being passed through ( percurribilitas ) in any direction by means of motion extending from any one point to any other . 2 . There is no such thing possible as matter materially and mathema . tically continuous-that is to say , such that its parts touch each other with true and perfect colntact . There must be admitted indeed a continuity of forces ready to act ; but this conitirnuity is only virtual , not actual lnor formal . 3 . Simple elements cannot be at once attraclive at greater , and repulsive at less distances . To this extent at least Boscovich 's theory must be corrected . If an element is attractive at any distalnce , it will be so at all distances ; and if it be repulsive at any distance , it will be repulsive at all distances . This is proved from the very nature of matter , and perfectly corresponds with the action of molecules and with universal attraction . 4 . Simple elemenis must not be confounded with the atoms of the chemist , nor with the molecules of which bodies are composed . Mfolecules are , according to their name , small extenlded masses , i. e. they imply volume ; elements are indivisible points without extension . Again , molecules of whatever kind , even those of primitive bodies , are so many systems resulting from elements actiun on each other ; conisequently elements differ from molecules as parts differ from the whole ; so that much may be said about separate elements , which cannot be said of separate molecules or chemnical atoms , and vice versd ' . Element , molecule , body have the same relatioi to each other in the physical order , that individual , family , state bear to each other in the social order ; for a body results from molecules , and molecules from elements holding together mechaniically , in a similar way to that in which a state results from families , and families from individuals bound together by social ties . So much regarding extension ; for I do not now intend to proceed to the demonstration of these statements , but simply to put down what it is I am prepared to prove . I'nertia.-There woLild scarcely be any need of saying anything on this head , were there not some , even learned mrreii , who entertain false ideas about it , and from not rightly understanding whiat is said of inertia by physical philosophers , throw out ill-founded doubts , which do more harm than good to science . I say , then , 1 . Inertia implies two things : ( a ) that each element of matter is perfectly indifferent to receiving motion in any directionand of any intensity from some external agent ; ( b ) that lno element of matter can move itself by any action of its own1 . 2 . It follows as a sort of corollary from this , that to be iniert does not signify to be without active power ; and that the very same element , which on account of its inertia cannot act upon itself , may , notwithstanding this inertia , have aln active power , by which it may act upon any other element whatever . 3 . Iniertia is an essential property of matter , and is not greater in one element than in another , but is always the same in all elements , whether they are attractive or repulsive , whether their active power is great or small . 4 . That which is called by naturial philosophers the vis inertie is not a special mechanical force added on to the active forces of elements , but is the readiness of a body to react by means of its elementary forces , against any action tending to change the actual condition of that body . These four propositions will remove many false notions , which give rise to confusion of ideas and impede the solution of many important questions . Active power.-The questions relating to the active power of matter are of the greatest importance , since on them depends nearly the whole science of nature . On this point I am convinced , and think I can prove , that 1 . No other forces exist in the elemenits of matter except locomotive or mechanical forces ; for these alone are required , and these alone are sufficient , to account for all natural phenlomena . So that we need have no anxiety about the vires occultae of the ancients , inor need we make search after any other kind of primitive forces , besides such as are mechanical or locomotive . IIence chemical , electric , magnetic , calorific and other such actions will be all reduced to mechanical actions , complex indeed , but all following certain definite laws , and capable of being expressed by mathematical formulm as in general mechanics . Hence in treating of mnolecular mechanics we do not make any gratuitous assumption or probable hypothesis , but are enigaged on a branch of science founded on demonstrable truths , free from all hypothesis or arbitrary assumption . 2 . There are not only attractive , but also repulsive elements ; and this is the reason why molecules of bodies ( as being made up of both sorts ) may at certain distances attract , and at others repel each other . 3 . Simple elements , in the whole sphere of their active power , and conisequently also at molecular distances , act ( whether by attracting or repelling ) according to the inverse ratio of the squares of the distances . This proposition may seem to contradict certain known laws , as far as regards molecular distances ; but the contradiction is only apparent , and this appearance will vanish when we consider that the action of elements ( of which we are now speaking ) is not the same as the action of motecules . From the fact that cohesion , e. g. , does not follow the inverse ratio of the square of the distance , it will certainly result that molecules do not act according , to this law , and this is what physical science teaches : but it does not follow that elements do not act according to the law . This truth is , as all must see , of the utmost importance , since it is the foundation of molecular mechanics , of which it would be impossible to treat at all , unless the law of elementary action at infinitesimal distances were known . This truth universalizes Newton 's law of celestial attraction by extending it to all elementary action , whether attractive or repulsive , and makes it applicable not only to telescopic , but also to microscopic distances . It is clear therefore that I am bound to prove this law most irrefragably , lest I construct my molecular mechanics on an insecure foundation . 4 . The sphere of the activity of matter is inidefinite , in this sense , that no finite distance can be assigned at which the action of matter will be null . It by no means , however , follows from this that the force of matter has ain infinite intensity . 5 . The natural activity of each element of matter is exerted immediately on every other existing element at any distance , either by attracting or repelling , according to the agent 's nature . Thus , e. g. , the action which the earth exerts on each falling drop of rain is exerted immediately by each element of the earth on each element of the water ( notwithstanding the distance between them ) ; it is not exerted through the material medium of the air , or of ether , or any other substance . The same must be said of the action of the sun on the planets . This proposition , however , it is evident , holds only for the simple action of the elements , i. e. , attractive or repulsive . For it is clear that complex actions causing vibratory motions , such as light or sound , are only transmitted through some vibrating medium . This conclusion is also of immense importance , because it solves a question much discussed by the ancients about the nature of action exerted on a distant body , and removes all scruples of philosophers on this head . 6 . Bodies do not and cannot act by mathematical contact , however much our prejudices incline us to think the contrary ; but every material action is always exerted on something at a distance from the agent . 7 . There is another prejudice which I wish to remove , i. e. that one motiovn is the efcient cause of another motion . It is easily shown that this mode of speaking , though sometimes employed by scientific men , is incorrect , and ought to be abandoned , because it tends to the destruction of all natural science . Motion never causes motion , but is only a condition affecting the agent in its manner of acting . For all motion is caused by some agent giving velocity and direction ; but the agent gives velocity and direction by means of its own active power , which it exerts differently according as it is found in different local conditions . Now these local conditions of the agent may be differently modified by the movement of the agent itself . The impact of bodies , the change of motion to heat , the communication of velocity from one body to another ( always a difficult question ) , and other points of a like nature can only be satisfactorily explained by this principle . These are the principal points that have to be discussed , defined , and demonstrated in order that molecular mechanics may be established on solid principles . II . MATHEMATICAL econdly . I divided these regular systems into different classes according to their geometrical figure . Of these I have investigated the tetrahedric , octahedric , hexahedric , octohexahedric , penitagonal-dodecahedric , and icosahedric . I then divided these classes into differenit species , viz. pure centratac , centro-nucleate , centro-binucleatce , centro-trinucleate , &c. , also into acentr atw ( without centre ) , truncalce , &c. To enumerate the whole would take too long ; indeed I only mention these to show how in such a multiplicity of systems I endeavoured to introduce the order necessary for me to be able to speak distinietly about them . Lastly , besides classes and species , it was requisite also to consider certain distinct varieties under the same species . And in this way I seemed to myself to have embraced all the regular systems of elements possibly conceivable . Thirdly . The several parts of which any system of elements can consist are reduced by me to a centre , nuclei to any number , and an external enzvelope . And thus I obtained not only a method of nomenclature for the different systems ( a most importanit point ) , but also a method of exhibiting each system iinder brief and intelligible symbols . Thus , e. g. , the tetrahedric systemi p_ ur centratum ( i. e. without any nucleus ) , in which the centre is any attractive element , and the four elemenits of the envelope repulsive , will be represented thus , Mn_A ? ? 4R , in which expression m signiifies the absolute mass of the system ( in this case 5 ) , A represents the attractive centre , and 4R the four repulsive elements of the envelope . The letters A and R are not quantities , but only indices denoting the nature of the action . In a similar way , the following expression m_ R+ 6A+ 8Rf ' denotes a system whose cenitre R is repulsive , whose single nucleus 6A is octahedric and attractive , and whose envelope 8R1 is hexahedric and repulsive : in , which , as before , indicates the absolute mass of the system , here = 15 . This will suffice to show how the differenit species and varieties of the aforementioned systems may be named and expressed . Then I had to find mechanical formulas for the motion or equilibrium of the several systems ; for it is only froom such formulas that we can determine what systems are generally possible in the molecules of bodies . Speaking generally , no system purse centratum , of whatever figure it be , can be admnitted in the molecules of natural bodies , whether gaseous , liquid , or solid . Let v represent the action of the centre , and w that of one of the elements of the envelope for a unit of distance ; and let r be the radius of the system , i. e. the distance o 'any one of the elements of the envelope from the centre ; the general formula of motion for any system pure centraturn ( expressed as above by m-A+nR ) will be d2r I WF 1 ( v-Mw ) , where M signifies a constant , and the actions which tenld to increase r are taken as positive . If the system is tetrahedric , M=.09 1856 octahedric , M= 166430 hexahedric , M=2-46759 octohexahedric , M= 411170 icosahedric , M=4 19000 pentagonal dodecahedric , M= 782419 . Now none of these varieties satisfies the conditions either of solid , liquid , or gaseous bodies ; because they either will not resist compression , or they form masses which are repulsive at all great distances ; or if they could constitute gaseous bodies , they do not allow the law of compression to be verified , which we know to hold for all gases . Passing on to the systems centro-nucleata , the formulas will differ according to the several figures of the nuclei and envelope . Taking , e. g. , the system mn=R+6A+8R ' , . which is hexahedric with aln octahedric nucleus , and taking v , v ' , w to represent respectively the actions of the centre , one element of the nucleus , and one element of the envelope ; taking also r and p for the radii of the nucleus and envelope , the equations of motion for such a system will be d2r v -M ' Iv ' ? Irp Vl ? r-p_A/ _ _ dt2,2 +4w 2/ + ) 2 ) d2p v ? M _____ f ? ~ ip+r 2\2 dt2-2o -3v ( r+ / ) where M=2'46759 , and Mt= -66430 . The conditions of equilibrium will be obtained by making the two first members equal to zero . What systems of this class ( centro-nucleata ) can satisfy the conditions of solid , liquid , or gaseous bodies , is exceedingly difficult to determine , for reasons which I have above touched on , viz. that the formulm of these systems are not initegrable , and we have consequently to proceed indirectly with great expenditure of time and trouble . It seems to me , however , as far as I can judge , that some of these systems may be found in rerurn natura . Passing to another class of systems ( centro.6inucleata ) , we shall have three equations to express its laws of motion . Taking , e. g. , the system m=A+4R+4A'+4R1W , which is tetrahedric with two tetrahedric nuclei ; taking v , vl , VI1 , w for the respective actions of the elements acting from the centre , first and second nuclei , and envelope ; taking , r , r'/ , p for the radii of the two nuclei and the envelope , the equations of motion will be as follows : d2rf Mv'-v / 1 3rt 2t dt2 r2 ( +r)2 + rr ' 3 vC12+r"2 2r ~w((llY . 1)+ _ rj ) ; ~~ / 1 N/ ( p+ rJ ? ) d2r9J Mwlr-v +VI l 3+7t-r dtS 27tlS ~(r I+r1)2 r(r2+ rtf2_ 2rfrIt)3 + w(,1,2 + )X\/ / ' -I2prhIy d2p _Mw-v 3p+{rr dt2 p2 ( P-r f)2 ; t2+2 ) -eo((p+l/ + 1 ) in which equations , M=-091886 . The discussion of these equations and simuilar ones will afford a useful occupation to mathematicians and natural philosophers . Whatever conclusiots may be drawn from them cannot fail to throw great light on the question of the nature of bodies . It is evident that we might go further and pass oln to trinucleate , quadrinucleate , &c. systems ; but the number of equations will increase in proportion , together with the difficulty of dealing with them . It is not enough to consider the laws of motion and equilibrium in each system separately , but it is also necessary to know what action one system exercises on another , whether like or unlike , placed at a given distance . For since many of the properties of bodies depend on the relation which the different molecules bear to one another , e. g. , liquidity , elasticity , hardness , &c. , it is not enough to know what is the state of a system of elements ( i. e. a molecule ) in itself , but we must investigate also how several such systems ( or molecules ) affect each other . Now in this ulterior investigation it is clear that the difficulty increases exceedingly , since the equations become exceedingly complex . Here also then may natural philosophers find matter for industry and patience . I have done a little in this subject , but not enough to deserve any special mention . In order , however , to diminiish the difficulties , the investigation may be provisionally restricted to the mutual actions of the envelopes , neglecting for the time that of the nuclei , which may be considered as a disturbing cause , for which some correction may afterwards have to be made . So much then for the mathematical and theoretic development of molecular mechanics . There remains the third part , which , though the most laborious of all , will yet give the greatest pleasure to scientific men ; since it is less dry , and opens a way for attaining the end aimed at in the natural sciences . Of this third part I will add a few words . III . APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF MOLECULAR MECHANICS . [ Under this head the author points out the various properties of bodies which would have to be explained , and of which he conceives an explanation might be afforded could the mathematical calculations be effected which are required for the elaboration of his theory , and enunciates the following conclusions as deduced from his explanation of the impact of bodies . ] 1 . If a body does not contain any repulsive elements , it cannot cause any retardation in the movement of any impinging body . 2 . Again , if the mediumn through which a body moves contain no repulsive elements , no retardation of its motioni can take place . 3 . If a medium does contain repulsive elements , retardation must necessarily take place . 4 . Consequently , as the planets in their movements through the rether do not suffer any loss of velocity , it must be concluded that the ether does not contain any repulsive elements at all , and that Its elasticity must be explained without any recourse to repulsive forces . This last inference is somewhat wonderful , and decidedly curious : but after much consideration it appeared to me so natural , and so well harmonising with other truths and scientific theories , that I ceased to hesitate about its adoption and gave it a most decided assent ; whether wisely or not , I leave others to judge . the general formula of motion for any system pure centratum ( expressed as above by m=A+nR ) will be d'r 1 dr _1 ( v-Mzw ) , where M signifies a constant , and the actions which tend to increase r are taken as positive . If the system is tetrahedric , M =.0 91856 , , octahedric , M= 1-66430 hexahedric , M=2'46759 , , octohexahedric , M-=4'11170 icosahedric , Mi=419000 pentagonal dodecahedric , MI= 7'82419 . Now none of these varieties satisfies the conditions either of solid , liquid , or gaseous bodies ; because they either will not resist compression , or they form masses which are repulsive at all great distances ; or if they could constitute gaseous bodies , they do not allow the law of compression to be verified , which we know to hold for all gases . Passing on to the systems centro-nucleata , the formulas will differ according to the several figures of the nuclei and envelope . Taking , e. g. , the system mn=R+6A+8R ' , . which is hexahedric with an octahedric nucleus , and taking v , v ' , w to represent respectively the actions of the centre , one element of the nucleus , and one element of the envelope ; taking also r and p for the radii of the nucleus and envelope , the equations of motion for such a system will be dar , vMyV / _ r+p r-pA/ T +4wu -__ WT-^T ) V(^72pr V dt2 = )2 2-r2+2p ) 22 d2p Mw ? ? 3v , / + . p- ? -A dt2 =2a-3v ' V ) where M=2'46759 , and M'= 166430 . The conditions of equilibrium will be obtained by making the two first members equal to zero . What systems of this class ( centro-nucleata ) can satisfy the conditions of solid , liquid , or gaseous bodies , is exceedingly difficult to determine , for reasons which I have above touched on , viz. that the formule of these systems are not integrable , and we have consequently to proceed indirectly with great expenditure of time and trouble . It seems to me , however , as far as I can judge , that some of these systems may be found in rerunz natura . Passing to another class of systems ( centro.binucleata ) , we shall have three equations to express its laws of motion . Taking , e. g. , the system m= A+4JtR+4A'+4Rf , 133 which is tetrahedric with two tetrahedric nuclei ; taking v , vI , v11 , w for the respective actions of the elements acting from the centre , first and second nuclei , and envelope ; taking r , r ' , p for the radii of the two nuclei and the envelope , the equations of motion will be as follows : d2rf Mv'-v 3 , 1 3r1t\ ( _ = V. _ -_2rrr , dt2 r/ ( 2J+1 ? ? 2 ? ? 3"-2t ? )I 3r( -+t ( ( pr ' 2(p+r +7 -r ' _= . , , . ( . ___ , _- . +r 3t d2p Mw-v +VI ' 3r t rt dt2 k ( P+rI)2 ( 2+ ) t ? f , _M ? - ? , _ 1 3--+ W(P ++ ( J)2 C p+l , 1)22 q ; 1_2 r 2pr -n " ( )+ V/ ( P2+r " y in which equations M=0'91856 . The discussion of these equations and similar ones will afford a useful occupation to mathematicians and natural philosophers . Whatever conclusions may be drawn from them cannot fail to throw great light on the question of the nature of bodies . It is evident that we might go further and pass on to trinucleate , quadrinucleate , &c. systems ; but the number of equations will increase in proportion , together with the difficulty of dealing with them . It is not enough to consider the laws of motion and equilibrium in each system separately , but it is also necessary to know what action one system exercises on another , whether like or unlike , placed at a given distance . For since many of the properties of bodies depend on the relation which the different molecules bear to one another , e. g. , liquidity , elasticity , hardness , &c. , it is not enough to know what is the state of a system of elements ( i. e. a molecule ) in itself , but we must investigate also how several such systems ( or molecules ) affect each other . Now in this ulterior investigation it is clear that the difficulty increases exceedingly , since the equations become exceedingly complex . Here also then may natural philosophers 184 find matter for industry and patience . I have done a little in this subject , but not enough to deserve any special mention . In order , however , to diminish the difficulties , the investigation may be provisionally restricted to the mutual actions of the envelopesi neglecting for the time that of the nuclei , which may be considered as a disturbing cause , for which some correction may afterwards have to be made , So much then for the mathematical and theoretic development of molecular mechanics . There remains the third part , which , though the most laborious of all , will yet give the greatest pleasure to scientific men ; since it is less dry , and opens a way for attaining the end aimed at in the natural sciences . Of this third part I will add a few words . III . APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF MOLECULAR MECHANICS . [ Under this head the author points out the various properties of bodies which would have to be explained , and of which he conceives an explanation might be afforded could the mathematical calculations be effected which are required for the elaboration of his theory , and enunciates the following conclusions as deduced from his explanation of the impact of bodies . ] 1 . If a body does not contain any repulsive elements , it cannot cause any retardation in the movement of any impinging body . 2 . Again , if the medium through which a body moves contain no repulsive elements , no retardation of its motion can take place . 3 . If a medium does contain repulsive elements , retardation must necessarily take place . 4 , Consequently , as the planets in their movements through the rether do not suffer any loss of velocity , it must be concluded that the aether does not contain any repulsive elements at all , and that its elasticity must be explained without any recourse to repulsive forces . This last inference is somewhat wonderful , and decidedly curious : but after much consideration it appeared to me so natural , and so well harmonising with other truths and scientific theories , that I ceased to hesitate about its adoption and gave it a most decided assent ; whether wisely or not , I leave others to judge .

112014

3701662

On Some Further Evidence Bearing on the Excavation of the Valley of the Somme by River-Action, as Exhibited in a Section at Drucat near Abbeville

135

137

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Joseph Prestwich

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0031

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112014

10.1098/rspl.1863.0031

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112014

Geography

Fluid Dynamics

Geography

III . " On some further Evidence bearing on the Excavation of the Valley of the Somme by River-action , as exhibited in a Section at Drucat near Abbeville . " By JOSEPH PRESTWICH , F.R.S. Received January 29 , 1864 . On the occasion of a late visit to Abbeville , I noticed a fact which appears of sufficient interest , as bearing upon and conifirming one of the points treated of in my last paper , to induce me to submit a short notice of it to the Royal Society . It occurs in a tributary valley to that of the Somme , but necessarily forms part of the general phenomena affecting the whole basin . small stream ( the Escardon ) which joins the Somme at Abbeville flows through a narrow chalk valley extending a few miles north ot Abbeville . Three miles up this valley is the village of Drucat ; and on the hill above the village , and about I 00 feet above the stream , is a small outlier of high-level gravel which I have before described , and which is remarkable for the number and size of its sandand gravel-pipes penetrating the underlying chalk . One of these which I measured was 22 feet across at the top and 18 feet at a depth of 30 feet , and I estimated its depth at not less than 100 feet from the surface . It was filled in the usual way with sand and gravel in vertical cylindrical layers . M. Boucher de Perthes has two flint implements which are reported to have come from the pit ; but I never myself found any there , or any mammalian remains . The sand and gravel is clean and light-coloured , and very similar in character to some of the beds at Menchecourt , and in so far has the appearance of a fluviatile gravel , and , like it , is overlain by a variable bed of loess . This bed was supposed to form an isolated outlier ; but on my last visit 1 found another bed , though of coarser materials , on a hill of the same height on the opposite side of the valley , above l'Hleure . The valley at the foot of the hill on which the Drucat gravel is worked is about a quarter of a mile wide . A lane leads direct down the slope of the hill from a point near the gravel to the valley ; and a roadside cutting exposes a section of calcareous tufa or travertiin several feet thick , and containing in places numerous land shells , of recent species , and traces of plants . Half a mile bevond , the bed is of sufficient importance to be worked for building-purposes . This bed is overlain by the valley loess , and is in places intercalated with it ; it commences a few feet below the level of the gravel at about 70 feet above the valley , and continues to near the foot of the hill . Now it is well proved that in all purely chalk districts the line of water . level proceeds from the level of the streams and rivers traversing the dis . IIo il U1 1 4 . 1:1 , , 1 4jf1:I / It L,1 n 1 ' 71 I11I I '.0 trict , in a slightly ilnelined and continuous plane rising on either side under the adjacent hills with a slope varying from 10 to 40 feet in the mile , the latter being an extreme case . If we take a meani of 20 feet , as the gravelpit is not above one-third of a mile from the valley , the rise in the water underneath would not probably exceed 10 feet above the level of the stream . The chalk formation is so generally fissured and permeable that I know of no instance of a line of water-level or of springs occurring above the general line dependent upon the level of the adjacent rivers . It is also well known that strong springs are common at the foot of the hills along many of our chalk valleys , as , for instance , that at Amwell , those at Carshalton , and many along the valley of the Thames . These springs are more or less calcareous , often highly so . It is evident that the travertin at Drucat has been formed by a deposit from a spring of considerable volume ; and it further appears that it flowed while the loess was in the course of formation . For the tufa could only have been formed at or near the level of the spring ; so that its continiued deposit down the slope of the hill shows the spring to have been gradually lowered as the valley became deeper , and while subject to the continued inundations which deposited the loess . The line of present water-level in the chalk here is about 90 feet below the summit of the hill , as proved by a well in any adjacent farmhouse , and at the gravel-pit they have gone down 60 feet without reaching water . But the level of the upper part of the tufa shows the line of water-level or of springs to have been at one time 70 feet above the valley , which could only have happened when the bottom of the valley was on a level 60 to 70 feet higher than it now is . The gradual deepening of the valley is indicated by the gradual lowering of the spring until it reached to within from 20 to 30 feet of the present valley-level , when it became extinct . Further , we have in the adjacent bed of high-level gravel evidence of the origin of this important spring ; for the sands and gravelbeds are not only very thick , but they are also perfectly free from calcareous matter and very permeable , and they show in their numerous gravelpipes how great must have been the volume and solvent power of the rainwater which at one time percolated through them . The water , after passing through the gravel and acting upon the underlying chalk to form these large vertical cavities , would , upon reaching the original line of water-level , have flowed off horizontally and escaped in a strong spring at the base of the adjacent slope . It there parted with its excess of the carbonate of lime , and so formed the calcareous tufa . This case furnishes therefore new arid good evidence on two points:-first , on the connexion of the sandand gravel-pipes with the percolation of fresh water through calcareous rocks ; and secondly , on the condition of the former land surface and of the springs , only possible on the hypothesis of former higher levels of the bottom of the valley and of its gradual excavation . find matter for industry and patience . I have done a little in this subject , but not enough to deserve any special mention . In order , however , to diminish the difficulties , the investigation may be provisionally restricted to the mutual actions of the envelopesi neglecting for the time that of the nuclei , which may be considered as a disturbing cause , for which some correction may afterwards have to be made , So much then for the mathematical and theoretic development of molecular mechanics . There remains the third part , which , though the most laborious of all , will yet give the greatest pleasure to scientific men ; since it is less dry , and opens a way for attaining the end aimed at in the natural sciences . Of this third part I will add a few words . III . APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF MOLECULAR MECHANICS . [ Under this head the author points out the various properties of bodies which would have to be explained , and of which he conceives an explanation might be afforded could the mathematical calculations be effected which are required for the elaboration of his theory , and enunciates the following conclusions as deduced from his explanation of the impact of bodies . ] 1 . If a body does not contain any repulsive elements , it cannot cause any retardation in the movement of any impinging body . 2 . Again , if the medium through which a body moves contain no repulsive elements , no retardation of its motion can take place . 3 . If a medium does contain repulsive elements , retardation must necessarily take place . 4 , Consequently , as the planets in their movements through the rether do not suffer any loss of velocity , it must be concluded that the aether does not contain any repulsive elements at all , and that its elasticity must be explained without any recourse to repulsive forces . This last inference is somewhat wonderful , and decidedly curious : but after much consideration it appeared to me so natural , and so well harmonising with other truths and scientific theories , that I ceased to hesitate about its adoption and gave it a most decided assent ; whether wisely or not , I leave others to judge . III . " On some further Evidence bearing on the Excavation of the Valley of the Somme by River-action , as exhibited in a Section at Drucat near Abbeville . " By JOSEPH PRESTWICH , F.R.S. Received January 29 , 1864 . On the occasion of a late visit to Abbeville , I noticed a fact which appears of sufficient interest , as bearing upon and confirming one of the points treated of in my last paper , to induce me to submit a short notice of it to the Royal Society . It occurs in a tributary valley to that of the Somme , but necessarily forms part of the general phenomena affecting the whole basin . 135 The small stream ( the Escardon ) which joins the Somme at Abbeville flows through a narrow chalk valley extending a few miles north ot Abbeville . Three miles up this valley is the\ I1 1t village of Drucat ; and on the hill above the\ tr 11|l village , and about 100 feet above the stream , is a small outlier of high-level gravel which Ii have before described , and which is remarkI able for the number and size of its sandand | gravel-pipes penetrating the underlying chalk . I One of these which I measured was 22 feet u across at the top and 18 feet at a depth of 30 feet , and I estimated its depth at not less i than 100 feet from the surface . It was filled I 3 ! in the usual way with sand and gravel in ver-| tical cylindrical layers . M. Boucher de Perthes 01[ * has two flint implements which are reported to have come from the pit ; but I never myself found any there , or any mammalian remains . p The sand and gravel is clean and light-coloured , and very similar in character to some of the i < ? beds at Menchecourt , and in so far has the j appearance of a fluviatile gravel , and , like it , is overlain by a variable bed of loess . This bed I was supposed to form an isolated outlier ; but , > I on my last visit I found another bed , though of i2 f : i coarser materials , on a hill of the same height I t ' on the opposite side of the valley , above l'Heure . iI4 The valley at the foot of the hill on which the f - . Drucat gravel is worked is about a quarter of a , I '\ mile wide . A lane leads direct down the slope iL Ill of the hill from a point near the gravel to the valley ; and a roadside cutting exposes a section I of calcareous tufa or travertin several feet thick , ' j : i and containing in places numerous land shells , lI of recent species , and traces of plants . Half a ... mile beyond , the bed is of sufficient importance 1lII to be worked for building-purposes . This bedli- } 4 , is overlain by the valley loess , and is in places [ l tI 11intercalated with it ; it commences a few feet below the level of the gravel at about 70 feet l above the valley , and continues to near the foot if ' of the hill . Now it is well proved that in all purely chalk districts the line of waterlevel proceeds from the level of the streams and rivers traversing the dis . 136 [ Feb. 11 , trict , in a slightly inclined and continuous plane rising on either side under the adjacent hills with a slope varying from 10 to 40 feet in the mile , the latter being an extreme case . If we take a mean of 20 feet , as the gravelpit is not above one-third of a mile from the valley , the rise in the water underneath would not probably exceed 10 feet above the level of the stream . The chalk formation is so generally fissured and permeable that I know of no instance of a line of water-level or of springs occurring above the general line dependent upon the level of the adjacent rivers . It is also well known that strong springs are common at the foot of the hills along many of our chalk valleys , as , for instance , that at Amwell , those at Carshalton , and many along the valley of the Thames . These springs are more or less calcareous , often highly so . It is evident that the travertin at Drucat has been formed by a deposit from a spring of considerable volume ; and it further appears that it flowed while the loess was in the course of formation . For the tufa could only have been formed at or near the level of the spring ; so that its continued deposit down the slope of the hill shows the spring to have been gradually lowered as the valley became deeper , and while subject to the continued inundations which deposited the loess . The line of present water-level in the chalk here is about 90 feet below the summit of the hill , as proved by a well in an adjacent farmhouse , and at the gravel-pit they have gone down 60 feet without reaching water . But the level of the upper part of the tufa shows the line of water-level or of springs to have been at one time 70 feet above the valley , which could only have happened when the bottom of the valley was on a level 60 to 70 feet higher than it now is . The gradual deepening of the valley is indicated by the gradual lowering of the spring until it reached to within from 20 to 30 feet of the present valley-level , when it became extinct . Further , we have in the adjacent bed of high-level gravel evidence of the origin of this important spring ; for the sands and gravelbeds are not only very thick , but they are also perfectly free from calcareous matter and very permeable , and they show in their numerous gravelpipes how great must have been the volume and solvent power of the rainwater which at one time percolated through them . The water , after passing through the gravel and acting upon the underlying chalk to form these large vertical cavities , would , upon reaching the original line of water-level , have flowed off horizontally and escaped in a strong spring at the base of the adjacent slope . It there parted with its excess of the carbonate of lime , and so formed the calcareous tufa . This case furnishes therefore new and good evidence on two points:-first , on the connexion of the sandand gravel-pipes with the percolation of fresh water through calcareous rocks ; and secondly , on the condition of the former land surface and of the springs , only possible on the hypothesis of former higher levels of the bottom of the valley and of its gradual excavation .

112015

3701662

A Contribution to the Minute Anatomy of the Retina of Amphibia and Reptiles. [Abstract]

138

140

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. W. Hulke

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112015

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112015

Biology 3

Neurology

Biology

I. " ' A Contribution to the Minute Anatomy of the Retina of Amphibia and Reptiles . " By J. W. HULKE , Esq. , F.R.C.S. , AssistantSurgeon to the Middlesex and the Royal London Ophthalmic Hospitals . Communicated by W. BOWMAN , Esq. Received February 4 , 1864 . ( Abstract . ) The animals of which the retina was examined were the frog , the black and yellow salamander , the edible turtle , the waterand the land-tortoise , the Spanish Gecko , the blindworm , and the common snake . The method adopted was to examine the retina ( where possible ) immediately after decapitation of the animal , alone and with chemical agents ; and to make sections of the retina hardened in alcohol or in an aqueous solution of chromic acid , staining them with iodine or carmine , and adding glycerine , pure and diluted , to make them transparent . The following is a summary of the results of the examination . 1 . The rods and cones consist of two segments , the union of which is marked by a bright transverse line . 2 . Each segment consists of a membranous sheath and contents . 3 . The outer segment , or shaft , is a long narrow rectangle ( by inference , a prism or cylinder ) . It refracts more highly than the inner segment . Its contents are structureless , and of an albuminous nature . It is that part which is commonly known as " the rod . " It is smaller in the cones than in the rods , and in the cones narrows slightly outwards . 4 . The outer ends of the shafts rest upon the inner surface of the choroid , and their sides are separated by pigmented processes , prolonged from the inner surface of the choroid between them to the line that marks the union of the shaft with the inner segment . The effect of this is that the shafts are completely insulated , and rays entering one shaft are prevented passing out of it into neighbouring shafts . 5 . The inner segment of the rods and cones , or body ( the appendage of some microscopists ) , has a generally flask-shaped form , longer and more tapering in the rods , shorter and stouter in the cones . It is much paler and less conspicuous than the shaft . It fits in an aperture in the membrana limitans externa . Its inner end always encloses , or is connected by an intermediate band with an outer granule which lies in or below the level of the membrana limitans externa . Its outer end , in cones only , contains a spherical bead nearly colourless in the frog and blindworm , brilliantly coloured in the turtle and waterand land-tortoises , and absent from the common snake and Spanish Gecko . In addition to this bead , where present , and the outer granule , the body contains an albuminous substance which in chromic acid preparations retires as an opaque granular mass towards the outer end of the body . The inner end of the body is prolonged inwards , in the form of a pale , delicate fibre , which was sometimes followed through the layer of inner granules into the granular layer . It does not appear to be structurally connected with the inner granules . It is essentially distinct from Muller 's radial fibres , and bears a considerable resemblance to the axiscylinder of nerve . That it ever proceeds from the outer granule associated with the rodor cone-body is doubtful , from the consideration ( a ) that where the body is large , and the granule lies within at some distance from its contour , the fibre is seen to leave the inner end of the body distinct from the granule , and ( p ) that the fibre appears to proceed from the outer granule only where the body is small , as in the frog , and where the granule does not lie within the body but is joined to this by a band . -Ritter 's axial fibres are artificial products . 6 . The " outer granules " are large , circular , nucleated cells . Each cell is so intimately associated with a rodor cone-body that it forms an integral part of it . 7 . The intergranular layer is a web of connective fibre . It contains nuiclei . 8 . The inner granules are roundish , in chromic acid preparations polvgonal cells . They differ from the outer granules by their higher refraction , by the absence of a nucleus , and by receiving a deeper stain from carmine . They lie in areolae of connective tissue derived from Muller 's radial fibres , and from the intergranular and granular layer . They are more numerous than the outer granules , and consequently than the rods and cones . 9 . The granular layer is a very close fibrous web derived in part from Miiller 's radial fibres , and from other fibres proceeding from the connective frame of the layer of inner granules . It transmits ( a ) the radial fibres , ( / ) fibres proceeding radially outwards from the ganglion-cells and bundles of optic nerve-fibres , and ( y ) fibres passing inwards from the rodand conebodies . 10 . The ganglion-cells communicate by axis-cylinder-like fibres with the bundles of optic nerve-fibres , and send similar fibres outwards , which have been traced some distance in the granular layer . 11 . In the frog and Spanish Gecko the author has a few times traced fibres proceeding from the bundles of optic nerve-fibres for some distance in a radial direction in the granular layer . 12 . Muller 's radial fibres arise by expanded roots at the outer surface of the membrana limitans interna , pass radially through the layers , contributing in their course to the granular layer , to the areolar frame of the layer of inner granules , and end in the intergranular layer and at the inner surface of the membrana limitans externa . They are a connective and not a nervous tissue , and do not communicate between the basilary element and ganglion-cells . 13 . The orderly arrangement of the several layers and their elementary parts is maintained by a frame of connective tissue which consists of1 , an unbroken homogeneous membrane bounding the inner surface of the retina , the membrana limitans internia ; 2 , a fenestrated membrane which holds the rods and cone-bodies , the membrana limitans externa , first correctly described by Schultze ; 3 , an intermediate system of the-fibresMuller 's radial fibres-connected with which in the layer of inner granules are certain oblong and fusiform bodies of uncertain nature ; 4 , the intergraniular layer ; 5 , an areolated tissue , open in the layers of outer and ininer granules , and very closely woven in the graniular layer . 14 . No blood-vessels occur in the reptilianr retina . February 18 , 1864 . Major-General SABINE , President , in the Chair . The following communications were read : I. " A Contribution to the Minute Anatomy of the Retina of Amphibia and Reptiles . " By J. W. HULKE , Esq. , F.R.C.S. , AssistantSurgeon to the Middlesex and the Royal London Ophthalmic Hospitals . Communicated by W. BOWMAN , Esq. Received February 4 , 1864 . ( Abstract . ) The animals of which the retina was examined were the frog , the black and yellow salamander , the edible turtle , the waterand the land-tortoise , the Spanish Gecko , the blindworm , and the common snake . The method adopted was to examine the retina ( where possible ) immediately after decapitation of the animal , alone and with chemical agents ; and to make sections of the retina hardened in alcohol or in an aqueous solution of chromic acid , staining them with iodine or carmine , and adding glycerine , pure and diluted , to make them transparent . The following is a summary of the results of the examination . 1 . The rods and cones consist of two segments , the union of which is marked by a bright transverse line . 2 . Each segment consists of a membranous sheath and contents . 3 . The outer segment , or shaft , is a long narrow rectangle ( by inference , a prism or cylinder ) . It refracts more highly than the inner segment . Its contents are structureless , and of an albuminous nature . It is that part which is commonly known as " the rod . " It is smaller in the cones than in the rods , and in the cones narrows slightly outwards . 4 . The outer ends of the shafts rest upon the inner surface of the choroid , and their sides are separated by pigmented processes , prolonged from the inner surface of the choroid between them to the line that marks the union of the shaft with the inner segment . The effect of this is that the shafts are completely insulated , and rays entering one shaft are prevented passing out of it into neighbouring shafts . 5 . The inner segment of the rods and cones , or body ( the appendage of some microscopists ) , has a generally flask-shaped form , longer and more tapering in the rods , shorter and stouter in the cones . It is much paler and less conspicuous than the shaft . It fits in an aperture in the membrana limitans externa . Its inner end always encloses , or is connected by an intermediate band with an outer granule which lies in or below the level of the membrana limitans externa . Its outer end , in cones only , contains a spherical bead nearly colourless in the frog and blindworm , brilliantly coloured in the turtle and waterand land-tortoises , and absent from the common snake and Spanish Gecko . In addition to this bead , where present , and the outer granule , the body contains an albuminous substance which in chromic acid preparations retires as an opaque granular mass towards the outer end of the body . The inner end of the body is prolonged inwards , in the form of a pale , delicate fibre , which was sometimes followed through the layer of inner granules into the granular layer . It does not appear to be structurally connected with the inner granules . It is essentially distinct from Miiller 's radial fibres , and bears a considerable resemblance to the axiscylinder of nerve . That it ever proceeds from the outer granule associated with the rodor cone-body is doubtful , from the consideration ( a ) that where the body is large , and the granule lies within at some distance from its contour , the fibre is seen to leave the inner end of the body distinct from the granule , and ( / 3 ) that the fibre appears to proceed from the outer granule only where the body is small , as in the frog , and where the granule does not lie within the body but is joined to this by a band . Ritter 's axial fibres are artificial products . 6 . The " outer granules " are large , circular , nucleated cells . Each cell is so intimately associated with a rodor cone-body that it forms an integral part of it . 7 . The intergranular layer is a web of connective fibre . It contains nuclei . 8 . The inner granules are roundish , in chromic acid preparations polygonal cells . They differ from the outer granules by their higher refraction , by the absence of a nucleus , and by receiving a deeper stain from carmine . They lie in areolse of connective tissue derived from Miiller 's radial fibres , and from the intergranular and granular layer . They are more numerous than the outer granules , and consequently than the rods and cones . 9 . The granular layer is a very close fibrous web derived in part from Muller 's radial fibres , and from other fibres proceeding from the connective frame of the layer of inner granules . It transmits ( a ) the radial fibres , ( 13 ) fibres proceeding radially outwards from the ganglion-cells and bundles of optic nerve-fibres , and ( y ) fibres passing inwards from the rodand conebodies . 10 . The ganglion-cells communicate by axis-cylinder-like fibres with the bundles of optic nerve-fibres , and send similar fibres outwards , which have been traced some distance in the granular layer . 11 . In the frog and Spanish Gecko the author has a few times traced fibres proceeding from the bundles of optic nerve-fibres for some distance in a radial direction in the granular layer . 12 . Muller 's radial fibres arise by expanded roots at the outer surface of the membrana limitans interna , pass radially through the layers , contributing in their course to the granular layer , to the areolar frame of the layer of inner granules , and end in the intergranular layer and at the inner surface of the membrana limitans externa . They are a connective and not a nervous tissue , and do not communicate between the basilary element and ganglion-cells . M2 139 The orderly arrangement of the several layers and their elementary parts is maintained by a frame of connective tissue which consists of1 , an unbroken homogeneous membrane bounding the inner surface of the retina , the membrana limitans interna ; 2 , a fenestrated membrane which holds the rods and cone-bodies , the membrana limitans externa , first correctly described by Schultze ; 3 , an intermediate system of the-fibresMuller 's radial fibres-connected with which in the layer of inner granules are certain oblong and fusiform bodies of uncertain nature ; 4 , the intergranular layer ; 5 , an areolated tissue , open in the layers of outer and inner granules , and very closely woven in the granular layer . 14 . No blood-vessels occur in the reptilian retina . II .

112016

3701662

Notes of Researches on the Acids of the Lactic Series.--No. I. Action of Zinc upon a Mixture of the Iodide and Oxalate of Methyl

140

142

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

E. Frankland

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0033

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112016

10.1098/rspl.1863.0033

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112016

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

II . " Notes of Researches on the Acids of the Lactic Series.-No . I. Action of Zinc upon a mixture of the Iodide and Oxalate of Methyl . " By E. FRANKLAND , F.R.S. , Professor of Chemistry , Royal Inistitution , and B. F. DUPPA , Esq. Received February 10 , 1864 . In a former communication by one of us* , a process was described by which leucic acid was obtained synthetically by the suLbstitution of one atom of oxygen in oxalic acid by two atoms of ethyl . The relations of these acids to each other will be seen from the following formulae t:C 0 c2 < o ~~~~~~~~ 1 Oxalic acid . Leucic acid . This substitution of ethyl for oxygen was effected by acting Upoll oxalic ether with zincethyl . On distilling the product with water , leucic ether came over , which on treatment with an alkali yielded a salt of leucic acid . We have since found that this process may be much simplified by generating the zincethyl during the reaction , which is effected by heating a mixture of amalgamated zinc , iodide of ethyl , and oxalic ether in equivalent proportions to the necessary temperature . The operation may be considered complete when the mixture has solidified to a resinious-looking mass . This , treated with water as in the former reaction and distilled , produces quantities of leucic ether conisiderably greater than can be obtained from the same materials by the first mode of operating . Thus the necessity for the production of zincethyl is entirely obviated , the whole operation proceeds at the ordinary atmospheric pressure , and a larger product is obtained . We find that this process is also applicable to the homologous reactions with the oxalates and iodides of methyl and amyl . By it we have obtained numerous other acids belonging to the lactic series , which we have already more or less perfectly studied , and the history of which we propose to lay before the Royal Society as ouir researches proceed , reserving for a later communication our views regarding the constitution of this series of acids , and the theoretical conclusions arrived at in the course of the inquiry . In the present communication we will describe the application of this reactioni to a mixture of iodide of methyl and oxalate of methyl . Two equivalents of iodide of methyl were mixed with one of oxalate of methyl , and placed in contact with an excess of amalgamated and granulated zinc in a flask , to which an inverted Liebig 's condenser , provided with a mercurial safety tube , was attached . The flask was immersed during about twenty-four hours in water maintained at a temperature gradually rising from 700 C. to 100 ? C. as the reaction progressed towards completion . At the end of that time the mixture had solidified to a yellowislh gummy mass , which , on distillation with water , yieldled methylic alcohol possessing an ethereal odour , but from which we could extract nlo ether . 'rlTe residual magma in the flask , consisting of iodide of zinc , oxalate of zinc , and the zinc-salt of a new acid , was separated from the metallic zinlC by washing with water . It was then treated with anl excess of hvdrate of baryta and boiled for a considerable time ; carbonic acid was afterwards passed through the liquid until , on again boiling , the excess of baryta was completely removed . To the filtered solution recently precipitated oxide of silver was added until all iodine was removed . The solution separated from the iodide of silver was again submitted to a current of carbolnie acid , boiled , and filtered . The resulting liquid , on being evaporated in the waterbath , yielded a salt crystallizing in . brilliant needles possessing the peculiar odour of fresh butter . This salt is very soluble in water and in alcohol , but nearly insoluble in ether , and perfectly n-eutral to test-papers . On being submitted to analysis , it gave numbers closely correspolnding with the formula C cH3 C2,0 OH tOBa The acid of this salt , for which we provisionally propose the liame dimethoxalic acid , is obtained by adding dilute sulphulic acid to the concentrated solutioni of the baryta-salt and agitating with ether . On allowing the ether to evaporate spontaneously , prismatic crystals of considerable size make their appearance . These yielded , on combustion with oxide of copper , results nearly identical with those required by the formula ( CH3 lf CH QC LI C fit 0 l2O 0O I-1 Dimethoxalic acid is a white solid , readily crystallizing in beautiful prisms resembling oxalic acid . It fuses at 750 7 C. , volatilizes slowly even at common temperatures , and readily sublimes at 50O C. , being deposited upon a cool surface in magnificent prisms . It boils at about 212 ? C. , and distils unchanged . Dimethoxalic acid reacts strongly acid , and unites with bases , forming a numerous class of salts , several of which are crystallinie . In addition to the baryta-salt above mentioned , we have examined the silversalt , which is best formed by adding oxide of silver to the free acid , heating to boiling , and filtering , when the salt is deposited in star-like masses of niacreous scales as the soluitioncools . On analysis , this salt gave numbers closely correspoding with those calculated from the formula fC H3C CH3 OH XO Ag Attempts to produce an ether by digesting the free acid with absoluite alcohol at a temperature gradually raised to 1 60 ? C. proved abortive , traces only of the ether being apparently formed . Thus the final result of the action of zinc upon a mixture of iodide and oxalate of methyl is perfectly homologous with that obtained by the action of zincethyl upon oxalic ether . In the methylic reaction , however , no compounid corresponding to leucic ether was obtained . This cannot create surprise when it is remembered that dimethoxalic ether approaches closely in composition to lactic ether , which is well known to be instantly decomposed by water . We have sought in vain to obviate this decomposition of dimethoxalic ether by adding absolute alcohol in place of water to the product of the reaction .

112017

3701662

On the Joint Systems of Ireland and Cornwall, and their Mechanical Origin. [Abstract]

142

144

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Samuel Haughton

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112017

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112017

Geography

Chemistry 2

Geography

I. " On the Joint Systems of Ireland and Cornwall , and their Mechanical Origin . " By the Rev. SAMUEL HAUGITTON , M.D. , F.R.S. , Fellow of Trinity College , Dublin . Received February 8 , 1864 . ( Abstract . ) This paper is a continuation of a former paper 'r On the Joints of the Old Red Sandstone of the Co. Waterford , " published in the ' Philosophical Transactions ' for 1858 , and contains the results of the author 's observations for some years , in Donegal , the MVourne and Newry Mountains , Cornwall , and Fermanagh , with deductions from theory . The author establishes the existence in Waterford of a Primary Conjugate System of Joints , and of two Secondary Conjugate Systemus , lying at each side of the Primary at angles of 270 5 ' and 370 11 ' . In Donegal there exists a Primary Conjugate System , and a Secondary System , making with the Primary an angle of 32§ 24 ' . In the Morn and Newry Mountains there is a Primary Conjugate System , and two Secondary Systems at each side of the Primary , making angles of 3lI 46 ' and 30 56 ' . In Cornwall there is a Primary and also a Secondary Conjugate System , making an angle of 270 28 ' . And in Fermanagh there are Primary and Secondary Systems , forming an angle of 31§ 1 ' . Having given , in detail , the observations on which the preceding results are founded , the author says:- " Collecting together into one Table the results of the preceding observations , we find the following Table of Primary and Secondary Joints ( True Bearings ) Name . Waterford . Donegal . Morn . Cornwall . Fermanagh . N. of . N. of . N. of . N. of . N. of . Primary System ( A ) . 320 26 ' 260 16 ' 390 40 ' 320 34 ' 210 30 ' Primar . ConjuateC ... ... . W.of N. W.of N. W.ofN . W.of N. W.ofN . Primary Conjugate ( C ) ... ... ... ... ... l 310 37 ' 290 35 ' 380 31 ' 320 55 ' 250 48 ' First SeconNdary ( A ' ) ... ... ... ... . . of E. N. of E. N. of . N.of E. First Secondary ( A ' ) . 580 11 ' 580 40 ' 700 40 ' 5 40 0 ' Conjuigate to First Secondary ( C ' ) { W6o03 NW. of N. _ W.5of N. 60o0 N. 700 40 ' 550 20 ' Z~~~~ ~S of E_N fE Second Secondary ( A"). . { . 50 N0of O . Conjugate to Second Secondary f E. of N. W. of N. W. of N. ( C " ) ... ... ... ... ..l 40 30 ' 70 351 60 30 The only remarkable agreement as to direction of joints disclosed by the preceding Table is that between Waterford and Cornwall . If we compare together the Primary and Secondary Joints in each locality , we find the following Table of Angles between Primary and Secondary Joints : Waterford . Donegal . Morn . Cornwall . Fermanagh . Between Primary ( A , C ) and First Secondary ( A ' , C ' ) ... ... ... ... . + +270 51 +320 24 ' +310 46 ' +311 ' Between Primary ( A , C ) and Second Secondary ( A " , C " ) ... ... ... 370 11 -300 56 ' -270 28 ' This Table discloses a very interesting and unexpected result ; viz. that in Waterford , Donegal , Morn , and Fermanagh , the angle between the Primary and first Secondary Joint-Systems ranges between the narrow limits of 27§ 5 ' and 320 24 ' , and that in Waterford , Morn , and Cornwall , the angle between the Primary and second Secondary Joint-Svstems ranges from 27 ' 28 ' to 370 11 ' . The paper concludes with a brief deduction of the observed laws of Conjugate and Secondary Joints from known mechanical prinlciples . The Rev. S. Haughton on the Joint Systems Dimethoxalic acid is a white solid , readily crystallizing in beautiful prisms resembling oxalic acid . It fuses at 75§ 7 C. , volatilizes slowly even at common temperatures , and readily sublimes at 50 ? C. , being deposited upon a cool surface in magnificent prisms . It boils at about 212 ? C. , and distils unchanged . Dimethoxalic acid reacts strongly acid , and unites with bases , forming a numerous class of salts , several of which are crystalline . In addition to the baryta-salt above mentioned , we have examined the silversalt , which is best formed by adding oxide of silver to the free acid , heating to boiling , and filtering , when the salt is deposited in star-like masses of nacreous scales as the solution : cools . On analysis , this salt gave numbers closely correspcding with those calculated from the formula C H3 C0 OH o Ag Attempts to produce an ether by digesting the free acid with absolute alcohol at a temperature gradually raised to 160 ? C. proved abortive , traces only of the ether being apparently formed . Thus the final result of the action of zinc upon a mixture of iodide and oxalate of methyl is perfectly homologous with that obtained by the action of zincethyl upon oxalic ether . In the methylic reaction , however , no compound corresponding to leucic ether was obtained . This cannot create surprise when it is remembered that dimethoxalic ether approaches closely in composition to lactic ether , which is well known to be instantly decomposed by water . We have sought in vain to obviate this decomposition of dimethoxalic ether by adding absolute alcohol in place of water to the product of the reaction . February 25 , 1864 . Major-General SABINE , President , in the Chair . I. " On the Joint Systems of Ireland and Cornwall , and their Mechanical Origin . " By the Rev. SAMUEL HAUGHTON , M.D. , F. . S. , Fellow of Trinity College , Dublin . Received February 8 , 1864 . ( Abstract . ) This paper is a continuation of a former paper " On the Joints of the Old Red Sandstone of the Co. Waterford , " published in the 'Philosophical Transactions ' for 1858 , and contains the results of the author 's observations for some years , in Donegal , the Morn and Newry Mountains , Cornwall , and Fermanagh , with deductions from theory . The author establishes the existence in Waterford of a Primary Conjugate System of Joints , and of two Secondary Conjugate Systems , lying at each side of the Primary at angles of 270 5 ' and 37§ 11 ' , 142 [ Feb. 25 , In Donegal there exists a Primary Conjugate System , and a Secondary System , making with the Primary an angle of 32§ 24 ' . In the Morn and Newry Mountains there is a Primary Conjugate System , and two Secondary Systems at each side of the Primary , making angles of 31046 ' and 30§ 56 ' . In Cornwall there is a Primary and also a Secondary Conjugate System , making an angle of 27§ 28 ' . And in Fermanagh there are Primary and Secondary Systems , forming an angle of 31§ 1 ' . Having given , in detail , the observations on which the preceding results are founded , the author says:-- " Collecting together into one Table the results of the preceding observations , we find the following Table of Primary and Secondary Joints ( True Bearings):Name , Waterford . Donegal . Morn . Cornwall . Fermanagh . Primy System ). . f N. . N. of . N. of . N. of . N. of E. Prmary System ( A ) . 320 26 ' 26§ 16 ' 39§ 40 ' 32§ 34 ' 21§ 30 ' Primy Cnjge ( . W.ofN . W.ofN . W.ofN . W.ofN . W.of N. Primary Conugate ( ) ... 310 37 ' 29§ 35 ' 38§ 31 ' 32§ 55 ' 25§ 48 ' N. of . N. of . N. of . N. of E. First Secondary ( A ' ) ... ... ... ... . 580 11 ' 580 40 ' 700 40 ' 540 0 ' W. o N. ? . < , , , ^ fW . of N. W. of N. Conjugate to First Secondary ( C ' ) { o6 -700 W. of N3 S.ofWoE . N.Nof0E . Second Secondary ( A " ) ... ... ... ... o. 50 , -f Conjugate to Second Secondary f E. of N. W.of N. W.of N. ( C " ) ... 4 30 7§ 35 ' 6§ 30 ' The only remarkable agreement as to direction of joints disclosed by the preceding Table is that between Waterford and Cornwall . If we compare together the Primary and Secondary Joints in each locality , we find the following Table of Angles between Primary and Secondary Joints : Waterford . Donegal . Morn . Cornwall . Fermanagh . Between Primary ( A , C ) and First Secondary ( A ' , C ' ) ... ... ... ... ... +27§ 5 ' +32§ 24 ' +31§ 46 ' +311 ' Between Primary ( A , C ) and Second Secondary ( A " , C " ) ... ... ... -37§ 11 ' -30§ 56 ' -27§ 28 ' This Table discloses a very interesting and unexpected result ; viz. that in Waterford , Donegal , Morn , and Fermanagh , the angle between the Primary and first Secondary Joint-Systems ranges between the narrow limits of 27§ 5 ' and 32§ 24 ' , and that in Waterford , Morn , and Cornwall , the angle between the Primary and second Secondary Joint-Systems ranges from 27§ 28 ' to 37§ 11 ' . 1864 . ] of Ireland and Cornwall . 143 The paper concludes with a brief deduction of the observed laws of Conjugate and Secondary Joints from known mechanical principles .

112018

3701662

On the Supposed Identity of Biliverdin with Chlorophyll, with Remarks on the Constitution of Chlorophyll

144

145

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

G. G. Stokes

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0035

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112018

10.1098/rspl.1863.0035

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112018

Chemistry 2

Optics

Chemistry

II . " On the supposed Identity of Biliverdin with Chlorophyll , with remarkls on the Constitutioni of Chlorophyll . " By G. G. STOKES , M.A. , Sec. R.S. Received February 25 , 1864 . I have lately been enabled to examine a specimen , prepared by Professor Harley , of the green substance obtained from the bile , which has been named biliverdin , and which was supposed by Berzelius to be identical with chlorophyll . The latter substance yields with alcohol , ether , chloroform , &c. , soluitions which are characterized by a peculiar and highly distinctive system of bands of absorption , and by a strong fluorescence of a blood-red colour . In solutions of biliverdiln these characters are wholly vanting . There is , inideed , a vague minimum of transparency in the red ; but it is totally unlike the intensely sharp absorption-band of chlorophyll , nor are the other bands of chlorophyll seen in biliverdin . In fact , no one who is in the habit of using a prism could suppose for a moment that the two were identical ; for an observation which can be made in a few seconds , which requires no apparatus beyond a small prism , to be used with the naked eye , and which as a matter of course would be made by any chemist work . ing at the subject , had the use of the prism made its way into the chemical world , is sufficient to show that chlorophyll and biliverdin are quite distinct . I may take this opportunity of mentioning that I have been for a good while engaged at intervals with any optico-chemical examination of chlorophyll . I find the chlorophyll of land-plants to be a mixture of four substanees , two green and two yellow , all possessing highly distinctive optical properties . The green substances yield solutionis exhibiting a strong red fluorescence ; the yellow substances do not . The four substances are soluble in the same solvents , andthree of them are extremely easily decomposed by acids or even acid salts , such as binoxalate of potash ; but by proper treatment each may be obtained in a state of very approximate isolation , so far at least as coloured substances are coneerned . The phyllocyanine of Fremy* is mainly the product of decomposition by acids of one of the green bodies , and is naturally a substance of a nearly neutral tint , showing however extremely sharp bands of absorption in its neutral solutions , but dissolves in certain acids and acid solutions with a greeni or blue colour . Fremy 's phylloxanthiine differs according to the mode of preparation . When prepared by removing the green bodies by hydrate of alumina and a little water , it is mainly onie of the yellow bodies ; but when prepared by hydrochloric acid and ether , it is mainly a mixture of the same yellow body ( partly , it may be , decomposed ) with the product of decomposition by acids of the second green body . As the mode of preparation of phylloxantheine is rather hinted at than described , I caln only conjecture what the sub.stance is ; but I suppose it to be a mixture of the second yellow substance with the products of decompositioni of the other three bodies . Green seaweeds ( Chlorospermew ) agree with land-plants , except as to the relative proportion of the substances present ; but in olive-coloured sea-weeds ( Melanospermece ) the second green substance is replaced by a third green substance , and the first yellow substance by a third yellow substance , to the presence of which the dull colour of those plants is due . The red colouringmatter of the red sea-weeds ( JRhodosperrnetv ) , which the plants colntain in addition to cblorophyll , is altogether ; different in its nature from chlorophyll , as is already known , and would appear to be an albuminous substanice . I hope , before long , to present to the Royal Society the details of these researches . The paper concludes with a brief deduction of the observed laws of Conjugate and Secondary Joints from known mechanical principles . II . " ' On the supposed Identity of Biliverdin with Chlorophyll , with remarks on the Constitution of Chlorophyll . " By G. G. STOKES , M.A. , Sec. R.S. Received February 25 , 1864 . I have lately been enabled to examine a specimen , prepared by Professor Iarley , of the green substance obtained from the bile , which has been named biliverdin , and which was supposed by Berzelius to be identical with chlorophyll . The latter substance yields with alcohol , ether , chloroform , &c. , solutions which are characterized by a peculiar and highly distinctive system of bands of absorption , and by a strong fluorescence of a blood-red colour . In solutions of biliverdin these characters are wholly wanting . There is , indeed , a vague minimum of transparency in the red ; but it is totally unlike the intensely sharp absorption-band of chlorophyll , nor are the other bands of chlorophyll seen in biliverdin . In fact , no one who is in the habit of using a prism could suppose for a moment that the two were identical ; for an observation which can be made in a few seconds , which requires no apparatus beyond a small prism , to be used with the naked eye , and which as a matter of course would be made by any chemist working at the subject , had the use of the prism made its way into the chemical world , is sufficient to show that chlorophyll and biliverdin are quite distinct . I may take this opportunity of mentioning that I have been for a good while engaged at intervals with an optico-chemical examination of chlorophyll . I find the chlorophyll of land-plants to be a mixture of four substances , two green and two yellow , all possessing highly distinctive optical properties . The green substances yield solutions exhibiting a strong red fluorescence ; the yellow substances do not . The four substances are soluble in the same solvents , and three of them are extremely easily decomposed by acids or even acid salts , such as binoxalate of potash ; but by proper treatment each may be obtained in a state of very approximate isolation , so far at least as coloured substances are concerned . The phyllocyanine of Fremy* is mainly the product of decomposition by acids of one of the green bodies , and is naturally a substance of a nearly neutral tint , showing however extremely sharp bands of absorption in its neutral solutions , but dissolves in certain acids and acid solutions with a green or blue colour . Fremy 's phylloxanthine differs according to the mode of preparation . When prepared by removing the green bodies by hydrate of alumina and a little water , it is mainly one of the yellow bodies ; but when prepared by hydrochloric acid and ether , it is mainly a mixture of the same yellow body ( partly , it may be , decomposed ) with the product of decomposition by acids of the second green body . As the mode of preparation of phylloxantheine is rather hinted at than described , I can only conjecture what the substance is ; but I suppose it to be a mixture of the second yellow substance with the products of decomposition of the other three bodies . Green seaweeds ( Chlorospermee ) agree with land-plants , except as to the relative proportion of the substances present ; but in olive-coloured sea-weeds ( Melanospermece ) the second green substance is replaced by a third green substance , and the first yellow substance by a third yellow substance , to the presence of which the dull colour of those plants is due . The red colouringmatter of the red sea-weeds ( Rhodospermece ) , which the plants contain in addition to chlorophyll , is altogether ; different in its nature from chlorophyll , as is already known , and would appear to be an albuminous substance . I hope , before long , to present to the Royal Society the details of these researches .

112019

3701662

Continuation of an Examination of Rubia munjista, the East-Indian Madder, or Munjeet of Commerce

145

152

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Stenhouse

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0036

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112019

10.1098/rspl.1863.0036

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112019

Chemistry 2

Optics

Chemistry

" Continiuation of all Examination of Rubia munjista , the EastIndian Madder , or Mlunjeet of Commerce . " By JOHN STENIIOUSE , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received December 21 , 1863 * . In the former , preliminary notice of the examination of the Ruiba munjista Jr , the mode of extracting munijistine from munjeet , and a number of its properties , have been already described . I now proceed to detail some results which have been subsequently obtained . When munjistine is extracted from munjeet by boiling solutions of sulphate of alumina , as the whole of the colouring matter is not extracted by a single treatment with the sulphate of alumina , the operation must be repeated five or six times instead of two or three as was formerly stated . During the boiling of the munijeet with sulphate of alumina , a large quantity of furfurol is given off . I may mention , in passing , that the most abundant and economical source of furfurol is found in the preparation of garancine by boiling madder with sulphuric acid . If the wooden boilers in which garancine is usually manufactured were fitted with condensers , furfurol might be obtained in any quantity without expense . In addition to the properties of munjistine already described , I may mention that acetate of copper produces in solutions of munjistine a brown precipitate but very slightly soluble in acetic acid . When brominie-water is added to a strong aqueous solution of munjistinie , a pale-coloured flocculent precipitate is immediately produced ; this when collected on a filter , washed and dissolved in hot alcohol , furniishes minute tufts of crystals , evidently a substitution-product . Unfortunately these crystals are contaminated by a resinous matter , from which I have been unable to free them , and therefore to determine their composition . When munjistine is strongly heated on platinum-foil , it readily ilnflames and leaves no residue ; when it is carefully heated in a tube , it fuses , and crystallizes againi on cooling . If heated very slowly in a Mohr 's apparatus , munjistine sublimes in golden scales and broad flat needles of great beauty ; these have all the physical characters and the same composition as the original substance . If the sublimation be continued for a lonig time at the lowest possible temperature consistent with its volatilization , the whole of it is obtained with scarcely any loss . The following are the results of the ultimate analysis of different samples of munjistine : I. *314 grm. of munjistine yielded 732 grm. carbonic acid and 106 grm. of water . II . *228 grm. of munjistine yielded -535 grm. carbonic acid and *0765 grm. water . III . *332 grm. of munjistine yielded -7795 grrn . of carbonic acid and,1125 grm. of water . IV . *313 grm. of munjistine yielded *734 grm. of carbonic acid and *1095 grm. of water . Theory . I. II . III . IV . C16=96 64-00 63-60 64 00 64'04 63 97 11 =6 4-00 3 77 3-73 3,76 3-89 06 =48 32-00 32-63 32-27 32-20 32la4 The carbon in No. I. is rather lower than that of the other three ; this is owing to the specimen not being quite free from alumina ; moreover it was burnt with oxide of copper , the others with chromate of lead . No. III . is the sublimed munjistine . All the an-alyses were made oln specimens prepared at different times . Lead ! Compound . When aqueous or alcoholic solutions of munjistine and acetate of lead are mixed , a flocculent precipitate of a deep orange-colour falls , which changes to scarlet on the addition of a slig , ht excess of acetate . The best method of preparing it is to dissolve munjistine in hot spirit and add to the filtered solution a quantity of acetate of lead insufficient to precipitate the whole of the munjistine , then to waslh thoroughly with spirit , in which the lead compound is but slightly soluble , and dry first in vacuo , and then in the water-bath . I. *836 grm. lead compound gave -407 grm. oxide of lead . II . *625 grm. lead compound gave *302 grm. oxide of lead . III . *428 grm. lead compound gave *2075 grmi . oxide of lead . IV . *523 grm. lead compound gave *253 grm. oxide of lead . V. *2705 grm. lead compound gave *3445 grm. of carbonic acid and *0445 grm. water . VI . -5350 grm. lead compound gave *6830 grm. carbonic acid and *0920 grm. water . Theory . I. IL III . IV . V. VI . C50 =486 3493.34,73 34-82 E25 = 25 1-82 1-83 1.91 025 =200 14-55 6PbO 669-6 48-70 48-70 48-32 48 50 48'38 ... ... . . All the specimens were prepared at different times , except IV . and V. , which are analyses of the same specimen . The lead compound therefore seems to approach nearly to the somewhat anomalous formula 5 ( C , , H , 0 , ) + 6PbO , being a basic lead-salt ; it is , however , perfectly analogous to the lead compound of purpurine , 5(C01 H5 O ) + 6PbO , described by Wolff and Strecker* . From these analyses of the lead compound and also from the ultimate analyses of munjistine itself , it is pretty evident that its true formula is C06 116 06 . Neither sublimed munjistine nor that obtained by crystallization from alcohol , when dried at the ordinary temperature in vacuo , loses weight at 1100 C. It is not improbable , however , that the gelatinous uncrystallizable precipitate , which separates on the cooling of boiling saturated aqueous solutions of munjistine , is a hydrate . From some experiments made on a considerable scale , I find that ordinary madder does not contain any munjistine . In order to ascertain this fact , a considerable quantity of garancine from Naples Roots , and likewise some which had been subjected to the action of high-pressure steam according to Pincoff and Schunek 's process , were treated with boiling bisulphide of carbon , and the product obtained on evaporating the bisulphide repeatedly extracted with large quantities of boiling water ; the solution , when acidl.lated with sulphuric acid , gave an orange-red precipitate from which I was unable to obtain any munjistine . Professor Stokes succeeded , however , in detecting the presence of alizarine , purpurine , and rubiacine in it j. The production of phthalic acid from alizarine , purpurine , and munjistine , together with a comparison of their subjoined formule , indicates the very close relationship between these three substances , the only true colouring principles of the different species of madder with which we are acquainted . Alizarine . e C20 6 06 Purpurine. . C18 l 0 ? 6 Munjistine ... ... ..v.* *,16 06 . Two other very convenient sources of phthalic acid are-first , the dark red resinous matter , combined with alumina , which is left undissolved by the bisulphide of carbon in the preparation of munjistine ; secondly , the large quantity of green-coloured resinous matter which remains behind after extracting the alizarine from Professor Kopp 's so-called " green alizarine " by means of bisulphide of carbon . I have repeated Marignac 's and Schunck 's experiments of distilling a mixture of phthalic acid and lime ; and , like both of these chemists , I observed a quantity of very aromatic benzol to be produced , which , by the action of strong nitric acid , readily yielded nitrobenzol , and from this , by the action of reducing agents , aniline . The only impurity in the benzol from phthalic acid appears to be a minate quantity of an oil , having an aromatic odour , resembling that produced from cinnamic acid by the action of hypochlorite of lime . Tinetorial power of Munjidtine and Mtvjeet . Prof. Rung stated , in 1835 , that munjeet contains twice as much avail-able colouring matter as the best Avignoni madder . This result was so unexpected , that the Prussian Society for the Encouragement of Manufactures , to whom Professor Runge 's memoir was originally addressed , referred the matter to three eminent German dyers , Messrs. Dannenberger , B6hm , and Nobiling . These gentlemen reported , as the result of numerous and carefully conducted experiments , that so far from minjeet being richer in colouringmatter than ordinary madder , it contained considerably less . This conclusion has been confirmed by the experience of my friend Mr. John Thom , of Birkacre , near Clhorley , one of the most skilful of the Lancashire printers . From a numerous series of experimenits I have just completed , I find that the garancine from munjeet has about half the tinctorial power of the garancine made from the best madder , viz. Naples Roots . These , however , yield only about 30 to 33 per cent. of garancine , while mnunjeet , according to my friend Mr. Higgill , of Maianchester , yields from 52 to 55 per cent. Taking the present prices therefore of madder at 36 shillings per cwt . , and munjeet at 30 shillings , it will be foun-id that there will be scarcely any pecuniary advantage in using muinjeet for ordinary madder-dyeing . The colours from munjeet are certainly brighter , but not so durable as those from madder , owing to the substitution of purpurine for alizarine . There is , however , great reason to believe that some of the Turkey-re d dyers are employing garancine from munjeet to a considerable extent . When this is the case they'evideiitly sacrifice fastness to brilliancy of colour . By treating such a garancine with boiling water , and precipitating by an acid in the way already described , its sophistication with mulnjeet may very readily be detected . The actual amount of colouring matter in munjeet and the best madder is very nearly the same ; but the inferiority of munijeet as a dyestuff results from its containing only the comparatively feeble colouring matters , purpurine and munijistinie , only a small portion of the latter being useful , whilst the presence of muunjistine in large quantity appears to be positively inijurious . So nauch is this the case , that when the greater part of the munijistine is removed from munjeet-garancine by boilinrg water , it yields much richer shades with aluimilna mordarnts than before . PURPUREINE . Action of A , mmonia on Purpurine . When puirpurine is dissolved in dilute ammonia and exposed to the air in a vessel with a wide mouth in a warm place for about a month , ammonia and water being added , from time to time as they evaporate , the purpurine almost entirely disappears , whilst a new colouring-matter is formed which dyes unmordanted silk and wool of a fine rose-colour , but is incapable of yeing vegetable fabrics mordanted with alumina . If , however , qtrOD]g ammonia be employed to dissolve the purpurine , considerable heat is produced-a rise of temperature of as much as 20 ? C. taking place if the bulb of a thermometer be immersed in finely divided purpurine and strong ammonia poured on it . The purpurine employed in these experiments was prepared by Kopp 's process , and I am indebted for it to my friend Professor Crace Calvert . The solution of the new substance , purpureine , is filtered to separate dust , &c. , as well as a black substance insoluble in dilute amnmonia ; it is them added to a considerable quantity of dilute sulphuric acid , boiled for a short time , and allowed to cool . When cold , the impure purpureine is collected on a filter , well washed , and dissolved in a small quantity of hot alcohol . The spirituous solution is again filtered into a quantity of very dilute boiling sulphuric acid , about 1 part acid to from 50 to 100 of water ; when cold , the precipitate is collected and again well washed . A crystallization ouLt of boiling very diluite acid now renders it quite pure . This somewhat long and tedious process is necessary to free it from an uncrystallizable black substance , a part of which is separated when the crude purpureine is dissolved in alcohol , and a part is left behind at the last crystallization . This compound being in its mode of formation and physical properties very analogous to orceine , I have called it purpureine . When crystallized by the spontaneous evaporation of its alcoholic solution , or from boiling dilute sulphuric acid under peculiar conditions of aggregation , it presents a fine iridescent green colour by reflected light ; whilst under the microscope it appears as fine long needles of a very deep crimson colour . As obtained by the process above described , it has , however , but little of the iridescent appearance , being of a browniish-red colour with a faint tinge of green . It is almost insoluble in cold dilute acids , and is in great part precipitated from its aqueous solution by common salt , thus greatly resembling orceine . It is almost insoluble in bisulphide of carbon , very slightly so both in ether and in cold water , much more so in hot , and very soluble in spirit both hot and cold and in water rendered slightly alkaline . It isreadily soluble in cold concentrated sulplhuric acid , and is precipitated unialtered by water ; on heating , however , it is destroyed . Its aqueous solution gives a deep-red precipitate with chloride of zinc ; with chloride of mercutry a purple gelatinous precipitate ; and with nitrate of silver a precipitate of a very dark brown colour slightly soluble in ammonia . I have been favoured with the following optical examination by Professor Stokes : " Its solutions show bands of absorption just like purpurine in c1aracteer , but in some cases considerably dtifferent in position . The ethereal and acidulated ( acetic acid ) alcoholic solutions show this strongly . The tint is so different in purpurinie and its derivative , that the intimate connexion revealed by the prism would be lost by the eye . A drawing of the spectrum for purpurine would serve for its derivative ( purpureiine ) , if the bands were simply pushed a good deal nearer the red end . " I. '3435 grin . pupureine gave '8230 grm. carbonic acid and '1240 grm. of water . II . 340 grm. purpureine gave *813 grm. carbonic acid and *123 grmn . of water . III . '336 grm. purpureine gave '01552 grm. nitrogen . IV . *535 grm. purpureine gave '02453 grm. nitrogen . Theory . I. II . III . IV . C6G= 396 65'13 65'36 65'22 1124 = 24 3'95 4'01 4'02 N2 = 28 4'60 ... ... . . 4'62 4-58 0 20 160 26'32 ... . 608 100'00 The formula therefore appears to be C66 124 N2 02 ? Nitropurpureine . When purpureine is dissolved in a small quantity of moderately strong nitric acid , spec , grav . about 1'35 , and heated to 100 ? C. , it gives off red fumes , and on being allowed to cool , a substance senarates in magnificent scarlet -prisms somewhat like chromate of silver , only of a brighter colour ; it is quite insoluble in water , ether , and bisuilphide of carbon , and very slightly soluble in spirit , but soluble in hot moderately strong nitric acid , from which it separates on standing for a considerable time . If boiled with strong nitric acid , it is slowly decomposed . When heated , it deflagrates : from this circumstance , and considering its mode of formation , it is evidently a nitro-substitution compound ; I have therefore called it nitropurpureine . Owing to the small quaintity which I have hitherto been able to procure , I have not yet determined the composition of this beautiful body , which is finer in appearance than any of the derivatives from madder I have as yet met with . Action of Ammonia on Alizvarine . The alizarine which was employed for the subjoined experiments was obtained by extracting Professor E. Kopp 's so-called green alizarine* with bisulphide of carbon . It yields only about 15 per cent. of orange-red alizarine . This was crystallized three times out of spirit , from which it usually separates as a deep-orange-coloured crystalline powder . Unfortunately this alizarine still contains a quantity of purpurine , from which it is impossible to purify it either by crystallization or sublimation . Accordingly , when treated with ammonia by the method already described for purpurine , while it yields a substance analogous to purmureine , the product is impure , being contaminated with purpureine , This mixture has been examined by mry friend Professor Stokes , who finds that it contains purpureine , derived from the purpurine present as an impurity in the alizarine employed , and another substance very like alizarine in its optical properties , probably a new substance ( alizareine ) , bearing the same relation to alizarine that purpureine does to purpurine** The following is an extract from a letter I received from Professor Stokes : " It would be very unlikely a ' priori that such a simple process as that of Kopp should effect a perfect separation of two such similar bodies as alizarine and purpurine ; and as I find his purpurine is free from alizarine , it would be almost certain a priori that his ' green alizarine ' would contain purptirine , and the two would be dissolved by bisulphide of carbon , and might very well afterwards be associated by being deposited in intermingled crystals , if not actually crystallizing together . " Action of Ammonia on Munjistine . This reaction with munjistine was only tried on a very small scale , but the results were by no means satisfactory . The munjistine was completely destroyed , the greater part being changed into a brown humus-like substance , insoluble in ammonia , the remainder forming a colouring-substance , analogous to purpureine , but not crystalline . It dyed unmordanted silk a brownish-orange colour . The combined action of ammonia and oxygen , therefore , on the three colouring-substances alizarine , purpurine , and munjistine , is to change them from adjective to substantive dye-stuffs . I think it not improbable that if this archilizing process were applied to various other colouring matters , they would be found capable of undergoing similar transformations . Action of Bromine on Alizarine . A boiling saturated solution of alizarine in alcohol is mixed with about six or eight parts of distilled water , and to this when cold about one or one and a half parts of bromine water are added , when a bright yellow amorphous precipitate is produiced . After standing twelve or sixteen hours , the solution is filtered ; and if the clear filtrate be now carefully heated so as to expel the spirit , a substance of a deep orange-colour is deposited , consisting of very fine needles , which are contaminated with a small quantity of resin if a great excess of bromine has been employed . These needles are soluble in spirit and ether , insoluble in water , and soluble in bisulphide of carbon , from which they crystallize by spontaneous evaporation , in dark-brown nodules . With soda they give the same purple colour as alizarine . They dye cloth mordanted with alumina a dingy brownish red , very different from the colour produced by ordinary crystallized alizarine . The following optical examination is from a letter of Professor Stokes : " Bromine Derivative of Alizarine . " " I can hardly distinguish this substance from alizarine . The solutions in alcohol containing potassa show three bands of absorption just alike in appearance . By measurement it seemed probable that the bromine substance gave the balnds a little nearer to the red end ; but the difference , if real , was very minute . The fluorescent light of the ethereal solution was , I think , a trifle yellower in the bromine substance , that of alizarine being more orange . " The following are the results of the ultimate analysis of the brominated alzarine dried at 100 ? C. I. *375 grm. of substance gave *207 grm. bromide of silver . II . 703 grm. of suibstance gave '389 grm. bromide of silver . III . '401 grm. of substance gave *221 grm. bromide of silver . IV . *543 grm. of substance gave '300 grm. bromide of silver . V. *3575 grm. of substance gave '695 grm. of carbonic acid and '0760 grin . of water . VI . '454 grm. of substance gave '8790 grm. of carbonic acid and *0965 grm. of water . Theory . I. 11 . III . IV . V. Vf . 60 360 52'94.5303 52'81 Hl-= 16 2'35.236 2'36 Br,2 = 160 23'53 23'49 23'54 23'45 23'51 018 = 144 21'18 ... . . 680 100 00 From this somewhat anomalous formula , C60 H16 Br2 018=C20 116 06 2(C20 11 BrO6 ) , I was for some time inclined to think that it might be a mixture of brominated alizarine with free alizarine ; but as all the six samples analyzed were prepared at different times , it is highly improbable that such uniform analytical results could be obtained if they were from a mere admixture of substances . The existelnce of a brominated compound is also confirmed by its dyeing properties , which differ so remarkably from those of alizarine . Action of Bromine on Purpurine . When pure purpurinie is dissolved in spirit mixed with a considerable quantity of water , and an aqueous solution of bromine added , as in the case of alizarine , a yellow amorphous precipitate is produced . The solution separated from this by filtration , when heated to expel the spirit , gives no precipitate whilst hot ; but on cooling , a very small quantity of a brown resinous powder is deposited . From this it is evident that the presence of a small quantity of purpurine in alizarine will not interfere with the production of pure brominated alizarine , if the precaution be taken to collect it from the solution whilst it is still hot . I think it right to state that the experiments and analyses detailed in the preceding paper have been performed by my assistant , Mr. Charles Edward Groves . I cannot conclude this paper without again acknowledging the essential services I have received from Professor Stokes , who kindly submitted the different products obtained by me to optical examination . I. '3435 grm. pupureine gave *8230 grm. carbonic acid and *1240 grin . of water . II . '340 grm. purpureine gave '813 grm. carbonic acid and '123 grm. of water . III . *336 grm. purpureine gave '01552 grm. nitrogen . IV . *535 grm. purpureine gave '02453 grm. nitrogen . Theory . I. II . III . IV . C66 = 396 65-13 65-36 65-22 ... ... HI24 = 24 3'95 4-01 402 ... . N2 = 28 4-60 ... ... . . 4-62 4-58 020 = 160 26'32 ... ... 608 100-00 The formula therefore appears to be C6 , H , , N , 0 , ? . Nitrourpureine . When purpureine is dissolved in a small quantity of moderately strong nitric acid , spec , grav . about 1'35 , and heated to 100 ? C. , it gives off red fumes , and on being allowed to cool , a substance senarates in magnificent scarlet prisms somewhat like chromate of silver , only of a brighter colour ; it is quite insoluble in water , ether , and bisulphide of carbon , and very slightly soluble in spirit , but soluble in hot moderately strong nitric acid , from which it separates on standing for a considerable time . If boiled with strong nitric acid , it is slowly decomposed . When heated , it deflagrates : from this circumstance , and considering its mode of formation , it is evidently a nitro-substitution compound ; I have therefore called it nitropurpureine . Owing to the small quantity which I have hitherto been able to procure , I have not yet determined the composition of this beautiful body , which is finer in appearance than any of the derivatives from madder I have as yet met with . Action of Ammonia on Alizarine . The alizarine which was employed for the subjoined experiments was obtained by extracting Professor E. Kopp 's so-called green alizarine* with bisulphide of carbon . It yields only about 15 per cent. of orange-red alizarine . This was crystallized three times out of spirit , from which it usually separates as a deep-orange-coloured crystalline powder . Unfortunately this alizarine still contains a quantity of purpurine , from which it is impossible to purify it either by crystallization or sublimation . Accordingly , when treated with ammonia by the method already described for purpurine , while it yields a substance analogous to purpureine , the product is impure , being contaminated with purpureine , This mixture has been examined by my friend Professor Stokes , who finds that it contains purpureine , derived from the purpurine present as an impurity in the alizarine employed , and another substance very like alizarine in its optical properties , probably a new substance ( alizareine ) , bearing the same relation to alizarine that purpureine does to purpurine* . The following is an extract from a letter I received from Professor Stokes:"It would be very unlikely a priori that such a simple process as that of Kopp should effect a perfect separation of two such similar bodies as alizarine and purpurine ; and as I find his purpurine is free from alizarine , it would be almost certain a priori that his ' green alizarine ' would contain purpurine , and the two would be dissolved by bisulphide of carbon , and might very well afterwards be associated by being deposited in intermingled crystals , if not actually crystallizing together . " Action of Ammonia on Munjistine . This reaction with munjistine was only tried on a very small scale , but the results were by no means satisfactory . The munjistine was completely destroyed , the greater part being changed into a brown humus-like substance , insoluble in ammonia , the remainder forming a colouring-substance , analogous to purpureine , but not crystalline . It dyed unmordanted silk a brownish-orange colour . The combined action of ammonia and oxygen , therefore , on the three colouring-substances alizarine , purpurine , and munjistine , is to change them from adjective to substantive dye-stuffs . I think it not improbable that if this archilizing process were applied to various other colouring matters , they would be found capable of undergoing similar transformations . Action of Bromine on Alizarine . A boiling saturated solution of alizarine in alcohol is mixed with about six or eight parts of distilled water , and to this when cold about one or one and a half parts of bromine water are added , when a bright yellow amorphous precipitate is produced . After standing twelve or sixteen hours , the solution is filtered ; and if the clear filtrate be now carefully heated so as to expel the spirit , a substance of a deep orange-colour is deposited , consisting of very fine needles , which are contaminated with a small quantity of resin if a great excess of bromine has been employed . These needles are soluble in spirit and ether , insoluble in water , and soluble in bisulphide of carbon , from which they crystallize by spontaneous evaporation , in dark-brown nodules . With soda they give the same purple colour as alizarine . They dye cloth mordanted with alumina a dingy brownish red , very different from the colour produced by ordinary crystallized alizarine . The following optical examination is from a letter of Professor Stokes : " Bromine Derivative of Alizarine . " " I can hardly distinguish this substance from alizarine . The solutions in alcohol containing potassa show three bands of absorption just alike in appearance . By measurement it seemed probable that the bromine substance gave the bands a little nearer to the red end ; but the difference , if real , was very minute . The fluorescent light of the ethereal solution was , I think , a trifle yellower in the bromine substance , that of alizarine being more orange . " The following are the results of the ultimate analysis of the brominated alzarine dried at 1000 C.:I . '375 grm. of substance gave *207 grm. bromide of silver . II . '703 grm. of substance gave *389 grm. bromide of silver . III . '401 grm. of substance gave *221 grm. bromide of silver . IV . '543 grm. of substance gave '300 grm. bromide of silver . V. *3575 grm. of substance gave *695 grm. of carbonic acid and '0760 grm. of water . VI . '454 grm. of substance gave '8790 grm. of carbonic acid and *0965 grm. of water . Theory . I. 1I . III . IV . V. VI . C6 = 360 52-94 ... ... ... ... 53'03 52-81 HBI= 16 2-35 ... ... ... ... . 2-36 2-36 Br2 = 160 23-53 23-49 23-54 23-45 2351 ... ... . O , s = 144 2118 ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 680 100-00 From this somewhat anomalous formula , C , I-I,6 Br , 018=C2 H , 0 , , 2(C2o 5 , BrO ) , I was for some time inclined to think that it might be a mixture of brominated alizarine with free alizarine ; but as all the six samples analyzed were prepared at different times , it is highly improbable that such uniform analytical results could be obtained if they were from a mere admixture of substances . The existence of a brominated compound is also confirmed by its dyeing properties , which differ so remarkably from those of alizarine . Action of Bromine on Purpurine . When pure purpurine is dissolved in spirit mixed with a considerable quantity of water , and an aqueous solution of bromine added , as in the case of alizarine , a yellow amorphous precipitate is produced . The solution separated from this by filtration , when heated to expel the spirit , gives no precipitate whilst hot ; but on cooling , a very small quantity of a brown resinous powder is deposited . From this it is evident that the presence of a small quantity of purpurine in alizarine will not interfere with the production of pure brominated alizarine , if the precaution be taken to collect it from the solution whilst it is still hot . I think it right to state that the experiments and analyses detailed in the preceding paper have been performed by my assistant , Mr. Charles Edward Groves . I cannot conclude this paper without again acknowledging the essential services I have received from Professor Stokes , who kindly submitted the different products obtained by me to optical examination . 152 [ 1864 .

112020

3701662

On the Spectra of Ignited Gases and Vapours, with Especial Regard to the Different Spectra of the Same Elementary Gaseous Substance. [Abstract]

153

157

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Julius Pl\#xFC;cker|S. W. Hittorf

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112020

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112020

Atomic Physics

Thermodynamics

Atomic Physics

" On the Spectra of Ignited Gases and Vapours , with especial regard to the different Spectra of the same elementary gaseous substance . " By Dr. JULIUS PLiUCKER , of Bonn , For . Memb. R.S. , and Dr. S. W. 11ITTORF , of Munster . Received February 23 , 1864 . ( Abstract . ) In order to obtain the spectra of the elementary bodies , we may employ either flame or the electric current . The former is the more easily managed , but its temperature is for the most part too low to volatilize the body to be examined , or , if it be volatilized or already in the state of gas , to exhibit its characteristic lines . In most cases it is only the electric current that is fitted to produce these lines ; and the current furnished by a powerful induction coil was what the authors generally employed . In the application of the current , different cases may arise . The body to be examined may be either in the state of gas , or capable of being volatilized at a moderate temperature , such as glass will bear without softening , or its volatilization may require a temperature still higher . In the first two cases the body is enclosed in a blown-glass vessel consisting of two bulbs , with platinum wires for electrodes , connected by a capillary tube . In the case of a gas , the vessel is exhausted by means of Geissler 's exhauster , and filled with the gas at a suitable tension . In the case of a solid easily volatilized , a portion is introduced into the vessel , which is then exhausted as highly as possible , and the substance is heated by a lamp at the time of the observation . In the third case the electric current is employed at the same time for volatilizing the body and renidering its vapour luminous . If the body be a conductor , the electrodes are formed of it ; but the spectrum observed exhibits not only the lines due to the body to be examined , but also those which depend on the interposed gas . This inconvenience is partly remedied by using hydrogen for the interposed gas , as its spectrum under these circumstances approaches to a continuous one . If the body to be examined be a non-conductor , the metallic electrodes are covered with it . In this case the spectrum observed contains the lines due to the metal of which the electrodes are formed , and to the interposed gas , as well as those due to the substance to be examined . Among the substances examined , the authors commenice with nitrogen , which first revealed to them the existence of two spectra belonging to the same substance . The phenomena presented by nitrogen are described in detail , which permits a shorter description to suffice for the other bodies examined . On sending through a capillary tube containing nitrogen , at a pressure of from 40 to 80 millimetres , the direct discharge of a powerful Ruhmkorff 's coil , a spectrum is obtained consisting , both in its more and in its less refrangible part , of a series of bright shaded bandds : the middle part of the spectrum is usually less marked . In each of the two parts referred to , the bands are formed on the same type ; but the type in the less refrangible part of the spectrum is quite different from that in the more refrangible . In the latter case the bands have a channeled appearance , an effect which is produced by a shading , the intensity of which decreases from the more to the less refracted part of each band . In a sufficiently pure and magnified spectrum , a small bright line is observed between the neighbouring channels , and the shading is resolved into dark lines , which are nearly equidistant , while their darkness decreases towards the least refracted limit of each band . With a similar power the bands in the less refrangible part of the spectrum are also seen to be traversed by fine dark lines , the arrangement of which , however , while similar for the different bands , is quite different from that observed in the channeled spaces belonging to the more refrangible region . If , instead of sending the direct discharge of the induction coil through the capillary tube containing nitrogen , a Leyden jar be interposed in the secondary circuit in the usual way , the spectrum obtained is totally different . Instead of shaded bands , we have now a spectrum consisting of brilliant lines having no apparent relation whatsoever to the bands before observed . If the nitrogen employed contains a slight admixture of oxygen , the bright lines due to oxygen are seen as well as those due to nitrogen , whereas in the former spectrum a slight admixture of oxygen produced no apparenit effect . The different appearance of the bands in the more and in the less refracted portion of the spectrum first mentioned suggested to the authors that it was really composed of two spectra , which possibly might admit of being separated . This the authors succeeded in effecting by using a somewhat wider tube . Sent through this tube , the direct discharge gave a golden-coloured light , which was resolved by the prism into the shaded bands belonging to the less refrangible part of the spectrum , whereas with a small jar interposed the light was blue , and was resolved by the prism into the channeled spaces belonging to the more refrangible part . By increasing the density of the gas and at the same time the power of the current , or else , in case the gas be less dense , by interposing in the secondary circuit at the same time a Leyden jar and a stratum of air , the authors obtained lines of dazzling brilliancy which were no longer well defined , but had become of appreciable breadth , while at the same time other lines , previously too failnt to be seen , made their appearance . The number of these lines , however , is not unlimited . By the expansion of some of the lines , especially the brighter ones , the spectrum tended to become continuous . Those spectra which are composed of rather broad bands , which show different appearances according as they are differently shaded by fine dark lines , the authors generally call spectra of the first order , while those spectra which show brilliant coloured lines on a more or less dark ground they call spectra of the second order . Incandescent nitrogen accordingly exhibits two spectra of the first , and one of the second order . The temperature produced by the passage of an electric current increases with the quantity of electricity which passes , and for a given quarntity with the suddenness of the passage . When the temperature produced by the discharge is comparatively low , incandescent nitrogen emits a golden-coloured light , which is resolved by the prism into shaded bands occupying chiefly the less refrangible part of the spectrum . At a higher temperature the light is blue , and is resolved by the prism into channeled bands filling the more refrangible part of the spectrum . At a still higher temperature the spectrum consists mainly of bright lines , which at the highest attainable temperature begin to expand , so that the spectrum tends to become continuous . The authors think it probable that the three different spectra of the emitted light depend upon three allotropic states which nitrogen assumes at different temperatures . By similar methods the authors obtained two different spectra of sulphuLr , one of the first and one of the second order . The spectrum of the first order exlhibited channeled spaces , like one of the two spectra of that order of nitrogen ; but the direction in which the depth of shading increased was the reverse of what was observed with nitro , en , the darker side of each channeled space being , ia the case of sulphur directed towards the red end of the spectrum . Seleniium , like sulphur , shows two spectra , one of the first and onie of the second order . Incandescent carboni , evenl in a state of the finiest divisioni , gives a continuous spectrum . Among the gases which by their decomposition , whether in flame or in the electric cturrent , give the spectrum of carbon , the authors describe particularly the spectra of eyanogen and olefiant gas when burnt with oxygen or with air , and of carbonic oxide , carboniic acid , marsh-gas , olefianit gas , and methyl rendered incandescent by the electric discharge ; they likewise describe the spectrum of the electric diseharge between eleetrodes of carbon in an atmosphere of hydrogen . The spectrum of carbon examined under these various conditions showed great varieties , but all the differenit types observed were represented , more or less completely , in the spectrum of cyanogen fed with oxygen . The authors think it possible that certain bands , not due to nitrogen , seen in the flame of cyanogen , and not in any other compounid of carbon , may have been due to the undecomposed gas . The spectrum of hydrogen , as obtained by a small Ruhmkorffs coil , exhibited chiefly three bright lines . With the large coil employed by the authors , the lines slightly and unequally expanded . On interposing the Leydeln jar , and using gas of a somewhat higher pressure , the spectruml was transformed inlto a contiinuous one , with a red line at one extremity , while at a still higher pressure this red line expanded into a band . The authors also observed a new hydrogen spectrum , corresponding to a lower temperature , but having no resemblance at all to the spectra of the first order of nitrogen , sulphur , &c. Oxygen gave only a spectrum of the second order , the different lines of which , however , expanded under certaini circumstances into nlarrow bands , but very differently in different parts of the spectrum . Phosphorus , when treated like sulphur , gave only a spectrum of the second order . Chlorine , bromine , and iodine , when examined by the electric discharge , gave only spectra of the* secoiid order , in which rno two of the numerous spectral lines belonging to the three substances were coincident . The auithors were desirous of examining whether iodine would give a spectrum of the first order the reverse of the absorption-spectrum at ordinary temperatures . The vapour of iodine in an oxyhydrogen jet gave , indeed , a spectrum of the first order , but it did not agree with what theory might have led us to expect . In the electric discharge , arsenic and mercury gave only spectra of the second order . The metals of the alkalies sodiuim , potassium , lithium , thallium show , eveen at the lower temperature of Bunsen 's lamp , spectra of the second order . Barium , strontium , calcium in the flame of Bunseni 's lamp show bands like spectra of the first order , and in each case a well-defined line-like spectra of the seconid order . On introducing chloride of barium into an oxyhydrogen jet , the shading of the balnds was resolved into fine dark lines , proving that the band-spectrum of baritum is in every respect a spectrum of the first order . Spectra of the first order were observed in the case of only a few of the heavy metals , among which may be particularly mentioned lead , which , when its chloride , bromide , iodide , or oxide was introduced into an oxyhydrogen jet , gave a spectrnim with bands which had a chanineled appearance in consequence of a shiading by file dark lines . Chloride , bromide , and iodide of copper gave in a Bunsen 's lamp , or the oxyhydrogen jet , spectra with bands , and besides a few brighit lines . The bands in the three cases were not quite the same , but differed from one another by additional bands . Manganese showed a curious spectrum of the first order . When any induction discharge passed between electrodes of copper or of manganese , pure spectra of these metals , of the second order , were obtained . meant of which , however , while similar for the different bands , is quite different from that observed in the channeled spaces belonging to the more refrangible region . If , instead of sending the direct discharge of the induction coil through the capillary tube containing nitrogen , a Leyden jar be interposed in the secondary circuit in the usual way , the spectrum obtained is totally different . Instead of shaded bands , we have now a spectrum consisting of brilliant lines having no apparent relation whatsoever to the bands before observed . If the nitrogen employed contains a slight admixture of oxygen , the bright lines due to oxygen are seen as well as those due to nitrogen , whereas in the former spectrum a slight admixture of oxygen produced no apparent effect . The different appearance of the bands in the more and in the less refracted portion of the spectrum first mentioned suggested to the authors that it was really composed of two spectra , which possibly might admit of being separated . This the authors succeeded in effecting by using a somewhat wider tube . Sent through this tube , the direct discharge gave a golden-coloured light , which was resolved by the prism into the shaded bands belonging to the less refrangible part of the spectrum , whereas with a small jar interposed the light was blue , and was resolved by the prism into the channeled spaces belonging to the more refrangible part . By increasing the density of the gas and at the same time the power of the current , or else , in case the gas be less dense , by interposing in the secondary circuit at the same time a Leyden jar and a stratum of air , the authors obtained lines of dazzling brilliancy which were no longer well defined , but had become of appreciable breadth , while at the same time other lines , previously too faint to be seen , made their appearance . The number of these lines , however , is not unlimited . By the expansion of some of the lines , especially the brighter ones , the spectrum tended to become continuous . Those spectra which are composed of rather broad bands , which show different appearances according as they are differently shaded by fine dark lines , the authors generally call spectra of the first order , while those spectra which show brilliant coloured lines on a more or less dark ground they call spectra of the second order . Incandescent nitrogen accordingly exhibits two spectra of the first , and one of the second order . The temperature produced by the passage of an electric current increases with the quantity of electricity which passes , and for a given quarntity with the suddenness of the passage , When the temperature produced by the discharge is comparatively low , incandescent nitrogen emits a golden-coloured light , which is resolved by the prism into shaded bands occupying chiefly the less refrangible part of the spectrum . At a higher temperature the light is blue , and is resolved by the prism into channeled bands filling the more refrangible part of the spectrum . At a still higher temperature the spectrum consists mainly of bright lines , which at the highest attainable temperature begin to expand , so that the spectrum tends to become continuous . The authors think it probable that the three different spectra of the emitted light depend upon three allotropic states which nitrogen assumes at different temperatures . By similar methods the authors obtained two different spectra of sulphur , one of the first and one of the second order . The spectrum of the first order exhibited channeled spaces , like one of the two spectra of that order of nitrogen ; but the direction in which the depth of shading increased was the reverse of what was observed with nitrogen , the darker side of each channeled space being in the case of sulphur directed towards the red end of the spectrum . Selenium , like sulphur , shows two spectra , one of the first and one of the second order . Incandescent carbon , even in a state of the finest division , gives a continuous spectrum . Among the gases which by their decomposition , whether in flame or in the electric current , give the spectrum of carbon , the authors describe particularly the spectra of cyanogen and olefiant gas when burnt with oxygen or with air , and of carbonic oxide , carbonic acid , marsh-gas , olefiant gas , and methyl rendered incandescent by the electric discharge ; they likewise describe the spectrum of the electric discharge between electrodes of carbon in an atmosphere of hydrogen . The spectrum of carbon examined under these various conditions showed great varieties , but all the different types observed were represented , more or less completely , in the spectrum of cyanogen fed with oxygen . The authors think it possible that certain bands , not due to nitrogen , seen in the flame of cyanogen , and not in any other compound of carbon , may have been due to the undecomposed gas . The spectrum of hydrogen , as obtained by a small Ruhmkorff 's coil , exhibited chiefly three bright lines . With the large coil employed by the authors , the lines slightly and unequally expanded . On interposing the Leyden jar , and using gas of a somewhat higher pressure , the spectrum was transformed into a continuous one , with a red line at one extremity , while at a still higher pressure this red line expanded into a band . The authors also observed a new hydrogen spectrum , corresponding to a lower temperature , but having no resemblance at all to the spectra of the first order of nitrogen , sulphur , &c. Oxygen gave only a spectrum of the second order , the different lines of which , however , expanded under certain circumstances into narrow bands , but very differently in different parts of the spectrum . Phosphorus , when treated like sulphur , gave only a spectrum of the second order . Chlorine , bromine , and iodine , when examined by the electric discharge , gave only spectra of the seooid order , in which no two of the numerous spectral lines belonging to the three substances were coincident . The 156 authors were desirous of examining whether iodine would give a spectrum of the first order the reverse of the absorption-spectrum at ordinary temperatures . The vapour of iodine in an oxyhydrogen jet gave , indeed , a spectrum of the first order , but it did not agree with what theory might have led us to expect . In the electric discharge , arsenic and mercury gave only spectra of the second order . The metals of the alkalies sodium , potassium , lithium , thallium show , even at the lower temperature of Bunsen 's lamp , spectra of the second order . Barium , strontium , calcium in the flame of Bunsen 's lamp show bands like spectra of the first order , and in each case a well-defined line-like spectra of the second order . On introducing chloride of barium into an oxyhydrogen jet , the shading of the bands was resolved into fine dark lines , proving that the band-spectrum of barium is in every respect a spectrum of the first order . Spectra of the first order were observed in the case of only a few of the heavy metals , among which may be particularly mentioned lead , which , when its chloride , bromide , iodide , or oxide was introduced into an oxyhydrogen jet , gave a spectrum with bands which had a channeled appearance in consequence of a shading by fine dark lines . Chloride , bromide , and iodide of copper gave in a Bunsen 's lamp , or the oxyhydrogen jet , spectra with bands , and besides a few bright lines . The bands in the three cases were not quite the same , but differed from one another by additional bands . Manganese showed a curious spectrum of the first order . When an induction discharge passed between electrodes of copper or of manganese , pure spectra of these metals , of the second order , were obtained .

112021

3701662

On the Influence of Physical and Chemical Agents upon Blood; with Special Reference to the Mutual Action of the Blood and the Respiratory Gases. [Abstract]

157

160

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George Harley

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112021

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112021

Physiology

Chemistry 2

Physiology

" On the Influence of Physical and Chemical Agents upon Blood ; with special reference to the mutual action of the Blood and the Respiratory Gases . " By GEORGE HARLEY , M.D. , Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in University College , London . Communicated by Dr. SHARPEY , Sec. IR . S. Received March 3 , 1864 . ( Abstract . ) This communication is divided into two parts . The first is devoted to the investigation of the inlfluence of certain physical agencies , viz. simple diffusion , motion , and temperature , and of the conditions of time and the age of the blood itself . The second part includes the consideration of the influence of chemical agents , especially such as are usually regarded as powerful poisons . The paper commences with a description of the apparatus employed , and the method followed in conducting the inquiry ; and the details of the several experiments are then given . The following is a brief statement of the results . PART I. 1 . The experiments on diffusion showed that venous blood not only yields a much greater amount of carbonic acid than arterial blood , but also absorbs and combines with a larger proportion of oxygen . 2 . Motion of the blood was found to increase the chemical changes arising from the mutual action of the blood and the respiratory gases . 3 . The results of the experiment on the influence of time led to the conclusion that the blood and air reciprocally act on each other in the same way out of the body as they do within it , and that their action is not instantaneous , but gradual . 4 . It was ascertained that a certain degree of heat was absolutely essential to the chemical transformations and decompositions upon which the interchange of the respiratory gases depends . The higher the temperature up to that of 380 C. ( the animal heat ) , the more rapid and more effectual were the respiratory changes ; whereas a temperature of 00 C. was found totally to arrest them . 5 . The influence of age on the blood was found to be very marked , especially on its relation to oxygen . The older and the more putrid the blood becomes , the greater is the amount of oxygen that disappears from the air ; and although at the same time the exhalation of carbonic acid progressively increases with the age of the blood , yet its proportion is exceedingly small when compared with the large amount of oxygen absorbed . 6 . The average amount of urea in fresh sheep 's blood was ascertained to be 0 559 per cent. , and its disappearance from the blood during the putrefactive process was very gradual , there being as much as 0 387 per cent. in blood after it was 304 hours old . PART Ile The chemical agents employed were animal and vegetable products and mineral substances . 1 . The effect of snake-poison was found to be an acceleration of the transformations and decompositions occurring in blood , upon which the absorption of oxygen and the exhalation of carbonic acid depend . 2 . The presence of an abnormal amount of uric acid in blood was also found to hasten the chemical changes upon which the absorption of oxygen and exhalation of carbosiic acid depend . 3 & Animal sugar , contrary to what had been anticipated , retarded the respiratory changes produced in Atmospheric air by blood . 4 . The influence of hydrocyanic acid was studied both upon ox-blood and human blood , and found to be the same in each case , namely , to arrest respiratory changes . 5 . Nicotine was also found to diminish the power of the blood either to take up oxygen or give off carbonic acid gas and thereby become fitted for the purposes of niutrition . 6 . The effect of woorara poison , both on the blood in the body and out of it , was ascertained to be in some respects similar to that of snake-poison , namely , to increase the chemical decompositions and transformations upon which the exhalation of carbonic acid depends ; but differed in retarding , instead of hastening , the oxidation of the constituents of the blood . 7 . Antiar poison and aconite were found to act alike , inasmuch as both of them hastened oxidation and retarded the changes upon which the exhalation of carbonic acid depends ; in both respects offering a striking contrast to woorara poison , which , as has just been said , diminishes oxidation and increases the exhalation of carbonic acid . 8 . The effect of strychnine on the blood , both in and out of the body , was studied , and found to be in both cases identical , namely , like some of the other substances previously mentioned , to arrest respiratory changes . Moreover , in one experiment in which the air expired from the lungs of an animal dying from the effects of the poison was examined , it was ascertained that the arrest in the interchange of the gases took place before the animal was dead . 9 . Brucine acts in a similar manner as stryclnine , but in a much less marked degree . 1(0 . Quinirne also possesses the power of retarding oxidation of the blood , as well as the elimination of carbonic acid gas . I1 . Morphine has a more powerful effect in diminishing the exhalation of carbonic acid gas , as well as the chemical changes upon which the absorption of oxygen by blood depends . Under this head the effects of ansesthetics upon blood are next detailed ; and in the first place , the visible effects of chloroform upon blood are thus described:-If 5 or more 'per cent. of chloroform be added to blood , and the mixture be agitated with air , it rapidly assumes a brilliant scarlet hue , which is much brighter than the normal arterial tint , and is , besides , much more permanent . When the mixture is left in repose , it gradually solidifies into a red-paint-like mass , which when examined under the microscope is frequently found to contain numerous prismatic crystals of any organic nature . If the blood of an animal poisoned from the inhalation of chloroform be employed in this experiment , the paint-like mass will be found to be composed in greater part of the crystals just spoken of ; the crystals in this case being both larger and finer than when healthy blood is employed . Chloroform only partially destroys the blood-corpuscles . Its chemical action is to diminish the power of the constituents of the blood to unite with oxygen and give off carbonic acid . The action of sulphuric ether upon blood differs in maniy respects from that of chloroform . In the first place , ether has a powerful effect in destroying the blood-corpuscles , diSsolViDg the cell-walls and setting the contents free . In the second place , ether prevents the blood from assuming an arterial tint when agitated with air . The higher the percentage of the agent , the more marked the effect . In the third place , ether neither diminishes the absorption of oxygen nor the exhalation of carbonic acid by blood ; and lastlv , it has a much more powerful effect in causing the constituents of the blood to crystallize . For example , if an equal part of ether be added to the blood of a dog poisoned by the irnhalation of chloroform , as the ether evaporates groups of large needle-shaped crystals are formed . Under the microscope the crystals are found to be of a red colour and prismatic shape . Alcohol acts upon blood somewlhat like chloroform ; it arrests the chemical changes , but in a less marked degree . Amylene was found to act like ether upon blood , in so far as it did not diminish the absorption of oxygen or retard the elimination of carbonic acid . It differed , however , from ether in not destroying the blood-corpuscles . In the last place , the action of mnineral substances is stated , viz. 1 . Corrosive sublimate was found to increase the chemical changes which develope carbonic acid , and to have scarcely any effect on those depending upon oxidation ; its inifluence , if any , is rather to diminiish them than otherwise . 2 . Arsenic seems to retard both the oxidation of the constituents of the blood and the exhalation of carbonic acid . 3 . Tartrate of antimony increases the exhalation of carbonic acid gas , while it at the same time diminishes the absorption of oxygen . 4 . Sulphate of zinc and sulphate of copper both act like tartrate of antimony , but not nearly so powerfully . Lastly , phosphoric acid was found to have the effect of increasing the chemical transformationis and decompositions upoln which the exhalation of carbonic acid depends . the influence of chemical agents , especially such as are usually regarded as powerful poisons . The paper commences with a description of the apparatus employed , and the method followed in conducting the inquiry ; and the details of the several experiments are then given . The following is a brief statement of the results . PART I. 1 . The experiments on diffusion showed that venous blood not only yields a much greater amount of carbonic acid than arterial blood , but also absorbs and combines with a larger proportion of oxygen . 2 . Motion of the blood was found to increase the chemical changes arising from the mutual action of the blood and the respiratory gases . 3 . The results of the experiment on the influence of time led to the conelusion that the blood and air reciprocally act on each other in the same way out of the body as they do within it , and that their action is not instantaneous , but gradual . 4 . It was ascertained that a certain degree of heat was absolutely essential to the chemical transformations and decompositions upon which the interchange of the respiratory gases depends . The higher the temperature up to that of 38 ? C. ( the animal heat ) , the more rapid and more effectual were the respiratory changes ; whereas a temperature of 0 ? C. was found totally to arrest them . 5 . The influence of age on the blood was found to be very marked , especially on its relation to oxygen . The older and the more putrid the blood becomes , the greater is the amount of oxygen that disappears from the air , and although at the same time the exhalation of carbonic acid progressively increases with the age of the blood , yet its proportion is exceedingly small when compared with the large amount of oxygen absorbed . 6 . The average amount of urea in fresh sheep 's blood was ascertained to be 0'559 per cent. , and its disappearance from the blood during the putrefactive process was very gradual , there being as much as 0'387 per cent. in blood after it was 304 hours old . PART II . The chemical agents employed were animal and vegetable products and mineral substances . 1 . The effect of snake-poison was found to be an acceleration of the transformations and decompositions occurring in blood , upon which the absorption of oxygen and the exhalation of carbonic acid depend . 2 . The presence of an abnormal amount of uric acid in blood was also found to hasten the chemical changes upon which the absorption of oxygen and exhalation of carbonic acid depend . 3 , Animal sugar , contrary to what had been anticipated , retarded the respiratory changes produced in atmospheric air by blood . 158 4 . The influence of hydrocyanic acid was studied both upon ox-blood and human blood , and found to be the same in each case , namely , to arrest respiratory changes . 5 . Nicotine was also found to diminish the power of the blood either to take up oxygen or give off carbonic acid gas and thereby become fitted for the purposes of nutrition . 6 . The effect of woorara poison , both on the blood in the body and out of it , was ascertained to be in some respects similar to that of snake-poison , namely , to increase the chemical decompositions and transformations upon which the exhalation of carbonic acid depends ; but differed in retarding , instead of hastening , the oxidation of the constituents of the blood . 7 . Antiar poison and aconite were found to act alike , inasmuch as both of them hastened oxidation and retarded the changes upon which the exhalation of carbonic acid depends ; in both respects offering a striking contrast to woorara poison , which , as has just been said , diminishes oxidation and increases the exhalation of carbonic acid . 8 . The effect of strychnine on the blood , both in and out of the body , was studied , and found to be in both cases identical , namely , like some of the other substances previously mentioned , to arrest respiratory changes . Moreover , in one experiment in which the air expired from the lungs of an animal dying from the effects of the poison was examined , it was ascertained that the arrest in the interchange of the gases took place before the animal was dead . 9 . Brucine acts in a similar manner as strychnine , but in a much less marked degree . 10 . Quinine also possesses the power of retarding oxidation of the blood , as well as the elimination of carbonic acid gas . 11 . Morphine has a more powerful effect in diminishing the exhalation of carbonic acid gas , as well as the chemical changes upon which the absorption of oxygen by blood depends . Under this head the effects of anaesthetics upon blood are next detailed ; and in the first place , the visible effects of chloroform upon blood are thus described:-If 5 or more 'per cent. of chloroform be added to blood , and the mixture be agitated with air , it rapidly assumes a brilliant scarlet hue , which is much brighter than the normal arterial tint , and is , besides , much more permanent . When the mixture is left in repose , it gradually solidifies into a red-paint-like mass , which when examined under the microscope is frequently found to contain numerous prismatic crystals of an organic nature . If the blood of an animal poisoned from the inhalation of chloroform be employed in this experiment , the paint-like mass will be found to be composed in greater part of the crystals just spoken of ; the crystals in this case being both larger and finer than when healthy blood is employed . Chloroform only partially destroys the blood-corpuscles . Its chemical action is to diminish the power of the constituents of the blood to unite with oxygen and give off carbonic acid . 1864 . ] 159 The action of sulphuric ether upon blood differs in many respects from that of chloroform . In the first place , ether has a powerful effect in destroying the blood-corpuscles , dissolving the cell-walls ' and setting the contents free . In the second place , ether prevents the blood from assuming an arterial tint when agitated with air . The higher the percentage of the agent , the more marked the effect . In the third place , ether neither diminishes the absorption of oxygen nor the exhalation of carbonic acid by blood ; and lastly , it has a much more powerful effect in causing the constituents of the blood to crystallize . For example , if an equal part of ether be added to the blood of a dog poisoned by the inhalation of chloroform , as the ether evaporates groups of large needle-shaped crystals are formed . Under the microscope the crystals are found to be of a red colour and prismatic shape . Alcohol acts upon blood somewhat like chloroform ; it arrests the chemical changes , but in a less marked degree . Amylene was found to act like ether upon blood , in so far as it did not diminish the absorption of oxygen or retard the elimination of carbonic acid . It differed , however , from ether in not destroying the blood-corpuscles . In the last place , the action of mineral substances is stated , viz.:1 . Corrosive sublimate was found to increase the chemical changes which develope carbonic acid , and to have scarcely any effect on those depending upon oxidation ; its influence , if any , is rather to diminish them than otherwise . 2 . Arsenic seems to retard both the oxidation of the constituents of the blood and the exhalation of carbonic acid . 3 . Tartrate of antimony increases the exhalation of carbonic acid gas , while it at the same time diminishes the absorption of oxygen . 4 . Sulphate of zinc and sulphate of copper both act like tartrate of antimony , but not nearly so powerfully . Lastly , phosphoric acid was found to have the effect of increasing the chemical transformations and decompositions upon which the exhalation of carbonic acid depends .

112022

3701662

Researches on Radiant Heat.--Fifth Memoir. Contributions to Molecular Physics. [Abstract]

160

168

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. Tyndall

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112022

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112022

Thermodynamics

Optics

Thermodynamics

I. " Researches on Radiant Heat.-Fifth Menmoir . Contributions to Molecular Physics . " By J. TYNDALL , F.R.S. , &c. Received March 17 , 1864 . ( Abstract . ) Considered broadly , two substances , or two forms of substance , occupy universe the ordinary and tangible matter of that universe , and the intangible aTnd mysterious ether in which that matter is immersed . The natural philosophy of the future must mainly consist in the examination of the relationis of these two substances . The hope of being able to come closer to the origin of the ethereal waves , to get some experimental hold of the molecules whence issue the undulations of light and heat , has stimtulated the author in the labours which have occupied him for the last five years , and it is this hope , rather than the desire to multiply the facts already known regarding the action of radiant heat , which prompted his present investigation . He had already shown the enormnous differences which exist between gaseous bodies , as regards both their power of absorbing and emitting radiant heat . When a gas is condensed to a liquiid , or a liquid congealed to a solid , the molecules coalesce , and grapple with each other , by forces which were insensible as long as the gaseous state was maintained . But though the molecules are thus drawln together , the ether still surrounds them : hence , if the acts of radiation and absorption depend on the individual molecules , they will assert their power even after their state of aggregation has been changed . If , on the contrary , their mutual entauglement by the force of cohesioni be of paramount influence in the interception and emission of radiant heat , then we may expect that liquids will exhibit a deportment towards radiant heat altogether different from that of the vapour from which they are derived . The first part of the present inquiry is devoted to an exhaustive examination of this question . The author employed twelve different liquiids , and operated upon five different layers of each , which varied in thickness from 0-02 of an inch to 0 27 of an inch . The liquids were enclosed , not in glass vessels , which would have materially modified the heat , but between plates of transparent rock-salt , which but slightly affected the radiation . His source of heat throughouit these comparative experiments consisted of a spiral of platinum wire , raised to incandescence by an electric current of unvarying strength . The quanitities of radiant heat absorbed and transmitted by each of the liquids at the respective thicknesses were first determined ; the vapours of these liquids were subsequently examined , the quantities of vapouir employed being proportional to the qualntities of liquid traversed by the radiant heat . The result of the comparisoni was that , for heat of the same quality , the order of absorption of liquids and that of their vapours are identical . There was no exception to this law ; so that , to determine the position of a vapour as an absorber or radiator , it is only necessary to determine the position of its liquid . This result proves that the state of aggregation , as far , at all evenits , as the liquid stage is concerned , is of altogether subordinate moment-a conclusion which will probably prove to be of cardinal moment in molecular physics . On one important and contested point it has a special bearing . If the position of a liquid as an absorber and radiator determine that of its vapour , the position of water fixes that of aqueous vapour . Water had been compared with other liquids in a mtultitude of experiments , and it was found that as a radiant and as an absorbent it transcends them all . Thus , for example , a layer of bisulphide of carbon , 0)02 of an inch in thickness , absorbs 6 per cent. , and allows 94 per cent. of the radiation from the red- ' hot platinum spiral to pass through it ; benzol absorbs 43 , and transmits 57 per cent. of the same radiation ; alcohol absorbs 67 , and transmits 33 per cent. , and it stands at the head of all liquids except one in point of power as an absorber . The exception is water . A layer of this substance , of the thickness above given , absorbs 81 per cent. , and permits only 19 per cent. of the radiation to pass through it . Had no single experiment ever been made upon the vapour of water , we might infer with certainty from the deportment of the liquid , that weight for weight this vapour transcends all others in its power of absorbing and emitting radiant heat . The relation of absorption and radiation to the chemical constitution of the radiant and absorbent substances was next briefly considered . For the first six substances in the list of those examined , the radiant and absorbent powers augment as the number of atoms in the compound molecule augments . Thus , bisulphide of carbon has 3 atoms , chloroform 5 , iodide of ethyl 8 , benzol 12 , and amylene 15 atoms in their respective molecules ; and the order of their powers as radiants and absorbents is that here indicated-bisulphide of carbon being the feeblest , and amylene the strongest of the six . Alcohol , however , excels benzol as an absorber , though it has but 9 atoms in its molecule ; but , on the other hand , its molecule is rendered more complex than that of benzol by the introduction of a new element . Benzol contains carbon and hydrogen , while alcohol contains carbon , hydrogen , and oxygen . Thus , not only does the idea of multitude come into play in absorption and radiation , that of complexity must also be taken into account . The author directed the particular attention of chemists to the molecule of water ; the deportment of this substance towards radiant heat being perfectly anomalous , if the chemical formula at present ascribed to it be correct . Sir William Herschel made the important discovery that beyond the limits of the red end of the solar spectrum , rays of high heating power exist which are incompetenit to excite vision . The author has examined the deportment of those rays towards certain bodies which are perfectly opaque to light . Dissolving iodine in the bisulphide of carbon , he obtained a solution which entirely intercepted the light of the most brilliant flames , while to the extra-red rays of the spectrum the same iodine was found to be perfectly diathermic . The transparent bisulphide , which is highly pervious to the heat here employed , exercised the same absorption as the opaque solution . A hollow prism filled with the opaque liquid was placed in the path of the beam from an electric lamp ; the light-spectrum was completely intercepted , but the heat-spectrum was received upon a screen , and could be there examined . Falling upon a thermo-electric pile , its presence was shown by the prompt deflection of even a coarse galvanometer . What , then , is the physical meaning of opacity and transparency , as regards light and radiant heat ? The luminous rays of the spectrum differ from the non-luminous ones simply in period . The sensation of light is excited by waves of ether shorter and more quickly recurrent than those which fall beyond the extreme red . But why should iocline stop the former , and allow the latter to pass ? The answer to this question , no doubt , is , that the intercepted waves are those whose periods of recurrence coincide with the periods of oscillation possible to the atolms of the dissolved iodine . The elastic forces which separate these atoms are such as to compel them to vibrate in definite periods , and when these periods syn . chronize with those of the ethereal waves the latter are absorbed . Briefly defined , their transparency in liquids , as well as in gases , is synonymous with discord , while opacity is synonymous with accord between the periods of the waves of ether and those of the molecules of the body on which they impinge . All ordinary transparent and colourless substances owe their transparency to the discord which exists between the oscillating periods of their molecules and those of the waves of the whole visible spectrum . The general discord of the vibrating periods of the molecules of compound bodies with the light-giving waves of the spectrum may be inferred from the prevalence of the property of transparency in compounds , solid , liquid , and gaseous , while their greater harmony with the extra-red periods is to be inferred from their opacity to the extra-red rays . Water illustrates this transparency and opacity in the most striking manner . It is highly transparent to the luminous rays , which demonstrates the irncompetencv of its molecules to oscillate in the periods which excite vision . It is as highly opaque to the extra-red undulations , which proves the synchronism of its periods with those of the longer waves . If , then , to the radiation from any source water shows itself to be eminently or perfectly opaque , it is a proof that the molecules whence the radiation emanates must oscillate in what may be called extra-red periods . Let us apply this test to the radiation from a flame of hydrogen . This flame consists mainly of incandescent aqueous vapour , the temperature of which , as calculated by Bunsen , is 32590 C. , so that if transmission augments with temperature , we may expect"the radiation from this flame to be copiously transmitted by the water . While , however , a layer of the bisulphide of carbon OQ7 of an inch in thickness transmits 72 per cent. of the incident radiation , and every other liquid examined transmits more or less of the heat , a layer of water of the above thickness is entirely opaque to the radiation from the flame . Thus we establish accord between the periods of the molecules of cold water and those of aqueous vapour at a temperature of 32590 C. But the periods:of water have already been proved to be extra-red ; hence those of the hydrogen flame must be extra-red also . The absorption by dry air of the heat emitted by a platinum spiral raised to incandescence by electricity was found to be insensible , while that by the ordinary undried air was 6 per cent. Substituting for the platinum spiral a hydrogeni flame , the absorption by dry air still remained insensible , while that of the undried air rose to 20 per cent. of the entire radiation . The temperature of the hydrogen flame was as stated , 32590 C. , that of the aqueous vapour of the air was 200 C. Suppose , then , the temperature of our aqueous vapour to rise from 200 C. to 32590 C. , we must conclude that the augmentation of temperature is applied to an increase of amnplitude , and not to the initroduction of periods of quicker recurrence inito the radiationi . The part played by aqueous vapour in the economy of Nature is far more wonderful than hiitherto supposed . To nourish the vegetation of the earth , the actinic and luminous rays of the sun must penetrate our atmosphere , and to such rays aqueous vapour is eminently transparenit . The violet and the extra-violet rays pass through it with freedom . To protect vegetation from destructive chills , the terrestrial rays must be checked in their transit towards stellar space , and this is accomplished by the aqueous vapour diffused through the air . This substanlce is the great moderator of the earth 's temperature , bringing its extremes into proximity , and obviating contrasts between day and night which would render life insupportable . But we can advance beyonid this general statement now that we know the radiation from aqueous vapour is intercepted , in a special degree , by water , and reciprocally , the radiation from water by aqueous vapouir ; for it follows from this that the very act of nocturnal refrigeration which produces the condensation of aqueous vapour upon the surface of the earth-giving , as it were , a varnish of liquid water to that surface-imparts to terrestrial radiation that particular character which disqualifies it from passing through the earth 's atmosphere and losing itself in space . And here we come to a question in molecular physics which at the present moment occupies the attention of able and distinguished men . By allowing the violet and extra-violet rays of the spectrum to fall upon sulphate of quiniine and other substances , Professor Stokes has changed the periods of those rays . Attempts have been made to produce a similar result at the other end of the spectrum-to convert the extra-red periods into periods competent to excite vision-but hitherto without success . Such a change of period the author believed occurs when a platinum wire is heated to whiteness by a hydrogell flame . In this common experiment there is an actual breaking-up of lolng periods into short ones -a true rendering of invisual periods visual . The change of refrangibility here effected differs from that of Professor Stokes , first , by its being in the opposite direction , that is from lower to higher ; and secondly , in the circumstance that the platinum is heated by the collision of the molecules of aqueQus vapour , and before their heat has assumed the radiant form . But it cannot be doubted that the same effect would be produced by radiant heat of the same periods , provided the motion of the ether could be rendered sufficiently intense . The effect , in principle , is the same whether we consider the platinum wire to be struck by a particle of aqueous vapour oscillating at a certaini rate , or by a particle of ether oscillating at the same rate . By plunging a platinum wire into a hydrogenflame we cause it to glow , and thus introduce shorter periods ilito the radiation . These , as already stated , are in discord with water ; hence we should infer that the transmission through water will be more copious when the wire is in the flame than when it is absent . Experiment proves this conclusion to be true . Water , from being opaque , opens a passage to 6 per cent. of the radiations from the flame and spiral . A thifn plate of colourless glass , moreover , transmitted 58 per cent. of the radiation from the hydrogen flam-e ; but when the flamne and spiral were employed 78 per cent. of the heat was transmitted . For an alcohol flame Klinoblauch and Melloni found glass to be less transparent than for the same flame with platinum spiral immersed in it ; but Mellonii afterwards showed that this result was not general , that black glass and black mica were decidedly more diathermic to the radiation from the pure flame . The reason of this is now obvious . Black mica and black glass owe their blackness to the carbon diffused through them . The carbon , as proved by Melloni , is in some measure transparent to the extra-red rays , and the author had in fact succeeded in transmitting between 40 and 50 per cent. of the radiation from a hydrogen flame through a layer of carbon sufficient to intercept the light of the most brilliant flames . The products of combustion of the alcohol flame are carbonic acid and aqueouis vapour , the heat of which is almost wholly extra-red . For this radiation the carbon is in a considerable degree transparent , while for the radiation from the platinum spiral it is in a great measure opaque . By the introduction of the platinum wire , therefore , the transparency of the pure glass and the opacity of its carbon were simultaneously augmented ; but the augmentation of opacity exceeded that of transparency , and a difference in favour of opacity remained . No more striking or instructive illustration of the influence of coincidence could be adduced thian that furnished by the radiation from a carbonic oxide flame . Here the product of combustion is carbonic acid ; and on the radiation from this flame even the ordinary carbonic acid of the atmosphere exerts a powerful effect . A quantity of the gas , only onethirtieth of an atmosphere in density , conitained in a polished brass tube four feet long , intercepted 50 per cenit . of the radiation from the carbonic oxide flame . For the heat emitted by solid sources , olefiant gas is an incomparably more powerful absorber than carbonic acid ; in fact , for such heat the latter substance , with one exception , is the most feeble absorber to be found among the compould gases . For the radiation from the hydrogen flame , moreover , olefiant gas possesses twice the absorbent power of carbonic acid ; but for the radiation from the carbonic oxide flame at A common tension of one inch of mercury , while carbonic acid absorbs 50 per cent. , olefiant gas absorbs only 24 . Thus we establish the coincidence of period between carbonic acid at a temperature over 30000 C. , the periods of oscillation of both the incandescent and the cold gas belonging to the extra-red portion of the spectrum . It will be seen from the foregoing remarks and experiments how impossible it is to examine the effect of temperature on the transmission of heat , if different sources of heat be employed . Throughout such an examination the same oscillating atoms ought to be retained . The heating of a platinum spiral by an electric current enables us to do this while varying the temperature between the widest possible limits . Their comparative opacity to the extra-red rays shows the general accord of the oscillating periods of our series of vapours with those of the extra-red undulations ; hence , by gradually heating a platinum wire from darkness up to whiteness , we gradually augment the discord between it and our vapours , and must therefore augment the transparency of the latter . Experiment entirely confirms this conclusion . Formic ether , for example , absorbs 45 per cent. of the radiation-from a ptirnum spiral heated to barely visible redness ; 32 per cent. of the radiation from the same spiral at a red heat ; 26 per cent. of the radiation from a white-hot spiral , and only 21 per cent. when the spiral is brought near its point of fusion . Remarkable cases of inversion as to transparency occurred in these experiments . For barely visible redness formic ether is more opaque than sulphuric ; for a bright red heat both are equally trarisparent , while for a white heat , and still more for a nearly fusing temperature , sulphuric ether is more opaque than formic . This result gives us a clear view of the relationship of the two substances to the luminiferous ether . As we initroduce waves of shorter period ' the sulphuric augments most rapidly in opacity ; that is to say , its accord with the shorter waves is greater than that of the formic . Hence we may infer that the molecules of formic ether oscillate as a whole more slowly than those of sulphuric ether . Wthen the source of heat was a Leslie 's cube filled with boiling water and coated with lampblack , the opacity of formic ether in comparison with sulphuric was very decided ; with this source also the position of chloroformn , as regards iodide of methyl , was inverted . For a white-hot spiral , the absorption of chloroform vapour being 10 per cent. , that of iodide of methyl is 16 ; with the blackened cube as source , the absorption by chloroform is 22 per cent. , while that by the iodide of methyl is only 19 . This inversion is not the result of temperature merely ; for when a platinum wire heated to the temperature of boiling water was employed as a source , the iodide was the most powerfuil absorbent . Numberless experiments , indeed , prove that from heated lampblack an emission takes place which synchronizes in an especial manner with chloroform . This may be thus illustrated . For the Leslie 's cube coated with lampblack , the absorption by chloroform is more than three times that by bisulphide of carbon ; for the radiation from the most luminous portion of a gas flame the absorption by chloroform is also considerably in excess of that by bisulphide of carbon ; while for the flame of a Bunsen 's burner , from which the incandescent carbon particles are removed by the free admixture of air , the absorption by bisulphide of carbon is nearly twice that by chloroform ; the removal of the incandescent carbon particles more than doubled in this instance the relative transparency of the chloroform . Testing , moreover , the radiation from various parts of the same flame , it was found that for the blue base of the flame the bisulphide was the most opaque , while for all other portions of the flame the chloroform was most opaque . For the radiation from a very small gas flame , consisting of a blue base and a small white top , the bisulphide was also most opaque , and its opacity very decidedly exceeded that of the chloroform when the flame of bisulphide of carbon was employed as a source . Comparing the radiation from a Leslie 's cube coated with isinglass with that from a similar cube coated with lampblack , at a common temperature of 1000 C. , it was found that out of eleven vapours all but one absorbed the radiation from the isinglass most powerfully ; the single exception was chloroform . It may be remarked that whenever , through a change of source , the position of a vapour as an absorber of radiant heat was altered , the position of the liquid from which the vapour was derived was changed in the same manner . It is still a point of difference between eminent investigators as to whether radiant heat up to a temperature of 100 ? C. is monochromatic or not . Some affirm this , others deny it . A long series of experiments enables the author to state that probably no two substances at a temperature of 100 ? C. emit heat of the same quality . The heat emitted by isinglass , for example , is different from that emitted by lampblack , and the heat emitted by cloth or paper differs from both . It is also a subject of discussion whether rocksalt is equally diathermic to all kinds of calorific rays , the differences affirmed to exist by one investigator being ascribed by others to differences of incidence from the various sources employed . MM . De la Provostaye and Desains maintain the former view , Melloni and M. Knoblauch maintain the latter . The question was examined by the author without changing anything but the temperature of the source . Its size , distance , and surroundings remained the same , and the experiments proved that rock-salt shared in some degree the defect of all other substances ; it is not perfectly diathermic , and it is more opaque to the radiation from a barely visible spiral than to that from a white-hot one . The author devotes a section of his memoir to the relation of radiation to conduction . Defining radiation , internal as well as external , as the communication of motion from the vibrating molecules to the ether , he arrives by theoretic reasoning at the conclusion that the best radiators ought to prove the worst conductors . A broad consideration of the subject shows at once the general harmnony of the conclusion with observed facts . Organic substances are all excellent radiators ; they are also extremely bad conductors . The moment we pass from the metals to their compounds , we pass from a series of good conductors to bad ones , and from bad radiators to good ones . Water , among liquids , is probably the worst conductor ; it is the best radiator . Silver , among solids , is the best conductor ; it is the worst radiator . In the excellent researches of MM . De la Provostaye and Desains the author finds a striking illustrationl of what he regards as a iiatural law-that those molecules which transfer the greatest amount of motion to the ether , or , in . other words , radiate most powerfully , are the least competent to communicate motion to each othel , or , in other words , to coniduct with facility . carbonic acid ; but for the radiation from the carbonic oxide flame at a common tension of one inch of mercury , while carbonic acid absorbs 50 per cent. , olefiant gas absorbs only 24 . Thus we establish the coincidence of period between carbonic acid at a temperature over 3000 ? C. , the periods of oscillation of both the incandescent and the cold gas belonging to the extra-red portion of the spectrum . It will be seen from the foregoing remarks and experiments how impossible it is to examine the effect of temperature on the transmission of heat , if different sources of heat be employed . Throughout such an examination the same oscillating atoms ought to be retained . The heating of a platinum spiral by an electric current enables us to do this while varying the temperature between the widest possible limits . Their comparative opacity to the extra-red rays shows the general accord of the oscillating periods of our series of vapours with those of the extra-red undulations ; hence , by gradually heating a platinum wire from darkness up to whiteness , we gradually augment the discord between it and our vapours , and must therefore augment the transparency of the latter . Experiment entirely confirms this conclusion . Formic ether , for example , absorbs 45 per cent. of the radiationfrom a platinum spiral heated to barely visible redness ; 32 per cent. of the radiation from the same spiral at a red heat ; 26 per cent. of the radiation from a white-hot spiral , and only 21 per cent. when the spiral is brought near its point of fusion . Remarkable cases of inversion as to transparency occurred in these experiments . For barely visible redness formic ether is more opaque than sulphuric ; for a bright red heat both are equally transparent , while for a white heat , and still more for a nearly fusing temperature , sulphuric ether is more opaque than formic . This result gives us a clear view of the relationship of the two substances to the luminiferous ether . As we introduce waves of shorter period , the sulphuric augments most rapidly in opacity ; that is to say , its accord with the shorter waves is greater than that of the formic . Hence we may infer that the molecules of formic ether oscillate as a whole more slowly than those of sulphuric ether . When the source of heat was a Leslie 's cube filled with boiling water and coated with lampblack , the opacity of formic ether in comparison with sulphuric was very decided ; with this source also the position of chloroform , as regards iodide of methyl , was inverted . For a white-hot spiral , the absorption of chloroform vapour being 10 per cent. , that of iodide of methyl is 16 ; with the blackened cube as source , the absorption by chloroform is 22 per cent. , while that by the iodide of methyl is only 19 . This inversion is not the result of temperature merely ; for when a platinum wire heated to the temperature of boiling water was employed as a source , the iodide was the most powerfiul absorbent . Numberless experiments , indeed , prove that from heated lampblack an emission takes place which synchronizes in an especial manner with chloroform . This may be thus illustrated . For the Leslie 's cube coated with lampblack , the absorption by chloroform is more than three times that by bisulphide of carbon ; for the radiation from the most luminous portion of a gas flame the absorption by chloroform is also considerably in excess of that by bisulphide of carbon ; while for the flame of a Bunsen 's burner , from which the incandescent carbon particles are removed by the free admixture of air , the absorption by bisulphide of carbon is nearly twice that by chloroform ; the removal of the incandescent carbon particles more than doubled in this instance the relative transparency of the chloroform . Testing , moreover , the radiation from various parts of the same flame , it was found that for the blue base of the flame the bisulphide was the most opaque , while for all other portions of the flame the chloroform was most opaque . For the radiation from a very small gas flame , consisting of a blue base and a small white top , the bisulphide was also most opaque , and its opacity very decidedly exceeded that of the chloroform when the flame of bisulphide of carbon was employed as a source . Comparing the radiation from a Leslie 's cube coated with isinglass with that from a similar cube coated with lampblack , at a common temperature of 100 ? C. , it was found that out of eleven vapours all but one absorbed the radiation from the isinglass most powerfully ; the single exception was chloroform . It may be remarked that whenever , through a change of source , the position of a vapour as an absorber of radiant heat was altered , the position of the liquid from which the vapour was derived was changed in the same manner . It is still a point of difference between eminent investigators as to whether radiant heat up to a temperature of 100 ? C. is monochromatic or not . Some affirm this , others deny it . A long series of experiments enables the author to state that probably no two substances at a temperature of 100 ? C. emit heat of the same quality . The heat emitted by isinglass , for example , is different from that emitted by lampblack , and the heat emitted by cloth or paper differs from both . It is also a subject of discussion whether rocksalt is equally diathermic to all kinds of calorific rays , the differences affirmed to exist by one investigator being ascribed by others to differences of incidence from the various sources employed . MM . De la Provostaye and Desains maintain the former view , Melloni and M. Knoblauch maintain the latter . The question was examined by the author without changing anything but the temperature of the source . Its size , distance , and surroundings remained the same , and the experiments proved that rock-salt shared in some degree the defect of all other substances ; it is not perfectly diathermic , and it is more opaque to the radiation from a barely visible spiral than to that from a white-hot one . The author devotes a section of his memoir to the relation of radiation to conduction . Defining radiation , internal as well as external , as the communication of motion from the vibrating molecules to the ether , he arrives by theoretic reasoning at the conclusion that the best radiators ought to prove the worst conductors . A broad consideration of the subject shows at once the general harmony of the conclusion with observed facts . Organic substances are all excellent radiators ; they are also extremely bad The moment we pass from the metals to their compounds , we pass from a series of good conductors to bad ones , and from bad radiators to good ones . Water , among liquids , is probably the worst conductor ; it is the best radiator . Silver , among solids , is the best conductor ; it is the worst radiator . In the excellent researches of MM . De la Provostaye and Desains the author finds a striking illustration of what he regards as a natural law-that those molecules which transfer the greatest amount of motion to the ether , or , in other words , radiate most powerfully , are the least competent to communicate motion to each other , or , in other words , to conduct with facility .

112023

3701662

Remarks on Sun Spots

168

168

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Balfour Stewart

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0040

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112023

10.1098/rspl.1863.0040

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112023

Astronomy

Meteorology

Astronomy

II . " Remarks on Suii Spots . " By B3ALFOUR STEWART , M. A. , F. R. S. , Superintendent of the Kew Observatory . Received March 8 , 1864 . In the volume on Sun Spots which CarriDgton has recenitly published , we are furnished with a curve denoting the relative frequenicy of these phenomena from 1760 to the presenit time . This curve exhibits a maximum corresponlding to 1 788 6 . Again , in Dalton 's I'Meteorology ' we have a list of aurorare observed at Kendal and Keswick from May 1786 to May 1793 . The observations at Kenidal were made by Dalton himself , and those at Keswick by Crosthwaite . This list givesFor the year 1 78 7..27 aurorte , For the year 1 790 ... 36 aurorce ; 1788 ... 53 , , I1791 ... 37 1789 ... 45 I1792..213 showing a maximum about the middle , or near the enid of 1788 . This corresponds -very nearly with 1 788-6 , which we have seen is one of Carrington 's dates of maximum suni spots . The following , observation is unconnected with the auirora borealis . In examining the sun pictures taken with the Kew Heliograph under the superinitendenice of Mr. De laRue , it appears to be a nearly universal law that the faculin belonging to a spot appear to the left of that spot , the motion due to the suni 's rotation being across the picture from left to right . These pictures comprise a few takea in 1858 , more in 1859 , a few in 1861 , and many MOre in 1862 and 1863 , and they have been carefully examinied by Mr. Beckley , of Kew Observatory , and myself . The following Table expresses the result obtained : No. of cases of No. of cases of No. of cases of No. of cases of faYear . facula to left facula to rigrht facnila equally on culm mostly beof spot . of spot . both sides of spot . tween two Spots . 1858 . ~2 . 0 ... ... 0 . 0 1859 ... .18 . 0 ... ... 0 . 3 1861 ... .9 ... . 1..I ... ... 3 ... ... . 0 1862 ... .64 ... ... 4 . 7 ... ... . 3 1863 ... .47 . 0 ... ... 9 ... ... .2 1864 ... ..18. . I. -..1..2 I. .

112024

3701662

Description of an Improved Mercurial Barometer

169

170

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

James Hicks

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0041

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112024

10.1098/rspl.1863.0041

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112024

Thermodynamics

Measurement

Thermodynamics

III . " Description of an Improved Mercurial Barometer . " By JAMES HICKS , Esq. Communicated by J. P. GASsIOT , F.R.S. Received March 16 , 1864 . Having shown this instrument to Mr. Gassiot , he wished me to write a short description of it , which he thought would be of interest to the Royal Society . Some time since I constructed an open-scale barometer , with a column of mercury placed in a glass tube hermetically sealed at the top , and perfectly open at the bottom . The lower half of the tube is of larger bore than that of the upper . If a column of mercury , of exactly the length which the atmosphere is able at the time to support , were placed in a tube of glass hermetically sealed at the top , of equal bore from end to end , the mercury would be held in suspension ; but immediately the pressure of the atmosphere increased , the mercury would rise towards the top of the tube , and remaini there till , on the pressure decreasing , it would fall towards the bottom , and that portion which the atmosphere was unable to support would drop out . But if the lower half of the tube be made a little larger in the bore than the upper , when the column falls , the upper portion passes out of the smaller part of the tube into the larger , and owing to the greater capacity of the latter , the lower end of the column of mercury does not sink to the same extent as the upper end , and the column thus becomes shorter . The fall will continue until the column is reduced to that length which the atmosphere is capable of supporting , and the scale attached thus registers what is ordinarily termed the height of the barometer . From the above description it will be evident that , by merely varying the proportion in the size of the two parts of the tube , a scale of any length can be obtained . For example , if the tubes are very nearly the same size in bore , the column has to pass through a great distance before the necessary compensation takes place , and we obtain a very long scale , say 10 inches , for every 1-inch rise and fa1 in the ordinary barometer . But if the lower tube is made much larger than the upper , the mercury passing into it quickly compensates , and we obtain a small scale , say from 2 to 3 inches , for every inch . To ascertain how many inches this would rise and fall for an ordinary inch of the barometer , I attach it , in connexion with a standard barometer , to an air-pump receiver , and by reducing the pressure in the air-pump I cause the standard barometer to fall , say 1 inch , when the other will fall , say 5 inches ; and so I ascertain the scale for every inch , from 31 to 27 inches . It was on this principle that I constructed the open-scale barometer , which has since been extensively used . But having been asked to apply a vernier to one of these barometers graduated in this way , I found this impracticable , as each varied in length in proportion as the bore of the tube varied , so that every inch was of a different length . I have now remedied this defect , and made what I believe is an absolute standard barometer , by graduating the scale from the centre , and reading it off with two verniers to the th of an inch . The scale is divided from the centre , up and down , into inches , and subdivided into 20ths . To ascertaini the height of the barometer graduated in this way , take a reading of the upper surface of the coluimn of mercury with the vernier , then of the lower surface in the same way , and the two readings added together will give the exact length of the column of mercury supported in the air , which is the height of the barometer at the time . There is another advantage in this manner of graduating over the former , that if a little of the mercury drops out it will give no error , as the column will imrrmediately rise out of the larger tube into the smaller , and become the same length as before ; but by the former scale the barometer would stand too high , until readjusted , which could only be effected by putting the same quantity of mercury in again . I have introduced Gay-Lussac 's pipette into the centre of the tube , to prevent the possibility of any air passing up into the top .

112025

3701662

On Mauve or Aniline-Purple

170

176

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. H. Perkin

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1863.0042

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112025

10.1098/rspl.1863.0042

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112025

Chemistry 2

Biography

Chemistry

" On Mauve or Aniline-Purple . " By W. H. PERKIN , F.C.S. Conmunicated by Dr. STENHOIUSE . Received August 19 , 1863* . The discovery of this colouring matter in 1856 , and its introduction as a commercial article , has originated that remarkable series of compounds known as coal-tar colours , which have now become so numerous , and in consequence of their adaptibility to the arts and manufactures are of such great and increasing importance . The chemistry of mauve may appear to have been rather neglected , its composition not having been established , although it has formed the subject of several papers by continental chemists . Its chemical nature also has not been generally known ; and to this fact many of the discrepancies in the results of the different experimentalists who have worked on this subject are to be attributed . The first analysis I made of this colouring matter was in 1856 , soon after I had become its fortunate discoverer . The product I examined was purified as thoroughly as my knowledge of its properties then enabled me , and the resultst obtained agree very closely with those required for the formula I now propose . Since that time I have often commenced the study of this body in a scientific point of view , but other duties have prevented me from completing these investigations ; but , although unacquainted with its correct formula , its chemical characters have necessarily been well known to me for a considerable time . When first introduced , commercial mauve appeared as an almost perfectly amorphous body ; but now , owing to the great improvements which have been made in its purification , it is sent into the market perfectly pure and crystallized . On adding a solution of hydrate of potassiunm to a boiling solution of commercial crystallized mauve , it immediately changes in colour from purple to a blue violet , and after a few moments begins to deposit a crystalline body . After standing a few hours , this crystalline product is collected on a filter , washed with alcohol once or twice , and then thoroughly with water . When dry , it appears as a nearly black glistening substance , not unlike pulverised specular iron ore . This substance , for which I propose the name Mauveine , is a powerful base . It dissolves in alcohol , forming a blue violet solution , which immediately assumes a purple colour on the addition of acids . It is insoluble , or nearly so , in ether and benzole . It is a very stable body , and decomposes ammoniacal compounds readily . When heated strongly it decomposes , yielding a basic oil , which does not appear to be aniline . The following analyses were made of specimens dried at 1500 C. : I. *301 grrm . of substance gave 8818 of carbonic acid and * 162 of water . II . 2815 grm. of substance gave '8260 of carbonic acid and *145 of water . Direct Nitrogen determination . III . *3435 grm. of substance gave410 c.c. N at23 ? C. and 766 mms . Bar . 41 0 cub. centims. ( 766X0 millims.-209 ) VI= 824 1 millims. =37 7 cub. centims. 37 7x 0012562 grm.=_04735 grm. of N. These numbers correspond to the following percentages : I. II . III . Carbon. . 799 800 hydrogen ... . . 5.98 572 -Nitrogen . 13 5 The formula , Ca7* 1124 N , , requires the following values : Theory . Mean of experiment . C27 ... * 324 80 19 7995 JH e e24 5 94 , 5 85 Nv* . 56 13 871 ... ... 75 404 J100 Hydrochlorate of Mauveine.--This salt is prepared by the direct combination of maiiveine and hydrochloric acid . From its boiling alcoholic solution it is deposited in small prisms , sometimes arranged in tufts , possessing a brilliant green metallic lustre . It is moderately soluble in alcohol , but nearly insoluble in ether . It is also , comparatively speaking , moderately soluble in water . Different preparations dried at 100 ? C. gave the following numbers I. *306 grm. of substance gave *8255 of carbonic acid and *162 of water . II . *308 grm. of substance gave *8275 of carbonic acid and *163 of water . III . *310 grm. of substance gave *8345 of carbonic acid . IV . *3165 grm. of substance gave '851 of carb. acid and '16525 of water . V. *2447 grm. of substance gave *6603 of carb. acid and *1356 of water . VI . *627 grm. of substance gave *205 of chloride of silver . VII . *560 grm. of substance gave '195 of chloride of silver . VIII . '69 grm. of substance gave '2266 of chloride of silver . Direct Nitrogen determination . IX . '3497grm.of substance gave 40 c.c. N at20 ? C. and 777'2 mmns . Bar . VI _40 c. c. ( 7772.17 4 ) =37'2 c. c. at 00 C. and 760 millims. Bar . 815 8 milliims . 37'2 cub. centims. x '001 2562 grm. = *04673 grm. N. These numbers correspond to the following percentages : I. IL III . IV . Carbon ... ... ... ... 73-5 73'27 73.4 73.3 Hydrogen ... ... 5'88 5'88 5.8 Nitrogen Chlorine ... ... ... . V. VI . VII . VIII . IX . Carbon ... ... ... ... 73 59 _ Hydrogen ... ... . 16.-616Nitrogen ... ... ... . -13'3 Chlorine ... 8-08 8 06 8'1 These numbers agree with the formula 27 H2 NH Cl , as may be seen by the following Table : Theory . Mean of experiment . , --- . C27 . 324 ' 73'55 73'41 H25. . 25 ' 5'67 5.93 N4 ... . . 56 ' 12173 13'30 C ... ... 35-5 8'05 8'07 440 5 100'00 I have endeavoured to obtain a second hydrochlorate containing more acid , but up to the present time have not succeeded . Platinum-.salt.-Mauveine forms a perfectly definite and beautifully crystalline compound with bichloride of platinum . It is obtained by mixing an alcoholic solution of the above hydrochlorate with an excess of an alcoholic solution of bichloride of platinum ; from this mixture the new salt separates as a highly crystalline powder . I have generally preferred to use cold solutions in its preparation ; but if moderately hot solutions be employed , the salt will separate as crystals of considerable dimensions . This platinum-salt possesses the green lustre of the hydrochlorate , but , on being dried , assumes a more golden colour . It is very sparingly soluble in alcohol . The following numbers were obtained from various preparations dried at 1000 C.:I . '44125 grin . of substance gave '072 of platinum . II . '4845 grm. of substance gave '079 III . '511 grm. of substance gave '083 IV . '510 grm. of substance gave *083 V. '6345 grm. of substance gave 1035 , , VI . '618 grm. of substance gave '101 VII . '31275 grm. of substance gave '60525 of carbonic acid and '118 of water . VIII . '30675 grm. of substance gave '595 of carb. acid and'l 10 of water . IX . '3795 grm. of substance gave *27 of chloride of silver . These re'sults correspond to the percentages in the following Table : I. II III . IV . V. VI . Carbon s Hvdrogen Chlorine ... . -Platinum. . 16'31 16'3 16'24 16'27 16'3 16'3 VII . VIII . IX . Carbon 52'77 52'86 Hydrogen ... ... . 4'19 3'98 Chlorine . 17'6 Platinum ... The formula , C. NH Pt C1S , requires the following values Theory . Mean of experiment . C27 ... 324 ' 53'09 52'81 1125 25 ' 4'09 4'19 N4 ... . 56 ' 9'2 ... Pt ... . 98'7 16'16 16'28 C13 ... 106'5 17'46 17'6 610'2 100'00 Gold-salt.-This compound is prepared in a similar manner to the platinum-salt , only substituting chloride of gold for chloride of platinum . It separates as a crystalline precipitate , which , when moist , presents a much less brilliant aspect than the platinum derivative ; it is also more soluble than that salt , and when crystallized appears to lose a small quantity of gold . The following results were obtained from a specimen dried at 1000 C. : I. 47175 grm. of substance gave 1245 of gold . II . '35525 grm. of substance gave '094 of gold . III . '309 grm. of substance gave 495 of carbonic acid and 101 of water . Percentage composition : I. II . III . Carbon 43X68 Hydrogen 3X6 Gold 26 3 26X46 The formula , C27 H24 N , l H AuCl4 , requires the following percentages : Theory . Mean of experiment . C27 ... . 324 43X53 43X68 il25 ls . 25 3.34 3'6 N.L ... 56 7.44 Au ... . 197 26'61 26'38 C14 ... . 142 19'08 744 100'00 Hydrobromate of Mauveine.-This salt is prepared in a similar manner to the hydrochlorate , which it very much resembles , except that it is less soluble in alcohol . Analysis of preparations dried at 100 ? C. gave the following numbers : I. '3935 grm. of substance gave '1515 of bromide of silver . II . 450 grm. of substance gave '173 of bromide of silver . III . '3265 grm. of substance gave '79675 of carb. acid and '158 of water . IV . '35125 grm. of substance gave '86075 of carbonic acid and '1675 of water . Percentage composition I. II . ~~~Ill . IV . Carbon 66'55 66'8 Hydrogen 5.37 5'29 Bromine 16'38 16'37 These numbers agree with the formula C27 I124 N4 H Br , as shown by the comparisons in the following Table : Theory . Experimenit . C ' AC27 ... . 324 66'8 66'67 1125 . 25 5'15 5.33 N4 ... . 56 1156 Br ... . 80 16'49 16'37 485 100'00 Hydriodate of Mauveine . In preparing this salt from the base , it is necessary to use hydriodic acid which is colourless , otherwise the free iodine will slowly act upon this salt . It crystallizes in prisms having a green metallic reflexion . It is more insoluble than the hydrobromate . The products used in the subjoined analysis were recrystallized three times , and dried at 1000 C. I. 5115 grm. of substance gave '22575 of iodide of silver . II . *248 grm. of substance gave '549 of carb. acid and '10975 of water . III . '2985 grm. of substance gave '663 of carb. acid and *1265 of water . IIV . '2765 grm. of substance gave '615 of carb. acid and 1145 of water . Percentage composition : I. II . MI . IVT . Carbon 60'46 60'57 60'65 Hydrogen 4-9 4*7 4-7 Iodine 23'8 The formula , C27 H2L NL II I , requires the following values Theory . Experiment . C27. . 3246089 6 '56 H25 25 ' 4'69 4.7 N..56 ' 10'54 I ... . 127'1 23'88 23'8 532'1 100'00 Jcetate of Mauveine.-This salt is best obtained by dissolvirig the base in boiling alcohol and acetic acid . On cooling , it will crystallize out ; it should then be recrystallized once or twice . This acetate is a beautiful salt , possessing the green metallic lustre common to most of the salts of mauveine . Two combustions of specimens dried at 100 ? C. gave the following numbers : I. '28325 grm. of substance gave '778 of carb. acid and '153 of water . II . '29275 grm. of substance gave '806 of carb. acid and 1645 of water . Percentage composition : I. II . Carbon 74.9 75'0 Hydrogen 60 6'2 These numbers lead to the formula C29 H28N , O2=C27 114 N4 , C214 0Hw ? as shown by the following Table : Theory . Experiment . C29.348 75 ' 74'95 H28 . 28 6 ' 6.1 N , ... . 56 1206 02 ... 32 6'94 464 100'00 Carbonate of M1auveine.-The tendency of solutionis of mauveine to combine with carbonic acid is rather remarkable . If a quantity of its solution be thrown up into a tube containing carbonic acid over mercury , the carbonic acid will quickly be absorbed , the solution in the mean time passing from its norrmal violet colour to purple . To prepare this carbonate , it is necessary to pass carbonic acid gas through boiling alcohol containing a quantity of mauveine in suspension . It is then filtered quickly , and carbonic acid passed through the filtrate until nearly cold . On standing , this liquid will deposit the carbonate as prisms , having a green metallic reflexion . A solution of this salt , on being boiled , loses part of its carbonic acid and assumes the violet colour of the base . When dry this carbonate rapidly changes , and if heated to 100 ? C. loses nearly all its carbonic acid and changes in colour to a dull olive ; therefore , as it cannot be dried without undergoing a certain amount of change , its composition is difficult to determine . However , I endeavoured to estimate the carbonic acid in this salt by taking a quantity of it freshly prepared and in the moist state , and heating it in an oil-bath until carbonic acid ceased to be evolved . The residual base was then weighed , and also the carbonic acid , which had been collected in a potash bulb , having been previously freed from water by means of sulphuric acid . The following results were obtained I. 1 '88 residual base obtained ; '190 carbonic acid evolved . II . 1'375 residual base ; '1385 carbonic acid evolved . '190 of CO3 is equal to *268 of H , CO3 ; this , added to the residual base , will give the amount of substance experimented with , viz. 2'148 . The amount of CO , obtained from this quantity , therefore , is 88 per cent. Calculating the second experiment in a similar manner , the amount of carbonate operated upon would be 157,02 grm. ; the percentage of CO , obtained is therefore equal to 8'8 . A carbonate having the formula ( C27 a124 N4)2 H1 COl would contain 5'1 per cent. of CO , , and an acid carbonate having the formula 027 n11 , N Ha CO , would contain 9'4 per cent. of CO. Considering that this salt when prepared begins to crystallize before it is cold , probably the first portions that deposit are a muonocarbonate , while the larger quiantity which separates afterwards is an acid carbonate . Hence the deficiency in the amount of CO , obtained in the above experiments . I hope to give my attention to this remarkable salt at a fuiture period . In the analysis of the salts of mauveinle great care has to be taken in drying them thoroughly , as most of them are highly hygroscopic . I am now engao , ed in the study of the replaceable hydrogen in mauveine , which I hope will throw some light upon its constitution . From its formula I believe it to be a tetramine , although up to the present time I have not obtained any definite salts with more than 1 equiv. of acid . When mauiveine is heated with aniline it produces a blue colouring matter , which will doubtless prove to be a phenyle derivative of that base . A salt of mauveine when heated alone also produces a violet or blue compound . These substances I am now examining , and hope in a short time to have the honour of communicating them to the Society .

112026

3701662

On the Functions of the Cerebellum. [Abstract]

177

179

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Howship Dickinson

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112026

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112026

Biology 2

Nervous System

Biology

I. " On the Functions of the Cerebellum . " By WILLIAM HowSHIP DICKINSON , M.D. Cantab . , Curator of the Pathological Museum , St. George 's Hospital , Assistant Physician to the Hospital for Sick Children . Communicated by Dr. BENCE JONES . Received March 8 , 1864 . ( Abstract . ) The paper is divided into two Parts ; the first gives the results of experiments on animals ; the second , of observations upon the human being . PART I. Assuming that the great divisions of the brain preserve each the same function through the vertebrate kingdom , it is maintained that experiments which can be performed only on such of the lower animals as are very tenacious of life , will afford deductions of universal application . The method of proceeding with regard to each species was to remove , first , the whole encephalon , with the exception of the medulla oblongata ; then in a similar animal only the cerebrum was taken away . The only difference between the two cases was in the fact that one animal bad a cerebellum , and the other had not . A comparison was believed to show , in the powers which one had more than the other , the function of the organ the possession of which constituted the only difference . Finally it was ascertained in each species what is the effect of taking away the cerebellum alone . The use of the organ was thus estimated in two ways-by the effect of its addition to the medulla , and of its subtraction from the rest of the nervous system . The species so treated are arranged in an ascending scale , according to the comparative weight of the cerebellum . The field-snake , frog , salamander , toad , land-tortoise , eel , water-tortoise , pike , perch , tench , dace , carp , gold-fish , rudd , loach , and gudgeon were subjected to these operations ; besides which , many experiments of a less systematic character were made upon birds and mammalia . The results are these : In Reptiles , with the exception of the snake , the cord , together with the medulla oblongata , is sufficient to give the power of voluntary or spontaneous motion--limited , but usually enough to allow of feeble locomotion . With the addition of the cerebellum , all actions dependent on the will appear to be naturally performed . The removal of the cerebellum shows that the cerebrum by itself is unable to give more than a limited amount of voluntary motion , and that of a kind deficient in balance and adjustment . It is therefore inferred that the cord , together with the medulla oblongata , is a great source of spontaneous motor power , in which function both the cerebrum and the cerebelluim take part , the cerebellum to the greater extent ; it also appears that a certain harmony in the use of the muscles depends on the possession of the latter organ . Regarding Fishes , the cord and medulla oblonigata seem unequal to the performance of voluntary motion . When the cerebellum is added , the powers become so far extended that movements are made in obedience to external stimuli . Generally speaking , a determined position is maintained and locomotion accomnplished , without the use , however , of the pectoral fins . If the cerebellum only be takeln away , there is a loss of the proper adjustmenit between the right and left sides ; so that oscillation or rotation takes place . All the limbs are used , but apparently with a deficiency of sustained activity . It is therefore concluided that with Fishes , as with Reptiles , the power of intentional movement is shared by both cerebrum and cerebellum ; the former in this case has the larger influience . Such movements as depend on the cerebrum are destitute of lateral balance , are sudden in being affected by any external cause , and are emotional in their character . Such as depend on the cerebellum are mutually adjusted , of a continuous kind , and less directly under the influence of consciousness . The same facts were supported by experiments on the higher orders of animals : in these it seemed that the cord and medulla are insufficient to excite voluntary movements . The muscles , as with fishes and reptiles , acknowledge a double rule , from the cerebrumn and from the cerebellum . The anterior limbs are most subservient to the cerebrun ; the posterior to the cerebellum . The limbs on one side are in connexion chiefly with the lobe of the opposite side . The absence of the cereTellum destroys the power of lateral balance . From the negative results of the experiments , it is inferred that the cerebellum has nothing to do with common sensation , with the sexual propensity , with the action of the involuntary muscles , with the maintenance of animal heat , or with secretion . The only function which the experiments assigned to the cerebellum is such as concerns the voluintary muscles , which receive therefrom a regulated supply of motor influence . Each lateral half of the cerebellum affects both sides , but the one opposite to itself most . The cerebellum has a property distinct from its true voluntary power , which harmonizes the action of the voluintary muscles , and has been described as " ' coordinationp . " The voluntary muscles are under a double influence-from the cerebrum and from the eerebellum . The anterior limbs are chiefly under the influ ence of the cerebruim ; the posterior , of the cerebellum . Cerebellar movements are apt to be habitual , while cerebral are impulsive . The cerebellun acts when the cerebram is remnoved , though when both organs exist it is under its control . PAnT Ilo From an analysis of one case of congenital absence of the cerebellum , one of disease of the whole organ , and 46 of disease of a portion of it , the folb lowing de lucotionis are stated : The only faculty which conistantly suffers in consequence of chaniges in the cerebellum , is the power of voluntary rmoven i at . When the organ is absent or defective congenitally , we have want of action in the muscles of the lower extremities . Whien the entire structure is chaiuged by dsease , we have loss of voluntary power , either general throughout the trunk , or limited to the lower limbs-which resuLlts are about equally frequent . Prom the manner in which the paralvsis was distribnated in cases of disease of a part of the organ , it is inferred that each lobe is in connexion as a source of voluintary movenment with all the fouir limbs , but in the greatest degree with the limbs of the opposite side , anlI with the lower more than with the upper extremities . The occasional occurrence of loss of visual power , and alterations of the sexual propeni sity , is referred to the con v.yance of irritation to the corpora quadrigemina in one case , and the spinial cord in the other . From both sources of knowledge it is concluded that the cerebellum has distinct offices . It is a source of voluntary motor power to the muscles supplied by the spinal nerves . It influences the lower i-ore than the uipper limbs , and produces habitual rather than imripuLlsive movements . Each lobe affects both sides of the body , but most that opposite to itself . Secondly , the cerebellum has a power which has been described as that of " coordination , " which is similarly distributed . Finally , it is suggested that the outer portion of the organ may be the source of its voluntarv motor power , while its inner layer is the means of regulatin.g its distribution .

112027

3701662

An Inquiry into Newton's Rule for the Discovery of Imaginary Roots. [Abstract]

179

183

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. J. Sylvester

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112027

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112027