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112167

3701662

Some Observations on Birds, Chiefly Relating to Their Temperature, with Supplementary Additions on Their Bones

440

457

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Davy

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1865.0077

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112167

10.1098/rspl.1865.0077

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112167

Biology 2

Chemistry 1

Biology

" Some Observations on Birds , chiefly relating to their Temperature , with Supplementary additions on their Bones . " By JOHN DAVY , M.D. , F.R.S. , &c. Received May 26 , 1865 * . The observations which I have now the honour to submit to the Royal Society , have been made with the hope of contributing something to the elucidation of the high temperature for which birds as a class are remarkable . I. Of the Temperature of the Common Fowl ( Gallus domesticus ) . Mr. Hunter , in his paper entitled " Of the Heat , &c. of Animals and Vegetables , " published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1778 , states that he found the temperature of the common fowl , both male and female , in the intestinum rectum between 103 ? and 104 ? of Fahr. From such observations as I have made , both in Ceylon and in England , it would appear that the temperature of this bird is considerably higher . In the former I found it as high in recto as 1 10 and 1110 , and this in December , when the average temperature of the atmosphere , in that part of the island where the trials were made , is about 77 ? , which was the temperature of the air at the very time . In the latter I have found it to vary from 107 ? to 109 ? * . That the temperature of the common fowl should be a little lower in England than in Ceylon , is no more than might be expected , from the analogy of the difference of temperature of man in the two climates ; and , in accordance , in the fowl I have found that even in England there is a slight difference in favour of the warmest months , comparing the results then obtained with those in the coldest . Of the want of agreement between Mr. Hunter 's results and mine I can offer no satisfactory explanation . I have thought it right to advert to them , he being so deservedly a high authority in physiology . Were his results to be depended on , then , were the common fowl to be considered as a fair example of the temperature of birds generally , they could hardly be considered as a class peculiar for highness of temperature , some of the mammalia having a temperature differing but little from that which he assigns to the common fowl t. Or , if not a fair example , then an exception , and the common fowl would have to be placed amongst those birds , few in number , chiefly palmipedes , ocean-birds , peculiar for lowness of temperature * . Now , as neither of these conclusions is admissible , it seems unavoidable that Mr. Hunter 's results must be received as inaccurate . II . Of the expired Air , and of the Air in the Air-receptacles and Bones of Birds . 1 . Of the expired air.-That which I have examined has been obtained from birds in the act of drowning . It is worthy of remark , I may premise , and I am not aware that the fact has been noticed by any previous inquirer , that different birds vary as to their power of retention of life under water . The goose expires I have found in about ten minutes ; the duck in about the same time ; the common barn-door fowl in about four or four and a half minutes ; the turkey in about three minutes ; the jay in about a minute and a half ; the pigeon , the carrion-crow , rook , jackdaw , in about a minute ; the robin , the hedge-warbler in about the same time ; the blackbird in about three-quarters of a minute ; the tawny owl , the bullfinch , the house-sparrow , in about half-a-minute . Those birds which are capable of retaining the air longest emit little air commonly when first submerged ; but later , shortly before the extinction of life , they expel it in large quantities ; those , on the contrary , especially the smaller birds , which soonest die , expel no air in the act of drowning . I have examined the air from the goose in one instance only ; it was a portion of the last emitted . Tested by milk of lime and phosphorus , it was found to consist of 7'5 carbonic acid gas , 92'5 azote . The air from a duck , a small portion collected after four minutes ' submersion , was composed of 2'38 carbonic acid , 9'52 oxygen , 88'10 azote . From another duck two portions of air were tried , one after five minutes ' submersion , the other after between eight and ten . The first consisted of 7'5 carbonic acid , 7'5 oxygen , 85 azote ; the second of 15*7 carbonic acid , 4'1 oxygen , 80'2 azote . From the common fowl the air was examined in two instances ; in both it was that which was eimitted near death . Of one , the composition was 6 ' 18 carbonic acid , 5f08 oxygen , 82-84 azote ; of the other , 3'3 carbonic acid , 7'79 oxygen , 88-89 azote . From a pigeon , the air emitted ( it was pretty considerable in quantity ) consisted of 11 1 oxygen , 89'7 azote . From these results , and from a few others which I have obtained , it would appear that in the air expired by birds in the act of drowning there is a certain loss of carbonic acid , a loss equivalent to the proportion of oxygen less than exists in the atmospheric air inspired ; and it may be inferred that the deficient carbonic acid was absorbed and retained in the blood ; and that it was so , was indicated by the very dark colour of the blood obtained by the division of the great cervical vessels immediately after the extinction of life , and further by the large quantity of air that was disengaged from the blood when subjected to the air-pump * . 2 . Of the air from the air-sacs.-On thet air from these receptacles I have made the following experiments : From a turkey killed by drowning , a portion of air was collected by a puncture made under water into the air-vesicles under the sternum . It was found to consist of 15'5 carbonic acid , 84'5 azote . From a duck deprived of life in the same manner , a portion of air was obtained from the abdominal air-receptacles . It was composed of 10'52 carbonic acid , 5'26 oxygen , 88'32 azote . These results would seem to warrant the inference that the very delicate membrane of which the air-receptacles are formed , is like that of the aircells of the lungs pervious to air ; and the further inference , that the deficient carbonic acid in the air examined was owing to its absorption by the blood . 3 . Of the air contained in the bones.-The experiments I have made on this air have been confined chiefly to that of the humerus . I may premise that in every instance in which I have examined the lining membrane of the hollow bones of birds ( the air-containing bones ) , I have found it distinctly vascular ; in this respect differing from the membrane of the airreceptacles communicating with the lungs situated in its thoracic and abdominal cavities . Not unfrequently , both in the humeri and femora , the vessels have had the appearance of being varicose , and this when the examination was made a few minutes after death . From the humerus of a common fowl , killed by drowning , a portion of air obtained was found to be composed of 4'7 oxygen , 95'3 azote . The bone was dissected out under water , and its head there removed to allow free exit to the included air . From the humerus of another fowl killed by the division of the great cervical vessels , the air procured consisted of 8'3 carbonic acid , 8'3 oxygen , 83'4 azote . In this instance the bone was dissected out under water , whilst the fowl was still warm . No air escaped until the delicate bony tissue ( the reticulated structure ) was broken through , and indeed then but little , until the head of the bone had been removed . From a third fowl , a cock weighing ten pounds and three-quarters , killed in the same manner as the last , the air from the humerus , measuring onetenth of a cubic inch , consisted of 15 oxygen and 85 azote . From the humerus of a rook , a few minutes after the bird had been shot , the air obtained , measuring '22 cubic inch , was composed of 11 carbonic acid , 89 azote . From the humerus of a tawny owl , three days after the death of the bird by drowning , the air collected consisted of 5'5 carbonic acid , 5'5 oxygen , 89 azote . Though these results are not so uniform as might be expected , they seem to prove that the air in the bones undergoes the same change as in the airsacs , and that there is an absorption , more or less , of the carbonic acid formed by the blood contained in the vessels of the lining membrane , the quantity varying according to circumstances . It may be conjectured that the difference in the results may partly be owing to the air-passage , the foramen or foramina , in the head of the bone , being more free in some instances than in others III . On Pulmonary and Cutaneous Aqueous Exhalation . The loss of water by exhalation from the lungs in the air expired , and from the cutaneous covering of the body by evaporation , must be considered material elements in the problem of the animal heat of birds . And inasmuch as birds drink but little , inasmuch as their skin generally is very thin , dry , and little vascular ; further , as the air in expiration has to pass over a considerable length of surface of comparatively low temperature before it enters the open air , their loss of heat owing to these conditions must be small , and more especially so , taking into account the admirable covering of feathers , such bad conductors of heat , with which they are provided . The only experiments I have to describe bearing in part on what has just been stated , chiefly the last-mentioned , are the following on the rate of cooling . Two fowls , hens of the same brood , were selected for trial . The weight of each after loss of blood , having been killed by the division of the great cervical vessels , was five pounds . The temperature of one ( No. 1 ) , ascertained just before , was 107 ? '25 in recto ; of the other ( No. 2 ) , 108 ? . The latter was rapidly deprived of its feathers , with the exception of the wings , whilst on the other they were left on . Both were suspended by the legs , " I have occasionally found a delicate transparent membrane connecting some of the cancelli . Invariably the opening into the humerus is obstructed by the muscle attached to the cavity in which the foramen or foramina above mentioned are situated . Mr. Hunter found when the trachea of a cock was tied , and " the wing cut through the os humeri , " the passage of air to the lungs was so difficult as to render it impossible for the animal to live longer than to prove that it breathed through the cut bone.-Observations on certain parts of the Animal Economy , p. 82 . 2L2 443 the wings of the plucked fowl kept apart from the body , the wings of the other in close contact with the body . The room in which they were suspended was 53 ? at the time . From the great delicacy of the thermometer used , about a minute and a half sufficed in recto to give a good result ; as the same instrument was used , the trial was made alternately as to time ; in the first trial of the temperature beginning with No. 1 , in the second with No. 2 , and so on . hmooo March 29th.-10 2 A.M. , air 53 No. 1 , 107-25 No. 2 , 108 10 40 , , 52 , , 104 , , 103 11 54 , , 52 , , 97 , , 87 , , 1 P. . , air 52 , , 90 , , 72 2 4 , , 52 , , 87 , , 66 3 7 , , 52 , , 85 , 62 4 2 , , 52 , , 83 , , 61 , , 5 3 , , 53 , , 80 , , 59'5 , , 6 35 , , 50 , , 75-5 , , 55.5 , , 9 50 , , 50 , , 68 , , 52 March 30th.--12 15 A.M. , air 48 , , 65 , 50'5 , 8 30 , 49 , 55'5 , , 485 , 10 20 , , 51 , , 55 , , 49 , 12 15 P.M. , air 53 , , 54 , , 50 From the last of these observations it is seen how little was the cooling effects from evaporation , the temperature of the plucked fowl rising a degree , and differing one degree only from the air of the room . Of the other trials made , one was on a drake , one on a tawny owl . The drake , well covered with feathers , weighed seven pounds . It was killed by drowning ; the blood was retained . Like the fowls , it was suspended by the legs ; its wings were apart . Previously its temperature in recto was 107 ? '5 . The thermometer was left in recto . hmoo April 5th.-10 51 A.M. , air 55 Drake ... ... 107'5 11 25 , , 55 , , ... ... 104 . 12 40 , 55 , , ... ... 94 . , , 2 8 , , 55 , , ... ... 895 . , , 315 , , 55 , , ... . . 85 . , 4 35 , , 55 , , ... ... 81 . 5 55 , , 55 , , ... ... 65 . , 1145 , , 53 , , ... ... 65 . April 6th.8 30 A.M. , air 51 , , ... ... 57 . The owl was killed also by drowning . It had been fed the preceding evening . On the 2nd of December , when alive , at 10.30 A.M. , its temperature in recto was 106 ? '5 . Tho observations on its cooling were made on it placed on a table , the bird resting on its abdomen , the wings close to its sides ; the thermometer was left in recto . h moo December 2nd.--10 45 A.M. , air 58 Owl ... . 100 , , 11 45 , , 58 , , ... . 93-25 , , 12 45 P.M. , air 58 , , ... . 86-25 , , 1 45 , , 58 , ... . 80-50,2 45 , , 58 , , ... . 7575 , , 3 45 , , 58 , , ... . 72 , , 45 , , 57 , , ... . 69-25 7 15 , , 57 , , ... 64-50,9 30 , , 56 , , ... . 6125 , , 11 30 , , 55 , ,. . 5925 December 3rd.9 A.M. , air 55 , , ... 54-5* , , 12 M. , air 58 , , ... . 56-25 , , 2 P.M. , , , 60 , , ... . 57 , , 4 , , 60 , , ... . 58-5 , 12 , , 57 , , ... . 57 December 4th.9 A.M. , air 58 , , ... . 55-5t , , 4 P.M. , air 60 , , ... . 58-5 12 , , 57 , , ... . 57 These results seem sufficient to show that birds owe much of their high temperature , especially its preservation , to their clothing of feathers . Further , it may be remarked in proof of the little activity of their cuticular structure ( except , indeed , in the growth of feathers ) , that birds are never observed to eat , or have their feathers wet from condensation on them of perspired moisture ; nor am I aware that their breath becomes visible , to use a popular expression , in the coldest weather . And in accordance it would appear , comparing birds with animals of other classes , that the proportion of their aqueous element is somewhat less , which also harmonizes with an inconsiderable cooling effect from cutaneous evaporation-a fact which some of the results given seem to prove , and as is shown by the following , so far as trials on the dead are applicable , inferentially to the living animal . Of four sparrows just shot , one ( No. 1 ) weighing 414-5 grs. was suspended with its feathers entire ; a second ( No. 2 ) clipped , i. e. its feathers cut short , weighing 405*6 grs. ( it had lost 23 grs. by the clipping ) , was suspended by its side , as were also the other two ; No. 3 , deprived of its feathers , its skin unbroken , weighing 414 grs. ; No. 4 , deprived of its skin as well as its feathers , weighing 384-5 grs. During twenty-four hours ' exposure to the air of room varying from 48 ? to 50 ? , No. 1 lost 15 per cent. ; No. 2 , 23 ; No. 3 , 7-9 ; No. 4 , 17-4 . IV.-Of the Kidneys and their Exlcretion . Another element in the problem of the temperature of birds is the kidneys , with th- ' excretion . As is well known , these organs in birds are proportionally large and active ; their secretion , not inconsiderable in quantity , and formed chiefly of urate of ammonia , is voided in a state far removed from the liquid , hardly semifluid from the little water it contains . Hence in the performance of the function there is but little loss of heat . Moreover , as it would appear from ultimate analysis that the urate contains less oxygen than urea , there must be a less expenditure of oxygen in its formation , leaving more for a more profitable conversion into carbonic acid . What are the general conclusions which are admissible from the preceding results ? Do they not warrant the inference that the high temperature of birds is owing to a combination of circumstances , some positive , some negative ; the one , the positive , acting through the air inspired and the conversion of oxygen into carbonic acid gas , productive of heat ; the other , the negative conditions , such as those mentioned , influential mainly by economizing the heat when produced , or checking its escape ? Besides these negative conditions , it may be open to question , considering the proportional smallness of the lungs of birds , and the smallness of the nerves with which they are supplied , whether there are not other circumstances concerned of an ancillary kind-such , to enumerate some of the most probable , as a powerfiul heart , especially a powerful left ventricle ; the quality of their blood , that but little viscid , as indicated by the little , if any tendency of the red corpuscles to collect in piles * ; the large proportion of these corpuscles , and their nucleated structure , a structure with which may be connected an electrical influence . If the chief use of the peculiar pneumatic system of birds be to secure a high temperature , it is probable , and is in part already admitted , that it may subserve other uses inferior only in degree of importance in relation to the habits and well-being of the class : for instance , as generally admitted , it may conduce to great power of flight in some , to running power in others , to vocal power in a third ; and , in all , may not the thorough aeration of the blood , as denoted by its more florid hue even in the veins , be essential to the energy , to that intensity of action and endurance for which the muscles of those birds in which the structure under consideration is most developed , are so remarkable ? The subject in its entireness , it must be allowed , is full of interest . It affords in the variety of structure exhibited by different birds , supplementary to the lungs , ample scope for further research . Why some birds , such as the woodcock , the snipe , the swallow , birds of rapid and long flight , should be destitute of air in their bones ; why the small birds , with few exceptions , the tits for instance , some of the smallest , should expe* In no instance have I seen the blood-corpuscles of any bird to cohere and form rouleaux or piles , nor have I seen a buffy coat on the blood of birds . 446 C1865 . Grouse ( Tetrao scoticus ) ... . humeri , scapulee , clavicles , furcula , femora . Partridge ( Perdix cinerea ) do . Wood-pigeon ( Columbapalustris ) do . Common pigeon ( C. domestica ) do . Wild duck ( Anas boschus ) do . Common duck ( A. domesticus ) do . Wigeon ( A. Penelope ) do . Skylark ( Alauda arvensis ) do . do . do . Woodlark ( A. arborea ) do . do . do . Great tit ( Paruzs major ) do . Blue tit ( P. ccerzlezus ) do . Marsh tit ( P. palustris ) do . SECTION II . *Titlark ( Anthus pratensis ) . Tufted dellk ( Anas8fuligula ) . Common guillemot ( Uria Troile ) . Water-hen ( Gallinula chloropus ) . *Corncrake ( G. crex ) . Woodcock ( Scolopax rusticula ) . Snipe ( S. gallinago ) . Bar-tailed godwit ( S. ( egocephala ) . Dunlin ( Tringa alpina ) . Little sandpiper ( T. pusilla ) . Missel-thrush ( Turdus viscivorus ) . Blackbird ( T. menrla ) . Song-thrush ( T. musicus ) . Redwing ( T. iliacus ) . Fieldfare ( T. pilaris ) . Water-ouzel ( T. cinclus ) . Starling ( Sturnus vulgaris ) . Goldfinch ( Fringilla carduelis ) . Chaffinch ( F. celebs ) . Siskin ( F. spinus ) . Lesser-redpole ( F. linaria ) . Common sparrow ( F. domestica ) . Mountain linnet ( F. montana ) . Robin ( Sylvia rubecula ) . *Stonechat ( S. ruhicola ) . Wren ( S. troglodytes ) . *Hedge-warbler ( S. modularis ) . *Blackcap ( S. atricapilla ) . *Redstart ( S. phcenicura ) . *Willow warbler ( S. trochilus ) . Bullfinch ( Loxia pyrrhula ) . 448 [ 1865 . rience the same exemption ; why one bird , the apteryx , a solitary example should be without air not only in every part of its osseous system , but also without air-sacs ; and another bird , the grouse , not remarkable for power of flight , should have air in its femora as well as humeri , are questions which at present it may be difficult to answer , but which , it may be hoped , were careful and minute inquiry instituted , might be satisfactorily accounted for on the teleological principle of fitness of structure to use . If I may be allowed to offer a conjecture , it seems to me probable that in our commonly received generalization relative to the consumption of oxygen in the respiration of birds , the quantity presumed to be used has been overrated , and that in many instances the expenditure of this gas may be found to be less proportionally than in the mammalia . As supplementary to the preceding observations , I would beg to state some further particulars respecting birds , the results of the inquiry in which I have been engaged . 1st . Of the birds examined.-All of them were natives of the Lake District , with two or three exceptions which will be specified , and all were obtained between November and March , excepting those marked with an asterisk , which were shot in April and May , They may be divided into two sections , one including those birds in one or more of the bones of which air was found to exist communicating with the lungs . The other , of those birds in which in the corresponding bones no air could be detected . The birds were all at least one year old , an ample time , I apprehend , for the marrow which exists probably in the bones of every individual of the class at the time of hatching , and for some time after , to be absorbed in those in which it is not permanently present . It may be right to remark that in every instance the question whether air was present or not was determined by an examination of the contents of the particular bones , and not merely from their appearance , which , as regards colour , is sometimes deceptive . Of the birds belonging to the first section , the bones , which are named after each , were those only in which air was found , i. e. communicating with the lungs . SECTION I. Buzzard ( Falco buteo ) ... ... humeri , scapulae , clavicles , furcula , femora . Tawny owl ( Strix stridula ) do . do . do . do . do . Carrion crow ( Corvus corone ) do . do . do . do . Rook ( C. frugilegus ) do . do . do . do . Jackdaw ( C. monedula ) do . do . do . do . Magpie ( C. pica ) do . do . do . do . Jay ( C. glandarius ) do . do . do . do . Cuckoo ( Cuculus canorus ) do . Common fowl ( Gallus domesticus ) do . Pheasant ( Phasianus colchicus ) do . 447 *Greenfinch ( L. chloris ) , Yellowhammer ( Enteriza citrinella ) . Gray wagtail ( Motacilla boarula ) . Yellow wagtail ( M. flava ) . Common creeper ( Certhia familiaris ) . *Pied flycatcher ( Museicapa atricap2illa ) . *Spotted flycatcher ( 1I . grisola ) . *Swift ( Hirundo apis ) . *Swallow ( H. rustica ) . *'Martin ( H. uzrbica ) . *Sand-martin ( H. riparia ) . Of the birds in each section , the crania , with some exceptions , contained air . The skull of the water-ouzel is one of the exceptions . It is not cellular like that of the majority , but compact and sinks in water . Its greater heaviness may be suitable to the habits of the bird , seeking its prey in the bed of ruuning streams with its head downmost . The same compactness of bone is seen in the crania of the Scolopacid . , This compactness is remarkably contrasted with the cellular state of cranium of certain other birds , in which it is most strongly'marked , where lightness as well as power of resistance is needed , such as that of the owls and tits . There are certain bones which in the adult stage of the bird appear to be without both marrow and air ; the scapular arch is occasionally an example of this , especially its posterior wing* , and also the sternum . Professor Rudolph Wagner , in his 'Elements of Comparative Anatomy ' ( English translation ) , refers to the blackbird and thrush as instances of birds which have air in their femora . I have sought for air in these bones in all the thrushes I have examined , seven different species , but have found only marrow . If verified it would be a curious fact , that in one country air should occur in the bones in question and in another marrow . Whether the circumstance of the presence or absence of air in the bones is deserving of attention in the classification of birds , may be worthy of the consideration of the naturalist . In all the tits I have examined , and the number has been considerable , especially of the blue tit , I have never found marrow in the humeri , and the same remark applies to these bones in the larks , but not to those of the pipits . 2nd . Of the proportions of certainpartsof birds as determined byweighing . In the Table which follows a statement is given of results , comprising the weight of the birds examined , of their feathers , and , with a few exceptions , of their bones , the latter after having been cleaned , deprived of their periostrum , and dried by exposure to the airt . In the first column the weight in grains of the fresh birds , before the removal of their feathers , is inserted , the heading of the other columns is sufficiently distinctive . The primates of the wings and the quill-feathers of the tail in each instance were weighed apart . The weight of the whole of the plumage was ascertained by two weighings , one before , the other after the feathers had been taken out , the loss , including the whole of the quill-feathers , showing the total amount . When a trial was made of more than one of a species , the results have been inserted , on the idea that possibly they may be of some interest in relation to variations ; these no doubt depending on many circumstances , such as sex , condition as to fatness , and others less easy of appreciation . Weight Weight Weight Total Weight Species . Sex . of of tailof wing ' weight of of bird , feathers , feathers , feathers , bones . grs. grs , grs. grs. grs. Buzzard ... ... ... ... ... ... FP . 23040 128 454 2276 1163-6 Buzzard ... ... ... ... ... ... M. 12994 89 330-5 2022 1050.8 Tawny owl ... ... ... ... M. 5776 22-6 127'6 696-2 428'5 Carrion crow ... ... ... ... . M 7885 48-4 223-6 1074 556-9 Rook ... ... ... ... ... ... ... F. 8664 45 207'3 1122-3 537 Rook ... ... ... ... ... ... ... M. 6556 45-5 201-6 974 463'7 Jackdaw ... ... ... ... ... ... M. 3900 28 98 390 272'5 Jay ... ... ... ... ... - ... ... . 2539 14'9 43-7 250-4 152-2 Cuckoo ... ... ... ... ... ... . M , 2091 23'6 49 197'6 106'9 Common fowl ... ... ... ... F. 24851 57'5 214 1846-5 1438-7 Common duck ... ... ... F , 22547 30 160-4 1.755-5 Woodcock ... ... ... ... ... ... 4198 8'1 58-9 306 280 Little sandpiper ... ... 629-4 1-7 8'8 62'7 36'6 Blackbird ... ... ... ... ... ... 1668 8'1 20-2 104-5 81-3 Song-thrush ... ... ... ... 1175 4 12 76-5 Missel-thrush ... ... ... ... 2127 156 Water-ouze ... ... ... ... . 873 3 65 532 46-9 Skylark ... ... ... ... ... ... F 744 ... ... ... ... . 56'6 Skylark ... ... ... ... ... . M. 657'7 53'2 33'2 Skylark ... ... ... ... ... ... F 6437 2-8 12-2 647 Skylark ... ... ... ... ... F. 523 2-6 9'1 47-9 24'2 Woodlark ... ... ... ... ... F. 493 2'3 9'1 47 24'2 Titlark ... ... ... ... ... ... F , 368 1-5 5-4 14-5 20'2 Black-cap ... ... ... ... ... M , 273-2 1*2 3-3 19'7 12-4 Stone-chat ... ... ... ... ... M 346-8 1-8 6-2 ' 34-8 21'4 House-sparrow ... ... ... ... 421-7 2 5-7 30-6 25'3 Chaffinch ... ... ... ... ... . 401 ... ... ... 19 Bullfinch ... ... ... ... ... M. 374 1-9 5-9 319 15-3 Greenfinch ... ... ... ... ... M. 388'6 1-5 6 34'1 22 Swallow ... ... ... ... ... ... F. 321-8 1'8 8-1 25-8 16 Swift ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . F , 784-3 9 18 55-3 39'5 Martin ... ... ... ... ... ... F. 301 1'3 7 21 14'6 Sand-martin ... ... ... ... F. 210-5 '9 6-2 145 9'4 Great tit ... ... ... ... ... ... 320-5 1'5 4 22 Blue tit ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1809 95 1-15 18'4 Blue tit ... ... ... ... ... ... M , 162-1 '83 2-16 16-49 8-71 Blue tit ... ... ... ... ... ... 145 ... ... ... ... 15'4 Blue tit ... ... ... ... ... ... 137 ... ... ... . . 13-5 Blue tit ... ... ... ... ... ... 167-5 ... ... . 13-8 On the results in this Table I have but few remarks to offer . The regularity of feathers as to number , i. e. of the primates of the wings and of the quill tail-feathers , is well known to the naturalist . In all the instances in which I have weighed the primates of each wing , I have found them , if not precisely of the same weight , to differ in the smaller birds not more than by l or '01 grain , and in the larger the difference has rarely exceeded 1 grain ; a degree of equality this which might be expected , as essential to the regularity of flight ; and small as it is , I am disposed to think that in the larger birds even it would hardly be appreciable could the quills be extracted with precisely the same proportion of adhering tissue . Comparing the quill-feathers of the small with those of the large birds , the proportional weight of the latter , it would appear , is commonly greater than that of the former , -a disproportion , it may be inferred , connected with the larger birds having , as needed , stronger wingand tail-quill feathers , and , indeed , stronger feathers generally , the few exceptions harmonising , at least those of the common fowl and duck . Comparing their bones , those of the larger and more powerful , as might also be anticipated , appear , too , proportionally heaviest . Comparing individuals of the same species , whether as to the total weight of birds , or of feathers and bones , variations will be found to occur . The skylarks may be mentioned as examples , and also the tits , the former obtained not from the same locality , one having been procured from Lincolnshire , one from Oxfoid , a third from Yorkshire , a fourth from the immediate neighbourhood of Ambleside , where it is rarely seen , and where it came during a severe frost probably in quest of food , having been found close to a running stream* ; the tits were all from the immediate neighbourhood of Ambleside . 3rd . Of the weight of the principal bones of the skeleton.-The results obtained are given in the next Table . The birds , the bones of which were the subjects of trial , have already been all mentioned , and may be identified by their weight , as inserted again in the first column . With the cranium , it may be stated , the maxillae and facial bones were weighed , and with the pelvis the caudal vertebrae : the spine comprised all the other vertebrae excepting those anchylosed with the pelvis ; the terminal bones of the extremities are designated by metacarpi , &c. for the upper , and by phalanges for the lower . Weight Weight of os iWeight Weight Weight Weight Weight of seht Weight ofulne Weight Weight Weight Weight Species . Sex . of of lingue of of of sterof of furofsa of oune of metaof of Weigh fphaTotal birds . cranium and spine . pelvis . num . ribs . cula . are humeri . radii carpi . femora . Tibie . of tars langes . weht hyoides._ grs. grs. r. grs. grs. grs. gri. . grs. grs. gr.grs . grs. rs rS grs. grs. gr. grs. Buzzard ... ... ... ... F. 23040 86 2 51-6 88 36-5 24-8 10-1 44-5 125 223-7 85-6 73.4 141.6 81-6 89 1163-6 Buzzard ... ... ... ... M. 12994 85-6 1-4 57-3 84-9 35-9 22-4 10-4 53'S 116 184-8 79-4 546 115-5 81 77-6 1050-8 Owl ... ... ... ... ... ... M. 5776 61-5 1-1 25-8 25-4 12-5 10-4 2-4 16 37-5 60-6 28 33-5 47-6 32 34'2 428-5 Cuckoo ... ... ... ... M. 2091 108 3 7-5 83 6 2'3 15 7-4 12-1 18-1 12 5-8 7-6 3-2 4 106-9 Carrion crow ... ... M. 7885 72 1-8 425 40-3 252 26-2 5-7 27-1 51-9 80-9 42-6 30 52 30-3 29 556'9 Rook ... ... ... ... ... ... 6556 56'6 3'6 365 30'1 177 12-4 5-3 21-5 41-7 74 42-6 26-3 48-8 26-4 20-4 463-7 Rook ... ... ... ... . 8 ... 664 67-4 3-9 36'3 34'7 21'8 15-6 6 125-9 49-3 83-4 45-3 33-5 58-6 30'4 25 537-1 Jay ... ... ... ... ... ... F. 2538 30'5.6 13'3 108 ' 5-2 3'9 1 7-5 11-5 18 8-4 98 167 10 5 152-2 Jackdaw ... ... ... M. 3900 40'5 13 19 20 128 81 3 14-4 24-1 36-1 24-4 14-8 27-3 14-5 12-2 272-5 Common fowl ... ... F. 24851 57-4 1 121 195 97 51 11-4 77'6 101'2 100-8 60 1568 217'6 115-3 74'8 1438-7 Woodcock ... ... ... M. 4198 30-5 -3 19'4 23 22-5 5-3 4-1 16'2 39'9 32-4 205 202 25'6 11-1 9 280-1 Blackbird ... ... ... M. 1668 10'4 -25 6-7 6-7 4'3 1-2 1 5-3 9-7 9 5-3 5-8 8-8 43 26 81-3 Skylark ... ... ... ... M. 657 4-2 12 2-8 2 1.5 21 2-6 5-6 3-1 1-4 2-8 18 1-2 33-2 Woodlark ... ... ... F. 493 3-6 1 1-9 17 15 '8 3 1-2 2-3 3-5 22 12 1-4 7 24-2 Titlark ... ... ... ... F. 368 2-6 -04 2-3 2-3 832 1-28 1-86 2-2 1-4 72 1'8 5 20-2 Water-ouzel ... ... ... . 873 6-3 -15 4-S 5'1 2-5 1 ' -6 '6 2 4-2 42 2'4 22 5-1 3-4 1-8 46-9 Little sandpiper ... ... 629 4'2 '09 3 2'3 2-5 -8 '2 1'5 44 44 4 2-9 1-6 2-9 19 1'5 36-6 Yellow-hammer ... ... 365 3'4 08 1 15 1-3 5I1 2-6 2-4 1-6 1 1-5 *8 4 19.9 Bullfinch ... ... ... M. 367 3-8 ... 1-3 11 '8 '3 '2 18 1'8 1-7 1-2 66 1-2 '75 -24 15-8 Greenfinch ... ... ... M. 388 6-7 ... 13 1-5 1-4 '6 '2 1-6 22 1-4 '8 1-3 '6.4 22 Sparrow ... ... ... ... M. 421 7'05 '14 2 1-7 1-4 9.3 -45 2-4 2-1 1-3 12 1-9 83 25-4 Sparrow ... ... ... ..F . 428 5-5 '13 1-6 1-5 1-2 83 1-4 2 1-7 11 1-06 1-8 93 21-3 Stone-chat ... ... . . M. 347 3-2 1 1-5 1-5 11 73 1-4 2-3 2-8 1-6 11 2-2 1-2 4 21-4 Blackcap ... ... ... ... M. 273 2-3 '03 1'1 1'1 '6 -'2 '1 -65 1 1-2 7 -65 1-3 68 -2 12-48 Blue tit ... ... ... ... M. 273 2-3 -03.7.7 '4 -2 '04 -4 '6 -85 -5 45.7 *46 '2 8-93 Swift ... ... ... ... . F. 784-3 4-2 -20 33 3-7 3-4 1-2 -50 2-4 3'7 4-30 6-8 1-70 24 9 -8 395 Swallow ... ... ... ... F. 321-8 1-9 -06 1-3 1-3 18 -24 132 2-1 2-4 2-2 -5.7.3.1 ? ? 16-1 Martin ... F ... . . F. 301 1-9 -04 1'15 115 1 '7 -23 12 2-1 1'8 48 -6 '3 '05 14-6 Sand-martin ... ... F. 201-5 1-35 -02 '6 8S '65 '3 -14 '7 1-2 1-5 1-2 '3 '5 -2 '04 ? ? 9-48 The results given in the preceding Table may justifythe remark , --a conclusion that might be anticipated , that generally the comparative weight of the bones of each species of birds bears a relation to the power exercised by the limbs on parts to which they belong ; of this striking examples are afforded in the instances of the upper and lower extremities of the buzzard and common fowl ; of the one , the buzzard , a bird of powerful flight , the wing-bones are proportionally the heaviest ; whilst of the other , the fowl , which makes so little use of its wings and so much use of its legs , the opposite is the case ; and other contrasts not less striking are noticeable . Also , as might be anticipated , and in accordance with what was before observed of the feathers , the primates of each wing , the weight of the bones of each was found to be nearly the same , the difference being no greater than might be expected from the mode of preparing them . 4th . Of the Composition of some of the principal bones.-This was ascertained by calcination , by which merely the proportion of animal or combustible matter was determined and that of the incombustible , chiefly phosphate of lime . I shall first give the results of the trials on humeri and femora : in each instance the shafts of these bones were selected ; and previously to a thorough drying over steam , they were deprived of their investing membrane internally as well as externally . Though the quantities employed did not exceed a few grains , and were even less than a grain from some of the smaller birds , yet as the weighing was carefully made to the one hundredth of a grain , the risults may be received as tolerably reliable for comparison . IIumerus . Femur . Phosphate Animal Phosphate Animal of lime . matter . of lime . matter . grs. grs. grs. grs. Buzzard ... ... ... ... . . 69-53 30-47 68-80 31-20 Owl ... ... ... ... ... . . 68 50 31-50 71-20 28-80 Rook ... ... ... ... ... 69 20 30-80 70-70 29-30 Jackdaw ... ... ... ... ... 70'30 29'70 71-30 28-70 Grouse ... ... ... ... ... ... 67'70 32-30 71-40 28-60 Common fowl ( cock 7022 2978 71-40 28-60 two years old ... ... J Pigeon ... ... ... ... ... ... . 74-70 25-30 73'40 26-60 Skylark ... ... ... ... . 77-00 23-00 72-00 28-00 Blackbird ... ... ... ... ... 71-60 28-40 76-20 23-40 Water-ouzel ... ... ... ... 71-10 28-80 71-90 28-10 Sparrow ... ... ... ... ... . 70-70 29-30 72-50 27-50 Woodcock ... ... ... ... ... 72-80 27-20 73-23 26-77 Guillemot ... ... ... ... ... 70'10 29-90 67-60 32-40 If inferences may be drawn from these results , they seem to favour the conclusion , first , that the proportion of phosphate of lime is somewhat greater in the bones of birds , the cylindrical of the extremities , than in the like bones of the Mammalia ; and secondly , that the composition of those containing air and of those containing marrow is much the same , which is not 453 in accordance with a statement that has been made , that the former have a larger proportion of earthy constituents * . It may generally be stated , I believe , that the composition and structure of each particular bone has relation to its function , -that where unyielding resistance is required , there , cceteris paribus , the proportion of phosphate of lime is largest , as witnessed in the majority of the long bones of the extremities ; that where yielding and elasticity are needed , the proportion of animal matter is somewhat more considerable , as seen in the sternum , cranium , ribs , and maxilla . Also it may be generally stated , I believe , that in different species of the same family or genus of birds , the composition of corresponding bones varies comparatively little ; and that where there is a variation , it too is connected with use , irrespective of size . And the same remark , I am disposed to infer , would be near the truth relative to the proportional weight of the bones in different species . The following results are offered in illustration . First , of the cranium . covering the cerebrum . Buzzard ... ... . . Carrion crow ... . . Rook ... ... . Jackdaw ... ... Magpie ... ... ... Owl ... ... . . Common fowl . Common duck ... . Woodcock ... ... . Skylark ... ... ... . Blue tit ... ... ... . Water-ouzel ... ... Godwit , bar-tailed . Dunlin ... ... ... The portion subjected to calcination was that grs. grs. 60'7 phosphate of lime , 39'3 animal matter . 59-5 60-1 59.5 60-0 57-4 60'0 60-0 58-2 63-0 58'0 57-5 60-0 67-0 40-5 39-9 40'5 11 , , 40-0 42-6 40-0 , , )40-0 , , 41-8 47-0 42-0 42-5 40-0 , , 933-0 Of the above , some of the crania were cellular , others were compact , sinking in water . The crania of the owl and water-ouzel , as already mentioned , are extreme examples , and yet their proportion of phosphate of lime and animal matter is much the same , both conditions of bone , the very cellular structure of the one , and the compact structure of the other without cells , being suitable to the habits of the individual , in the owl , great strength with lightness ; in the water-ouzel , strength with a comparatively high specific gravity . The following is the composition of the sternum of a few of the same birds , illustrative of the quality of lightness coupled with a considerable degree of yieldingness , which in the moist bone is very observable . The Op. cit. p. 69 . [ 1865 . 454 perpendicularity of the crest or keel of this bone , I may remark , is very characteristic of the equality of action of the great pectoral muscles attached to it . grs. grs. Buzzard ... ... ... . 55 phosphate of lime , 45 animal matter . Stork ... ... ... ... 54 , , 46 ; Carrion crow ... ... 54 , , 46 Jackdaw ... ... . . 55 , , 45 Skylark ... ... ... . 58 , , 42 The composition of the maxille of a very few birds is given illustrative of the same quality . The lower jaw has been selected , and it has been divided , its anterior portion deprived of its horny integuments ; its posterior , including its head , have been taken for the sake of comparison , the one being more elastic than the other . Phosphate Animal Phosphate Animal of lime . matter . of lime . matter . grs. grs. grs. grs. Buzzard . Anterior portion 64'8 35'2 Posterior 67'0 43'0 Song-thrush . , , 56-3 43-7 , , 591 40-9 Carrion crow . , 52-1 479 , , 56-8 43'2 Godwit ... , , 64-8 35'2 , , 6 70 33-0* Here I would beg to offer a few remarks more on the subject of the bones of birds . It is stated , and by so high an authority as Professor Wagner , that their hollow bones are whiter than those filled with marrow . Generally this is a fact , and for the reason that , being translucent , the latter owe their colour to the marrow within them . Accordingly their colour varies with the colour of the marrow . Thus in some in which the marrow is of a light hue , almost white , as in the instance of the tawny owl , its ulnae and radii are so white as to suggest their containing air . In another ( the yellow-hammer ) , in which the marrow is of a bright yellow , as is also the fat , the long bones have the same hue . The same hue is seen in the bones of the cuckoo , and from the same cause , and also , but in a less degree , in those of the greenfinch . Nor are there wanting examples of a dark colour of the bones , from a dark colour of the marrow : those of the little sandpiper may be mentioned as an instance . Generally it may be remarked that the femora are darker than the humeri ; and that the lower portion of the tibime is very much lighter than their upper , corresponding to the colour of the marrow in each . Another circumstance influencing the colour of the bones of birds is the degree of thickness of their walls . The thicker they are , the less translucent they are , and consequently the lighter is the colour , being less affected thereby by that of their contents . The long bones of the common guillemot , and also of the corn-crake , the parietes of which , especially of the wing-bones , are more than ordinarily thick , may be mentioned as illustrative examples . In a preceding part of this paper I have referred to the size of some of the more important organs of birds . In many instances I have ascertained their weights . As examples , those of five different species are selected , and I give them without comment . 1 . Tawny owl . Weight 5776 grs. April 7 . grs. Brains , its membranes detached ... ... ... ... ... . 139 Eye freed from muscle and fat ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 91 Lens ( '58 inch diameter ) ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 19'6 Skin freed from most of its fat ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 250 Membranous stomach ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 115 Liver without gall-bladder ... ... ... . . 154'7 Spleen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4-6 Pancreas ... ... ... ... ... 9.5 Kidneys ... ... 57-7 One lung , it contained a little coagulated blood ... ... . . 13*2 Heart freed from fat ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... , . 39 Testes ( no spermatozoa could be detected in them ) ... . 2*5 Great pectoral muscles ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 634 Other muscles of chest , those attached to furcula and scapular arch , exterior of costal ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 198 Muscles of humeri ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 188 Muscles of ulnae and radii ... ... ... ... ... . 156 Muscles of femora ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 272 Muscles of tibie ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 346 2 . Rook . Weight 6556 grs. April 19 . Brain freed from its membranes ... ... ... ... ... . 118'6 Eye formed from musle and fat * ... ... ... ... ... ... . 41 Skin , exclusive of that of tarsi and phalanges , or very little fat adhering ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 344 Gizzard ... ... ... ... ... .2 ... ... ... ... . . 208 Liver , gall-bladder detached ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 167 Spleen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8 ... ... . 2 Pancreas ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 23-2 Kidneys ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 72'6 grs. One lung ; it contained a very little clot ... ... ... ... ... 46 The other ; it contained a little more * ... ... ... ... ... . 49 Heart freed from fat ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 77 Testis , spermatozoa were abundant in its ducts ... ... . . 67 Glandula uropygii t ... ... ... ... . . 10 7 Great pectoral muscles.960 Muscles attached to scapular arch and bones of wings ... 493 Ditto , of lower extremities ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 680 3 . Common fowl , a hen . Weight 24,851 grs. Brain..53 Eye ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 30 One lung ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 53 The other ; it contained a little clot ... ... ... ... ... ... 60 Gizzard ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 466 Spleen. . 27 Pancreas ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 36 Kidneys ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 181 4 . Swallow , female . Weight 321-8 grs. May 5 . Brain ... ... . . 8 Heart ... ... 4-6 Liver ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 17'8 One lung ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 17 Stomach ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 8 Pancreas ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... '3 Spleen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... '5 Kidneys ' ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 6-6 Great pectoral muscles. . 75 5 . Cuckoo . Weight 2091 grs. May 3rd . B rain ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26-3 E ye ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 29 L ens ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 2'3 L iver ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 34'7 Spleen ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . *7 Pancreas ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... I6 K idneys ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 18 Stom ach ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 33-2 T estis ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1-3

112168

3701662

Synthetical Researches upon Ethers.--Synthesis of Ethers from Acetic Ethers. [Abstract]

458

464

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

E. Frankland|B. F. Duppa

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112168

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112168

Chemistry 2

Chemistry 1

Chemistry

I. " Synthetical Researches upon Ethers.-Synthesis of Ethers from Acetic Ethers . " By E. FaANKLAND , F.R.S. , Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution of Great Britain , and in the Royal School of Mines , and B. F. DUPPA , Esq. Received July 13 , 1865 . ( Abstract . ) In a recent note * we have briefly described the synthesis of butyric and diethacetic ethers by acting consecutively upon acetic ether with sodium and the iodide of ethyl . In the present paper we have the honour to lay before the Royal Society the detailed results of one section of this research , embracing the action of sodium and the iodides of methyl , ethyl , and amyl upon acetic ether . I. Action of Sodium and Ethyl Iodide upon Acetic Ether . When acetic ether is treated with sodium at a temperature gradually rising to 120 ? C. , hydrogen is evolved , and a thick brownish liquid produced ; the latter solidifies on cooling to a yellowish mass , presenting the appearance of beeswax . On digesting this solid mass with ethylic iodide at 100 ? C. for several hours , a number of products are formed , which on the addition of water , may be distilled off from a residue consisting chiefly of iodide of sodium . The distillate can readily be separated into an aqueous and an oily portion . The latter then presented the appearance of a light straw-coloured oil , possessing a pleasant and fragrant odour . It was washed and then dried over chloride of calcium , and submitted to fractional distillation , by which traces of alcohol , acetic ether , and ethyl iodide were effectually removed from the other products , which now boiled between 120 ? and 265 ? C. We have described the constituents of this complex liquid under two distinct heads , viz.:1st . Products depending upon the duplication of the atom of acetic ether . 2nd . Products derived from the replacement of hydrogen in the methyl of acetic ether by the alcohol-radicals . In orde.r successfully to separate the two products from each other , and especially to disentangle their constituent compounds , it is absolutely necessary to operate upon large quantities of material . But if this be done , there is obtained a considerable quantity of the products of the first division boiling between 204 ? and 208 ? , whilst the products of the second division boil considerably below these temperatures . a. Examination of the products depending upon the duplication of the atom of acetic ether . Submitted to analysis , this liquid was found to consist of two bodies of the formulae Clo H18 03 , and C , H1043 , separable from each other by repeated rectification , and also by the action of boiling aqueous potash , which decomposes the second but scarcely affects the first . From the results of the analysis , and from considerations which are fully entered into in the paper , we propose for these bodies the following names and formulae : ( 'H3 I CI Ethylic dethacetone carbonate ... .0 ( CH 1 ! 1 to C2 2-I The production of ethylic diethacetone carbonate is explained in the following equations : rh2 113 O/ C , 0311 20( o " +Na=l Na2 0+i2 0 05he6r 0 Alcohol . Acetic ether . O0H C , , < Na2a + 202 15 TI=C4 ( Cs s)2Na I I0o0 " 2(O O C2 H " ZEthiylic dietiacetone carbonate . Ethylic diethacetone carbonate is a colourless and somewhat oily liquid , possessing a fragrant odour and a pungent taste . It is insoluble in water , but miscible in all proportions with alcohol and ether . Its specific gravity is 9738 at 200 C. It boils between 2100 and 2120 , and distils unchanged . 2M2 1865 . ] Researches on Ethers . 459 The density of its vapour was found to be 6'59 . The above formula , corresponding to two volumes , requires the number 6'43 . Boiling aqueous solutions of potash and soda have scarcely any action on ethylic diethacetone carbonate , but baryta-water and lime-water decompose it with great facility , as do also boiling alcoholic solutions of potash and soda . In all cases a carbonate of the base is precipitated , and alcohol , together with a light ethereal liquid , is separated . This liquid , freed from alcohol by repeated washing with salt and water , boiled , after drying over chloride of calcium , between 137 ? '5 and 139 ? C. Submitted to analysis , it yielded results corresponding with the formula C , H,1 0 . We regard this body as diethylated acetone . Its formula and its relations to acetone may be thus expressed : CH3 C Et2 HC MeO C MeO Acetone . Diethylated acetone . Diethvlated acetone is produced from ethylic diethacetone carbonate by the action of alcoholic potash according to the following equation : r11H~~~~3 T ~H I _ ? " fo f-t3 C4K ( C , H)2+2K H 0=C K+C2H5 O +C.3 ( 1 1o0K Alcohol . II 1 , o C2 H5 Potassium Ethylic diethacetone carbonate . Diethylated carbonate . acetone . Diethylated acetone is a colourless , transparent and mobile liquid , possessing a penetrating odour of camphor , and the burning and bitter after-taste of the same substance . It is very slightly soluble in water , but miscible in all proportions with alcohol and ether . Its specific gravity is '8171 at 22 ? C. It boils at 137 ? '5 to 139 ? C. A determination of its vapour-density gave the number 3'86 , the above formula requiring 3*93 . Diethylated acetone does not oxidize in the air , neither does it reduce ammoniacal solution of nitrate of silver when boiled with it . Mixed with concentrated solution of sodium bisulphite , it forms an oily compound which scarcely exhibits signs of crystallization at 0 ? C. It suffers no alteration by prolonged boiling with alcoholic potash . It is isomeric with butyrone , with a ketone obtained by Fittig Ethylic ethacetone carbonate is produced by the action of sodium and ethylic iodide upon acetic ether , according to the following equations : fH3 { C2 2115 OC2 tH Acetic eth I ' +Na=C Na +C ler . O C2 H Ethylie sodacetone carbonate . 21 H10 H +H Alcohol . 3 I3 AH3 C Na +C , , I=C , C H2a +Na I. ! ( o7 Iq Na O'0 ( O C2 , H ( O C2 HI Ethylie sodacetone Ethylic ethacetone carbonate . carbonate . Ethylic ethacetone carbonate is a colourless and transparent liquid , pos . sessing a very fragrant odour and an aromatic taste . It is nearly insoluble in water , but miscible in all proportions with alcohol and ether . Its density in the liquid condition is 9834 at 16 ? C. It boils at 195 ? C. , and distils without decomposition . A determination of its vapour-density gave the number 5-36 . The above formula requires 5-45 . Ethylic ethacetone carbonate is readily attacked by boiling aqueous solutions of potash and soda , yielding carbonates of these bases , alcohol , and ethylated acetone , according to the following equation : rH3 0 " p0 " rC42 H5 +2K H O=C OK +C 2H OH ? C3 -e 1 , |(2 5 E1K Alcohol . 1yt kO C , H15 Ethylated Ethylic ethacetone acetone . carbonate . Ethylic ethacetone carbonate is still more readily decomposed by aqueous solution of baryta and by alcoholic potash , in both cases ethylated acetone and a carbonate of the base is produced . Ethylated acetone may be freed from alcohol by repeated washing with salt and water , but it is best obtained in a state of absolute purity by combination with , and subsequent separation from , bisulphite of soda . Ethylated acetone thus purified and rectified from quicklime yielded on analysis numbers agreeing well with the formula C,.5 HloO , which may be reduced to the radical type as follows : r 3rC 113 O Of " o_C Et H 3{jr11 7 jK0 1{CMeO Its relations to acetone and diethylated acetone are then clearly seen in the following formula , c 0H3 C Et H,2 C Et , 11 CMe CMeO CeCMeO Acetone . Etllylateed Diethylated acetone . acetone . Ethylated acetone is a colourless , transparent and very mobile liquid , possessing a powerful and pleasant odour , in which that of camphor is slightly perceptible . Its specific gravity is -8132 at 13 ? C. , and '8046 at 22 ? C. It boils steadily at 101 ? '5 , and its vapour has the density 2-951 , the above formula requiring 2'971 . Ethylated acetone neither absorbs oxygen from the air , nor reduces ammoniacal solutions of silver . It yields with concentrated solutions of bisulphite of soda a compound in large and brilliant crystals , which are quite permanent in the air , and which at once distingush it from diethylated acetone , the latter producing under the same circumstances an oily compound . Ethylated acetone is not altered by prolonged ebullition with alcoholic potash . 3 . Examination of the products derived from the replacement of hydrogen in the methyl of acetic ether by ethyl . The chief results of this examination are given in the note above alluded to * , and we have only to add that ethacetic acid is identical with butyric acid , whilst diethacetic acid is isomeric with caproic acid . II . Action of Sodium and Methylic Iodide upon Acetic Ether . This reaction is conducted in substantially the same manner as that above described , and the products are completely homologous . Thus there are produced two carboketonic ethers , and an ether derived from acetic ether by the substitution of methyl for hydrogen . The latter has been already described in our previous communication on this subject . The following are the names and formulae of the carboketonic ethers:(J3 I o " Ethylic dimethacetone carbonate. . C4 < ( C 11)2 ( -O C2 HE 0021[ . UTh Ethylic methacetone carbonate. . C iH ? o o , " Proceedings of Royal Society . vol. xiv . p. 198 . 46 The reactions involved in the production of these bodies are exactly similar to those by which the corresponding ethylic bodies are formed . Ethylic dimethacetone carbonate is a colourless , slightly oleaginous liquid , possessing a peculiar penetrating and pleasant odour , and a sharp burning taste . It is scarcely at all soluble in water , but readily so in alcohol and ether . Its specific gravity is -9913 at 16 ? C. It boils constantly at 184 ? C. , and distils unchanged . A determination of its vapour-density gave the number 5'36 , the above formula requiring 5'45 . Its remaining properties very closely resemble those of ethylic diethacetone carbonate . Boiled with baryta-water , it gives barium carbonate and dimethylated acetone , C Me 12 Dimethylated acetone is a colourless , transparent and very mobile liquid , possessing a pleasant odour , reminding at the same time of parsley and acetone . Its specific gravity is '8099 at 13 ? C. , and it boils at 93 ? -5 C. Its vapour-density is 2'92 , theory requiring 2-97 . Dimethylated acetone closely resembles its ethylic homologue in all.its chemical properties ; like diethylated acetone , it is oxidized with difficulty , and does not very readily form a crystalline compound with bisulphite of soda-differing in the latter respect markedly from its isomer , ethylated acetone , and also from methylated acetone described below . Ethylic dimethacetone carbonate and ethylic methacetone carbonate boil at the same temperature , and cannot therefore be separated by rectification ; but we have prepared and examined the ketone from the second of these bodies ; viz. methylated acetone , which has the formula { C Me H12 C Me O Methylated acetone is best obtained in a state of purity by combining it with bisulphite of soda , pressing the beautiful crystalline compound so formed between folds of blotting-paper to remove traces of dimethylated acetone , exposing it over sulphuric acid in vacuo , and then regenerating the methylated acetone by distillation with aqueous potash . The liquid so obtained , after drying over quicklime and rectification , gave analytical results corresponding with the above formula . Methylated acetone is a colourless , transparent and very mobile liquid , possessing an odour like chloroform , but more pungent . It is tolerably soluble in water , and more than slightly so in a saturated solution of common salt . Its specific gravity is '8125 at 13 ? C. It boils at 81 ? C. , and its vapour-density is 2'52 , the above formula requiring 2'49 . Methylated acetone is identical with the ethyl-acetyl obtained by Freund * in acting upon chloride of acetyl with zinc ethyl . Methylated acetone forms a splendidly crystalline compound with bisulphite of soda , and in its other chemical properties so closely resembles ethylated acetone as to require no further description . It retains alcohol with such tenacity as to render its separation from that liquid by washing and treatment with chloride of cal* Ann. Ch. Pharm. , vol. cxviii . p. 1 . 1865 . ] 463

112169

3701662

Researches on the Hydrocarbons of the Series C\lt;sub\gt;n\lt;/sub\gt;H\lt;sub\gt;2n+2\lt;/sub\gt; -- No. II

464

470

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

C. Schorlemmer

fla

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112169

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112169

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

III . Action of Sodium and Amyl Iodide upon Acetic Ether . For this reaction the compounds of sodium derived from acetic ether were prepared as before , and were then submitted to the action of amylic iodide for several hours at the boiling-point of the mixture . When the sodium had all become converted into iodide , water was added and the supernatant liquid decanted . We reserve a complete description of this liquid for our next communication , and will here confine ourselves to the separation from it of cenanthylic acid , which was obtained as follows:-The crude product , after drying over chloride of calcium , was submitted to rectification , and the portion boiling between 170 ? and 190 ? C. collected apart and decomposed by ebullition with alcoholic potash . By this treatment we destroyed any ethylic amylacetone carbonate and ethylic diamylacetone carbonate that were present , and obtained a potash-salt of an acid derived from acetic acid by the substitution of one atom of amyl for one of hydrogen . The potash-salt thus obtained was distilled with excess of sulphuric acid diluted with a large quantity of water . Upon the distillate there floated an oily acid , possessing an odour resembling cenanthylic acid . This acid was converted into an ammonia-salt , from which a silver-salt was prepared by precipitation . After being well washed with cold water , this salt yielded numbers on analysis closely corresponding with the formula of amylacetate or cenanthylate of silver : C H0 O Ag We have also examined the barium-salt , which is an amorphous soapy substance . Dried at 100 ? C. , *2715 grm. gave '1599 grm. of barium sulphate , corresponding to 34'62 per cent. of barium . Barium cenanthylate contains 34'69 per cent. of barium . We believe amylacetic acid to be identical with cenanthylic acid . The concluding portion of the paper is devoted to a discussion of the theoretical bearings of the reactions above described , and to the investigation of the internal architecture of the synthetically prepared ethers , acids , and ketones . II . " Researches on the Hydrocarbons of the Series C , H2 , +2."No . II . By C. SCHORLEMMIER , Esq. , Assistant in the Laboratory of Owens College , Manchester . Communicated by Prof. H. E. RoscoE . Received July 20 , 1865 . From my experiments communicated to the Royal Society on the 6th of April , 1865 , I concluded that the question , whether only one series of hydrocarbons of the general formula C , , I-T , ,+2 exists , or whether this [ Nov. 16 , 464 series exhibits cases of absolute isomerism , can only be definitely decided by obtaining from different sources perfectly pure hydrocarbons , having the same composition . But unfortunately only a few of the hydrocarbons can be obtained perfectly pure , and still fewer of these possessing the same composition can be derived from different sources . This is seen by a glance at the following Table , containing those alcohol-radicals and hydrides which have been obtained with certainty in a pure state . Boiling-points , Boiling-points . C2 I6 Methyl . Hydride of ethyl . C4 Ho , Ethyl . C H12 -Hydride of Amyl ... . 30 C6 H , E Ethyl-butyl ... ... . . 62 Hydride of hexyl *. . 695 C1 HE6 Ethyl-amyl ... ... ... . 90 ydride of heptyl. . 99 C8 H18 Butyl ... ... ... ... ..108 C9 HoI Butyl-amyl ... ... ..132 C1o H22 Amyl ... ... ... ... . 158 C12 1126 Ilexyl ( caproyl ) ... . 202 For the purpose of examining the question of the identity or the isomerism of these hydrocarbons , I selected methyl-hexyl and hydride of heptyl , obtained from azelaic acid , comparing the properties of these bodies with ethyl-amyl , as described in my last communication . ( 1 ) Methyl-hexyl . Methyl-hexyl ( methyl-caproyl ) has already been prepared by Wurtz by the electrolysis of a mixture of acetate and cenanthylate of potassium , but he has obtained it in a small quantity only , and in a very impure state . I adopted the same method , and am able to confirm all that Wurtz has stated . Although I employed several ounces of cenanthylate of potassium , only a very inconsiderable quantity of an aromatic oil was obtained , which , in order to isolate the hydrocarbon C7 H , , , was first distilled with concentrated sulphuric acid , by the action of which sulphurous acid was evolved and a black charry matter separated out . The oily distillate was well washed and further purified by means of nitric acid , caustic potash , and sodium , as described in my former papers , and then the small quantity of methyl-hexyl separated by fractional distillation from hcxyl , C,1 H26 , which latter hydrocarbon is formed in by far the greatest proportion . Methyl-hexyl boils at 89 ? -92 ? C. , and has the specific gravity 0-6789 at 19 ? C. The analysis gave the following numbers:0'2002 substance gave 0'6150 carbonic acid and 0'2900 water . Calculated . Found . C7 ... . . 84 83-78 H1 ... ... . 16 16'14 100 99'9 The quantity which I obtained was only sufficient for determining the boiling-point and the specific gravity , both of which nearly coincide with those of ethyl-amyl ; and although I could not investigate its reactions , I believe that these also will agree with those of ethyl-amyl , so that the two hydrocarbons appear to be identical . ( 2 ) Hydride of Heptyl from Azelaitc Acid . By C. SCHORLEMMER and R. S. DALE , B.A. One of us has shown that by heating a mixture of azelaic acid and caustic baryta to a dull red heat , an aromatic liquid is obtained , which chiefly consists of the hydrocarbon C7 IH . By oxidizing castor-oil with nitric acid on a large scale , one pound of pure azelaic acid was prepared , which yielded about one ounce of a hydrocarbon boiling between 95 ? and 100 ? . Subjected to fractional distillation , a small quantity of hydride of hexyl from the suberic acid , which still adhered to the azelaic acid , was separated , and now the liquid boiled constantly at 100 ? '5 C. ( corrected ) . The sp. gr. at 20 ? 05 C. was found to be 0-6840 . The determination of its vapour-density gave the following results : Balloon Jr air ... ... ... ... ... . 7'5660 Temperature of air ... ... ... 160'5 Balloon and vapour ... ... ... ... . . 7830 Temperature on sealing ... ... ... . 1400 Capacity of balloon ... ... ... ... . 115 5 cub. centims. Vapour density calculated . Found . 3-46 3-63 This hydrocarbon is very easily attacked by chlorine , the chloride C7 H,1 C1 being chiefly formed , together with a small quantity of higher chlorinated products . The chloride boils at 151 ? -153 ? C. , and has the specific gravity 0-8737 at 180 ? 5 . It is a colourless liquid , smelling exactly like the chloride obtained from ethyl-amyl . 0'3045 substance gave 0'3165 chloride of silver and 0'0045 of metallic silver . Calculated . Found . 26'40 per cent. C1 26-20 per cent Cl By heating this chloride with acetic acid and acetate of potassium in sealed tubes , heptylene and acetate of heptyl are formed . This decomposition goes on much quicker than in the case of the chloride from ethylamiyl ; and the proportions of the substances formed also differ , as only a very small quantity of heptylene is produced , and the chief product consists of the acetate , whilst the chlorides from ethyl-amyl and from petroleum yield these two substances in about equal quantities . The heptylene boils at 95 ? -97 ? , and has the specific gravity 017026 at 190'5 . The faint garlic-like smell is identical with that of the heptylene described in my last paper . 466 [ Nov. 16 , 0'1952 substance gave 0'6130 carbonic acid and 0'2510 water . Calculated . Found . C ... ... ... . 84 85-7 85-65 1l ... ... ... . 14 14-3 14-28 8 100 0 99.93 The acetate also has the same pear-like smell as the acetate from ethylamyl . It boils at 180 ? -182 ? , and has the specific gravity of 0-8605 at 16 ? . 0*2446 substance gave 0*6135 carbonic acid and 0'2540 water . Calculated . Found . C , ... ... ... 108 68-35 68'40 HI ... ... ... . 18 1139.11'53 02 ... . 32 20-26 158 100'00 From the acetate the alcohol was prepared by heating with a concentrated solution of caustic potash . Dried over caustic baryta , the alcohol boiled at 164 ? -167 ? . The specific gravity at 19 ? '5=0-8286 . Its odour cannot be distinguished from that of the alcohol from ethylamyl . By oxidizing it with chromic acid , first the odour of oenanthol is perceived , and then an oily acid is obtained , which by its smell , as well as the analysis of its silver-salt , was recognized as cenanthylic acid . 0*1205 of the silver-salt obtained by saturating the rectified acid distillate with carbonate of silver , gave 0-0551 of metallic silver , or 45 72 per cent. , the formula C , H13 Ag 0 , requiring 45-57 per cent. Ag . The annexed Table gives the boiling-points and specific gravities of the hydrocarbons C , H16 of different origin , and their derivatives . From these data , as well as from the experiments detailed in this and in my former papers , it appears that we meet here with examples of absolute isomerism , viz. compounds having the same percentage composition and the same constitutional formula ( A. Crum Brown ) , but differing from each other in their physical properties . This is not only the case with the hydrocarbons , but also , in a greater or less degree , with their derivatives . Ethyl-amyl and hydride of heptyl from azelaic acid , as well as the corresponding chlorides , were obtained in as pure a state as possible , and in pretty large quantities ; and although only small quantities of the acetate , alcohol , and olefine from the hydride were at our disposition , yet the greatest care was taken to obtain them pure , and all determination of the boiling-points and specific gravities were carried out under the same circumstances , the same thermometer always being used , so that they may be fairly compared with each other . of the Series C. H2n+2 . 1865.1 467 HIeptyl compounds derived from 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . MethylPetroleum . Ethyl-amyl . Azelaic acid . hexyl . c , Boil.-point 90 ? -920(98-990 ) 90 ? -910 1000.5 890-920 l Sp. gravity 0-7148 at 15 ? 0'6795 at 20 ? 0-6840 at 20 ? '5 0-6789 at 19 ? C.7 H4 { Boil.-point 950-97 ? ? 930-950 950-970 Sp. gravity 0-7383 at 17 ? -5 0-7060 at 12 ? 5 0-7026 at 19 ? 5 CH1f oil.-point 148 ? -150 ? ? 146 ? -148 ? ? 151 ? -153 ? ? 7 i5\ Sp. gravity 0-8965 at 19 ? 0'8780 at 18 ? -5 0-8737 at 18 ? 05 pH f Boil.-point 164 ? -165 ? ? 163 ? -165 ? ? 164 ? -167 ? C7 11 l ISp . gravity 0-8479 at 16 ? 0'8291 at 13 ? '5 0'8286 at 19 ? 5 C7 H10r Boil.-point 179 ? -181 ? ? 178 ? -180 ? ? 180 ? -]82 ? C,2HO Jl Sp. gravity 0-8865 at 190 ? 0-8707 at 16 ? -5 0-8605 at 16 ? C. M. Warren has lately published * an investigation on the hydrocarbons contained in the American petroleum , which he isolated according to a new method of fractional condensation . He states that the petroleum contains two series of the hydrocarbons C H2,1+2 , the isomeric pairs of which show a difference in their boiling-points of 7 ? -8 ? . Some of the results which I have formerly obtained tend to confirm this view . Frankland , Wurtz , Pelouze , and Cahours found 30 ? as the boiling-point of hydride of amyl ; the hydrocarbons of the same composition , which I isolated from the light oils obtained from Cannel coal , boils constantly between 39 ? and 40 ? . The hydride of heptyl obtained from the same source boiled at 98 ? -99 ? , and the same hydrocarbon I found in American petroleum , whilst Pelouze and Cahours give 92 ? -94 ? as the boiling-point ; and in my last communication I have quoted some experiments made by Mr. Wright , who found that from that part of American petroleum which boils between 95 ? -100 ? a considerable quantity of a hydrocarbon , C7 H6 ) , may be obtained which boils constantly at 90 ? -92 ? . These latter hydrocarbons and their derivatives show , even after repeated rectification , higher specific gravities than the isomeric alcohol-radicals and the hydrocarbons from azelaic acid . Thus it appears that bodies showing a purely physical isomerism are as numerous in the marsh-gas family as in the case of the terpines , C1 , H1 . In order to complete this investigation , I intended to study in the same manner the hydrocarbons C , H4 , , namely hydride of hexyl from suberic acid , methyl-amyl , and , if possible , ethyl-butyl ; but this intention could not be carried out , as I could not succeed in preparing methyl-amyl . This hydrocarbon appears not to be formed by any of the methods which are employed to prepare the so-called mixed alcohol-radicals . A mixture of the iodides of methyl and amyl is exceedingly slowly attacked by sodium . The boiling-point of the mixture is below the fusing-point of sodium , and the metal soon becomes coated with a hard crust of iodide of sodium . added , therefore , a sufficient quantity of pure amyl to raise the boiling point , but even the sodium in the fused state acts very slowly , a considerable quantity of gaseous products being evolved . After the mixture had been heated for a week , large quantities of the iodides were still present , and after destroying these by strong nitric acid , the remaining hydrocarbon was found to be pure amyl . No better results were obtained by adding anhydrous ether to the mixture . The action in the cold is exceedingly slow ; heated in sealed tubes , the iodides are soon decomposed ; but besides gaseous prodlcts , only amyl , and not a trace of a mixed radical , is formed . Besides hydride of heptyl , other products are formed by the action of caustic baryta upon azelaic acid . Of those only one could be obtained in a pure state . If the aromatic liquid which is first obtained is distilled with water , hydride of heptyl chiefly distils , and a brown oily liquid remains behind , which , after cooling , solidifies to a crystalline mass containing a brown aromatic oil which may be removed from the crystagls by pressing between blotting-paper . The solid substance is repeatedly recrystallized from hot diluted alcohol , in which the still adhering oil is very slightly soluble . The pure substance is thus obtained in small colourless needles , which are grouped in tufts . It is odourless and tasteless , very soluble in ether and in alcohol , insoluble in water , melts between 41 ? and 42 ? , solidifies again at 40 ? , and distils between 283o--285 ? ( not corrected ) without decomposition . The following analysis shows that it has the formula Cn H22 . 0'2480 substance gave 0'7800 carbonic acid and 0'3215 water . Calculated . Found . C ... ... ... . . 857 85-77 , ... ... ... ... 143 14-40 100.0 100i 17 The quantity obtained was not sufficient to determine the vapour-density . If this olefine is suspended in water and bromine added , not in excess , the two substances combine readily to a colourless oily liquid , the odour of which resembles bibromide of ethylene . It cannot be distilled without decomposition , and appears even to be decomposed by a diluted solution of caustic soda , as a small portion thus treated in order to remove an excess of bromine changed its odour completely . By an unfortunate accident the whole of the bromide was lost , with the exception of the portion treated with caustic soda . This was washed with water , dissolved in ether , and the ethereal solution dried with chloride of calcium . After evaporating the ether and drying the remaining small quantity of heavy yellow oil over sulphuric acid under the air-pump , only just sufficient was left to determine the bromine . 0-1500 gave 0-0736 of bromide of silver , and 0-0102 of metallic silver , corresponding to 25-8 per cent. of bromine . From the boiling point of the olefine it appears that its molecular formula is most likely C6 , ,-32 ; and if bromine forms the bibromide , C , , H32 Br , , from which by the action of caustic soda H Br is abstracted , the compound analyzed would be C , , H , Br , which formula requires 26-4 per cent. of bromine , whilst the analysis gave 25'8 per cent. ; the hydrocarbon would then be an isomer of cetene .

112170

3701662

On the Laws of Connexion between the Conditions of a Chemical Change and Its Amount. [Abstract]

470

474

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. Vernon Harcourt|W. Esson

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112170

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112170

Chemistry 2

Tables

Chemistry

III . " On the Laws of Connexion between the conditions of a chemical Change and its Amount . " By A. VERNON HARCOunT and W. EssoN . Communicated by Sir B. C. BRODIE , Bart. , F.R.S. Received September 5 , 1865 . ( Abstract . ) The amount of a chemical change under any conditions which allow of its completion , depends ultimately upon the amount of that one of the substances partaking in it which is presevrt in the smallest proportional quantity . But if the change be arrested before any one of the reagents is exhausted , its amount depends upon the conditions under which it has occurred . These conditions , in the simplest cases , are the quantity of the several reagents , their temperature , and the time during which they have been in contact . The laws of connexion between these conditions of a chemical change and its amount are the subject of an investigation upon which the authors have entered . An account of the first stage of this investigation is contained in the present paper . Although every chemical change is undoubtedly governed by certain general laws relating to the conditions under which it occurs , the number of cases in which the investigation of these laws is possible is extremely limited . For it is requisite both that the amount of change should be readily estimated , and also that all the conditions affecting it should be susceptible of measurement and of such independent variations as must be made in order to determine the separate influence of each . The first reaction chosen for investigation was that of permanganic acid upon oxalic acid . It is well known that when a solution of potassic permanganate is added to a solution containing an excess of oxalic acid and sulphuric acid , a change takes place which in its final result is represented by the following equation : K2 Mn2 0+3 -I2 SO4 +5 H , C2 04O= S4 + 2MnSO + 10 C02 + 8H10 . This reaction occurs at the ordinary temperature ; it is thus comparatively easy to keep the temperature of the solution absolutely constant during its progress . It occupies , under a due arrangement of other conditions , a convenient interval of time , and can be started and terminated at a given moment . The reagents are readily obtained in a state of purity , and can be accurately divided and measured as liquids . Lastly , no other condition besides those named affects the result : when each of these is fixed , the amount of change observed in successive experiments is always the same . Nevertheless this reaction , as appeared in the course of its investigation , is 470 [ Nov. 16 , not well adapted to the purpose in view . It is not chemically simple . More than one change occurs under the circumstances of the experiment , and the equation above written represents only a net result . But the examination of a second and simpler reaction in which the authors are at present engaged , has confirmed an explanation which had already suggested itself to them of the results of this series of experiments , and thus they are now enabled to present these results together with a theory which explains and is supported by them . The effect of varying the amount of each of the reagents and the duration of the action was successively investigated . The remaining condition of temperature was not made the subject of experiment , owing to the discovery of the complex nature of the chemical change . A series of Tables contain the numerical results of these experiments . The principal complication arises from a secondary reaction which takes place between permanganic acid and the manganous salt formed by its reduction . It became necessary , in consequence of this action , to include manganous sulphate among the reagents the effect of whose variation was to be determined . The general method of experimenting was briefly as follows:-Measured quantities of the standard solutions of oxalic acid , sulphuric acid , and manganous sulphate were mixed with a measured quantity of water and the whole brought to a temperature of 16 ? C. A measured quantity of a standard solution of potassic permanganate was added , and the time of the addition noted . Throughout the course of the action the temperature , observed by means of a thermometer passing into the fluid , was kept rigorously constant . When the required interval had elapsed , an excess of potassic iodide was thrown in , and the liberated iodine , which furnishes an exact measure of the residual permanganic acid or manganic oxide , estimated by meanls of a standard solution of sodic hyposulphite . The amount of chemical change occurring in any given time with any given amounts of the several reagents can thus be determined . 1 . Variation of Sulphuric Acid.-Each experiment of this series was allowed to proceed for four minutes . Oxalic acid and potassic permanganate were employed in the proportions in which they act one upon another . The quantity of sulphuric acid was varied from the proportional quantity up to seven times that amount . A regular increase in the amount of chemical change within the allotted time occurs with each increment of sulphuric acid . The relation of these quantities , which formed the subject of many series of experiments , is , however , of a complex character . Two or three reactions , it is shown , occur simultaneously , and each of these is influenced by the acidity of the solution . 2 . Variation of Manganous Sulphate.--At the ordinary temperature in a dilute and feebly acid solution , perman'ganic acid acts very slowly upon oxalic acid , but the presence of a manganous salt , formed by its reduction or previously added , causes a great acceleration . This acceleration is shown to reach a maximum when three molecules of manganous sulphate are taken to one of permanganate . By the reaction of these quantities man1865 . ] Laws of Connexion , ec . 471 ganic binoxide is formed according to the equation K2 Mn , +3 MnSO , +2 K , SO , +2 H2 SO , +5 MnO , . 3 . Variation of Oxalic Acid.-The results obtaiued in this series of experiments are at first sight paradoxical . The quantity of permanganate reduced in three minutes , which was the time allowed to each experiment , increases with the proportion of oxalic acid up to a certain point ; it then diminishes until another point is reached , after which further additions of oxalic acid produce again a very gradual acceleration . The result is the same whether only oxalic acid , potassic permanganate and manganous sulphate are taken , or whether sulphuric acid is added to these . The maximum action occurs with five molecules of oxalic acid and one of permanganate , that is with proportional quantities . The second and constant minimum is nearly attained with ten molecules of oxalic acid . Probably the manganic binoxide formed by the reaction of manganous sulphate and potassic permanganate combines with an excess of oxalic acid to form a compound whose decomposition proceeds more slowly than the action of free binoxide upon it . The conditions of the minimum action may be thus represented:1 . MnO2+ 2H2 C2 04==MnC 08 +2 H2 0 . 2 . MnC , O= MnC20 , + 2CO2 . There is found in the first instance a clear brown solution , the colour of which slowly fades . 4 . Variation of the Time.-If it were possible for all other conditions of a chemical change to remain constant , if , for example , the substances reacting could be added in proportion as they disappeared , and those formed either were without influence or could be removed , the effect of a variation of time might be confidently predicted . In such a case the total amount of chemical change would be directly proportional to the duration of the action . But when one or more of the substances diminishes in quantity as the change proceeds , the relation is no longer of this simple character . Experiments upon this relation form the remaining and chief part of this inquiry . Each experiment of a series exactly resembled every other except in the time allowed to elapse before the action was interrupted . And thus each series may be regarded as exhiblting the course of a single experiment , and showing how much of the active substances still remain at any time from its commencement . In the earlier series the reagents were employed in proportional quantities , and it was observed that for most of the determinations the product of the number expressing the duration of the action and of the number expressing the amonnt of active substance still remaining , is a constant quantity . The first stages of the action exhibit , however , a divergence from this law . This divergence is explained by reference to the simultaneous occurrence of two gradual actions , that in which manganic binoxide is formed and that in which it is reduced . The inverse proportionality of the residue to the duration of the action when two substances present in 472 [ Nov. 16 , proportional quantities are destroying one another , is shown to follow from a law the generality of which the authors hope to establish-namely , that the total amount of chemical change varies directly with the amount of each of the substances partaking in it . In the later series of experiments the necessary condition , that the ratio of the reagents should remain constant throughout the action , was fulfilled by taking all but one of them in great excess as compared with that one . Under these circumstances a single substance gradually disappears , all around it remaining unchanged ; and according to the law above enunciated , the total amount of change occurring at any moment is proportional to the quantity of substance then remaining . It is shown that if this be the case , the numbers representing the amounts of residue after equal intervals of time should form a series in geometric progression . This relation is actually exhibited by some of the experimental series ; but the greater number of them do not conform to it . The reason of this is to be found in the fact that more than one reaction occurs under the circumstances of these experiments , and that it is only possible to measure the total effect , Experiments upon the solution in which the gradual oxidation of oxalic acid has taken place are adduced to show that some other oxidized product besides carbonic acid is formed , and it is inferred that more than one agent takes part in its oxidation . Also the facility with which hydrated peroxide of manganese reacts with dilute sulphuric acid and manganous sulphate to form a solution of mangano-manganic sulphate renders it probable that this salt is produced in the experiment . With an excess of oxalic acid and manganous sulphate the red colour of potassic permanganate disappears as soon as this salt is added to the mixture . The formation of manganic binoxide appears to be instantaneous . It finds itself in presence of two substances , both of which act gradually upon it-oxalic acid and manganous sulphate , the latter producing an intermediate oxide , probably the protosesquioxide , which is also reducible byoxalic acid . It is possible that other oxides besides these may be formed ; but it is almost certain , from the experimental results , that the action is not more simple than this . At the end of each experiment both or all of these oxides are alike instantaneously reduced by hydriodic acid and thus measured conjointly . Finally it is shown that an equation may be constructed embodying this hypothesis , and that all the series of experimental numbers may be expressed by equations of this form . The paper concludes with a mathematical discussion , by Mr. Esson , of various points in the theory of this action . An outline of his statement is here appended . When a single substance is undergoing chemical transformation under constant conditions , it is shown by experiment that the law of connexion between y , the quantity of substance remaining unchanged , and x , the time during which the change has been proceeding , is y=a'x ; where a is the quantity of substance present at the beginning of the change , and aa con Ostant which depends upon the conditions under which the change takes place . From this equation is derived die ocydx , which expresses the fact that the amount of change varies directly with the time and with the quantity of substance . Cases of complex chemical change can be investigated by the application of this general law . When two substances are reacting in proportional quantities , the amount of change is proportional to the amount of each , and the equation for determining the character of the reaction is die czy2dx , or -= _ where a is the quantity of substance present at the beginning of the change . If a is very large , the equation reduces to xy=b , i. e. the quantity of substance remaining unchanged varies inversely as the time . It is shown that the complexity of the results obtained in the experiments on the decomposition of potassic permanganate is probably due to the fact that there are two substances undergoing change , and that one of these substances is gradually formed from the other . The equations for determining the character of this reaction are ) tdu\n 3-u-yv . From these equations are derived _ ^ae--(- , ... ... { .)..+ , ( ). . y=e+_ v , e-Y-(c)e ( a+ ) } , e(3 ) where u is the quantity of one substance decomposed at the rate a , v the quantity of the other substance formed from u at the rate P and decomposed at the rate y , y the whole quantity of substance capable of change , a the quantity of substance present at the beginning of the change , and x the time during which the change has been proceeding . Equation ( 3 ) admits of the forms y= a0a-6 , y= alx b+i/ 3x , according as a is > -= < y. By varying continuously one of the conditions of the reaction , it is possible to obtain in succession values of a and y , such that a is first > y , and then = y , and finally < y ; and thus these three forms of curves may occur in an investigation on the effect of varying one of the conditions of a reaction of this kind . 474 [ Nov. 16 ,

112171

3701662

Supplementary Note to Dr. Davy's Paper on Birds [Abstract]

475

475

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112171

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112171

Biology 2

Thermodynamics

Biology

Supplementary Note to Dr. Davy 's Papler on Birds ; received November 25 , 1865 . Mention is made in the paper referred to of the comparatively low temperature of certain birds . Another example of the same kind occurs in the goose ; in two instances I have found its temperature in recto 104 ? , and in a third 103 ? '5 . The trials were made in November ; the geese had not previously been confined , were about seven months old , fully feathered ( few birds have a warmer clothing ) , and the weather at the time was moderate ; the temperature of the open air between 40 ? and 50 ? Fahr. Notice is also taken of a bird , the grouse , not remarkable for power of flight , having air in its femora as well as in its humeri . I have since found another example of the same kind in the pheasant , a bird even of feebler flight ; in no instance , and I have examined several specimens , have I detected marrow in either of these bones . In reference to the statement implying that those bones of birds which contain air in their adult state , in an earlier stage contain marrow , later observations have led me to infer that , instead of marrow , these bones have their canals impacted with blood-vessels , which in process of the bird 's growth shrink and are absorbed .

112172

3701662

On Calorescence. [Abstract]

475

476

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Tyndall

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112172

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112172

Optics

Thermodynamics

Optics

I. " On Calorescence . " By JOHN TYNDALL , F.R.S. Received October 20 , 1865 . ( Abstract . ) The paper is divided into ten short sections . In the 1st the experiments of Sir William Herschel and of Prof. Miiller on the sun 's radiation are described . In the 2nd are given a series of measurements which show the distribution of heat in the spectrum of the electric light . In the 3rd section is described a mode of filtering the composite radiation of an intensely luminous source so as to detach the luminous from the non-luminous portion of the emission . The ratio of the visible to the invisible radiation determined in this way is compared and found coincident with the results of prismatic analysis . The eminent fitness of a combination of iodine and bisulphide of carbon as a ray-filter is illustrated , and in the 4th section experiments with other substances are described ; various effects obtained in the earlier experiments on the invisible rays being mentioned . In the 5th section the absolutely invisible character of the radiation is established ; it is also proved that no extra-violet rays are to be found at the obscure focus . Numerous experiments on combustion produced by invisible rays are also described in the 5th section . The 6th section deals with the subject of calorescence , or the conversion of obscure radiant heat into light . In section 7 various modes of experimenting are described by which the danger incident to the use of so inflammable a body as the bisulphide of carbon may be avoided . In the 8th section are described experiments on the invisible radiation of the lime-light and of the sun . In the 9th section the effect obtained by exposing papers of different colours at the dark focus are mentioned ; while the 10th and concluding section , deals with the calorescence obtainable from rays transmitted by glasses of various kinds .

112173

3701662

Notice of the Surface of the Sun

476

479

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Phillips

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1865.0083

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112173

10.1098/rspl.1865.0083

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112173

Astronomy

Optics

Astronomy

II . " Notice of the Surface of the Sun . " By JOHN PHILLIPS , M.A. LL. D. , F.R.S. , &c. , Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford . Received October 27th , 1865 . It appears desirable , as a first step to a right theory of the condition of the sun 's surface , that the appearances which it presents should be recorded in some systematic way . Photographs will suffice for the distribution of the spots , but careful eye-drawings must be appealed to in evidence of the form , arrangement , and intestine motions of the parts of those spots , and eye-drawings with measures are the only means of recording accurately the dotted , areolar , granular , crested , and other arrangements 476 [ Nov. 23 , which under the general title of " porosity " have been recognized over the whole face of the sun . Descriptions cannot be complete , but , what is more , they may be , and probably often are , misleading-words which call up right ideas of things often fail very much when required to perform the same function for new objects not well understood . With this conviction in my mind , I have requested the Royal Society to accept a few drawings representing features on the sun 's face as they appear to me looking through a telescope of known dimensions , and used in a certain way . If observers would send sketches made at the telescope , showing what they see , or think they see , -not finished paintings to illustrate hypothetical ideas , -these sketches , by gradual accumulation and comparison , would at last furnish evidence by which even a great theory might be brought to a satisfactory test . Therefore it is that I presume to offer to the Royal Society some additional sketches of the " porosity " of the sun , as seen in good observing weather in this month of October* . The whole surface of the sun , as seen on the 24th and 25th , appeared quite free from any dark patches large enough to be called spots-offering in this respect a singular contrast with its aspect on the 17th , when the large doubly nucleated spot , of which I sent a sketch a few days since , was so conspicuous near the ( apparent ) right edget . On this apparently even and marble-like surface , a power of 50 , with the full aperture of 6 inches , made manifest the existence of the porosity at every point , from the centre to near the edge , the distinctness being greatest over all the middle part of the area . By applying successively powers of 75 , 100 , 135 , and 180 , it was easy to observe the general effect , and the particular features of diversity . The clock-rate being regulated exactly , any particular part of the disk might be kept continually under view ; and to increase the distinctness of the object , or rather the comfort of the observer in looking at it , the field was contracted by diaphragms to one-half or one-third of the usual diameter . The great obstacle to a strict observation of any small selected part of the sun 's disk is unsteadiness of the head , a circumstance troublesome to portrait-photographers , but more injurious to astronomers . I believe this kind of error to be one of the elements of personal equation , and that it can sometimes only be cured by allowing the observer to take hold of the moving telescope . This , thanks to Mr. Cooke 's solid construction , can be safely done . The sketches now presented relate only to the appearances presented to one observer , with the precautions stated ; to what degree they are affected by " personal equation " remains to be proved by comparison with others , and I hope better drawings . P1 . XII . fig. 1 represents a part of the surface under a low power ( 75 ) , which is carefully moved out of focus inwards and outwards . Under these conditions , the soft undefined mottling which it shows catches the eye , and appears clearly to be caused by parts not differing in structure from the more shadowy spaces between them , except by there being less effect of shadow points and lines on the parts which are relatively lighter . Here and there apparently dark specks appear , either in the darker tracts or on the lighter parts ; and there are specks of all degrees of darkness , as well as lines of greater or less distinctness . P1 . XII . fig. 2 is offered as a careful attempt to copy a definite tract , still employing a low power ( 75 ) , and using every means to get the focus exactly . When this is accomplished , and the eye placed as close as possible to the eyepiece , the appearances can be sketched as well as an artist can picture a tree with its leaves , a heap of broken stones , or some dissected and areolated clouds . They can be sketched , but certainly not well or truly , without patient attention , and eyes and head in a good state . Here the texture appears to be areolar , with much irregularity in the shapes , but no great inequality of size . Dots of extremely small dimensions , sometimes quite black , appear singly or in pairs in the centres of several areolwe . PI . XII . fig. 3 . Another sketch , under the same conditions , but employing powers of 135 and ( rarely ) 180 . In this part of the disk dots , occasionally running together into a complicated short tract , may be seen , not specially conformed to the areolar structure , but in some places crossing it , and elsewhere scattered about it . The number of short irregular discontinuous lines which occur mixed with dots is very great ; none of them appear to be regularly curved or regularly straight , but seem to be intervals merely between more enlightened parts . It does not seem to me that dots of greater darkness usually appear at the intersections or terminations of these fissure-like objects . P1 . XII . fig. 4 , is intended to convey the impression arising from a close study of one small space quite definite in character and marked by distinct small dots , one elongated in the middle part of a subpentagonal space , around which other less regular areolae were gathered . After much attention , it appeared to me that the boundaries of this rude pentagon were in part broken up into irregular short loops and dots ; and though the observation was difficult , I am not afraid to trust it . This selected space is drawn on a larger scale , but it was not seen with higher powers than No. 3 . P1 . XII . fig. 5 shows a curious areola with a black central dot , and three parallel markings on the boundary . P1 . XII . fig. 6 , a sketch made in April 1864 , is introduced for comparison , and especially for the softly luminous mottling of the surface . I shall be very glad to be informed whether what is here said agrees or not with the observations of other persons , made with other instruments . 478 [ Nov. 23 , Supplementary Note , Nov. 25 , 1865 . The spot to which the above notices refer has been made the subject of careful observations by M. Chacornac , who has issued interesting descriptions and drawings of it from October 7 to October 16 . The Rev. Mr. Howlett has also scrutinized the same object , and prepared drawings to October 17 , the day when my first sketch was made . Thus we have for this spot observations through one rotation and a half , and we may perhaps have the pleasure of welcoming it again in a new form.-J . P. III . " Notice of a Spot on the Sun , observed at intervals during one Rotation . " By JOHN PHILLIPS , M.A. , LL. D. , F.R.S. , Professor of Geology in the University of Oxford . With Drawings . Received November 15 , 1865 . On the 17th of October , 1865 , at 2 P.M. the spot referred to had traversed a great portion of its arc , and was approaching the limb . It showed two large unequal umbrm , and in each of them a blacker nucleus . Between them were several small dark dots , partially coalescent . The edges of the umbrae were very irregular . In the smaller umbra two bright dots . Above the larger umbra ( which appeared to the right in the telescope ) was an exceptionally bright band , traversed by two dark threads ending in dark dots . This band crossed a part of the umbra , like a bridge , but itself was there traversed by a small bar . Four bright patches lay in the continuation of this facula toward the prolonged upper ( apparently ) extremity of the penumbra , which was itself more luminous than other penumbral parts . The penumbra had broken edges , and an interior mottling of small brighter and darker spaces directed variously toward the umbrae . The granulated surface of the sun with soft gleaming facular ridges was conspicuously seen , and tracts of darkly dotted surface were seen beyond each extremity and on one side ( P1 . X. fig. 1 ) . Nov. 4 , 9.45.-The spot had now returned by rotation , and was very distinctly seen amidst far extended clouds of bright faculse , though reduced to less than half its former dimensions . It retained the two umbral tracts ; but it was now the left-hand tract which was the larger . Being about 15 ? from the limb , the general figure was oval , as usual ; the umbrae were of irregular figure , the larger one cut into by bright branches from the interumbral space . Dark dots amidst the faculve on the border ( P1 . X. fig. 2 ) . Nov. 6 , 9.45.-The spot had reached about 45 ? from the edge , and appeared less elliptical , and otherwise changed in aspect . The large umbra was much dissected by bright streams , and the smaller one had assumed a distinctly tripartite shape . The edges of the penumbra appeared rugged . Many small spots and dark dots towards the edge of the disk ( P1 . X. fig. 3 ) Nov. 11 , 9.45.-The spot had now passed the central meridian , and was greatly altered , and almost cut into two parts by a bright facular mass , passing between the umbrae . The larger of these is now in a pentagonal 479

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Notice of a Spot on the Sun, Observed at Intervals during One Rotation

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John Phillips

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112174

10.1098/rspl.1865.0084

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112174

Optics

Astronomy

Optics

III . " Notice of a Spot on the Sun , observed at intervals during one Rotation . " By JOHN PHILLIPS , M.A. , LL. D. , F.R.S. , Professor of Geolog , y in the University of Oxford . With Drawings . Received Novenmber 15 , 1865 . On the 17th of October , 1865 , at 2 P.M. the spot referred to had traversed a great portion of its arc , and was approaching the limb . It showed two large unequal umbrae , and in each of them a blacker nucleus . Between them were several small dark dots , partially coalescent . The edges of the umbrm were very irregular . In the smaller umbra two bright dots . Above the larger umbra ( which appeared to the right in the telescope ) was an exceptionally bright band , traversed by two dark threads ending in dark dots . This band crossed a part of the umbra , like a bridge , but itself was there traversed by a small bar . Four bright patches lay in the continuation of this facula toward the prolonged upper ( apparently ) extremity of the penumbra , which was itself more lutminous than other penumbral parts . The penumbra had broken edges , and an interior mottling of small brighter and darker spaces directed variously toward the umbrae . The granulated surface of the sun with soft gleaming facular ridges was conspicuously seen , and tracts of darkly dotted surface were seen beyond each extremity and on one side ( P1 . X. fig. 1 ) . Nov. 4 , 9.45.-The spot had now returned by rotation , and was very distinctlv seen amidst far extended clouds of bright faculae , though reduced to less than half its former dimensions . It retained the two umbral tracts ; but it was now the left-hand tract which was the larger . Being about 15 ' from the lirnb , the general figure was oval , as usual ; the umbrae were of irregular figure , the larger one cut into by bright branches from the interumbral space . Dark dots amidst the facule on the border ( P1 . X. fig. 2 ) . Nov. 6 , 9.45'.-The spot had reached about 450 from the edge , and appeared less elliptical , and otherwise changed in aspect . The large umbra was much dissected by bright streams , and the smaller one had assumed a distinctly tripartite shape . The edges of the penumbra appeared rugged . Many small spots and dark dots towards the edge of the disk ( P1 . X. fig. 3 ) Nov. 11 , 9.45.-The spot had now passed the central meridian , and was greatly altered , and almost cut into two parts by a bright facular mass , passing between the umbre . The larger of these is now in a pentagonal form , and has a bright central speck , with a rather obscure narrow prolongation . The smaller umbra is tripartite , and has small gleaming points in it . Several Hlack dots in the surrounding surface , amidst faculm , areolm , and other structures very distinctly seen for a great part of this day with good definition ( P1 . XI . fig. 4 ) . Nov. 13 , 9.45.-Verv great change in general figure and in the several parts of the spot . The larger spot is now cut in twain ; the smaller spot is reduced to two dots , surrounded by a large bright space . The spot is now about 36 ? from the limb ( P1 . XI . fig. 5 ) . Nov. 15.-The spot is very near the edge , and of course almost elliptical in outline ( P1 . XI . fig. 6 ) . The faculve which accomupany it are seen on a smaller scale in P1 . XI . fig. 7 . / K~~~~~~~~~~1A -s - . The woodcut shows the apparent places of the spot at the sever al dates mentioned . EXPLANATION OF THE FEIGUJRES IN PLATEiS X. , XI . , XII . P1 . X. fig. 1 . Appearance of spot near the edge of thei disk before passing off . 2 . Spot after reappearance , within the opposite edge of the disk . 3 . The same farther on the disk . P1 . XI . fig. 4 . The sa-me after passing the cen-tre of the disk . 5 . The same advancing toward the edge . 6 . The same very near the edge . 7 . The same surroundedl by facuk-e . This figure is drawn on a smaller scale than the others . PI . XII . figs. 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 . Sketches taken in October 1865 . 6 . Sketched in April 1864 . I ) t & s st , i , = , , . , 'E ''4t~_ . oMW+ " '' 's " , ~~~~~~~~'4 ' ' , -EiFf''S~ ? C , @ , -. . V.'~ V ? ... ..f '-I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ : 2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ . $~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~v

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112175

Biography

Meteorology

Biography

GENTLEMEN , IN my last year 's Address I informed you of the steps which had been taken , with the approval of the Council , to obtain the concurrence of Her Majesty 's Government in the printing and publication of the Catalogue of the Titles of the Scientific Memnoirs contained in Scientific Periodicals in all languages , from the commencement of the present century to the end of 1863 , the manuscript of which had been prepared under the direction and superintendence of the President and Council , and the cost defrayed from the funds of the Society . Her Maajesty 's Government having been pleased to accede to the proposition that had been then made to them , the Serial Catalogue , as originally proposed for the Society 's Library , is now in progress of rearrangement in alphabetical order according to author 's names , to be followed by an alphabetical Index according to subjects . The preliminary questions regarding the type , and the form and size of the pages , having been discussed and agreed upon with the authorities of the Stationery Office , the first portion of the manuscript , containing the titles of all niemoirs having the letter A as the first letter of the author 's name , has been prepared , and is now placed in the printer 's hands , so that the printing may be forthwith commenced . In the meantime the endeavours to render the work more complete have not been relaxed ; the number of titles , which in my last year 's Address was stated to exceed 180,000 , has been since extended to 213,000 ; and will continue to be augmented whilst the printing is in progress . It is proposed that all titles which should not be in time to be entered under their respective alphabetical heads shall be included in a supplementary volume , which shall also comprise the titles of memoirs which must be regarded as Anonymous , having been published without the author 's name . The original Serial Catalogue prepared in manuscript for the use of the Fellows of the Society still remains in the Library ; and it is with great satisfaction that I am able to add that the Library itself already possesses the Transactions , Journals , and other periodical works in which two-thirds of the 213,000 titles already collected for the Catalogue are contained ; and that every endeavour is making to render the Library as complete as possible in this important branch of scientific literature . The total expenses hitherto incurred in the preparation of the Catalogue amount to ? 1626 ; and to this a small annual addition will be required until the printing and publication shall have been completed . The Fellows of the Royal Society , and those especially who are interested in the progress of Sidereal Astronomy , will hear with pleasure that the communications , passing through Her Majesty 's principal Secretary of State for the Colonies , between Sir Ienry Barkly , K.C.B. , F.R.S. , Governor of the Colony of Victoria , and the President and Council of the Royal Society , regarding the establishment at Melbourne of a telescope of great optical power for the observation of the Nebulae and multiple stars of the southern hemisphere , have led to a vote which has passed the Legislature of Victoria of ? 5000 for a suitable telescope , to be constructed under the superintendence of the President and Council of the Royal Society . In the Anniversary Address in 1862 , and again in that of 1863 , I availed myself of the opportunities then afforded of making known to the Fellows the progress of the communications which at each of those dates had taken place between the Government of Victoria , the authorities of the Melbourne Observatory , and the Royal Society ; and I have now the satisfaction of laying before you the following letter , received on the 23rd of last month from Professor Wilson , Honorary Secretary of the Board of Visitors of the Melbourne Observatory:"'MY DEAR SIR , The University , Melbourne , Aug. 21 , 1865 . " MY DEAR SIR , " It is with very great satisfaction that 1 forward to you the following resolutions of the Board of Visitors adopted on the 15th inst . : " 1 . That the President of the Royal Society of London be informed that the Legislature of Victoria has voted the sum of ? 5000 for the purchase of an equatorial telescope , one half of which sum has been already remitted to the Crown Agents in England , and placed at the disposal of Major Pasley , of the Royal Engineers , for the purpose ; and that the Government has placed the correspondence connected with it in the hands of the Board of Visitors . ' 2 . That the President and Council of the Royal Society be requested to give the Board of Visitors the benefit of their assistance in selecting a maker , settling the contract , and superintending the construction of the telescope , so as best to carry out the recommendations contained in the Report of the Royal Society to the Duke of Newcastle , 18th December 1862 . " 3 . That Major Pasley be requested to place himself in communication with the President and Council of the Royal Society , and , after ascertaining their views , to enter into such contract as will most effectually carry them out . " I enclose also a copy of a letter received from the Treasury , on which the foregoing resolutions are based , and a copy of the letter which I send to Major Pasley by this mail . " The great interest which you have shown in this matter leads the Board of Visitors to count confidently on your further assistance in bringing it to a successful conclusion . The request contained in the second resolution is not intended to imply that in the opinion of the Board any further discussion as to the form of telescope or the maker is necessary . The Board thinks , and I believe that it is also your opinion , that the discussion which has already taken place has settled that question , and that Mr. Grubb 's proposal should be adopted . This is not distinctly expressed in the resolution , because Mr. Grubb 's name is not mentioned in the Report of the Royal Society , and because the Board desires to leave you free in the event of anything having happened to Mr. Grubb , or of any discovery having been made which would tend to modify your opinion . " In any case the Board , bearing in mind the great length of time that has elapsed since the proposal for a telescope was first made , and having now received authority from the Government to act in the matter , is desirous of securing the completion of the telescope at the earliest possible time consistent with the highest attainable perfection in the instrument ; and considers that this end will be most effectually secured by leaving you quite free to act in the matter , and trusting to you to secure the cooperation of those eminent practical astronomers whose names you mentioned as willing to superintend the work during its execution . " Mr. Grubb 's last estimate is ? 4600 for the telescope complete ; and this , I believe , covers everything , including the erection in Ireland for a trial . " The sum voted is ? 5000 , and the balance , ? 400 , will be available for a spectroscope and for a photographic apparatus adapted to the telescope , and will still probably leave sufficient to pay the freight to Melbourne . As these two adjuncts will not occupy long in making , it will probably be desirable not to commence them till the telescope proper is approaching completion , so that the latest improvements may be introduced into them . " Trusting to your earnestness to induce you to undertake the great amount of trouble we are imposing upon you , I remain , my dear Sir , " Very faithfully yours , " W. P. WILSON , " Hon. Sec. to the Board of Visitors . " ( " Major-General Sabine , R.A. , Pres. R.S. " To the information contained in this letter I have now the satisfaction of being able to add that since its receipt Mr. Grubb has signified his readiness to proceed in the construction of a telescope corresponding to the specification contained in his letter to Dr. Robinson of Dec. 3 , 1863 , printed in the second portion of the correspondence respecting the Southern Telescope , the execution to be under the supervision of the Earl of Rosse , Dr. Robinson , and Mr. Warren De la Rue , who , on their parts , have accepted the responsibilities of superintendence . The contract between the Crown Agent for Victoria and Mr. Grubb is in process of execution , and in eighteen months from its date we may hope that the telescope will be in readiness to be embarked for Melbourne , where in the meantime preparations will be made for its reception and mounting . The selection of an Astronomer fitted by education and acquirements to be entrusted with its use at Melbourne , and who may be willing to devote his entire energies to the cultivation of the splendid field which will be open to him , must be the next anxious and important duty devolving upon the Melbourne authorities . If in its execution they should require any assistance from the Royal Society , such assistance will assuredly be most readily given . The arrangements connected with this subject being so far advanced , I have thought it desirable to place on record a consecutive statement of the steps by which they have been brought to their present stage ; and I have done this in the form of a Note ( Note A)* , to avoid trespassing unnecessarily upon your present attention . The welcome intelligence has been received from Colonel Walker , F.R.S. , Superintendent of the Trigonometrical Survey of India , of the safe arrival in that country of the Pendulums prepared for the experiments which it is proposed to make at the principal stations of the survey , and of the vacuum-apparatus in which the pendulums are to be vibrated . As it has been proposed to make the Kew Observatory the Base Station of the important observations which may be made with these instruments in many parts of India , a full and very careful series of Base observations were made with them at Kew before their departure for India . These have been printed in the Proceedings of the Royal Society in the present year in the form of a communication from Messrs. Balfour Stewart and Loewy . In the course of the last Session an important paper was communicated to the Society , and has been since printed in the Philosophical Transactions for 1865 , Art . V. , entitled " On the Magnetic Character of the Armourplated Ships of the Royal Navy , and on the Effect on the Compass of particular arrangements of Iron in a Ship , " by Staff-Commander Frederick John Evans , R.N. , F.R.S. , Superintendent of the Compass Department of Her Majesty 's Navy , and Archibald Smith , Esq. , F.R.S. In the course of the reading of this paper , and in the discussion which followed it , the absence of any proper provision for the instruction or guidance of the builders , fitters , and navigators of the ships of our mercantile marine was strongly dwelt upon . It is well known that the number of iron ships recently constructed greatly exceeds that of wood-built ships . In such vessels iron is now used , not only in the construction of the hull , but in decks , deck-houses , masts , rigging , and many other parts of the ship , for which wood was till recently used . The consequence has been a great increase in the amount of the deviation of the compass , increased difficulty in finding a suitable place for the compass , and an increased necessity for , and difficulty in , applying to the deviation either mechanical or tabular corrections . Many recent losses of iron steamers have taken place , in which there is reason to believe that compass-error occasioned the loss . In most of these , however , from the want of any record of the magnetic state of the ship , of the amount of the original deviation , and of the mode of correction-and from the investigations into the causes of the loss having been conducted by persons uninformed or not interested in the science , and who are necessarily incompetent therefore either to elicit the facts from which a judgment can be formed , or to form a judgment on those facts which are elicited-no certain conclusion as to the cause of the loss can be arrived at . The investigations are , however , sufficient to show the want of a better and more uniform system of compass-correction in the mercantile marine , and of more knowledge of the subject on the part of those who are entrusted with the fitting and navigation of these ships . Acting in conformity with the opinions expressed in the discussion which followed the reading of the paper by Commander Evans and Mr. Smith , and availing themselves of the counsel of those who are justly regarded as possessing the greatest practical experience on such subjects in this or any other country , the President and Council addressed a letter to the President of the Board of Trade , bringing under his consideration a subject which they have reason to believe is of pressing importance , requiring that measures of a more stringent and effective character should be taken in the direction already followed by Her Majesty 's Government in such legislative enactments as those contained in the Merchant Shipping Act of 1854 ; and , impelled by a strong conviction of the impending danger , they have ventured to suggest the expediency of steps being taken for the mercantile marine similar in character to those which have been found to work so successfully in the Compass Department of the Royal Navy . The lamented decease of the late Admiral FitzRoy induced a desire on the part of the Board of Trade to review the past proceedings and present state of the department of that Board which had been placed under Admiral FitzRoy 's direction . Adverting to the fact that at the formation of that Department the Board of Trade had requested the opinion of the Royal Society as to what might then be considered the great desiderata in Meteorological Science , and had received in reply a letter from the President and Council ( dated February 22 , 1855 ) containing recommendations which were eventually adopted as the basis of the proceedings of the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade , the Board was now desirous of being informed to what extent those objects had been fulfilled by what had already been accomplished , and whether the objects which had been so specified were still considered as important for the interests of science and navigation as they were then considered . The Board of Trade were also desirous of obtaining an opinion from the Royal Society regarding the Forecasts of Weather and the Storm Warnings which had not been included in the original recommendations of the Royal Society , but had originated with Admiral FitzRoy himself and had formed a considerable part of the duties of the Meteorological Department since 1859 . To enable the President and Council to form a judgment on the questions referred to them , the Board of Trade supplied them with the following documents:1 . Admiral FitzRoy 's Report to the Board of Trade , dated May 1862 . 2 . A Report by Mr. Babington ( Admiral FitzRoy 's first assistant ) on the method adopted in the department with regard to forecasts and stormwarnings . 3 . A return to the House of Commons , dated April 13 , 1864 , present , ing a comparison of the probable force of the wind as indicated by the signals in the year from April 1 , 1863 , to March 31 , 1864 , and its actual state as reported in the three days following the exhibition of the signals . 4 . A manuscript return , furnished by Mr. Babington , having the same object for the year from April 1 , 1864 , to March 31 , 1865 . The first of these documents contained the opinions of the Shipmasters at several ports on our coasts , officially requested and given , in regard to the practical value which they attached to the storm-warnings . Of these replies , by far the greater number were decidedly favourable , three only out of fifty-six being decidedly unfavourable . The date of the Report containing them was May 1862 ; and the two subsequent Reports , dated respectively in 1864 and 1865 , exhibited in comparison a marked improvement in successive years . Upon the authority of those statements , and viewing the system of forecasting which Admiral FitzRoy had instituted simply ( as described by himself ) as " an experimental process , " based on the knowledge conveyed by Telegraph of the actual state of the winds and weather and other meteorological phenomena within a specified area , and on a comparison of these with the telegrams of the preceding days , so as to obtain inferences as to the probable changes in the succeeding daystaking into account also the evidence supplied of the improvement in the forecasts of each year compared with those of the preceding year the President and Council were of opinion that it was not unreasonable to anticipate that the system , so.far at least as regarded the storm-warnings , if 1865 . continued , might receive still further improvement ; and that possibly the best arrangement at the present time would be that this branch of the duties of the office should continue as at present , and be carried on under the direction of Mr. Babington , by whom it had been virtually superintended for several months past . With reference to those branches of inquiry which had been originally suggested by the Royal Society in the letter of the President and Council of February 22nd , 1855 , the reply , as might reasonably be expected , was of a more decided character . The most prominent amongst the objects recommended in that letter was the collection and coordination of facts bearing on what may perhaps not improperly be termed Oceanic Statistics , -viz . all such facts as are required to enable a correct knowledge to be formed of Currents of the Ocean , their direction , extent , velocity , and the temperature of the water relatively to the ordinary ocean temperature in the same latitude . , together with the variations in all these respects which currents experience in different parts of the year and in different parts of their course . These , as well as the facts connected with the great persistent barometric elevations and depressions which we know to exist in several oceanic localities , leading to a knowledge of their causes , as well as of their influence on circumstances affecting navigation , were noticed in the letter of February 1855 as inquiries well deserving the attention of a country possessing such extensive maritime facilities and interests as ours , and as likely to form a suitable contribution on our part to the general system of meteorological inquiry which had then recently been adopted by the principal continental states in Europe and America . It was learnt from Mr. Babington that much had been done by Admiral FitzRoy in the three or four years succeeding the establishment of his office ( and before the subject of storm-warnings had engrossed the greater part of his thoughts ) , in directing the attention of many of the commanders of our merchant ships to the collection of suitable data , and in improving their habits of observation and of record . The logs of such vessels , we were informed , constitute at present a large collection of documents existing in the office of the Board of Trade , partially examined , and their contents partially classified . A full and careful examination of these for the purpose of ascertaining the amount and value of their contents was our first recommendation , to be combined with a consideration of the most fitting mode in which the information they might be found to contain may be made available for public use . Such an examination may also be expected to lead to improvements in the instructions which have been issued to our merchant seamen , who have doubtless become more competent to conduct , and even to extend , the observations for these and similar purposes , than when the system was first introduced . Those amongst us who have read with the attention it deserves the admirable paper in which Captain Henry Toynbee has enriched our Proceedings in the past year with the results of his five Indianlvoyages , will not doubt the competency or the disposition that may exist amongst our merchant seamen to collect materials of the highest value for the investigations which the President and Council originally recommended ; and we can entertain no doubt that , whatever may prove to be the amount and value of the materials already collected , they will form but a small contribution towards that general embodiment of the statistics of the ocean which the great increase of our commercial activity makes of pressing importance , and which may be expected to shorten materially the passages between distant ports . The Board of Trade were also desirous to know whether the Royal Society has any recommendations to make with reference to what may be called " Meteorology proper , " viz. , meteorological observations to be made on land , in addition to the marine observations which were so strongly urged in the letter of the President and Council of February 1855 . The reason why the advantages to be derived from a well-directed system of maritime observations was more particularly pressed on that occasion was , that neither the instruments nor the modes of observation suitable for a well-organized , general , and efficient system of land meteorology had been then prepared . The circumstances which constituted the difficulty in this respect were well stated by Lieut. Maury in a letter addressed to the United States Government , dated November 6 , 1852 , subsequently transmitted by the American minister to the Earl of Clarendon , and printed in the papers preceding the Brussels conference , which were presented to the House of Lords in February 1853 . This difficulty no longer exists , having been wholly obviated by the self-recording system of observation , for which the necessary instruments have been devised and brought into use at the Kew Observatory . The President and Council have had therefore no hesitation in expressing the opinion that systematic meteorological observations at a few selected land stations in the British Islands are desirable , in addition to the marine meteorological observations , in order to complete a suitable contribution from this country to the meteorological observations now in progress in the principal states of Europe and America , under the authority of their respective Governments . A few stations , say six , distributed at nearly equal distances in a meridional direction from the south of England to the north of Scotland , furnished with self-recording instruments supplied from and duly verified at one of the stations regarded as a central station , and exhibiting a continuous record of the . temperature , pressure , electric and hygrometric state of the atmosphere , and the direction and force of the wind , might perhaps be sufficient to supply an authoritative knowledge of those peculiarities in the meteorology of our country which would be viewed as of the most importance to other countries , and would at the same time form authentic points of reference for the use of our own meteorologists . The scientific progress of meteorology from this time forward requires indeed such continuous records-first , for the sake of the knowledge which they alone can effectively supply , and next for the comparison with the results of independent observation not continuous . The actual photograms , or other mechanical representations , transmitted periodically by post to the central station might be made to constitute a lithographed page for each day in the year , comprehending the phenomena at all the six stationseach separate curve admitting of exact measurement from its own base-line , the precise value of which might in every case be specified . The President and Council have added a suggestion that the Observatory of the British Association at Kew might , with much propriety and public advantage , be adopted as the central meteorological station . It already possesses the principal self-recording instruments , and the greater part of these have been in constant use there for many months . There would be no difficulty in obtaining similar instruments for the affiliated meteorological stations , and in arranging for their verification and comparison with the Kew standards , as well as in giving to those into whose hands they may be placed , such instructions as may ensure uniformity of operation . You are aware that Royal Princes , Foreign as well as British , who signify their desire to enter the Society , and are proposed accordingly , are understood to be entitled to immediate ballot . On a late occasion , however , it was found that , according to the strict letter of the statutes , the head and representative of a Royal House might be inadmissible by privileged election , whilst members of the same family of inferior rank were entitled to it . H-is Royal Highness the Count of Paris having expressed a desire to join our body , it appeared on referring to the Statutes , that although he is the son of the late Duke of Orleans and hereditary representative of the late King of the French , yet , inasmuch as his father had not been a " sovereign prince , " the Society was precluded from showing him a courtesy which it may extend to other members of his family who look up to him as the head of their house . The Council , believing that the Society would desire to see this anomaly corrected , took , after due deliberation , the prescribed steps for amending the Statute ; and being advised that the usage of Her Majesty 's Court would afford a suitable criterion of rank applicable to the case , introduced words extending the privilege in question to " any foreign Prince who is received by Her Majesty as Imperial Highness or Royal Highness . " The unanimous election of the Count of Paris under the amended Statute may , I think , be taken as a ratification of the act of the Council . I am glad to avail myself of this opportunity of stating that the reduction of the automatic records of the bifilar magnetometer at Kew during the seven years from 1858 to 1864 inclusive has now been completed , so far as to make known the relative amount of magnetic disturbance in each of those years . The results are shown in a note ( B ) " , by which it will be seen that 1859 was a year of decided maximum , the aggregate disturbances in that year being considerably greater than in 1858 , and dimi* See note B , p. 512 . nishing progressively from 1859 to 1863-1864 : in 1863 and 1864 the amount of disturbance was nearly identical , and was only about one-third of the amount in 1859 . From the general aspect of the photographic traces in the present year ( 1865 ) , there appears reason to believe that the epoch of minimum is now passed . If this be so , the years 1863-64 will have been the fourth return of the epoch of minimum since 1823-24 ( Arago 's Meteorological Observations , English translation , Editor 's Note , pages 355 to 357 ) , thus confirming the coincidence with the decennial variation of the sun-spots discovered by Schwabe . Those who regard with interest the progressive establishment of the theory which assigns a cosmical origin to the Terrestrial Magnetic Variations , will have noticed the remarkable , but not altogether unanticipated , testimony borne to the decennial variation by the annual values of the magnetic Inclination at Toronto in the years from 1853 to 1864 , in the volume recently published by Mr. Kingston , Superintendent of that Observatory . The general effect of the disturbances of the Inclination at Toronto is to increase what would otherwise be the amount of that element ; therefore , if the disturbances have a decennial period , the absolute values of the Inclination ( if observed with sufficient delicacy ) ought to show in their annual means a corresponding decennial variation , of which the minimum should coincide with the year of minimum disturbance , and the maximum with the year of maximum disturbance . I have placed in a note ( C)* the annual values derived in each case from the regular monthly determinations , commencing with 1853 , and ending with 1864 , taken from the publication referred to , whereby it will be seen that an actual variation does exist such as I have indicated , 1853 being a minimum and 1859 a maximum ; the increasing progression being uninterrupted from 1853 to 1859 , and the decreasing progression uninterrupted from 1859 to 1864 , the date of the latest published results . It was in the year 1853 that the Toronto Observatory was transferred to the provincial authorities , and was placed by them under the direction of Mr. Kingston . The Inclinometer employed is the same which was described in a paper in the Philosophical Transactions for 1850 , Art . IX . , entitled " On the Means adopted in the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories for determining the Absolute Values , Secular Changes , and Annual Variations of the Terrestrial Magnetic Elements ; " and the assistants by whom the observations were made were the same persons who had performed the same duties when the Observatory was under the direction of Officers of the Artillery . The results are avaluable exemplification of the accuracy attainable when proper attention is paid to the selection of the instruments , and to the employment of careful and skilful observers . Such evidence is of more than ordinary interest at the present time , when such institutions are rapidly increasing . We have recently learned by a despatch from Sir H. Barkly , Governor of Mauritius , to the Secretary of State for the Colonies , a copy of which has been transmitted to the Royal Society by Mr. Cardwell , that arrangements have been made and funds provided for a magnetical and meteorological observatory in that colony , on the model of the Kew Observatory ; and that Professor Meldrum , who has been appointed its superintendent , may be expected immediately at Kew to receive the instruments which have been prepared by Mr. Balfour Stewart , and to make himself acquainted with the details both of instruments and methods in use at that observatory . We have also reason to hope that the example thus set at Mauritius will shortly be followed at Melbourne and at Bombay . A summary of the results arrived at in discussing the Solar Autographs taken at the Kew Observatory with the Photoheliograph belonging to the Royal Society has appeared in the 'Proceedings ; ' and the Fellows have thus been made acquainted , in a general way , with the conclusions which have been based on the observations so obtained . The state of the atmosphere permitting , pictures of the sun are taken daily by Miiss Beckley , daughter of the resident mechanical assistant ; and these are as regularly measured and discussed by Dr. Loewy. . In this way has been accumulated a vast mass of materials on which to found conjectures as to the nature of the physical forces operating at the surface of the sun ; and , taking these materials as a basis , Messrs. De la Rue , Stewart , and Loewy have drawn the conclusions enunciated in their several papers on solar physics . It is , however , by no means improbable that other investigators , could they obtain access to the same full and complete details of the observations and measurements , would succeed in evolving other and most important theories of solar activity , and thus that our knowledge of the subject might be greatly advanced . It is moreover evident that in a method of observation so new , and in a subject so intricate , the minutest fact can hardly be dismissed as insignificant , seeing that , whatever its present apparent isolation , it may hereafter be shown to stand connected with an important series of facts , towards a right theory of which it may indeed furnish important aid . It has therefore to be considered in what way the publication of these voluminous details can be best effected . Pending this , however , I am glad to state that the authors above-named have themselves determined to print in detail their first paper , and that a sufficient number of copies will be placed at the disposal of the Society for distribution among the Fellows . The amount of spotted area is being measured ; and the elements of the sun 's rotation will be calculated from the spots . Those of the Fellows who are interested in the trial of gun-cotton as a propellant , will be glad to learn that its employment as a charge for the Whitworth and Enfield Ridfes is progressing favourably . By a mode of construction of the cartridge ingeniously devised to control the too great rapidity of combustion , the cotton is found to command , without injury to the rifle , a range fully equal to that of powder , and , in experiments at the School of Musketry at Hythe , under the superintendence of Major-General Hay , has made excellent shooting , producing diagrams at 1000 yards , hardly , if at all , inferior to those obtained from the best small-bore rifles of the day . These diagrams were obtained with a Whitworth Rifle : in the first , 10 consecutive shots were fired at 1000 yards , with a mean radial deviation of 1'65 foot ; in the second , 9 consecutive shots at 1000 yards , giving a mean radial deviation of 2'02 feet . And in the third , 20 consecutive shots were fired at 1000 yards , giving a mean radial deviation of 2'43 feet . The charge in all cases was 25 grains of gun-cotton , the angle varying from 3 ? to 3 ? ? 31 . The cartridges with which these shots were fired were made by hand : the defect of cartridges so made is obvious , viz. , that they may not be strictly uniform . But this is an inconvenience remediable by the employment of very simple machinery . In preliminary trials above 2000 rounds have been fired out of one and the same rifle , without occasioning the slightest injury to the piece . The advantages of the cotton charges were manifest in the diminution of recoil and smoke , and in the entire absence of fouling . The demand for cotton charges for sporting-purposes has become very considerable since the shooting-season commenced , and they are understood to have given very general satisfaction . It is not unreasonable to anticipate that the principles ofconstruction of the cartridges which have proved so successful in the adaptation to small arms , may eventuallX , with suitable modifications , make cotton available for iron ordnance , as a substitute , in a greater or less degree , for powder , which is far more dangerous in manufacture and storage . As far as has been yet tried , the cotton is found to keep perfectly well for any length of time submerged in distilled water . I proceed to the award of the Medals : The Council has awarded the Copley Medal to M. Michel Chasles , For . Mem. R.S. , for his Historical and Original Researches in Pure Geometry . The historical and original researches of Chasles extend over a period of about forty years . Throughout this time he has devoted his energies , with a constancy of purpose rarely equalled , to the restoration and extension of those purely geometrical methods which , bequeathed to us from antiquity , had their growth arrested during the middle ages , and their utility temporarily eclipsed by the brilliant discovery of coordinate geometry by Descartes . In his well-known '(-istory of the Origin and Development of Geometrical Methods , ' published in 1837 and crowned by the Academy of Brussels , Chasles thus expresses what has proved to be the leading object of his life 's labours:"I propose to show , so far as my feeble means will permit , that in a multitude of questions the doctrines of pure geometry most frequently present to us that easy and natural path which , penetrating to the very 2P21 s865 . ] origin of truths , brings us into actual contact with each individual truth , and at the same time reveals to us the mysterious chain by which all are connected . " The elaborate work here quoted * is unique of its kind ; it is our highest authority on all matters connected with the history of geometry , of which science it carefully traces the development from the time of Thales and Pythagoras , down to the earlier part of the present century . Although professing to be an aper ? u merely , it nevertheless represents a vast amount of historical research , and is moreover enriched by copious notes containing the results of important original investigations . In the year 1846 the foundation of a chair of modern geometry was decided upon by the Faculty of Sciences at Paris , and Chasles was at once chosen to supply a demand which his own researches had in a great measure created . Thus commenced that personal influence on the younger geometers of his country which still continues , and is traceable in all their productions . Another result of this appointment , by which geometers of all nations have greatly profited , was the publication , in 1852 , of his 'Treatise on the Higher Geometry '-t , -a work in which the three fundamental principles of pure geometry are , for the first time , fully and systematically expounded . These principles embrace the modern theories of anharmonic ratios , of homographic divisions and pencils , and of geometric involution . An anharmonic ratio is in reality a ratio of two ratios , the latter having reference to two pairs of segments determined by any four points of a line . On one peculiar property of this ratio-that of its remaining unaltered by projection-all modern geometry may be said to be founded . Homographic divisions consist of two rows of points , in the same straight line or in different ones , which so correspond that the anharmonic ratio of any four points of one row is equal to that of the corresponding points of the other row . Finally , two homographic rows , in the same straight line , are said to form an involution when to any point whatever of that line one and the same point corresponds , no matter to which of the two rows the first point may be conceived to belong . Usually there are two points in such an involution , each of which coincides with its own corresponding point ; by a mere accident of position , however , the actual existence of these dozale points may be destroyed , whilst all other properties of the involution remain intact . In this contingency originated a mode of speech of the greatest utility in geometry . The double points are said to be real in the one case , and imaginary in the other . For the undisguised and philosophic introduction of imaginary points and lines into pure geometry we are chiefly indebted to Chasles . The term anharmonic ratio , now universally employed , is due to Chasles ; the ratio itself , however , appears to have been known to Pappus , the eminent Alexandrian geometer of the fourth century . Chasles , indeed , has shown that this ratio probably constituted an essential feature of those three famous books on Porisms , which Euclid is known to have written , but of whose nature vague indications merely have been transmitted to us in the mathematical collections of Pappus . Robert Simson of Glasgow , the well-known translator of Euclid 's 'Elements , ' was the first who satisfactorily solved the enigma concerning the real nature of Porisms , and he also succeeded in partially restoring the three lost books . Chasles , however , was the first to restore them completely ; and this he has done in a work* which is admitted to be a valuable addition to the history of geometrical science , as well as a model of ingenious and philosophical divination . Chasles has contributed to the advancement of pure geometry , not only by means of the three complete works already alluded to , but also through the publication of numerous smaller memoirs . Of these the following , by no means the only important ones , demand a passing reference . The papers on " Stereographic Projections " converted a method originally devised for the construction of maps into a powerful instrument of geometrical transformation . Two able memoirs on " Cones of the Second Order " and on " Spherical Conics , " thanks to the translation , published in 1841 , by Dr. Graves of Trinity College , Dublin , had a direct influence on pure geometry in our own country . A paper " On the Correspondence between Variable Objects " furnished us with a principle of the greatest utility in all higher geometrical investigations . In several other memoirs the method of generating curves of higher orders by means of homographic pencils of curves of inferior orders is perfected , and new properties are thereby deduced of plane curves of the third and fourth orders . The theory of non-plane curves , especially those of the third and fourth orders , had its origin , for the most part , in Chasles 's memoirs ; and the modern science of kinematics is indebted to him for two valuable papers on the finite and infinitesimal displacements of a Solid Body . The problem of the attraction of Ellipsoids , rendered celebrated by the investigations of Newton , Maclaurin , Ivory , Legendre , Lagrange , and Laplace , received from Chasles its first complete synthetical solution . In this problem , too , originated the conception of confocal surfaces of the second order , the theory of which he has since greatly perfected . The first volume of Chasles 's fourth work ( a Treatise on Conic Sectionst ) appeared during the present year : it is a sequel to his '1igher Geometry ; ' and in it the three principles already alluded to find their most appropriate field of application . The second volume of this treatise is looked forward to with interest , as it will contain a full exposition of the admirable researches on conic sections wherewith Chasles has just crowned his labours . These researches , a brief account of which appeared during the past year in the pages of the 'Comptes Rendus , ' have put us in possession of an entirely new method , the nature and utility of which may be rendered intelligible even to those who have not made modern geometry a subject of special study . For the determination or construction of the curves usually called conics , and of which the hyperbola , parabola , and ellipse are species , five conditions are requisite and , in general , sufficient . The nature of these five conditions may be such , however , as to admit of their being satisfied by more than one conic . For instance , although one conic only can be described through five given points , there exist two distinct conics , each of which passes through four given points , and touches a given line . Hence arises the important general question , llHo many conics are there capable of satisfying any five conditions whatever ? By the new method of Chasles we are enabled to answer this question , hitherto a difficult one , with great facility . Starting from the elementary cases where the five conditions are of the simplest possible kind , consisting solely of passages through points and contact with lines , he gradually replaces those conditions by more complex ones , and finally arrives at a simple symmetrical formula which fully answers the above question . Seeing how numerous are the questions in conics which may be ultimately reduced to the one here solved , we may , without exaggeration , assert that in this single formula a great part of the entire theory of conics is virtually condensed . The method has been aptly termed by its eminent discoverer a method of geometrical substitution . It involves the consideration of the properties of a system of conics ( infinite in number ) satisfyingfour common conditions . Such a system is for the first time defined in a manner closely analogous to that in which curves are distinguished into orders and classes . We merely require to know , first , how many conics of the system pass through an arbitrarily assumed point , and , secondly , how many of them touch any assumed line . These two numbers or characteristics , as they are termed , being once found , all the properties of the system of conics are thereby expressible . For instance , the sum of twice the first characteristic and three times the second gives us the order of the curve upon which the vertices of every conic of the system are situated . This new method of characteristics has been already applied to curves of higher orders , as well as to surfaces ; and , considering the magnitude of the new fields of investigation thus opened out , it is probable that , as an instrument of purely geometrical research , the method of Chasles will bear comparison with any other discovery of the century . PROFESSOR MILLER , M. Chasles being prevented from being present in person to receive the Medal which has been awarded to him , I have to request you as our Foreign Secretary to receive it for him , and to transmit it into his hands . It will assure him of the very high estimation in which his labours , in a branch of mathematical research which for more than a century has been little followed and little encouraged , are held in this country . The Council has awarded a Royal Medal to Joseph Prestwich , Esq. , F.R.S. , for his numerous and valuable Contributions to Geological Science , and more especially for his papers published in the Philosophical Transactions , on the general question of the Excavation of River Valleys ; and on the Superficial Deposits in France and England , in which the Works of Man are associated with the Remains of Extinct Animals . It is now not less than sixteen years since the Geological Society awarded to Mr. Prestwich the Wollaston Medal , the highest honour in their gift , for the researches and discoveries he had then made ; and it may be said without disparagement to the services he had then rendered to geology , that the works he has since completed and published greatly outweigh in amount and value what he had achieved in 1849 . Before that time his writings comprised memoirs both on the palaeozoic and tertiary strata:-one on the Old Red Sandstone strata containing ichthyolites , and on some beds of the glacial period at Gamrie ; and another , a very elaborate one , on the coal strata of Coalbrook Dale , in which he explained in detail the structure of that coal-field , and the arrangement and distribution of the fossils throughout a long succession of the carboniferous strata . In the tertiary formations he introduced a considerable reform in the classification of the English series by proving , amongst other points , that the central division of the Bagshot Sands coincided in date with the " cialcaire grossier " of the Paris Basin , instead of occupying , as was before supposed , a much higher place in the series . After 1849 , continuing his researches on the English tertiary formations , he made two other important steps in the advance of our knowledge , viz. , 1st , by showing that the clays of the Island of Sheppey , those of Barton , and those of Bracklesham , in Hampshire , instead of being all three contemporaneous , according to the then received opinions , were each due to a separate period , -an important rectification of the chronological order of the British tertiary formations ; and , 2nd , by pointing out that beneath the fluviatile beds of Woolwich , or that series commonly called the plastic clay and sands , there existed an older marine formation , for which he proposed the name of the Thanet Sands-a subdivision now generally recognized and adopted . By establishing the true position of this subdivision , a decided step 'a , as made towards filling up the wide gap which still divides the lowest of our Eocene strata from the Maestricht beds or upper part of the chalk . After completing these and other papers , too many to enumerate here , Mr. Prestwich undertook the more difficult and complicated task of correlating the successive tertiary formations of England , France , and Belgium ; and communicated the results in Memoirs published in the Geological Society 's 'Journal , ' embodying the fruit of many years of travelling and much thought and study . In 1851 Mr. Prestwich published a separate work on the water-bearing strata around London , facilitating the subterranean search for water by giving actual measuremen ts and probable estimates of the thickness of the chalk and other beds immediately above and below the chalk , and suggesting means of obtaining an additional supply of water for the metropolis . In 1859 Mr. Prestwich presented to the Royal Society a highly important memoir on the occurrence of flint-implements associated with the remains of animals of extinct species in France and England ; and another paper in 1863 , on the theoretical questions connected with the same subject . In these memoirs , as generally throughout all his writings , Mr. Prestwich has exhibited in a very marked degree a combination of unwearied labour and patience in the accumulation of facts , with a remarkable impartiality of judgment in the deduction of their bearing on the existing state of knowledge , -a combination , the value of which cannot be too highly estimated . Mn . PRELSTWICH , I present you with this MBedal in testimony of the high sense entertained by the Council , and specially by those Membrers of the Council who are engaged in the same pursuits as yourself , of your laborious researches , and of the spirit in which they have been conducted , in the rectification of many important points in the geology of this and of neighbouring countries , and in tracing out the facts of the occurrence of implements , the work of man 's labour , in association with the remains of extinct animals . The Council has awarded a Royal Medal to Archibald Smith , Esq. , F.R.S. , for his papers in the Philosophical Transactions and elsewhere on the Magnetism of Ships . The irregularities to which ships ' compasses are liable from the disturbing influence of the iron contained in the ship , originally noticed by the astronomer Wales in the voyages of Captain Cook , and subsequently by Flinders at the commencement of the present century , attained a magnitude in the first of the polar voyages of discovery , viz. that of 1818 , which forced on the attention of those who were responsible for the navigation of the vessels the indispensable necessity of meeting and surmounting the diffculties and dangers occasioned thereby . Having been attached to the two first of these expeditions to take charge of all matters of a scientific character , this duty devolved more especially on myself ; and before the expedition of 1819 quitted the northern shores of Britain ( those of the Shetland Islands ) , two leading characteristics of modern practice the 498 [ Nov. 30 , establishment of a standard compass , in a fixed and suitable position , by which compass alone the ship 's course should be directed and all bearings should be taken , and the formation of a table of deviations on the several points of the compass by the method now so universally practised of swinging the ship were adopted in both the ' Isabella ' and the ' Alexander . ' The systematic character of the deviations , unprecedented in amount , which were experienced by these ships in subsequent parts of their voyage , attracted the attention of an eminent French geometrician , Poisson , who published , in 1824 , two papers in the Memoirs of the French Institute , containing a mathematical theory of magnetical induction , with formulae involving coefficients to be determined by observation , expressing the action of the soft iron of a ship upon her compass-and , in a subsequent memoir , adapted the formulae to observations made on shipboard sufficient in number to determine the coefficients in the particular case of the soft iron being symmetrically distributed on either side of the principal section of the ship . The application of these formula was verified by deviations calculated for different positions in the high northern latitudes , where the absolute values of the magnetic elements , as well as the deviations of the compass on board , had been observed by the polar ships , the observed and calculated deviations showing a remarkable accordance . About twenty years after the date of the Arctic voyages , the system of compass-correction , which had been so successfully practised in the ships engaged in those voyages , was definitely adopted in the Royal Navy , oin the recommendation of a committee appointed by the Admiralty , including among its members two of the officers who had served on these voyages , viz. the late Sir James Clark Ross and myself . At a somewhat later epoch the Magnetic Survey of the Antarctic regions brought into prominent view the importance and value of Poisson 's theory . By far the greater part of the Survey having to be executed by daily observation of the three magnetic elements on shipboard , it became desirable for the deduction of the results , that the fundamental equations of Poissoin 's theory should receive such a modification as should adapt them to the form in which the data generally present themselves . This was the first great service which Mr. Smith rendered towards the correction of the irregularities occasioned by the magnetism of ships . Himself a mathematician of the first order , and possessing a remarkable facility ( which is far from common ) of so adapting truths of an abstruse character as to render them available to less highly trained intellects , he derived , at my request , from Poisson 's fundamental equations , simple and practical formulae including the effects both of induced magnetism and of the more persistent magnetism produced in iron which has been hardened by any of the processes through which it has passed . These formulae supplied the means of a sufficiently exact calculation when the results of the Sulrvey were finally brought together and coordinated . They were subsequently printed in the form of memoranda in the account of the Survey in the ' Phil. Trans. ' for 1843 , 1844 , and 1846 . Instances occurred during the Survey , and are recorded in the account , in which ( although these were not iron ships ) the difference of the pointing of the compass on different courses exceeded 90 ? ; the differences almost entirely disappearing when Mr. Smith 's formulae were applied . The assistance which , from motives of private friendship and scientific interest , Mr. Smith had rendered to myself was , from like motives , continued to the two able officers who have successively occupied the post of Superintendent of the Compass Department of the Navy ; and the formula for correcting the deviation , which he had furnished to me , reduced to simple tabular forms , were published by the Admniralty in successive editions for the use of the Royal Navy . As in the course of time the use of steam machiniery , the weight of the armament of ships of war , and generally the use of iron in vessels increased more and more , the great and increasing inconveniences arising from compass-irregularities were more and more strongly felt , and pressed themselves on the attention of the Admiralty and of naval officers . An entire revision of the Admiralty Instructions became necessary . Mr. Smith 's assistance was again freely given , and the result was the publication of ' The Admiralty Manual for ascertaining and applying the Deviations of the Compass caused by the Iron in a Ship . ' The mathematical part of this work , which is due to Mr. Smith , seems to exhaust the subject , and to reduce the processes by simple formulae and tabular and graphic methods to the greatest simplicity of which they are susceptible . Mr. Smith also joined with his fellow-labourer , Capt. Evans , F.IR . S. , the present Superintendent of the Compass Department of the Navy , in laying before the Society several valuable papers containing the results of the mathematical theory applied to observations made on board the iron-built and armour-plated ships of the Royal Navy . Owing in great measure to these researches , the system practised in the Navy has been brought to its present advanced state . The outline of the system may be stated briefly as follows : 1 . As regards the building of ships . It has been ascertained that the amount of disturbance is greatest in iron ships which are built ( in British ports ) with their heads to the North , and is still further and greatly increased in armour-plated ships when they are plated with their heads in the same direction in which they were built . It is therefore desirable that iron ships should not be built with their heads to the north , and that armour-plated ships should be plated in the reverse position to that in which they were built . 2 . In respect to the fitting of ships . It is held to be essential that in every ship a Standard Compass should be fixed in a position selected , not for the convenience of the helmsman or of the builder , but for the moderate and uniform amount of the deviation at and around it , and where every facility exists for the examination of errors , by comparison 500 Anniversary Meeting . , with the azimuths of celestial objects , or by terrestrial bearings . No iron of any kind should be placed , or should be suffered to remain , within a certain distance of the Standard Compass ; in the British naval service this distance is 7 feet : and all vertical iron , such as stanchions , arm-stands , &c. , should be at a still greater distance ; in the British naval service this distance is 14 feet , -whether on the same deck or immediately below it . It is not difficult to select a place where the Standard Compass can be most advantageously placed ; but it is difficult , and some more stringent measures are required than at present exist , to induce ship-builders to adapt the arrangements of the vessel to the requirements of the compass . 3 . In respect to those who have to navigate the ship . Every iron ship should be swung when her cargo is complete , and when she is ready in all respects for sea . Tables of the deviation of the Standard Compass on each course should be made according to the directions now universally adopted in Her Majesty 's Navy , the tabular deviations being applied as corrections to the courses steered . The table of deviations to be carefully watched as the ship proceeds on her voyage , by comparison with the azimuths of celestial objects , and reformed as changes in the geographical position of the ship , or in the magnetic condition of her iron , take place , according to rules which have been devised for that purpose , confirmed by experience , and published by authority . By a strict adherence to the precautions , arrangements , and practices which have been thus briefly sketched , the compass may still , in great measure , retain its place as the invaluable guide to the mariner in iron ships , as it was formerly in wooden ships . But with the increased employment of iron increased vigilance is required in those on whom the responsibilities devolve . The assiduous labours of several eminent men , and prominently amongst them of Mr. Smith , have placed it in the power of any intelligent seaman to navigate his iron ship with safety ; but it cannot be too strongly inculcated , that no processes of supposed correction-whether tabular or mechanical-should be allowed to interfere with the habitual and constant practice of examining the Standard Compass , on all occasions when the state of the heavens will permit , by comparisons with celestial objects . The benefits of Mr. Smith 's labours have not been confined to our own Navy . The works to which he has contributed have been translated into the German , lassian , and French languages . The British system has been adopted in Russia , whose vessels have to navigate a sea in which the magnetic dip , and consequently the deviation of the compass , is even greater than in our own seas . A Compass Observatory has been established at Cronstadt to fulfil the same purposes as our Compass Observatory at Woolwich . Amongst our neighbours the French , whose fleets approximate the nearest to o1ur own in the species of defensive armour which is perilous to their navigation , tli- ! : , yjstem adopted in this country to preserve the utility of the compass lias been the subject of a special mission appointed by the Government , and of a Report addressed to the Minister of the Marine by M. Darondeau , entitled " Rapport h son Excellence le Ministre de la Marine sir in Mission accomplie en Angleterre pour etudier les questions relatives a la regulation des Compass . " The principal conclusions of this Report in reference to the compass by which the ship 's course is to be directed , may be stated in a few words ; and I shall employ for this purpose M. Darondeau 's own expressions , as they are a remarkable testimony to the value of the system adopted in the British Navy . " Etablir sir tons les batimens un Standard Compass , ' ou compass de relevement a post fix , qui no serait pas corrige . Ce compass devrait etre assez Eleve pour permettre de prendre les relevemens par dessus le bastingage ; il devrait en outre etre place dans la position la plus favourable pour n'etre soumis qu'i la force totale du navire , et non aux forces perturbatrices provenant de pieces de fer isolees . Dans ce but on l'elverait de maniire a le soustraire 'a ces dernieres forces perturbatrices . " Ce compass no serait jamais corrig . " ) The italics are mine ; but the repetition of this last injunction is M. Darondean 's own , and is emphasized by him by being made to occupy a line by itself . M. Darondeau also recommends the employment in the French Marine of compasses similar to the Admiralty compass of the British Navy , having four needles attached to the card in the manner and for the purposes originally suggested by Mr. Smith ; and he does not fail to urge on his countrymen the indispensable duty of examining the deviations of the Standard Compass by reference to the heavenly bodies , whenever the state of the weather will permit . MR. SMITH , Receive this iMedal which the Council has awarded vou in testimony of their high sense of the value of your researches on the magnetism of ships . I trust that you will always regard it with a real pleasure , agreeing well with the yet higher pleasure derived from the consciousness of the essential service your generous labours have rendered to the mariners of this and all other maritime nations . I will venture on the personal expression of the high gratification which my position in this chair allows me this day to enjoy-in mine being the hand which places this gMledal in that of one who from his earliest youth has been the object of my ever-increasing high esteem and warm ifiendship . NOTES . NOTE A. The steps which have led to the procurement of a large reflecting telescope for active employment in the southern hemisphere originated in a resolution passed by the General Committee of the British Association assembled at Birmingham in September 1849 , during the Presidency of the Rev. Dr. Thomas Romney Robinson . The resolution was as follows:"That an application be made to Her Majesty 's Government to establish a reflector of not less than 3 feet in diameter at the Cape of Good Iope , and to make such additions to the staff of that observatory as may be necessary for its effectual working ; and that the President be requested to communicate with the Earl of Rosse and Sir J. Herschel , the Astronomer Royal , Sir Thomas Brisbane , and Dr. Lloyd on the subject ; and to obtain the concurrence in the application of the Royal and Astronomical Societies of London , the Royal Society of Edinburgh , and the Royal Irish Academy . " The communications thus directed having been made , the President and Officers of the British Association received on the 9th of the November following ( 1849 ) a reply from the Council of the Royal Astronomical Society , declining to cooperate with the British Association in recommending the establishment of a large reflector at the Cape of Good Hope , on the ground that " a system of observations essentially meridional , as those of the Cape Observatory now are , has very little in common with a system of observations with a large reflector . The Council conceive that the subjects and methods and difficulties of the last-mentioned observations absolutely require the entire energies of a superintendent fitted by his talents and education to be the head of an observatory . They consider therefore that the proposal in question atmounts to nothing less than the establishment of a new observatory , a measure which the Council [ of the Royal Astronomical Society ] are not prepared to recommend . " The reply of the Council of the Royal Society of Edinburgh was dated December 10 , 1849 , and was as follows:-- " The Council [ of the Royal Society of Edinburgh ] are of opinion that it is not expedient at present to take part in the proposed application to Government relative to the large reflecting telescope , suggested to be sent to the Cape of Good H-ope . " No specific reply appears to have been received from the Royal Irish Academy , it having been stated in a letter from Dr. Lloyd to the Rev. Dr. Robinson , that " the Council of the Royal Irish Academy had declined to enter upon the subject , as not being strictly within the province of the Academy . " The reply from the Royal Society of London was dated April 19 , 1850 , and was as follows:"The President and Council of the Royal Society agree entirely with the British Association in their estimate of the importance of the active use of a large reflector in the southern hemisphere , and deem the subject well worthy of a recommendation to Her Majesty 's Government , in which they would be ready to concur ; but they would deem it advisable that , in such recommendation , the locality to which the telescope should be sent , and the establishment to which its use should be confided , should be left to the choice of Her Majesty 's Government . " These replies were submitted to the Council of the British Association on the 20th of May , 1850 , when the Council passed the following resolution : " That the object which the General Committee had in view in their resolution for a recommendation to establish a large reflector at the Cape of Good Hope , viz. the systematic observation of the nebula of the Southern Hlemisphere with an instrument of great optical power , would be accomplished by the establishment of such an instrument in any other part of the Southern Hemisphere which should be equally suitable for the observations in question ; the Council are therefore of opinion that the President will be carrying out the spirit of the recommendation of the General Committee , by putting the proposition to be made to Her Majesty 's Government in the general form suggested by the President and Council of the Royal Society , and by concurring with the President of the Royal Society in submitting the recommendation so modified to the consideration of Her Majesty 's Government . " The President ( Dr. Robinson ) was further requested to draw up a Memorial to accompany the Resolution , and to communicate thereupon with the Earl of Rosse , President of the Royal Society . The Memorial prepared by Dr. Robinson , and concurred in by the Earl of Rosse , was presented , in accompaniment with the Recommendation of the General Committee thus amended , to Earl Russell ( then Lord John iRussell ) , the First Lord of the Treasury . The IMemorial itself may be referred to in the " Report of the Council to the General Committee of the British Association assembled at Edinburgh in July 1850 . " The reply from the Treasury was as follows : ' Treasury Chambers , August 14 , 1850 . 6 SI , --I am commanded by the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty 's Treasury to acquaint you that your 3emorial of the 3rd ultimo , addressed to Lord John Russell , applying , on behalf of the British Association for tl ! e Advancement of Science , for the establishment in some fitting part of Her Majesty 's dominions of a powerful Reflecting Telescope , and for the appointment of an observer charged with the duty of employing it in a review of the Nebulae of the Southern Hemisphere , has been referred by His Lordship to this Board ; and I am directed to inform you with reAnniversary Mreeting . ference thereto , that while My Lords entertain the same views as those expressed by you as to the interest attaching to such observations , yet it appears to their Lordships that there is so much difficulty attending the arrangements which alone could render any scheme of the kind really beneficial to the purposes of science , that they are not prepared to take any steps without much further consideration . " I am , Sir , &c. &c. , " G. CORNEWALL LEWIS . " This reply , though failing to meet the not unreasonable expectations which had been founded on the intrinsic importance of the subject itself and on the earnest recommendation it had received from the two principal scientific institutions of the kingdom , was still so far satisfactory that it conveyed the approval of the Government of the principle of the proposition ; it was reasonable to believe therefore that by perseverance and by a judicious selection of times and opportunities the object would be eventually secured . Such was the view taken by its promoters ; and in accordance with this view the subject was again brought under the consideration of the British Association at their Meeting at Belfast in September 1852 , in the opening address of the President , suggesting that a decision should be taken-whether any , and if any , what official step should be adopted for its immediate furtherance . After the usual discussions in Sections and Committees , the General Committee passed the following Resolution : " That it is expedient to proceed without delay in the establishment in the Southern Hemisphere of a Telescope not inferior in power to a 3-feet Reflector ; and that the President ( Col. Sabine ) , with the assistance of the following gentlemen , viz. the Earl of Rosse , Dr. Robinson , Lord Wrottesley , Professor Adams , the Astronomer Royal , J. Nasmyth , Esq. , Wm. Lassell , Esq. , Sir D. Brewster , and E. J. Cooper , Esq. , be requested to take such steps as they shall deem most desirable to carry this resolution into effect . " The first step taken by this Committee was to communicate the resolution to the President ( The Earl of Rosse ) and Council of the Royal Society , who ( on the 25th of November , 1852 ) resolved as follows : " That the President and Council agree with the British Association in considering it desirable to proceed without delay in obtaining the establishment of a Telescope of very great optical power for the observation of Nebule in a convenient locality in the Southern Hemisphere ; and that a Committee be appointed to take such steps as they may deem most desirable to carry out this resolution . The Committee to consist of the President , Officers , and Council of the Royal Society , with the addition of Sir John Herschel , Sir John Lubbock , and the Dean of Ely . " It was also agreed that the Committee should act conjointly with the gentlemen named in the Resolution passed by the British Association . The joint Committee applied themselves in the first instance to a consideration of the most suitable construction and dimensions of a telescope for the desired purpose . This was effected by a correspondence amongst the members of the Committee , passing through the Secretary of the Royal Society , the letters being printed for greater convenience in circulation . The proceedings of this Committee were terminated by a meeting of its members at the apartments of the Royal Society on July 5 , 1 853 , the Earl of Rosse , President , in the Chair ; when the following resolutions were passed : " 1 . That the Committee approve the proposition made by IMIr . Grubb , and contained in Dr. Robinson 's letter of June 30 , 1853 , for the construction of a four-foot Reflector . " 2 . That application be made to PIer 1lajesty 's Government for the necessary funds . " 3 . That the Presidents of the Royal Society and or the British Association , accompanied by Dr. Robinson , who was associated with the Earl of Rosse in the former application , and lifr . H1opkins , the President elect of the British Association , be a deputation to communicate with Governiment respecting the preceding Resolutions . " 4 . That the Earl of Rosse , Dr. Robinson , Mr. Warren De la Rue , and Mr. Lassell be a Subcommittee for the purpose of superintending the progress of Mr. Grubb 's undertaking . " No record appears to have been made of the subsequent steps taken by this Committee ; but it is understood that the application was made to the Earl of Aberdeen , who had become First Lord of the Treasury , and that the reply received was that " no funds could be then spared as the country was engaged in the Crimean war ; but that when the crisis then impending was past the matter should be taken up . " Lord Aberdeen 's retirement from office , and subsequent death , rendered this promise of no avail . I must now advert to a circumstance which has exercised a most beneficial influence on the proposition for a southern telescope , and has contributed greatly to bring it to its present advanced stage . Amongst the Members of the Mathematical and Physical Section of the British Association who took part in the discussions relating to the telescope at the Belfast Meeting , there was one , hMr . William Parkinson Wilson , Professor of Mathematics in Queen 's College , Belfast , who was remarked for the deep and earnest interest with which he viewed the subject . Appointed shortly afterwards to the Mathematical Chair in the University of Melbourne , Professor Wilson appears to have been impressed by the suitability of Melbourne for such a telescope , both from its latitude and climate , and from the increasing wealth and public spirit of its inhabitants manifested in the liberal support given to many scientific institutions . iMelbourne enjoyed also at that time the great advantage of a Governor , Sir -Henry Barkly , whose education and acquirements enabled him to appreciate the importance in such a colony of scientific cultivation . Being appointed IHlon . Secretary of the Board of Visitors of the Melbourne Observatory , then in process of organization , and with the sanction of the Governor , who was President of the Board , Professor Wilson submitted to the consideration of the Observatory Committee of the Philosophical Institute of Victoria a scheme for the establishment at Melbourne of a reflecting telescope of 4 feet aperture to carry out the objects which had been proposed by the Royal Society and British Association , as already narrated . In this proposition Professor Wilson was warmly supported by Captain Kay , R.N. , F.R.S. , one of the Board of Visitors , who had been for several years Superintendent of the Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory in the sister colony of Tasmania . After discussions at several Meetings , a Memorial was adopted and presented to the Chief Secretary of the Government , adverting to the favourable condition of the finances of the colony , and urging the establishment of such a telescope at Melbourne " as suited alike to render an important service to science , and to redound highly to the credit of the colony , both in Australia and in Europe . " The favourable reception of this Memorial by the Government of Victoria , and the proceedings which followed , will be best explained by the following despatch from Sir Henry Barkly to the Duke of Newcastle , then Secretary of State for the Colonies , transmitted to the Royal Society on October 10 , 1862 , accompanied by the expression of His Grace 's assurance that " the Royal Society would do whatever may be in their power for encouraging science in the colony of Victoria . " Governor Sir H. BarlMy to the Duke of Newcastle . ( Copy . ) Government Offices , Melbourne , MY LORD DUKE , 23rd July , 1862 . The Board of Visitors to the Melbourne Observatory , over which I have the honour to preside , being of opinion that the project long entertained of erecting in the Southern Hemisphere a telescope of much greater optical power than that used by Sir John Herschel at the Cape of Good Hope , would be materially advanced by an expression of interest and sympathy on the part of scientific men in England , has requested me to bring the subject under Your Grace 's notice , with a view to its being submitted for the Report of the Royal Society of London and the British Association for the Advancement of Science . I have great pleasure in forwarding accordingly , with the approval of my advisers , an extract from the Board 's Minutes , together with the accompanying letter from its Honorary Secretary , Professor Wilson , in which the reasons for this step are so fully set forth , and the advantages likely to arise from obtaining a powerful instrument for this purpose so clearly explained , as to leave nothing for me to add beyond earnestly soliciting Your Grace 's good offices in the matter . It will be observed that the pecuniary cooperation of the British Government is not applied for ; but I need hardly say that even the smallest donation from that quarter would much facilitate raising the necessary funds . I avail myself of this opportunity to put Your Grace in possession of the Second Annual Report of the Board of Visitors , from which it will be found that a commencement has been made in the erection of the new Observatory , advocated in the Report previously transmitted ; and I am glad to be able further to state that a sum of ? 4500 has since been voted by the Legislature for the completion of the requisite buildings . Should it be possible , therefore , to add an equatorially mounted telescope , the Astronomical Branch of the Observatory will be rendered complete , and no greater expense than at present will be incurred for the Staff attached to it . I have , &c. , ( Signed ) IHENRY BARKLY . His Grace the Duke of Newcastle , K. G. , ~c . , c. ~c . Professor Wilson to Sir IH . Barkly . ( Copy . ) The University , Melbourne , 16th July , 1862 . SIR , I have the honour , by direction of the Board of Visitors to the Observatories , to forward to Your Excellency the accompanying extract from the Minutes of a Meeting held yesterday , and to express a hope that you will comply with the request contained in it . Though entertaining no doubt of the importance of the results to be obtained by such a telescope as is recommended , or of the conspicuous and creditable position which Melbourne would consequently occupy in the eyes of all persons in Europe who take an interest in Science , the Board is desirous of obtaining all expression of opinion from scientific men in England , because it is due to those who may be asked to contribute towards its accomplishment that the importance of the object should be attested by higher scientific authority than the Board can lay claim to ; because also it considers that every means should be used to obtain , so far as funds will permit , the best instrument which modern skill and recent inventions render possible ; because , finally , the Board feel that , wliether the cost of the instrument be defrayed wholly or partially by private contributions or a grant from the Legislature , public sympathy will be much more strongly enlisted in its favour by a statement of the interest taken in the matter in Europe , and by the approval of the Imperial Government , than by any representation which the Board can make . I have , &c. , ( Signed ) W. P. WILSON , Secretary to the Board of Visitors . His Excellency the Governor . [ Nov. 30 , 508 Anniversary Meeting . Extract from the Minutes of a Meeting of the Board of Visitors to the Observatories , held 15 July 1862 . " The attention of the Board having been drawn to the following circumstances"I . That , as long since as 1849 the facts brought to light by Lord Rosse 's Telescope were judged by the Royal Society of London and the British Association for the Advancement of Science to be so important as to justify them in making an urgent appeal to the British Government for the erection , at some suitable place in south latitude , of a telescope for the examination of the multiple stars and the nebulae of the Southern Hemisphere , having greater optical power than that used by Sir John Herschel at the Cape of Good Hope ; which appeal there is little doubt would have been successful but for the Russian war and the consequent expenditure ; " II . That , since that time , Lord loss reports that he has discovered systematic changes in some of the most important northern nebulme ; " III . That the interest and scientific importance of the solution of the problem of their physical structure , as well as the probability of its accomplishment , are thus greatly increased ; " IV . That some of the most important nebulae , and those presenting the greatest variety of physical features in close proximity , can be observed only in places having a considerable southern latitude ; " V. That the geographical position and clear atmosphere of Melbourne render it peculiarly suitable for this work , and that the arrangements already made for the establishment of an Astronomical Observatory on a permanent footing offer great facilities for carrying it on ; " VI . That , independently of the especial object to which such telescope would be applied , an Astronomical Observatory cannot be considered complete without an equatorially mounted telescope of large optical power : " It was Resolved , " 1st . That , in the opinion of the Board , the establishment of such a telescope in AMelbourne would materially promote the advancement of science . " 2nd . That , before applying to the Colonial Government for any pecuniary grant in aid of this object , His Excellency the Governor be requested to obtain , through the Secretary of State for the Colonies , an expression of opinion from scientific men in England as to the importance of the results to be expected from it , the most suitable construction of telescope for the purpose , both as to the optical part and the mounting , its probable cost , and the time requisite for its completion . " On the receipt of this communication from the Colonial Office , a correspondence ensued , passing through myself as President of the Royal Society , consisting of twenty-three letters , the writers being Mr. Lassell , Sir John Herschel , the Earl of Rosse , Dr. Robinson , Mr. Grubb , and Mr. De la Rue , which was printed for private circulation amongst the Fellows of the Royal Society . The correspondence led to and terminated in the following Report 2 from the President and Council addressed to the Duke of Newcastle , in reply to His Grace 's communication of October 10 , 1862:-"Report of the President and Council of the Royal Society respecting the proposal of erecting in MIelbourne a Telescope of greater optical powier than any previously used in the Southern flemisphere . " 1 . The President and Council learn with pleasure that the Board of Visitors at the Melbourne Observatory have proposed resolutions , indicating their sense of the importance of erecting at Melbourne an equatorially mounted Telescope of great optical power , and that the proposal is favourably regarded by Sir Ienry Barkly , Governor of Victoria , and by His Grace the Secretary for the Colonies . In respect to the importance which the President and Council attach to such an undertaking , they need do no more than refer to the fact that in the year 1850 the Royal Society and the British Association for the Advancement of Science presented a joint Memorial to Her Majesty 's Government , in which they urged the establishment of such a telescope at some suitable place in the Southern Hemisphere . The scientific objects to be attained thereby are so clearly stated in that Memorial , of which a copy is enclosed , and in the Resolutions of the Board of Visitors of the Melbourne Observatory , in July 1862 , that the President and Council feel it unnecessary to do more than refer to these documents . " 2 . Since the presentation of the Memorial of 1850 , an equatorially mounted telescope of greater optical power than that then recommended lias actually been constructed by Mr. Lassell , at his own expense , in England , and erected in Malta , where he is now occupied in making observations with it : we have now , therefore , in addition to our previous knowledge , the benefit of his experience . In referring to Mr. Lassell 's Telescope , the President and Council wish it , however , to be understood that they do not conceive that it should necessarily be copied in all respects , and that for the present they think it best to leave the details of construction in many respects open to further consideration . " 3 . When the sulject was previously under consideration , letters were written to some of the most eminent practical astronomers of Great Britain and Ireland , requesting them to state their opinions as to the best mode of construction ; and a correspondence ensued , of which a printed copy is sent herewith . After receiving the communication from the Colonial Office of the 10th of last October , the President wrote to the four gentlemen who were appointed as a Committee on the former occasion to superintend the construction of the instrument ( in case the Government should accede to the request ) , and also to Sir John Herschel , enclosing a copy of the former correspondence , and asking whether their views had in any way changed in the interval . The answers received from each have been circulated among the others , as was done on the former occasion , and have in most cases elicited additional remarks . " 4 . Availing themselves of the information thus so kindly afforded them , the President and Council have to recommend as follows regarding the construction of the instrument contemplated . " ( a ) That the telescope he a reflector , with an aperture of not less than four feet . This is essential , as no refractor would have the power required . " ( b ) That the large mirror be of speculum-metal . Such mirrors can be constructed with certainty of success , and at a cost which can be foretold ; whereas the recently introduced plan of glass silvered by a chemical process has not yet been sufficiently tried on so large a scale as that contemplated . " ( c ) That the tube be constructed of open work , and of metal . Lord Rosse has recently changed the tube of his three-foot altazimuth from a close to an open or skeleton one , and it is understood that he intends doing the same with his great telescope . Mr. Lassell 's tube is also an open one , which his experience leads him decidedly to prefer . " ( d ) The telescope should be furnished with a clock-movement in right ascension . " ( e ) Apparatus for repolishing the speculum should be provided . " ( f ) With respect to the form of reflector to be adopted , some difference of opinion exists , as the Newtonian and Cassegrainian have each some advantages not possessed by the other . On this point further correspondence appears desirable ; but as the main features of the scheme are the same in both cases , there does not appear to be any occasion to wait till this point shall have been finally decided . 5 . With respect to the cost , something must depend on the solidity of the construction and the perfection of the workmanship ; but if it be assumed that the workmanship shall be of the best description , and the instrument firnnished , as seems desirable , with polishing apparatus , and a second speculum for using while the other is being polished , it is probable that the cost will not fall much short of ? 5000 . " 6 . It is estimated that the construction of the instrument will occupy about eighteen months . " 7 . It seems highly desirable that the future Observer should come to England during a part at least of the time occupied in the construction of the instrument , in order that he may become thoroughly acquainted with all its details , and especially with the mode of repolishing ; and also that he may personally acquaint himself with the working arrangements followed at the Observatories of the Earl of Rosse and Mr. Lassell , who have expressed their willingness to afford him every facility . " This Report , accompanied by several copies of the Correspondence adverted to , was transmitted in due course to Melbourne . In 1863 Mr. Lassell made the most liberal offer of freely presenting for the observations at Melbourne his own 4-foot reflector , with which he had been carrying on a series of observations at Malta , as soon as that series should be completed , or in the course of a year or two . The construction of this telescope had been largely considered and discussed in the correspondence already adverted to . On Mr. Lassell 's munificent offer being transmitted to Melbourne , the authorities there were at first disposed to embrace it ; but subsequently , on further consideration and correspondence , they determined to revert to the original plan , of a telescope to be constructed by Mr. Grubb expressly to meet in the most perfect attainable manner all the special requirements of the case . This plan is described in a letter addressed to Dr. Robinson on the 3rd of December , 1862 , being the thirteenth letter in the printed Correspondence referred to . It seems scarcely possible to doubt the wisdom , in every point of view , of the decision thus arrived at . The alterations which would have been required in Mr. Lassell 's telescope would have demanded a large proportion of the time and the expense needed for the construction of the new one ; and the result would have been that Europe would have lost all the services which Mr. Lassell 's telescope may still perform-while Australia would have had a much less perfect instrument , for the especial purposes in view , than it will now possess . In April 1864 a proposition for a grant of ? 5000 , to cover the expense of constructing a telescope , was submitted to the Colonial Legislature by one of its members , Mr. Alexander John Smith , also a Member of the Board of Visitors of the Observatory , who , previously to his residence in Victoria , had been one of that band of highly-trained naval observers who , under the command of Sir J. C. Ross , had accomplished , between the years 1839 and 1843 , the Magnetic Survey of the Antarctic regions , and had subsequently become one of the officers employed with Capt. Kay in the Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory at iHobarton . This proposition was successful ; and the notification received from Professor Wilson is printed in the text of this Address , p. 483 . NOTE B. The number of hourly tabulations from the photographic traces of the bifilar magnetometer at Kew , between January 1 , 1858 , and December 31 , 1864 , is 60,491 : of these , the number in which the amount of disturbance from the normal of the same year , month , and hour equalled or exceeded 0'150 division of the scale , or '0015 of the total horizontal force at Kew , was 5932 , being about one in ten of the whole number of tabulated hourly values . The aggregate value of the 5932 disturbed observations in parts of the bifilar scale , of which 1 inch equals *01 of the whole horizontal force , was as follows : Year ending December 31 , 1858 ... ... . . 267'893 inches . 1859 ... ... . 369286 , , 1860 ... ... . . 270-349 , , , , 1861 ... ... . 206-748 , , , ,,1862 ... ... 183-645 , , , , 1863 ... ... . . 114-642 , , , , , 1864 ... ... . 114-725 , The mean annual value in the seven years is 218-184 inches ; and the ratios of disturbance , in each of the seven years , to the mean annual value are as follows Year ending December 31 , 1858 ... ... ... . 1-23 , , , 1859 ... ... ... . 1-69 , , , , 1860 ... ... ... . 1'24 , , , , 1861 ... ... ... . 0'95 , 1862 ... ... ... . 0-84 , , , , 1863 ... ... ... . 0-53 , , , , 1864 ... ... ... 0-53 NOTE C. Mean Annual Values of the Magnetic Inclination at Toronto deduced from the Monithly Determinations ; reprinted from Table LIII . ( p. 93 ) of the 'Abstracts of Observations made at the Magnetic Observatory at Toronto , ' published by its Director , G. T. Kingston , Esq. The years 1863 and 1864 are added from the Numbers of the ' Canadian Journal of Science . ' " The monthly determinations were commonly made on three consecutive days , as nearly as possible about the middle of the month . One determination was usually made each day between noon and I P.M. The monthly and annual means were derived directly from the observations . " Years . 1853 . 1854 . 1855.1856 . 1857 . 1858 . 1859 . 1860 . 1861 . 1862 . 1863.11864 . Yearly 1/ / Means . 22-17 22'96 23'54 24-06 24 32 24 44 24:98 2455 23'75 23-19 21-47 20-93 75 ? + . _ On the motion of Mr. Warren De la Rue , seconded by Colonel York , it was resolved , - " That the thanks of the Society be returned to the President for his Address , and that he be requested to allow it to be printed . " The Statutes relating to the election of Council and Officers having been read , and Mr. De la Rue and Mr. Merrifield having been , with the consent of the Society , nominated Scrutators , the votes of the Fellows present were collected , and the following were declared duly elected as Council and Officers for the ensuing year : President.-Lieut.-General Edward Sabine , R.A. , D.C.L. , LL. D. Treasurer.-William Allen Miller , M.D. , LL. D. Secretaries . William Sharpey , M.D. , LL. D.\ George Gabriel Stokes , Esq. , M.A. , D.C.L. Foreign Secretary . -Professor William Hallows Miller , M.A. Other Members of the Council.-John Frederic Bateman , Esq. ; Lionel Smith Beale , Esq. , M.B. ; William Bowman , Esq. ; Commander F. J. Owen Evans , R.N. ; Edward Frankland , Esq. , Ph. D. ; Francis Galton , Esq ; John Peter Gassiot , Esq. ; John Edward Gray , Esq. , Ph. D. ; Thomas Archer Hirst , Esq. , Ph. D. ; Sir Henry Holland , Bart. , M.D. , D.C.L. ; William Odling , Esq. , M.B. ; Sir John Rennie , Knt. ; Prof. Warington W. Smyth ; William Spottiswoode , Esq. , M.A. ; Paul E. Count de Strzlecki , C.B. , D.C.L. ; Vice-Chancellor Sir W. P. Wood , D.C.L. The thanks of the Society were voted to the Scrutators . Receipts and Pytyments of the Royal Society between December 1 , 1864 , and November 30 , 1865 . ? s. d. Balance at Bank , and on hancl ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 683 14 1 Annual Subscriptions ald Compositions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 1771 16 0 ents ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 249 5 Dividends on Stock ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 93 10 11 Ditto , Ditto , Trust Funds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 281 17 6 Ditto , Ditto , Stevenson Bequest ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 512 11 10 Sale of Transactions , Proceedings , &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 308 16 9 Chemical Society , Proceedings , 1863-64 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 50 00 Tea Expenses and Gas , repaid ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 43 60 Prof. Cayley , repaid to Donation Fu-nd ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 15 00 Parcel Charges recovered ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 118 7 . ? 4882 01 Estates azd Property of the Royal Society , including Trust Fiunds . Estate at Mablethorpe , Lincolnshire ( 55 A. 2. . 2 r. ) , ? 126 Os . Od . per annum . Estate at Acton , Middlesex ( 34 A. 3 a. 11 P. ) , ? 110 Os . Od . per annum . Fee farm rent in Sussex , A19 4s . per annumn . One-fifth of the clear rent of an estate at Lambeth Hill , from the College of Physicians , ? 3 per annum . ? 14,000 Reduced 3 per Cent. Annuities . ? 28,969 15s . 7d . Consolidated Bank Annuities . ? 513 9s . 8d . New 24 per Cent. Stock . Balance clue to Bankers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 135 7 10 x5017 7 11 . r~ ' ? s. d. Salaries , Wages , and Pension ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 1023 17 0 I1000 Consolidated Bank Annuities , bought at 90 ... ... 905 00 The Scientific Catalogue ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 235 9 10 ]Books for the Library and Biding ... ... ... ... ..362 7 10 Printing Transactions and Proceedings , Paper , Binding , Engraving , and Lithography ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 1711 10 9 INew Bookcases , Painting , and Repairs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 127 31 Coal and Lighting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 109 12 Tea Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 46 15 2 Fire Insurance ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 42 16 Shipping Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 13 11 Taxes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15 13 Law Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 47 7 10 Stationery ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 10 66 Miscellaneous Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 48 03 Postage , Parcels , and Petty Charges ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 33 12 2 Advertising ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14 10 6 Subscription:-Mablethorpe Schools ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 220 Rumford Fund ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 138 5 10 Donation Fund ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 75 00 Wintringham Fund ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3069 Copley Medal Fund ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15 0 259 19 Prof. Roscoe , Bakerian Lecture ... ... ... ... ... ... 40 Dr. Beale , Fairchild Lecture ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 18 5 } Rev. T. S. Evans , Croonian Lecture ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2 18 5 5001 18 11 Balance of Catalogue Accotunt ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 11 17 3 , , Petty Cash Account ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 11 9 ? e5017 7 11 WILLIAM ALLEN MILLER , Treasurer . I 0.o ScientiJic Relief Fund . Investments up to July 1865 , New 3 per Cent. Annuities ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ? 6052 17 8 Dr. ? s. d. To Balance , Subscriptions and Dividends ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 1129 0 8 ? 1129 0 8 ? 6052 17 8 Cr . ? s. d. By Grants ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 275 00 Purchase of Stock ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 672 10 0 Balance ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 181 10 8 ? 1129 08 Statement of Income andExpenditure ( apart from Trust Fundls ) during the Year ending November 30 , 1865 . Annual Subscriptions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Admission Fees ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Compositions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Rents ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Dividends on Stock ( exclusive of Trust Funds ) ... ... ... ... on Stevenson Bequest ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Sale of Transactions , Proceedings , &c. ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . Chemical Society , for Proceedings , 1863-64 ... ... ... ... ... Chemical Society , Tea Expenses ... ... ... ... ? 15 11 81 Linnean Society , Tea Expenses ... ... ... ... ... 15 11 8 Geographical 'Society , Gas at Evening 848 Meetings ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . J. . CambridgeLocalExamination Committee , Gas 3 18 O0 Parcel Charges recovered ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ? s. d. 1131 16 0 180 00 460 00 249 85 963 10 11 512 11 10 308 16 9 500 0 31 34 12 281 18 7 Income available for the Year ending Nov. 30 , 1865 ... ... 3901 86 Expenditure in the Year ending Nov. 30 , 1865 ... ... ... ... 3834 09 Excess of Income over Expenditure in the Year ending ? 67 79 Nov. 30 , 1865 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . J ? ad$ s. d. Salaries , Wages , and Pension ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 1023 17 0 The Scientific Catalogue ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 235 9 10 Books for the Library ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 283 7 10 Binding ditto ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 79 00 Printing Transactions , Part III . 1864 , and 497 6 Part I. 1865 ... ... ... ... ... . . , ... ... ... ... ... Ditto Proceedings , Nos. 68-77 ... ... ... ... ... 305 41 Ditto MIiscellaneous ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 614 6 1711 10 9 Paper for Transactions and Proceedings ... 347 16 6 Binding and Stitching ditto ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 105 95 Engraving and Lithography ... ... ... ... ... ... 389 19 10 ) New Bookcases , Painting , and Repairs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 127 31 Miscellaneous Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 48 03 Coal and Lighting ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 109 12 Tea Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 46 15 2 Fire Insurance ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 42 16 Subscription:-Mablethorpe Schools ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 220 Shipping Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 4 13 11 Taxes ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 15 13 Law Expenses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 47 7 10 Stationery ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 10 66 Advertising ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 14 10 6 Postage , Parcels , and Petty Charges ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 33 12 2 WILLIAM ALLEN MILLER , ? 3834 09 Treasurer . 0o L:Correspondence on Magnetism of Ships , The following Table shows the progress and present state of the Society with respect to the number of Fellows : Patron Having Paying Paying and Foreign , com ? 2 12s . ? 4 Total . Royal . pounded . annually , annually . November 30 , 1864 . 6 49 320 3 276 654 Since elected ... ... + ... ... 9 ... ... +10 + 20 Since deceased - ... . -2 -20 ... ... -10 -33 Since withdrawn ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . -1 Since defaulter ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 1 -1 November 30 , 1865 . 6 47 309 3 274 639

112176

3701662

Further Correspondence between the Board of Trade and the Royal Society, in Reference to the Magnetism of Ships, and the Meteorological Department

516

541

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

T. H. Farrer|W. S. Fane|George B. Seyfang|Edward Sabine|Frederick John Evans|J. Emerson Tennet

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1865.0086

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112176

10.1098/rspl.1865.0086

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112176

Biography

Measurement

Biography

Further Correspondence between the Board of Trade and the Royal Society , in reference to the Magnetism of Ships , and the Meteorological Department * . Mr , Fcrrer to General Sabine . " Board of Trade , Whitehall , 25th July , 1865 . 4 " SIR , -I am directed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 25th 3Iay , and its enclosed Memorandum , calling attention to the subject of the adjustment of compasses in iron vessels . " The Memorandum states that the subject of the deviation of compasses is one which has hitherto been regarded as too intricate and obscure to be made the subject of practical rules for seafaring men , but that recent experience has placed the science on a sound basis , and has made it possible to frame rules which there will be no practical difficulty in applying . " The Memorandum further intimates what those rules should be with respect to the placing and adjustment of compasses , and suggests that measures should be taken by the Board of Trade to enforce their observance . It also suggests that steps should be taken to compel Merchant Officers to become acquainted with them ; and finally recommends that for the accomplishment of these purposes an Officer should be appointed , whose duty it should be , in communication with the Compass Department of the Admiralty , to aid the Board of Trade in carrying it into effect . " The Board of Trade desire me in reply to return their thanks to the Royal Society for calling attention to a subject which is of first-rate importance to the Mvercantile Marine . They have no doubt that the present practice is far from satisfactory ; nor do they think that the steps taken by the Board of Trade under the provisions of existing Acts are such as to remedy the evil . At the same time they can see considerable difficulty in adopting all the suggestions made by the Royal Society . " The steps which the Board of Trade now take are as follows:"The Merchant Shipping Act provides that the compasses of passenger steamers shall be adjusted to the satisfaction of the Board of Trade Surveyors , and according to regulations laid down by the Board of Trade . This duty the Surveyors do as well as the means at their disposal enable them to do , and according to regulations which will be found in paragraphs 83 to 86 of the accompanying ' Instructions to Surveyors . ' " As regards the information of Masters and fvates , the Board of Trade have circulated a pamphlet , prepared by 3M~r . Towson , of Liverpool , which is , no doubt , known to the Royal Society , and have added a general question on the subject to the Examination-papers . " Under these circumstances it is to be considered whether the Board of Trade can , and whether , if they can , they ought to do more than they d either as regards the proper supply and adjustment of compasses , or as regards the diffusion of information on the subject . " As regards the first of these points , viz. the proper supply and adjustment of compasses , the Royal Society will , no doubt , concur with the Board of Trade in thinking that it is very undesirable for the Legislature or the Government , except under very exceptional circumstances , to take upon themselves responsibilities which properly belong to shipowners and insurers , or to dictate to those persons the mode in which they shall carry on their business . The proper supply and adjustment of compasses is a matter so material to the safety and success of their undertakings , that motives of self-interest are likely to effect much greater and much better results than could be hoped for by the compulsory interference of a Government Department . These considerations will have to be very carefully weighed before any attempt is made to obtain from the Legislature further powers for the regulation of compasses in merchant ships . And under the law , as it now stands , the Board of Trade do not see what effectual step they can take in the direction pointed out by the Royal Society . " In the first place , the powers under which they act only apply to passenger steamers , whilst the want which the Royal Society wish to meet is felt just as much in the case of other iron vessels , which are becoming more numerous every day . " In the second place , the powers of the Board of Trade only extend to obtaining a Certificate ' that the compasses have been properly adjusted . ' They do not enable the Board of Trade or its Officers to see that the compasses are good , or to require-what the Royal Society appears to consider 517 1865 . ] the most important condition of all-that there should be a Standard Compass ( in addition to the Steering Compass ) so placed as to be free from local attraction . " This Board cannot , therefore , do what is wanted under the present Acts . " There is , however , a body , namely , Lloyd 's Register Committee , whose proper business it is to see that ships classed by them are seaworthy , and 3My Lords will refer this part of the subject to them , stating what they hear upon the subject from the Royal Society . This Board will also gladly communicate to Lloyd 's any practical rules which the Royal Society can furnish as to the supply , placing , and adjustment of compasses , and as to the effect upon them of different modes of construction of the hull of the ship . " Secondly . As regards the diffusion of information on the subject of compasses , especially among Merchant Officers , the first desideratum appears to be a clear and intelligible Manual or set of directions upon the subject , containing such practical rules as the present state of Science can furnish , and such a statement of the principles as may be necessary for the comprehension of those rules . My Lords will be glad to be informed by the Royal Society if they can put them in the way of obtaining such a M3anual . Any expense connected with its preparation will be readily defrayed by the Board of Trade . " The next step to be taken would be to introduce the subject into places of nautical education . On this the Board of Trade can do nothing except communicate with the Science and Art Department , which they will gladly do on hearing from the Royal Society that such a Manual as above mentioned is in preparation . " The third step would be to introduce the subject more effectually into Examinations in Navigation , and to have printed questions prepared for the purpose . On this point also the Board of Trade would be glad to know whether the Royal Society can give them information or assistance . One difficulty which will arise will be the difficulty in finding Examiners who have given sufficient attention to the subject , and the first step must probably be to instruct the Examiners themselves . For this purpose also the suggested Manual will be of great importance . '"The steps suggested above may be taken with the aid of the Royal Society , without any such appointment by the Board of Trade of an additional officer as the Royal Society suggest . " This disposes of most of the important points referred to . There are two which still require notice . The Royal Society propose that the suggested new Officer of the Board of Trade shall assist at inquiries into wrecks , where ( luestions arise concerning the deviation of the compass . Though the Board of Trade are not prepared to appoint a special officer for this purpose , or to commit the inquiry to such an officer , they think that it would be very useful if , in the cases of future inquiries into 518 [ Nov. 30 , wrecks , where important questions concerning compasses are likely to be raised , a person thoroughly acquainted with the subject could attend and give the Court the benefit of his opinion . On this subject the Board will communicate with the Admiralty . " Lastly , the Royal Society refer to the possible improvement of the science by means of further observations . As regards this , all the Board of Trade could do would be to obtain observations from Masters of merchant ships , in the manner originally proposed by the Royal Society , when the Meteorological Department of this office was established . The whole subject of that department is now under consideration , and this branch of the subject of the Royal Society 's letter will be considered in connexion with the rest of that department . " I have the honour to be , Sir , " Your obedient Servant , " T. I. FARREn . " ' Major-Getneral Sabine , ; c. dc . C'c . , President Royal Society . " Mr. Fane to General Sabine . " Board of Trade , Whitehall , 12th August , 1865 . SIR , --I am directed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade to forward to you the enclosed copy of a letter received from the Secretary to Lloyd 's Register , in answer to a communication from this Board relative to the subject of Compasses in Iron Ships . " I am , Sir , " Your obedient Servant , " MajorGeneral Sabine , 4'c . c'e . 4c . , " W. S. FANE . " Presildent Royal Society . " ( Inzlosure . ) " Lloyd 's Register of British and Foreign Shipping , 2 White Lion Court , Cornhill , 4th August , 1865 . " SI , - , I am directed to acknowledge the receipt of your letter dated 25th ultimo , with its enclosures , relating to the variation &c. of Compasses in Iron Ships , and to acquaint you that it occupied the attention of the Committee of this Society at their Meeting yesterday . " It appears that it is a subject encompassed with difficulties , and that but little is known at present as to any method which shall ensure satisfactory action of compasses in iron vessels . " The Committee apprehend therefore that it will not be in their power to take any active steps in the matter ; but they will avail themselves of such means as are at their disposal to obtain information on the important s1865 . ] 519 subject thus brought under their notice , and will apprize the Board of Trade Authorities of the result of their inquiries . " I am , &c. , ( Signed ) " GEo . B. SEYFANG , " T. H. Farrer , Esq. , " Secretary . " Secretary , Board of Trade , Lowndon . " General Sabine to Mr. Farrer . " Llandovery , S. Wales , Aug. 28th , 1865 . c " SIR , -I beg to acknowledge the receipt of your letter ( 3027W ) of the 12th inst . , enclosing copy of a letter received from the Secretary to Lloyd 's Register . They shall be duly laid before the Council of the Royal Society , together with your previous letter , at the first Meeting after the recess. . " From inquiries which I have made I have reason to believe that when the proper time shall come a M3anual , such as you have referred to , for the instruction and guidance of the builders , fitters , and navigators of the iron ships employed in conveying passengers and merchandise , might be supplied by persons whose sound and practical knowledge qualify them eminently for rendering such a public service ; but a work which should satisfy all the requirements referred to in your letter cannot be prepared until the system to be adopted in the Mercantile Marine shall have been , to some extent at least , determined , and then not without the concurrence of the person or persons who should be charged with bringing the system into practical operation . " . The success which has attended the steps taken by the Board of Admiralty to remedy the evils resulting from the disturbance of the compass in Her Majesty 's Ships at a time when the science was in a comparatively rudimentary state , is owing to the combination of a proper code of instructions with arrangements for their enforcement under official and competent superintendence , and may be advantageously referred to as a precedent should the Board be disposed to adopt a similar proceeding . " I have the honour to be , Sir , " Your obedient Servant , " T. H. Farrer , Esq. " EDWAAD SABINE . " Mr , Farrer to General Sabine . " Board of Trade , Whitehall , 23rd October , 1865 . " SIR , -I am directed by the Board of Trade to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 28th August relative to the preparation of a Manual for the guidance and instruction of persons employed in the construction and navigation of iron ships . " In reply , I am to thank you for your communication , and to observe that the object of this Board , in proposing a Manual of this kind , was , in 520 [ Nov. 30 , the first and chief place , to place in the hands of those interested in shipping , the means of making themselves acquainted with the results of recent observation , which the Royal Society say can now be made available in practice , and the Board of Trade supposed , and still hope , that this may be done without involving the necessity of Government interference with , and supervision over , the Mercantile Marine . " I have the honour to be , Sir , " Your obedient Servant , " Major-General Sabine , < cf. 4 , c. Tc . , T. I. FARRER . " President Royal Society . " Mfr . Farrer to General Sabine . " Office of Committee of Privy Council for Trade , Whitehall , 24th October , 1865 . ' SIR , -I am directed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade , to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 15th June last , on the subject of the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade , and to thank yourself and the Council of the Royal Society for the valuable information , advice , and suggestions which it contains . " The Council of the Royal Society discuss the system of Weather Telegraphy , and recommend that it shall be continued ; they approve of the proposal to hand over to the Hydrographer to the Admiralty such part of the observations collected in the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade as he can make use of in constructing Charts for the use of seafaring men . And they discuss and recommend the adoption of a new system of making and recording Meteorological Observations on land . " As regards , however , one branch of the subject , viz. Meteorological Observations made at sea , which formed the original object of the Meteorological Department , and the chief subject of the letter from the Royal Society of the 22nd February , 1855 , the Board of Trade are not satisfied that they fully understand the present views of the Royal Society . " Your letter says in answer to Question 1 , contained in my letter of the 26th May last , asking ' Are the objects specified in the Royal Society 's letter of the 22nd February , 1855 , still as important for the interests of Science and Navigation as they were then considered ? ' that ' The President and Council are of opinion that the objects specified in the Royal Society 's letter of 22nd February , 1855 , are as important for the interests of Science as they were then considered . ' " And it further says in answer to Question 2 , asking ' To what extent have any of these objects been answered by what has already been done by the Meteorological Department ? ' that ' Much has without doubt been accomplished in the collection of facts bearing on Marine Meteorology ; but as no systematic publication of the results has yet been made , the President and Council are unable to reply more specifically . ' It is probably for the reasons contained in this answer , that whilst the other sub1865 . ] 521 jects above mentioned are fully discussed in your letter , the subject of these Meteorological Observations at sea is scarcely referred to . " It is , however , essential that the Board of Trade should be rightly informed upon this point before they can determine what steps should be taken with regard to the Meteorological Department . What is the value of the Observations at sea already collected ? what steps should be taken to make them useful ? and whether any , and , if any , what further observations of the same kind should be collected , are questions which must be answered before any final arrangement can be made with respect to the other points mentioned in your letter . With the view of clearing up these points , the Board of Trade are disposed to suggest the appointment of a small Committee , consisting , say of three or four persons , to examine the whole of the data already collected by the Meteorological Department ; to inquire whether any , and what steps should be taken for digesting and publishing them ; and also to report whether it is desirable that observations of a similar kind shall still continue to be collected . Such a Committee would also in all probability be able to make valuable recommendations as to the mode in which the business of the Department ( if continued ) shall be conducted , and as to the form in which the daily weather reports ( by whomsoever they may be made ) should be published . " If the Royal Society concur in this suggestion , the Board of Trade would ask them to appoint , as a member of the Committee , some gentleman whose acquirements would enable him to give valuable advice on the scientific part of the subject , and they would also ask the Admiralty to appoint another member . The Board of Trade will feel much obliged if you will favour them with the opinion of the President and Council on this suggestion . " With reference to the subject of Meteorological Observations on land , the Board of Trade do not clearly understand whether the Royal Society think that they should be substituted for , or be in addition to the Meteorological Observations at sea , which were originally suggested by the Royal Society . They are disposed to agree with the Royal Society in thinking that any observations of a scientific nature would be better conducted under the authority and supervision of a scientific body such as the Royal Society , or the British Association , than of a Government Department . But they do not see how they could advise the Government to sanction any plan which would involve the establishment of two separate Offices for Meteorological purposes , one under the Board of Trade at Whitehall , and the other at Kew . It seems to them obvious that any assistance to be given by Parliament for Meteorological purposes will be more advantageously employed if concentrated at one place , and in one set of hands , than it can be if distributed among different Establishments . I have the honour to be , Sir , " Your most obedient Servant , " The President of the Royal Society . " " T. II FARERa . " 522 [ Nov. 30 , StfiCommander Evans , R.N. , to General Sabine . " Ilydrographic Office , October 23rd , 1865 . " MY DEAR SIR , -I have forwarded to Burlington House for your acceptance , a copy of my letter of suggestions relative to iron ships and their compasses , drawn up for the Board of Trade . " I gathered from a recent conversation that you were desirous of having this document , with the possible view of showing it to the Council of the Royal Society . I hope it may be found usoful , as supplementary to your and their labours . " " I am , my dear Sir , " Yours very faithfully , " General Sabine , c..c . 4c . " " C FRED . JNo . EVANS . " Copy of Letter , with Appendices , from StaffCoommander Evans , R.N. , to the Hycydrographer of the Admiralty . " Admiralty , Ilydrographic Department , September 1865 . " SIR , -Having carefully examined the correspondence between the President and Council of the Royal Society and the Board of Trade on the Magnetism of Ships , together with the Aemorandum appended to the President 's letter of the 18th May , and having also considered the requisitions made by the Board of Trade to the Admiralty , by letter of the 28th July , 1865 , to be furnished through the Compass Department with any information or suggestions on the subject , I have to submit the following for your consideration . " The Memorandum of the Royal Society is so comprehensive in its general views of the subject , that little remains to be added to the arguments and reasons therein advanced ; but in those matters of detail which would require attention in the event of action being taken on the recommendations of that body , there are several suggestions which present themselves , and which possibly may be useful to the Board of Trade . To these I address myself . " To clearly understand the existing difference of administration , in compass-equipment and efficiency , between the Royal and Mercantile MIarine , it is necessary to point out the views the Board of Admiralty entertained , and the steps they deemed it necessary to take on the introduction of steam machinery , and of so much iron in the general construction of ships of the Royal Navy . ( Passing over the investigations successively made under their auspices by Flinders in 1814 , Barlow in 1821 , and Johnson in 1.836 the Admiralty in 1837 , ' deeming it necessary to apply some remedy to an evil so pregnant with mischief , ' referring to the then defective state of the compasses supplied to Her Majesty 's ships , have determined to have the subject fully investigated by a Committee of Officers conversant with magnetic instruments . ' Resulting from the labours of this Committee , which extended over several years , was not only the improvement of the compass itself , but the establishment of a system of compass-adjustment which has since been uniformly followed in Her Majesty 's Navy . " The principal features of this system are the following:1 . The having in each ship a standard compass distinct from the steering-compass , fixed in a position selected , not for the convenience of the helmsman , but for the moderate and uniform amount of the deviation at and around it , by which compass alone the ship is navigated . " 2 . The requiring each ship to be swung , and to be navigated by a Table of Errors . " The Admiralty further at this period ( 1842 ) , to ensure the proper manufacture and adjustment of the standard compass , especially the selection of its position in the ship , and the general supervision of the ' swinging ' of the ships of the Fleet , created a small Compass Department , and erected an Observatory and offices for the general examination of all the compasses supplied to Her Majesty 's ships . As a matter of opinion , I may here express my belief that indirectly this latter establishment has tended very much to the improvement of compasses generally . " The Admiralty at this time also issued a small book of Rules , known as the ' Practical Rules ' for ascertaining and applying the deviations of the compass ; these Rules have undergone revision and addition from time to time . ( The latest edition is appended . ) " General rules were also now laid down for guarding , in the equipment of the ship , against the near proximity of iron to the compass : extracts embracing the leading features of these Rules will be found in Appendix 1 . " In 1862 , consequent on the increased use of iron in the construction and armature of ships of war , there was issued for the service of the Fleet , the ' Admiralty Manual of the Deviations of the Compass , ' a work which , incorporating also the ' Practical Rules , ' placed within the reach of the educated seaman the theory and general principles of the magnetism of ships , as also so much of the elements of terrestrial magnetism as affected the navigator . " In the Mercantile Marine , regulations for the examination and adjustment of the compasses are confined to sea-going passenger steamers . I gather from the letter of the Board of Trade , in reply to the Royal Society , as indeed I am aware from general personal knowledge , that practically , except perhaps in the larger shipping companies , these regulations are inoperative , or nearly so . " For example , there are no prescribed rules as to the number , the position , or the efficiency of the compasses , and there is no guarantee for the competency of the adjuster , in whose hands the whole arrangements are generally placed . In many ports , and especially that of London , there is inefficient provision for swinging the ships . " It appears unnecessary to remark , after what has just been briefly stated , that the system adopted to ensure security of navigation in the Royal Navy has no counterpart in the Mercantile Marine . The assimilation in practice of the two services , so far as relates to the more essential points , would certainly be a desirable end to attain . " I have already briefly detailed the two leading features of the Admiralty system:-The first of these ( the navigating the ship by a standard compass ) is in itself so simple , and has proved in practice so secure , and the neglect of it in many cases in merchant ships has been followed by such disastrous consequences , that I conceive there is no question that it should be enforced wherever there are the means of enforcement . Indeed , were it rendered imperative by law , that every vessel making a long sea voyage , and every iron vessel , whether employed coasting or foreign , should be fitted with a standard compass , I am of opinion this measure would not only directly tend to their secure navigation , but would indirectly tend to foster that knowledge of compass-laws and action now found to have become a necessity , when iron ships are the rule , and not the exception , as was the case some twenty years past . On the assumption that a measure of this nature must eventually obtain , I have appended a few short and simple rules ( Appendix II . ) , which perhaps might be advantageously recommended by the authority of the Board of Trade , or Lloyd 's Register Committee . " With reference to the second leading feature of the Admiralty system:"For many years in the Royal Navy the adjustment practised consisted in the careful selection of a place for the standard compass , and the formation of a Table of Errors by the process of swinging the ship ; and this proved sufficient so long as the deviations were moderate in amount . " In many recent iron-built and iron-plated ships the amount of deviation is , however , so large that the employment of magnets to reduce the amount of deviation has become unavoidable ; but the correction by magnets , however perfect it may be , is not considered in the Royal Navy as superseding the obtaining a Table of Errors and navigating the ship by that Table . " The benefits which have been derived in the Royal Navy , both as regards the safety of ships , and the theoretical and practical knowledge of the subject we have thereby obtained , cannot , I think , be over-estimated ; and I may add that I consider that no compass can be said to be 'properly adjusted ' of which , whether compensated by magnets or not , a Table of Errors has not been obtained by the process of swinging the ship , and that Table examined by a competent person . , " Closely connected with the subject is that of the construction of the compass itself , as regards form and workmanship , magnetic power , and adjustment . This subject received much of the attention of the Committee I have referred to ; and the result of their labours was the production of the 'Admiralty Standard Compass , ' an instrument which has stood the test of twenty-five years ' use , with little modification introduced , and 2R2 1865 . ] 525 which has been adopted in all countries which directed their attention to this subject . " Although indirectly the introduction of this compass into the Royal Navy has been the cause of much improvement in the compasses of the Mercantile zIarine , ther3 is still room for improvement . At present much expense is incurred in matters which are merely ornamental , and in some cases prejudicial . Probably much advantage would be derived from a model compass being fixed upon , which at a moderate price would supply the Mercantile Marine with the great desideratum of a compass of sufficient delicacy and accuracy . Considering that a few notes relating to the efficient points of a compass may prove useful , these notes will be found as Appendix III . " There are yet two features in the ' Compass question ' which appear to me as being worthy of consideration in any system that may be contemplated for assimilating the practice of the Mercantile Marine to that of the Royal Navy . These are,1st . As to the efficiency of those who engage to perform the adjustmenrts . " 2nd . The periods for examining the adjustments . " By constant practice , but without any very clear knowledge of the principles of magnetism , several [ skilful adjusters of compasses are to be found at some of the great mercantile ports . These 'adjusters ' must , from their practice , be now well known to the Board of Trade Surveyors . The registration of their names , and of the firms employing them , either by the local Marine Boards or by Lloyd 's Committee , might be a desirable step to take as a preliminary measure . " The arrangements for swinging ships , I have also heard , are either defective , or practically do not exist , at most of the mercantile ports ; might not the Board of Trade Surveyors report upon the nature of existing arrangements , and the means generally adopted by the ' adjusters ? ' " As to the periods for examining the adjustments , the recommendations of the Liverpool Compass Committee ( see page 40 , 3rd Report , 1861 ) appear to me to fully meet the case , and have such an important bearing on the secure navigation of iron ships , that I gladly bring them again to notice . " 'There appears sufficient reason for requiring that a new iron sailing ship . or steamer should be swung immediately before each of the first two or three voyages ; that all iron vessels should be swung immediately before the first voyage following any considerable amount of repair , whenever a change has been made in the position of the standard compass ; when there is a change of Captain , unless the new Captain had charge of the vessel during the preceding voyage as Chief Officer . ' " In conclusion I must observe that the present state and prospects of the science and practice of the correction of the compass make it impossible to offer with confidence any complete set of suggestions as to the system to be adopted in the Mercantile Marine . This could only be elaborated by careful and continued attention directed to the magnetic character of the ships of the Mercantile Marine , their compasses , and the capabilities of its officers ; and I think it must be assumed that no system can be expected to be satisfactory which does not gradually develope itself under proper supervision . " I have the honour to be , &c. ( Signed ) " CFFtEDERICK JOHN EVANS , StaffComniander ]R.N . , Chief Naval Assistant , in charge of Magnetic Department . " " The Hydrographer of the Admiralty . " APP , ENDIX I. Extracted from the Queen 's Regtlations and the Admiralty Instructions for the government of Her Majesty'sNaval Service . No iron of any kind is to be placed nor suffered to remain within the distance of seven feet of the binnacle or standard compasses , when it is practicable , according to the size and construction of the vessel , to remove it ; and mixed metal or copper is to be substituted for iron in the bolts , keys , and dowels , in the scarphs of beams , coamings , and head-ledges , and also the hoops of the gaffs and booms and belaying-pins which come within the distance of seven feet of the compasses . " The spindle and knees of the steering-wheels which come within the distance of seven feet of the compasses are also to be of mixed metal . " Iron tillers , which work forward from the rudder-head , are not to range within seven feet of the compasses ; and in vessels which have iron tillers working abaft the rudder-head , the binnacles are to be placed as far forward from the wheel as may be convenient for the helmsman to steer by . " The boats ' iron davits are to be placed as far as may be practicable and convenient from the compasses . " All vertical iron stanchions , such as those for the support of the deck , or for the awnings , &c. , and likewise the arm-stands , are to be kept beyond the distance offourteen feet from the compasses in use , so far as the size of the vessel will admit . '( The binnacles for the steering-compasses are to be constructed upon a given plan , with tops made to take off ; and in order to prevent improper materials from being deposited therein , they are not to be fitted with doors . " For the better preservation of the compasses , in every ship a closet is to be constructed in a dry place , sufficiently large for the reception of the ship 's establishment of compasses , and it is to be appropriated to that purpose exchzsively , the key being kept by the 3Mastcrs ; and in order that 1865 . ] 527 the spare compass-cards may never be kept with poles of the same name nearest to each other , cases are supplied which will prevent the possibility of their being packed improperly . " All ships are to be swung before sailing from the port where they fit out , and subsequently once in each year , for the purpose of ascertaining the errors of the compasses , also immediately on their arrival on a fForeign Station ; or if there has been any great change in the ship 's geographical position since the errors were observed . " APPENDIX II . Suggested Rules relating to the Compasses of Iron Merchant 1Ships . " 1 . It is deemed a necessary equipment for every iron ship to be fitted with a Standard or navigating compass , in addition to one or more compasses for the use of the helmsman . " 2 . That so far as the requirements of the ship will permit , special arrangements be made in the course of construction for preparing a place for this compass . 3 . That the Steering-Compasses being subordinate in importance to the Standard Compass , less strict precautions are required for their position ; but it would in all cases be desirable that these compasses ( and of necessity the steering-wheel ) should not be placed within half the breadth of the ship from the stern-post , rudder-head , and screw-well . " 4 . The Standard Compass to be placed at such a height from the deck ( not less in any case than five feet ) as to command a clear view of the horizon above the bulwarks , and to be out of the way of the sails , booms , &c. " 5 . In ships built with their heads near the north , the Standard Compass to be placed as far forward as the requirements of the ship will permit . In ships built with their heads near the south , this compass to be placed as near the stern as convenient , subject to the condition that it should not be within half the breadth of the ship from the rudder-head , stern-post , or screw-well . " In ships built near east and west , this compass should not be placed near either extreme of the ship . " 6 . The Standard Compass to be as far as possible , and not less than ten feet , from the end of any elongated mass of iron , especially if vertical , such as iron stanchions , capstan-spindles , steamand stove-funnels , ventilating-shafts , &c. ; and no iron , subject to occasional removal , should be placed within fifteen feet of the . Standard Compass , either on the same deck or below it . " 7 . The Standard Compass to be placed as far as possible from transverse iron bulkheads . " 8 . It would be an extremely desirable arrangement for the deck immediately below the Standard Compass not to be of iron , but to be filled up with wood for a space which may be called the compass platform . This space should not be of less width than a hatchway ( 4 to 6 feet ) , and of as great length fore and aft as convenient , but the length not to be less than the width . No transverse iron deckbeams to be under the platform , but if necessary fore-and-aft iron stringers , on which the transverse beams outside the wooden surface may abut . " 9 . It would be a desirable arrangement , as far as could be carried out , that no masses of iron , such as boilers , tanks , bulkheads , should be placed immediately below the compass , or within 55 ? of the vertical line through the centre ( the angle being drawn from the compass as centre to the centre of the mass ) . " 10 . Where the Standard Compass is placed on a bridge , the foregoing requirements should be , as far as possible , complied with , the bridge should be of wood , and should not have iron stanchions , or rails ( especially if covered with brass ) within 10 feet . " The following Rules are applicable to Steering-Compasses . " 1 . Not to be within half the width of the ship from the stern-post , rudder-head , or screw-well . " 2 . The spindle of the steering-wheel and the forward support in which it works , not to be of iron . " 3 . Iron tillers working forward from the rudder-head not to range within six to seven feet of the steering-compass . " 4 . Not to be near the upper ( or lower ) end of elongated masses of iron , especially if vertical , such as steamand stove-funnels , capstanspindles , &c. , and to be as far as possible from any transverse iron bulkhead . " Special Points for the consideration of the Naval Architect . " 1 . When arrangements are made for the compasses to be placed in the after part of the ship , building the vessel head north would ensure exaggerated errors both when upright and heeling . " With building-slips in a meridional direction , and with the above arrangements , it would be desirable to build the ship head to the south . " 2 . Every iron ship after launching , and during the process of first equipment , should as much as possible be kept in a position opposite to that she occupied on the building-slip . " APPENDIX III . Notes relating to the efficient points of a Compass . 1 . The essential qualities of a good compass may be considered to embrace great sensibility and steadiness , with simplicity of construction . By 1865 . ] 529 sensibility and steadiness it is to be understood that the needle is freely to submit to the earth 's magnetic force , with power sufficient to steadily obey that force under the varying motions of a ship , without the aid of friction or mechanical impediment , steadiness or rather sluggishness produced by the latter causes being obtained at the expense of accuracy . " Simplicity of construction , so that repairs can be effected by an ordinary skilled mechanic , must be deemed a qualification of merit . " 2 . The chief points to be attended to in construction are , " ( a ) Great directive power of the needle , with little weight , and consequently little friction on the point of suspension . " ( b ) Permanency of the magnetic power of the needle . " ( c ) Accurate adjustment of the several parts of the compass . This comprises ( 1 ) the magnetic axis of the needle coinciding with the north and south points of the card . ( 2 ) The intersecting point of the axes of the jimbals of the bowl coinciding with the point of suspension of the card . ( 3 ) The accurate centering of the point of suspension within the bowl . ( 4 ) The perfect . impression of the card , so that the centering and marginal divisions are not distorted by shrinking or other causes . " 3 . The advantages of a compound system of needles compared with a single needle . " These are , ( 1 ) greater directive power being obtained with the same weight . ( 2 ) The needles can be placed on their edge , whereby -there can be no alteration of their magnetic axes , a condition frequently found in flat bar needles . ( 3 ) By placing one ( or two ) pairs of equal parallel needles with their ends 60 ? ( or 30 ? ) , apart , the 'wabbling ' motion common to single bar needles is avoided ; and the following remarkable property also exists with this arrangement of the needles : " When magnets or soft iron are placed as correctors of the larger deviations due to the iron of the ship , unless the needle ( where a single bar is employed ) be very short compared to the distance of the disturbing magnet or iron , a deviation is introduced depending on the length of the needle . This deviation disappears with the compound arrangement . " Proceeding from general principles to details , the following are the chief points to be attended to in the construction of a Standard Compass . " 1 . The bowl to be constructed of pure copper , of substantial thickness , and the part adjacent to the needle increased in solidity , by an extra copper ring , the ends of the needle being permitted to work as close to the ring as consistent with freedom of motion . " 2 . The needles to be fitted on the compound system ( one pair to be deemed sufficient ) , and efficiently tempered and magnetized . " 3 . The sight-vane to be arranged so as to turn freely in azimuth without moving the compass-bowl or causing disturbance to the card . It should be attached to a graduated circle , so as to show the angle between the ship 's head and any celestial object as measured on the horizon without [ Nov. 80 , 530 using the compass-card . The sight-vane and graduated circle to be attached to the bowl . " 4 . To be provided with one spare card , two spare caps , and four spare pivots . " 5 . The caps to be fitted with rubies instead of agates . The pivots to be of steel hardened and tempered to a dark straw-colour . " Letter No. 1 , from the President to Mr. Farrer , transmitting Meiemorandlum . " Burlington IHouse , Nov. 2 , 1865 . " SIR , -I have now laid before the Council of the Royal Society your letter of the 25th of July , referring to the adjustment of the compasses of iron ships , and a copy of my letter of the 28th of August , acknowledging its receipt and adverting to the inquiry you had made as to the preparation of a ' Manual ' on the subject , together with your subsequent letter of October 23rd , having reference to the same inquiry . " The President and Council are much disappointed by learning that the Board of Trade are not prepared to give effect to the recommendation that the system which has been found to work so successfully in the Royal Navy , of combining official and competent superintendence with a proper code of instruction , should be extended to the Mercantile _Marine . They consider such superintendence to be essential , not only to the general introduction of a good and efficient mode of compass-correction into the }Mercantile Marine , but even to the discharge of the duties having respect to the adjustment of the compasses of sea-going passenger-steamers with which the Board of Trade is already charged by the Legislature . " In the Memorandum accompanying my letter of the 15th of May , it was stated that many recent losses of iron steamers have taken place in which it is probable that compass-errors have occasioned the loss . The President and Council think it right to call the attention of the Board of Trade to the serious responsibility they incur in cases of loss of life and property arising from the want of a proper system of compass-adjustment , by declining to take the course which is pointed out by the concurrent opinion of all competent advisers , as not only the best , but the only method of securing the introduction of such a system . , They cannot but look forward to a time when the necessity of a proper supervision will be forced on the executive by public feeling , excited by some disastrous loss of human life traceable to the want of such superintendence . The question is one which , they feel to be of such vital importance , that they desire to submit to the consideration of the Board of Trade the accompanying Memorandum , replying in some detail to passages in your letter of July 25th , and which makes it unnecessary to me to dwell further on the subject . " I have the honour to be , " Your obedient Servant , a EDWAIRD SABINE , President of the Royal Society . " 1865 . ] 531 Memorandum . " The letter of the Secretary of the Marine Department of the Board of Trade of the 25th of July , to the President , conveying the views of the Board of Trade on the President 's letter of the 25th of May , and the Memorandum which accompanied it , seem to require some detailed observations . " To obviate the risk of misapprehension of the scope and object of the Memorandum , it appears advisable to state that the main object which the President and Council had in view , was not to suggest that the objects desired might be obtained by framing definite and positive rules and enforcing their observance by penalties , but primarily to show the importance of some superintendence of the adjustment of the compasses , of at least one important class of iron vessels , being entrusted to a department specially constituted for the purpose , and to point out some of the advantages which might be expected to flow directly and indirectly from such a department . The appointment of an officer , with proper assistants , for the purpose indicated , is not , it is apprehended , beyond the existing powers of the Board of Trade , and would not , it is conceived , violate any sound principle of political economy . ' " The President and Council believe that , in considering the appointment of such an officer a matter of paramount importance , they are supported by the judgment of the persons most competent to form an independent opinion . They have in the former Memorandum referred to the opinion expressed by the Liverpool Compass Committee . Since that 3Memorandum was submitted to the Board of Trade , the Council have found that a similar opinion was expressed so long ago as the year 1839 , by the Astronomer Royal , who then addressed to the Admiralty a Memorial of a formal character , of which one of the conclusions was , " 'That it is expedient that the general superintendence of the compass in iron ships , for several years at least , be entrusted to some person appointed by the Government . ' " The Admiralty declined to appoint such an officer for the Mvercantile Marine ; but the very system . recommended was introduced shortly afterwards into the Royal Navy , where experience has shown the very great advantages to be derived from it , and that in a service in which , if anywhere , obedience to positive rules without the intervention of a superintendent might have been supposed attainable . The Astronomer Royal has recently expressed his adherence to the opinion so expressed by him . " The President and Council in the former AMemorandum ventured to call attention to the duties in respect of the adjustment of the compasses of sea-going passenger-steamers , imposed by the Legislature on the Board of Trade , and to the imperfect mode in which those duties are at present discharged . [ Nov. 30 , 53 " The Board of Trade in its answer recognizes the importance of the subject , and admits that ' the present practice is far from satisfactory , ' and that the steps taken by the Board of Trade under the provisions of existing Acts are not such as to remedy the evil ; ' but states that the Board see considerable difficulty in adopting all the suggestions made by the Royal Society . " The difficulties are stated to be , " ' 1 . That the powers under which the Board acts apply only to passenger-steamers , while the want which the Royal Society wish to meet is felt just as much in the case of other iron vessels , which are becoming more numerous every day . " ' 2 . That the powers of the Board of Trade only extend to obtaining a Certificate that the compasses have been properly adjusted . They do not enable the Board of Trade or its officers to see that the compasses are good , or to require , what the Royal Society appear to consider the most important condition of all , that there should be a Standard Compass ( in addition to the Steering-Compass ) so placed as to be free from local attraction . ' " With regard to the first of these difficulties , it cannot be necessary to suggest that the want of power as regards one class of vessels is no reason for not exercising the powers and discharging the duties of the Board as to another class of vessels . There are , however , other considerations which tend to show that it is not necessary to wait for extended powers . In the first place , on the establishment of a new department having new duties , there are some advantages in those duties being confined to a limited number of vessels . Again , all the indirect , and these not the least , advantages to be derived from such a department extend as much to vessels which do not come within the direct operation of the department as to those which do ; and lastly , Shipowners and Underwriters , when the advantages of the department have been ascertained , may cause a voluntary submission of many vessels to the supervision of the Department . It is thus quite possible that experience may show that it is not necessary to obtain any legislative extension of the class of vessels to which the authority of the Board of Trade extends . If , on the other hand , it shall hereafter appear desirable to extend it , it is not to be anticipated that the Legislature will refuse to give extended powers . " With regard to the second difficulty , it may be observed that the Board of Trade appear to put an unnecessarily restricted interpretation on the expression 'compasses properly adjusted ' in the Merchant Shipping Act , 1854 , Sec. 301 . " It is submitted with confidence that the expression in question enables and requires the Board of Trade and its Officers to see that one compass at least shall be in a position in which it is capable of being properly adjusted-a condition not generally consistent with its being the Steering-Compass-and therefore to require a special Certificate in the case of any Shipowner insisting on sending his ship to sea with only one com1865.j 533 pass , or in which the navigating-compass does not fulfil the conditions prescribed . The information which the Council possess induces them to think that , under the present system , a large number even of sea-going passenger-steamers cannot be said to have their compasscs 'properly adjusted '-and that owing to the causes pointed out in the . ' Memorandum . ' The President and Council do not apprehend that if the department recommended were established , its action would be impeded for want of authority . " The President and Council therefore consider that even for the due discharge of the duties already imposed on the Board of Trade by the Legislature , some systematic superintendence on the part of the Board is necessary . " With regard to the offer of the Board of Trade to communicate to Lloyd 's Register Committee any practical rules which the Royal Society can furnish as to the supply , placing , and adjustment of compasses , and as to the effect on them of different modes of construction of the hull of the ship , the Board of Trade may be referred to the very valuable paper by StaffCommander Evans , the Superintendent of the Compass Department of the Royal Navy , in answer to an application of the Board of Trade to the Admiralty , as containing everything which the President and Council could venture to suggest . The whole of this paper is well worthy of the most careful consideration ; but there are some passages in it which bear so directly on the present subject , that they may be more specifically mentioned . In one of these Captain Evans states that the rule of navigating a ship by a standard compass is in itself so simple , has proved in practice so secure , and the neglect of it in many cases in merchant ships has been followed by such disastrous consequences , that he considers there is no question that it should be enforced , wherever there are the means of enforcement . In another passage Captain Evans states that he considers that no compass can be said to be ' properly adjusted , ' of which , whether corrected by magnets or not , a table of errors has not been obtained by the process of swinging the ship , and that table examined by a competent person . In a third passage Captain Evans observes that the present state and prospects of the science and practice of the correction of the compass makes it impossible to offer with confidence any complete set of suggestions as to the system to be adopted in the Mercantile Marine ; this could only be elaborated by careful and continued attention directed to the magnetic character of the ships of the Mercantile Mlarine , their compasses , and the capabilities of its officers ; and that he thinks it must be assumed that no system can be expected to be satisfactory which does not gradually develope itself under proper supervision . They trust that the communication of this important paper to Lloyd 's and its publication may be followed by beneficial results . " The Board of Trade further say that , as regards the diffusion . of information on the subject of compasses , especially among Merchant 534 [ Nov. 30 , Officers , the first desideratum appears to be a clear and intelligible manual , or set of directions on the subject containing such practical rules as the present state of Science can furnish , and such a statement of the principles as may be necessary for the comprehension of those rules ; and inquire whether the Royal Society can put them in the way of obtaining such a manual , stating that any expense connected with its preparation will be readily defrayed by the Board of Trade . " The President and Council do not consider the manual to be the first desideratum , but , on the contrary , they consider that , so long as the present system continues , such a manual would have a very limited and partial use . It will be remembered that in the Memorandum the Council itself suggested , as part of the general scheme proposed , that notice might be given that after a certain period , say two or three years , a certain amount of knowledge will be required from Candidates , and that in the meantime a text-book containing the necessary amount of information might be prepared and published ; and they conceive it would be one of the earliest duties of the proposed department to cause such a text-book to be prepared ; but the President and Council conceive that it would be premature to prepare it until the system to be pursued has been decided on , and withouit the concurrence of the person to be charged with carrying it into effect . " As regards introducing the subject of the deviation of the compass into Examinations in Navigation , the President and Council will be happy to give any information or assistance in their power . They feel , however , as in the case of the text-book they have referred to , that such examination should follow , not precede the appointment of a Superintendent , and should be under his direction . " As regards inquiries into the causes of wrecks , the Council are happy to find that the Board of Trade are disposed to take some step in the direction indicated in the Miemorandum . " In the former IMemorandum attention was called to the importance , as regards the advancement of the science of the deviation of the compass , of observations of the deviations of the same compass in the same ship at different times and places being made and systematically reduced and discussed . Trustworthy observations of this kind are now among the principal desiderata in this science . As regards such observations , the Board of Trade state that all they can do is to obtain observations from 3Masters of AMerchant ships in the manner originally proposed by the Royal Society when the Meteorological Department of that office was established , and that the subject will come under the consideration of the Board , with the whole subject of the Meteorological Department . 1 " The proposal made by the Royal Society in the year 1855 , in con1865 . ] 535 nexion with the Meteorological Department , had reference to Terrestrial Magnetism , not to the deviations of Iron Ships ; and they would observe , as regards any observations of such deviations , that the whole scientific value of such observations depends on their being made in strict conformity with corresponding observations made in the same vessel , and under the same precise conditions at home . No such conformity can be expected or ensured unless with some system of supervision . It may be further observed that the value of such observations depends on the compass by which the observations are made being one fulfilling the conditions recommended with reference to the navigating-compass . For the Meteorological Department to obtain and deal with such observations it would be necessary that it should possess an Officer qualified to discharge , and discharging , many of the duties of such a Superintendent as is recommended by the Council . Finally it may be observed that Shipmasters cannot be expected to make or transmit such observations , unless encouraged so to do , by knowing that the observations when made have a real value , and that they will be appreciated , made use of , and publicly acknowledged . " Letter No. 2 , from the President to Mr. Farrer . " Bturlington House , Nov. 2 , 1865 . SIR , -I have laid before the Council of the Royal Society your Letter of the 24th of October , in reference to the Meteorological Department , and am authorized to make the following reply:"The President and Council fully concur with the Board of Trade regarding the importance of inquiries being made into the value of the observations obtained at sea under the direction and guidance of the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade , and into the steps which should be taken to utilize the results , as well as the importance of the further question , whether any , and , if any , what future observations of the same or of a similar kind bearing on Ocean Statistics should be collected . They will be quite ready to assist in this inquiry in the manner proposed , viz. by nominating one of their Fellows conversant with such subjects , as a member of the proposed Committee ~ . " In reference to the last paragraph of your letter of the 24th0October , they are of opinion that systematic meteorological observations at a few selected land stations in the British Islands are desirable , in addition to the meteorological observations at sea , in order to complete a suitable contribution from this country to the meteorological investigations now in progress in the principal States of Europe and America , under the authority of their respective Governments . " If , in the communication from the Royal Society to the Board of Trade of February 22 , 1855 , which preceded the establishment of Admira * [ The Council nominated Mr. Francis'Galton , F.R.S. , to serve on the Committee referred to 536 [ Nov. 30 , FitzRoy 's Office , the advantages to be derived from a continued and welldirected system of maritime observations were more particularly pressed , it was because at that time neither the instruments nor the modes of observation suitable for a well organized and efficient system of continuous land investigation were prepared . This was well stated by Lieut. Maury in a letter addressed to the United States Government , dated November 6 , 1852 , subsequently transmitted by that Government to the Earl of Clarendon , and printed in the papers which were presented to the House of Lords in February 1853 . This difficulty no longer exists , having been entirely obviated by the self-recording system of observation for which the necessary instruments have been devised and brought into use at the Kew Observatory . " ( The President and Council are not aware of any inconvenience likely to arise from entrusting the scientific supervision of such a system as they have recommended to a Body such as the Kew Committee , acting under the authorization , and control in regard to expenditure , of a Public Department . Precedents for such a course are not wanting . " I have the honour to be " Your obedient Servant , w EDWARD SABIrE , " President of the Royal Society . " From Mr. Farrer to General Sabine . " Board of Trade , Whitehall , 14th November , 1865 . " SIR , -I am directed by the Board of Trade to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 2nd instant , stating that the President and Council of the Royal Society ' are much disappointed by learning that the Board of Trade are not prepared to give effect to the recommendation that the system which has been found to work so successfully in the Royal Navy , of combining official and competent superintendence with a proper code of instructions , should be extended to the Mercantile Marine . They consider such superintendence to be essential , not only to the general introduction of a good and efficient mode of compass-correction into the Mercantile MIarine , but even to the discharge of the duties having respect to the adjustment of the compasses of sea-going passenger-steamers , with which the Board of Trade is already charged by the Legislature . ' " The President and Council further proceed to call attention to the losses of Iron Steamers , and intimate that the responsibility for such losses will rest with this Board if they do not undertake the superintendence of compasses in the mode suggested by the Royal Society . " In reply I am to state to you , in the first place , that the Board of Trade do not yield to the President and Council of the Royal Society in their anxiety to prevent losses at sea , and they are ready with this object to do everything which is within the proper and legitimate scope of their functions as a Government department , " What the scope of those ftnctions is , and how they can be most usefully exercised , are questions on which they must form their own opinion , and they regret that the opinion they have thus formed is at variance with the views which the President and Council of the Royal Society have thought fit to urge . " As regards the practice of the Admiralty to which you call attention , I am to point out in the first place , that there is a wide difference between the relation of the Board of Admiralty to Her Majesty 's Navy , and that of the Board of Trade to the iMercantile Marine . This difference appears to have been underrated , if not entirely overlooked by the President and Council of the Royal Society . " The Admiralty are the owners , designers , and generally the builders of the Ships of the Nation , and in these capacities are bound to use every means in their power to construct the National Ships in the best manner , to provide them with the best equipments , and to dictate and enforce , upon all persons concerned in building , equipping or navigating them , such arrangements and regulations as the most advanced science and the latest experience can suggest . On the other hand , the Board of Trade are not the owners , designers , or builders of ilMerchant Ships ; and if they were to take upon themselves the responsibility of regulating the construction of every Merchant Ship , and of requiring her to be provided with what might appear to this Board to be necessary and proper equipments , they would be usurping a power they do not possess , and which as a matter of policy they ought not to possess . They would in so doing be taking upon themselves a function which belongs to the shipowner , and which it is his interest , as well as his duty , to perform efficiently . It can be no part of the functions of Government to put a stop to the free and healthy action of that self-interest , or to relieve the shipowner and his servants from his responsibility for the performance of that duty . " The result thus arising from Government interference would , the Board of Trade are satisfied , be injurious to trade in the first instance , whilst it would in the end be no less prejudicial to the safety of the public , and to the advancement of science . " But if , looking to certain precedents , the President and Council of the l{oyal Society should still urge that in the special and exceptional case of deviation of ship 's compasses it is the duty of the Government to depart from the principles generally admitted in this country , the Board of Trade would reply that , so far as they can judge , the subject of compassdeviation is one which in its present condition is peculiarly unfit for legislative or administrative interference . Where a precautionary measure is capable of being reduced to fixed , simple , and intelligible rules of practice , it is possible , even though it may not be advisable , to enforce it by legal and administrative process . But this subject is , so far as the Board of Trade can judge , far from being in that condition . " It appears from the papers submitted to the Board of Trade in this 538 [ Nov. 30 , case , that the causes of deviation of the compass in each individual ship are numerous and dissimilar , and their effects proportionately varied . In addition to the variety of effects due to the variety of causes , these effects seem also to vary according to the build of the ship , the nature and quality of the material of which she is built , and the direction of the line of the keel during building , the nature , quantity , and stowage of the cargo , the ship 's course for the time being , her position in the water for the time being , the magnetic hemisphere in which she may be , and the varying distance of the ship from the magnetic equator . They vary , too , it would seem , from time to time , according to the service on which the ship may be or may have been employed , and with the age of the ship . Science has undoubtedly done much to ascertain the laws that govern these numerous causes of error ; but it is obvious , even from the tentative and experimental process which the President and Council of the Royal Society themselves suggest , and from the difficulty they find in preparing the specific directions for which the Board of Trade have asked , that the remedy is not capable of being reduced to fixed or simple rules , or of being enforced without a large and experienced staff of scientific officers , or without an amount of minute arbitrary and indeterminate supervision which would be intolerable and impracticable . Moreover , so far as the Board of Trade can learn , the highest authorities are not yet agreed as to the principle of the remedy , the practice of the Admiralty , which receives the approval of the Royal Society , being founded in the main on one principle , whilst the practice of the Mercantile Marine is founded on another and different principle , which is supported by no less an authority than the Astronomer Royal . " In a letter from the Admiralty to this Board , dated 14th September last , are enclosed some memoranda by Commander Evans , R.N. , of the Compass Department . These memoranda the Royal Society indorse in the printed memorandum enclosed in their last letter . In them it is stated that the principal features of the system followed in Her Majesty 's Navy are , ' 1 . By having in each ship a standard compass distinct from the steering-compass * * and approved by the Assistant Hydrographer ; they are , as the Royal Society are also aware , prepared to print and circulate amongst all persons interested any practical hints or directions that the President and Council of the Royal Society , the Admiralty , or the Astronomer Royal may be able to furnish ; and they are also prepared to procure the best scientific help upon investigation into wrecks in any case in which it may appear that a wreck may have been caused by compass-errors . " But the Board of Trade , for the reason above stated , are not prepared to assume the responsibility which would be involved in appointing an officer or officers whose duty it should be to superintend the compasses of Merchant Ships , and to enforce upon shipowners and navigators compliance with what such officers may believe to be the latest requirements of science . " In coming to this conclusion , the Board of Trade believe that they are doing what is most calculated to promote the free and healthy development of scientific results as applied to the Mercantile 3larine , as well as to further what are their own proper objects , viz. the benefit of trade and the public safety . " I have the honour to be , Sir , " Your obedient Servant , " T T. H. FAnRER . " " The President of the Royal Society , Burlirnton House , Piccadilly . " [ Pursuant to instruction , the Secretary acknowledged the receptionf the above letter by the President and Council . ] From Sir J. Emerson Tennent to General Sabine . " Office of Committee of Privy Council for Trade , Whitehall , 20th November , 1865 . " SIR , -With reference to your letter of the 2nd November , stating the willingness of the President and Council of the Royal Society to appoint one of their Fellows to represent the Society upon a Committee to examine and report on questions connected with the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade , I am directed by the Lords of the Committee of Privy Council for Trade to inform you that Staff-Commander Evans has been nominated by the Admiralty , and Mr. Farrer by this Board ; and I am at the same time to request you to be good enough to forward the name of the gentleman selected by the President and Council of the Royal Society . " The following are the points which the Board of Trade propose to refer to the Committee , if the President and Council see no objection . " 1 . What are the data , especially as regards 3Meteorological Observations made at Sea , already collected by and now existing in the Meteorological Department of the Board of Trade ? ? 540 [ Nov. 30 , " 2 . Whether any , and what steps should be taken for arranging , tabulating , publishing , or otherwise making use of such data . " 3 . Whether it is desirable to continue Meteorological Observations at Sea ; and if so , to what extent , and in what manner . " 4 . Assuming that the system of Weather Telegraphy is to be continued , can the mode of carrying it on and of publishing the results be improved ? ? 5 . What Staff will be necessary for the above purposes ? " I have the honour to be , Sir , " Y our obedient Servant , " J. EMErI , SON TENNENT . " The President of the Royal Society . " [ The President replied to this letter , and forwarded the name of ir . Francis Galton , F.R.S. , selected by the Council to be a Member of the Committee . ]

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Addition to the Memoir on Tschirnhausen's Transformation. [Abstract]

541

543

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Arthur Cayley

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112177

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112177

Formulae

Biography

Mathematics

I. " Addition to the Memoir on Tschirnhausen 's Transformation . " By ARTHUR CAYLEY , F.R.S. Received October 24 , 1865 . ( Abstract . ) In the memoir " On Tschirnhausen 's Transformation , " Phil. Trans. vol. clii . ( 1862 ) pp. 561-568 , I considered the case of a quartic equation : viz. it was shown that the equation ( a , 6 , c , d , ex , l)4=0 is , by the substitution y= ( ax+b)B+(ax2+46+ 3c)C +(ax3+46x2+ 6cx+3d)D , transformed into ( 1 , 0 , I , C , y( , 1)4=0 , where ( ? , M , @ ) have certain given values . It was further remarked that ( Q , , , e ) were expressible in terms of U ' , I ' , d ' , invariants of the two forms ( a , , c , c , , ejX , Y)4 , ( B , C , W ) -Y , -X)2 , of I , J , the inva2s riants of the first , and of o ' , =BD--C , the invariant of the second of these two forms , -viz . that we have =H ' -210 ' , @= IU"3-3 '3 -+ I'20 + 12J'0'U ' +2 I'eO'H ' . And by means of these I obtained an expression for the quadrinvariant of the form ( 1 , 0 , C , X , @yI , 1)4 ; viz. this was found to be =IU'2+ 4-IO 2+12JO'U ' . But I did not obtain an expression for the cubinvariant of the same function : such expression , it was remarked , would contain the square of the invariant 4 ' ; it Was probable that there existed an identical equation , JU'3--IU'2H'+4H'3"+Me'= --'2 , which would serve to express 4,1'2 in terms of the other invariant ; but , assuming that such an equation existed , the form of the factor M remained to be ascertained ; and until this was done , the expression for the cubinvariant could not be obtained in its most simple form . I have recently verified the existence of the identical equation just referred to , and have obtained the expression for the factor M ; and with the assistance of this identical equation I have obtained the expression for the cubinvariant of the form ( 1 , 0 , C , l , @y , 1)4 . The expression for the quadrinvariant was , as already mentioned , given in the former memoir : I find that the two invariants are in fact the invariants of a certain linear function of U , I-I ; viz. the linear function is =U'U + -O'IH ; so that , denoting by I* , Jthe quadrinvariant and the cubinvariant respectively of the form ( 1 , 0 , C , , @y )4 , we have I=I ( U'U t 41'1H ) . J$=J(U'U+40'11 ) , where I , J signify the functional operations of forming the two invariants respectively . The function ( 1 , 0 , C , D , e5jy , 1)4 , obtained by the application of Tschirnhausen 's transformation to the equation ( a , b , c , d , e x , 1)4=0 , has thus the same invariants with the function U'U+4O0'H =U'( , 6 , c , d , e(x , 1)4+40'(ac-6l , ad-bec , ae+26d-3c2 , be-cd , ce-d27p , 1)4I and it is consequently a linear transformation of the last-mentioned function ; so that the application of Tschirnhausen 's transformation to the equation U=0 gives an equation linearly transformable into , and thus virtually equivalent to , the equation U'U+40'H=-0 , which is an equation 40 ' involving the single parameter : this appears to me a result of considerable interest . It is to be remarked that Tschirnhausen 's transformation , wherein y is put ! equal to a rational and integral function of the order 54 n--1 ( if n be the order of the equation in x ) , is not really more general than the transformation wherein y is put equal to any rational function vw whatever of x ; such rational function may , in fact , by means of the given equation in x , be reduced to a rational and integral function of the order n-1- ; hence in the present case , taking V , W to be respectively of the order i1 , =3 , it follows that the equation in y obtained by the elimination of x from the equations =(a , 6 , c , d ex , l ) =40 , Y ( a , ' , i't , 6'wx , 1 ) is a mere linear transformation of the equation AU+-BH==0 , where A , B are functions ( not as yet calculated ) of ( a , 6 , c , d , e , a , / S , y , C , o ' , y ' , y , ')4 .

112178

3701662

A Supplementary Memoir on the Theory of Matrices. [Abstract]

543

543

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Arthur Cayley

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112178

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112178

Formulae

Biography

Mathematics

II . " A Supplementary Memoir on the Theory of Alatrices . " By ARTHUR CAYLEY , F.R.S. Received October 24 , 1865 . ( Abstract . ) M. Hermit , in a paper " Sir la theory de la transformation des fonctions Abeliennes , " Comptes Rendus , t. xl . ( 1855 ) , establishes incidentally the properties of the matrix for the automorphic linear transformation of the bipartite quadric function xw'-'yz'-y'--wx ' , or transformation of this function into one of the like form , XW'+YZ'-ZY'WX ' . These properties are ( as will be shown ) deducible from a general formula in my " t Memoir on the Automorphic Linear Transformation of a Bipartite Quadric Function , " Phil. Trans. t. cxlviii . ( 1858 ) , pp. 39-46 ; but the particular case in question is an extremely interesting one , the theory whereof is worthy of an independent investigation . For convenience the number of variables is taken to befoir ; but it will be at once seen that as well the demonstrations as the results are in fact applicable to any even number whatever of variables .

112179

3701662

On the Existence of Glycogen in the Tissues of Certain Entozoa

543

546

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Michael Foster

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1865.0088

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112179

10.1098/rspl.1865.0088

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112179

Physiology

Biology 2

Physiology

III . " On the Existence of Glycogen in the Tissues of certain Entozoa . " By MICHAEL FOSTER , M.B. Communicated by Professor HUXLEY . Received November 4 , 1865 . Although glycogen has been found by various observers in the tissues of many of the Invertebrata , no one , as far as I know , has noticed the very remarkable amount which may be obtained from some of the Entozoa . I first came across this fact while working upon a tape-worm ; unfortunately I neglected to determine the quantity of glycogen I obtained , and have not since had an opportunity of repeating the observation . The following remarks apply only to the round worm ( zscaris lumbricoides ? ) which dwells in the intestines of the common pig . 543 1865 . ] By mincing and boiling in water , with a drop of dilute acetic acid , one of these animals , a decoction is obtained which remains milky-looking and opalescent after several filtrations , and therefore at once suggests the idea of glycogen . This milky fluid strikes a deep port-wine red with iodine , the colour disappearing on the application of heat , and reappearing on cooling , and gives no reduction when boiled with the alkaline coppersolution . When treated with saliva at 35 ? C. the opalescence disappears , leaving a fluid either perfectly clear or exhibiting only a few flakes or a slight cloudy deposit ( of some albuminoid material ) , but containing much sugar , as may be shown both by the copper and fermentation test . If the original milky fluid be thrown into spirit , an abundant white flaky precipitate is thrown down , consisting partly of some albuminoid substance , but chiefly of a substance giving all the above reactions of glycogen . If the fluid be thrown into glacial acetic acid , a white flaky precipitate is thrown down consisting of nearly pure glycogen . The presence of glycogen may also be shown by employing the alcoholic solution of potash . From these facts we may infer that glycogen , and not dextrine merely , does exist in the bodies of these animals . In no case have I found this glycogen to be accompanied by anything more than a mere doubtful trace of sugar-that is to say , a trace of some substance giving a doubtful reduction of the copper-solution , and that by no means always . Hence , seeing how difficult it is to obtain glycogen in so pure a state that its quantity may be estimated directly by weighing , I have contented myself with determining the amtount present in these animals by exposing a decoction to the influence of saliva until all traces of glycogpen were lost , and then estimating by the copper process the amount of sugar produced . In this way I obtained from two ascarides weighing together , when taken fresh from the pig and merely wiped , 10-2 grms. , and from three weighing together 10 grms. , just 2-2 per cent. of sugar ( on the wet weight ) in each case . When this amount is compared with that produced by the mammalian liver alone , it will be seen that it really is , comparatively speaking , excessive . For the sake of comparing the Ascaris with other invertebrata , I may say that in a caterpillar weighing about 6 grms. I obtained a hardly appreciable quantity of glycogen , which was contained partly in the muscular parietes , and partly in the so-called " epiploon " or " hepatic parenchyma . " The quantity of glycogen that I obtained from a handful of common maggots was also hardly appreciable . In the Ascaris little or no glycogen is to be found in the intestine , a small quantity in the generative apparatus , and a very considerable quantity in the spongy visceral tissue ; by far the largest amount exists in the firmer muscular parietes . I failed to detect with iodine any distinct histological localization . It seems singular that an animal , living in the midst of a fluid one of whose chief functions is to change starch into sugar , should thus be found amassing glycogen within its own body . I have satisfied myself , however , 544 [ Dec. 7 , that there is no sugar-forming ferment present in the tissues of the Ascaris . Portions of the tissues may be kept exposed to a temperature of 35 ? C. for many hours without any appreciable loss of glycogen or advent of sugar . The whole animal , too , may be kept for days without any change of its glycogen being observed . I also failed to extract from the tissues any ferment capable of acting upon starch . The intestine alone seemed to have any power of the kind , and that but in the very feeblest degree . This failure in the production of sugar is not due to the presence of any substance antagonistic to the action of a sugar-forming ferment ; for the addition of a small quantity of saliva to even the unboiled tissues very speedily brings about the conversion of the glycogen into sugar . We may infer therefore that , if the animal swallows the intestinal juices in which it lives , the sugar-forming ferment contained therein either does not pass through its intestinal wall into the visceral cavity , or , if it does pass , is at once destroyed . It is evident that the formation of glycogen in the Ascaris takes place under conditions very different from those under which glycogen is deposited in the mammalian liver , since in the latter case there is present a powerful sugar-forming ferment belonging , as we have reason to believe , to the liver-substance itself , and not merely to the blood passing through the organ . The possible use of this glycogen is a matter of interest . Intestinal worms , inasmuch as they are animals and live , must needs consume oxygen . The amount of that gas they find in the intestinal juices , however , is very small ; and , having a constant temperature secured to them by warmth external to themselves , they are the very last of creatures to need what has been called " respiratory or calorifacient material . " Whatever be the use of sugar , starch , or glycogen in the mammalian body , no " respiratory " use can be safely suggested for the large amount of glycogen occurring in the Ascaris . Its abundance in the muscular parietes might suggest that it was material on its way to become muscle . If so , since the animals I studied were adults and ova-producing , the analogy of their glycogen would be , not with the glycogen of the muscles of the early mammalian embryo , but with the glycogen ( or dextrine ) occurring in smaller quantities in the full-grown muscles ( unless one were to push an idea , and say that the tissues of the lower animals were chemically homologous with the embryonic tissues of the higher ones ) . It might be thought to be immature chitin ; but why should it exist in such quantities ? and why is there so little in the caterpillar and the maggot ? In the Tmenia the glycogen could hardly be thought to have a muscular future . There it might be considered to be stored up for the development of the ova . This idea is at first sight contradicted , as far as the Ascaris is concerned ; by the fact that very little glycogen can be obtained from the generative apparatus of that animal . But is it not possible that , though stored up elsewhere , it may really be intended for the ova and embryos after all ? The analogy between the Ascaris , with its 1865 . ] 545 glycogen , and a plant with its blanched starch-storing tissues , is striking in many ways . May not " migration , " which plays so important a part in vegetable physiology , occur in the animal economy in reference to other substances besides fat

112180

3701662

On the Development of Certain Infusoria. [Abstract]

546

547

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. Samuelson

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112180

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112180

Immunology

Paleontology

Immunology

IV . " On the Development of certain Infusoria . " By J. SAMUELSON , Esq. Communicated by WILLJITAM CRooK1ES , Esq. Received November 8 , 1865 . ( Abstract . ) The chief object of this paper is to account in some degree for the successive appearance , in organic infusicns , of what seem to be distinct species of Protozoa rising in the developmental scale ; but the author commences with some general remarks on the origin of these animalcules , nnd states , among other conclusions at which he has arrived , his disbelief in spontaneous generation as it is understood by Pouchet and his disciples . Proceeding to the immediate purpose of the paper , the author first refers to the well-known fact , that when an infusion of decaying organic matter is exposed to the air , the types of Protozoa which first appear in it are the so-called Monads , and occasionally the particles of organized protoplasm known as Amcebew , but that these in a few days in great part disappear , and are succeeded by ciliated infusoria , such as Ifolpoda , Cyclidium , Glaucoma , and sometimes Vorticella-oftentimes followed in their turn by other types , as Owytrichum , Etzplotes , Kerona , &c. This phenomenon , he remarks , has been accounted for in different ways ; but his own observations and experiments justify , in his opinion , the conclusion that the monadine form which first appears is the earlier or larval stage of at least one , if not more of the ciliated infusoria , into which it becomes metamorphosed in the progress of development . In the first place , he states that he and Dr. Balbiani have observed the regular occurrence of monads belonging to the species of Cerecomonas fttsiaformis or acuminata of Dujardin , in pure distilled water which has been exposed some time to the atmosphere . These , or their zoospores , would seem to be wafted by the air along with particles of dust to which they cling . They readily appear when dust is sifted into distilled water , and in this way have been obtained from different localities at home , and , along with other forms , in dust shaken from rags imported from various distant parts of thg world . An experiment is then related , conducted by the author during the hot weather of last summer , in which a comparison was made between the animalcules which made their appearance in a vessel of pure distilled water exposed to the ai ; , and those successively appearing in distilled water to which extract of lettuce had been added . In both liquids CercomonadeS speedily showed themselves ; but whilst they remained unchanged in form in the pure water till near the end of the experiment ( a period of about three weeks ) , they entirely disappeared from the lettuce-infusion in six or seven days , and were succeeded by ciliated infusoria . The fusiform body of the Cercomonas bears a long whip-like cilium at its anterior end , and a short hair-like caudal process at the opposite extremity . Now this characteristic figure was retained by the monads in the distilled water ; they continued to grow larger during the progress of the observations , but without change of form ; only , towards the end , some of them lost their caudal process , and fixed themselves by their anterior cilium , and others , retaining both appendages , became fixed by the caudal one as on a pedicle ; finally , on exposure to undue heat and light , they shrank up , and then sometimes their soft substance was ejected from its enclosure and assumed the aspect and characters of an Amoeba . On the other hand , the Cercomonades of the lettuce-infusion in a few days lost both appendages , and , changing their manner of swimming , began to move through the water like ordinary ciliated infusoria . Moreover a few days later these animalcules , on being fed with indigo , readily ingested it , whereas , although that substance was supplied freely to the Cercomonades , it was never observed within their bodies . Figures to illustrate these phenomena accompany the paper . From these observations , the author infers that the Cercomonades are larvme or earlier forms of the ciliated animalcules which succeed them ; and he concludes his paper by remarking that , whilst he has confidence in the general accuracy of his observations , and in the views deduced from them , nevertheless , seeing the difficulties which attend such observations , and their consequent liability to error , he should be pleased were the same experiments repeated by others , in order to the confirmation or , if need be , the correction of his statements .

112181

3701662

Numerical Elements of Indian Meteorology.--Series III. Temperatures of the Atmosphere, and Isothermal Profiles of High Asia

547

548

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Hermann De Schlagintweit

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1865.0091

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112181

10.1098/rspl.1865.0091

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112181

Meteorology

Thermodynamics

Meteorology

I. " Numerical Elements of Indian Meteorology.-Series III . Temperatures of the Atmosphere , and Isothermal Profiles of High Asia . " By HERMANN DE SCHLAGINTWEIT , Sakiinliinski , Ph. D. , LL. D. , Corr. Mernb . Acad. Leop.-Carol . , &c. Communicated by Lieut.-General SABINE , P.R.S. Ieceived August 21 , 1865 . The principal object of this paper was to trace the relation between the decrement of mean temperature and the increment of height above the level of the sea in different regions of High Asia , to connect the variations observed from the general mean of the whole ( 390 feet increase of height for a diminution of 1 ? F. in mean temperature ) with the variations 547 Mr. Hartnup on testing Chronometers of season and of geographical position , and also to point out the cause of certain peculiarities in the climate of High Asia . As it has been ascertained that the paper was read to the Academy of Scielces at Berlin on the ist of June , and is printed at length , with its accompanying plates , in the ' Monatsbericht ' for August 1865 , the reader is referred to that puhlication .

112182

3701662

On Testing Chronometers for the Mercantile Marine

548

551

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Hartnup

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1865.0092

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112182

10.1098/rspl.1865.0092

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112182

Meteorology

Biography

Meteorology

II . " On testing Chronometers for the Mercantile JOHN HARTNUP , F.i.A.S. , Director of the servatory . Communicated by the President . vember 22 , 1865 . Marine . " By Liverpool ObReceived NoThe late Admiral Beechey , on looking over the records of the Liverpool Observatory in 1854 , was strongly impressed with the importance of some systematic plan being adopted for testing the chronometers employed in the Mercantile Marine . He consulted many persons on the subject who were interested in the security of navigation , but the difficulty which presented itself at that time was the long period required for the test , five or six months at least being supposed to be necessary . About four years ago the Mersey Docks and HI-arbour Board gave me permission to have constructed , for the purpose of testing chronometers , a hot-air apparatus on a more convenient principle , and on a much larger scale , than the one which I had heretofore employed ; and the arrangements are now so perfect that chronometers can be tested efficiently in five weeks . It appears that chronometers in the Merchant service , when at sea , are generally exposed to temperatures ranging from about 55 ? to 85 ? of Fahrenheit , and that for most practical purposes it is sufficient for the shipmaster to know the rate in the three definite temperatures 550 , 70 ? , and 85 ? . The following examples , taken from our records , will illustrate the method I have devised to supply this information . The temperature is changed 15 ? on Saturday mornings . No comparisons being made on Sundays , the rate for Monday in each week is the mean of two days . TABLE I.-Showing the daily rates , gaining , of six chronometers for five weeks ending February 21 . Mean No. , o. 3 . No. 4 . No ... 5 . No. 6 . daily temp. SSSSSS January 19 ... 0. . 06 ... 3-4 ... 2-8 ... 1-3 ... 25 ... 55 , 20 ... 0-6 ... 07 ... 35 ... 3-1 ... 1-1 ... 2-9 ... 55 , , 21 ... 09 ... 0-5 ... 3-6 ... 3-0 ... 1-0 ... 2-9 ... 55 22 ... 0-9 ... 10 ... 35 ... 3-1 ... 1-3 ... 25 ... 56 23 ... 0-5 ... 0-9 ... 3-5 ... 3-1 ... 14 ... 2-2 ... 55 24 ... 0-6 ... 0-8 ... 3-6 ... 3-0 ... 1-1 ... 2-3 ... 55 Means ... ... ... 0-67 ... 0-75 ... 3-52 ... 3-02 ... 1-20 ... 2-55 ... 55 548 [ Dec. 14 , Mean ... No. 3 . No. 24 No. . No. . o. 6. . daily temp. SSSSSS 26 ... 1-2 ... 1 -1 ... 1'8 ... 2'1 ... 33 ... 21 . 70 27 ... 1-2 ... 14 . , . 18 ... 2-0 ... 3-3 ... 2-2 ... 70 28 ... 1-2 ... 15 ... 1-9 ... 2-3 ... 3-3 ... 2-5 ... 70 29 ... 12 ... 16 ... 2-1 ... 2-3 ... 3-1 ... 2-3 ... 70 30 ... 10 ... 17 ... 1-9 ... 23 ... 31 ... 25 ... 70 31 ... 0'9 ... 1-4 ... 2-0 ... 2-2 ... 3-4 ... 2-7 ... 71 ... ... ... 1-12 ... 1 45 ... 1-92. . 2-20 ... 325 ... 2-38 ... 70 February 2 ... 0-8 ... 07 ... 08 , , 3 ... 07 ... 08 ... 0'9 , 4 ... 07 ... 06 ... 08 , , 5 ... 04 ... 07. . 0'7 , , 6 ... 0-6 ... 06 ... 07 , , 7 ... 0'9 ... 0-9 ... 0O9 Means ... ... ... ... 068 ... 072 ... 080 February 9 , , 10 , 11 , , 12 , , 13 , 14 ... 13 ... 13 ... 146 ... 1-4 ... 1-5 ... 12 ... 13 ... 1-4 ... 1-6 ... 12 ... 1-2 ... 21. . 1-7 ... 17 ... 22. . 2-1 ... 22 ... 0-4 ... 05 ... 0-6 ... 03 ... o0S5 ... 06 ... 048 ... 23. . 2-3 ... 24 ... 26 ... 23. . 2-4 ... 43 ... 44 ... 85 ... 43 ... 4-8 ... 85 ... 41 ... 46 ... 84 ... 40 ... 4-3 ... 85 ... 39 ... 43 ... 85. . 39 ... 4-3 ... 85 ... 4-08 ... 4-45 ... 85 ... 28 ... 29 ... 30 ... 28 ... 24 ... 24 ... 2-2 ... 21 ... 22 ... 23 ... 17 ... 1-8 ... 70 ... 70,. . 70 ... 71 ... 69,. . 69 Means ... ... ... ... 1'40 ... 132 ... 200 ... 2'38 ... 2-72 ... 2-05 ... 70 February 16 ... 10 ... 0 ' 6 ... 3 ' 6 ... 3-4 , , 17 . 09 ... 09 ... . . 3 ... 33 18 ... 0'9 ... 0'8 ... 3-9 ... 3-5 , , 19 ... 06 ... ... 360. . 3 3 , , 20 ... 08 ... 07 ... 34 ... 3-6 , 21 ... 0-7 ... 0-9 ... 39 ... 36 Means ... ... ... . . 082 ... . 063 ... 372 ... 3-45 ... 0-5 ... 2-8 ... 55 ... 03 ... 2-5 ... 55 ... 04 , ... 2-3,. . 55 ... 04 ... 21 ... 55 ... 03 ... 23 ... 56. . 07 ... 26 ... 56 ... 0-43 ... 2-43 ... 55 From these six examples , the following results for the middle period of the test are deduced : TABLE II.-Showing the mean daily rates , gaining , in three definite temperatures . Mean ternMean temNo . 1 . No. z. No. 3 . No. . No. 5 . No. 6 . perature . oSSSS 8 . S 55 0-75 0-69 3-62 3-24 0-82 2'49 70 1-26 1-39 1-96 2-29 2-99 2-22 85 0'68 0-72 0'80 0-48 4-08 4-45 TABLE III.-Showing the weekly increase of gaining-rate deduced from the first and last weeks of the test . No. I. No. z. No.3 . No. No. No. 6 . sssqSS 004 ... 3 005 ... 9 -003 1865 . ] January 5M , I , , Means 549 The efficiency of the method will be seen by the following three examples , in which the test was repeated four times in succession . TABLE IV.-Showing the mean daily rates , gaining , of three chronometers tested in three definite temperatures four times in succession . Middle period No. i. No. 2 . No. 3 . of tot.0 0000 of5es . 55 7 85 55 70 85 55 70 85 SSSSSSSS November 12 2-4 2'2 11 0-7 1-6 1-5 1o 14 0 ' 8 December 10 2-5 2-3 1-3 1-4 22 2'0 1-8 1-6 1-0 January 7 2-6 2-6 1-5 1-7 2-4 2-3 19 1-7 1-2 February 4 2-8 2-5 1-4 1-7 2-5 2-3 1'9 1-6 1'0 The preceding examples have not been selected to show the large errors in a ship 's longitude which might result from the use of very bad instruments , but rather that in what are considered good and carefully regulated chronometers errors may , with adequate means for testing , be detected , and tables of corrections supplied to the mariner . Examples 1 and 2 , Table I. , show how nearly it is possible to compensate for change of temperature between 55 ? and 85 ? . Some chronometers so compensated , when exposed to a temperature of 40 , change their rates very much , while in others the alteration of rate is comparatively small . On ascertaining the chronometrical difference of longitude between the Liverpool Observatory and the Observatory at Cambridge , Massachusetts , the late Professor W. C. Bond at the commencement employed twelve marine chronometers which had been used previously on several occasions for obtaining differences of longitude . During the voyages between Liverpool and Boston , in the summer months , the sea and shore rates of these . chronometers were sensibly the same ; but during the winter months they differed considerably . On testing these instruments in 40 ? and 60 , the following results were obtained : TABLE V.-Showing the increase of gaining-rate of twelve chronometers caused by changing the temperature from 40 ? to 60 ? . To . Increase of mean Increase of mean daily rate , gaining . daily rate , gaining . 5 . 5 . s. S. 1 ... ... ... ... 776 7 ... ... ... ... 3-0 2 ... ... ... . 5 ' 6 8 ... ... ... ... 2-7 3 ... ... ... ... 4-8 9 ... ... ... ... 1'5 4 ... ... ... ... 3-7 10 ... ... ... . 1.3 5 ... ... ... ... 3.4 11 ... ... ... ... 0 ' 8 6 ... ... ... ... 3-0 12 ... ... ... ... -3.5 The chronometers alluded to in this Table were made by the late Mr. 550 [ Dec. 14 , Dent , and used by him for finding the longitudes of several observatories in this country . On testing 100 chronometers in succession as they passed through the Observatory , the average alteration of daily rate caused by changing the temperature from 40 ? to 60 ? was 7s'0 ; and in ten per cent. of the hundred the average change was 30s'6 . The chronometer-room at the new Observatory now being erected at Bidston by the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board will be provided with the means of testing simultaneously between two and three hundred chronometers in the way shown by the examples in Table I. It is not necessary to test chronometers in this elaborate way on every occasion that they arrive in port , as the corrections for change of temperature remain the same for a long period . The rate may change , as in example 2 , Table IV . , while the thermal correction remains sensibly the same . When the Greenwich mean time is communicated from an authorized establishment , as is now generally the case in our large sea-ports , the rates of chronometers in the temperature that prevails at the time can be easily ascertained . At present these rates are used on the assumption that the thermal adjustments are perfect . The corrections for change of temperature in Table II . show the improvement which might be effected by testing all chronometers when new , and supplying mariners with Tables of such corrections as may be found to exist . These corrections would require verifying periodically , as in cleaning and repairing timekeepers the thermal adjustment is sometimes altered .

112183

3701662

On the Expansion of Water and Mercury. [Abstract]

551

554

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. Matthiessen

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112183

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112183

Thermodynamics

Tables

Thermodynamics

I. " On the Expansion of Water and Mercury . " By A. MATTIIIESSEN , F.R.S. Received December 7 , 1865 . ( Abstract . ) Before commencing a research into the expansion of the metals and their alloys , it was necessary to prove that the method I intended to employ , namely that of weighing the metal or alloy in water at different temperatures , would yield good and reliable results . To check , therefore , the method , I was led to determine the coefficient of expansion of mercury , and , basing my calculations on Kopp 's coefficients of expansion of water , I expected to obtain Regnault 's coefficient of expansion of mercury . The coefficient deduced from experiments did not agree with Regnault 's ; and being unable to discover any source of error in the method of experimenting , I determined to reinvestigate the matter . The memoir is divided into four parts . 1865 . ] 551 I. On the determination of the coefficients of the linear expansion of certain glass rods . These rods ( 1825 millims. long and of 20 millims. diameter ) were kindly made for these experiments by Mr. F. Osler . The method used for the determination of their increment in length was that of measuring it with a micrometer-screw , with which a length could be measured with accuracy to 0-001 millim. The rod was placed in a long trough , the one end of the rod resting against a fixed glass tube capped with zinc , the other against another glass tube the other end of which rested against the micrometer-screw . Water was allowed to flow through these glass tubes during the time of observation . The trough being filled with water at ordinary temperature and the position of the screw read off , the water was heated to boiling and another reading taken . The mean of sixteen observations gave for the linear expansion of these rods Lt=Lo ( 1 +0'00000729t ) , and therefore for the cubical expansion Vt=Vo ( 1 +0-00002187t ) . II . On the method employed for the determination of the cubical expansion of water and mercury . This part of the paper contains a full description of the apparatus employed , and the precautions taken . The method consists of weighing the substances in water at different temperatures , and from the loss of weight in water deducing its volume . For this deduction , the expansion of water at different temperatures is required . III . On the redeterminations of the coefficients of expansion of water . To determine these , pieces of the glass rods ( the linear expansion of which had to be determined ) , ground to the shape of a double wedge , were weighed in water of different temperatures . Three pieces of glass were used ( making three Series ) , the weighings being made at temperatures between 0 ? and 100 , the whole number of observations being thirty-two . From these it was found that the expansion of water between 4 ? and 100 ? may conveniently be expressed between 4 ? and 32 ? by the formula Vt= I -0-0000025300 ( t-4 ) + 00000083890 ( t-4)2000000007173 ( t--4)3 , and between 32 ? and 100 ? by t-== 0999695 +00000054724 t-0000000011260t . The values calculated from these formulae for the volume occupied by water at different temperatures are given in Table I. from degree to degree , together with the differences for each degree . TABLE I. 553 T ? Volume Differ0 Volume DiffcrVolume Differ : To . otcTo Cc of water ence per of water ence per of water ence per Cat T ? .1 ? . at T 1 . at T ? . 1 ? ... . _____. . ___._ ___ ____ . ___ . _a ? ... _ 1§ 4S6789 10 II 12 '3 I4 I5 16 17 18 '9 20 2I 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 I'000000 I ooooo6 I 000028 I oooo66 i'ooo0Ig I0oooi88 I'000271 00ooo369 00ooo479 I'ooo604 00ooo742 I'ooo892 1'ooIo54 I'001227 1'001412 I'ooi6o8 I1ooi8I4 I'o02029 'o002254 '00o2488 10oo2731 I 002982 I'00324I 00oo3507 10co3780 00oo4059 rIoo4345 00oo4635 rI004931 I'005249 1 005578 00oo59I6 'o006261 o-ooooo6 22 38 53 69 83 98 IIo I25 138 I5 162 173 185 196 206 215 225 234 243 251 259 266 273 279 286 290 296 318 329 338 0-000345 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64:65 66 67 68 oo006616 oo006979 1'007351 1'007730 1 00'8I8 I-008514 00oo8918 I'009331 1-009751 1'0IOI79 10oio614 1o011059 1-011510 11OII969 1-OI2435 1012909 1'013391 I1013879 1'014376 1o014879 1015390 1-015907 1'I16432 -oI 6964 1-017502 o018047 1 018599 1019158 1-019724 1'020296 i ozo874 1021874 o2 , I459 000ooo355 363 3721 379 388 396 404 413 420 428 43 5 445 451 459 ' 466 474 482 488 497 503 5I 517 5 ? 5 532 538 545 552 559 566 572 578 585 o'ooo591 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 89 89 90 9I 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 I'022050 I 022648 Io023252 1'023861 1'024477 I'o25099 I'o25727 10o2636I I'027000 1'027646 1-o28296 I'o28953 -02o9615 1'o30283 Io030956 10'31634 I1032318 1'033007 1-033701 0'o34400 1o035104 1'o358 3 '1o36527 1-037245 I'037969 1-038697 1-039429 o040166 1o040907 I'o41653 I-042404 1I043159 0o000598 604 609 6i6 622 628 634 639 646 65c 657 662 668 673 678 684 689 694 699 704 709 714 718 724 728 732 737 741 746 751 0-000755 IV . On the redetermination of the coefficient of expansion of mercury . The pure mercury was weighed in a bucket in the water at different temperatures . The glass bucket was made from the end of a test-tube ( its length being about 20 millims. and width 15 iillims . ) . The expansion of this sort of glass was found to be Yt=Vo ( 1 +000002566t ) . Five series were made with mercury ; and its expansions , deduced from the water-expansions given in Table I , were Series I. = ... . . VT=Vo ( 1+0-0001815t ) , Series II ... ... . Vt=Vo ( 1+0-0001813t ) , Series III ... ... . Vt=V0 ( 1 +00001808t ) , Series IV ... ... V=Vo ( 1+0 0001808t ) , Series V ... ... Vt=Vo ( 1 +0'0001816t ) , Mean ... . Vt=Vo ( 1+ 00001812t ) a value closely agreeing with Regnault 's , namely V =V-(l +00001815t ) . Calculating from the five series the coefficients of expansion of mercury , using Kopp 's water-expansion ( taking the volume at 4 ? =1 ) , we find as mean Vt=To ( 1 +0 000178t ) . In the following Table I give the values obtained by different observers for the volumes occupied by water at different temperatures , the volume at 4 ? being taken equal to 1 . TABLE Il . T. l* . Despretz ' . Pierre . 1-fagen ? . Matthiesson . 4 I'000000 I000000 I'000000 I000000 I'o000000 1o 1-000247 'oooz68 1'000271 o000o269 1'000271 15 x'000818 I'000875 I'ooo0850 1000849 i 000892 o0 I'OOI690 r1001790 1001717 I'OOI72I I'OOI814 30 I'004187 'o004330 I'004195 '1004250 -'004345 40 I-007654 I oo773o I'007636 1o0077I1 I'007730 50 I'011890 II012050 I'011939 'OII994 I'OII969 60 I'o6715 oI'oI698o I'o7243 I'017001 'oi06964 70 1-022371 I'022550 10o23064 I-022675 I1022648 so oz028707 x1028850 1 029486 I'028932 1-028953 9 ? o035524 1-035660 1'036421 I0'357I5 1'035813 oo I'043114 1 043150 I'043777 I '42969 I '043159 Kopp , Despretz , and Pierre used the same method for their determinations-that of determining the expansion of water in glass vessels ( dilatometers ) . Hagen employed the weighing process , but at high temperatures employed no special precautions to prevent the steam condensing on his fine wire ; hence his values at 90 ? and 100 ? fall below mine . It will be seen from the foregoing Table that Kopp 's values are lower than the others ; and bearing in mind that the coefficient of expansion of mercury , when deduced by means of these , falls below that obtained by Regnault , but when deduced from Despretz 's or my own agrees closely with Regnault 's , we are led to conclude that Kopp 's values must be somewhat incorrect .

112184

3701662

On the Forms of Some Compounds of Thallium

555

557

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. H. Miller

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1865.0094

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112184

10.1098/rspl.1865.0094

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112184

Optics

Atomic Physics

Optics

II . " On the forms of some Compounds of Thallium . " By W. H. MILLER , M.A. , For . Sec. R.S. , Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge . Received December 13 , 1865 . Nitrate of Thallium . Prismatic , 01 0 , 01 1-38§ 8'1 ; 10 0 , 10 0 , 01 96 100 , 110 62 56.3 100,210 44 23 1 00 , 111 68 6'5 100 , 211 51 13 110 , 11 34 57-5 01 1,011 103 44 011 , 211 38 47 110 , 110 54 7*4 210 , 211 28 46 210,210 91 14 011 , 111 21 53-5 111 , 111 43 47 111 , 1i 11 93 448 11 1 , 11 110 5 211,211 77 34 211 , 211 75 38 21 1,211 122 28 11 0=62§ 56*'3 . Fig. 1 . Observed combinations:-1 0 0 , 11 1 ; " 10 0 , 1 1 , 21 1 ; 10 0 , 0 11 , 111 , 211 ; 100 , 110 , 210 , 111 , 211 ; 100 , 011 , 110 , 210 , 111 , 2 11 . No cleavage observable . From the observed minimum deviation of the brightest part of the solar spectrum formed by refraction through the faces 1 00 , 1I 0 , it appears that the index of refraction of a ray in the plane 001 , and polarized in that plane , is about 1-817 . The refrangibility of the other ray is greater , its minimum deviation through the same faces being 93 ? nearly . Sulphocyanide of Thallium . Pyramidal , 0 01 , 10 1=38§ 201'3 . Observed forms:-1 0 0 , 11 0 , 10 1 . Fig. 2 . 0 : 1 00 , 010 90 0 100 , 1 10 45 01 O0,01 O11 90 0 100 , 101 51 39'7 110 , 101 6359 101 , 101 76 40'6 10 1 , 011 52 2 Observed combinations:-1 1 0 , 10 1 ; 10 0 , 1 0 , 10 1 . The crystals are remarkable for the very unequal extension of the faces of the same simple form , and at first sight look as if they belonged to the oblique system . The breadth and thickness of one of the largest crystals were 1'l and 0'055 millimetre respectively ; and of two adjacent faces of the form 10 1 , one was about eleven times the breadth of the other . The distribution of the large and small faces did not appear to be subject to any law ; so that these crystals cannot be regarded as combinations of large and small hemihedral forms . Twins . Twin face 101 . Fig. 3 . 1O 1 , I0 180 0 110 , 0 11 52 4 i10 , 011 -52 401 1 , I__ I0 75 56 011 , I 10 75 56 101 , I 01 26 388 No cleavage observable . An attempt was made to determine the optical constants of the crystal by observing the minimum deviation of light refracted through a face of the form 10 and one of the opposite faces of the form 10 0 ; the latter were , however , so small that the observation could not be made with much accuracy . It appeared that for the ordinary ray polarized in a plane parallel to the line 00 1 , the indices of refraction of red light , of the brightest part of the spectrum , and of violet light were about 2 115 , 2 159 , and 2'314 respectively , and that , for the extraordinary ray polarized in the plane 00 1 , the indices of refraction of red light , the brightest part of the spectrum , and of violet light were about 1*890 , 1'973 , and 2-143 respectively . Carbonate of Thallium . The faces which have been observed are all in one zone , and exhibit a symmetry which is compatible with either the prismatic or the oblique system . The crystals probably belong to the prismatic system . They are aggregated in such a manner as to render it very difficult to isolate a single crystal , or to determine the faces which belong to the different individuals of a group of crystals . Observed forms:-1 0 0 , 1I 0 , 21 0 , 12 0 . Fig. 4 . 100 , 110 51 28 100,210 32 7I 00 , 1 20 68 57 110,110 77 4 Twins . Twin face 11 0 . One individual is generally united to each of two others , in this respect resembling the twins of cerussite , aragonite , glaserite , and chrysoberyl . A cleavage has been observed probably parallel to the faces of the form 1 0 ; it may , however , be parallel to the faces of the form 10 0 , the complexity of the twin crystals being such that it could not be ascertained whether the cleavages observed belonged to one crystal or to two different crystals . I am indebted to Mr. Crookes , the discoverer of thallium , for the crystals of nitrate , sulphocyanide , and carbonate of thallium , above described . 557 1865 . ]

112186

3701662

Obituary Notices of Fellows Deceased

i

xxii

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

nws

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112186

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112186

Biography

Headmatter

Biography

OBITUARY NOTICES OF FELLOWS DECEASED BETWEEN 30TH Nov. 1863 AND 30TH Nov. 1864 . Capt. WILLIAM ALLEN entered the Navy in 1805 . At the passage of the Dardanelles , by Sir John Duckworth , he served on board The Standard ; ' and afterwards took part in the expedition against Java . He was engaged in the Niger exploration under Capt. Trotter in 1841 , and in 1848 published an account of the Voyage , in two volumes . In 1855 he brought out another work on the " Dead Sea , and the Overland Communication with the East , " in which he recommended the cutting of a canal from the Mediterranean to the Dead Sea . He was an active member of the Royal Geographical Society , and was elected into the Royal Society in 1844 . He died in January , aged seventy-one . In the Rev. Dr. WILLIAM CURETON , Canon of Westminster , ancient literature has lost one of the ablest of Syriac scholars . His 'Corpus Ignatianum , ' an edition of an ancient Syriac version of the Epistles of St. Ignatius , with commentaries , published in 1845 , established his reputation as an Orientalist , and became the occasion of a spirited controversy which was carried on for some years among students of ancient texts . This was followed by an edition of a palimpsest of portions of Homer , discovered in a convent in the Levant , and in 1855 by ' Spicilegium Syriacum , ' in both of which Dr. Cureton exhibited profound and accurate scholarship . He was continuing his researches into old Syriac versions of St. Matthew 's Gospel at the time of his decease ; and , considering how valuable were the services he rendered to that department of literature , the accident by which those services were interrupted is the more to be deplored . Dr. Cureton was born in 1808 . About two years before his death , which took place at Westbury , Shropshire , on June 17 , 1864 , he sustained so severe a shock from an accident to a railway-train in which he was travelling , that his health remained permanently impaired . He was educated at Christ Church , Oxford , and was ordained a priest in 1834 ; in 1847 he was appointed Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen , and in 1849 was preferred to a canonry of Westminster , and therewith to the rectorship of St. Margaret 's . Besides these ecclesiastical employments , he held for a short time the place of Sublibrarian to the Bodleian Library ; in 1837 he became Assistant-keeper of the MSS . in the British Museum , and was afterwards appointed one of the Trustees of the Museum on the part of the Crown . He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1838 . JOSEPH HENRY GREEN was born in London , on the 1st of November , 1791 , and died at Hadley , Middlesex , on the 13th of December , 1863 . Mr. Green 's father was a merchant of high standing in the City of London , and his mother was a sister of Mr. Cline , the eminent surgeon . His school education was begun in this country , but completed in Germany , where , accompanied by his mother , he spent three years , chiefly in Hanover . At the age of eighteen he was apprenticed to his uncle , Mr. Cline , and entered on the study of medicine at St. Thomas 's Hospital , of which Mr. Cline was surgeon . In 1813 he married Miss Anne Eliza Hammond . This lady , who survives him , was the daughter of Mr. Hammond , surgeon at Southgate , and sister of an early friend and fellow student . In 1815 Mr. Green became a member of the College of Surgeons , and was soon afterwards appointed Demonstrator of Anatomy at St. Thomas 's Hospital . While in this office he published a Dissector 's Manual , ' which bore advantageous comparison with the books of the same kind then in use . In the meantime Mr. Cline had retired from St. Thomas 's , and was succeeded by his son Mr. Henry Cline , on whose early death , in 1820 , Mr. Green was appointed Surgeon to that Hospital , and Lecturer on Surgery in the Medical School , in conjunction with Sir Astley Cooper , who withdrew from the joint office in 1825 . The advantageous position in which Mr. Green was now placed , and his own merit , speedily gained for him the confidence of his profession and the public . In 1824 he was appointed Professor of Anatomy to the Royal College of Surgeons ; in 1825 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ( in later years he served on the Council ) . Also in 1825 he received the appointment of Professor of Anatomy to the Royal Academy , and in the latter part of that year delivered the first of a long succession of annual courses on Anatomy in its relation to the Fine Arts . Ere now , too , he had acquired a considerable and increasing share in the private practice of his profession . Respecting the Lectures at the College of Surgeons , which formed one comprehensive course distributed over four years , Professor Owen , who heard them delivered , thus writes to Mr. Simon*.:- " For the first time in England the comparative anatomy of the whole animal kingdom was described , and illustrated by such a series of enlarged and coloured diagram . as had never before been seen . The vast array of facts was linked by refer . ence to the underlying Unity , as it had been advocated by Oken and Carus . The Comparative Anatomy of the latter was the text-book of the Course ... . . Green illustrated , in his grand course , Carus rather than Huniter ; the dawning philosophy of Anatomy in Germany , rather than the teleology which Abernethy and Carlisle had previously given as Hunterian , not knowing their master . " Of Mr. Green 's lectures at the Royal Academy ( where he retained his professorship till 1852 ) , Mr. Simon , who attended several of the courses , thus expresses himself:- " His teaching at the Royal Academy , like all his teaching , was characterized by a very deep-going and comprehensive treatment of his subject . He recognized , of course , that the details of anatomy ( even of mere artistic surface-anatomy ) could not be adequately spoken of , much less conveyed , in the six formal lectures which he had annually to deliver ... ... Not indeed that he omitted to survey , or surveyed otherwise than admirably , the composition and mechanism of the human body ; and perhaps no mere anatomist ever taught more effectively than he what are the bodily materials and arrangement which represent the aptitude for strength , equipoise , and grace , or what respective shares are contributed by bone , muscle , and tegument to the various visible phenomena of form and gesture , attitude and action . But to this he did not confine himself . Specially in the one or two introductory or closing lectures of each course , but at times also by digression in other lectures , he set before his hearers that which to them , as artists , was ' matter of at least equal concern the science of interpreting human expression and appreciating human beauty . His discourses on these subjects were very deeply considered . Necessarily they were of wide philosophical range . And they were enriched with numberless illustrative references to the history of Art , and to the master-works of ancient and modern sculpture and painting . " On the establishment of King 's College in 1830 , Mr. Green was nominated Professor of Surgery , and continued to hold the Professorship till 1836 , when he resigned it ( on retiring to live in the country ) , and was elected a Member of the Governing Council of the institution . Of his surgical lectures it is stated on the best authority that the technical instruction imparted , perfect as it was , was by no means their sole excellence ; they had also a moral aim , and were admirably fitted to exert a favourable influence on the habits of thought and future professional character of his young hearers . In 1835 Mr. Green was elected on the Council of the College of Surgeons , and in 1846 appointed to the Court of Examiners . In 1840 and 1847 he delivered the Hunterian Oration ; in 1849-50 and again in 1858-59 he was President ; in 1853 he exchanged his post of Surgeon to St. Thomas 's for the honorary appointment ( then first made ) of Consulting Surgeon to that institution ; and on the creation , by the Medical Act of 1858 , of the General Council of Medical Education and Registration , he was chosen by the College of Surgeons to be its representative in the new body . Two years later , when the post of President of the Medical Council became vacant by the retirement of Sir Benjamin Brodie , the Council unanimously elected Mr. Green to the office ; and he continued in it , with the warmest regard and confidence of its members , for the remaining three years of his life . Mr. Green thus attained to the foremost rank in his profession , and came to occupy with universal assent its highest public offices ; but the contemplation of his professional and public career would convey a wholly inadequate notion of his intrinsic mental tendencies and pursuits , and the scope of his intellectual activity . From his early years he had a bent towards the study of abstract philosophy in its largest and highest sense ; and to gratify his inclination he , in the summer of 1817 , found time to spend a few months in Berlin to go through a private course of reading on philosophy with Professor Solger , on whom , as well as on Ludwig Tieck whom he had met in London , his amiable disposition and " noble eagerness for knowledge " made a most favourable impression . Probably about this time also he became acquainted with Coleridge , and contracted an admiration of his philosophy ; soon afterwards , at any rate , a close intimacy grew up between them , which continued during the rest of Coleridge 's life , " Invariably he spent with Coleridge they two alone at their work-many hours of every week , in talk of pupil and master . And so year after year , ? he sat at the feet of his Gamaliel , getting more and more insight of the teacher 's beliefs and aspirations , till , in 1834 , two events occurred which determined the remaining course of his life . On the one hand , his father died , and he became possessed of amply sufficient means for his profession to be no longer needful to his maintenance . On the other hand , Coleridge himself died . And the language of Coleridge 's last will and testament , together no doubt with verbal communications which had passed , imposed on Mr. Green what he accepted as an obligation to devote , so far as necessary , the whole remaining strength and earnestness of his life to the one task of systematizing , developing , and establishing the doctrines of the Coleridgian philosophy , ' Influenced by these circumstances he withdrew from private practice and resigned his professorship at King 's College . Then , too , he gave up his London house and retired to reside at Hadley ; and although he did not relinquish his interest in the practical aspects of his profession or his care for the amendment of its institutions , continuing still to take an active share in the government of the College of Surgeons , and finally presiding in the Medical Council , yet all such occupations and objects then became secondary in his mind to the one object of his philosophical studies and the fulfilment of the task he had undertaken . With this purpose Mr. Green entered upon the widest possible range of study ; for he deemed it necessary to test the applicability of the Coleridgian system to all branches of methodized human knowledge . Accordingly , in the twenty-seven years of life that remained to him , " Theology , Ethics , Politics and Political History , Ethnology , Language , LEsthetics , Psychology , Physics and the Allied Sciences , Biology , Logic , Mathematics , Pathology-all were thoughtfully studied by him in at least their basial principles and metaphysics , and most were elaborately written of as though for the divisions of some vast encyclopaedic work . " Mr. Green took advantage of the public discourses which on more than one occasion he was called on to deliver , to make known his opinions on the relation of the Coleridgian philosophy to the study of science and the learned professions . Of these there have appeared in print his Address on the opening of the Medical Session at King 's College in 1832 , the Hunterian Oration for 1840 , entitled " Vital Dynamics , " and that for 1847 , with the title " Mental Dynamics . " But as years advanced , certain threatening bodily ailments warned him that it was time to utilize in a systematic and communicable form , at least a part of the fruits of his vast preparatory labour ; and he accordingly determined to complete a work which should give in system the doctrines , especially the theological and ethical doctrines , which he deemed most distinctively Coleridgian ; and to this he devoted what in effect proved to be the whole available remainder of his life . The result is a work in two volumes published under the editorship of Mr. Simon . The first volume is devoted to the general principles of philosophy , while the second is entirely theological , and especially aims at vindicating c priori ( on principles for which the first volume has contended ) , the essential doctrines of Christianity . The mental qualities and character of Mr. Green will be found ably delineated in Mr. Simon 's memoir ; suffice it here to say that his life , both private and public , was a life of benevolence , probity , truth , and honour . Mr. HUDSON GURNEY , who died at the advanced age of ninety-five , was one of the well-known Norfolk family of that name , members of the Society of Friends , and through his wife was connected with the Barclays of Ury . He was for many years a leading Member of the House of Commons , distinguished by the favour he showed to men of letters , and the literary and art collections which he formed . In 1811 he published a poem , 'Cupid and Psyche , ' based on the Golden Ass of Apuleius . He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1818 . LEONARD IHORNER , the third and youngest son of Mr. John Horner , linen-merchant in Edinburgh , was born on the 17th of January , 1785 . It was but natural that with an early enthusiasm for science he should have become a geologist ; for in Edinburgh at that time Hutton , Hall , Playfair , and a band of zealous followers , by observation in the field and by experiment in the workshop , were gathering materials for a new philosophy of geology , and were waging a keen warfare with the partisans of Werner . The year of Mr. Horner 's birth was that in which Hutton 's famous excursion to the granite of Glen Tilt was made . I-e was three years old when that philosopher unfolded his new theory to the Royal Society of Edinburgh , and he had grown up to be a High School boy of ten years of age when the immortal 'Theory of the Earth ' was published . At that time , indeed , according to his own confession , he was a thoughtless youth with no special liking for study , and a vague passion for the sea . But these scientific discussions had not come to a close when he grew up to be able to understand and take an interest in them , and their influence is to be traced throughout his life . He entered the University of Edinburgh in 1799 , and attended the lectures of Playfair on Mathematics . In 1802 he was studying moral philosophy under Dugald Stewart , and chemistry with Hope ; and it was when fairly launched into these studies that his mind took that bent towards natural science by which it was marked during the rest of his life . " From that time , " he writes , " began a new state of mind . I took an interest in the subject , bought apparatus , made experiments , and destroyed many of my mother 's towels . I took a particular interest in mineralogy , began to make a collection of specimens , cultivated acquaintence with some fellow students who had the same turn , and read Playfair 's 'Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory , ' of which I became a worshipper , having heard it well expounded by Dr. Hope . " He was too young to have personal intercourse with Hutton , though he tells how he used to hear much in his own family of the " ingenuity , acuteness , and even lighthearted playfulness " of that philosopher . But he became attached to the Professor of Mlathematics , to whom sixty years afterwards he referred from the chair of the Geological Society as his " venerable friend the able and eloquent Playfair . " At the age of nineteen Mr. Horner left Edinburgh to become partner in a branch of his father 's business , which it was proposed to carry on in London . His elder brother Francis was already rising to eminence in the House of Commons ; so that Mr. Horner soon found himself in the midst of a large circle of friends , among whom were not a few of note in science and literature . Two years afterwards he married Miss Lloyd , daughter of a landed proprietor in Yorkshire , and took a house in London . His love for geology , however , was not quenched by the claims of business , for we find him , the year after his marriage , joining the newly-founded Geological Society . Nor did he become an inactive member . In 1810 , the second year after his election , he was chosen one of the Secretaries of the Society , and from that time down almost to the very day of his death , he continued one of its most zealous and unwearying members . In 1815 he found himself under the necessity of returning to Edinburgh to take a personal superintendence of his business there . Two years afterwards his brother Francis , with whom he had journeyed to Italy in a vain search for health , died full of promise . When Mr. Horner had recovered from the blow of this sad loss , his active mind sought new scope for itself in the organization of political meetings , wherein the young Whiggism was developed , for which Edinburgh afterwards came to be so noted . In this , as in many other features of his life , Mr. Iorner showed the practical and methodical character of his mind , as well as his social disposition ; for these meetings were not arranged without exciting much keen opposition and political feeling . His residence in Edinburgh was marked by the success of anotherproject-one of themostwidelyuseful of all his schemes for thebenefit of his fellow-men . In March 1821 , happening to observe some watchmakers at work , he was led to inquire whether they ever received any mathematical education . On being told that they did not , and that , though anxious to obtain such instruction , they could not afford to pay for it , the idea occurred to him to found a school for the training of mechanics in those branches of science which would aid them in their daily work . Hence arose the Edinburgh School of Arts . Mr. Horner laboured hard for the success of this scheme , and he lived to see it completely successful . He acted as Secretary of the School for the first six years ; and during all the rest of his life , even though no longer resident in Edinburgh , he continued to take an active interest in the institution and in its prominent students . He several times gave donations of books to the library , and in 1858 invested a sum of money for an annual prize of three guineas . The usefulness of this school has been great . About seven hundred young men are entered annually as students in mathematics , chemistry , or natural philosophy , and receive at small cost instruction which would otherwise lie beyond their reach . Several of the foremost engineers of the present day have been students there . It was in remembrance of this and similar kinds of philanthropic activity , that Lord Cockburn styled Mr. Horner " one of the most useful citizens Edinburgh ever possessed . " Mr. Horner left Edinburgh in the year 1827 to assume the office of Warden in the University of London , a post at which he laboured for four years , until his failing health led him to seek a retreat with his family on the banks of the Rhine . At Bonn he had leisure to renew his old love for mineralogical and physical geology ; and in making himself acquainted with the geological structure of the district , he at the same time formed a lifelong friendship with some of the most eminent men of science and learning there . On his return to England in 1833 he was appointed one of a Commission to inquire into the employment of children in the factories of Great Britain . The Report of this Commission gave rise to the Factory Act , under which Mr. Horner was made one of the Inspectors of Factories , an office which , through good and ill report , he laboriously and conscientiously filled for nearly thirty years . His zeal for the interests of the women and children in the factories often placed him in conditions of great delicacy , yet , notwithstanding opposition and disparagement , he continued his exertions , and earned the gratitude of the workers , while he was at the same time rewarded by finding an ever-increasing number of millowners who acknowledged the benefits of the Act which it was his duty to enforce . During these busy years , however , he never lost or relinquished his interest in the progress of science , and more especially of Geology . No face was more constantly seen at the Meetings of the Royal and Geological Societies than that of Mr. I-Horner . He had become a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1813 , and in various years served on the Council . In 1845 he took an active part in the reform of the Society , whereby the mode of Election of new Members was modified . In the year 1857 he was nominated Vice-President . In the Geological Society he took a still more prominent part . Besides reading papers at its Meetings , he became in 1846 its President , an office which he again filled in 1860 . He was unremitting in his attention to all that might in any way further the interests or usefulness of the Society . He worked with his own hands in the Museum , arranging and cataloguing its stores of specimens ; and he 0 0 Vlll1 carried on this task at intervals up to within a short period of his death , labouring often to the verge of his physical strength . To his suggestion is due the publication of the Quarterly Journal of Papers read at the Society 's Meetings , one of the most important undertakings of this Society . When Mr. Horner at last resigned the office of Inspector of Factories , although now seventy-five years of age , he still remained so full of youthful energy , that he looked forward hopefully to spend yet a few years in more undivided attention to his favourite science . Unable longer for the toils of out-of-door geology , he resumed with fresh zeal the arrangement of the Geological Society 's Museum , anxious that its stores of rock-specimens should be classified in such a form as in the end to afford a comparative series of the different rocks throughout the globe . The failing health of his wife interrupted this task , and induced him to spend the winter of 1861-62 at Florence . There , as at Bonn , he found a ready welcome into the cultivated and learned society of that city . While there , he occupied himself with translating from the Italian Villari 's 'Life of Savonarola , ' and published it in England a few months afterwards . Mrs. Homrer 's health , however , which had continued a source of anxiety to him , at last gave way , and she died as the family was on the point of returning to England . When Mr Horner came back to London , his friends saw with concern that this great sorrow had told only too plainly upon his health . His strength began to fail , but his energy seemed as fresh as ever . He returned to his labours among the collections of the Geological Society , and day after day he was found poring over dusty specimens , describing and cataloguing them with the same perseverance and even enthusiasm which he had shown from the beginning . A few months after his return from Italy , viz. during the summer of 1862 , he paid his last visit to his native city . Never was his welcome warmer . He came at the time when the schools were passing through their public examination previous to dismissal for the autumn holidays the High School where he himself had been educated , and the Academy which , with Lord Cockburn , he had founded . He attended the examinations , addressed the boys , presented some of the prizes , and showed at the end of his long life the same deep interest in education and in the pursuits of youth . His old Edinburgh friends , too-now a yearly decreasing number-vied with each other in their attention to the venerable philanthropist . Returning from Scotland to London , he fixed upon the 15th of March , 1864 , as the day when he should leave England to revisit the grave of his wife at Florence . But before that day came round a cold seized him , followed by extreme weakness , and he died calmly on the 5th of March . Physical geology was the branch of science to which Mr. Horner more specially devoted himself . The influence of his early acquaintance with Playfair and the Huttonian geologists at Edinburgh is visible throughout his scientific course . He began the study imbued with the prevailing ideas regarding the importance of mineralogical geology ; and his first papers-that on the Malvern Hills , and that on Somersetshire-may be taken as characteristic specimens of the mineralogical system of treatment by which the geology of the early part of this century was marked . But though from the state of the science at that time ( 1811-1815 ) it was not to be expected that he should succeed in unravelling the complicated geological relations of the different rocks , it is yet interesting to mark how he carried with him the spirit of careful observation in which Playfair had trained him , and how readily he saw among the hills of England proofs of the truth of the Huttonian system . During his active life he had few opportunities of doing much in field-geology . When he found a little leisure in his retreat at Bonn , he at once reverted to his favourite science , and the results of his sojourn were given to the Geological Society in a paper on the Geology of the Environs of that town . During the same interval of rest he was led , in the true spirit of the Huttonian school , to institute a series of experiments on the quantity of solid matter suspended in the water of the Rhine , with the view of arriving at some " measure of the amount of abraded stone transported to the sea , there to constitute the materials of new strata now in progress of formation . " These researches have become classic in the history of geology . Fifteen years later a similar kind of inquiry greatly interested him when Lepsius called attention to certain sculptured marks in the valley of the Nile ; and in 1851 he obtained from the Royal Society a grant of money for the purpose of excavations to be made in the Nile alluvium . To link together the earliest human with the latest geological history seemed to him an object worthy of earnest prosecution . After four years of exploration , carried on according to a plan drawn up and sent out by him to Egypt , Mr. Horner published the results of his researches in the 'Philosophical Transactions ' for 1855 . His presidential addresses to the Geological Society were devoted to a survey of the progress of geology . They are remarkable for the sympathy which they show for views far in advance of those in which he had himself been trained . But it is not by the number or character of his writings that Mr. Horner 's influence among the scientific men of his day is to be estimated . His age and experience , his association with the early days of British geology , his political connexions , his sound judgment and careful business habits , joined to his excellent social qualities , gave him a position which none can now fill . And he retained his influence in no small measure from the singular fervour and youthfulness of his mind . Instead of clinging to old methods and beliefs as one of his years and early predilections might have been expected to do , he was found ever ready to receive and sympathize with new developments of truth , and to uphold the cause of progress in all departments of science . Even at the last , when he read his final address to the Geological Society , he pleaded boldly for the high antiquity of the human race in opposition to popular prejudice on this subject , and claimed for the speculations of Mr. Darwin the thoughtful consideration of all lovers of truth . Mr. Horner 's death severed a link closely and visibly connecting the geologists of today with the early masters of the science in this country , and closed a long and honourable life , full of all kindliness , and ever devoted to the welfare of his fellow men . LUKE HOWARD was born in London in 1772 , a date which carries us back to the early years of the reign of George III . , and opens a long vista of history in which great political changes are rivalled by the grandest discoveries of modern science . Luke Howard 's parents , members of the Society of Friends , sent their son to a country school in North Oxfordshire , where , as he was accustomed to say in after life , " he learnt too much of Latin grammar and too little of anything else . " But having even then an observing eye , he began to notice the appearances of the sky and forms of clouds ; and his inclination towards meteorology appears to have been fixed by his impressions of the remarkable atmospheric and meteoric phenomena which , as those acquainted with the history of meteorology will remember , characterized the year 1783 . From school young Howard went as apprentice to a chemist at Stockport , which was then a quiet country town . In this situation he devoted his spare hours to the course of self-improvement which he had already begun , and acquired that knowledge of French , botany , and the principles of chemistry , which were so useful to him in after years . The quickening effect produced on his mind by the works of Lavoisier he described as " like sunrise after morning moonlight , " an effect which has been felt by many a student . In 1798 he entered into partnership with William Allen , whose reputation as a manufacturing chemist has long been recognized . This connexion , however , was brought to an amicable close a few years later , and Howard , taking as his portion the laboratory at Plaistow , applied himself to the business therewith connected , and to his favourite scientific pursuits . Making use of his observations of natural phenomena , he wrote a paper " On the Modifications of Clouds , " and read it at a meeting of the Askesian Society , of which he and his friend Allen were members . This paper , as he himself tells us , " the result of his early boyish musings , enriched by the observations of many a walk or ride , morning and evening , to or from his day 's work at the laboratory , " was published in 1803 , and made known the author 's name and ability to a wider circle . The Askesian was not a publishing Society ; otherwise Luke Howard might have been better known than he is as a pioneer in departments of science besides meteorology . " I know , " writes one of his friends , " that one or more of his papers related to atmospheric electricity , and another was an anticipation of the cell-theory , as regards the structure and functions of plants , founded on microscopic investigations , " Many , if not all , the articles on meteorology in ' Rees 's Cyclopedia , ' were written by Luke Howard . He contributed a series of papers to the 'Atheneum , ' embodying the results of his meteorological observations from the year 1806 ; and these he published in two volumes ( 1818-20 ) , under the title " Climate of London , deduced from Meteorological Observations made in the Neighbourhood . " This , republished in 1833 , in three volumes , has become one of our standard works on meteorology . Luke Howard was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1821 . From that time his reputation as a meteorologist increased , and eminent persons in many parts of the world opened a correspondence with him , which , in some instances , became the initiation of a lasting friendship . Although the increasing perfection of philosophical apparatus has superseded some of his methods of observation , there can be no doubt that his labours imparted more of a scientific character to meteorology than it had ever received before . His classification of the clouds is the one still recognized at all observatories , and remains an evidence of the quick eye he had for form and colour , and of the daily labour which was to him a labour of love . One who knew him well in the latter part of his life , says , " Those who lived with him will not soon forget his interest in the appearance of the sky . Whether at morning , noon , or night , he would go out to look around on the heavens , and notice the changes going on . His intelligent remarks and pictorial descriptions gave a character to the scene never before realized by some . A beautiful sunset was a real and intense delight to him ; he would stand at the window , change his position , go out of doors , and watch it to the last lingering ray ; and long after he ceased , from failing memory , to name the 'cirrus , ' or ' cumulus , ' he would derive a mental feast from the gaze , and seem to recognize old friends in their outlines . " Sharing in the active beneficence so characteristic of the Society of Friends , Luke Howard readily aided endeavours for the religious and moral as well as the material welfare of the community . Not least important among these was the seeking to mitigate by pecuniary means the sufferings of the Germans during the campaigns immediately preceding the first abdication of Napoleon . In Ackworth School-a well-known establishment of the Friends-he took a lively interest ; and to participate the more directly therein , as well as to offer hospitality to the annual visitors to the school , he bought the Ackworth Villa estate in 1823 , making it his summer residence , and Tottenham his winter residence , during the greater part of his life . In 1796 Luke Howard married Mariabella Eliot , a member of the same Society with which he was himself connected . Of their family of seven children two sons only survived their parents . About his eightieth year he was much enfeebled by alarming attacks of illness ; and the death of his wife following , after a union of fifty-six years , added sorrow to his weakness . Henceforward his life was a subdued waiting for the end . He died at Tottenham on the 21st March , 1864 . A portrait of Luke Howard , bequeathed to one of his friends , is eventually to be added to the Royal Society 's collection . Besides the works above mentioned , he published-Essay on the Modifications of Clouds , 1832 ; Seven Lectures on Meteorology , 1837 ; a Cycle of Eighteen Years in the Seasons of Britain , &c. , 1842 ; Barometrographia-Twenty Years ' Variation of the Barometer in the Climate of Britain , 1847 ; Papers on Meteorology , 1850-54 ; and The Yorkshireman , a religious and.literary Periodical , in 5 vols . , 1833-37 . WILLIAM CHADWELL MYLNE was born in London , on the 6th of April , 1781 , and died on the 25th of December , 1863 . His father , Robert Mylne , F.R.S. , a native of Edinburgh , and the representative of a long line of Scotch architects , commenced his career in London in 1759 by building Blackfriars Bridge , and held the appointment of Engineer to the New River Water Works , to which his son , the subject of this notice , succeeded in 1810 . Mr. Mylne may be said to have been from his cradle bred an engineer . When a boy only sixteen years of age he was engaged with the younger Mr. Golborne in the Fen country in staking out the lands for his father 's great scheme of the Eau Brink Cut , an undertaking which , through opposing interests , was defeated at that time , but was eventually carried out by Mr. Rennie in 1817 . Subsequently he was occupied on his father 's wellknown project , the Gloucester and Berkeley Ship Canal , seventy feet in width ; and he was generally engaged in assisting his father in the largest professional practice of that day . Succeeding at thirty years of age to the sole conduct of the New River Works , Mr. Mylne had before him an arduous and responsible office . The supply of water to London had hitherto been solely derived from the New River and London Bridge Works ; but the rapid extension of the metropolis led to the establishment of new companies , which gave rise to serious contests , and for some years involved them in a ruinous competition . Mr. Mylne 's ability and energy were soon tried in carrying out extensive changes in the New River Works . The old wooden main pipes , which up to 1810 were the principal conduits for the passage of water , were found insufficient to stand the requisite pressure , and it was deemed expedient to substitute pipes of cast iron . This improvement was effected at a cost of nearly half a million sterling ; and the whole was satisfactorily accomplished under Mr. Mylne 's judicious management . Notwithstanding the constant and unremitting engagements of the New River business , Mr. Mylne was occupied in considerable engineering practice , particularly in the Fen country , carrying out Sandys Cut , with several other important drainage works . Combining also the hereditary profession of an Architect , he was engaged in bridge-building , and in the alterations and extensions of many private mansions . Among his works , the single-arched iron bridge over the River Cam , at St. John 's College , Cambridge , has been much admired ; and the church of St. Mark 's , Clerkenwell , met with considerable approval at the period of its erection , forty years since . Mr. Mylne in later years was much occupied in Government references , and acted as surveyor for fifty years to the Stationers ' Company , having succeeded his father in that office . He was also extensively engaged before Parliamentary Committees on Water , Dock , and Drainage Works , and was consulted in continental works of similar character . From the date of his entering on the direction of the New River Works to his retirement , two years before his death--a period of fifty years-he had the satisfaction to witness a very great advance in the income of the Company , and a great extension of their works , consequent on the increased demand caused by the further growth of the metropolis and awakened attention to its salubrity . In 1852 new works were undertaken to the extent of three quarters of a million sterling , and executed by him , with the assistance of his son , R. W. Mylne , F.R.S. Mr. Mylne was a man of a peculiarly kind and conciliatory disposition , a peace-maker in all professional strife , of strict integrity and high honourable feeling . He was for many years the guiding hand , as Treasurer , to the Society of Engineers styled " Smeatonians , " in which , as in all other Associations , he won the respect , esteem , and almost affection of those with whom he was connected . His retiring disposition caused him seldom to take part in scientific discussions ; but he took a keen interest in all questions of progress , and during his long career judiciously availed himself of the opportunities offered him of adopting the new inventions of the age . Mr. Mylne was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on the 16th of March , 1826 . Major-General JOSEPH ELLISON PORTLOCK , son of Captain Nathaniel Portlock , a distinguished officer of the Royal Navy , was born at Gosport in September 1794 . He received his early education at a school in his native town and at Tiverton , from which he went to the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich . In 1813 he took his first commission in the Royal Engineers , and was sent in the following year to Canada , where he remained actively employed in military service or exploring expeditions until 1822 . He was present at the siege of Fort Erie ; and , on the retirement of the troops , he constructed the lines and bridge-head at Chippewa , at which Sir Gordon Drummond made his successful stand , and saved Upper Canada . In 1824 , on the extension of the Ordnance Survey to Ireland , Lieut. Portlock was one of the officers first selected by Colonel Colby to take part in the work ; and his earliest duty in connexion therewith , conjointly with Lieuts . Drummond and Larcom , lay in working out the preliminaries of what has since grown into first-rate importance as the Topographical Department . The task at that time was beset by difficulties , which the progress of physical and mechanical science has since removed : the preparation of the base-apparatus , the construction of astronomical and other surveying-instruments , the contriving of signals by lamp and heliostat , and the training of sappers for their special duties had to be undertaken under the disadvantage of newness . But at that time the Duke of Wellington was Master-General of the Ordnance ; and supported by him , Colonel Colby carried out his plans in full efficiency . In 1825 the first detachments were removed to Ireland , and the first trigonometrical station was taken up on Divis Mountain , near Belfast . There the first signals and observations with lamp and heliostat were attempted , and , to the satisfaction of the originators , proved completely successful . This was Lieut. Portlock 's start on the trigonometrical branch of the survey , of which he shortly became the senior , and eventually sole officer . In addition to scientific skill and accuracy , great personal endurance was required in carrying on the observations . In 1826 the camp on Slieve Donard , 2800 feet above the sea , was more than once blown down by the violence of the wind . Colonel Colby was seriously injured by a fall while climbing from the observatory to his tent ; and communication with the country below involved both difficulty and danger . Yet " Portlock , " we are told , " held out to the last . For some weeks he was the only officer remaining ; but he struggled on , and brought the operations to a successful close . " In the following year , while Colonel Colby was measuring the base on the shore of Lough Foil , Lieut. Portlock , with Lieut. Larcom , carried out the observations at seven hill-stations , regardless of season and weather . In 1828 , and for some years afterwards , he performed the work singlehanded , observing with the great theodolite from mountain after mountain till the principal network of triangulation was complete , and the Irish system was , by means of the lamp and heliostat signals , united to that of Britain . In addition , care had to be taken for the direction of the secondary triangulation for the details of the survey , and for the rectification of errors and the discrepancies that were sure to occur at the junction of the separate districts . For this the whole had to be combined under one general system ; and this additional labour Lieut. Portlock undertook while still on the mountains . He carried it on afterwards at his office in Dublin ; and so well did he direct these secondary operations , that , after the parties became used to the work , the surveying went on at the rate of three million acres a year . The horizontal survey involved the necessity of an elaborate vertical survey and calculations for altitude . The altitudes were deduced at first from the sea , by actual levelling from it to bases of altitude , and from them transferred , by angles of elevation and depression , to the summit of every hill and station , at distances averaging a mile asunder ; and on this the minor levelling of the detail survey depended . This also was ultimately generalized into a system by Lieut. Portlock , and by him furnished regularly and rapidly . In fulfilling this purpose , he personally carried a line of levelling across the island from the coast of Down to the coast of Donegal , and caused several lines to be observed in other places . In this way a more general and homogeneous system of altitudes was obtained than had ever before been attempted . It supplied the data for the paper on Tides by the Astronomer Royal , published in the 'Philosophical Transactions . ' In all this we see a character conspicuous alike for ability and energetic perseverance ; but among its other elements , there was one which may be properly noticed here the praiseworthy example he set to the men under his command . They felt that with him they were in the hands of something superior to themselves in intellect and acquirements , and they improved in a marked degree in the duties of the srvey , in intelligence , and the habit of obedience . " They needed only encouragement , no coercion , and they rapidly acquired knowledge ; to all of which I can testify , " writes one of Portlock 's brother officers ; " and I am sure it is the experience of the whole corps , more perhaps than any other in the army , that when officers study the characters of their men , and use in governing them the knowledge so acquired , they are amply rewarded by the result , and need no coarser discipline . " Sergeant Manning , who worked under Lieut. Portlock through the whole period of his service on the Irish survey , was chosen as the non-commissioned officer best fitted to take charge of a party sent in 1848 to the Cape of Good Iope , to verify , under direction of Mr. ( now Sir Thomas ) Maclear , the base measured by Lacaille nearly a century before . Of the great value of the Irish survey in connexion with the geology , archseology , statistics , and industrial resources of Ireland , this is not the place to speak . Suffice it to say that when the time came for drawing up a Report on the subject , Lieut. Portlock proved himself not less able as a geological than as a geodetical observer . I-lis separate Report on the Geology of Londonderry has been pronounced by high authority to be " a perfect model for fidelity of observation and minute attention to phenomena . " It is safe to affirm that the name of Portlock will ever be most honourably associated with the history of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland . In 1843 Captain Portlock was ordered to Corfu on the ordinary duties of his corps . In the comparative leisure which he then enjoyed he wrote papers on the geology and natural history of the island , and on professional subjects . Some of these were published in the Reports of the British Association , the Annals of Natural History , and Journal of the Geological Society . The Association voted him a grant " for the Exploration of the Marine Zoology of Corfu , " the results of which he embodied in two papers subsequently published . In these again we have evidence of his activity of mind and accuracy of observation . Recalled to England in 1847 , Major Portlock was stationed first at Portsmouth , and afterwards , as Lieut.-Colonel , at Cork . From this time the literature of his profession and scientific study engaged much of his attention . The annual volumes published by the British Association contain papers from his pen ; and besides contributions to the Professional Papers of the corps , he wrote the articles " Geology and Geodesy , " " Galvanism , " " Heat , " " Palmeontology , " andan Appendix on Gun-Cotton for the Aide-memoire , and the Treatise on Geology in Weale 's Rudimentary Series . Others of his papers appear in the Journal of the Geological Society of Dublin , of which Society he was four times President . In 1851 Lieut.-Col. Portlock was appointed Inspector of Studies at the Royal Military Academy , Woolwich , in which place he helped forward measures for improving the scientific character of the system of education , and increasing its efficiency generally ; and during this period he wrote the articles " Cannon , " " Fort , " " Gunnery , " and revised the article " War " for the 8th edition of the ' Ecyclopaedia Britannica , ' besides translating for the new series of Professional Papers a work on Gunpowder ( from the French ) , and a treatise on Strategy ( from the Italian ) . He wrote also a memoir of his former chief , Major-General Colby , a publication honourable alike to the subject and the author . To all this must be added the two Addresses delivered by him as President of the Geological Society in 1857 and 1858 , which , in the words of an eminent authority , are characterized by " faithful and elaborate research . " After resigning his appointment at Woolwich , and holding the command for a few months at Dover , Major-General Portlock became in 1857 a Member of the Council of Military Education , in whose proceedings , as might have been expected , he took an active and earnest part . His sentiments with regard to the objects in view may be gathered from a memorandum drawn up by one of his colleagues , who writes , " General Portlock 's opinions on the questions presented to him as a Member of the Council were in all cases those of the most forward advocates of education . He looked upon competition as the great principle upon which public appointments should be made , nor did he shrink from the inevitable social results which such a change would involve . Education , combined with good morals , he regarded as constituting a paramount claim to the rank of gentleman . He was therefore a warm advocate of the system of open competition as applied to the elections into the Royal Military Academy of Woolwich ; nor did he share the apprehension , which has been very frequently expressed , of a consequent lowering of the social position of the officers of the two great scientific corps . The weakness and infirmities of advancing years were borne by General Portlock with a spirit not less calm and patient than that which animated him through the hardships of the Ordnance Survey . He retired to Lota , a pleasant spot near Dublin , and there died on the 14th February , 1864 . He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June 1837 , and was a member of other metropolitan and provincial Societies . The honorary degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred on him by Trinity College , Dublin , in 1857 . " This brief notice of one who was for twenty-seven years an honour to the Society , may be fittingly closed with a few words of affectionate testimony by a brother officer , to whose Memoir we are indebted for much of the foregoing . " The characteristics which shone forth in Portlock during his well-spent life , " writes Major-General Sir Thomas Larcom , " whether as a soldier , a geographer , or a geologist , were-undaunted courage in facing difficulties , Spartan endurance and invincible perseverance in overcoming them . Endowed , when in the zenith of his career , with a frame and nerves of iron , he exhibited such a vast power of continuous labour , that he achieved every object he had in view ; while great ability , and a pure love of knowledge , were in him guided and governed by the highest sense of honour and moral rectitude . " Dr. ARCHIBALD ROBERTSON was born at Cockburnspath in Scotland , on the 3rd of December , 1789 . He studied medicine at Edinburgh , and in 1808 entered the Naval Medical Service . After some years of active employment in Europe and America , he on the termination of the war resorted again to Edinburgh for the further prosecution of study , and took his degree of M.D. in that University in 1817 . He then settled as a physician in Northampton ; and although for more than a twelvemonth he did not receive the encouragement of a single fee , he held on to the position he had taken , and was soon rewarded by large and lucrative employment , his success being promoted and assured by his being in 1820 elected Physician to the Northampton Infirmary . After a long and prosperous professional career , and the acquisition of a handsome independence honourably earned , he in 1853 resolved to withdraw himself from the labour of active practice . He accordingly left Northampton , and passed the rest of his life in retirement in the west of England . Dr. Robertson was a man of considerable literary accomplishment , and , before his time became engrossed by practice , he was in the habit of writing literary articles in some of the journals and reviews of the day . Hle contributed two short articles on professional subjects to Forbes 's ' Cyclopsedia of Medicine . ' He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society on the 11th of February , 1836 . f Both as a physician and as a member of society , Dr. Robertson was highly esteemed . His death took place at Clifton , on the 19th of October , 1864 . GIOVANNI AANTONIO AMEDEO PLANA , descended from an ancient and distinguished family of Guarene in Piedmont , was born at Voghera , on the 8th of November , 1781 . In 1800 he entered the Polytechnic School of Paris , where he so greatly distinguished himself that , on the 23rd of May , 1803 , he was appointed Professor in the Artillery School of Alessandria . On the 28th of November , 1809 , he presented to the Academy of Turin a paper , entitled " iequation de la courbe formee par un lame elastique quelles que soient les forces qui agissent sir la lame , " the first of a series of papers offered to the same Academy , far too numerous to be recorded in the present notice . On the 15th of March , 1811 , on the recommendation of Lagrange , he obtained the Professorship of Astronomy in the University of Turin , and on the 5th of March , 1813 , became Director of the Observatory . After the Restoration , the king , Victor Emmanuel I. , who took a personal interest in the progress of astronomy and frequently sent for Plana to explain various celestial phenomena , augmented the income of the Observatory , and transferred it from the house of the Academy to a better situation on the west tower of the north face of the Palazzo Madama . During the years 1821 , 1822 , 1823 he was associated with Carlini in the operation of measuring an arc of parallel in Savoy and Piedmont . The results were published in 1825 , under the title " Observations geodesiques et astronomiques pour la mesure d'un arc de parallele moyen . " In 1828 the authors received from the Institute the Lalande prize for the astronomical part of their joint work . In 1832 he published his ' Theory du mouvement de la Lune , ' in three large quarto volumes . This he regarded as the most important of all the labours of his life . For this work the Copley Medal was awarded to him in 1834 , and the Gold Medal of the Astronomical Society in 1840 . In announcing the latter award , Sir John Herschel , President of the Society , made the following quotation from the " Discourse preliminaire " of the ' Theory de la Lune'- " Je n'ai pu me fair aider par personne ; j'ai du traverser seul cette longue chain des calculs , et il n'est pas etonnant si , par inadvertence , j'ai omis quelques terms qu'il fallait introduire pour me conformer a la rigueur de mes propres principes , " -adding , " W When we look at the work itself there seems something awful in this announcement . " In 1822 , on the occasion of the appearance of his " Memoir sir les mouvements des fluides qui recouvrent un sph6roide a peu pres spherique , " he was elected a Corresponding Member of the Institute , and in 1860 one of the eight Foreign Associates . In December 1851 he became President of the Royal Academy of Turin . He was elected Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1827 . He received from his own king the title of Baron , and was created a Senator on the formation of the Senate in 1848 . He delighted in the classic poets , and was not more remarkable for the accuracy and elegance of his mathematical investigations than for the precision of his style in writing . He was in the habit , it is said , of bestowing extraordinary care on the composition and correction of his works . On the 6th of January , 1864 , he read a paper before the Royal Academy of Turin , entitled " 6 Memoir sir les formules du mouvement circulaire , et du mouvement elliptique libre autour d'un point excentrique par l'action d'une force centrale . " This was his last work . He died at Turin on the 20th of January , 1864 , leaving a widow ( Lagrange 's niece ) and a daughter . The death of his only son , on the 27th of March , 1832 , called forth the expression of grief which concludes the Introduction to the 'Theorie de la Lune . ' HEINRICI ROSE was born on the 6th of August , 1795 , at Berlin , where his father , son of the discoverer of the fusible alloy known by his name , was Pharmacist and Assessor of the Superior Medical College . His father died in 1807 , leaving behind him a widow and four young boys . H. Rose studied Pharmacy first in Dantzic , where he experienced the horrors of a siege , and nearly lost his life by typhus fever . He served in the campaign of 1815 , together with his three brothers , of whom one is Professor Gustav Rose , the distinguished Mineralogist of Berlin . On the conclusion of the war he continued his studies in Berlin , working in Klaproth 's laboratory during the summer of 1816 . In September 1816 he entered the Pharmacy of Dr. Bidder of Mitau . About the end of 1819 he went to Stockholm , where he worked for a year and a half in the laboratory of Berzelius , who recommended him to devote himself to the teaching of chemistry as a profession . On quitting Stockholm he resided for some time at Kiel , where he wrote his Dissertation " de Titanio ejusque connubio cum oxygenio et sulphur , " and took the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy . In the summer of 1822 he obtained the sanction to become a private teacher in the University of Berlin , and began a course of lectures on practical analytical chemistry in the autumn of the same year . He was appointed Extraordinary Professor in 1823 , and Ordinary Professor of Chemistry in 1835 . He was elected a Member of the Berlin Academy in 1832 , Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1842 , Corresponding Member of the Institute in 1843 , and was invested with the Prussian order of pour le merit . His memoirs on inorganic chemistry and chemical analysis , a department in which he stood unrivalled , to the number of nearly , if not quite , two hundred , are contained principally in Gilbert 's and Poggendorff 's 'Annalen . ' The results of his researches in analytical chemistry are embodied in his 'I andbuch der analytischen Chemie , ' which came out in one volume in 1829 . A second edition , in two volumes , was published in 1831 , a fourth in 1838 , a fifth in 1850 , the sixth ( so thoroughly revised that it should be regarded as a new work ) was published in French , at Paris , in 1861 . In forming an estimate of the labour expended in preparing this voluminous treatise , it must be remembered that each precept is the result of an experiment ( frequently of a series of experiments ) made by the author . During the last years of his life he was engaged in writing an elementary treatise on analytical chemistry , about thirty sheets of which were printed during his lifetime . For this work also a large number of experiments were made in his laboratory . His activity and industry increased with advancing age . A year before his death he was heard to exclaim , " I have at most only a few years to live , and so much remains to be done i " During the latter part of his life his only recreation was a long walk taken late in the evening , in all weathers , throighout the year . He was the first person in all Germany who established a class of working pupils . He received them in his private laboratory without fee , providing at his own cost most of the apparatus and all the reagents they required . He was spared the pain of feeling the approach of bodily and mental infirmity . He lectured in fuill possession of all his faculties only eight days before his death , and he was confined to his bed only seven days . On the 27th of January , 1864 , he asked for writing-materials to correct some proof sheets , saying that he felt well , and that he could now leave his bed . That afternoon he died , of inflammation of the lungs . He left behind him a widow , his third wife , and a grandchild , the daughter of Professor Karsten . Her mother , H. Rose 's only child , died some years since . FRIEDRICH GEORG WILHELM STRUVE was born at Altona on the 15th of April , 1793 . He was the fourth son of Dr. Jacob Struve , Director of the High School of Altona . His mother was the daughter of Pastor Stinde , Chaplain to Peter III . , Emperor of Russia . In order to avoid the French conscription , he went in 1808 to the University of Dorpat , where his elder brother Carl was a Classical Lecturer . At first he devoted himself to Philology , a study in which he delighted to the end of his life . He supported himself partly by private tuition in the family of M. de Berg , and partly on some pecuniary assistance afforded him by the University on the recommendation of the elder Parrot , who had discovered Struve 's promise of future eminence . In 1811 , after taking his first degree in Philology , he commenced the study of Astronomy under Huth , who permitted him the free use of the few instruments contained in the Observatory at that time ; and in August of that year he verified by observation the conclusions of Sir William Herschel respecting the angular motion of the two stars composing Cas or . In the autumn of 1813 he took the degree of Doctor of Philosophy , the title of his thesis on that occasion being " De geographica specula Dorpatensis positione . " In November 1813 he was appointed Extraordinary Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy , and , after the death of Huth , Ordinary Professor , and Director of the Observatory . During the years 1816-19 he surveyed and mapped Livonia at the request of the Economical Society of that Province , the only instrument employed by him in the survey being a 10-inch sextant by Troughton . In 1821 the Observatory of Dorpat was supplied with a meridian-circle by Reichenbach and Ertel , and in 1824 with an equatorially mounted refractor , of 9 Paris inches aperture and 160 Paris inches focal length , by Fraunhofer . The principal results of the observations made by Struve at Dorpat during the years 1814-1838 are given in the works entitled " Observationes astronomicee institutse in specula Dorpatensi , 1817-1839 , " " Catalogus 795 stellarum duplicium , 1822 , " " Catalogus novus stellarum duplicium et multiplicium , 1827 " [ in the introduction to this work it is incidentally noticed that on one occasion he had observed uninterruptedly for eight hours in a temperature of -25 ? C. ] , " Stellarum duplicium et multiplicium mensurte micrometricae , 1837 , " " Stellarurn fixarum imprimis compositarum positiones mediae , deducte observationibus meridianis a 1822 ad 1843 in specula Dorpatensi , 1852 , " " Beobachtungen des IIalley'schen Corneten bei seinem Erscheinen im Jahre 1835 , auf der Dorpater Sternwarte angestent , 1839 . " In the spring of 1839 he left Dorpat to assume the Directorship of the Observatory of Pulkowa , built in accordance with his own plans , and furnished with instruments contrived and executed under his own directions . An account of the building and instruments is given in his " Description de l'Observatoire central de Pulkowa , 1845 . " In 1843 he published his , " Catalogue de 514 etoiles doubles et multiples , &c. , et Catalogue de 256 etoiles doubles principales ou la distance des composantes est de 32 " a 2 ' &c. , " and " Sir le coefficient constant dans l'aberration des etoiles fixes deduit des observations qui ont ete ex'cuitees a l'observatoire de Poulkova . " In 1847 he published " Etudes d'Astronomie stellaire . " Struve devoted a portion of the summer for many years to the vast undertaking of measuring an arc of the meridian of 25 ? ? 20t from Fuglenaes on the Arctic Ocean , lat. 70 ? ? 40 ' , to Ismail on the Danube , lat. 45 ? ? 20 ' . This work may be considered the principal labour of his life : he was assisted in it by General Tenner and the astronomers Selander and Iiansteen . It lasted thirty-seven years , and was completed in 1853 . An account of the measurement is given by Struve in " Breitengradmessung in den Ostseeprovinizen Russlands ausgefiihrt und bearbeitet in den Jahren 1821 bis 1831 , " in " Expose historique des travaux executesjusqu'a la fin de l'annee 1851 , pour la mesure de l'are du meridien , &c. , 1860 , " and in " Arc du meridien de 25 ? ? 20 ' entre le Danube et la iner Glaciale , 1860 . " Besides the works already mentioned , he is the author of many separate treatises , and of papers in Bode 's ' Jahrbuch , ' the 'Zeitschrift ' of von Lindenau and Bohnenberger , von Zach 's ' Correspondence Astronomique , ' and the 'Bulletins ' and ' Memoires ' of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg . In 1858 he was attacked by a severe illness , for which rest from work and travelling were prescribed . These remedies , however , failed to remove the consequences of his malady . In 1862 he retired from the post of Director of the Pulkowa Observatory , and was succeeded by his son O. W. Struve . HIe then went to live with his family in St. Petersburg , occupying the remainder of his life with the subject of double stars . On the 4th of November he felt indisposed ; his strength failed rapidly ; and he died on the morning of November the 23rd , 1864 . lIe was elected Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1827 , and in the same year one of the Royal Medals was awarded to him for his ' Catalogus novus Stellarmum duplicium . ' I-e received the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomiical Society in 1826 , " for his important researches on the subject of multiple stars . " His name appears in the list of Associates in the first volume of the 'Memoirs of the Astronomical Society . ' In 1833 he was elected Corresponding Member of the Institute . Struve married twice ; he had twelve children by his first wife , of whom eight survive , and eight by his second wife , now his widow , of whom four survive . Much of the present notice has been derived from a very comprehensive sketch of Struve 's life and labours in the Proceedings of the Astronomical Society , by the Rev. C. Pritchard .

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Astronomy

ERRATA . Pages 20 & 21 , in the description of figures 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , and 7 of Mr. Woollcombe 's paper , for " C actual size " read C " of actual size . " Page 20 , line 6 from bottom , for " spherical " read " spheroid . " , , 25 , , , 15 , , , , insert " : " after " discharge . " 25 , , , 13 , , , , for " horizontal . The range , " read " horizontal , the range . " , , 512 , line 10 , for c for 1300 read c for 13000 . , , 515 , lines 2,4 , & 5 , for 6842'5,181'0 , and 6838-1 read 6843-4 , 182'0 , and 6839-0 . 515 , last line , for B-bc read B. B+b rea B--b + . , , 516 , line 6 from bottom , for even read ever . Note to the Communication of Mr. Huggins and Dr. Miller , of Feb. 26,1863 : " The first figure gives the spectrum of Aldebaran , the second that of Sirius , the third that of a Orionis , and the fourth the Solar spectrumn the left hand of the figure representing the least refrangible extremity . " OBITUARY . Page iii , line 15 , del from " liable " to the end of the sentence .

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I. " Notes of Researches on the Poly-Ammonias."-No . XX . On the Colouring Matters produced from Aniline . By A. W. HOPMANN , Ph. D. , LL. D. , F.R.S. &c. Received February 20 , 1862 . In a note on the Action of Tetrachloride of Carbon on Aniline submitted to the Royal Society on the 1 7th of June , 1858 , I have described a crystalline basic derivative of aniline formed by the coalescence of three molecules of ammonia , viz. carbotriphenyltriamine , Civ C H17 N3= ( C , H , ) 3 N3 , the formation of which is accompanied by that of a colouring matter of a magnificent crimson colour . It may be useful to quote here the passage * of the paper referred to , in which the formation of the colouring matter is mentioned , " On submitting a mixture of 3parts by weight of aniline and 1 part of bichloride of carbon , both in the anhydrous state , for about thirty hours to a temperature of 170 ? C. , the liquid will be found to be converted into a black mass , either soft and viscid , or hard and brittle , according to time and temperature . " This black mass , which adheres firmly to the tubes in which the reaction has been accomplished , is a mixture of several bodies . On Proceedings of the Royal Society , vol. ix . p. 284 , exhausting with water , a portion dissolves , while a more or less solid resin remains behind . " The aqueous solution yields , on addition of potassa , an oily precipitate containing a considerable portion of unchanged aniline ; on boiling this precipitate with dilute potassa in a retort , the aniline distils over , whilst a viscid oil remains behind , which gradually solidifies -with a crystalline structure . Washing with cold alcohol and two or three crystallizations from boiling alcohol render this body perfectly white and pure , a very soluble substance of a magnificent crimson colour remaining in solution . " The portion of the black mass which is insoluble in water dissolves almost entirely in dilute hydrochloric acid , from which it is reprecipitated by the alkalies in the form of an amorphous pink or dingy precipitate soluble in alcohol with a rich crimson colour . The greater portion of this body consists of the same colouring principle which accompanies the white crystalline substance . " The action of tetrachloride of carbon on aniline yields only a comparatively small quantity of the crimson pigment ; the temperature of the exposure , and the relative proportions in which the two substances act upon one another , have the greatest influence upon the results of the reaction . The white crystalline base , and the base dissolving with a crimson colour , are by no means the only products ; other bases , most of them amorphous and accessible only in the form of platinum-salts , are produced , and complicate , owing to the similarity of their chemical characters , the purification of the new compound . Notwithstanding many efforts , I failed in obtaining the new colouring matter in a state fit for analysis , and for the time abandoned the inquiry . Industry , however , was not long in discovering new and much more appropriate methods for the production of the crimson aniline dye . Certain metallic chlorides ( tetrachloride of tin ) and nitrates ( mercurous nitrate ) , and numerous oxidizing agents are capable of converting aniline into the crimson colouring matter . It was M. Verguin who first prepared this colour upon a large scale by the action of tetrachloride of tin on aniline . Since that time the production of the aniline-crimson has become an important industry , which , in the hands of Messrs. Simpson , Maule , and Nicholson in this country , of Messrs. Renard freres in France , has rapidly attained 2B 1862 . ] 3 to colossal proportions . The interest attached to the subject is sufficiently evident by a glance at the periodical literature of the day . The journals of applied chemistry teem with the descriptions of processes for the production of the aniline-crimson , for which the names fuehsine , magenta , and others more fanciful have been proposed . Even the action of tetrachloride of carbon on aniline , little promising as it appeared at first , has been used upon the large scale ; and interesting papers upon the industrial production of the colour by this process have been published by M. Charles 1iolfus Gallinc* , by Messrs. Monnet et Duryt , and lastly by M. Lautht , who have proved that aniline-crimson , prepared upon the large scale by means of tetrachloride of carbon , may be applied in dyeing with exactly the same result as the colouring matter produced by other processes . It is not the object of this Note to enter into a detailed account of the development of this new industry , which has been admirably traced by M. E. Kopp in a series of interesting articles published in the ' Repertoire de Chimie Appliqu & e ; ' but I thought it right to quote the above authorities in order to show that the basic colouring matter obtained by me in 1858 , while studying the action of tetrachloride of carbon upon aniline , is identical with the aniline-crimson which is now by various processes manufactured upon an enormous scale . A substance possessing such remarkable properties as anilinecrimson , and accessible , moreover , as a commercial product , could not fail to attract the attention of scientific inquirers . The subject has been examined in succession by M. Guignet ? , M. Bechamp 1 , M. Wilm ? , Messrs. Persoz , De Luynes et Salvetat** , M. Schneidertt , and more recently by M. Emile Kopp4T and M. Bolley ? ? ? ? . The conclusions , however , at which these experimentalists have arrived are far from concordant . I attribute this discrepancy in the results obtained by such able observers to the extreme difficulty of procuring the colouring matter in a state of purity , and to the circumstance that the slightest contamination with other bodies is capable of altogether masking the properties of this remarkable compound . The red colouring matter of aniline and its saline compounds have been obtained for the first time in the state of purity by my friend and former pupil Mr. Edward Chambers Nicholson , a chemical manufacturer equally distinguished for his scientific attainments as for the skill and indomitable energy with which in many instances he has succeeded in rendering the results of purely scientific inquiries available for the purposes of life . Mr. Nicholson has , with the utmost liberality , placed at my disposal not only a very considerable supply of the beautiful compounds which he produces , but also the vast and precise information which in his protracted experiments upon this subject he has accumulated . It is entirely through the kindness of Mr. Nicholson that I was enabled to resume the study of these remarkable bodies , a short account of the composition and of the chemical nature of which I beg leave to submit to the Royal Society . Mr. Nicholson designates the pure base of the red colouring matter by the name of Roseine , which appears very appropriate , since this substance , which furnishes such splendidly coloured solutions , is absolutely white in the solid condition . Nevertheless , since the compound in question appears to be the prototype of a number of similar substances obtainable by similar processes from the homologues , and probably also from the analogues , of aniline , it may be useful to commemorate the origin of the compound in its name , and I accordingly propose the term Rosaniline for the designation of the new substance . Rosaniline.-The material from which the base may be most conveniently obtained is the acetate which in practice is generally used for dyeing . This acetate Mr. Nicholson produces on the large scale in a state of perfect purity . The boiling solution of this salt , when supersaturated with a large excess of ammonia , furnishes a rose-red somewhat crystalline precipitate , which constitutes the base in a tolerably pure state . The colourless liquid filtered off while boiling from this precipitate deposits , on cooling , perfectly white needles and plates , which are the rosaniline in a state of absolute purity . Unfortunately the solubility of rosaniline in boiling ammonia , and even in boiling water , is extremely limited , so that only a very small proportion of the compound is obtained in the perfectly white condition . The base is somewhat more soluble in alcohol , the solution having a deep-red colour ; it is insoluble in ether . Exposed to the action of the atmosphere , rosaniline turns rapidly pink , and ultimately dark red . No perceptible alteration of weight is observed during this change . At the temperature of 100 ? the base rapidly loses a minute quantity of water of interposition ; it may then be heated to 130 ? without further losing weight . At a higher temperature rosaniline is decomposed with evolution of an oily liquid containing much aniline , a quantity of charcoal remaining behind . The combustion of rosaniline has led to the formula C20 1H2 N3 O-C0o 1 N3 , 12 0 , which has been corroborated by the examination of numerous wellcharacterized salts and derivatives . Rosaniline is a well-defined powerful base , which forms several series of salts , nearly all remarkable for the facility and beauty with which they crystallize . The proportions in which this substance unites with acids characterize it as a triacid triamine . Like several other triamines which I have examined , it will probably be found to produce three classes of salts , viz. , C20 19 N3 , H C1 , C2o0 H9 N3 , 2 HC1 , and C2O H1i N , , 3H C1 . Up to the present moment , however , I have been able to obtain only representativesof the first and the third of these classes . The predilections of rosaniline are essentially monacid . The salts with one equivalent of acid are wonderfully stable compounds . I have recrystallized them four and five times without producing the slightest alteration in their composition . The salts with three equivalents of acid present comparatively little stability , being , in fact , decomposed by the action of water or by exposure to 100 ? . By a glance at the formula given , it is obvious that the white crystals of the base itself , which were submitted to examination , are a hydrate , the saline compounds of rosaniline , as might have been expected from many of the processes of their formation , containing no oxygen . The salts of rosaniline may be obtained by two different processes : either by the direct action of the respective acids , or 6 by submitting the ammonium-compounds of the several acids to ebullition with an excess of the free base . Both processes yield the salts equally pure and of exactly the same composition . The salts with one equivalent of acid exhibit for the most part , in reflected lighti the splendid metal-lustrous green of the wings of the rosebeetle ; in transmitted light the crystals are red , becoming opaque when they acquire certain dimensions . The solutions of these salts in water or alcohol possess the magnificent crimson colour for which rosaniline has become so justly celebrated . The salts with threeequivalents of acid , on the other hand , are yellowish brown , both in the solid state and in solution . They are much more soluble in water and alcohol than the monacid salts , which for the most partare comparatively sparingly soluble . Both classes of rosaniline-salts crystallize readily , more especially the monacid compounds ; some of them Mr. Nicholson has obtained in perfectly well-formed crystals , which are at present in the hands of Quintino Sella for crystallometrical examination . Chlorides.-These substances , and more especially the monacid salt , were of particular use in fixing the formula of rosaniline . Prepared either by the action of hydrochloric acid , or by means of chloride of ammonium , the salt is deposited from the boiling solution in well-defined rhombic plates , frequently united in stellar forms . The chloride is difficultly soluble in water , more soluble in alcohol , insoluble in ether . The salt retains a minute quantity of water at 100 ? , but becomes anhydrous at 130 ? . At this temperature it contains C20 HI N3 , HI Cl , The salt , like most of the rosaniline-salts , is very hygroscopic , a character which must not be lost sight of in the analysis of these compounds . The monacid chloride dissolves more readily in moderately strong hydrochloric acid than in water . If this solution , gently warmed , be mixed with very concentrated hydrochloric acid , it solidifies , on cooling , into a network of beautiful brown-red needles , which have to be washed with concentrated hydrochloric acid and dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid and lime , since water decomposes them with reproduction of the monacid coxnpound . The salt obtained by the 1862 , ] 7 action of concentrated hydrochloric acid is the compound with three equivalents of acid , C20 H19 N3 , 3H C1 . Exposed to 100 ? this salt gradually loses acid , the brown crystals becoming indigo-blue ; and if the exposure be continued until the weight becomes constant , the original green salt with one equivalent of acid is reproduced , which was identified by analysis . The two chlorides combine with dichloride of platinum . The compounds thus produced , being uncrystallizable , are not easily obtained in a state of purity . From platinum-determinations , which have given only approximative results , I infer that they contain respectively , C2 H , N3 , H C1 , Pt C12 and C20 H,1 N3 , 3H C1 , 3 Pt C12 . The Hydrobromate of Rosanitine resembles in every respect the hydrochlorate ; it is even more difficultly soluble than the latter ; it contains C20 H19 N3 , HBr . Hydriodate of Rosaniline.-Green , very difficultly soluble needles of the composition C20 -119 N3 , HI . Sulphate of Rosaniline is readily obtained by dissolving the free base in boiling dilute sulphuric acid . On cooling , the salt is deposited in green metal-lustrous crystals , which by one recrystallization become perfectly pure . At 130 ? , at which temperature it loses a small quantity of water , the formula of the salt is 20 H1 N , IS O ' . The acid sulphate crystallizes with difficulty . I have not analysed it . Oxalate of Rosaniline.-The preparation and properties of this salt are similar to those of the sulphate . The salt retains at 100 ? one equivalent of water , and is at this temperature represented by the formula C20 HRI N3 , H o0 4H , The water may be expelled at a higher heat ; but the temperatures at which the water is lost and the salt commences to be decomposed are so close to each other , that it is not quite easy to obtain the salt 8 in the anhydrous state . I have not been able to procure an oxalate with a larger amount of acid . Acetate of Rosaniline.--This is probably the finest salt of the series . Mr. Nicholson has obtained it in crystals an inch in diameter , which , on analysis , were found to be the pure monacid acetate , viz. , C20 1119 N3 , HC O3 02 . The acetate is one of the more soluble salts , both in water and in alcohol ; it cannot be conveniently recrystallized . The Formiate of Rosaniline is similar to the acetate . Of the remainder of the salts of this base I may mention the Chromate , which is obtained by adding chromate of potassium to the solution of the acetate in the form of a brick-red precipitate , becoming a green , crystalline , almost insoluble powder on ebullition with water . The Trinitrophenate also deserves to be noticed ; it crystallizes in beautiful reddish needles , likewise very difficultly soluble in water , which contain C26 H22 N 07=C20 H , , N3 , H C , H11 ( NO2)3 O. Multiplied and varied though the analytical results may be which support the formule of rosaniline and its compounds , it appeared desirable to seek additional experimental evidence for the expressions derived from simple analysis . With this view I have studied the products of decomposition of rosaniline . They are both numerous and interesting . I must limit myself to-day to quote one or two compounds which claim some attention , not only because they unmistakeably confirm the formula which I have proposed , but also on account of the light which they throw upon the nature of the class of substances to which rosaniline belongs . Action of reducing agents upon Rosaniline.-This action appeared to promise the simplest mode of controlling the formula of the new base . My anticipations have not been disappointed . Rosaniline is readily attacked by nascent hydrogen or sulphuretted hydrogen . A solution of the base in hydrochloric acid , when left in contact with metallic zinc , is rapidly decolorized . The liquid thus produced contains , together with chloride of zinc , the hydfochlorate of a new triamine , which , perfectly colourless as it is in the free state and in its saline compounds , I propose to designate by the term Leucaniline . The separation of the new compound from the zinc being tedious and troublesome , I prefer to prepare it by the action of sulphide of 1862 . ] 9 ammonium . A salt of rosaniline , when digested for some time with sulphide of ammonium , furnishes a yellow , half-fused , scarcely crystalline , brittle compound , which constitutes the leucaniline in a state approaching purity . It is , however , by no means necessary to employ for the preparation of this compound a rosaniline-salt in the pure state . In most cases I have produced the leucaniline from the commercial article sold under the name of fuchsine or magenta . To purify the product thus obtained , the yellow resinous mass is powdered , washed with water to remove the sulphide of ammonium , and dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid , when sulphur , together with impurities , are left behind . The dark-brown solution thus obtained yields , with concentrated hydrochloric acid , a copious crystalline precipitate , which , according to the degree of purity of the commercial colouring matter , is either brown or yellow . Washing with concentrated hydrochloric acid , in which the precipitate is insoluble , effects a considerable purification ; but in most cases it is necessary to repeat the process of dissolving in dilute and reprecipitating by concentrated hydrochloric acid once or twice . If the solution , before the last addition of concentrated acid , be heated to ebullition , the liquid remains clear , and the new chloride crystallizes out only on cooling . The crystals are beautiful , white , rectangular plates , which are , however , always very small . Recrystallization from water , in which they are extremely soluble , renders them perfectly pure . Or they may be dissolved in alcohol and precipitated by ether , in which they are quite insoluble . The chloride thus purified yields , on addition of ammonia , the leucaniline as a dazzling white powder , which assumes the faintest rosy tint when left for some time in contact with the atmosphere of the laboratory . It is scarcely soluble in cold , very little soluble in boiling water , from which it is deposited , on cooling , in the form of small crystals . It is very soluble in alcohol , and , although less so , in ether . I have not been able to get it in good crystals from these solvents . The best solvent appears to be a solution of the chloride above described , in which leucaniline is freely soluble , and from which , on cooling , it is deposited in the form of interlaced needles , which are frequently united to spherical aggregations . Leucaniline may be dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid without changing its colour , When slightly heated it becomes red , and at 100 ? it fuses to a deep-red liquid which , on cooling , solidifies to an indistinctly crystalline mass of lighter colour . Leucaniline is anhydrous . The analysis of the substance , dried in vacuo , and at 100 ? , has given results which correspond to the formula 20 o21 N3 . This formula has been verified by the examination of the chloride already mentioned , of a splendidly crystallized platinum-salt , and , lastly , of the nitrate , which may be likewise obtained in good crystals . Hydrochlorate ofLeucaniline.-The preparation of'this compound has been mentioned . It is triacid , and retains , when dried in vacuo , one equivalent of water , its formula being C20 T21 N3 , 3H C1 , 2 0 . The salt cannot be dried at 100 ? , at all events in air ; but the water may be expelled , although with great difficulty , by exposing the salt for a considerable length of time to 100 ? in a current of hydrogen . I have endeavoured to convert this compound into a salt with less acid by boiling the solution with an excess of leucaniline , but without result . The boiling solution deposits , on cooling , beautiful crystals of the base , the triacid salt remaining in solution . Platinum-salt of Leucaniline.-On adding dichloride of platinum to a moderately concentrated , gently warmed solution of the chloride , a splendid bright orange-yellow platinum-salt separates , on cooling , in well-formed prisms , generally aggregated to triangular stars . The salt is difficultly soluble in cold water ; boiling water decomposes it . At 100 ? this salt retains one equivalent of water , which can be expelled , although with difficulty , at higher temperatures . Numerous analyses of this beautiful compound have established the formula C2o H , N3 , 3H C1 , 3PtC12 +H O. Nitrate of Leucaniline.-Well-formed white needles , soluble in water and alcohol , insoluble in ether . The salt is rather difficultly soluble in nitric acid . When dried in vacuo this salt contains C20H 21 N2 , 31N 03 + H20 . I have not succeeded in separating the water of crystallization , the salt being decomposed at 100 ? . The salts of leucaniline are , in general , well crystallized . They are all very soluble in water , and precipitated from the aqueous solu . 11 tion by the addition of the respective acids . The sulphate crystallizes readily . I have submitted leucaniline to the action of disulphide of carbon , chloride of benzoyl , and several other agents . In all these cases new compounds are generated , some of them remarkable for their crystallizing power . The study of these substances does not belong to the present inquiry ; I shall return to them in a future communication , in which I propose to examine the constitution of rosaniline and leucaniline , and their derivation from aniline . The object of the present Note was only to fix the composition of the two new bases , and their mutual relations to each other . This relation , as will be obvious by a glance at their formulce , is of the simplest kind . In the anhydrous condition the two substances respectively contain , Rosaniline.o ... ... ... ... . 020 1g N3 . Leucaniline ... ..0 ... ... ... . . Co H1 N3 . Leucaniline differs from rosaniline simply by containing two equivalents of hydrogen more . The two bases hold to each other the relation which obtains between blue and white indigo : Blue indigo..01- ... ... C Io N. White indigo ... ... ... ... CI12 202 . Leucaniline , as might have been expected , is readily reconverted into the red colouring matter by oxidizing agents . The reaction succeeds with peroxide of barium , perchloride of iron , or chromate of potassium . On gently heating the colourless solution of the chloride with one of these reagents , the liquid at once reassumes the splendid colour of the rosaniline-salts . An excess of the oxidizing agents is , however , to be avoided , lest the action should go too far and the regenerated compound be converted into further products of oxidation . Both rosaniline and leucaniline , when submitted to protracted ebullition with highly oxygenated compounds , yield a brown amorphous powder , the composition of which remains at present unknown . The two bases which I have described in the preceding paper are the prototypes of two series of homologous colouring matters which cannot fail to be obtained from the homologues of aniline . Toluidine appears to yield perfectly similar bases . I have not , in the present Note , examined into the nature of the reaction by which aniline is transformed into rosaniline ; in most of the processes which give rise 1 to this substance , it is accompanied by several other bases , the study of which is not yet completed . Nor am I at present in a position to offer any definite opinion regarding the constitution of the new compounds , tempting though it appears to venture on speculations . It is in the hope of rendering the formulae of the new bases more transparent that I have commenced to examine some of the products of decomposition . Their study is likewise far from being completed ; but I may mention , even now , that both rosaniline and leucaniline , when in nitric solution , are powerfully acted upon by nitrous acid , new bases being thus generated , the platinum-salts of which are remarkable for their fulminating properties . A splendid crystalline base also deserves to be mentioned , which , associated with aniline , appears among the products of distillation of rosaniline . The results obtained in the further prosecution of these studies I propose to lay before the Royal Society in a future communication .

112192

3701662

On the Integration of Simultaneous Differential Equations

13

16

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George Boole

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1862.0004

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112192

10.1098/rspl.1862.0004

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112192

Formulae

Biography

Mathematics

II . " On the Integration of Simultaneous Differential Equations . " By GEORGE BOOLE , Esq. Received March 4 , 1862 . It is well known that a system of n-1 simultaneous differential equations of the first order connecting n variables always admits of n1 integrals , each of which is the form P=c , i. e. each of them is expressible by a function of the variables equated to an arbitrary constant . But when the number of the variables exceeds by more than by unity the number of the differential equations , no existing theory assigns the number of theoretically possible integrals , or guides us to their discovery . Yet cases such as this occur in problems of the greatest importance . The solution of partial differential equations of the second order by Monge 's method depends ultimately on the solution of a system of three ordinary differential equations of the first order between five variables . I wish here briefly to indicate the results of a theory which enables us in all such cases , 1st , to assign ( priori the number of possible integrals ; 2ndly , to reduce the determination of the integrals to the solution of a system of differential equations equal in number to the 1862 . ] 13 number of the integrals , and capable of expression in the form of exact differentials . I will confine my observations to the case of n-2 differential equations connecting n variables . The general theory will be seen in the particular one . 1 . The solution of n-2 differential equations of the first order connecting n variables may be reduced to the solution of a system of 2 linear partial differential equations . To deduce these , let P=c be any integral of the given system , and suppose x , x2..x the variables , then from dP , dP , dP dx dZ . + dxn=O dw , dxb dxn eliminate by means of the given system n-2 of the differentials , and equate to 0 the coefficients of the two remaining and independent ones . 2 . Let the two partial differential equations thus formed be dP dP dP A1 , -+A , -. . +A dP ... ... . . ( I. ) dx+ 2dx dx n then representing Al +A2. . +An by Al , ddd Bi +B2..+Bn by A , , d ? d ? dxb the equations become A P=0 , 2 P= 0 ... ... ... ... . . ( 1 ) Form now the equation AA P-A2 Al P= 0 , or as it is permitted to express it , ( A1 A2-A2 PA ) P=O ... 4 *. . ( 2 ) This will also prove a linear partial differential equation of the first dP order ; and if from it by means of ( I. ) and ( II . ) we eliminate d dxn-1 dP and - , we shall obtain an equation of the form dP crP . dPL=. . ( ) 1C:we qe by ' i= ... ... . ( I2 . ) This we shall represent by A , Ps=0 . The equations ( I. ) and ( II . ) 14 may be so prepared as to lead to this equation directly . To effect dP this , it suffices to eliminate from one of these equations - , from the dxn dP other - , and to reduce in each the coefficient of the one which dxn-l remains to unity , and then apply the theorem ( 2 ) . 3 . Between ( I. ) and ( III . ) and between ( II . ) and ( III . ) the same process may be applied as between ( I. ) and ( II . ) . The effect of this is to give new partial differential equations ; in fact , to generate a system which will be complete when the further application of the method gives rise to no new equations , but only to identities , or to repetitions , or combinations of the equations already obtained . And though any equation of the system may be combined with any other , according to the theorem , in order to form a new one , yet it may be shown that the system will be complete when no new equation arises from the combination of any with the original ones ( I. ) , ( II . ) . 4 . Suppose that in this way m partial differential equations have been obtained , including those two into which the given system of ordinary differential equtions was transformed . Then that system of ordinary differential equations will admit of exactly n-m integrals , i. e. the number of integrals will be equal to the number of the variables diminished by the number of partial differential equations . 5 . To determine these integrals , let the complete system of partial differential equations be represented by P=- , A2 P=0,. . Am P=0 ; then multiplying the second by X2 , the third by X , , &c. , and adding , we have A P+X\ A P. . +x Am P=O , a single partial differential equation , which , 2 X,. . Am being regarded as indeterminate , will be equivalent to the system of equations from which it is formed . Represent this equation by dP dP dP X1 ' +X2 . +X , X --0 , then its auxiliary system of ordinary differential equations will be dxl _ dx2 dx , X , X X , 1862 , ] 15 If from these n-equations we eliminate the m-quantities 23 * . Xm , we shall obtain n-m differential equations . These wil be capable of expression as exact differential equations , and wil , give by integration the n-m integrals before mentioned . The method above described admits of important applications . It enables us to assign beforehand the conditions of success in the application of Monge 's and of similar methods to the integration of partial differential equations of the second order , and even to determine the nature of the theoretically possible integral where its actual exhibition in a finite form is impossible . It also enables us to investigate by a new and perfectly rigorous method the conditions of integrability of ordinary differential expressions . I subjoin a single result of the former of these applications . It is known that the equations of the possible envelopes of any surface z=P(x , y , a , b , c ) , in which three parameters , a , b , e , vary in subjection to two conditions , f , ( a , , )=0 , f(a , b , )=0 , will satisfy a partial differential equation of the form Rr+Ss+Tt+s2-rt=V . The application of the above method shows that , in order that this equation may admit of an integral of the above species , i. e. an integral interpretable by the envelope of a surface in which three para . meters vary in subjection t ttwo connecting relations , the following conditions are necessary and sufficient , viz. S2+-4RT-4V= , ... ... ... ... ... ( 1 ) + A'm=0 , ... ... ... . . ( 2 ) Am+A'T==0 , ... ... ... . ( 3 ) in which m is one of the equal roots of m'-2 -SmRT-V=O , and dd d. cd A=d +p--m+ -- , die dd dq die d : Sp Cclq The first only of the above three conditions appears to have been assigned before ( Ampere , Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique , Cahier xviii . ) . 16

112193

3701662

An Account of Some Experiments with Eccentric Oblate Bodies and Disks as Projectiles

17

30

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

R. W. Woollcombe

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1862.0005

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112193

10.1098/rspl.1862.0005

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112193

Measurement

Fluid Dynamics

Measurement

" ' An Account of some Experiments with Eccentric Oblate Bodies and Disks as Projectiles . " By 1 . W. WOOLLCOMBE , Esq. Communicated by Prof. SToKEs , Sec. R.S. Received March 11 , 1862 . It is known now that , especially in the larger calibres , the rifle principle has effected more for shells than for solid shot . A high initial velocity , it appears , cannot be attained with this principle and cylindro-ogival elongation ; this slow initial motion is , however , but slowly lost ; while in a spherical projectile , such as the 68-pound solid shot , the conditions are of a reverse kind . The object of this paper is to place before the Royal Society an account of some experiments with models on a design which appears to me likely in large guns to effect , not only an initial velocity greater than that of spherical shot , but a terminal velocity better sustained than that of rifle projectiles . Fig. 1 . Fig. 2 . Transverse section of Side-view of disk , actual size ; eccentric by eccentric disk , of a shallow and unfilled hole on each side actual dimensions . Average weight of disk in cast iron , 7 'ozs . , wrought iron , 84 ozs . It is proposed to retain the circular periphery of a sphere only in the line of motion , and by cutting away the opposite sides of a sphere in parallel planes , say to half the radius , leave a disk , in that case with a zone of 60 ? ( fig. 1 ) . vox . II . 17 c I am informed by Professor Stokes , who kindly made the calculation , that such a disk ( zone of 600 ) is in volume or weight 1'45 times that of a sphere the sectional area of which is equal to the transverse sectional area of the disk . Could such a disk , fired from a gun of similar transverse section , be projected with sufficient cycloidal rotation to maintain it in one plane , assuming it fired in a vertical plane , the conditions appear favourable to dynamical effect at any elevation . I find , however , that when concentric and homogeneous , a disk so fired from such a gun strikes a target , not in the vertical position as fired , but in any position , such as broadside on ; and that it is necessary for the desired effect that the centre of the gravity of the disk should be slightly out of its geometrical centre , though not out of the equatorial plane , and placed in a certain position in the gun . I do not propose to employ eccentricity exactly as it has been employed in spheres , that is , to seek to gain range by the eccentricity as such , but chiefly to employ merely enough of it to secure due rotation , so as to make a disk , otherwise useless but at close quarters , a virtually elongated projectile , and dependent further for its effect on the more legitimate and substantial conditions of easily suppressed windage , rotation in aid and not at the expense of translation , facile displacement in the gun , and several other qualities , some of which are absent with spherical projectiles , and others incompatible with the rifle principle . In the work entitled " Shells and Shell-guns* , " by Commander Dahlgren , of the United States Navy , the history of the eccentric principle applied to spheres is treated at length , and by him traced back to the time of Robins , or for about 100 years ; here , however , a further allusion would occupy too much space , though the history is an interesting one . In the fourth edition especially ( or that preceding the last ) of 'Naval Gunnery , ' Sir Howard Douglas has given a more minute account than has Dahlgren of the experiments in England on this subject in 1850 , 1851 , and 1852 , which were instituted at the suggestion of Sir Howard Douglas . It is stated by him that it was by the experiments of General Paixhans at Metz , in 1841 and 1842 , the fact was first established that the deviations of eccentric spherical projectiles could be made to occur at will , either in a lateral or longitudinal direction , -laterally , by placing the shot with its centre of gravity to either side of the geometrical centre , to which side the deviation then occurred , and longitudinally , by placing the centre of gravity above or below ; in the former position the range was increased , and when " 6 below , " the range was diminished relatively to the range of a concentric sphere of like dimensions , and of a weight approximately equal , but not necessarily exactly so . In these latter positions ( i. e. in a vertical plane ) there was found by General Paixhans to be also a relatively reduced amount of lateral deviation in comparison with that of common spherical projectiles ; in shot the difference was as 8 compared to 13 , and in shells as 2 to 16* . In the English experiments , however , of 1850 , 1851 , and 1852 it does not appear , from the published results , that lateral deviation was thus reduced , excepting at some or the longest ranges t. Of these the greatest was with a 68-pounder of 95 cwt . , charge 12 lbs. , elevation 24 ? , the shot being hollow and eccentric ( but its weight and mode of eccentricity not mentioned ) ; this shot ranged to 6500 yardsl , while the greatest range at the Deal experiments of A.D. 1839 with a 56-pounder gun and solid shot , 16 lbs. charge instead of 12 lbs. , and 32 ? elevation instead of 24 ? only , was 5720 yards ? . The conclusions arrived at in England , France , and America from the results of experiment with eccentric spherical projectiles appear to be very similar , as regards the general inutility of the eccentric principle for any but certain exceptional occasions in warfare , such as the bombardment of a distant but very extended area . It has , however , been used in spherical projectiles in the Prussian field artillery 1| ; and Dahlgren states that when the centre of gravity , of a shell that has no more eccentricity than about -1of its weight added about the interior of the fuse-hole , is placed in the axis of the bore ? , or rather parallel thereto as regards the geometrical centre , the lateral deviations are nearly annulled** , and the longitudinal variations are much less than those of an ordinary shell not made purposely eccentric . He states that , concentricity* being unattainable in shells , it is needless to inquire whether that or eccentricity is to be preferred , the real question being how best to deal with the eccentricity of all shells . Of solid shot , Sir Howard Douglas remarks that not more than one out of a hundred , when floated in mercury , remained indifferent to the position in which they were placed in the mercury ; while it was made manifest , by the experiment with eccentricity , that that quality was of all others by far the most fertile cause of deviation . I now proceed to my own experiments t. My first idea ( in 1854 ) was to employ , with the least amount of eccentricity sufficient to Fig. 3 . Actual size of bore and transverse section of spherical shot Fig. 4 . ( allowing for windage ) . So Side-view of spheroid . a , Plug of wood . b b , Plane surfaces . effect cycloidal rotation , a form of projectile and section of bore of gun of very little oblateness . I procured two model mortars ; one was bored at first to an ellipticity differing but little from a circle , not , however , a true ellipse , but two semicircular arcs , on centres a little separated , connected by straight lines at the periphery ; and corresponding projectiles were made similarly differing from the true form generated by an ellipse about its minor axis . The difference , however , between the long and short axis of the figure of the shot was insufficient to obviate its getting crosswise in the bore , by means of the necessary windage to allow of free rolling in the bore . The mortar was then re-bored to its present dimensions , by the kind aid , in lending instruments , of Mr. George Hoffman of Margate . Fig. 3 represents a section of the bore in its present state . On this very small scale nothing , however ; of any consequence could be ascertained in either force or accuracy , though a singular result appeared as to effect of relative position of centre of gravity ; for in both models the longest ranges were afforded by a position of the centre of gravity which was the reverse of that giving the longest ranges in large guns . Ranges . Large guns . Models . Longest ... ... ... . . Above ... ... ... Below . Second ... ... ... ... Behind ... ... ... Behind . Third In front ... ... ... In front . Shortest ... ... ... . Below ... ... ... Above . The reason seems to me , as regards the models , to be , that the powder has more time for complete ignition in such very short tubes when the shot is in stable equilibrium than when in the reverse position . The mortars were used as guns at low angles . Fig. 5 . Fig. 6 . Side-view of disk of 5 ozs . Section of Fig. 7 . Actual size . disk . Sphere of oI adapted one of them to project disks ( figs. 5 , 6 ) which were of about the same weight ( 5 ounces ) as the spheres ( fig. 7 ) for the other mortar . 1862 . ] 21 I also made the mortars of the same length , namely small . They were fired from a moveable wooden platform , but each from the same bed or block of wood , which slid in a groove in the platform ; the bed admitted of their being fired at the horizontal and at low elevations . Recoil could be marked ; the usual charge was 3 drachms of fine canister powder ; the disk caused more recoil than the spherical shot , as in the former windage could be more effectually suppressed , Centre of gravity below in both gave more recoil than centre of gravity above . The eccentric disks and spheres were usually fired with centre of gravity below . The disk ranged to first graze about - , and at the extreme range about -3 further than the range of the eccentric spheres ; that is , as 4 to 3 to first graze , and at the extreme range ( after grazing ) as about 8 to 5 . But there can be little doubt , from the light thrown on this point by my later experiments , that no sufficient rotation of a cycloidal kind could have been imparted to the disks from the mortar , the centre of gravity being below , but only from their striking the sand , as if the disk were bowled from the hand ; the disks ricochetted to between 600 and 700 yards up to 30 elevation , above which angle there was no good ricochet . The mortars were about 10 or 12 inches above the level of the sand . When a disk touched a rough place , though much oscillation was set up ( as known by the noise it produced ) , this lasted only to the next one or two grazes ; for at the end of the range , where the disk rolled before stopping , and the sand happened to be soft and dry , the track was continuous like that of a wheel , and in a line that was very straight . Some experiments with these mortars and disks were shown by me at Shoeburyness in 1855 ; but the ground there consists of mud with pools , and is not level enough for so small an apparatus . After a few comparative trials of the two mortars , the cheeks blew out from the disk mortar . In 1859 I was afforded an opportunity of resuming the subject ; but still , necessarily , with a model only ; instead , however , of a length of 3 calibres only , as in the mortars , I had a disk-gun made of between 10 and 11 calibres , or about howitzer proportion ; and instead of , as previously , a weight of disk of 5 ounces , the weight was about 8 ounces . Length of bore of gun 20 inches , long diameter of [ March 13 , 2 bore 1-inch , and of disk nearly the same , and transverse diameter inch ( see figs. 1 , 2 ) . Thus the disk was virtually a slice from a sphere , and across a zone of about 48 ? or 49 ? . Its long diameter was about 2-1times the short diameter . The gun was first bored to a cylinder , and the bore was then reduced to the proper shape by the insertion of two cheek pieces . I had difficulty in securing the cheeks of the gun , and found , after two failures with side-bolt Fir . 8.-Perspective view of cheeks . fastenings , that it was requisite to secure the cheeks ___ : _ _-__-_ in the line of their length by attaching them to the The crosses show places for side-bolts to keep head of a bolt ( like the cheeks close to sides of cylindrical bore . prongs of a tuning-fork to its handle ) , which passed through the breech end of the gun in the line of its axis , and was secured on the outside on its projecting screw end by a nut ( see fig. 8 ) . The gun was made so that the longer axis of the bore was , throughout the gun , perpendicular to the common axis of the trunnions . The gun weighed about 130 lbs. It was simply a cylindrical block with trunnions ; I had , in it , to learn how to effectually secure the cheeks , and therefore had the gun made of a thickness otherwise unnecessary . The first disks made were cast with the mould in a horizontal position ; and several such disks were fired ; but scarcely one of them had the centre of gravity in the equatorial plane ; and I found that a disk that would not roll tolerably straight ( as on a level table ) , had corresponding lateral deviation in the air when fired . Other disks were then cast with the mould in a vertical position , and these were much more symmetrical in respect of the sides . The eccentricity was given at first by a hole through the disk , plugged with gutta percha , or with an alloy of lead and tin ; experience , however , showed that plugs of any kind , though riveted , were often blown out , and could only be secured by being screwed in ; and eventually I found no way better than to employ symmetrical shallow cavities* unfilled , on each side of the disk , at about half the radius from the centre . The least amount of metal abstracted , which I found would effect rotation , was }-1 only of the disk 's weight , and was removed from the sharp edge at the sides of the zone by filing at four points . Rotation was effected also in a homogeneous disk , and without any cavity , by making it slightly oval in periphery-in fact , as if it were a middle slice from a very slightly ovoid or egg-shaped body , instead of from a spherical one , the larger end or heaviest part being put uppermost in the bore . Excepting one other form , better described presently , these were all the forms I experimented with . The gun being too small to effectually destroy a sabot , I commonly used a horse-shoe electro-magnet sliding in one end of a flat wooden rod of similar section to the bore of gun , with which to place the shot in any desired position . Having previously marked , by a spot of chalk , the face of the shot to be seen in front when in its place , I placed the shot as desired in the bore , and then by throwing in light with a mirror , I saw that the position was that wanted . Sometimes , if the shot turned in entering , it could not be again withdrawn but by firing ; and thus such cases conveyed no meaning , unless the spot of chalk was not altogether out of sight , in which case the position and result were recorded . In September 1859 , by the kind permission of Captain Jerningham , R.N. , in command , the gun was placed on board the 'Cambridge , ' the gunnery ship at Devonport . The first experiment was to ascertain the ranges due to centre of gravity above and below ; and this would also show whether rotation occurred in one or the other position , or in both . Four disks were selected of within a few grains ' weight of one another , average weight 7 } ounces ; three of the disks were to illustrate respectively concentricity , and the two opposite positions of centre of gravity " above " and " below . " The charge was 1 } ounce , and the elevation 5 ? in each case ; the powder was that known as " Lawrence 's No. 4 , largegrain , " and is a powder of great strength . The concentric disk dropped at 550 yards ; the eccentric with centre of gravity " below , " at 500 yards ; the eccentric with centre of gravity " above , " at 1000 yards . The two first-named disks made much noise in passing through the air ; the long-ranging disk , fired with centre of gravity above , made but little such noise . The other eccentric disk was then fired with 2 ounces instead of the 24 1 I-ounce charge , and at 10 ? instead of 5 ? , the centre of gravity being above as before . This shot was neither seen to drop in the water nor heard to make much noise . There was about 2000 yards of water then in the creek ; and as the water was smooth , and many practised eyes were looking out , it was thought likely to have passed all the water and fallen on the mud . This view was much confirmed by three similar eccentric disks being similarly fired a few days after , i. e. with 2 ounces of powder and 10 ? elevation , and centre of gravity above . On this occasion Capt. Jerningham kindly sent out a boat near the 1500-yard range , and men were stationed about the ship to observe . The water was smooth , and , as before , there was about 2000 yards of it in the creek . Not one , however , of these three disks was seen to drop by any one , nor were they heard from the boat , so that there could be little doubt that rotation was established . A fourth eccentric disk was entered , but stuck in the bore , and was pushed down in a position unknown . This was also fired at 10 ? , and with the same charge as the preceding , and it was seen to drop at about 1000 yards , and was believed to have had no regular rotation . On Oct. 5th , 1859 , the gun being on the lower deck , about 1 feet above the water , two eccentric disks were fired with centre of gravity above , the gun being laid horizontally , or what is called point-blank ; charge as before , 2 ounces . The first graze of both of these shot was between 600 and 700 yards ; and there could be no doubt of the range being due chiefly to velocity , and not to vertical deviation , the graze of the shot succeeding so immediately the discharge from the height of the gun from the water having been about 11 feet , and the gun horizontal . The range , if not due to vertical deviation , must have been due to a velocity of more than 2000 feet per second . In these early experiments with the model disk-gun , I had not the advantage ( as at present ) of having previously fired at timber , so as to have learned unmistakeably the effect on the position ( as in striking in a vertical or oblique plane ) of different amounts of lateral ( or undesired ) eccentricity ; also I knew nothing of the injurious effect of sabots on the shot 's rotation when the sabots were too substantial ; consequently the majority of these earlier experiments were most uncertain , and could not be repeated at will . I have , however , since , by firing at timber , learned the conditions which secure certain results ; and these I will briefly state . Excepting when the centre of gravity is " above , " or within a few degrees of 1862 . ] 25 such position , a disk strikes a target not in a vertical plane as fired ; but when the centre of gravity is " above , " when the disk is free to roll and not merely slide in the bore , when the sabot , if any , is very light and destructible , as of carl , when there is a sufficient charge of powder , and the disk is tolerably symmetrical laterally , and sufficiently eccentric longitudinally ( but which eccentricity need not be an amount that causes a dip of more than 1 ? when the disk is floated in mercury ) , then the disk , if fired in a vertical plane , is certain to strike a target in that position up to the distances at which I have yet had the opportunity of trying it ; and though such distance ( from the land experiments here having been of necessity in a quarry * ) has been only from twenty to thirty yards , yet , as in the other positions of the centre of gravity the disk turns over irregularly within such distance , it may be assumed that a rotation in a vertical plane is set up in the one position referred to , viz. " above , " and in no other position of the centre of gravity . To this conclusion all these experiments appear to tend . It may by some be questioned whether this rotation is as a wheel , or the reverse way , by the advancement of the lower part of the shot . These experiments do not appear to support the conclusions of M. Magnust ( which have been so very widely adopted , as by Sir Howard Douglas in his fourth and subsequent edition ) , viz. that rotation occurs in both positions of " above " and " below , " but in the latter only is as a wheel ; while previously , and as expressed in his third edition , Sir I. Douglas entertained the opinion that the rotation was in that direction , or by the advancement of the upper hemisphere , when the centre of gravity was above . It is probable that rotation in a disk , in either direction , would keep its plane vertical when the projection had been in a vertical plane ; so that if it strikes upright only when fired with the centre of gravity in one position ( as when " above " ) , it seems a fair conclusion that with the other positions of the centre of gravity there can be no rotation imparted . This I had reason to suspect , as regards the position of the centre of gravity " below , " long before I had an opportunity of proving it with the disk-gun ; for in 1854 , the model-mortar experiments referred to appeared to indicate that such was probably the case , by demonstrating that not only were the vertical deviations from such models the reverse of those in large guns , while the lateral deviations were the same , but that it followed from this there must be a length and calibre from which , while the lateral deviations still remained constant , the range would be the same whether the centre of gravity of an eccentric sphere were put " above " or " below . " What , then , becomes of the theory that the lateral and vertical deviations are due to the same proximate cause , i. e. eccentric rotation through the air , and that it is by the air , as assumed by M. Magnus , that both these deviations occur ? The later disk experiments , i. e. from the gun , show that in three out of the four positions of the centre of gravity in one plane ( a vertical plane ) there is no decided rotation in such plane , or indeed regular rotation in any plane ; yet these three positions in spheres all give different ranges . Do these spheres rotate ? or can they in such case rotate in a vertical plane with velocity enough to cause a vertical deviation , assuming that the mean length of a range admits of being increased in this manner , in opposition to gravitation ? Perhaps the approximate causes may be looked for ( of the two kinds of deviation ) , the one more within , and the other chiefly outside the gun . As regards the longer ranges due to centre of gravity " above , " may not such increase be due to the fact of the nearer coincidence of that important point with the axis of the bore ? In fact , may not the vertical variations in range be chiefly due to causes of a more directly dynamical nature than has been generally thought ? while , respecting the lateral , M. Magnus 's views , founded on his experiments with rotating bodies , appear not only incontrovertible of themselves , but the identity of such deviations in models with those of large guns offers no new fact on which exception could be taken or any new question raised , which cannot be said of longitudinal deviations . To find whether a disk prevented from rotating in the bore , but still delivered at the muzzle with centre of gravity " above , " would rotate in , and in such case by , the air , I made two disks ( with a straight edge above and below ) , the disks being very eccentric by a transverse hole through the lower part . They both struck irregularly in any position , as seen by the wood of the target , which shows also the form of the disks . 1862 . ] 27 I found that a homogeneous solid disk , formed slightly oval below , would strike as fired ( in a vertical plane ) when the centre of gravity was " above . " There are three ways in which , as I have found , disks may pass through the air ( as seen by the target , and shown in figs. 9 , 10 , 11 ) . 1st . Concentricity , or BcFig . 9 . centricity , but with centre of gravity not " above , " causes a disk to strike in any irregular , position ( fig. 9 ) . 2ndly . When the centre of X\ gravity is " above , " but there is something within the bore to hamper but not arrest the rotation of the disk in the bore , such as too thick a sabot , or great fouling and insufficient windFig . 10 . age , the disk strikes with the edge , but not upright as fired ( fig. 10 ) . 3rdly . Centre of gravity\\ ! i i " above , " with the attending m , \\\ conditions which have been . before mentioned , gives a resuit as previously described and shown in fig. 11 . Fig. 11 . The difficulty of destroying " sabots " is much greater in 4 " models than large guns . The penetration of disks when striking with the edge is great ; A with a 2-oz . charge , at twenty , , five yards , the penetration has commonly been through three 4-inch planks of elm ; and with half an ounce more powder and a wrought-iron disk , through three 6-inch beams of elm , the latter with the grain of the plank parallel to the plane of the disk , the former with it usually transverse . The difference of direction in grain of wood causes in such experiments about 2 inches difference in penetration . 28 [ March 13 , I beg , finally , to sum up briefly the conclusions which appear to me to be deducible from these experiments . 1st . That the experiments with the model mortar , by giving the longest range and the shortest that are due to certain positions of the centre of gravity in a vertical plane in positions the reverse of those obtaining in large guns , while the other positions remain the same , as to their effect on the range , as in large guns , appear to render admissible the view that the causes of lateral and vertical deviations , which have hitherto mostly been assumed to be similar , may not be so . 2ndly . That from the above experimenet it also results that there must be a length and calibre in which the range will be the same , whether the centre of gravity of an eccentric spherical projectile be placed above or below , while in the same gun all the other deviations due to the other positions will be similar to those obtaining in both large guns and small models . 3rdly . It appears ( at least with the dimensions of gun and projectile here experimented with ) that there is no decided rotation in any of the four positions in a vertical plane , excepting that of centre of gravity " above " the geometrical centre ; and it may perhaps be fairly assumed that in the positions in which disks do not rotate , spheres ( at all events , of like dimensions ) cannot . 4thly . That if the results of these experiments with the model disk-gun may be viewed as indicative of similar results from large guns , then the above-mentioned phenomenon of rotation in one position only renders doubtful the previous conclusions on the direction of rotation , which have been based on a view of the rotation not being thus limited to one position . 5thly . It appears that to rotate outside the gun , it is requisite that the disk ( and probably sphere also ) must be free to rotate " within it . 6thly . That rotation may be imparted sufficient to be permanent on one axis , but not in one plane-a matter of no consequence at close quarters ; while , by certain means , rotation may approximately be secured in one plane when the projection has been in a vertical plane ; this has been seen at least up to thirty yards at a target , and longer distances not yet tried at a target ; but much within the above distance the other phenomena are seen to occur ; and it may be assumed that if a disk will keep upright through several inches 1862 . ] 29 of solid timber , it will also keep upright through the air , except in much wind , against the effect of which , however , the disk may probably be preserved by inclining the axis of the gun . 7thly and lastly . The before-mentioned results show that a diskgun may in certain respects be viewed as a common gun , and in other respects as a gun for throwing an elongated projectile . The former characteristics , as of circular periphery in line of motion , ensure high initial velocity and small strain on the gun ; and the latter , or virtual elongation , ensures the preservation of such velocity ; for it is seen that the requirement of the tangent to the trajectory , so desirable respecting the proper axis of rotation of a rifle projectile , does not obtain in the disk ; and it is also seen that while the rifle projectile can strike effectively but in the prolongation of one of its axes , and that becomes impracticable as elevation increases , the disk has no such limitation , and is not dependent on any one angle of elevation for preserving inviolate the conditions for which elongation is given to any projectile* .

112194

3701662

Suggestions for the Attainment of a Systematic Representation of the Physical Aspect of the Moon

31

37

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Phillips

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1862.0006

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112194

10.1098/rspl.1862.0006

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112194

Biography

Astronomy

Biography

" Suggestions for the Attainment of a Systematic Representation of the Physical Aspect of the Moon . " By John PHILLIPS , M.A. , LL. D. , F.R.S. , Reader in Geology in the University of Oxford . Received January 15 , 1862 . I. SKETCH OF THE PROGRESS OF SELENOGRAPHY . ( a ) By Eye-draughts and Micrometry . 1 . Beginning with the labours of Hevelius ( 1647 ) , maps of the moon , embracing the whole , and signalizing special parts , have been repeated by Riccioli ( 1651 ) , Cassini ( 1680 ) , Lalande ( 1787 ) , T. Meyer ( 1748 ) , Lambert-Schroter ( 1791 ) , Lohrmann ( 1824 ) , Beer and Madler ( 1836 ) . 2 . The degree in which these laborious efforts may be regarded as meeting the wants of " Selenography , " is about equal to that in which the maps of England of the last century satisfy the requirements of physical geography ; and in the same proportion as the great oneinch Ordnance Map of 1862 is superior to the old Chart of 1800 , so should be the new drawings of the features of the moon to the older delineations . 3 . That such drawings are attainable by the patient employment of modern instruments , in hands capable of good sketching , is , I believe , not doubted by any competent observer with either achromatic or reflecting telescopes having equatorial mounting . If any one doubts , let him compare the Copernicus of Madler with the Copernicus of Secchi ; nay , I may venture to ask that my own Gassendi be placed side by side with that of any of the charts already named . 4 . The results likely to be attained by such a series of careful drawings of special parts of the moon 's surface , in one branch of scientific research , are recognized by Mr. Conybeare in his Report on Geology to the British Association in 1832 . Indeed , it may be boldly affirmed that a competent theory of volcanic action can hardly 31 be regarded as having been adequately tested , much less completed , without a careful study of the magnificent volcanic surface of the moon , where for the most part the consolidated products of a long train of igneous eruptions are exhibited as clearly as in the celebrated region of Auvergne . 5 . Considerations of this kind pressing upon Lord Rosse , Dr. Robinson , General Sabine , and other persons acquainted with the growing power of telescopes , and the necessity of organizing a system for the use of them on themoon , induced the British Association , assembled at Belfast in 1852 , to constitute a Committee , consisting of the Earl of Rosse , the Rev , Dr. Robinson , and Professor Phillips , for the purpose of drawing up a Report on the physical character of the moon 's surface as compared with that of the earth . 6 . Acting as Secretary to this Committee , Professor Phillips forwarded invitations to fourteen selected observers , in Great Britain and Ireland , the United States , and several localities in Europe , known to be in possession of adequate instrumental power , or willing to provide it . To each observer a certain limited tract was offered , his peculiar work , but everyone was requested to add whatever information he might judge useful relating to other parts of the moon 's surface . 7 . The answers to these invitations were for the most part favourable as to good intentions ; but in several cases want of adequate leisure , sometimes want of health , sometimes other causes were mentioned ; and practically it was found that very few of the selected observers sent contributions which fulfilled the wishes of the Committee , even as preliminary surveys . The Secretary of the Committee , indeed , constructed an equatorial of large size for his own share of work , mounted it in the open air , made photographic and eye-drawings , and completed a sketch of his appointed region on the 19th of May , 1853 , which sketch has been in the hands of the Royal Society . He thus established , to the satisfaction of several friends , the facility of carrying out the desires of the Committee , and would have taken up fresh districts , on every suitable occasion , but for the change of his residence from York to Oxford . The instrumental mounting being specially fitted for York and the circumstances of his residence there , he was unable to continue his work at Oxford ; and several years , as far as this problem is concerned , have 3 been lost to him for want of an instrument of adequate power and suitable construction , conveniently placed and always at command . 8 . Mr. Nasmyth , several years since , employed his fine reflector , with a peculiar apparatus for drawing , in these representations of the moon , :which have justly earned for him a reputation in philosophic art of which even the inventor of the steam-hammer may be justly proud . He has lately preferred to use for his eye-draughts a fine achromatic by Cooke , of York , the same instrument which has been turned with such unexpected results to a scrutiny of the solar spots . Professor Smyth of Edinburgh , and Professor Challis of Cambridge , made examinations and preliminary sketches of the Mare Crisium , Plato , and other interesting objects ; the former artist employing oilcolours in his scene-painting . ( b ) By Photography . 9 . Meantime a new and beautiful art was making itself auxiliary to the delineation of the moon , -first by the silver plate of Daguerre , afterwards by the increasingly sensitive collodion surface . The great achromatic of Cambridge , U.S. , under the hands of Bond and Whiffle , gave results of much promise ; at first the light-pictures were of the full moon , 2 inches diameter on daguerreotype plates * ; afterwards we saw larger representations of the crescent moon , with stronger lights and shadows on the ridges and in the hollows , several inches across ( 1851-53 ) . 10 . While observing with the great reflector at Birr , every one was struck with the probability that almost instantaneous pictures could be obtained of the moon , stars , and planets , by the amazing quantity of light brought to the focus of that magnificent instrument . Some trials had indeed been made in 1852 by the distinguished constructor and Mr. Woods ; but I am not aware of the results of later experiments with the great reflector . In 1853 I gave much attention to the use of collodion , and employed an apparatus attached to my achromatic ( of 11 feet focus and 6 inches diameter ) , by which at first pictures of 1'2 inch diameter , and finally others from 2 to 3 inches were obtained , in times gradually reduced from 5 ' to 30 " and less . I still possess many of these pictures ; the best , ,however , was destroyed in attempting to print from it . Somewhat earlier than these trials of mine were the first efforts of Mr. De la Rue , of which I was not aware . These efforts have from year to year been rewarded with still increasing success , till we have had from his skilful hands maps of the full moon of positive value , and stereographic pictures of admirable beauty . These researches are still in progress , with every prospect of reaching a point from which eye-draughts may be started on a fresh basis for a systematic scrutiny of all parts of the moon , and the construction of maps on the scale of 2-2th of an inch to a mile on the middle part of the moor 's face ( or as the moon would appear under a power of 1000 ) . 12 . Experiments rewarded by considerable success were completed by the Liverpool Photographic Societyin 1854 ; and several of their valuable drawings of the moon , magnified to a large scale , were exhibited at the Meeting of the British Association in Liverpool , along with one of mine similarly handled . II . PROPOSAL OF A METHOD FOn FURTHER PROGRESS . 13 . By the labours , for the most part uncombined , of the last ten years , we have not achieved much beyond laying the foundation for further progress . We have acquired , by means of photography , a general view of the whole moon as to its proportions of light and shade , the degrees of light of different parts of its surface , the direction of the light-streaks , and other phenomena , better than eye-draughts and micrometry could furnish . By eye-draughts and micrometry alone many of the " ' mountains " and " ' seas " of the moon have been sketched in beautiful landscapes by Nasmyth and Smyth ; and two " ring mountains " have been surveyed and drawn in detail by Secchi ( Copernicus ) and Phillips ( Gassendi ) . The next ten years may , doubtless , be justly expected to give an equal rate of progress ; photographic foundation will be made more effective for the whole moon and for different phases of the moon ; and we may add , by individual and sporadic efforts , a few more ring mountains to our meagre catalogue of objects examined . It appears to me , however , that more than this can be attained , and ought to be attempted , on a plan of continuous work , by means of one instrument devoted to a survey of selected parts of the moon , and I proceed to explain my views . [ Marchl 20 , 34 By Mr. De la Rue 's exertions principally , photographs of the moon have become an essential element in the desired delineations , and an impression is sometimes felt that by some possible further improvement in that wonderful art , eye-drawing may be dispensed with . This , I am persuaded , can never happen ; but there is in my mind the firmest conviction that eye-drawing , founded on a basis of form obtained by photography , will produce results as to details of the moon 's peculiarities which light-pictures alone can never reach . For whether the large photographs , on the scale of 100 inches to the moon 's diameter , which we desire to obtain , are to be had by enlarging the primary pictures of 1 or 2 inches , or by direct photographs on a larger scale , it seems itmpossible to escape from some want of definition , by reason of the imperfect surfaces used , or by reason of the inexact following of the moon as she changes her rate or alters her declination . I know this latter error to be very likely of occurrence , even with disks taken beyond the negative eye-piece , with excellent clockwork movement , and am , on this account , the more ready to applaud Mr. De la Rue , whose skilful hands have so well mastered that and other difficulties . I cannot too strongly express my sense of the great value of the light-pictures obtained by that gentleman-as a basis of form on which to construct eye-draughts , showing the mind 's interpretation of what the eye sees on the moon , but fails to discover in the finest photograph . 15 . Reflecting on the comparatively very small degree of success which has rewarded the combination instituted nearly ten years since by the British Association , -remembering that instrumental means have been improved , while the scientific interest in a knowledge of the moon 's peculiarities has not diminished , -it appears to me possible to obtain a larger measure of success by a vigorous effort in a different direction . It appears to me that , instead of requesting gentlemen who possess instruments already engaged in other researches to turn them to selenography and make drawings in which they may have no special interest , it will be better to carry a good instrument to an observer interested in the survey of the moon , and willing for a limited time to use his exertions for the accomplishment of a definite object . In my own case I feel sure that this would succeed ; and I believe that mry case is essentially that of many intelligent observers of the moon accustomed to extra-meridional observations . 16 . The first desideratum then is an Equatorial Instrument , constructed with the conditions of ample optical power , -great steadiness , -delicate adjustment , including a sufficient range for latitude , the usual circular and micrometrical readings , -clock-movement , &c. , so that it may be in every point of view adapted for special observations of the moon ( sun , planets , comets , &c. may also be observed ) , and be available for many years , in the same optical and space-measuring condition . According to my view , founded on experience with various instruments , it must be an achromatic , mounted on a transportable solid stand , placed under the roof of a removeable observatory , capable of holding a clock and , if need be , a small transit . The object-glass should be of 6 inches diameter , the focal length 16 or 17 diameters . Such an instrument has actually been made by my direction ; it is finished , and stands complete in the workshop of the skilful artist , whose name is a guarantee of excellence , Mr. T. Cooke of York . Thus the first requisite to give effect to my proposal is practically reached . 17 . The second desideratum is that the instrument shall become the property of some scientific body constituted for long endurance , and endowed with so much influence as to be able to give effect and gain adherence to a plan of continuous work , by definite persons , for such periods of time as each in succession may command . The instrument to be confided to each in succession , and mounted in a convenient manner for his use , at his home , during the time appointed . Each observer to furnish , at least once a year , an account of his observations , with drawings on the plan already detailed in the instructions furnished by the Moon Committee of the British Association . At the conclusion of his appointed period of observation , the instrument to be again at the disposal of the scientific body to which it belongs , either to be transferred to another observer , or the again entrusted to the first observer , according as may seem best for the attainment of the object in view . 18 . I entertain no doubt that , after the operation of one or two years , each yielding friuit , there will be no other difficulty of obtaining 36 [ March 20 , suitable observers than the difficulty of choice among several proper persons , who will be glad to give their services . To remove any difficulty as to the first trial , I presume to offer for the first two years my own services at Oxford ; having already sketched out a definite plan of work , which has not yet been attempted , and which I believe myself able to accomplish . 19 . It would be no part of my plan to take photographs of the moon , but rather to obtain from other observatories the best examples of this kind of work , and devote every available hour to eye-sketching on a large scale of the exact appearance of selected parts of the lunar disk . The drawings thus made , scrutinized and corrected in succeeding years , would gradually and not very slowly grow up to complete eye-draughts of the moon , under the conditions of sunrise , midday , and sunset ; and would themselves be again a starting-point for the guidance of even closer scrutiny , with the greatest telescopes and the sharpest eyes . 20 . Finally , my proposal , if allowed to make one , would be , that , for the purpose of securing a series of satisfactory drawings of the physical features of the moon , a six-inch achromatic , by Cooke , constructed for the purpose , be purchased out of the funds of the Government Grant Committee , and held by a Board composed of three Members of the Royal Society , to be nominated in the first instance and the number afterwards filled up by the Council of the Royal Society , in trust for the use of observers to be appointed by the Board , each for a limited period , and for a defined area of work : the drawings and observations to be communicated , at least once a year , to the Board . Cost of the instrument not to exceed 320 guineas , of a moveable house not to exceed ? 50 . 1862 . ] 37

112195

3701662

Theoretical Considerations on the Conditions under Which the Drift Deposits Containing the Remains of Extinct Mammalia and Flint-Implements Were Accumulated; and on Their Geological Age. [Abstract]

38

52

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Joseph Prestwich

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112195

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112195

Geography

Biography

Geography

" Theoretical Considerations on the Conditions under which the Drift Deposits containing the Remains of Extinct Mammalia and Flint-implements were accumulated ; and on their Geological Age . " By JosEPH PRESTWICH , Esq. , F.R.S. , F.G.S , Received March 20 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) In his former paper on the subject of the Flint-implements * , the author postponed the consideration of the theoretical questions , to allow time for a fuller investigation of the physical phenomena . The points then sought to be established were , the artificial make of the specimens , - their position in undisturbed ground , and their contemporaneity with the extinct animals . The points for present consideration relate to the structural and physical phenomena , and to various theoretical questions . In the present paper the author proceeds to show that the flintimplements are found along the line of existing river-plains at heights varying from 20 to 100 feet above the rivers , and that the beds of sand and gravel in which they are imbedded can be divided into two more or less distinct series , one continuous along the bottom of the valleys and rising but little above the river-level , and to which he proposes to apply the term " Low-level Gravels , " and the other in detached masses on the heights flanking the valleys , and at 50 to 200 feet above the rivers , and which he designates as the " Iighlevel Gravels t. " Both gravels consist of debris derived from rocks in the valleys through which the present rivers or their tributaries flow , and they both occasionally contain organic remains ; both are , in fact , related to former plains and present valleys . This structure is then shown to apply to the Waveney , where there is a terrace of gravel on both sides of the valley at a level of about 40 feet above the river , and to which position , but to a more lacustrine condition , the Hoxne deposit belongs . Sections are given of this valley , and also of the valleys of the Lark at Icklingham and of the Ouse at Bedford , showing the constancy of this structure . In the valley of the Thames the phenomena are more complicated and are reserved for future consideration , notice being merely taken of the implements found at Herne Bay and Whitstable . Owing to the absence of marine newer and post-pliocene beds in the North of France , these gravels are better exhibited and more distinct , being free from rock-fragments and boulders foreign to their own origin and area . Hence it has arisen that this part of the geological series has been more investigated in France than in England . In the admirable review of the Quaternary formations by M. d'Archiac , two general conclusions are set forth . With the first of these the author perfectly agrees . It is that each large hydrographical basin , although the boundaries may not be marked by any important elevation , has its own exclusive drift , and that in no case is there a mixture of the transported materials of the separate basins . The author , however , dissents from the opinion that these drifts , containing the remains of large extinct nammalia , have in any way depended on or resulted from any general cataclysm destroying these creatures nearly simultaneously over wide continents and entombing their remains in the sand , gravel , and shingle of the valleys and in the earth of the caverns ; neither can he consider the excavation of the valleys to be anterior to the spread of the drift-gravels . On the contrary , he refers the phenomena to long-continued riveraction . An account is then given of the valley of the Somme , and it is stated that the relation between the highand low-level gravels , which could not be proved with respect to St. Acheul and St. Roch , has been made clearly apparent at Montiers near Amiens , by the opening of a new ballast-pit on the side of the railway , some 50 feet above the level of the old gravel-pits in the valley just below , and in which latter flint-implements were first found by the author in the spring of last year . In the upper ballast-pit a considerable number of land and freshwater shells and some mammalian bones have been found , 1862 . ] 39 but as yet no flint-implements . This deposit , as also the now wellknown flint-implement-bearing beds of St. Acheul , are considered to belong to the high-level gravels , whilst the gravel of St. Roch and that of the old Montiers pits are placed with the low-level gravels . Both sets of gravels are also developed in the neighbourhood of Abbeville , and both there contain flint-implements ; Moulin Quignon belonging to the higher level , and Menchecourt and Mautort ( village ) to the lower level . In the course of last year M. Gosse discovered fint-implements in association with the remains of the Mammoth in some gravel-pits near the well of Grenelle at Paris . This bed belongs to the low-level gravel . The same gravel is also worked to the S.E. of Paris at the Gare d'Ivry , where , as at Montiers , it abuts against the hill-side . On the hill above , and 115 feet higher , there occurs at Gentilly a deposit of sand and gravel , with land and freshwater shells and mammalian remains , precisely like that at St. Acheul . At Charonne , on the opposite side of the valley and distant 4 miles , a similar deposit , corresponding in its height above the river , in its collection of freshwater shells , and in its mineral contents , is met with . No flintimplements have yet been found in these beds , but in every other respect they agree with the gravel of St. Acheul . These deposits , which have been described by M. Duval and M. Charles d'Orbigny , contain the same debris as the present Seine valley , and amongst it fragments of granite derived from the hills of the Morvan , at a distance of 120 miles from Paris . It is then shown , by reference to the works of M. Leymerie , M. Cornuel and other geologists , that the valleys of the Seine and of its tributaries above Paris are occasionally flanked by heights capped with gravel containing at places remains of the Elephant , Deer , I-orse , & e. In some instances these gravels rise to a height of 190 feet above the river , but the general height is from 60 to 150 feet . Sometimes they expand to a breadth of 4 to 5 miles , but they more usually form narrow belts . Various other French authors are then quoted , to show that the same structure prevails in the valleys of the Oise ( where one instance of a flint-implement is recorded by M. de Verneuil ) , of the Marne , the Air , the Aube , and their numerous tributaries ; and in each instance it is shown that the materials , both of the highand low-level gravels , are derived strictly from the 40 district through which the valley passes ; that only the Seine valley contains granite from the Morvan , the Oise slate-rock debris from the Ardennes , the Marne nothing older than oolitic debris , whilst the Therain and the Somme valleys contain nothing but debris of the chalk and tertiary strata . The same rule applies to the English area ; but the fact is not so apparent , owing to various conflicting elelnents pointed out by the author who shows , by a map of the two countries , how great are the range and spread of these beds , and how large a proportion of our driftgravels are of fluviatile origin . The High-level Gravels.-From the . facts recorded by the several independent observers abroad , and from his own observations in this country , the author arrives at a general proposition illustrated by the accompanying diagram , which shows , -1 . D , a major valley or plain of denudation anterior to the excavation of the rivervalley . 2 . e , a non-fossiliferous drift on the slope and base of D. 3 . C , the river-valley . 4 . d , the highand c , the low-level gravels . 5 . a , recent alluvium . 6 . A , the present river-channel . The high-level gravels ( d ) appear on both sides of the valley , and their connexion before the excavation of C is pointed out . This is one of the points insisted upon by the author ; the two having been generally considered as contemporaneous , or even sometimes the higher-level deposits as newer than those of the lower level . It is to be observed that the phenomena here referred to relate to broad valleys , and not merely to river-channels . The loess is not shown in the diagram , other*wise the section represents the condition of the case on the supposition that all the parts are complete . But this rarely happens . Some lowi i II i II Ii II II iII II I II IIIIIII II IIIIIIIIIIIIIII II IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIiiiIi i. iIIIIIIIIIIi II 1862 . ] 41 level gravel is constant , but the high-level gravels are only occasionally preserved . Sections are then given to explain the cause of their absence-such as where the valley C being wider than the original bed of the old river which deposited the gravel d , the latter has been necessarily altogether removed . That the formation of the higher gravels can be owing to the action of the present rivers is clearly impossible under existing conditions ; for not only are they far above the level reached by the rivers at the highest floods , but also the sectional area of the valleys , compared to that of the present rivers , is so vast , that in no possible way , except by the sea , could they now be filled with water . Sections are given of the valleys of the Waveney , Ouse , Somme , and Seine , showing a disproportion between the rivers at their highest floods and the old valleys , on the average , about 1 : 500 ; and it is shown , with respect to the great flood of the Seine in 1658 , when the waters at Paris rose to a height of 29 feet , that it would require a flood of at least one hundred times that magnitude to fill ( with the water even in a state of rest ) the valley of the Seine to the level of the high-level gravels of Gentilly and Charonne . That the isolated beds of high-level gravels must at one time have been connected in length and breadth is evident from the circumstance of these detached parts having certain characters in common , and from the fact that if the deep valleys which they overhang , and the transverse valleys which they pass over , had then existed , they would have presented insuperable barriers to the deposition of the gravels at levels so much higher . That the transport of this drift could have been caused by the bursting of lakes , by the sudden melting of the glaciers and snow of mountain-chains , or by the transient passage of a body of water over the land is not possible , because the spread of the debris would have been more general , would have held its course more irrespective of the existing watersheds , and would have shown an amount of wear in proportion to the distance travelled ; whereas in each basin the debris is local , however low the watershed . None of the slate and oolitic debris of the Oise valley traverses into the valley of the Somme , notwithstanding the watershed between them is only six miles broad and eighty feet high . There are two ways in which the author conceives the spread of 4 ' the debris in the various directions and distinct areas could have been effected ; the one by the rise of the land from beneath the sea , and the other by the action of rivers on a larger scale than the present ones . As the later tertiary deposits show the existence of seas or of lakes over the districts in question , it follows as a necessary consequence that when the land rose from beneath them , a mass of debris , in quantity and length of transport proportionate to the greater or lesser rate of elevation , must have been spread over the bottom of the channels along which the water flowed off . Nearly associated with the high-level gravels there are remnants of another drift which may have had this older and independent origin . This mode of formation could not , however , be applied to the valley gravels , as they contain freshwater shells such as live in rivers , with land shells and mammalian remains , proving the existence of a dry land . The author concludes that the high-level gravels are the result of river-action which took place at a period before the excavation of the present river-valleys . With regard to the mode of formation of these gravels , he remarks on the materials being often transported a considerable distance , the frequent presence of large blocks or boulders of the harder rocks , the presence of a certain proportion of angular debris , and the commonly confused bedding and contortions . He shows this to exist in England and in France , and supports the case by quotations from various French authors . It is then shown that in the valley of the . Somme these phenomena are most marked and decisive , -large blocks of sandstone , some weighing four to five tons , and derived from tertiary strata twenty to forty miles above Amiens , being found in the St. Acheul gravels , and the beds being much contorted . These contortions do . not depend on any pressure exercised by the blocks , but result from some disturbing power applied and removed . To illustrate this point reference is made to two sections in his former paper ( Phil. Trans. for 1860 , p. 299 ) . The author conceives that the only adequate cause to produce many of these effects is river-ice , the transporting power of which is well known , whilst he quotes the observations of travellers in Northern America to prove the power of such ice to pile-up the shore shingle in great conical heaps . That the old pleistocene rivers were also larger and more rapid than the existing rivers is evident from 1862 . ] 43 the great quantity of debris , the prevalence of gravels , the coarseness of the sands , and the general absence of mud-sediments . Another agent of considerable power is referred to , viz. ground-ice , but is reserved for consideration further on . The Fauna of the High-level Gravels.-The organic remains are considered with reference especially to the climatal conditions of the period , and it is regretted that , owing to the scarcity of fossils except at a few places , and to the want of specific information with regard to the mammalian remains and the levels , the evidence on many points is unavoidably incomplete . The best-determined group is that of the Mollusca , in examining which the valuable assistance of Mr. Gwyn Jeffreys is acknowledged . The author gives a Table showing the group of land and freshwater shells inhabiting , in England and France , the area now described , from which comes out the striking result that out of 109 living species 43 are found in the deposits of the high-level gravel period . There is a scarcity of Unionidee and Paludinidae , whereas Limneidae and Helicidre are very common . In many places shells are scarce or altogether wanting ; but this is common in all rivers subject to floods or bringing down much shingle . All the species are of existing forms , and all , with four exceptions , inhabit the same districts as formerly . Their range is then reviewed , and it is shown that though a considerable proportion of them are found in the South of France , a still larger proportion exist in Scandinavia , and that as many as thirty-five out of the forty-three species are met with in Finland , including the common forms , such as Succinea putris , S. Pfeifferi , Helix hispida , H. nemoralis , H. pulchella , Pupa muscorum , Limnces pereger , L. palustris , L..truncatula , Planorbis corneus , P. vertex , P. marginatus , P. albus , P. spirorbis , Bythinia tentaculata , Valvata piscinalis , Pisidium amnicum , &c. From these and other facts it is concluded that , while there is nothing in the Mollusca to necessitate a climate different from that of the present day , there is nothing to require restriction to an identical climate , while at the same time the tendency of development of the group is rather in a northern than in a southern direction . The several genera and species of Mammalia are then considered , the principal being Elephas primigenius , Rhinoceros tichorhinus , Bison priscus , with several species of Equus , Bos , Cervus , whilst the 44 Reindeer is found in deposits of the same period ; and an opinion is expressed that the evidence with respect to the climatal conditions furnished by the Mammalia , although slight , is more definite than that obtained from the Mollusca , and tends to show the probability of the climate at the period of the high-level gravel having been colder than that of these latitudes at the present day . The flora is scanty and of little avail . It is then remarked that if we had to depend only upon the organic remains for decisive evidence of the nature of the climate of the period under inquiry , we should at present fail to arrive at any safe and exact conclusion . If , however , these indications are taken in conjunction with the physical features , the conjoint evidence has weight and more preciseness ; and the author concludes , from a review of all the facts , that there must have been a mean winter cold of not less than 20 ? , and possibly as low as 10 ? , or from 19 ? to 29 ? below the mean winter temperature ( 390 ) of this part of Europe . The cave evidence would have helped this question . The Flint-Implements.-These works of man are first discovered in beds of the high-level gravel period . The most ordinary shapes are the large spear-head form , either with a sharp point or a flat rounded one , and with the butt end sometimes blunt , and at other times chipped to an edge . With regard to the manner in which they came to be imbedded in the gravel , it can only be surmised from their condition , from our present experience , and by considering the uses to which they could possibly have been applied . These conditions are then reviewed , and it is shown that the flintimplements rarely or never show indications of atmospheric weathering ; that they are rarely worn , but are usually sharp and angular , like some of the large unworn flints which have been attributed to transport by ice ; also that they are most common where the evidence of ice-action is the greatest , as at St. Acheul and Moulin Quignon . The climate of the period having been severe , it is essential to keep in mind the usages of tribes under like conditions at the present day . The mode of life of the Chipweyan Indians and the Esquimaux is then considered ; and it is shown that a hatchet , an ice-chisel , a file and knives , of stone or metal , are all the instruments they need or use . It is further shown that when in winter the usually abundant supplies of Reindeer fail , these people resort commonly to fishing in the frozen rivers , and then use their ice-chisels 1862 . ] 45 for making holes in the ice . These implements are also in daily use for keeping open the water-holes . Analogous facts are quoted from Wrangel respecting Siberia . The author suggests therefore that some of the mysterious flint-implements ( such as fig. 5 , pl. 12 , Phil. Trans. 1860 ) of St. Acheut may have been used as ice-chisels . Reasons are then assigned for their presence chiefly at particular spots ; and reference is made to other forms of flint-implements , all of which admit of explanation , except those of a flat ovoid shape , common at Abbeville , which are unlike any instrument in use amongst any existing uncivilized tribes . Notwithstanding the probable severity of the climate , it was one by no means unsuited to the existence of man , whilst the character of the contemporaneous animal life of the period was perfectly fitted for his support and sustenance . A difficulty has been raised because hitherto no human bones have been found in these gravels ; but when it is considered how scanty is the population in northern latitudes , and how disproportionately numerous are the great herds of Deer , Oxen , and other animals ( fossil remains of which are yet comparatively rare ) , this fact , taken in conjunction with the foresight of man , indicates how small are the chances of finding his remains . Nevertheless in other deposits probably of the age of these gravels , such as some of the caves near Liege described by Schmerling , the scattered bones of man have been found in association with a like mammalian fauna . The Low-level Gravels.-Connected with this subject is the excavation of the valleys , and the duration of that operation . The author mentions how he hesitated to assign at first a much higher antiquity to the higher gravels than to the lower gravels , or rather , admitting a difference of age , to decide whether the excavation of the valleys might not have been effected by some more powerful agency acting through a short interval of time , and by so much contracting the period by which the St. Acheul deposit preceded that of St. Roch ; but after repeated visits to Amiens , and looking at the question from every point of view , he finds himself unable to discover a sufficient explanation in the direction first sought , and obliged to adopt , in part , views differing materially in some points from those he at first thought to be the more probable . The low-level gravels 46 have been frequently described , and the author confines himself chiefly to pointing out the difference between them and the highlevel gravels . The climate at the one period has been described as one of considerable severity ; but there is evidence to show that in some part of the pliocene period , previous to that time , the cold was still more severe . At the period referred to the greater part of England was under the sea , whereas Switzerland and the greater part of France had emerged at an earlier or a miocene period , and there is no sufficient proof of their having been subsequently submerged . This was the period of the wonderful extension of the old European glaciers , which descended in the Swiss Alps , the Jura , and the Vosges to within 1200 or 1000 feet of the sea-level , the existing glaciers standing at 3400 to 3500 feet..Leblanc has calculated that such a difference of level might be accounted for by a reduction in the mean annual temperature of 12k ? Fahr. ; but the author questions this , as the gradients of the glacier beds were much less after they had emerged from the mountain-passes . The growth of the old glaciers is rather the result of the great cold than a measure of it . Still it can be conceived that their growth would be checked when the temperature had risen from the extreme cold to a point 12 ? below the present mean annual temperature . This would reduce the mean annual temperature here to 370 ? , -that of Moscow and Quebec , with which the climate at the higher gravel period has been before compared , being respectively 40 ? and 41 ? , and would agree with what has been considered the probable mean winter temperature of that period , viz. one between 10 ? and 20 ? . Taking this as the starting-point , the effect of such conditions with reference to the quantity of ice and snow stored up during this period of cold , and to its effect on the river-discharges for many years afterwards during the period of the valley gravels , has to be considered . The melting of the winter snow would necessarily cause spring floods . Another cause of floods is the fall of rain whilst the ground is still frozen . These causes , combined possibly with a larger rainfall , must have afforded to the old rivers , either permanently or at all events during spring-time , a volume of water far exceeding any present supply , and giving them more of a torrential character . Instances are quoted from Sir R. Murchison 's 'Russia ' and Wrangel 's 'Siberia , ' and others , to show how this is still the case every spring in northern 47 countries , causing a rise in the rivers of from 10 to 40 feet , and inundating the adjacent valleys . Other forces , however , besides an increase in the water-power , seem required to account for the excavation of the great valleys , and the author thinks that cold and ground-ice have performed a very important part in the operation . In support of this view , he adduces the opinion of Arago and the observations of M. Leclercq and Col. Jackson , both of whom show how constantly this ice is formed in cold climates in rivers with stony and gravelly bottoms , such as the old post-pleiocene rivers must have been . Amongst other observations given are those of M. Weitz , who states that in the north of Siberia the formation of ground-ice can be seen in the rivers at a depth of 14 feet and more , and that in " rising from the bottom , the masses of ice bring up with them sand and stones , and let them down at places far distant from whence they came ; " and he concludes , " that not only does the current occasion a change in the bed of the river by its erosion of the looser soil , which it carries from one place to deposit in another , but that the ice , which forms at the bottom of rapid rivers in very cold countries , tends also to effect a change in the beds of those rivers . " Another agent would co-operate with the last ; this is the freezing of the ground and the rending of rocks by frost . 'Taking extreme cases , Crantz shows to how great an extent this operates in Greenland ; Dr. Sutherland gives some still more striking instances on the shores of Barrow Strait , and Sir J. Richardson on the Mackenzie River . Even in our country , the disintegration produced during one severe winter on a fresh vertical section of chalk is very striking . A remarkable instance is quoted from Sir R. Murchison 's ' Russia , ' of a long terrace of angular blocks of limestone broken up and left by the winter-ice 30 feet above the summer level of the Dwina near Archangel . With all these combined operations , the author still doubts whether , without an uplifting of the land , the effects in question could have been produced ; and he shows that the coasts of this part of England and France are fringed here and there by a raised beach , which he correlates with the low-level gravel of Abbeville , whilst the high-level gravel of St. Acheul is correlated with beds occupying on the coast a level higher by 50 to 100 feet , marking the difference of level 48 between the two periods . The effect of this slow elevation would be to increase the velocity and erosive power of the rivers . This action , with the other agencies before alluded to , operating upon the successive portions of the substrata , has gradually worn even those deep and long valleys , through which so many of the rivers of these districts flow . According to variability in the rate of elevation , to intervals of repose , or to deflections in the current and velocity of the river , there may exist intermediate levels or terraces of gravel , and variations in the inclination of the slopes , which may add much to the complexity of the problem . The Fauna of the Low-level Gravel.-Of the forty-three species of Mollusca found in the higher gravels , thirty-four occur also in the low levels , together with seven others , making a total of forty-one species . Added to these , there are eight marine species found at Menchecourt , with the Cyrena ftiuninailis ofthehe Nile and of Grays . With this one exception , they are all common living species of England and France . As with the former group , there is nothing to give a definite clue to the character of the climate of the period . The general absence of southern forms , and the preponderance of such as have a wide northern range , may , however , be noticed . With regard to the Mammalia , the number of determined species is small , and the general argument follows nearly the same line as that relating to the Mammalia of the higher gravels . As with the Mollusca , most of the species are common to the two series , whence it is inferred that there was no great or sudden break , and that the change both of conditions and of climate was transitional . There is one genus only , viz. the Hiippopotamus , about which some difficulty has been felt with reference to the condition of climate . Four tusk teeth of this creature have been found at St. Roch , and in this country its remains are found associated with those of the Reindeer . Without pretending to explain the difficulty , the author does not see why , if the other large Pachyderms were fitted , as they are now known to have been , by warm covering and special adaptation to inhabit cold climates , this extinct species of Hippopotamus should not also have been so adapted . The physical phenomena point to an increased volume of water in the rivers , and want those marked indications of ice-action seen in the high-level gravels . Still , boulders of considerable size were trans ported . From this fact , and the general balance of evidence furnished by the fauna , and also from the contraction of the excavation as the valleys became deeper , the author infers a gradual amelioration in the temperature , ending , in the present climatal conditions . Flint-implementes.--The author observes that fint-implements are nowhere so abundant in the o-was they are in the hig'h-level gravels , The pointed lance-shaped form with blunt butts of the latter is almost wanting in the former , whereas the ovoid disks of Menchecourt are rare at St. Acheul ; again , , flakes or flint-knives are conimon in the low-level gravels and rare in the higher beds . Of the twenty-four specimens found in the low-level gravel at Paris , twentytwo are mere flint-flakes . The author is disposed to attach some value and significance to this di-ference of form , and observes , that , admitting the climate to have become less severe during the lowlevel gravel period , it would follow that the necessity of having the strong ice-chisels would have diminished . In all these cases we are e of course much limited to conjectures , seeking to make them in accordance with what we know of life under like conditions , and guided by the probabilities of the concurring circumstances . The mode of distribution of the flint-implements at the two periods certainly seems to afford some grounds for believing that the difference of form may arise from difference in the pursuits and occupations of the primitive tribes by whom they were used-pursuits necessarily and primarily influenced by the climate and life of the period . Concluding Remarks.-The question of time is then entered upon , and it is shown that the flint-implements must be carried back through the periods of the lowand of the high-level gravels , and that they must be considered to be antecedent to the excavation of many of our great river-valleys . All these phenomena indicate periods of long and great changes . The author only slightly touches upon the formation of the loess , which he concludes to be the result of temporary floods and he remarks that , so far as the question of the antiquity of the fluviatile gravels is concerned , little value need be attached to the additional element presented by this covering of loam and brick-earth . This deposit is succeeded by the alluvial beds of the valleys connected more immediately with our own times , With regard to a measure of time , the author does not consider that either the excavation of the valleys or the life evidence of the periods 50 furnish available data ; nor does he admit the formation of the channel between England and France in the calculation ; and he gives reasons to show that this channel is of older date than generally assumed , and that the separation existed at the time of the high-level gravels , and had attained somewhat of its present dimensions at the time of the newer gravels . Most of the land and freshwater shells a1ind the Miammalia had crossed over at a period anterior to this ; and , as even now at the Island of Saghaleen in lat. 52 ? N. , the narrow strait freezing during the winter would admit of the passage of large land animal and man during the cold periods following the more extreme glacial conditions . The author , however , suggests two new modes by which he conceives that eventually some approximate and more exact estimate may be made both of the age of the high-level gravels and of the lapse of time since the extreme glacial period , and embracing therefore the several periods under consideration . At present the evidence is only sufficient to indicate the possibilities of the problem , but it will need many years of careful observation before sufficient data can be obtained for accurate calculation . 1st . With the high-level gravels there are connected a number of sand and gravel pipes perforating the underlying chalk to the depths generally of from 5 to 50 feet , and from 1 to 10 feet wide , or more . As these are caused by the slow action of carbonic acid in the water gradually percolating through the overlying porous beds , dissolving the chalk or other calcareous strata , and gradually letting down the superincumbent drift , it is evident that if the rate of solution and removal can be determined , one element for the calculation of a certain period will be obtained . In this various meteorological questions will have to be considered . 2nd . In conducting observations on the temperature of deep mines , wells , &c. , certain discrepancies in the increment of heat at increasing depths and at differenlt places have been noticed . No explanation of these anomalies has been offered . The author suggests that they may arise from disturbing causes originating with a former period of intense cold . At Yakutsk , where the ground is now frozen to a depth of 382 feet , the permanent line of 53 ? Fahr. would , taking at an average an increase of 1 ? for every 60 feet , be found at a depth of 1642 feet . If , from some geological change , the mean temperaE 2 1862 . ] 51 ture of Yakutsk were raised to that of our own climate , this line oi 53 ? would undergo a vertical displacement of 1550 feet . The time required for its uniform re-adjustment over a large area would depend upon various conditions , the chief one being the conductivity of the different strata . The question , therefore , arises , whether traces of perturbation in the temperature of the outer part of the earth 's crust in these latitudes , resulting from the action of the extreime cold of the glacial period , may not yet exist , and , if so , whether they may not adrrit of exact determination with reference to the time elapsed since the removal of the disturbing cause . In conclusion , the author thinks that in the present state of the inquiry it would be premature to attempt to fix even approxiimately the lapse of time attaching to the flint-implements . It is obvious , however , that our present chronology with respect to the first appearance of Man must be very greatly extended ; but , like a mountainchain in the distance , its vast magnitude is felt before an exact measurement of its height and size can be taken . Attention is then directed to the remarkable uninterrupted succession of life from the pleistocene period under review to the present time-a succession so large and important , that it is not possible to imagine the occurrence of any intervening catastrophe of such a. nature as to destroy the life of the period over this part of Europe at any recent geological period . There are difficulties in the problem , especially the disappearance of the larger animals ; but the remarkable and convincing feature in the case is the transmission to our time of so large a proportion of the small and delicate land and freshwater shells , which even now follow almost precisely the same law in their distribution as they did at these latest geological periods . Looking at the special nature of the glacial period , and seeing its exceptional character , the author feels strongly impressed with the belief that its effect has possibly been to give increased rigidity and immobility to the flexible crust of the earth , and to produce a state of equilibrium which might otherwise have been of long and slow attainment , whereby it has been rendered fit and suitable for the habitation and pursuits of civilized man* .

112196

3701662

On the Law of Expansion of Superheated Steam. [Abstract]

53

57

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Fairbairn|Thomas Tate

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112196

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112196

Thermodynamics

Measurement

Thermodynamics

I. " On the Law of Expansion of Superheated Steam . " By WILLIAM FAInrBAIIN , Esq. , LL. D. , F.R.S. , and THOMAS TATr , Esq. Received March 20 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) In a former paper selected for the Bakerian Lecture , entitled " 'Experimental Researches to determine the Density of Steam at different Temperatures , and to ascertain the Law of Expansion of Superheated Steam " ( Phil. Trans. 1860 , p. 185 ) , it was shown that although Dumas , Gay-Lussac , and other distinguished physicists had determined the density of steam at 212 ? , it was , however , left for these researches to ascertain the law of density , volume , &c. at all temperatures , and also the law of expansion of superheated steam . These experiments have therefore been continued , and have elicited remarkable results as regards the rate of expansion at various temperatures . The earliest experiments on this subject were made by Mr. Frost in America , but without suflicient accuracy to be of scientific value . Mir . Siemens has also experimented on steam isolated from water ; his results give a much higher rate of expansion for steam than for ordinary gases ; but , owing to some obvious defects of Mr. Siemens9s method of conducting the experiments , we consider his results are not reliable . For gases , the rate of expansion is expressed by the formula for constant volume , P _E+t ~ E+t , ( 1 ) where E is a constant determined by experiment , and decided by Regnault as 459 in the case of air . In the paper alluded to , it was shown that , with a certain proviso , the rate of expansion of superheated steam nearly coincided with that of air . Within a short J53 distance of the maximum temperature of saturation the rate of ex , pansion of steam was found to be exceedingly variable ; near the saturation-point it is higher than that of air , and decreases as the temperature is increased , until it becomes sensibly identical with that of air . The results ulpon which this law was based were too limited in their range for much numerical accuracy in the constants deduced . Hence it has been our object in the present paper to supply the deficiency in the previous one , by affording experimental data of the expansion of steam at higher temperatures and with a greater range of superheating than was possible with the apparatus employed in ascertaining the density of steam . The results obtained in these later experiments , however , confirm the general law deduced from the previous ones . 0Ih'1IjI/ I E=E:=A ^1 / / I Thew figur t The figure represents the apparatus used when the pwessure did 54 not exceed that of the atmosphere , consisting of a glass globe ( a ) k3 inches in diameter , and stem 35 inches long ; the capacity was known to a point ( b ) , where a piece of platinum wire was twisted to mark accurately the point at which the mercury column in the stem was to be brought to maintain a constant volume in the globe . Al 1-inch tube ( d ) , filled with mercury , rested upon the frame ( e e ) . The weight of the tube and frame was counterbalanced by weights ( w w ) . By such an adjustment the tube ( d ) could be regulated with facility , preserving the upper level of the mercury column at one uniform ' height . A cathetometer ( g g ) , with vernier ( h. ) , to read the lower and variable level of the mercury column , was introduced . To heat the globe , the oil-bath ( k ) was used , fitted to the tube ( t ) by a stuffing-box ( s ) ; the oil-bath is itself immersed in a mercury bath ( 1 ) , surrounded by a coil of jets of gas ( m m ) . The globe , filled with dry and warm mercury , the air-bubbles being extracted by means of an air-pump , was inverted to form a Torricellian vacuum . A small glass globule of water was then inserted , the platinum wire fixed in its place , and an india-rubber cap fitted to the extremity of the stem . Being transferred to its place , and the india-rubber cap replaced by an open glass cistern , so that the glass ( d ) could be elevated to its position , the jets were lighted , and the temperature elevated to 300 ? . From this point the levels of the column were read off at intervals of 50 ? until the temperature of saturation was reached . The levels were taken in a series of descending temperatures , to avoid the influence of steam boiling out of the mercury as the temperature rose , and to eliminate the effect of the cohesion of the glass on the water , as explained in our previous paper on the density of steaim . Twelve cubic inches of mercury were measured into the globe , and a file-mark made on the stem , below which , at a distance of 14*45 inches , another file-mark was made , affording a fixed point for ascertaining the correspondence of the upper file-mark with the readings on the cathetometer . Let a be the reading on the fixed rod of the level of the column , b the reading of the lower file-mark on the globe-stem ; then b--a =the height of the column of mercury on the globe-stem . To correct for temperature , 71inches of mercury , enclosed by the oil-bath and its stuffing-box , were corrected for the temperature of the oil , and the remainder of the column for the temperature of the atmosphere at the time . By deducting the column so corrected from the reading of the barometer at the time , the total pressure in the globe is obtained . The readings of the thermometer are corrected for the portion out of the oil-bath . The pressure of mercurial vapour is calculated from data supplied with great courtesy by M. Regnault , and embodying the results of unpublished experiments . The pressure of this vapour is assumed to be the same as that in a vacuum , as the vapour in the globe remains still for a sufficient time ( it is believed ) for saturation to take place . In this view we have been strengthened by M. Regnault 's opinion . By deducting the pressure of mercury vapour from the total pressure in the globe , the pressure of the steam is obtained . On referring to the experiments contained in the paper , it will be seen that the law of expansion of gaseous bodies is expressed by the formula E+ t P'V o _= P'Vt --P , Vt E+ t1 P 'v P , V , PV where E is a constant . Taking Regnault 's constant 459 as the rate of expansion of air for constant volumes , a remarkable coincidence will be observed in the experiments contained in the paper when reduced to the same standard of value . The values of E thus deduced have been placed in the last column of the calculated experiments . They show a decreasing rate of expansion from the saturation-point upwards , until at no great increase of temperature the rate of expansion coincides with that of a perfect gas . Taking from the Tables the two results , which in each instance represent the case of expansion at the greatest distance from the saturation-point , we have the following values of E:E = ( 1 ) 474-48 ( 3 ) 466-85 ( 5 ) 460-28 450-11 45194 ( 2 ) 455-57 ( 4 ) 464 ? 83 443-86 460-49 Mean value of E deduced from these numbers =458-74 . Hence the conclusion which we suggested in our previous paper has been satisfactorily demonstrated by a more extended series of experiments , and the rate of expansion of superheated steam is shown to be almost identical with that of air and other permanent 56

112197

3701662

On a New Method of Approximation Applicable to Elliptic and Ultra-Elliptic Functions.--Second Memoir. [Abstract]

57

58

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Charles W. Merrifield

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112197

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112197

Formulae

Biography

Mathematics

II . " On a New Method of Approximation applicable to Elliptic and Ultra-elliptic Functions."-Second Memoir . By CHARLES W. MERRIrIELD , Esq. Communicated by WILLIAM SPOTTIsWOODE , Esq. , F.R.S. Received March 20 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) Since my first memoir on this subject was read before the Society in May 1860 , Mr. Sylvester has published a method , more general than mine , of applying rational approximation to facilitate the computation of the integrals of irrational functions . His process , at which he had arrived independently , included , a majori , the one which was the subject of my memoir . Aided by his papers , my subsequent studies have enabled me to view the method with more generality , as well as with more precision and completeness of detail , and I am now able to present it in a sufficiently finished and practical shape for the immediate use of the computer . I append auxiliary Tables to facilitate its use in certain cases . I begin with the common radical form , starting from Mr. Sylvester 's definition of the approximants . Then decomposing the approximant into partial fractions by means of the roots of unity , and increasing indefinitely the number of these fractions , I show that the method is in reality the application of quadratures to a definite integral which is substituted for the surd . The application of the process to integration in like manner rests on the substitution , for the single indefinite integral , of a double integral , definite in respect of one variable , and indefinite for the other . The form of this double integral is such that the indefinite integration can be performed directly ; and the application of quadratures to the definite one is facilitated by a peculiar property of functions of the form , namely , that I -tkn sin9 'm the quadrature does not require the use of differences , but is obtained simply from the mean of the ordinates . Legendre had previously noticed and discussed this peculiarity , which is best illustrated by effecting the quadrature by differential coefficients instead of differences . It will be found that these coefficients ( which are all of odd 57 1862.]~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ order ) each involve in their numerator the term sin 0 . cos ? , which vanishes at both the limits 0 and 90 degrees . It is this feature which gives success to the method . In a second section I have given with some detail the mode of effecting the actual computation of elliptic functions by this means . I have given several formulae for using trigonometrical tables with the exactness which these calculations require , and I think they will be found handier for the purpose than those usually given in the books ; at all events I find them so myself . Some of them are my own , and some are taken , with more or less modification , from Legendre . In a third section I have stated what has been done with a view to the extension of the method to radicals of a higher index than the square , and to a certain class of differential equations . It should be understood that these processes only enable us to find the integral from the amplitude . They do not enable us to find the amplitude , modulus , or parameter from a given value of the integral .

112198

3701662

The Bakerian Lecture: On the Total Solar Eclipse of July 18th, 1860, Observed at Rivabellosa, near Miranda de Ebro, in Spain

58

64

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Warren De la Rue

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6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1862.0010

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112198

10.1098/rspl.1862.0010

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112198

Astronomy

Optics

Astronomy

" On the Total Solar Eclipse of July 18th , 1860 , observed at Rivabellosa , near Miranda de Ebro , in Spain . " The Lecturer gave an account of the more interesting phenomena of the eclipse , and of the methods employed in observing and recording them ; the details of his observations being given in an elaborate Paper bearing the above title . The Lecture was illustrated by a great number of diagrams and models . The photographic images of the eclipse were projected on a screen by meains of the electric lamp , and some of the more striking phenomena were imitated by apparatus contrived for that purpose . The followiig is an abstract of the Paper : -The author , for some time previous to the organization of the Astronomer Royal 's expedition to Spain , had contemplated making an attempt to photograph the phenomena of the total eclipse of 58 but as soon as he was informed ot the Astronomer Royal 's views he agreed to join his party , now known as the Himalaya Expedition , from the name of Her Majesty 's ship which conveyed the astronomers composing it to Spain . He attributes much of the success of his operations to the admirable arrangements of Professor Airy in E ngland , and to those concerted with Mr. Vignoles in Spain ; for he was able in consequence greatly to increase the extent of his preparations , and to convey a complete temporary observatory fitted up with all the numerous requirements which are essential in astronomical photography . Besides himself , his party consisted of Mr. Beckley of the Kew Observatory , Mr. Reynolds ( now Mr. De la Rue 's private assistant ) , Mr. Downs , and Mr. E. Beck , and subsequently the late Mr. Clark . The author expresses himself greatly indebted to these gentlemen for their most efficient assistance . The party took up their station at a village called Rivabellosa , situated near the town of Miranda de Ebro ; the site selected was a thrashing-floor , on which the observatory was erected . The instruments employed consisted of the Kew heliograph , for the photographic records ; an achromatic telescope , by Dallmeyer , mounted on a sort of alt-azimuth stand contrived by the Astronomer Royal , which permitted of an equatorial movement by the ingeniously arranged joint action of two racked radius bars . To this telescope the author fitted a diagonal eyepiece of his own contrivance , which allowed of the use of reflexion from plain glass in the first instance , and then from a portion silvered on the top surface the instant the period of totality commenced . By its means he avoided the perplexity and loss of time occasioned in unscrewing and screwing portions of the apparatus at the most critical period . To these were added a small transit theodolite , three chronometers , two barometers , and several thermometers . The weather proved so unpropitious that it was with much difficulty the objects of the party could be carried out ; and it was only by using every available opportunity that even the Kew i nstrument could be placed in position . The geographical position of the site of the observatory was ascertained to be-north latitude 42§ 42 ' , west longitude 11f 42"'7 , elevation above the mean high-water mark 1572'4 feet . 1862 . ] 59 The author made two sketches of the luminous prominences during the period of totality , on paper previously ruled to represent the position-lines drawn on a piece of parallel glass placed in the focus of the eyepiece , which magnified about 60 times . These position-lines consisted of a square calculated to exactly include the linar disk , and two external squares , one exactly one minute of arc distant from the central square and from the other . The angles of the squares were joined by diagonal fainter lines . The whole system was moveable through an are of 90 ? , and its position could be read off on a graduated external circle divided from 10 to 10 degrees . The drawings were by chance made of nearly the exact diameter of the lunar disk in the photographs ( 4 inches ) , and proved very valuable in interpreting the phenomena revealed by the latter , as the one could be compared by superposition with the other , and the several prominences be thus identified . One of the prominences , situated about 30 ? from the north point towards the east , became visible several minutes before totality , even during the employment of the unsilvered portion of the diagonal reflector . As the sun disappeared the author watched for the socalled Baily 's beads , but no such phenomenon occurred , which occasioned no surprise to him , as he had always believed that it arose in all probability from the atmospheric disturbance of an image formed by a telescope wanting in definition . The author goes on to describe the various appearances presented by the several protuberances , which were not all of a rose-colour , and those which presented this hue were much paler in colour than his previous reading had led him to expect . HI-e is able to speak with considerable certainty on this point , having before the eclipse painted several colours on his drawing-paper , and was thus enabled to compare these directly with the prominences by means of the light emitted by the corona , it being sufficiently great and polychromatic for that purpose . The light of a lamp which was at hand proved not only useless , but was detrimental in making the comparisons . There was a considerable amount of detail , both of form and colour , in the prominences , which the author has shown in two coloured drawings which accompany the paper ; these are founded on the original sketches , which are also given in fac-simile , but to some extent corrected by means of the photographs . That the prominences belong to the sun and not to the moon was rendered evident to the observer by the progressive covering of the luminous prominences on the east in the direction of the moon 's motion , and the gradual uncovering of fresh prominences on the west while prominences situated in a position nearly at right angles to the moon 's path shifted their angular position on the moon 's edge several degrees during the observations . The prominence which became visible before totality , which the author designates by A , was found to have shifted 3§ 25 ' on the moon 's limb in an interval of about 2 ? minutes ; it was therefore evident that the region of the m-oon which at the commencement of the period was in apparent contact with the prominence was at some distance from it at the end ; and as the prominence underwent no change during that time , the theory falls to the ground which ascribes the phenomenon of the luminous protuberances to some peculiar action of the moon 's edge on light coming originally from the sun . The author describes the general effect of the eclipse to the unassisted eye . He was particularly struck with the peculiar illumination of the surrounding landscape as the sun became reduced to a small crescent ; the shadows of all objects were so sharp and the light so brilliant that it reminded him of the illumination produced by the electric light ; at the same time peculiar hues were assumed by the sky and landscape , which suggested the idea that the light of the sun near the periphery is not only less intense than that of the centre , but that it may be different in quality . No attempt was made to obtain accurate observations of the corona , but nevertheless a few seconds were devoted to this phenomenon . Even several minutes before totality the whole contour of the moon could be distinctly seen ; when totality had commenced , the moon 's disk appeared of a deep brown in the centre of the corona , which was extremely bright near the moon 's limb and appeared of a silvery white , softening off with a very irregular outline and sending forth some long streams . It extended generally to about from 07 to 0'8 of the moon 's diameter beyond her periphery . The darkness during the totality was not nearly so great as might have been expected from accounts of previous total eclipses . The illumination was markedly distinct from that which occurs in nature on any other occasion , and certainly was greater than on the brightest 61 1862 . ] moonlit night , although at the time the light appeared to the author as less bright than what he remembered of bright moonlight . By subsequent trials he was led to conclude that the light during a total eelipse most resemibles that degree of illumination which exists in a clear sky soon after sunset , when , after having made out a firstmagnitude star , other stars of less brilliancy can be discer'ned one:after another by an attentive gazer . Jupiter and Venus were the only objects the author had time to identify , bul some neighbouring observers saw also Castor . The most important part of the paper treats of the photographic observations . The several preparations are minutely described , and drawings , showing the general arrangements of the observatory , are given . In the focus of the secondary magnifier of the Kew heliograph , two position-wires , crossing at right angles , are fixed at approximately an angle of 45 ? to a parallel of declination . The object-glass has an aperture of 3'4 inches and a focal length of 50 inches : the primary focal image of the sun at his mean distance is 0 47 inch ; but before it is allowed to fall on the sensitive plate , it is enlarged to about 3'8 inches by means of an ordinary IHuyghenian eyepiece . The object-glass is so constructed as to ensure the coincidence of the chemical and visual foci ; this coincidence is , however , disturbed in a slight degree by the Huyghenian magnifier , which renders a slight adjustment necessary . For ordinary sun-pictures , and those of the several phases of the eclipse except the totality , the aperture was reduced to 2 inches , -a peculiar instantaneous apparatus being employed to regulate the exposure of the sensitive plate . The driving-clock of the heliograph was , for convenience , kept going during the taking of the partial phases of the eclipse ; but it was not really necessary to keep it in motion , because the time of exposure certainly did not exceed the -lth of a second . The position-wires , by stopping off the sun 's light , are depicted in the negatives as white lines crossing the solar disk . It was essential , in order to turn these several pictures to account , to note exactly the time of their being taken , which was done by Mr. Beckley ; the clicking noise made by the instantaneous apparatus , when it struck against a stop after releasement , indicating the epoch , which was noted to the nearest half-second . The exact position of the cross 62 [ April 10 , wires was also ascertained by observations of the sun made on each side of the meridian ; this was necessary , because , in consequence of the weather , the pole of the heliograph could be only approximately adjusted in position . Upwards of fifty plates were placed in the heliograph between 11 " 281 " A.M. and 41 16 ' P.M. on July 18th ; some before the commencement of the eclipse , and some after . During totality two photographs were obtained . One picture was prod-uced on a plate which was exposed from the exact commencement of totality during the minute succeeding this epoch ; the second picture was exposed from about a minute previous to the reappearance of the sun until not more than a second before he became visible . In these pictures the several prominences are depicted with great clearness ; and when one negative is superposed on the other , corresponding parts exactly coincide . During the taking of the second photograph , an excusable curiosity on the part of two of the assistants disturbed the telescope twice , so that the prominences have depicted themselves three times ; but there was no difficulty in stopping out the images not belonging to either of the three phases thus recorded . The author has moreover turned this accident to account , and estimated the relative brightness of the prominences in comparison with the sun 's photosphere ; and he considers that they are at least 600 times less brilliant than it . This conclusion has been drawn from the minimum time required by the prominences to depict themselves , which can be made out from the photograph in question . By means of a new micrometer contrived for that purpose by the author , the several photographs have been measured and discussed . The position-angles of the line joining the sun 's centre and the moon 's centre , and the distances of these centres for the several epochs of the photographs , have been calculated and compared with the corresponding values calculated by Mr. Farley for the geographical position of the observatory . Other calculations have also been made from the photographs and compared with certain elements of the eclipse calculated by Mr. Carrington . The results show that the photographic method of observing solar phenomena is capable of great exactness . The nearest approach of the centres of the sun and moon , as ascer1862 . ] 63 ained from the photographic measurements , was 1 1'8 , calculation giving as a mean 12"'8 . The relative diameter of the moon , that of the sun being taken as uirity , as derived from measurements of the photographs , comes out 1'0511 , which is precisely the theoretical number ; on the other hand , they tend to show that the diameters at present assumed for the sun and moon , taken conjointly , are about 4"-'0 in excess of the truth . The paper is accompanied by an extensive series of calculations , which it is not here necessary to describe . Those , however , relating to the measurements of the positions of the lumoinous prominences on the two totality-pictures have especial interest . These measurements were made in two ways : 1st , the original negatives were -measured by the author 's new micrometer ; 2nd , enlarged positive copies were taken on glass , and the contours of the prominences traced and etched upon the glass , which was afterwards centered on a dividing engine and divided , the divisions being subsequently etched . Copper duplicates were then made of the glass plates , which served to print off diagrams which accompany the paper . Without describing minutely the measurements , it will suffice here to state that the results go to prove that the luminous prominences must belong to the sun and not to the moon . For example , the change in the angular position of the promrinence at a right angle to the moon 's path , and designated A in the paper , has been calculated to have been 5§ 21 ' for the assumed geographical position of the station ; by measurement of the two photographs it is 5§ 32 ' . The motion of the moon in covering and uncovering a prominence in the line of her path was calculated , to have been 92F'8$ ; by measurement it was found to have been 93"t'7 . The accordance of these numbers is so extremely close , that it would be difficult to obtain more convincing proofs that the luminous prominences belong to the sun .

112199

3701662

The Croonian Lecture: On the Termination of Nerves in Muscles, as Observed in the Frog; and on the Disposition of the Nerves in the Frog's Heart

65

84

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. K\#xF6;lliker

fla

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112199

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112199

Biology 3

Neurology

Biology

The CROONIAN LECTURE was delivered by Prof. A. KOLLIKER , For . Memb. R.S. , " On the Termination of Nerves in Muscles , as observed in the Frog ; and on the disposition of the Nerves in the Frog 's Heart , " as follows : When I was honoured by an invitation to deliver the Croonian Lecture , I at first hesitated to undertake the task , however gratifying to me , because I was not prepared with a subject of discourse which I thought likely to prove of sufficient general interest to the Fellows of this distinguished body , engaged as they are in the pursuit of very various branches of " Natural Knowledge . " I felt that on such an occasion it was desirable to lay before the Society the result of some original research , but I feared that the matter I had actually at my command , referring more immediately to a question in Microscopic Anatomy , was scarcely of adequate importance . Knowing , however , that the purpose for which this lecture was instituted is the elucidation of the " Nature and Laws of Muscular Motion , " and considering that my researches , although in themselves purely anatomical , have a decided bearing on that great physiological question , I have felt encouraged to lay them before the Society . Termination of the Nerves in the Voluntary Muscles . The investigation of the termination of the nerves in the muscles has for some time occupied the attention of various able inquirers , but the results attained are by no means in mutual accordance . The recent researches of Kiihne , in particular , on the muscular nerves of the Frog , have led him to conclusions differing so widely from those of Wagner , Reichert , Schaafhausen , Beale and others , that I was induced to apply myself to the question , in the hope that I might be able to contribute something towards its elucidation* . While previous observers have been unable to trace theomuscular nerves further than the surface of the muscular fibres , Kiihne t believes he has discovered that the nerve-fibres , on reaching a muscular fibre , penetrate into its interior and end amidst the muscular substance by several pale branches . He states that the nerve-fibre , on reaching the muscular fibre , divides into several branches which retain their characteristic dark contours until they enter the muscular fibre , within which they become pale and faintly outlined . He conceives that the tubular membranous sheath of the nerve-fibres coalesces with the sarcolemma , and that the branches when they enter the muscular fibre lay aside not only their membranous sheath but their white substance , to which they owe their dark outline , and are in fact reduced to mere ramifications of the axis-cylinder or central thread of the original fibre . In connexion with these internal fibres , Kiihne further describes certain bodies which he proposes to name " terminal nerve-buds " ( Nervenendknospen ) . These are attached laterally to the pale fibres , which then may end at some distance beyond in free pointed extremities , while some of the pale fibres appear actually to terminate in these end-buds . The bodies in question are stated to be ovalshaped corpuscles , smaller than the well-known muscular nuclei , usually pointed at their distal extremity , where they bear a minute filamentous tuft . According to Kiihne each consists of a little oval mass of finely granular substance , into which a fine filament , apparently derived from the axis-cylinder of the pale nerve-fibre , enters , like a pedicle , at one end , and runs along the middle as a sort of axiscylinder of the corpuscle , at the free end of which it swells out into a small interior pyriform body containing minute spherules very different in aspect from the granules of the surrounding granular substance . The structure thus described presents , as Kiihne observes , some resemblance to that of a Pacinian Body , but yet with marked differences , and he does not lay any great stress on the point . These observations of Kiuhne were made with a magnifying power of from J 000 to 1800 linear , on fresh muscular fibres ( from the gastrocnemius of the frog ) immersed in vitreous humour or blood-serum , also on fibres prepared by macerating a portion of muscle for 24 hours in extremely dilute sulphuric acid , then digesting for an equal time in distilled water at about 100 ? F. , and finally shaking it briskly with a little water in a test-tube so as to separate the tissue into single fibres . F2 s862 . ] 67 I , Believing that the wide divergence in the conclusions heretofore arrived at has been owing in great measure to difference in the methods of investigation employed , I made many trials in order to find out reagents which would increase the transparency of the muscular fibres without attacking or at least obscuring the finer fibres of the nerves , and have found the following to be well adapted for the purpose inview . 1 . Extremely dilute acetic acidx . 2 . Diluted hydrochloric acid ir the proportion of 1 part of acid to 1000 of water ; but as this reagent eventually softens and destroys the muscles , it is well to observe that the suitable time of exposure to it is from about 12 to 24 hours . 3 , Artificial digestive fluid , the use of which for a similar reason requires precaution . 4 . Very dilute nitric acid in the proportion of 1 part of acid to 1000 of water . The object selected for examination was for the most part the cutaneous pectoral muscle of the frog , in which the ramification of the nerves has been so successfully traced and represented by Reichertt . In general I have found it better not to separate the muscular fibres , although I have not omitted also to examine single fibres from the same muscle , and from the gastrocnemius . The magnifying power employed was from 500 to 600 linear , obtained by Hartnach 's lenses " a immersion " No. 9 & 10 . I have also tried a power of from 1000 to 1500 as used by Kiihne , but I could discover nothing by its aid which I did not see equally well with the lower amplification . In proceeding now to give an account of my own observations , I have first to state that I have been able to confirm the observation of Kiihne that in the frog 's muscles the nerve-fibres really branch out at their ends into delicate pale filaments-a fact not hitherto recognized by Wagner , Reichert and others , who have investigated the relation of the nerves to the muscles in that animal . But whilst agreeing with Kfihne as to the existence of these pale fibres , I am satisfied that they are situated , not within the muscular fibre but on its surface , as I shall more fully explain hereafter ; and that they lie outside the sarcolemma , through which they do not penetrate . As to their nature , Kiihne regards them as prolongations *I find the best proportion to be from 8 to 16 drops of concentrated acetic acid , sp. gr. 1-045 , to 100 cubic centimetres ( 3ounces ) of distilled water . t Miller 's Archiv , 1851 . 68 of the axis-cylinder alone ; but it decidedly appears to me that , besides the axis-cylinder , they are furnished with a prolongation of the membranous sheath ; indeed I have seen this so clearly in a great many favourable instances , that I can have no doubt on the point . According to my view , therefore , the delicate membranous sheath does not quit the nerve-fibre and coalesce with the sarcolemma , as Kiihne believes , but continues to surround a pale prolongation of the soft contents of the nerve-tube . As to the matter contained in the membranous sheath , it no doubt always comprehends the axiscylinder , and is chiefly formed by a prolongation of that structure ; but I have seen examples in which the contained matter showed slight varicosities and a certain darkness of outline , from which I infer that here and there at least a thin layer of the white substance extends along the pale fibre . But whilst it is easy in most cases to Fig. 1* . ? , ~d_^_.-d-^r-^-perceive the membranous sheath and its enclosed matter distinct from each other at the commencement of the pale fibres , yet in their further progress these structures coalesce together , and the terminal fibres then appear as uniform pale filaments . They are still , however , to be regarded as tubes ; for , in the first place , they are prolongations of a decidedly tubular fibre , and , secondly , when treated with certain reagents , such as acetic acid , they exhibit a precipitate of fine sparse granules in their interior , as Kfihne has also observed ; although when examined in the fresh state , or after being treated with hydrochloric acid , or artificial digestive fluid , they appear pellucid and uniform throughout . It is further worthy of remark , that whilst the pale fibres are for the most part rectilinear prolongations of the dark-contoured fibres , instances occur in whicth a dark fibre ends by dividing at once into two or three pale fibres . More remarkable still are the cases in which a pale fibre comes off laterally , and sometimes at right angles from a dark fibre , or where two pale fibres come off together from opposite sides ; because such cases , which Kfihne appears not to have seen , or at least has not represented , are well calculated to show that the pale fibres are furnished with a prolongation of the membranous sheath . The next question of interest arising from Kfihne 's observation refers to the bodies which he looks upon as peculiar terminal organs , and names the terminal nerve-buds . As regards these corpuscles , I must confess that , after the most careful investigation , I have failed to discover that they possess the peculiar internal structure which Kfihne assigns to them . Considering the skill and address in microscopic investigation which Kfihne has evinced in his inquiry , and feeling persuaded that he must have met with what seemed to him sufficient indications of the structure he has described , 1 bestowed the greatest pains on the examination of these so-called end-buds . I studied them in muscles and muscular fibres , both fresh and treated with reagents . I employed the same magnifying powers , and equally good lenses ; but the only conclusion to which I could arrive is , that the corpuscles in question are nothing but ordinary nuclei connected with the membranous sheath of the pale nerve-fibres , not essentially differing from those found attached to the sheath of the dark-contoured fibres from which the pale fibres are derived . It is true that some of them show a dark streak in the middle or towards the border , which at first sight might suggest a peculiarity of structure ; but the appearance is obviously due to a fold or crease on the surface , and the same thing is seen in the undoubted nuclei of the dark-contoured fibres . Their shape , position , and relative size may be judged of from the figures I have given ; and I have only further to remark , that in fresh preparations they are usually very 70 [ May 1 , faint , and therefore somewhat difficult to recognize ; but with certain reagents , such as acetic acid , they become darker , more granular , and somewhat shrunken , with an irregular outline ; with others , such as hydrochloric acid , they appear more homogeneous and pale . As to their situation , they are attached along the fibres ; and I have never seen them at the ends , as Kiihne in some instances found , although sometimes they are placed very near the end . Sometimes one is placed in the angle of division of a fibre . They appear to be attached laterally ; yet I cannot doubt that they lie within the membranous sheath of the pale fibre , although the prolongation of the latter over them cannot be shown as a separate structure . Were further evidence required concerning the true nature of these corpuscles , I might add that nuclei of precisely the same character exist on the pale terminal fibres of the sensory nerves distributed to muscles , as I shall more fully explain in the sequel , and indeed on the final ramifications of nerves in general , of which we have examples in the skin of the mouse and frog , in mucous membranes , in the cornea , and in the electric organ of the torpedo . I come now to a more difficult question , namely , whether the pale end-fibres of the nerves really lie within the muscular fibres or not . Important as the determination of this question is in relation to physiology , I can confidently say that I entered upon it without bias , and studiously put aside every consideration which might militate against the notion that the nerves penetrate into the muscular fibres . Indeed I myself at one time thought that in certain parts of the cutaneous pectoral muscle of the frog I had seen muscular fibres penetrated by nerve-fibres . On careful investigation , however , I became convinced that the seeming interior situation of the pale fibres is an illusive appearance , and so many proofs against its reality presented themselves , that I was finally constrained to come to a different conclusion from Kuihne on this point also . According to my view , therefore , the pale terminal ramifications of the nerves lie wholly without the muscular fibres , that is , on the outer surface of the sarcolemma . In support of this opinion I may , without insisting on negative evidence , which may be less regarded , adduce , in the first place , the fact that not unfrequently a pale fibre may be seen running on a muscular fibre towards the border , and then turning round to the other side , obviously outside the sarcolemma . Again 1862 . ] 71 a pale fibre running along the border of a muscular fibre sometimes presents serpentine bendings , which appear alternately under and over the muscular fibre , and in the latter case are clearly exterior to the sarcolemma . Moreover I have observed that the pale fibres derived from one dark fibre are sometimes distributed to two muscular fibres , and must therefore run outside and between them , -an appearance not reconcileable with the descriptions of Kihne , who states that nerve-fibres retain their dark contours until they penetrate the muscular fibre , and that the whole of the terminal pale filaments derived from a nerve-fibre are contained within one muscular fibre . In further corroboration of what has been said I may add , that in surface-views of the parts in question the pale nerves always appear above the cross striae of the muscular fibre , also above its nuclei ; which fact would , it is true , not decide whether the pale fibres were outside or inside the sarcolemma , but is sufficient to prove that they do not lie amidst the contractile substance . Further , this contractile substance within the sarcolemma may , by means of dilute hydrochloric acid , be softened and reduced to a fluid state , and nevertheless the pale fibres retain their original position unaltered , even when the liquefied contents of the sarcolemma with the muscular nuclei flow backwards and forwards within the tube . Lastly , when muscular fibres are treated with acetic acid of a certain strength , the whole contents of the sarcolemma are squeezed out in the form of long transversely striated cylinders ; so that on cutting across the fibres of a muscle near the part where it receives a nerve , and treating it in the way indicated , the proper substance of the fibres may be examined apart from the sarcolemma , at the place where their nerves reach them . Now , on repeatedly trying this experiment , I have never found a trace of the nerve-fibres on the extruded portions , whilst on the other hand they are still to be seen on the emptied sarcolemma . It remains for me yet to say a word as to the mode in which the pale nerve-fibres actually terminate , a point on which I confess I have still some doubt . It is true that I have observed apparently free ends as represented by Kiihne ; but , on the other hand , appearances sometimes present themselves which suggest the question , whether on the muscular fibre , as in the physiologically allied electric organ of the torpedo , there may not be an extremely fine network 72 [ May I , in which the pale nerve-fibres terminate . Thus in many cases there is an appearance on the pale fibres of numerous short , pointed or blunt , lateral processes , or at least a certain want of definition in their outline , indicating that they may possibly send out still finer offsets . At the same time I have not been able to trace the matter further in this direction ; and as regards the few undoubted cases of conjunction of the pale fibres which I have hitherto met with , I am not disposed to interpret them in the above sense . Moreover we can often see the pale fibres so sharply and beautifully defined , and maintaining so long their rectilinear course , that it is difficult not to regard them as the true terminations ; so that the above-mentioned appearances to the contrary may perhaps be owing to the effect of the reagents used , which , while they clear up the muscular fibres , may attacl more or less the extremely delicate substance of the pale nerve-fibres . On the Distribution of Sentient Nerves in the Muscles of the Frog . Having thus laid before the Society the results of my observations on the motorial nerves of the frog 's muscles , I have now to speak of the terminations of other nerves which are distributed to the muscles of the same animal , and which are probably sensory in their office . Nerves which are probably of a sentient nature have already been observed in human muscles by myself , and in the cutaneous pectoral muscle of the frog by Reichert , who takes the same view as to their nature . As , however , the mode of termination of these nerves has not heretofore been fully investigated , I have been led to extend my inquiries to that question , and beg leave now to state the principal results . The sentient nerves of the cutaneous pectoral muscle of the frog are supplied by the common moto-sensory nerve of the muscle ( fig. 2 , aa a ) , from which they come off at different points as single fibres , and , proceeding to the muscle , branch out upon it in its whole extent , even in parts which are destitute of motorial nerves . As regards the details of distribution , however , there is not even an approach to uniformity in any two muscles , and therefore , instead of attempting a general description , I will refer to fig. 2 , which represents an individual case as seen under a low magnifying power , carefully copied from nature . In this instance the sentient nerves consisted of five principal 1862 . ] 73 truncules as they may be called , each , however , being but a single fine fibre ; one of these ( fig. 2 b ) , larger than the rest , supplied the upper part of the muscle with branches , two ( c , d ) went to the middle , and two rather long ones ( e , f ) were distributed on the lower part of the muscle . As to the original source of these truncules , I agree with Reichert in thinking that they are all derived from one principal sentient fibre , which is mixed up with the more numerous motor fibres in the small nerve a , a , a , which is supplied to the cutaneous muscle . It is true that I have not been able , any more than Reichert , actually to trace back these truncules to their parent fibre in the trunk of the common nerve . Nevertheless I feel much confidence in believing that they arise in the way stated ; and especially because I have met with cases in which the parent fibre of all the sentient nerve-fibres of the cutaneous muscle escapes from among the motorial fibres of the common muscular nerve at some distance from the muscle ; so that its division into the secondary truncules may be seen . Moreover I have never seen fibres , which from their final distribution may be reckoned as motory , coming from the sentient fibres , nor the latter from the former ; although I have sometimes met with a deceptive appearance to the contrary , caused by true motor fibres attaching themselves for a little way to a sentient fibre , and then seeming to come off as branches of it . In their progress the dark-bordered sentient fibres for the most part tend towards the outer or cutaneous surface of the thin muscle , on reaching which they branch out upon it underneath a thin fascia , which covers the muscle and forms also the wall of an adjacent lymph-space . The terminations of these sentient nerve-fibres were not seen by Reichert , and doubtless because he used potash in his examination of them ; but with the aid of some of the reagents already mentioned they may be traced out , although from their extreme tenuity and paleness this is no easy matter . Their mode of termination is on the whole similar to that of the motor nerves , only the pale endfibres have a more extended distribution and are much finer . The of the cutaneous muscle ; b , c , d , sentient fibres ( truncules ) to upper and middle part of muscle , and e , f , to lower part , all dividing into finer terminal filaments connected with nuclei which are not represented in this general view ; , h , h , h , branches off which went to abdominal muscles ; i , i , i , swollen parts of muscular fibres containing ' nerve-tufts . ' 1862 . ] 75 figures will serve better than a long description to give a correct idea of their terminations . Whilst fig. 2 , drawn under a low magnifying power , represents their general mode of distribution , fig. 3 shows a small part of their ramification and two or three terminations , highly magnified . It will be seen that the larger fibres divide and redivide into smaller branches , which still retain their dark contours , but give off in their course lateral pale branches , and finally end in pale and numerous prolongations . In the pale fibres , at their commencement the membranous sheath is distinct from the contained fibre , which doubtless consists of the axis-cylinder , with at first some part of the medullary substance ; in their progress the sheath becomes blended with the contents , and can no longer be distinguished as a separate structure . Nuclei ( f , f , fig. 3 ) are seen Fig. 3 * . all along the pale fibres , and also on the smaller dark fibres . In short , the structural character of the pale sentient fibres is , so far as it can be discovered , essentially the same as the pale terminations of the motor nerves . As already noticed , however , they become smaller in size ; indeed the extreme prolongations are in some places attenuated to the size of filaments of connective tissue . Their fine terminations , moreover , lie quite superficially in the perimysium or sheath of the muscle , and between it and the muscular fibres , and are in a great measure confined to the outer or cutaneous surface ot the muscle , although here and there fibres are seen turning to the under surface . Nerves of the Blood-Vessels . Besides the sentient nerves which I have here described , I have found , in the same cutaneous muscle of the frog , nervous filaments on the blood-vessels , although I have not yet been able fully to satisfy myself as to their source and distribution . These vascular nerves entirely agree in character with the pale sentient fibres , and , like them , are furnished with nuclei . I have found them chiefly on small veins , and on fine vessels on the arterial side of the capillaries , which were , however , destitute of a muscular coat . On these vessels I have traced them a considerable way , passing from one branch to another and often dividing , but have not been able to observe distinct terminations . Now and then also I have recognized them on vessels possessing a decidedly arterial structure ; but I am unable to state anything positive as to their arrangement in this case , inasmuch as the nuclei in the outer coat of the small arteries occasion much difficulty in following out pale nucleiferous fibres . Once only I was fortunate enough to trace the origin of one of these vascular fibres from a dark-bordered sentient fibre ; and this observation , so far as it goes , together with their distribution to vessels destitute of a muscular coat , favours the notion that the nerve-fibres in question are of the sentient kind . On the Nerve-tufts in the Cutaneous Muscle of the Frog . In the same muscle of the frog to which I have already made so constant reference , there may be observed , and most commonly about the end of the winter season , from three to five objects of peculiar structure , which at first sight appear to be of the nature of tactile corpuscles or terminal nerve-bulbs , but which really do not belong to that class of organs . The objects in question are indicated in 1862 . ] 77 figure 2 at i i , and one is represented on a larger scale in figure 4 . They are found on the finer muscular fibres , and appear on a superficial inspection as nodular swellings or somewhat thickened portions of the fibre , marked by a profusion of rather roundish nuclei , and receiving a single very thick nerve-fibre , loosely surrounded by its comparatively wide membranous sheath . On further examination it is found that the nerve-fibre , on reaching the nodule of the muscle , is wound up at one or more spots on the surface into a coil or tuft , in the mean time undergoing repeated division ; and for the most part it may be seen to enter the muscular fibre , in which the dark-bordered fibres , becoming finer , are finally lost to view . Fig. 4 ' C ; The last-mentioned fact struck me as specially important , inasmuch as it seemed to afford an instance of the penetration of a nerve into the interior of a muscular fibre , as maintained by Kiihne . On a careful examination , however , of the structures in question in muscles rendered transparent by acetic acid , I found that the apparently simple muscular fibre bearing the swelling is really a small bundle of from three to seven fine fibres ( fig. 5 ) , and that the * Fig. 4 . A nodule or swelling of a muscular fibre ( or rather fasciculus ) , with a large nerve-fibre , nerve-tuft , and nuclei ; highly magnified . apparently penetrating nerve-fibres merely pass between these muscular fibres . Fig. 5 . _.^ ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . __ On tracing the peculiar and seemingly simple muscular fibres towards the ends of the muscle , I found that they there evidently consist of several smaller but still transversely striated fibres , and this brought to my mind the bundles of fine muscular fibres described by Weismannt , and known to me also from actual inspection , which induced that observer to infer the occurrence of longitudinal divisions of the striated fibres . This led me to study these bundles singly by treating the cutaneous muscle with strong solution of potash , and then I found that it is precisely these particular bundles which ( appearing as single fibres ) exhibit the peculiar swellings with the coiled nerve . In the situation of the swelling the finer component fibres of the bundle cling fast together , even after the operation of the alkali , and a certain amount of striated granular uniting matter is found between them , which may be partly the remains of fine nerve-fibres and capillaries , and some accompanying connective tissue . Now , if it be admitted that the finer muscular fibres composing the bundle are generated by the division of thicker muscular fibres , as Weismann justly concludes , the explanation of the nerve-tufts becomes easy ; inasmuch as they may be conceived to arise from a simultaneous growth and division of the nerve-fibre belonging to the parent muscular fibre , in order that each of the young muscular fibres may obtain its branch of nerve . The process by which this is effected cannot be satisfactorily studied in consequence of the close cohesion of the fine muscular fibres at the spot , but most probably the original pale terminal fibres of the parent nerve undergo further development by growth and by multiplication of the nuclei , so as finally to supply all the new muscular fibres ; and I think it not * Fig. 5 . A small bundle of fine muscular fibres into which an apparently simple ( bnt really longitudinally dividing ) fibre has been resolved by means of potash . a , Nodule or swelling which contained a nerve-tuft . t Zeitschr . fur rationelle Medicin , 1860 , Band x. 1862 . ] 79 unlikely that a part of the numerous nuclei in the neighbourhood belong to the nerve-fibres . Simultaneously with the increase of its terminal fibres the darkbordered parent fibre doubtless augments in thickness , which explains the fact , otherwise difficult to understand , that it is invariably of much larger size than the nerve-fibres proceeding to the other muscular fibres . From what has been stated it will thus be seen that the relation of the nerve to the peculiar structures described does not support the views of Kfihne . On the Termination of the Nerves in the Involuntary Muscles , and on the disposition of the Nerves in the Heart of the Frog . Having , to the best of my power , investigated the ending of the nerves in voluntary muscles , I thought it right to extend my researches to those of the involuntary muscular organs , respecting the ultimate terminations of which very few , if any , satisfactory observations have been heretofore made known . The muscles I selected for examination were those of the heart and pharynx of the frog , and the methods of preparing them were the same as for the voluntary muscles . The nerves of the frog 's heart are the two nervi vagi or pneumogastries , which , having reached the heart at the place where the venous sinus joins with the right auricle , enter the septum between the two auricles , and proceed therein to the ventricle . During this part of their course the two trunks of the vagi , which join together at their entrance into the heart , are almost everywhere beset with numerous ganglionic cells . These cells in some parts form larger masses , well described by Bidder several years ago* . One or two of these masses lie in the upper part of the septum , and may be called the " superior auricular ganglions " ; another is situated in the lower part of the septum , near the ventricle , the " inferior auricular ganglion " ; and a very remarkable and constant ganglion is seated in each of the two larger valves placed between the ventricle and the auricles , -these are the " c ventricular ganglia " of Bidder . Apart from these larger ganglionic masses on the trunks of the vagi , there are found , although without regular arrangement , gangliMiiller 's Archiv , 1852 . 80 [ May 1 , onic cells , single or in small clusters , on the larger branches distributed to the venous sinus and the auricles , but none on those of the ventricle ; so that the ganglionic matter of the ventricle exists only at its venous aperture . Respecting the microscopic structure of these parts , it is known that amongst the ganglionic cells there are many which give origin each to only one nervous fibre , and have therefore been termed unipolar cells , whilst there are others that apparently give off ' no fibres , and are named apolar cells ; but it is as yet altogether unknown whether the proper or radical fibres of the vagi connect themselves with the ganglionic cells of the heart or not , and it is equally uncertain from what immediate source the nerve-fibres proceeding to the muscular substance of the heart are derived . Most physiologists seem to believe that the fibres of the vagus or pneumogastric are not directly distributed to the muscular fibres of the heart , but that they act only through the medium of the ganglionic cells , and that the fibres derived from these cells are the real motory nervous elements . So far as I know , however , notwithstanding its importance , no one has hitherto examined into this matter . My own inquiry has had a twofold object : first , to ascertain the relation of the pneumogastric to the ganglionic cells ; and secondly , to find out the mode of termination of the ultimate divisions of the nerves on the muscular fibres . As regards the first question , all my observations tend to show that the nervous system of the frog 's heart is constituted on a very simple principle . There are , in fact , two distinct although associated systems of nervous fibres distributed to every part of the muscular walls of the heart : namely , first , the proper or radical fibres of the vagus , which pass through the ganglia of the heart , without , so far as I can discover , connecting themselves with the ganglionic cells , and proceed straightway to the muscular fibres ; and secondly , fibres derived from ganglionic cells , which are associated with the original vagus-fibres , and run with them to the muscular tissue . The obvious bearing of this matter on important questions of physiology requires that I should here explain the grounds on which the conclusion now stated is founded . On this head I have first to state that , in following with the microscope and with the aid of potash the fibres of the vagus as they pass through the several ganglions of the heart , it is easy to see that they run through these bodies without forming any connexion with the ganglionic cells . Of course I do not pretend to have traced every individual fibre , but I can speak positively of the large majority , and conclude that the same holds good generally , the more so as the ganglion-cells themselves present conditions which corroborate this conclusion . These cells , that is to say , all of them which are connected with nerve-fibres and whose connexions can be clearly made out , are unipolar , or send out but a single fibre , and that in a peripheral direction , without having any connexion with the transcurrent fibres of the vagus . Bipolar or multipolar cells are not to be seen : some apparently apolar cells present themselves , but concerning these it may be doubted whether they are not unipolar cells whose issuing fibre is in some way hidden from view . I may add that , as the cells lie mostlyat the side of the vagus and its branches , and not amongst its fibres , their relation to the latter is less difficult to determine . From what has been said I feel justified in my conclusion that there are in the frog 's heart two distinct systems of nervous fibres , one ganglionic , the other directly proceeding from the vagi or pneumogastric nerves . Before proceeding , in the next place , to describe the terminations of the nerves , I have to explain that the ; muscular tissue of the frog 's heart is entirely made up of short spindle-shaped uninucleated fibres , or fibre-cells , resembling in every respect those described by me in the involuntary muscles generally , except that they have very distinct transverse striae . These striated fibre-cells , as correctly described by Weismann , are arranged so as to form larger and smaller bundles , and these unite into a network which , in each of the three parts of the heart , is continuous throughout . Now , respecting the nerves , it is easy to show that their smaller branches , composed of dark-bordered fibres from the vagus and the ganglion-cells , also form a general network , with larger and smaller meshes , on or between the secondary muscular fasciculi . As the ramifications become finer the component nerve-fibres gradually lose their medullary sheath , and are finally continued into pale nucleated filaments which lie singly or two or three together in the finest muscular bundles . The last terminations are pale , nucleated fibres , entirely agreeing in aspect with those described as the ends of the sentient nerves in the voluntary muscles . 82 [ May 1 , They enter here and there into the fasciculi of muscular fibre-cells , ramify in these bundles , and end in very fine pointed extremities . The muscular fasciculi are on the whole rather richly supplied with these terminal fibres , so that two or three may be readily found in each bundle by any one accustomed to such investigations . Still it is plain that the nerve-terminations are by no means equal in number to the muscular fibre-cells , so that several of the latter must be governed by one and the same terminal nerve-fibre . The same mode of nerve-termination as in the heart prevails in the non-striated muscular tissue of the pharynx and bladder of the frog , excepting that the terminal fibres are more scanty ; but as these run over a larger extent of the muscular tissue before coming to an end , their comparative rarity may be compensated by their acting at the same time upon a larger number of the muscular fibres . With these remarks I conclude the account of my anatomical investigation of the terminations of nerves in muscles . It will be obvious to every one conversant with the physiology of the muscular system , that many of the facts on which I have dwelt are of more or less importance in reference to physiological questions ; and I would have gladly availed myself of the opportunity now so courteously afforded me of addressing this learned Society , to take up also the physiological side of the question , did I not fear to have already made too large a demand on your patience . I refrain therefore from entering on so large a subject , and shall take leave only to offer the following as what appear to me to be the more interesting physiological inferences from the anatomical facts I have described . 1 . As the motor nerves lie outside the sarcolemma , and are confined in their distribution to a comparatively short portion of the muscular fibre , it may be inferred that there must be action at a distance . 2 . As the ends of the motor nerves are pale fibres destitute of medullary sheath , it would appear that the latter is of but secondary importance . The same fact may perhaps also afford an explanation of the special action of certain poisonous agents , as the urari , on the ends of these nerves . 3 . The muscles have numerous sentient nerve-fibres distributed at their surface , or on the surface of their larger divisions . G2 1862 . ] 83 4 . The heart , at least the heart of the frog , has two distinct sets of nervous fibres , those of the pneumogastric and those from the ganglion-cells , which are both distributed to the muscles . The vagus therefore acts directly on the muscular fibres of the organ , and the well-known experiment of Weber can scarcely be explained through a supposed action of the vagus on the ganglia . On the other hand , the ganglia and their fibres are also motorial organs of the heart , and alone act when it is separated from the body .

112200

3701662

Appendix to the Account of the Earthquake-Wave Experiments Made at Holyhead. [Abstract]

84

88

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Robert Mallet

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112200

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112200

Measurement

Geography

Measurement

where L is the modulus of elasticity in feet . Where , from want of homogeneity or shattering , &c. , as found in nature , the experimental value of V differs from this , we may express it by the same form of equation , v'= VL . the coefficient a having to V2g the rate that the actual bears to the theoretic value of V. He then determines the value of a for three of his mean experimental transit-velocities at Holyhead , and obtains as follows : Feet per side . V ' =1089 a=0-637 V'=1352 a=0'791 ? V=1220 a==0-714 The actual velocity of wave-transmission in the slate and quartz rocks , taken together , was to the theoretic velocity due to their materials , if perfectly solid , a : V2 , or as 1'00 : 8-89 ; so that nearly eight-ninths of the full velocity of wave-transmission due to the solid material is lost by reason of the heterogeneity and discontinuity or shattering of the rocky mass as it is piled together in nature . The author then shows that were the rocks quite solid , the velocity of wave-transmission would beMean of slate and quartz transverse to lamination V= 13,715 feet per second . Mean of slate and quartz parallel to lamination V= 7659 feet per second . This difference is probably reversed in nature by reason of the greater discontinuity in the former direction . The author then shows that his results , which appear at first sight to conflict with those of an analogous character obtained by Helmholtz and others for wood , in the three principal directions of its section , are strictly in accordance and analogy with the results of these experimenters . The author concludes by deducing some conclusions as to the bearing power , safe load , and proper direction as to lamination when exposed to pressure , of these rocks , of a practical character , and valuable to the civil engineer or architect . 88 [ May 8 , ' Appendix to the Account of the Earthquake-Wave Experiments made at Holyhead . " By ROBERT MALLET , Esq. , C.E. , F.R.S. Received March 27 , 18 ; 2 . ( Abstract . ) This communication contributes the sequel of the author 's " Report on Earthquake-Wave Experiments " ( made at Holyhead ) , as published in part 3 of the ' Philosophical Transactions ' for 1861 . At the conclusion of that paper the author expressed his hope of being able soon to lay before the Royal Society some experiments for the determination of the modulus of elasticity of perfectly solid portions of both the slate and the quartz rock formation through which his wave-transit experiments had been made at Holyhead , with a view to throw light upon the relations between the theoretic velocity of transmission ( if the rocks were all solid and homogeneous ) and the actual velocity as determined by experiment . He has now determined the elastic modulus for both rocks , and for each rock in two directions , viz. parallel to and transverse to its lamination ; and hl has extended his determinations to specimens of [ May 8 , 84 each rock of maximum and of minimum compactness and hardness , so that the series of experiments upon the compressibility of these rocks ( from which the modulus is deived ) assumes the following divarication , viz. Haest . J B. Parallel to lamin rTable 2 . Slate rock 4d A. Transverse to laminn , Table 1 . Sotest . { F. Parallel to lamin , Table 6 . IE . Transverse to lamine , Table 5 . ( Hardet . 5 f , Parallel to lamine , Table 4 . Quartz rock |l C. Transverse to lamine , Table 3 . Softest . 5 H. Paralel to laminte , Table 8 . I G , Transverse to laminse , Table 7 . Involving thus eight distinct series of experiments . The compressions were conducted at the Royal Arsenal , Woolwich , by the aid of the excellent American machine belonging to the Royal Gun-factories , permission to use which was accorded to the author . The specimens of rock submitted to pressure were all equal cubes of 01707 inch on the edge , presenting thus a surface on each side of 0'5 square inch-a dimension presenting facilities for tabular , reduction , &c. The cubes were cut from the chosen rock specimens ( selected with care as fairly representative ) by means of the lapidary 's wheel , and had opposite faces rigidly parallel and equal . The pressures advanced by 1000 lbs. per square inch of surface , from zero up to the crushing point of the specimen ; and at each advance the actual compression of the column of rock was measured by instrumental arrangements that admitted of reading space to '0005 of an inch . The results are given in Tables numbered 1 to 8 , referred to above , and these are compared in two Tables numbered 9 and 10 . The following are the mean compressions for each 1000 lbs. per square inch-Slates . Quartz . A. B. . E F. C. D. G. H. inches . inches . inches , inches . inches . incies . inches . inclies . -000627 002500 10039144 '0037000 -0007085 -0010947 001466 10172666 l upto up to upto up to up to up to up to up to 2.3,000 Ibs . 26,000 lbs. 1,000 bs . 7000 lbs. 35,000 lbs 1,000 lbs. 12,000 lbs. 6000 lbs. 85 1862 . ] Crushing usually took place at 1000 to 2000 lbs. additional pressures beyond the above limits , up to which the compressions were tolerably uniform . The discussion of these Tables fully presents some interesting and novel results . Generally the quartz rock is less compressible than the slate ; the softest quartz , however , is much more compressible than the softest slate in a direction parallel to the lamination of both . In this direction also the hardest slate is more than double as compressible as the hardest quartz . Transverse to the lamination , however , both the hardest slate and quartz have nearly the same coefficient of compressibility , which is very small for both . In the latter direction also the softest slate and quartz have almost the same coefficient , but one aboutfour times as great as for the hardest like rocks . The author points out several conclusions of much interest deducible from these experiments as to the physical and geological conditions under which these rocks were formed and consolidated . The compression by natural forces has already been greatest in directions transverse to the lamination . The great compressibility in the opposite directions , or parallel to the lamination , appears to arise chiefly from the mass of the rock being made up of minute wedge-shaped mineral particles , deposited all with their largest dimensions on the plane of lamination , and so acting on each other like wedges . Some curious circumstances in the mode of giving way of the rocks under pressure are shown by the author to be probably connected with their mass being formed of an aggregate of several simple minerals . He points out the great differences in wave-transmissive power in directions transverse to and parallel to the lamination which these experiments disclose . The specific gravities of the several specimens of rock are then given , to enable the modulus of elasticity to be obtained in feet , and the general results of the experiments are comprised in the following Table ( p. 87):The author then proceeds to apply these results to the comparison of the theoretic and actual transit-periods of the wave of impulse . The general expression for elastic wave-propagation in a homogeneous medium may be expressed by an equation of the form V= / gL= 8-024 V/ L 86 [ May 8 , HOLYHEAD ROCK COMPRESSION . General results reduced , modulus of cohesion and of elasticity , 4 &c. -Slate and Quartz . C sCoefficient of Elastic limit Crushing load IModulus of No Class of rock , and direction of pressure in relation compression for on the cohesion Modulus of Modulus of Coefficient Oto structure . oncf unit lsrfase compression . unit of surface . ( compression ) . elasticity . elasticity . T. ~~~I~~~~~~~~~for 000 lbs. I I inches . lbs. lbs. feet . lbs. feet . 1 Slate hardest across lamination ... ... ... ... ... . 0006217 22,000 1 24,000 20,014 8,042,464 6,706,524 1-2432 2 Quartz hardest across lamination ... ... ... ... '0007085 32,000 37,000 32,095 7,057,163 6,121,758 2-1830 3 Slate hardest parallel to lamination ... ... ... '0025000 18,000 27,000 22,515 2,000,000 1,667,778 5-6241 4 Quartz hardest parallel to lamination ... ... ... 0010947 17,000 20,000 17,349 4,567,461 3,962,013 1-8240 5t Slate softest across lamination ... ... ... ... ... . . -0039144 12,000 15,000 12,586 1,277,335 1,071,769 4-8930 6 Quartz softest across lamination ... ... ... ... ... -0014666 11,000 14,000 12,158 3,409,246 i 2,960,699 1-7108 7 Slate softest parallel to lamination ... ... ... ... 0037000 6,000 9,000 7,552 1,351,351 1,133,874 2-7747 8 Quartz softest parallel to lamination ... ... ... -0172666 7,000 8,000 6,948 289,576 251,477 11-6112 Calculated Means . 9 Slate , mean for hard and soft across lami-0022680 17,000 19,500 16,311 2,204,585 1,844,069 36855 nation ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 10 Quartz mean for hard and soft across la- } 0010875 16,500 25,500 22,132 4,597,701 3,990,455 2-3103 11 Slate , mean for hard and soft parallel to } 0031000 12,000 18,000 15,056 1,612,903 1,349,145 46494 lamination ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . I. . 12 'Quartz , mean for hard and soft parallel to 0091806 12,000 14,000 12,151 544,627 472,684 107100 lamination ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Calculated Means of Means . rections ( Nos. 9 and 11 ) ... ... ... ... ... . 13 Slate , hard and soft , mean for both di- } '0026840 14,500 ; 18,750 15,684 1,862,880 1,566,541 4'1914 rections ( Nos. 10 and 12 ) ... ... ... ... ... ... rections(Nos.10 and 12 ) ... ... . , , } ' 0051340 16,750 | 17,141 973,899 845,252 8'4490 15 GCeneral mean for slate and quartz , hard and soft , and in both directions ( Nos. 13 0039090 15,625 1 19,250 16,398 1,279,099 1,089,615 62697 and 14 ) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . L:-4 i

112201

3701662

On the Sensory, Motory, and Vaso-Motory Symptoms Resulting from Refrigeration and Compression of the Ulnar and other Nerves in Man. Second Communication

89

103

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Augustus Waller

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1862.0013

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112201

10.1098/rspl.1862.0013

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112201

Nervous System

Biology 2

Nervous System

I.On the Sensory , Motory , and Vaso-Motory Symptoms resulting from Refrigeration and Compression of the Ulnar and other Nerves in Man . " Second Communication . By AuGUSTUsWALLER , M.D. , F.R.S. Received April 12 , 1862 . In the 'Proceedings of the Royal Society , ' No. 46 , I have given a brief account of the effects of refrigeration of the ulnar nerve in man , by the application of ice . After repeated experiments on this nerve on myself , I never had occasion to witness any permanent disturbance in the nerve from the application of the ice , beyond a slight hyperoesthesia , which may have been partly due to the increased attention of the mind directed to the part whose functions were under investigation . The like immunity does not extend to experiments in which a much greater degree of cold is employed , as will be seen from the following instance : September 13 , 1861.-A freezing mixture , consisting of equal parts of pounded ice and common salt , was applied to the elbow of the left arm over the ulnar nerve . The subject of the observation was a gentleman in perfectly sound health , aged twenty-seven . Before the application of the mixture , the temperature between the little and ring fingers and the index and median was the same . Successive observations gave the following results : Duration of appliTemperature Cent. Temperature Cent. cation of refrigebetween ring and little between index and rating mixture . fingers at roots . median fingers at roots . Minutes . 5 ... ..25-3 ... . * ... . . 27-8 7 ... ... 25-6 ... ... ... ... 28-0 10 ... ... ... ... 26.1 ... ... . . 28-2 25 ... ... ... ... 26-6 ... ... ... ... 29*6 89 Duration of appliTemperature Cent. Temperature Cent. cation of refrigebetween ring and little between index and rating mixture . fingers at roots . median fingers at roots . Minutes . 27 ... ... ... ... 278 ... ... ... ... . 30-1 29 ... ... ... . . 26-6 ... ... 29'1 33 ... ... ... ... 26-4 ... ... ... . . 28-5 35 ... ... ... . . 27-5 ... ... ... ... 29-0 37 ... ... ... . . 29-2 ... ... ... ... 28-8 40 ... ... ... ... 30-5 ... ... . 28.0 44 ... ... ... ... 31-2.2 ... ... ... . 27-5 46 ... ... ... ... 32-5 ... ... ... . . 27-0 47.5 ... ... ... . 33-5 ... ... ... . . 26'6 50 ... ... ... ... 33.5 ... ... ... ... 26-0 52 ... ... ... . . 33'8 ... ... ... . . 26-0 At this time the freezing mixture was removed . In the course of the application the following results were observed : Soon after the application of the freezing mixture , the nerve began to be painful from the elbow downwards ; after twenty-seven minutes ' application the little finger was already somewhat paralysed and insensible . When the nerve was compressed or vibrated , it was found to be very sensitive and tender , and its excitability much increased * . After thirty-two minutes the symptoms were 1st . Paralysis of the movements of the little finger almost complete . 2nd . A state of semi-flexion of all the fingers , diminishing from the little one outwards , so that they could not be straightened completely by the extensor muscles . 3rd . Great weakness in all the fingers and thumb , so that great difficulty was experienced in grasping or holding any object . 4th . Complete loss of the power of abduction and adduction of the fingers , so that when they were extended as far as possible they remained spread out without there being any power of bringing them together . After fifty-two minutes the freezing mixture was withdrawn , and the skin at the elbow , which was completely frozen , was allowed to thaw . During this process the arm and hand became'rapidly verypainful upwards and downwards in the course of the nerve , the pain even extending to the chest , where there was a feeling of great uneasiness and constriction . At the same time the heart 's action was so much lowered as to threaten immediate syncope , which was , however , prevented by a free administration of ammonia and spirits . An hour after the removal of the freezing mixture the temperature ( Cent. ) was as follows : Left hand , between the index and median ... ... 20'5 , , between the little and ring fingers ... . 21'2 Right hand , between the index and median ... . 21'8 , , between the little and ring fingers. . 21'8 September 16th.-Over the skin which had been frozen there was vesication and inflammation of the subcutaneous tissue , which was swollen around the part blistered to the extent of 2 or 3 inches over the arm and forearm . Over the prominent parts of the elbow-joint the bones were very tender on pressure . The ulnar nerve was likewise exceedingly painful to the touch up the arm and down the forearm and the hand . The brachial plexus was very tender at some points . Over the little finger and the inner side of the ring finger the skin was nearly insensible . Friction over these parts caused a sensation of heat , pricking , and discomfort . The temperature of these parts was not more elevated than other parts of the hand . The paralysis of the muscles of the hand was in the same condition as on the 14th . The two points of compasses , when more than an inch apart , were felt as one over the palmar surface of the little finger . September 17th.-Paralysis and anaesthesia the same as the day before . The hyperesthesia of the ulnar nerve was diminished . September 22nd , one week after application of ice.-Considerable and constant hyperaesthesia is experienced in the little finger and down the ulnar side of the hand . The power of motion is somewhat restored , but neither the little nor any of the other fingers can 1862 . ] 91 o completely extended . The spot to which the freezing mixture was applied is still sore , and the ulnar nerve immediately under it very sensitive . The following observations were made on the temperature of both upper extremities : Right ( unaffected ) side . Left ( paralysed ) side . 28-6 Cent. ( radial side of second finger ) ... ... 26-6. . diff.-2 ? ? 24*7 ( after some minutes ' exposure to cold air ) 22 7. . diff.-2 ? ? 34-3 ( at bend of arm ) ... ... ... ... ... ... 337. . diff.--6 33-4 ( at middle of inner side of arm ) ... ... . . 33*6. . diff. +2 Right forearm . Radial side . Ulnar side . 31 ? '4 290 ? 1. . diff. 20 ? 3 . Left forearm . Radial side . Ulnar side . 31 ? ? 2806. . diff. 204 After some minutes ' exposure to cold air , the temperature of the little fingers of both hands sunk toRight side . Left side . ( 1 ) 221 2 ... 7 ... ... diff. 1-4 ( 2 ) 21-4 ... ... ... ... . . 19-7. . diff. 1-7 ( 3 ) 21-5 ... ... ... ... . . 197. . diff. 1'8 Both arms were then well exercised ; as the result of which the temperature rose in successive observations toRight side . Left side . ( 1 ) 31 ... ... . . 25..dff . 6 ( 2 ) 34 ... ... ... ... . 31 diff. 2.9 ( 3 ) 34.5 ... ... ... ... . . 31-5. . diff. 3 ( 4 ) 35 ... ... ... ... . . 33-5. . diff. 1-5 35 ... ... ... ... . . 34 . diff. 1 These observations show:(1 ) That the mean difference of temperature between the paralysed and sound arms was 2 ? Cent.=3 ? 06 Fahr. ( 2 ) That this difference lessened as the temperature of both arms was lowered . ( 3 ) That the temperature of the sound side was at first increased much more rapidly than that of the side paralysed , but that after a short time the normal difference 2 ? was re-established . September 27th.--The power of motion in the little finger is 92 [ May 15 , almost restored ; but there is still sensible hyperoesthesia in it , as well as on the inner side of the palm of the hand . There is also some stiffness in that finger , and a complete inability , when the fingers are extended , to bring them into opposition with one another . The spot on the upper arm to which cold was applied is now quite healed , and all swelling has subsided ; but the ulnar nerve is still very sensitive on being touched . The weakness of the left hand in grasping objects , as In using a fork at dinner , &c. , even ten days after the experiment , was most perceptible . The temperature on the radial side of the little finger of both hands isRight . Left . 33 ? 05 Cent ... ... . . 320 ? 3. . diff. l ? 2 October 1st.-Temperature of hands . Right . Left . Little finger . Fore-finger . Little finger . Fore-finger . 33 ? '5 330 ? 7 320 ? 2 320-5 There was still considerable numbness in the little finger and on the inner side of the palm of the hand . The fingers could now be extended almost as completely as those of the right hand , but they could not be easily expanded , or brought into opposition with one another . At times the nerve was very painful along its whole course , from the elbow downwards . This is mostly the case after the arm has been used a little . Pain at these times , even if not actually present , was easily induced by placing the arm in a dependent position so as to cause congestion of its vessels , and it was immediately relieved by elevating the limb above the head so as to deplete the vessels . The nerve was very sensitive to pressure all along its course , from the elbow downwards , although all painfulness arising from the inflammation produced in the cutaneous tissue by the cold had disappeared for some days . On both hands being held for some minutes in a stream of running water at a temperature of 14 ? '4 Cent. , considerable pain was experienced in the little finger and inner side of the left hand ; and on withdrawing both hands their temperature wasRight little finger . Left little finger . 16 ? -5 160.3 1862 . ] 93 The effect of the reduction of temperature on the paralysed hand was very distinct ; the three inner fingers were more or less contracted , the little one being semiflexed , and could not be extended completely , those of the right hand being easily extensible . In half an hour the temperature of both hands had risen toRight little finger . Left little finger . OO 34-2 33 34'5 ( 12 P.M. , one hour after immersion ) ... ... 34 At this moment , although the temperature of the paralysed fingers was higher than before immersion in water , the little finger was still semiflexed , and none of the others could be perfectly extended . February 14th , 1862 . Right hand . Left hand . Cent. Cent. Temperature between little and annular fingers 19'5 18'5 , , , ? annular and median ... . 18'8 18'3 , , , , median and index ... o. 19'0 18'1 , , , , thumb and index ... ... 21'1 20 1 , , of palmar surface of little finger at root ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 18'0 17-9 Temperature of forearm , posterior surface , lower fourth ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 28-3 28'0 Temperature of radial side of forearm ... ... . . 27'0 27'6 , , of palm of hand when closed. . 19'8 1 9'68 There is still a feeling of stiffness in the little finger , accompanied with slight inability to move it . There is also considerable sensitiveness along the course of the ulnar nerve in the palm of the hand when compressed or percussed . The fingers can be moved to and from one another more freely , but the power of so doing is still imperfect ; and that of grasping , so far as the whole hand is concerned , is much weaker than in the other hand . Cutaneous sensibility is decidedly inferior over the dorsal and palmar surface of the inner part of the hand and two corresponding fingers when compared with the right , but the sensibility to cold is the reverse ; whenever the left hand becomes cooled by exposure , the little finger is always more or less painful . Vibration of the nerve at the elbow produces the same effect on both sides . 94 [ May 15 , For about two weeks during the cold weather in this month there existed over the palmar surface of the left little finger a chilblain , the only one to be found on either hand . The left hypothenar eminence was likewise then discovered for the first time to be less firm and smaller than on the right hand , as if atrophied in consequence of the results of the experiment ; and to such a degree that the swelling formed by this eminence on the inner side of the hand , which was considerable on the right hand , was nearly absent on the left . To ascertain how far this difference is normal in right-handed persons , I examined the hands of several persons accustomed to manual labour , where the preponderance of the upper right limb is great ; but I found much less than in the present instance . I must therefore attribute this atrophy of the left hypothenar eminence partly to the semi-paralysis of the muscles , and especially to the diminished nutrition from constriction of the vessels . Compression of the Ulnar Nerve . I compress this nerve simply by resting the elbow on some hard body slightly padded , and holding a heavy book in the hand to increase the weight on the elbow , which would otherwise be insufficient . The symptoms are sensory , motory , and vaso-motory . The sensory symptoms are those first perceived , being the wellknown formication over the palmar territory of the nerve , viz. the little finger , the inner side of the annular , and the hypothenar eminence . The symptoms of anaesthesia over the dorsal surface of the hand and fingers do not appear until a later period , when the anaesthesia is considerably advanced in the palmar portion . While the anaesthesia is gradually progressing , the muscles of the hand governed by the ulnar nerve become weakened , stiff , and imperfect in their movements . The first muscles which lose their power are the interosseous , which govern the adductive and abductive movements of the fingers . On trying alternately to spread out and to bring the fingers in contact , we find them to move imperfectly and weakly , in a trembling uncertain way , like the movements of old age . Later still the little 1862 . ] 95 finger cannot be placed in apposition with the annular , but remains apart at an angle of 10 or 15 degrees . At the same time paralysis of the abductor and adductor muscles of the other fingers takes place . The index and thumb alone retain some of their powers of adduction and abduction ; the former probably from the action of its proper extensor ; the latter from its abduction not being animated by the ulnar nerve . When paralysis of these muscles is complete , the appearance of the hand , when the fingers are in extension , is pathognomic , and as follows : The little finger in complete adduction at about an angle of 40 ? from the annular , which is likewise a little apart from the median . Both these fingers are slightly flexed and incapable of complete extension . The flexor muscles are much weakened , as might be anticipated from the distribution of the ulnar nerve . In addition , the flexion movements of the thumb and the extensor power of this and all the fingers are considerably weakened . The tendency of the fingers to semiflexion , and the inability of the little , the annular , and even to a slight extent the median finger to accomplish complete extension is probably referable to the state of tonicity of the paralysed flexors . The weakness of the extensor and flexor powers of the thumb are not , in my opinion , sufficiently accounted for by the lost power of its adductor muscle . Still less can we account for the diminished power of extension of the other fingers by any direct or descending action of the ulnar nerve . I am led therefore to refer the diminished power , in this case , of the extensor muscles of the fingers to reflex action of the ulnar nerve . In support of this view , I may state that I have not unfrequently experienced , after vibrating the ulnar nerve at the elbow , a great lassitude of the whole limb , particularly marked over the deltoid muscle , to so great an extent as to occasion much discomfort for at least an hour afterwards . Vaso-motory symptoms.-Under this head I include all the perturbations of temperature of the integuments animated by the ulnar nerve , which attend its compression . Mechanical irritation of this nerve , such as vibrating it , will frequently cause an immediate fall of 0 ? '5 Cent. to 1 ? '0 Cent. of the 96 [ May 15 , mercury in a thermometer placed between the little and annular fingers , while the others remain nearly unaffected . It is still more easy to ascertain this influence when the nerve is paralysed by pressure . Thus , in the following observation , I foundWhen the integuments of the little finger began to tingle Cent. between the roots of the little and annular fingers ... . 22*4 At the same time between the roots of index and median 23'4 When the an esthesia over the little finger was more advanced and its adductor muscle somewhat paralysed between roots of little and annular fingers ... ... ... . . 21'4 At the same time between index and median ... ... ... 22'4 Some minutes later between little and annular finger ... . 21 0 At the same time between index and median ... ..22'3 When the paralysis and anuesthesia were nearly complete between little and annular fingers ... ... ... . . 19'0 At the same time between index and median ... ... ... . 22'3 The temperature of the right hand between the fingers remained nearly stationary ... ... ... ... 24'0 In other experiments on compression of the ulnar nerve I have observed a much greater fall of temperature as the integuments became insensible . With regard to the elevation of temperature , I have never been able to obtain it by compression of the ulnar nerve to the extent produced by refrigeration . Compression of the Left Radial Nerve . Feb. 10 , 1862.-This nerve was compressed at the lower part of its course at the arm , where it winds round the humerus to its external side . This was effected simply by pressing the outer part of the arm against the padded arm of a chair . In about half an hour the skin of the back of the hand had become somewhat insensible , and the muscles of the forearm so much weakened that the hand dropped by its own weight . These symptoms continued to increase until the extensor muscles of the forearm were quite paralysed . Examination three-quarters of an hour after the commencement of the experiment gave as follows : The skin over the back of the forearm , that of the carpus , of the thumb , of the two first phalanges of the index , and over the outer half of the thenar eminence was nearly insensible to the contact of external bodies ; but when pricked or pinched , pain was produced of a hot , burning character , which lasted for about a minute after the removal of the cause . Over the back of the other fingers , i. e. the median , annular and little fingers , and the last phalanx of the index , no loss of sensibility could be detected . Flexion of the fingers was very imperfect ; their tips with difficulty could be made to touch the palm of the hand . The movements of the last phalanx of the thumb were almost paralysed , while those of its second phalanx and metacarpal bone appeared little affected . The apposition of the tips of the thumb and index , as well as that of the thumb and median , could be made , but not that of the thumb and tips of the two last fingers . All extension of the carpus on the forearm was impossible . The hand , when left to itself , fell into a state of semiflexion of the carpus on the forearm , with semiflexion of the fingers ; while the thumb placed itself on the palm of the hand by the flexion of its metacarpal bone and first phalanx , the second phalanx remaining unbent . The movements of supination of the forearm and abduction of the carpus were almost entirely paralysed . Left side . Right side . Cent. tCent Temperature between roots of thumb and index . 28'0 28'3 Temperature over dorsum of first phalanx of index ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 234 26'7 Temperature over dorsum of second phalanx of index ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ..202 2 257 Temperature over dorsum of first phalanx of little finger ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 19'0 27-0 One minute after removal of the pressure the thamb could be flexed at both phalanges into the palm of the hand ; apposition of the thumb and annular finger was possible . The skin over the part supplied by the nerve was rather less numb. Two minutes later the carpus could be placed in a straight line with the forearm , but could not be retained in that position . Thirteen minutes later the hand was in the same condition . All delicate movements , such as buttoning and unbuttoning the dress , were impossible , although the sensibility at the tips of the index and thumb was equally acute in both hands . A quarter of an hour later the temperature of the hand was as follows : Left hand . Right hand . Cent. o Cent. Temperature over dorsum of carpus ... ... . . 23'0 25-0 , , between roots of index and median 19'5 21'9 , , between roots of annular and little finger ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 198 21 6 ( 1 ) Temperature over dorsum of forearm ... . 29 ' 0 32'1 ( 2 ) , , of external side of forearm . 29-0 31'2 ( 3 ) , , of external side of forearm. . 27'5 29'0 Temperature of ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) was obtained with the forearm covered by the usual dress ; that of ( 3 ) was obtained after the arms had been denuded for some time . February 10 , 2.25 Pv.:Left side . Right side . Temperature between the roots of the thumb and o Cent. Cent. index ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 188 23'5 Temperature over dorsum of median and metacarpal bone ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 19'0 23-5 Temperature between the tips of thumb and index 1 90 30 5 between roots of index and median 26'5 29'5 , , between median and annular. . , . 30'3 30'9 , , between annular and little finger. . 31'3 30'5 , , ( second observation)between thumb and index ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 21-0 32'3 Temperature over dorsum of forearm , under coat and flannel vest ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 260 29'3 Temperature of anterior part of forearm , covered as above ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 28'0 30'5 6.45 P.M. After an hour 's walk : Temperature between thumb and index ... ... 233 32'5 , , between index and median at roots 30'8 31'5 , , between median and index ... ... 33'7 33'3 , , between annular and little finger. . 34'3 34'5 1862 . ] 99 Left side . Right side . Temperature over dorsum of carpus over second o Cent. o Cent. metacarpal bone ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 26'8 29'3 Temperature over dorsum of first metacarpal bone 28'5 3 11 Temperature overdorsum of first phalanxof thumb 30'8 30'2 Temperature of anterior part of first phalanx of thumb ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 32 1 32'2 Temperature over thenar eminence ... ... ... . 28'5 32'5 Temperature over dorsum of forearm ( lower part covered ) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . 29'0 31-5 Temperature over dorsum of forearm ( upper part covered ) ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 288 30'6 Temperature over anterior part of forearm ( lower extremity covered ) ... ... ... ... ... . . 30-3 32'6 Temperature over anterior part of forearm ( upper extremity covered ) ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 30'5 31*5 The sensibility of the skin was in the same condition as on the previous day ; the hand continued to drop , the fingers remaining in a state of semi-flexion as before , and there existed the same difficulty in performing all delicate movements . In conveying food to the mouth the supinators act so imperfectly that the operation is performed with considerable difficulty . February 11 , 10 A.M.:Left side . Right side . Cent. Cent. Temperature over dorsum of thumb ... ... ... 19-0 21'9 , , between roots of thumb and index 21 7 27'0 , , between roots of index and median 21'5 23'1 , , between roots of median and annular 21 5 24'0 , , between roots of annular and little finger ... ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 21-0 22-8 Temperature of palm of hand when closed ... . 22'6 24-8 Temperature over dorsum of forearm , lower extremity ( uncovered ) ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 25-1 30'5 Temperature over dorsum of forearm , middle part ( covered ) ... ... ... ... ... ... . 28'7 30'8 Temperature over anterior surface of forearm , lower extremity ( uncovered ) ... ... ... ... . 28'5 31'0 Temperature over anterior surface of forearm , upper part ( covered ) ... ... ... ... ... 30'2 31'0 100 Over the dorsum of the thumb , carpus , and forearm the sensibility was slightly improved . Buttoning could be performed with difficulty . The fingers , the carpus , and the forearm could now be placed in a straight line . Abduction of the thumb , which on the right side forms an angle of 90 , on the left can be made to an angle of 450 February 12 , 8 A.M.:Left side . Right side . o Cent. o Cent. Temperature between thumb and index at roots . 31'9 32'7 , , between index and median ... ... 31X7 32'3 between median and annular ... . 31'8 32'4 , , between annular and little finger. . 311 32'0 of palm of the hand when closed. . 30'2 34'0 , , over lower part of forearm ... ... 30'0 31,3 The hand felt stronger and the movements were more free . Buttoning was effected more easily . Extension of the left hand backward as free as that of the right while the fingers were semiflexed , but not when they were extended . February 13:Left side . Temperature between thumb and index at roots . 243e , , between index and median ... . . 23*5 between median and annular ... . 26'0 , , between annular and little finger. . 26'7 , , over dorsum of thumb ... ... . . 27'5 , , over dorsum of index ... ... ... 25*3 , , over dorsum of lower part of forearm 26'5 , , over dorsum of upper part of forearm 31 0 Right side . 0 Cent. 27'8 24'3 25'0 26-8 30-0 25*9 28'3 318 ' Left hand felt much stronger . Left thumb could be placed in abduction at an angle of 60 ? with the index . On the following days the sensibility of the skin continued gradually to improve , and also the motor powers , and after the lapse of twelve days from the date of the experiment there existed no difference in the sensibility , motor power , and the temperature of the two hands . Compression of the Right Median Nerve . January 2 , 11 A.M.-The arm was allowed to hang over the back of a chair so as to compress the median nerve and brachial 1862 . ] 101 vessels about 2 inches above the bend of the arm . In the course of about half an hour the nerve became paralysed , and the following symptoms were observed . Motory Symptomis.-The thumb was incapable of flexion at the last joint , but could be flexed on the metacarpal bone , so as to be brought in contact with the tips of the three first fingers , but not with that of the little finger . There was considerable stiffness of the thenar muscles , particularly of the abductors . The index and median fingers remained slightly flexed , but by an effort of the will they could be straightened and could perform all movements of adduction and abduction . The index could only be made to flex very slightly , but the median could be completely flexed . The annular and little fingers retained all their movements , but felt weak . Flexion of the entire hand on the forearm was imperfect , and the muscles of the external part of the forearm felt very stiff . Sensory Symptoms.-The thumb and two first fingers felt cold and numb , and nearly insensible , but when pressed , a sensation of heat was experienced . The insensibility at the tips of the thumb and two first fingers was nearly complete when objects were brought in contact with them . Numbness of the skin existed at the anterior part of the forearm . Right hand . Left hand . 0 Cent. 0 Cent. , Temperature between index and thumb ... ... 20C4 Temperature between index and median at roots of fingers ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 26-5 34'3 Temperature between median and annular ... . 25'3 34'8 Some minutes after pressure was removed and motor power had returned , while there still remained some numbness and insensibility of the fingers , the Right hand . Left hand. . Cent. Cent. Temperature was between index and median fingers 27'2 , , between median and annular ... . 25'3 A quarter of an hour later : Temperature between index and median fingers . 28'0 34'3 , , between median and annular ... . 26'8 34'5 Twelve o'clock : Temperature between index and median ... . 27'6 , , between median and annular ... 27'2 10 There was still slight numbness of the fingers . After the right arm and hand were exercised for a few minutes , the Right hand . Left hand . o Cent. o Cent. Temperature between index and median ... ... 2 78 , , between median and annular ... 26 8 At 2 P.M. , after walking and using both hands : Temperature between index and median ... ... 29'8 23*0 , , between the tips of thumb , index , and median ... ... ... ... ... ... . . 31 2 22-7 At 7 P.M. the temperature of both hands was the same .

112202

3701662

On the Rigidity of the Earth. [Abstract]

103

104

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Thomson

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112202

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112202

Fluid Dynamics

Astronomy

Fluid Dynamics

II . " On the Rigidity of the Earth . " By Professor WILLIAM THOMSON , E.R.S. Received April 14 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) The author proves that unless the solid substance of the earth be on the whole of extremely rigid material , more rigid for instance than steel , it must yield under the tide-generating influence of sun and moon to such an extent as to very sensibly diminish the actual phenomena of the tides , and of precession and nutation . IResults of a mathematical theory of the deformation of elastic spheroids , to be communicated to the Royal Society on an early occasion , are used to illustrate this subject . For instance , it is shown that a homogeneous incompressible elastic spheroid of the same mass and volume as the earth , would , if of the same rigidity as glass , yield about 7 , or if of the same rigidity as steel , about I of the extent that a perfectly fluid globe of the same density would yield to the lunar and solar tide-generating influence . The actual phenomena of tides ( that is , the relative motions of a comparatively light liquid flowing over the outer surface of the solid substance of the earth ) , and the amounts of precession and nutation , would in the one case be only , and in the other 3 of the amounts which a perfectly rigid spheroid of the same dimensions , the same figure , the same homogeneous density , would exhibit in the same circumstances . The close agreement with the results of observation presented by the theory of precession and nutation , always hitherto worked out on the suppo1862 . ] 103 sition that the solid parts of the earth are perfectly rigid , renders it scarcely possible to admit that there can be any such discrepance between them as 3 to 5 , and therefore almost necessary to conclude that the earth is on the whole much more rigid than steel . But to make an accurate comparison between theory and observation , as to precession , it is necessary to know the absolute amount of the moment of inertia about some diameter ; and from this we are prevented by the ignorance in which we must always be as to the actual law of density in the interior . Hence the author anticipates that the actual deformation of the solid earth by the lunar and solar influence may be more decisively tested by observing the lunar fortnightly and the solar half-yearly tides* . These tides , it may be supposed , will follow very closely the " equilibrium theory " of Daniel Bernouilli for all oceanic stations , and the author suggests Iceland and Teneriffe as two stations well adapted for the differential observations that would be required . The earth 's upper crust is possibly on the whole as rigid as glass , more probably less than more . But even the imperfect data for judging referred to above , render it certain that the earth as a whole must be far more rigid than glass , and probably even more rigid than steel . Hence the interior must be on the whole more rigid , probably many times more rigid , than the upper crust . This is just what , if the whole interior of the earth is solid , might be expected , when the enormous pressure in the interior is considered ; but it is utterly inconsistent with the hypothesis held by so many geologists that the earth is a mass of melted matter enclosed in a solid shell of only from 30 to 100 miles thickness . Hence the investigations now brought forward confirm the conclusions arrived at by Mr. Hopkins , that the solid crust of the earth cannot be less than 800 miles thick . The author indeed believes it to be extremely improbable that any crust thinner than 2000 or 2500 miles could maintain its figure with sufficient rigidity against the tide-generating forces of the sun and moon , to allow the phenomena of the ocean tides and of precession and nutation to be as they are .

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On the Difference in the Properties of Hot-Rolled and Cold-Rolled Malleable Iron, as Regards the Power of Receiving and Retaining Induced Magnetism of Subpermanent Character. [Abstract]

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George Biddell Airy

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112203

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112203

Measurement

Meteorology

Measurement

IIl . " On the Difference in the Properties of Hot-Rolled and Cold-Rolled Malleable Iron , as regards the power of receiving and retaining Induced Magnetism of Subpermanent Character . " By GEORGE BIDDELL AIRY , Esq. , F.R.S. , Astronomer Royal . Received April 22 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) The author states that he had been desirous of examining whether differences in the degree of change of subpermanent magnetism , such as are exhibited by different iron ships , might not depend on the temperature at which the iron is rolled in the last process of its manufacture . By the good offices of Mr. Fairbairn he had received gratuitously from Richard Smith , Esq. , Superintendent of Lord Dudley 's Iron Works at the Round Oak Works near Dudley , twentyfour plates of iron , each 16 inches long , 4 inches broad , and 4 inch thick ; twelve of which , after having been manufactured with the others in the usual way , had been passed through rollers when quite cold . Each set of twelve was divided into two parcels of six each , one parcel being cut with the length of the bars in the length of extension of the fibres of the iron , the other being cut with the length of the bars transverse to the length of extension . For experimenting on these , a large wooden frame was prepared , capable of receiving the 24 bars at once , either on a plane transverse to the direction of dip at Greenwich , or on a plane including the direction of dip . In some experiments , these planes were covered with flag-stones , and the bars were laid upon the flag-stones ; in others , the bars were laid immediately upon the wood . While there lying , they were struck with iron or wooden hammers of different sizes . The bars of the different classes were systematically intermingled , in such a way that no tendency of the arm to give blows of a different force or kind in special parts of the series could produce a class-error in the result . For examination of the amount of polar magnetism in each bar , it was placed at a definite distance ( 5 inches ) below a prismatic compass , which was used to observe the apparent azimuth of a fixed mark ; the bar was then reversed in length , and the observation was repeated in that state . The number of experiments was 21 . They were varied by difference in the succession of positions of the bars , difference of time allowed for rest , difference in the violence of the blows , &c. The principal results appear to be the following:1 . The greatest amount of magnetism which a bar can receive , appears to be such as will produce ( on the average of bars ) a compass-deviation of about 11 ? , the bar being 5 inches below the compass . It was indifferent whether the bars rested on stone or on wood , or whether they were struck with iron or with wood , the bars lying on the dip plane while struck . 2 . When the bars , thus charged , lay on the plane transverse to the dip , they lost about one-fifth of their magnetism in one or two days , and lost very little afterwards . 3 . When the charge of magnetism is smaller than the maximum , the diminution in a day or two is nearly in the same proportion as for the maximum . 4 . The effect of violence on the bars , when lying on the plane transverse to the dip , is not in all cases to destroy the magnetism completely , sometimes it increases the magnetism . 5 . The Cold-Rolled Iron receives ( under similar violence ) or parts with ( under similar violence ) a greater amount of magnetism than the Hot-Rolled Iron , in the proportion of 6 to 5 . 6 . There is some reason to think that the Hot-Rolled Iron has a greater tendency to retain its primitive magnetism than the ColdRolled Iron has . 7 . There is some reason to think that , when lying tranquil , the Hot-Rolled Iron loses a larger portion of its magnetism than the Cold-Rolled Iron loses in the same time .

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3701662

On the Analytical Theory of the Conic. [Abstract]

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108

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Arthur Cayley

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112204

Formulae

Chemistry 2

Mathematics

IV . " On the Analytical Theory of the Conic . " By ATHURv CAYLEY , Esq. , F.R.S. Received May 8 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) The decomposition into its linear factors of a decomposable quadric function cannot be effected in a symmetrical manner otherwise than by formulm containing supernumerary arbitrary quantities ; thus , for a binary quadric ( which of course is always decomposable ) we have ( a , b , c 2z , y)2= ( 2 Prod . { ( a , b , cy 'X , y ' ) ? Vacb_2( y^y ) } ; ( a~~~~~~~~~~~ b ~~~ ~ ~ ' ) } ; X)l 106 or the expression for a linear factor is 1 1/ ( 6b c xd , yt)2 { ( a , 6 , Cx , yT(x ' , y ' ) + AVac-6(xyy ) } , which involves the arbitrary quantities ( x ' , y ' ) . And this appears to be the reason why , in the analytical theory of the conic , the questions which involve the decomposition of a decomposable ternary quadric have been little or scarcely at all considered : thus , for instance , the expressions for the coordinates of the points of intersection of a conic by a line ( or , say , the line-equations of the two ineunts ) , and the equations for the tangents ( separate each from the other ) drawn from a given point not on the conic , do not appear to have been obtained . All these questions depend on the decomposition of a decomposable ternary quadric , which decomposition itself depends on that for the simplest case , when the quadric is a perfect square . Or we may say that in the first instance they depend on the transformation of a given quadric function U= ( -*x , y , z ) ' into the form W ' + V , where W is a linear function given , save as to constant factor ( that is , W-O0 is the equation of a given line ) , and V is a decomposable quadric function , which is ultimately decomposed into its linear factors , =QR , so that we have U=W'+ QR . The formula for this purpose , which is exhibited in the eight different forms I , II , III , IV , I(bis ) , II(bis ) , III(bis ) , IV(bis ) , is the analytical basis of the whole theory , and the greater part of the Memoir relates to the establishment of these forms . It will be sufficient for the present abstract to quote one only of these forms , viz. , ( a,..X , y , z)2= Quotient by ( a , ... X ' , y ' , z)2 of a [ ( . X.X X , y , X yt , )]2 + Quotient by ( A,. . mz -ny,..)2 of Product ( A,..xmz'-f'.3yx -y ' y ) z x , y , z / V-k(a,..3Xfz ' 1 , )2 XI , tl , Z ' 1 , m , Jn where the notation ( which is of course explained in the Memoir ) will , I think , be understood without difficulty , and I do not stop to explain it here . The solution of the geometrical questions above referred to is , as 1862 . ] 107 shown in the Memoir , involved in and given immediately by these forms . It is also shown that the formulae are greatly simplified in the case e. g. of tangents drawn to a conic from a point in a conic having double contact with the first-mentioned conic , and that in this case they lead to the linear automorphic transformation of the ternary quadric . The Memoir concludes with some formulae relating to the case of two conics , which , however , is treated of in only a cursory manner .

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Letter to the President from Mr. William Lassell, F.R.S., Dated Malta, May 13, 1862, Giving an Account of Observations Made with His Large Equatorial Telescope

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William Lassell

fla

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proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112205

10.1098/rspl.1862.0017

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112205

Astronomy

Biography

Astronomy

I. " Letter to the President from Mr. WILLIAM LASSELL , F.R.S. , dated Malta , May 13 , 1862 , giving an account of Observations made with his large Equatorial Telescope . " Received May 22 , 1862 . 9 Piazza Stierna , Malta , May 13 , 1862 . DEAR GENERAL SABINE , -I have ventured to think that a word of my proceedings may be acceptable to you , though I have been much more tardy in getting into observing order than I had expected . It is indeed only now that I am able to make observations without finding some one part or other of my apparatus capable of improvement . At length , however , I find my hopes exceeded in the perfection , precision , and facility with which my colossal equatorial is directed and carried on : the driving motion is indeed as perfect and uniform , I believe , as that of any telescope with which I am acquainted . For the luxury of observing two assistants are necessary , [ May 22 , 108 when the observer has really nothing to do but keep his eye at the telescope . We have passed through what was called , for this climate , an unusually cloudy winter , and it is only now that the weather is becoming settled for the summer , and only now that I may be said to be entering upon regular work . I have indeed carefully observed some of Lord Rosse 's nebulae , and in at least two or three instances can fully confirm the spiral character attributed to them by his Lordship , -not , I think , when the objects are well seen , to be overlooked , even when the mind is not previously possessed with the idea . I am making careful drawings of these nebulse as I see them , some of which closely resemble Lord Rosse 's , while others are so different as to suggest ( with the fact of the lost nebula in our remembrance ) the idea of a real change of form . With new objects , however , of so much delicacy it is necessary to survey them again and again , under different circumstances , in order to arrive at a trustworthy conclusion . One object , on which I scarcely intended to bestow any attention , has fascinated me greatly-I allude to the moon , in which I see minute details with a hardness and sharpness and reality I have never seen before . My opportunities of scrutiny have , however , been fewer than might have been supposed , from my having frequently been engaged in showing this very popular object to many visitors . Yet , notwithstanding that I have thus been able to see more into the moon than ever before-so much so that I believe , if a carpet the size of Lincoln 's Inn Fields were laid down upon its surface , I should be able to tell whether it was round or square , -I see nothing more than a repetition of the same volcanic texture the same cold , crude , silent and desolate character which smaller telescopes usually exhibit . Saturn is just now an object of much less physical beauty than when I was here in 1852 . I observed , however , on the 15th of April , the passage of Titan on to the disk of the planet , near the northern limb , a phenomenon which of course can only be observed in or near the present position of the ring , and therefore interesting from its rarity . With respect to the climate , I have not yet used this telescope in its most favourable season . In 1852 I may be said to have gauged the purity of the sky during the Indian summer with an aperture of two feet ; now I have been gauging it during a less favourable season 1862 . ] 109 with a four-foot aperture ; and therefore it is no wonder if I find nights of the requisite degree of tranquillity somewhat more rare . Yet I find my own physical strength insufficient to allow me to use up half the quantity of available sky , and my next want will probably be some efficient and energetic assistance in the duty of observing . To General Sabine , I remain , &c. , President of the Royal Society , ec . WM . LASSELL .

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3701662

On the Theory of the Motion of Glaciers. [Abstract]

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Hopkins

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112206

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112206

Fluid Dynamics

Geography

Fluid Dynamics

II . " On the Theory of the Motion of Glaciers . " By WILLIAM HOPKINS , Esq. , F.R.S. Received April 14 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) Almost all the numerous discussions which have taken place during the last twenty years respecting our theories of glacial motion have had for their object the assertion of some particular view , rather than the establishment of a complete and sufficient theory founded on well-defined hypotheses and unequivocal definitions , together with a careful comparison of the results of accurate theoretical investigation with those of direct observation . Each of these views has been regarded , improperly , in the author 's opinion , as a Theory of Glacial Motion . The Expansion Theory ignored the Sliding Theory , though they were capable of being combined ; the latter theory was equally ignored by the Viscous Theory , in which , moreover , instead of the definitions of terms being clear and determinate , no definition of viscosity was ever given , though that term designated the fundamental property on which the views advocated by this theory depended . Again , the Regelation Theory is not properly a theory of the motion of glaciers , but a beautiful demonstration of a property of ice , entirely new to us , on which certain peculiarities of the motions of glaciers depend . When we shall have obtained a Theory of the Motion of Glaciers which shall command the general assent of philosophers , no qualifying epithet will be required for the word theory ; it would indeed be inappropriate , as seeming to indicate the continued recognition of some rival theory . If , for instance , it should be hereafter admitted that the sliding of a glacier over its bed and the property of regelation in ice are equally necessary , and , when combined , perfectly [ May 22 , 110 sufficient to account for the phenomena of glacial motion , there would be a manifest impropriety , not to say injustice , in selecting either of the terms sliding or reyelation by which to designate this combined theory . The author makes these remarks because he believes that the preservation of the partial epithets above mentioned has a tendency to prevent our regarding the whole subject in that more general and collective aspect under which it is one of the principal objects of this paper to present it . This object must necessarily give to the present paper something of the character of a resume of what has hitherto been done , whether it be our purpose to adopt or reject the conclusions of others . There are periods in the history of almost every science when its sound and healthy progress may almost as much demand the refutation of that which is erroneous as the establishment of that which is true . It is not intended , however , to enter into any review of the past labours of glacialists with respect to exploded theories , but only to notice those more recent researches and speculations which appear either to demand refutation as erroneous , or to be admitted into any well-founded theory as correct . With a view , in the first place , to remove the ambiguities which have beset this subject from the want of explicit definitions , the author enters into the following discussion and explanation of terms employed to express properties of ice on which our theories of glacial motion must essentially depend . 1 . The external forms of all bodies in nature may be changed in a greater or less degree , and without producing discontinuity in their mass or destruction of their internal structure , by the action of any external forces , the original or undisturbed form from which the change of form is to be estimated being that which the body would assume if acted on by no external forces whatever . This change of form necessarily implies a change in the relative positions of the component particles of the mass , or a certain greater or smaller amount of molecular mobility , or power in the particles of moving inter se . We may speak either of the general change of the form of the whole body , or of that which takes place in each of its small elementary portions ; it is , in fact , in this latter sense that we are obliged to regard it in any accurate investigations , because the change of form for different elements will usually be different . Change of 1862 . ] 11 form in an element may or may not be accompanied by a change of its volume . In the first case it leads to cubical extension or compression ; in the latter , merely to extension or compression of the surface and not the volume of the element . It may be called superficial extension or compression . These changes of volume and form in any element must be produced by the forces acting on it . Thus we may conceive linear extension alone produced at any interior point of the mass by two equal and opposite tensions acting on two elementary component particles there in the direction of the line joining their centres of gravity , while compression alone would result if those tensions were changed into pressures . In such cases extension or compression would be the result of forces which may be called direct or normal forces . In the case above mentioned , in which the volurme and density of every element of the mass remain unaltered , there can be no such direct normal action as that just mentioned . It must be perpendicular to the normal action , and therefore a transversal or tangential action . There would be no tendency to make the contiguous particles approach to or recede from each other , but to cause the one to slide tangentially past the other . If the body have a structure like that of any hard , vitreous or crystalline mass , pressure at any point will tend to break or crush the body , and thus to destroy the continuity of its structure . This tendency will be opposed by the resisting power of the substance . The tendency of the direct or normal tension is to separate the contiguous particles , and thus produce a finite fissure , or a discontinuity in the mass . It is resisted by the normal cohesive power ; and in like manner the transverse or tangential action is resisted by the tangential cohesion , or that which prevents the component particles from sliding past each other . Again , when the component particles at any point of a body are relatively displaced , they have always a certain tendency to regain their originally undisturbed position , and the force thus excited , considered with reference to the force of displacement at that point , affords a measure of what is called the elasticity of the body . Since the force of restitution may vary from zero to the corresponding force of displacement , the elasticity , when measured by their ratio , may vary from zero to unity . 2 . We may now define such terms as solid , plastic , viscous , and the like , with all the accuracy which their definitions admit of . We 112 [ May 22 , may call a body emphatically a solid body when it possesses the following properties:-(l ) small extensibility and compressibility , ( 2 ) great power of resistance and great cohesive power , both normal and tangential , and ( 3 ) great elasticity . It will thus require a comparatively great force to produce any sensible relative displacement among the constituent molecules of the body ; if we conceive the force required to become infinitely great , we arrive at absolute rigidity as the limit of solidity . Again , we shall best , perhaps , define plasticity or viscosity , if we suppose the forces of displacement to be such as to produce only a small transverse or tangential displacement of the constituent particles , i. e. a superficial , not a cubical , extension or compression . Then if the force of restitution bear only an inappreciable ratio to the corresponding force of displacement , i. e. if the tangential elasticity be not of sensible magnitude , the mass may be emphatically said to be plastic . This is the essential condition of what may with strict propriety be termed plasticity ; it might also be added that , as bodies are constituted in nature , the force required to produce the original displacement in plastic bodies will be small as compared with that required in solid bodies . Viscosity and semifluidity are terms which only express similar properties of bodies , but usually indicating that still smaller forces only are required to produce . a given displacement in such bodies than in plastic ones . The limiting case is that of perfect fluidity , in which both the forces of original displacement and those of restitution are indefinitely small . In these latter cases the tangential cohesion is necessarily small , and such also ( as bodies are usually constituted ) will be the normal cohesion . At the same time the power of resisting compression of volume may be very great , as in fact it is in nearly all masses not technically designated as elastic masses . In other words , the normal elasticity , with reference to pressure , may be of any magnitude , while the tangential elasticity equals zero . It will be observed that a body is here spoken of as held in a state of constraint by internal forces , but without any kind of dislocation which should destroy its continuity or injure its structure . If , however , the external forces should be sufficiently increased , the structure of a vitreous or crystalline mass , or that of any mass possessing hardness and brittleness , will be destroyed by a pressure greater than its power of resistance can withstand ; or the continuity of its mass will be destroyed by any normal tension greater than the normal cohesion ; or , again , by any tangential tension greater than the tangential cohesion . The normal tension would thus produce an open fissure ; and the tangential tension would cause one particle of the mass to slide past another , but without producing any open discontinuity . On the contrary , in a properly plastic or viscous mass there is no definite structure for excessive pressure to destroy ; there is no question as to the formation of open fissures ; and the characteristic absence of tangential elasticity allows of any amount of change in the relative positions of the constituent particles of the mass without breach of its continuity . It would of course be impossible to draw an exact and determinate line of demarcation between solidity and plasticity , but it is not therefore the less certain that there are bodies which do unequivocally possess the property of solidity , and others which do as unequivocally possess the property of plasticity , according to the definitions here given of these terms . Solidity and plasticity with respect to numerous cases in nature thus become determinate properties of those aggregates of material particles which we call bodies . Ice , a vitreous or crystalline and brittle mass , which will neither bear any but the smallest extension without breaking , nor more than the smallest compression without being crushed , must be solid , and cannot be plastic , if we are to use those terms as significant of determinate properties of bodies . 3 . The advocates of the viscous theory would not probably admit the necessity of the above rigorous definition of the term viscous in its application to glacier ice . But the defect of that theory has always been in the entire want of any accurate definition of that term . When such definition was demanded , it was said that glacier ice must be viscous , because a glacier adapted itself to the inequalities of its valley as a viscous mass would do . This was equivalent to saying that the mass was viscous because it moved in a particular manner , instead of asserting that the mass movced in that particular manner because it was viscous . Now this kind of inversion of the direct enunciation of the proposition is only admissible when there is no other physical cause than the one assigned , to which it is conceivable that the observed phenomena should be ascribed . Thus we may assert with perfect conviction , that gravity exists as a property of [ May 22 , 114 matter and acts according to a certain law , because the bodies of the solar system move as if such were the case ; but the conclusiveness of this inductive proof of the proposition-that " gravity is a property of matter " -rests entirely on our conviction that matter has no other property by which we could equally account for the phenomena of the celestial motions . And so with regard to glaciers . If viscosity were the only conceivable property of ice by which we could possibly account for the observed motion of glaciers , then would the observed phenomena of that motion perfectly convince us of the existence of the property in question . But here the two cases entirely differ , inasmuch as there was no general conviction , nor even a decided probability at the time I allude to , that no physical property of ice could exist besides viscosity which might account for the observed phenomena of a glacier 's motion ; and at the present time it is proved that there is another property of ice by which those phenomena are perfectly accounted for , and the inductive proof becomes altogether valueless . Moreover , in the case of universal gravitation , the inductive proof is the only possible one , whereas in glacier motion we are concerned with a property which , in whatever sense the definition of it may be regarded , must be as capable of being rendered patent by experiment in ice , if it exist , as in any other substance . The answer , then , that was given to the question-what is viscosity ? -comprised no definition at all of that term . The viscous theory ignored the possibility of the molecular mobility of a glacial mass united with the preservation of its continuity , being attributable to any other property than that which was designated as viscosity , but without giving any exact definition of the term . If it was meant to define by it the property which is here defined by the same terms , the theory had a legitimate claim to be considered a physical theory , because it assigned a determinate physical property as the cause of certain observed phenomena . In this sense , however , the author conceives that it would now be admitted to be entirely disproved by Professor Tyndall 's experiments , in which the ice exhibits so clearly the property of solidity , and the absence of all indication of plasticity . It may be presumed that the hypothesis of viscosity could only have been adopted in the first instance from the apparent absence of any other property of ice which might account equally well for the molecular mobility of the glacial mass . 1862 . ] 115 4 . But if the determinate property of viscosity , as here defined , be not recognized in ice , what , it will be asked , is really the idea which has been attached to the term plastic or viscous ? The question , as already observed , is difficult to answer . Perhaps the best way of doing so is to refer to the Prefatory Note to Principal Forbes 's ' Occasional Papers ' ( p. xvi ) . He there intimates that the expressions " bruising and re-attachment , " and " incipient fissures re-united by time and cohesion , " used by him in 1846 , are to be regarded as having the same meaning as the expression " fracture and regelation , " first introduced into the subject in 1857 . Now there is no ambiguity whatever in this latter expression . " Fracture " means the breaking and splitting of the ice regarded as a brittle and crystalline solid , and could never be intended to have the slightest reference to viscosity . In fact the expression is altogether inapplicable to any body which can be called viscous without a violation of scientific language . Still this , it may be said , may be only a want of strict accuracy of expression , rather than of accuracy of conception . But if a notion of cracking and breaking , so foreign to any idea of plasticity , should be admitted , it could not be said that a glacier moved as it is observed to move , because it was plastic , but merely that it moved as if it were plastic . The true inference from the motion would have been that glacier ice possessed not necessarily real plasticity , a definite property of bodies , but a quasi-plasticity , which expresses no determinate property at all , but may consist with many different properties . It merely expresses , in fact , the power of the component elements of the mass of changing to a certain extent their relative positions . But this is not the peculiar property of ice ; it is common , indeed , to all bodies exposed to disruptive forces which , as in the case of ice , the cohesive power is unable to withstand . The mass of any other substance , as well as that of a glacier , will then be broken into fragments sufficiently small to allow it to follow the impulses of the external forces acting on it . To say , therefore , that a glacier moves as if it were plastic is not to assign to ice any property peculiar to itself , and therefore does not properly constitute a physical theory of glacier motion at all . 5 . But if we pass over the difference between true plasticity and that which , as we have pointed out , is merely apparent , there still remained the great difficulty , which was only removed by the experiments of Mr. Faraday and Dr. Tyndall . Every one who believed ice 116 [ May 22 , to be a solid body , believed as a matter of necessity that a glacier must , on account of the external conditions to which it is subjected , be excessively broken and dislocated in the course of its motion . The author was himself one of those who fell into the error of attributing too much influence to the larger and more visible disruptions of the mass ; but the great difficulty was in the perfect subsequent reunion of portions which had thus been separated , whether by larger or smaller dislocations . And here it will necessarily be asked whether , in the expressions above quoted , " 6 re-attachment " and the " reunion by time and cohesion " of separated portions when again brought into contact , really mean the same thing as regelation ? This question the author thinks can be answered only by saying that , whatever might be the intended meaning of those expressions , they failed to convey to the minds of others the most remote idea of regelation , as a property of ice at a particular temperature . No better proof can be given of this than the general conviction which appeared to flash across the mind of every glacialist when he first heard of Professor Tyndall 's experiment , that the recognition of the property of instantaneous regelation was a well-marked and important discovery , which had at once completely removed a great stumbling-block in glacial theory . In fact , the viscous theory assigns no physical cause for the reunion in question . All we could do , before the publication of those experiments , was to infer from the observed facts that ice did possess some property which facilitated the reunion of separate pieces in contact ; but this was like the attempt to define viscosity by an appeal to the phenomena which that property was intended to explain . Regelation has , in fact , no connexion with viscosity , but stands in direct antagonism to it . An imperfect plasticity in ice has sometimes been spoken of . The fact is , all solid bodies may be said to have an imperfect plasticity , if we chose to admit this vagueness in scientific language , since all are capable of greater or less extension or compression . As to the apparent plasticity inferred from the motion of glacial masses , and arising from the crevicing of the ice as already explained , it has no relation whatever to real plasticity . Such crevices are the necessary consequences of the external forces acting on the glacier , and are as essential to the theory of regelation as they are unconnected with any property of plasticity . 1862.3 117 The author then briefly describes the experiment , by which it is shown that ice will slide down an inclined plane at an inclination to the horizon less than that of any known glacier , provided its lower surface be in that state of disintegration in which it will necessarily be when its temperature = zero ( C. ) . The motion is then slow and uniform . That glaciers do slide over their beds , has been established as clearly as it can be by the comparatively few observations which have been made on the subject ; and every existing glacial valley , and every valley which is believed to have been such at former geological periods , testify to the truth of that conclusion . The author also explains that both theory aid observation agree in the result that the temperature of the lower surface of a glacier of any considerable depth in the latitude of the Alps must necessarily be =zero ( C. ) . Hie regards this sliding motion as far too important a part of the whole motion of a glacier to be neglected in any complete theory of that motion . The author then proceeds to investigate certain properties of the internal tensions and pressures at any point ( P ) in the interior of a mass held in a state of constraint by external forces . He shows that at every point ( P ) there are three determinate directions , at right angles to each other , in which the direct tension is such that in one of them it is a maximum , in another a minimum , and in the third neither a complete maximum nor a complete minimum ; it is convenient to call this the mean axis . The tensions or pressures in these directions are called principal tensions or pressures ; there are also two other directions through P characterized by a peculiar property . If we take two adjoining particles , P and P ' , in the line of maximum tension , that tension will exert a greater effort than there will be in any other direction to separate those particles ; or if the internal force be the maximum pressure , those points will be more compressed together than in any other direction . In the two directions ( now to be defined ) the forces on P and P ' , acting perpendicularly to the line joining those particles , will exert a greater tendency than is exerted in any other direction , to separate them by making one slide tangentially past the other , and then to twist and contort any internal elementary portion of the mass . These two directions are perpendicular to each other , and bisect the angles between the directions of maximum tension and maximum pressure . This problem 118 is treated entirely mathematically ; it is the typical problem of this part of the subject . The results are applied to a real glacier by the analogy which it bears to the typical one . For the application of these analytical results , the author then considers the nature of the forces called into action by the two primary characteristics of the motion of a glacier-that its central move faster than its marginal portions , and the portions near the upper faster than those near the lower surface of the mass . He also takes account of the modifications to which these forces may be subjected by changes of form and inclination in the containing valley . He likewise explains the different modes in which the mass may be fractured when the forces become such as to overpower its powers of cohesion or resistance . If the cohesion give way to the maximum tension , an open fissure must be formed in a direction perpendicular to that tension . If the resisting power of the ice give way to the maximum pressure at any point , the mass will be crushed at that point , but its continuity will be immediately restored by regelation , the internal constraint will be momentarily removed , and the mass will move on . By a repetition of this process the glacier is enabled to move forward , preserving at once the continuity of its motion , of its mass , and of its structure . The veined structure of glacial ice is then examined , and it is shown that , so far as Professor Tyndall 's pressure theory of that structure involves the condition of the structural surfaces being perpendicular at each point to the maximum pressure there , it is perfectly accordant with the theoretical results of this paper . Whether the structure be marginal , longitudinal and central , or transversal , this is equally true , assuming always that the structure in each locality is the direct and immediate consequence of the forces acting there and tending to produce it . Probably , however , the veined structure in one locality may have originated in another from which it has been transmitted by the motion of the glacier . Supposing this to be so entirely , the author examines how this motion of transmission would modify the forms of the transmitted structure . Practically , and within the limits to which observation has yet extended , these modifications would produce forms sensibly coincident with those which would result , as in the previous case considered , from the immediate action of the forces , independently of transmission . The respective effec1862 . ] 119 tiveness of these two causes , therefore , in producing the veined structure in any particular locality is not at present determined . Its determination would require more accurate and detailed observations than have yet been made on this subject . The differential theory of the veined structure is then considered but here the author dissents entirely from all Professor Forbes 's mechanical reasoning , by which he professes to determine the positions of the surfaces of maximum differential motion , which , according to this theory , are coincident with the structural veins . Mr. Hopkins contends that the actual differential motion of two contiguous particles must necessarily take place in the common direction of their motions . He cannot understand the effectiveness of such motion in any other sense , in producing the phenomena in question . I-e has investigated for this case the forms of the veined surfaces , but finds them altogether different from the observed forms ; and with respect to Prof. Forbes 's investigation he cannot possibly admit it , as he at present understands it . The author then examines the intensity of the dislocating forces acting on the glacier . He demonstrates Prof. Forbes 's error in supposing that it is much augmented by an enormous hydrostatic pressure within the mass , tending to push it onward in the direction in which it may be most free to move . It is proved that , under the existing conditions of a glacier , the hydrostatic pressure from the water contained in the pores of the mass can but little exceed the atmospheric pressure on its surface . But Mr. H. shows that there must in many localities be a very large increase in the intensity of the internal tensions and pressures arising from the free sliding motion of the whole glacier . Where the motion of a particular part of the mass is retarded by local circumstances , there will probably be an enormous pressure upon it l tergo , from the mass behind ; or there may , in other cases , be a great additional tension , arising from the freer motion of the mass in front . Hence the dislocating forces must often be greatly increased , the dislocation is ensured , and the operation of regelation brought into action ; and the continued motion of the glaciers is preserved when it might otherwise be arrested . [ May 22 , 120

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Experiments on Food; Its Destination and Uses. [Abstract]

121

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William S. Savory

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112207

Agriculture

Physiology

Agriculture

III . " Experiments on Food ; its Destination and Uses . " By WILLIAM S. SAVORY , Esq. , F.R.S. Received May 1 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) The experiments which are related in this paper refer to the destination of food and its uses . Abundant , nay , superfluous evidence has been furnished to prove that no one principle of food will alone suffice for nutrition ; but clear and unequivocal evidence is still wanting to show how far each principle of food is essential to life and health , provided all else save that one be sufficiently supplied . This is a very different question . Again , ever since Liebig 's famous classification of food into plastic or nutritive and respiratory or calorifacient , some most important questions in connexion with it have engaged the attention of physiologists . Amongst them are these : Is any food destined to the production of heat without being concerned in the repair of the tissues-that is , is any portion of the food directly burnt in the blood ? Is any portion of albuminous food directly calorifacient , that is , burnt in the blood without forming tissue ? This last question has more recently assumed another form , viz. what is the source of urea ? Is it derived wholly from the metamorphosis of tissues , or directly to some extent from the blood ? In other words , does any portion of nitrogenous food undergo a directly retrograde metamorphosis into urea , carbonic acid , and water ? The experiments were performed upon rats* and a hawk . The animals were fed upon different diets , and the experiments may be divided into three classes accordingly . In one class the diet was a non-nitrogenous one , consisting of equal parts by weight of arrowroot , sago , tapioca , lard , and suet ; for this mixture was found upon analysis to yield only *22 per cent. of nitrogen . In another class the diet was a nitrogenous one . It consisted of lean veal from which every visible particle of fat had been carefully removed . This yielded upon analysis only 1 55 per cent. of fat . In the third class the diet was a mixed one . It consisted of a combination of the two former diets . The weight , temperature , and general . condition of the animals were especially noticed , and in some cases the urine was collected and the amount of nitrogen it contained determined . From these experiments the following conclusions are drawn : Nitrogenous materials are not only calorifacient , but , at least under some circumstances , sufficiently so to maintain alone the requisite temperature . It is in the highest degree probable that , under certain circumstances , nitrogenous materials may prove directly calorifacient without forming tissue . Non-nitrogenous substances are , at least under some circumstances , directly calorifacient without entering into the composition of tissue of any kind . While non-nitrogenous food only is taken , all the nitrogen which is excreted in the urine , and more , may be accounted for by the disintegration of the original tissues , without assuming that any fraction is assimilated from any other source . While life cannot be maintained without nitrogenous food , even though every other kind be abundantly supplied , death in this case being due to loss of tissue , life and even health and the normal temperature can be maintained , at least for a long period , upon a diet almost exclusively nitrogenous , with proper inorganic substances in which there exists only a small fraction of non-nitrogenous matter . Such a minute proportion of fat must be but a poor representative of non-nitrogenous food . Moreover in these experiments some of the rats sustained a loss of weight considerably above 50 per cent. The difference in this respect between former experiments and mine may be , perhaps , in some measure accounted for by considering the immediate cause of death in the former ones . Chossat satisfactorily showed that the subjects of his experiments died from cold . In my experiments , the animals being freely supplied with calorifacient food , this cause of death was for a while averted , so that time was allowed for a further disintegration of tissue . When their temperature is maintained from external sources , or when they are freely supplied with calorifacient food , warm-blooded animals may die rather from waste than loss of temperature , as perhaps is the case with cold-blooded animals when they are starved . Lastly , in these experiments the significant fact appeared , that while the weight , strength , and general condition of the animals varied very widely under the different diets to which they were subjected , no considerable fluctuation was observed in their temperature . Even the slight variation from time to time recorded seemed rather to result from other causes than to depend directly on the food .

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On a New Series of Compounds Containing Boron. [Abstract]

123

129

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Edward Frankland

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112208

Chemistry 2

Thermodynamics

Chemistry

IV . " On a New Series of Compounds containing Boron . " By Dr. EDWARD FRANKLAND , F.R.S. Received May 15 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) This paper contains the full details of the author 's researches on boric ethide-a body partially described by Mr. B. F. Duppa and the author in the ' Proceedings of the Royal Society , ' vol. x. p. 568 , and also their extension to the homologous compound containing methyl . Boric ethide combines with ammonia with great energy ; if a few drops of boric ethide be passed up into a dry eudiometer filled with mercury , and dry ammoniacal gas be then admitted into the same tube , each bubble of gas collapses with a shock like that produced by a bubble of steam projected into cold water . The analysis of the body thus formed leads to the formula NI- , + B(C,4 11 ) , . Ammonia boric ethide is a somewhat oily liquid possessing an aromatic odour and an alkaline reaction . It cannot be distilled , except in vacuo , without decomposition . Carbonic acid has no action upon it , even in the presence of water , but other acids decompose it instantly and liberate boric ethide . Exposed to atmospheric air , ammonia boric ethlide scarcely absorbs a perceptible amount of oxygen , even after the lapse of several hours . The author considers boric ethide to be formed from boracic ether and zincethyl by the substitution of the ethyl in zincethyl for the oxygen in boracic acid , { ! C4H { 84H5 44I - ] 58 4}1 2B{ +3 C4 }O2 ? +3Zn2{gi C5H =2B{ C4 +6 C } ? 0 Boracic ether . Zincethyl . Boric et4hide Ethylateof zinc . Boracic ether . Zincethyl . Boric ethide . Ethylate of zinc . 1862 . ] 123 Another , but far less probable , view of the reaction presents itself in the supposition that the three atoms of ethyl in boric ethide were already present in the boracic ether , the action of the zincethyl being simply to remove the whole of the oxygen from the boracic ether . Kekule has , in fact , unreservedly adopted this latter view of the reaction . So long as the organic radical of the zinc compound and that of the boracic ether are identical , it is impossible to prove whether the three individual atoms of ethyl in boric ethide were originally present in the boracic ether , or have been derived from the zincethyl . Indicating by an asterisk the atoms of ethyl which finally become part of the boric ethide , it is impossible to prove conclusively whether the reaction takes place according to the first or second of the following equations:f C4 C4 O02 TC ETC* 0C 41 ( 1 ) 2B C -I502+ 3Zn -B C +6 15 0C C I-I 0 , 5 CC 45245 fC4 * 02 B Cf 4HC ( 2 ) 2B C4 * 02+3Zn2 { 4 2BC +6 4 50 . C4 165 membrane . A slow evolution of spontaneously inflammable gas , burning with a splendid green flame , was also noticed ; and this evolution of gas became more rapid when the warmth of the hand was applied to the flask containing the ingredients . Purified and submitted to analysis , the gas exhibited a composition agreeing with the formula C2 H3 BC2 H3 C2 H3 . Boric methide is produced from boracic ether and zincmethyl by the following reaction:[C4H 102 C[fC2 I3 4H 2I Cg 2+3Zn 2 H32B C2 H3 +6 Zn 2 Boracic ether . Zincmethyl . Boric methide . Ethylate of zinc . The formation of boric methide under these circumstances proves conclusively that the corresponding ethyl compound is formed , not by the removal of the whole of the oxygen from boracic ether , but by the actual substitution of the three atoms of oxygen in boracic acid by three atoms of ethyl ; whilst boric methide is in like manner produced by the similar substitution of methyl for oxygen , which is quite in harmony with the mode of formation of very numerous compounds in the organo-nretallic family . Boric methide exists at ordinary temperatures as a colourless and transparent gas possessing a peculiar and intolerably pungent odour , irritating the mucous membrane and provoking a copious flow of tears . Its specific gravity is 1 93137 . It retains its gaseous condition when exposed to a cold of -16 ? Cent. ; but at 10 ? Cent. , and under a pressure of three atmospheres , it condenses to a colourless , transparent , and very mobile liquid . It is very sparingly soluble in water , but very soluble in alcohol and in ether . In contact with atmospheric air , it takes fire spontaneously , burning with a bright green flame , which is very fuliginous if the volume of the flame be considerable . If the gas issue into the air through a tube -Z6th of an inch in diameter , the amount of smoke is surprisingly great ; 2 or 3 cubic inches of gas , when consumed in this way , filling the atmosphere of a large room with large comet-like flocks of carbonaceous matter . This curious phenomenon is probably due , in part at least , to the forma1862 . ] 125 tion of a superficial coating of boracic acid , which envelopes the particles of carbon and prevents their combustion . Suddenly mixed with atmospheric air or oxygen , boric methide explodes with great violence . In contact with atmospheric air , both boric methide and the vapour of boric ethide exhibit two distinct kinds of spontaneous combustion . Thus when these bodies issue very slowly from a glass tube into the air , they burn with a lambent blue flame invisible in daylight , and the temperature of which is so low that a finger may be held in it for some time without much inconvenience . Under these circumstances partial oxidation only takes place , and it is to the products thus formed that the peculiar pungent odour of boric ethide and boric methide is due . When , on the other hand , these bodies issue into the air more rapidly , the lambent blue and nearly cold flame changes to the green and hot flame above mentioned . I have not examined the spectra of the two differently-coloured flames from the same compound ; but they doubtless present a widely different appearance , thus affording another instance of the dependence of the spectra of bodies upon temperature , -a phenomenon to which I recently called attention in the case of lithium* . Boric methide is not acted upon by binoxide of nitrogen or by iodine . Solution of bichromate of potash scarcely affects it , but the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid at once determines the reduction of the chrormic acid . When boric methide is allowed to bubble through water into chlorine , each bubble burns explosively with a bright flash of light and the separation of carbon : it has no tendency to unite with acids . Concentrated sulphuric acid has no action upon it ; when mixed with hydriodic acid gas , it suffers no change ; but , on the other hand , it is freely absorbed by solutions of the fixed alkalies and by ammonia . If a very rapid current of the gas mixed with half its volume of marsh-gas be passed through a stratum of strong solution of ammonia only half an ivch deep , not a trace of boric methide escapes absorption . Aimmonia Boric Methide . When dry ammoniacal gas is mixed with an equal volume of dry boric methide , both gases instantly disappear , with the evolution of a considerable amount of heat and the production of a white , volatile , crystalline compound . The latter is also formed when boric methide is passed into solution of ammonia . The colourless liquid stratum which forms upon the surface soon solidifies when it is placed over sulphuric acid in vacuo . A quantity of the compound obtained by this latter process was purified by solution in ether and subsequent recrystallization : on being submitted to analysis , it yielded numbers corresponding to the formula NIH +B(C2 13)3 . Ammonia boric methide is deposited from its ethereal solution in magnificent arborescent crystals , which rapidly volatilize without residue when exposed to the air . They possess a caustic and bitter taste and a very peculiar odour , in which both the smell of ammonia and that of boric methide can be recognized . Ammonia boric methide fuses at 56 ? Cent. , and boils at about 110 ? Cent. In a current of air , or better of carbonic acid , it sublimes at a very gentle heat and condenses in arborescent crystals . Several determinations of the specific gravity of the vapour of ammonia boric methide gave the mean number 1 253 , which indicates that the vapour of ammonia boric methide consists of equal volumes of boric methide and ammonia united without condensation . Thus the formula of ammonia boric methide is a four-volume formula -a state of condensation which is usually considered to be abnormal , and which , where it occurs , is generally explained by the assumption of a decomposition of the body at the moment of conversion into vapour . The proof of the disunion or integrity of the vaporous molecule of ammonia boric methide would be interesting in connexion with these so-called anomalous vapour-densities , but the author regrets his inability to offer any sufficiently decisive solution of this problem ; for although fused chloride of copper absorbs ammonia from the vapour , yet it does so under circumstances which admit of the assumption that the vapour of ammonia boric methide is decomposed by the chloride of copper . Ammonia boric methide scarcely absorbs a perceptible amount of oxygen at ordinary temperatures , even after several days ' exposure to the gas ; but it takes fire below 100 ? Cent. when heated in contact with the air . Its vapour is also very inflammable ; thus when ammonia boric methide is placed under the receiver of an air-pump , and * H202=2 vols . 1862 . ] 127 the air is being withdrawn , the explosion of the mixture of air and vapour in the cylinders of the pump is frequently determined by the rise of temperature consequent upon the depression of the pistons when the rarefaction has become considerable . Boric methide is also absorbed by aniline with great avidity . Acids expel the gas from this compound unchanged . Terhydride of phosphorus has no action upon boric methide . A mixture of equal volumes of the two gases is spontaneously inflammable , burning with a yellowish-white flame , in which the characteristic green tinge attending the combustion of boric methide is no longer perceptible . Compounds of Boric Methide with Potash , Soda , Lime , and Baryta . -Solution of caustic potash absorbs boric methide with great energy . The saturated solution , exposed over sulphuric acid in vacuo , dries down to a gummy mass , which scarcely exhibits signs of crystallization . The same body may be more conveniently formed by decomposing ammonia boric methide with alcoholic solution of potash , taking care to employ an excess of the former . On evaporation over sulphuric acid in vacuo , the excess of the ammonia compound volatilizes and is decomposed by the sulphuric acid , with the elimination of boric methide ; thus the solution of the potash compound evaporates in an atmosphere of boric methide . Nevertheless , even by this method the potash compound could not be obtained in a state of perfect purity , the numbers obtained on analysis indicating only remotely the formula KO +HB ( C2 13)3 . Boric methide is also readily absorbed by solution of neutral carbonate of potash , bicarbonate of potash and potash boric methide being apparently formed . Although boric methide and potash unite with remarkable energy , they are separated by acids with the greatest readiness ; even carbonic acid in the presence of water can expel boric methide from its potash compound ; thus if an aqueous solution of potash boric methide be passed into carbonic acid standing over mercury , the acid gas soon becomes replaced by pure boric methide . Soda boric methide , baryta boric methide , and lime boric methide are similar bodies produced by the absorption of boric methide gas by caustic solutions of soda , baryta , and lime ; they are all readily soluble in water and react alkaline . 128 Boric methide in combination with the alkalies and alkaline earths has almost entirely lost its powerful affinity for oxygen ; nevertheless , when these bodies are placed in contact with a known quantity of oxygen over mercury for several days , the volume of the gas perceptibly diminishes . The great difficulty , not to say danger , attending the gradual oxidation of considerable quantities of a gaseous and spontaneously inflammable body like boric methide has prevented the author from following this compound into its products of oxidation , as was done in the case of boric ethide . With a graduated supply of oxygen , however , boric methide appears to comport itself like boric ethide , and the compounds formed are probably homologous with diethylate and dihvdrate of boric dioxyethide . In conclusion , it can scarcely be doubted that the action upon boracic ether of the zinc compounds of the remaining alcohol radicals would produce the homologues of the bodies described in the foregoing pages . It may also be remarked that the existence of bodies like boric dioxyethide , in which one-third of the oxygen in boracic anhydride is replaced by ethyl , altogether abolishes any supposed analogy between carbonic and boracic acids , whilst it proves that the composition of the latter acid is expressed by the formula BOa , or some multiple of that formula .

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On the Constitution of Sea-Water, at Different Depths, and in Different Latitudes

129

132

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George Forchhammer

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10.1098/rspl.1862.0021

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112209

Geography

Chemistry 2

Geography

V. " On the Constitution of Sea-Water , at different Depths , and in different Latitudes . " By GEORGE FORCIIHAMIER , Ph. D. , Professor of Mineralogy in the University of Copenhagen . Communicated by the President . Professor Forchhammer was present at the Meeting , and , by request of the President , gave a statement of the principal results of his researches . He first , however , took occasion to express his great satisfaction in being allowed the opportunity of personally and gratefully acknowledging the liberality with which men of science in this country had entered into his views and supplied him with specimens requisite for carrying on his inquiries ; and he particularly mentioned the name of a late distinguished Fellow of this Society , Sir James Clark Ross , who had kindly furnished various samples of sea-water procured in his Antarctic voyage . The number of elements hitherto found in sea-water the author stated to be thirty-one , viz. Oxygen , Hydrogen , Azote in ammonia , Carbon in carbonic acid , Chlorine , Bromine , Iodine in fuci , Fluorine in combination with calcium , Sulphur as sulphuric acid , Phosphorus as phosphoric acid , Silicium as silica , Boron as boracic acid , discovered by the author both in sea-water and in sea-weeds , Silver in the Pocillopora alcicornis , Copper very frequent both in animals and plants of the sea , Lead very frequent in marine organisms , Zinc principally in sea-plants , Cobalt and Nickel in sea-plants , Iron , Manganese , Atlu minium , Magnesium . , Calcium , Strontium and Barium , the latter two as sulphates in fucoid plants , Sodium , Potassium . These twentyseven elements the author himself had ascertained to occur in seawater ; the presence of the next four elements , viz. Lithium , Cesiumt Rubidium , and Arsenic , has been shown by other chemists . Of these elements only " . a few occur in such quantity that their determination has any notable influence on the quantitative analysis of sea-water , viz. Chlorine , Sulphuric acid , Magnesia , Lime , Potash , and Soda . The others , as far as their existence has been determined in the sea-water itself , are found in the residue which remains after evaporation to dryness and redissolution of the salts in water . The author next stated that in the water of the ocean far from the shores the principal ingredients always occur very nearly in the same proportions . If we assumne chlorine -100 , the mean proportion of the other leading constituents is as follows : Mean proportion . Maximum . Minimumo Sulphuric acid , . 11-89 12-09 11-65 Lime ... ... ... . 2-96 3-16 2-87 Magnesia ... ... . . 11-07 11-28 10-95 All salts ... ... . . 1811 181-4 180'6 These proportions apply only to specimens obtained at a long distance from shores , or in the open ocean . In the interior of the Baltic , for instance , the proportion of chlorine to sulphuric acid is as 100 to 14-97-to lime as 100 to 7'48 ; and the proportion of chlorine to all salts as 100 to 223-0 . This constant proportion of the different constituents in the ocean depends evidently not upon any chemical combination and affinity between the different substances , but upon the enormous quantity of salts in the whole ocean , which renders imperceptible any difference that might otherwise arise from the different proportion in which salts are carried into the sea by rivers . It depends , besides , on the uniform action of the numberless organic beings inhabiting the ocean which abstract sulphuric acid , lime , potash , and magnesia from the water , and render them insoluble . The mean quantity of solid matter in the water of the ocean generally , the author found to be 34'304 per 1000 . To determine this mean quantity he has divided the ocean into regions , viz.:1st Region . Atlantic , from the Equator to 30 ? N. lat. ; mean 36-169 . 2nd Region . Atlantic , from 30 ? N. lat. to a line from the north of Scotland to the north of Newfoundland ; mean 35'976 . 3rd Region . From the northern boundary of region 2 to the south coast of Greenland ; mnean 35'556 . 4th Region . Davis 's Strait and Baffin 's Bay ; mean 33'167 . 5th Region . Atlantic , between 0 and 30 ? S. lat. ; mean 36'472 . 6th Region . Atlantic , between 30 ? S. lat. and a line from the southernmost point of Africa to the southernmost point of America ; mean 35'038 . 7th Region . Between Africa and the East Indian Islands ; mean 33-868 . 8th Region . Between the East Indian and the Aleutic Islands ; mean 33-506 . 9th Region . Between the Aleutic and the Society Islands ; mean 35-219 . 10th Region . The Patagonian stream of cold water ; mean 33 966 . 1 th . The Antarctic region ; mean 28-563 . Besides these regions of the great ocean , the author enumerates some other regions , which are under the decided influence of the surrounding land . Such are the North Sea , with a mean quantity of solid matter of 32-806 per 1000 ; the Kattegat and Sound , with a mean of 15-126 the Baltic , mean 4-807 ; the Mediterranean , mean about 37'5 ; the Black Sea , mean 15-894 . Of the proportion in the large bays of America the author had only one observation , viz. in water from the Caribbean Sea , in which the quantity of saline matter was found to be 36-104 per 1000 . The author then showed that the equatorial regions contain the K2 1862 . ] I31 greatest percentage of saline matter , and that this peculiarity is owing to the evaporation under and in the neighbourhood of the line being greater than the quantity of water supplied by the rain falling on the sea and by the rivers flowing from the land ; that the equilibrium is maintained by polar currents , which bring water with less saline matter to the equatorial regions . The mean quantity of saline ingredients in the equatorial regions of the ocean is about 36'2 per 1000 , while in the polar regions it is about 33'5 . The North Atlantic Ocean contains much more salt than the South Atlantic , which the author explains by the prevailing influence of the Gulf-stream ; and from his analyses of many samples of water taken in the current which flows from N.E. to S.W. , between Iceland and the east coast of Greenland , he thinks it highly probable that this East Greenland current is in reality not a polar current , but a returning branch of the Gulf-stream , its mean quantity of salt being nearly the same as in the northern part of the Atlantic Ocean , viz. 35'5 per 1000 . The author then compared the Mediterranean with the Baltic , and stated that there is a double current at the entrance of the Baltic as well as in the Straits of Gibraltar ; but with this difference , that the under-current of the Mediterranean runs out of , and the surfacecurrent generally runs into , that sea ; whereas the under-current of the Baltic is an entering one , and the surface-current of the Sound generally runs out into the Kattegat and North Sea . He showed , moreover , that the deep water in both seas is richer in salt than that from the surface , and consequently has a greater specific gravity . In the Atlantic he found the reverse , viz. that the quantity of saline ingredients in the water decreases with the depth , if the samples are taken at some distance from the shore ; and as his analyses are sufficiently numerous , and include specimens from great depths ( 12,000 feet ) , he considers this unexpected result to be tolerably well established . He thinks that this fact would prove the existence of a polar current in the depths of the Atlantic , as well as in some parts of its surface . In the sea to the east of Africa he found the quantity of saline matter slightly increasing with the depth . 13

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Anniversary Meeting

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112210

Biography

Reporting

Biography

The Annual Meeting for the Election of Fellows was held this day . Major-General SABINE , President , in the Chair . The Statutes relating to the Election of Fellows having been read , Mr. Curling and Mr. Scott Russell were , with the consent of the Society , nominated Scrutators to assist the Secretaries in examining the Lists . The votes of the Fellows present having been collected , the following gentlemen were declared duly elected into the Society : George Bentham , Esq. Henry William Bristow , Esq. Alexander Ross Clarke , Captain R.E. John W. Dawson , Esq. Frederick J. Owen Evans , Esq. , R.N. John Braxton Hicks , M.D. The Very Rev. W. Farquhar Hook , D.D. George Rolleston , M.D. Charles William Siemens , Esq. Maxwell Simpson , Esq. Balfour Stewart , Esq. Thomas Pridgin Teale , Esq. Sir James Emerson Tennent , LL. D. Isaac Todhunter , Esq. , M.A. C. Greville Williams , Esq.

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Dissections of the Ganglia and Nerves of the OEsophagus, Stomach, and Lungs

133

136

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Robert Lee

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112211

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112211

Biology 2

Neurology

Biology

I. " Dissections of the Ganglia and Nerves of the ( Esophagus , Stomach , and Lungs . " By ROBERT LEE , M.D. , F.R.S. Received May 13 , 1862 . On the 17th of July 1861 I resolved to dissect the nerves of the human stomach immersed in alcohol , as I had done those of the uterus and heart , with magnifying powers of six and twelve diameters ' Having procured from Dr. William Dickinson at St. George 's Hospital a healthy stomach with three inches of the oesophagus , and having thoroughly washed away the contents , and the blood from the vessels , it was placed in a shallow vessel and covered with rectified spirit . With the help of my dissecting lens , a pair of small straight forceps , a pair of small curved forceps , and curved needle , I proceeded cautiously to remove all the white condensed cellular membrane in which the trunks and branches of the par vagurn on the oesophagus were imbedded , and the sheath of slender fibres of cellular membrane closely investing all the nerves . Two glands situated near the termination of the oesophagus in the stomach were likewise removed . The trunks and branches of the par vagum having thus been completely laid bare , the whole oesophagus appeared covered with ganglionic plexuses of nerves , and distinct ganglia formed on the nerves were clearly seen . Some of these ganglia had the usual appearance of ganglia of the great sympathetic , with nerves entering and nerves passing out from them , and these branches passing into other ganglia . Some of the ganglia formed on the trunks of the par vagum were long and thin , presenting the appearance which Mr. Joseph Swan has called gangliform membranes . Near the cardia , both trunks of the par vagum terminated abruptly in long solid ganglia of a reddish colour and firm texture ; and from these numerous small branches of nerves with ganglia were sent to the whole cardiac extremity of the stomach without being accompanied with arteries ; and others were sent to the coronary artery , and accompanied this artery with all its ramifications to the lining membrane of the stomach . On examining minutely the ganglia and nerves of the oesophagus , numerous branches were seen passing down between the strong longitudinal muscular fibres of the oesophagus to the circular muscular fibres of the middle coat , upon which plexuses of nerves with small 134 ganglia were formed . Some branches of nerves were seen passing from the middle coat of the oesophagus into the lining membrane . After having completed the dissection of the oesophageal ganglia and nerves , the nerves continuous with them were then carefully traced throughout the walls of the stomach from the cardia to the pylorus . The peritoneal coat having been removed , a thin strong tendinous expansion was seen underneath , covering the whole convex border of the stomach and a great part of both the anterior and posterior surfaces ; the removal of this fascia was necessary before the nerves could be traced . If the preparation be now examined , numerous small nerves will be seen proceeding from the abrupt termination of the par vagum at the cardia , and distributed extensively over the cardiac extremity of the stomach , to the muscular coat . Numerous branches of nerves can be seen passing down between the muscular fibres of the outer to the subjacent muscular coat , and largely distributed over the fibres of this coat . The two trunks of the par vagum , divided into numerous branches , can be seen passing forward to the coronary artery , which has been cut across , with all the nerves proceeding from the semilunar ganglion which united at the cardiac extremity of the stomach with these nerves continued from the par vagumo The trunk and all the branches of the coronary artery are accormpanied with nerves from the par vagum and semilunar ganglion , and in this dissection the nerves with the arteries have been traced extensively to the lining membrane of the stomach . The branches of the coronary artery are seen passing down through the muscular coats generally , about midway between the smaller and larger curvatures , accompanied with nerves upon which ganglia are formed ; and numerous branches of nerves are seen passing to the muscular coats from the nerves which accompany the arteries . I will not attempt further on this occasion to describe the ganglia and nerves of the oesophagus and stomiach displayed in this dissection , from which it is obvious that there are two sets of nerves distributed throughout the walls of the stomach , one to the muscular coats , the other destined to supply the lining membrane . I have made elaborate dissections of the ganglia and nerves of the whole oesophagus , stomach , alimentary canal , and lungs ; but of these 1862.j 135 I shall give no account to the Royal Society unless expressly requested by the Council to do so , and assured that my communication shall receive that treatment which I consider the importance of the subject to demand .

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Further Observations on the Distribution of Nerves to the Elementary Fibres of Striped Muscle. [Abstract]

136

141

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Lionel S. Beale

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112212

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112212

Biology 3

Neurology

Biology

II . " Further Observations on the Distribution of Nerves to the Elementary Fibres of Striped Muscle . " By LIONEL S. BEALE , M.B. , F.R.S. , Professor of Physiology and of General and Morbid Anatomy in King 's College , London ; Physician to King 's College Hospital . Received June 19 , 18620 ( Abstract . ) After referring to the views entertained on the mode of termination of the nerves in the tissues generally , the author proceeds to consider the arrangement of the nerves in muscle . The old view was that nerves terminate in loops or networks which are external to the sarcolemma . More recent researches had proved that these loops and networks are composed of coarse dark-bordered fibres , and from them finer fibres had been followed to the surface of the elementary fibres , and it was concluded that these terminate upon the sarcolemma in free ends . In the Philosophical Transactions for 1860 , a paper by the author was published , in which it was shown that , the distribution of nerve-fibres to the muscles of the mouse was much more extensive than was generally supposed , and that to each muscular fibre , pale nerve-fibres with nuclei are distributed throughout its entire length ; that numerous fibres cross the elementary fibres at various angles , and thus the appearance of a network of nerve-fibres is produced . This network is upon the same plane as the capillaries , and can be stripped off the surface of the sarcolemma with these vessels . Last year Kiihne published a memoir on the termination of the nerves upon the elementary muscular fibres of the frog , and supported his view expressed in previous papers , that the nerves penetrate the sarcolemma and terminate in close relation to the contractile tissue* . Kiihne endeavoured to show that the white substance of the nerve ceases at the sarcolemma , and that a pale nucleated fibre , the continuation of the axis-cylinder of the nerve , perforates the sarcolemma and terminates in free extremities beneath . In connexion with these pale fibres he described special organs of an oval form and containing a nucleus . In the Croonian Lecture for the present year , Professor Kolliker stated that he had failed to demonstrate the peculiar organs described by Kuihne , that Kiihne 's pale fibres are outside the sarcolemma , and that the nerves terminate in free ends , the sheath of the nerve being continued for some distance over the pale fibre * . He also described some nerve-fibres , which for the most part ramify over the surface of the muscle . These he regarded as sensitive fibres . Kolliker and Kiihne agree that the muscle receives but a small supply of nerves , that their supply is limited to one part of the muscle , and that a comparatively very small portion of each elementary fibre is brought into relation with the nerves at all . The author 's conclusions are quite at variance with these views . Although in many cases the fine pale nerve-fibres could not be followed for any great distance from their origin , in some instances this had been done . The pale fibres consist of a bundle of very fine fibres , which divides and subdivides into smaller bundles , and these , after being followed to the edge of the muscular fibres , can often be traced a long way amongst the fibres of connective tissue , and can sometimes even be followed to other trunks . The author had seen many fibres less than the , o--01th of an inch in diameter , which had been proved to consist of at least two fibres . Many of the so-called connective tissue corpuscles , close to the sarcolemma , are really the nuclei of very fine pale nerve-fibres , which form , as in the mouse , networks on the surface of the muscular fibre ; but the meshes are larger and the fibres much finer in the frog than in the mammal or bird . The author showed that the distribution of the dark-bordered fibres to many muscles of the frog is by no means so limited as is generally supposed . The elementary fibres of the inferior muscle of the eye of the frog are crossed by dark-bordered fibres at intervals of the -l^th of an inch . The author showed that what appears to be the outline of a dark-bordered fibre near its peripheral distribution , really consists of a finer nerve-fibre in many instances . Fine nerve-fibres run in the same sheath with the dark-bordered fibres . Some of these fibres are the direct continuation of darkbordered fibres . There are often also fine fibres to be demonstrated external to what appears to be the sheath of the fibre . Nuclei are connected with the dark-bordered fibre , with the fine fibres in , and with those external to the sheath . The pale fibres of Kiihne and K3olliker are always compound , and consist of1 . A very fine fibre prolonged from the dark-bordered fibre . 2 . Very fine fibres continuous with those in the sheath of the nerves , or external to it . The author concludes , from numerous observations upon the distribution of nerves in many different tissues , that the general disposition of the finest fibres is the same as that of the coarser trunks and fibres . In passing from the trunks towards the ultimate distribution of the nerves , it might be said we meet with finer and still finer networks and plexuses ; the finest fibres visible with the highest powers ( 1700 diameters ) being composed of more than a single fibre . It is therefore probable that in all cases complete circuits exist . The author maintains that the really important part of the peripheral nerve-fibres only commences at the point where the dark-bordered nerve-fibre seems to cease . Beyond this there is a most elaborate network , the fibres of which are compound and composed of very fine fibres . The meshes of this network and the fibres differ much in size in different tissues . The active elements of the tissues lie in or upon the meshes of this network . The author then discusses the relation of the terminal branches of the nerve-fibres to connective tissue . His views are briefly expressed in the conclusions given below . In order to see the appearances described by the author , the tissue must be mounted in some fluid which reflects highly , like syrup or glycerine . The fine fibres he has seen cannot be demonstrated in specimens mounted in fluids composed mainly of water . The paper is accompanied with upwards of forty figures copied from specimens magnified by a twelfth or by a twenty-sixth of an inch object-glass made by Messrs. Powell and Lealand , and magnifying respectively 700 and 1700 diameters linear . 138 Conclusions . 1 . In certain muscles of the frog the distribution of dark-bordered nerve-fibres is pretty uniform in every part . Although in the case of the pectoral a greater number of nerve-fibres is distributed to the central part of the muscle , fibres may be traced from the large bundle almost to the extremities of some of the muscular fibres . Many branches which easily escape observation pass between the muscular fibres , and their subdivisions supply neighbouring fibres , or are gradually lost in the connective tissue . 2 . Fine nerve-fibres are most easily demonstrated on the external surface of the sarcolemma near the nerve-trunks ; but reasons have been advanced in favour of the conclusion that every elementary muscular fibre is more or less freely supplied with nerve-fibres throughout its entire length . Many of the fine nerve-fibres on the surface of the muscular fibres become gradually very faint , until from their extreme tenuity we are no longer able to follow them . 3 . Fine nerve-fibres in direct continuation with the dark-bordered fibres , and less than the - , -o6oth of an inch in diameter , have been seen to divide into finer branches which have nuclei in connexion with them . 4 . The pale fibres delineated by Kiihne and Kolliker , and by them considered terminal , consist of a. Fibres about the -o o-th of an inch in diameter , or less , resulting from the subdivision of the dark-bordered fibre . 6 . Fibres resulting from the subdivision of fine nerve-fibres ramifying in the sheath of the dark-bordered fibre , or situated external to it . 5 . Nuclei are found in connexion witha . The dark-bordered fibre itself , near its terminal ramifications . b. The fine fibres which are the direct continuation of the dark-bordered fibres . c. The fine fibres in the sheath , or external to it . 6 . The nuclei and delicate fibres above referred to are arranged so as to form networks , the meshes of which vary much in size , situated with the capillaries on the external surface of the sarcolemma . The fibres of this network are compound , and consist of finer fibres which are distinct from , and do not anastomose with , each other . The fine fibres continued from some of the dark-bordered fibres , as well as 1862 . ] 139 those ramifying in the sheath of the nerves , may sometimes be followed over six or more elementary muscular fibres , and form , with other fine branches , networks , many of the meshes being as wide as a muscular fibre . 7 . Fine nerve-fibres with nuclei connected with them exist ( not unfrequently to the number of four or five ) in the sheath of the dark-bordered nerve-fibres near their distribution ; and some are also found external to what appears to be the outline of the sheath . Some of these result from the subdivision of a dark-bordered fibre . These fine fibres and their nuclei have been hitherto included under the head of ' connective tissue . ' 8 . The connective tissue around the elementary muscular fibres , and in connexion with the nerve-fibres , is composed of a. Nuclei which might have taken part in the formation of the nerve-fibres , but which have degenerated , and a low form of fibrous tissue has alone been produced . b. Fibres and nuclei which were once active , and formed an integral part of the nervous system , but which have grown old , and have been replaced by new nuclei and fibres . c. The remains of altered and wasted vessels and nerve-fibres distributed to them , and wasted muscular fibres themselves . 9 . The nerves distributed to the voluntary muscles of the frog do not terminate in free ends , but there is reason for believing that complete nervous circuits exist . In all cases the fibres resulting from the division of the ordinary nerve-fibres are so fine that many cannot be seen with a power magnifying less than 1000 diameters , and there is evidence of the existence of fibres which could only be demonstrated by employing a much higher magnifying power . It is by these very fine fibres alone , and their nuclei , that the tissues are influenced. . The ordinary nerve-fibres are only the cords which connect this extensive peripheral system , which has been traced in different tissues far beyond the point to which the dark-bordered nerve-fibres can be followed , with the central organs of the nervous system . 10 . The facts and conclusions above stated , with reference to the distribution of nerve-fibres to the voluntary muscles of the frog , are in accordance with the arrangement of the finest nerve-fibres demonstrated in many other tissues of the same animal , and agree with 140 many appearances observed by the author in connexion with the peripheral distribution of the nerves , not only in certain tissues of man and the higher mammalia , but also in invertebrate animals . 11 . The distribution of the finest branches of the nerve-fibres can only be demonstrated in tissues which have been immersed in fluids which refract highly , as syrup or glycerine .

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Researches on the Development of the Spinal Cord in Man, Mammalia, and Birds. [Abstract]

141

142

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Jacob Lockhart Clarke

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112213

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112213

Biology 3

Neurology

Biology

III . " Researches on the Development of the Spinal Cord in Man , Mammalia , and Birds . " By JACOB LOCKrHAIT CLARKE , Esq. , F.R.S. Received May 20 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) In the first stage of development the spinal cord consists simply of a canal surrounded by a single layer of small cells or nuclei , which are not distinguishable from each other in regard to size or structure , and are so closely aggregated as to appear in actual contact . After a time this homogeneous layer , while it increases in depth , separates irregularly into two strata , the inner stratum forming the epithelium , and the outer the grey substance . This differentiation of structure proceeds gradually , and is not at first marked by any definite line of separation , nor by any apparent difference in the structure of the component cells . At the same time there is gradually formed around the walls of the nuclei a granular substance , which unites into processes or fibres , and constitutes a continuous network , by which all the nuclei or cells of both layers are uninterruptedly connected . In the grey layer there is at first no apparent difference between the nuclei or cells of the anterior and posterior portion , although in each portion dark or more closely aggregated groups may be observed in connexion with roots of the nerves . As development advances , however , while the nuclei of the posterior grey substance remain for a long time but little altered , those of the anterior substance increase in size , become more granular , and are connected by thicker fibres united in a coarser network . At the same time , in the separate groups of the anterior grey substance , the granular network around the nuclei assumes a coarser and spongelike structure , until it constitutes a number of large roundish or irregular and adjacent cells with thickening and nucleated walls . While these are in course of development , the contained nuclei are forming 1862 . ] 141 within them and around themselves a gradually increasing layer of finely-granular substance . The thick cell-walls have all the appearance commonly assumed by connective tissue , and are continuous with that tissue in the grey substance of the cord . In the intervertebral ganglia there is some difference in the manner in which the nerve-cells make their appearance . The small cells or nuclei gradually enlarge , assuming a variety of slhapes ; and it is not till they have increased to a considerable size that nuclei and granular contents are observable within them . These cells , like those of the cord , are connected , not only with each other , but with fibrous prolongations from the sheath of the ganglion , with the intervening connective tissue , and with the sheaths of blood-vessels , in one uninterrupted network . The fibres of the posterior roots of the nerves , as they pass through the ganglion , split up and subdivide into fibriller , which become successively continuous with processes of series of the nerve-cells , which for the most part are cup-shaped or pyriform . The processes of the epithelium around the canal of the cord are directly continuous with the connective tissue and with the sheaths of blood-vessels and pia matter at the surface . In the early stages of development , then , it appears that there are two kinds of nuclei in the grey substance of the cord : that one kind developes the general network of tissue which pervades the entire substance , but proceeds no further ; that each of the other kind , while it is connected with this network , as well as with the true nerve-fibres , developes around itself a nucleated wall , which is still connected , and ultimately blended with the surrounding reticular structure , but , proceeding further , it again forms around itself and within the cellwall an increasing layer of granules . The granular contents of the cells are connected , with their walls , which they form around themselves ; the walls of the cells are continuous with the connective tissue , and this again is continuous with the sheaths of the bloodvessels and pia matter of the surface , as well as with the processes of the epithelium : so that the connective tissue of the cord would appear to be intermediate in its nature between the nerve-tissue and the pia matter on the surface ; but there is no reason to believe that the connective tissue could ever be developed into nerve-tissue . 142 rjune 19 ,

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Observations Made on the Movements of the Larynx When Viewed by Means of the Laryngoscope

143

146

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Bishop

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1862.0026

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112214

10.1098/rspl.1862.0026

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112214

Biology 2

Fluid Dynamics

Biology

IV . " Observations made on the Movements of the Larynx when viewed by means of the Laryngoscope . " By JOHN BISHOP , Esq. , F.R.S. Received June 5 , 1862 . I had not contemplated any further investigation on the physiology of intonation by the human organs of voice , had not my attention been aroused by the facility afforded by the apparatus of Professor Czermak , of seeing what actually takes place in the larynx during the production of vocal sounds . The tact of the Professor in applying the instrument in his own case , and the impunity with which he is able to bear its presence in the sensitive parts of the pharynx , are great advantages . In many persons the presence of any foreign body so applied , usually produces , by reflex action , a sense of sickness in the stomach . In ordinary breathing the glottis is wide open , and the arytenoid cartilages are thrown wide apart ; but on the production of the most simple sound , these cartilages are suddenly and rapidly closed , and the edges of the vocal cords come into juxtaposition with each other so as to leave no interval between them in their entire length . In the production of the lower tones of the voice the vocal cords may be seen to vibrate throughout their whole length , and even at their prolongations at the base of the arytenoid cartilages ; they seem to vibrate also throughout their entire breadth . As the pitch of the tones rises in the scale , the length of the cords in a state of vibration diminishes , and they are pressed more closely against each other : as the tones become more acute , the pressure is increased , and the tension of the vocal cords augmented ; the breadth of the cords is also diminished . When the chest tones have arrived at the limit of the scale of acute range , and the falsetto tones commence , the glottis is seen to be more closely pressed together , and the edges only of the vocal cords are suffered to vibrate , as Garcia has already observed . On the other hand , while the chest tones are produced , a larger surface of the vocal cords is in a state of vibration . When the falsetto tones are produced , it appears that the very extreme edge only of the cord vibrates , and a much less expenditure of breath is required . While the highest notes of the voice are intoned , the vocal cords are so closely pressed together , that a small portion only of the glottis is seen to yield to the pressure , which takes place nearly at its central portion . From the inspection of the vocal organs now so easily obtained , it may be stated in general terms that , as the voice ascends from its lowest to its more acute tones , the lengths of the vibrating portions of the vocal cords are proportionally diminished , while at the same time their tensions are increased ; and , in fact , they present the same phenomena as those of musical chords , and they appear to obey the same laws , as Ferrein so long since supposed , and which have since been confirmed by Miiller and by myself . Moreover , the vocal cords form a kind of valve , which is situated in a tube , and acts on the column of air in the manner of a reed . It is observed that while the pitch of the tones of the voice becomes more grave , the epiglottis is depressed and the pharynx is relaxed ; and , on the contrary , as the pitch becomes more acute , the epiglottis is raised and the pharynx becomes contracted : the depression of the epiglottis probably assists in deepening the pitch of the vocal tube in the same manner as the lid of an organ pipe does . In the production and modulation of the voice , it is astonishing with what accuracy some persons are able to produce at will , sounds of a determinate pitch and of a quality which charm and captivate the ear of a musician . The muscles which are principally concerned in this faculty are the thyro-arytenoid and the lateral cricoarytenoid . The crico-thyroid is limited to stretching the vocal ligaments . The mere turning of the vocal cords on their axes , out of the vocalizing position , does not afford sufficient space for ordinary breathing , as supposed by IMr . Willis , but we find that the arytenoid cartilages and vocal cords are widely separated during ordinary breathing . With regard to the controversy as to whether the vocal organs are to be considered as a stringed instrument or as a reeded pipe , it has been thought by some physiologists that the same organs cannot possibly perform the offices of both . However , under the denomination of reeded pipes , we find a great variety of form and structure , and it is not difficult to conceive that while the time of an oscillation of the vocal ligaments obeys the same laws as musical strings , the valve of the glottis in opening and closing the vocal tube performs an action resembling that of some of the musical reeds . The human organs of voice have been considered by a great many distinguished philosophers as constituting a reeded instrument , and the relation in which they stand to instruments of that character has been already discussed in my paper in the ' Transactions ' of the Royal Society for the year 1846 ; it only remains to remark that the phenomena brought to light by means of the laryngoscope tend to confirm the idea that the vocal organs really perform the double effect both of reed and string . In ejaculatory sounds , such as the production of the syllables ha , ha , ha in laughing , the glottis is opened at each intermission and closed at each intonation of sound , thus producing a rapid succession of opening and closing the glottis . In a paper published in the 'Proceedings of the Royal Society , ' by Manuel Garcia , a great number of observations on the movements of the glottis are described ; many of these have been verified both by Professor Czermak and by myself , and we cannot but be gratified by the advance which has been made in our knowledge of the action of the vocal organs during intonation , and that the speculations and controversies which have existed on some points are , by the application of the laryngoscope , now brought to a satisfactory conclusion . The great differences which we find to exist in the quality of the sounds produced-those , for example , of the chest , and those of the falsetto character , the causes of which have excited so much speculation-are in reality effected by very simple changes in the mechanism of the larynx . It would have been possible to extend this paper by pursuing the inquiry into the details of the special action of the muscles , and the distribution and functions of the nerves of the larynx , as well as the play of the several cartilages , but I have restricted myself to the actual phenomena presented to the eye , and to the acoustic deductions arising out of the movements of the larynx , more especially those of the thyro-arytenoid ligaments . The waves of sound generated by the larynx in the column of air contained in the vocal tube , set the whole of the membranes surrounding the tube in a vibratory , reciprocating motion , and we know * May 24,1855 . 1862 . ] from the researches of Savart , and from pathological data , that these movements are essentially necessary to the production of the most simple souncs ; for when these membranes are incapable of being put into a state of vibration , the sounds of the voice are extinguished , and the result is aphonia .

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Anatomy and Physiology of the Spongiadae.--Part III. [Abstract]

146

148

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. Scott Bowerbank

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112215

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112215

Paleontology

Biography

Paleontology

V. " Anatomy and Physiology of the Spongiadse."-Part 111 . By J. SCOTT BOWERBANK , LL. D. , F.R.S. Received June 18 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) This paper is the third part of the Anatomy and Physiology of the Spongiadee . The author , after pointing out the inefficiency , or rather the non-existence of a definite arrangement of species of sponges , proposes to establish a series of orders , suborders , and genera , the distinguishing characters of which are to be founded on the structural peculiarities of the various organs of the animals which have been described in detail and named in the first and second parts of the paper . The term Amorphozoa , proposed by De Blainville as a designation of the class , is rejected , as all sponges cannot be considered as shapeless , many genera and species exhibiting much constancy in their forms , while that of Porifera , proposed by Dr. Grant , is adopted , as the porous mode of imbibition of nutriment is universal in this class of animals . The author also agrees with Dr. Grant in dividing the class into three great orders , dependent on the nature of the substances of which the skeletons are constructed . These three great divisions are designated by Dr. Grant in the following order:1st , Keratosa , having skeletons of horny structure , with few or no siliceous spicula ; 2nd , Leuconida , the skeletons composed of calcareous spicula ; and 3rd , Chalinida , the skeletons constructed of siliceous spicula . The author , for reasons stated in detail in the paper , proposes to change the order of this arrangement , placing the calcareous sponges first , under the designation of Calcarea . The siliceous sponges are placed second , and designated Silicea , while the first order of Dr. Grant , Keratosa , is placed last . With these exceptions of arrangement and designation , the orders are essentially those established by Prof. Grant in his " Tabular View of the primary divisions of the Animal Kingdom . " The first of these orders ( Calcarida ) has hitherto been represented by the genus Grantia only ; but as the genus as established by Fleming contains sponges having very differently constructed skeletons , the author has divided the whole of the species of calcareous sponges that have been named and described into the four following genera , Grantia , Leucolenia , Leuconia , and Leucogypsia , in accordance with four distinct types of skeleton-structure which are found to exist among the sponges originally arranged under the genus Grantica of Fleming . The second order , Silicea , is very much more extensive than that of Calcarea , and , from the striking varieties it affords in the construction of the skeletons , it allows of a subdivision into seven suborders . The first of these consists of sponges having spiculo-radiate skeletons , and contains thirteen genera , as follows:-Geodia , Paclymatisma , Ecionemia , Alcyoncellum , Polymastia , Htalyphysema , Tethea , Halicnermia , Dictyocylindrus , Phaacellia , Microciona , IHymeraphia , and Hymedesmia . The second suborder consists of spiculo-membranous sponges ; it consists of one genus , Hymeniacidon . The third has spiculo-reticulate skeletons ; it contains four genera , Halichondria , Hyalonema , Isodictya , and Spongilla . The fourth suborder has spiculo-fibrous skeletons ; it contains two genera , Desmacidon and Raphyrus . The fifth suborder has compound reticulate skeletons ; it has but one genus , Diplodemia . The sixth suborder has solid siliceo-fibrous skeletons ; it contains one genus , Dactylocalyx . The seventh suborder has canaliculated siliceo-fibrous skeletons , and contains one genus , Farrea . The third order , Keratosa , is also divided into seven suborders . The first , consisting of solid non-spiculate kerato-fibrous skeletons , is represented by one genus , Spongia ; the legitimate type of the genus being the cup-shaped and finest Turkey sponges of commerce . The second suborder has solid semi-spiculate kerato-fibrous skeletons ; it contains at present but one genus , Halispongia ; the type of which is the coarse massive sponges of commerce from the West Indian Islands . The third suborder has solid , entirely speculated kerato-fibrous skeletons ; it has one genus , Chalina : the type of this genus is one of the commonest of the British sponges , tIalichondria oculata of Johnston . The fourth suborder is characterized by having simple fistulo-fibrous skeletons ; it contains one genus , Verongia . The fifth suborder contains sponges which have compound fistulo-fibrous skeletons , and is represented by the genus Auleskia . The sixth suborder consists of sponges having regular semi-areno-fibrous skeletons , and is represented by the genus Stematumenia . The seventh suborder has irregular and entirely arenofibrous skeletons ; it is represented by the genus Dysidea . The whole of these genera ( those previously established as well as the new ones proposed by the author ) have been characterized il accordance with their anatomical structures . The author concludes his paper with a dissertation on the discriminiation of species , and a general review of those portions of the organization that may be applied with advantage to their scientific description . The principal sources for this purpose being-lst . The spicula . 2nd . The oscula . 3rd . The pores . 4th . The dermal memubrane . 5th . The skeleton . 6th . The interstitial membranes . 7th . The intermarginal cavities . 8th . The interstitial canals and cavities . 9th . The cloacal cavities . 10th . The sarcode ; and 11th . The ovaria and gemmules . And , finally , directions for the examination and preservation are given , with a few examples of the mode of specific description proposed by the author .

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On the Spectrum of Carbon. [Abstract]

148

148

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

John Attfield

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112216

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112216

Chemistry 2

Optics

Chemistry

VI . " On the Spectrum of Carbon . " By JOHN ATTFIELD , Esq. , F.C.S. , Demonstrator of Chemistry at St. Bartholomew 's Hospital . Communicated by Dr. FRANKLAND . Received June 19 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) The author has prismatically examined various flames containing carbon . He finds that certain rays of light are common to ignited oxycarbons , hydrocarbons , nitrocarbons , and sulphocarbons , and concludes that these common rays are those emanating from ignited carbon vapour . By special manipulation he obtains the carbon spectrum with olefiant gas , cyanogen , carbonic oxide , and bisulphide of carbon . Observed by the naked eye , the prevailing colour of ignited carbon is light blue .

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On the Distorted Skulls Found at Wroxeter (Salop), with a Mechanico-Chemical Explanation of the Distortion. [Abstract]

149

150

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Henry Johnson

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112217

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112217

Chemistry 2

Fluid Dynamics

Chemistry

VII . " On the Distorted Skulls found at Wroxeter ( Salop ) , with a Mechanico-Chemical Explanation of the Distortion . " By HENRY JOHNSON , M.D. , Shrewsbury . Communicated by ERASMUS WILSON , Esq. Received June 19 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) The author states that about twenty crania were brought from the excavations at Wroxeter . Of these , two were discovered at the bottom of a hypocaust , seven feet below the surface of the earth . Of the remaining nineteen , which were dug up in the Orchard some distance from the other excavation , nearly one-half , that is nine , were more or less deformed . As the deformed skulls were found lying under less than two feet of light earth , whilst those which were buried under , and pressed by , seven feet of rubble or heavy earth were not deformed , he thinks that the pressure theory alone will not satisfactorily account for the phenomena . The idea occurred to him that some chemical agency was at work in the former case which did not operate in the latter . Ile ascertained by experiment that the soil of the Orchard was acid , reddening litmus , whilst that of the hypocausts was neutral or alkaline . The author goes on to show that the acidity of the soil of the Orchard , and of vegetable mould in general , is due to the presence of free carbonic and nitric acids , which are not to be detected in earth taken from some depth , such as that of the hypocaust or a deep pit . That carbonic acid is capable of dissolving bone ( that is , carbonate and phosphate of lime ) is abundantly proved by more than one experiment . A dried and weighed slip of bone was introduced into a bottle with distilled water highly charged with carbonic acid gas . In a month 's time it had decidedly lost weight and become somewhatflexible . The author 's first impression was that humic acid was the solvent of bone in the earth . He believes that traces of alkaline humates may always be discovered in " the washings " of soil , but that this fact has nothing to do with the solution of buried bones , and therefore he does not pursue the subject . The author draws , therefore , the following conclusions:1 . That the distortion of the skulls found at Wroxeter is not congenital , but posthumouts . 2 . That pressure alone is not the cause of the deformity . 3 . That besides the softening effect of continuous moisture acting for ages upon the cartilaginous or animal matter of the bones , there is proof of the presence of free carbonic and nitric acids very generally in soils , and more particularly in black mould , such as that of the Orchard at Wroxeter . 4 . Nitric acid may also be discovered in small quantity . But carbonic acid is almost always present in soil where air and moisture come in contact with organic matters in a state of decomposition . He thinks that this is the principal cause of the solution of bone in the earth , rendering it softer , and more ready to bend or break . 5 . That the distortion must occur at a comparatively early period after interment , because when all , or nearly all , the animal matter of the bones is destroyed , they cannot bend . Lastly . That some of the apparently bent bones are really broken ; Professor Wyville Thomson , of Belfast , having first pointed out to the author minute cracks or fissures in some of the distorted crania .

112218

3701662

Preliminary Researches on Thallium

150

159

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

William Crookes

fla

6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1862.0030

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112218

10.1098/rspl.1862.0030

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112218

Chemistry 2

Chemistry 1

Chemistry

2 . That pressure alone is not the cause of the deformity . 3 . That besides the softening effect of continuous moisture acting for ages upon the cartilaginous or animal matter of the bones , there is proof of the presence of free carbonic and nitric acids very generally in soils , and more particularly in black mould , such as that of the Orchard at Wroxeter . 4 . Nitric acid may also be discovered in small quantity . But carbonic acid is almost always present in soil where air and moisture come in contact with organic matters in a state of decomposition . He thinks that this is the principal cause of the solution of bone in the earth , rendering it softer , and more ready to bend or break . 5 . That the distortion must occur at a comparatively early period after interment , because when all , or nearly all , the animal matter of the bones is destroyed , they cannot bend . Lastly . That some of the apparently bent bones are really broken ; Professor Wyville Thomson , of Belfast , having first pointed out to the author minute cracks or fissures in some of the distorted crania . mitting to this Society . I trust that , under these circumstances , I may be pardoned for bringing before the Royal Society an incomplete account of this new element . The occurrence of a brilliant green line in some selenium residues , whilst examining them for tellurium , led me first to suspect the presence of a new element . This had been derived from a considerable quantity of the seleniferous deposit from the sulphuric acid manufactory at Tilkerode in the I-Iartz Mountains , which had been kindly placed at my disposal by Professor Hofmann ; and the residue was that left behind on distilling the selenium which had been prepared from the deposit by appropriate chemical treatment . The processes through which it had passed limited the elements which could by any possibility be present to some half dozen ; and as I was pretty confident that none of these presented in the spectroscope the phenomenon of a single bright-green line , it became of interest to investigate the subject further . In March 1861 *I was enabled to announce definitely that the green-line substance was decidedly a new element , and that from some of its reactions it was probably a high member of the sulphur , selenium , and tellurium group , although I hesitated to assert this positively . The paper alluded to contained a sufficient number of the reactions of this body to enable me to prove chemically , as well as optically , that I was dealing with a new element possessing well-defined characters . Pursuing the investigation , I was enabled in the following Mayt to give a further account of this body , and to propose for it the name of Thallium ( symbol TI ) , from the Greek OaXXos , or Latin thallus , a budding twig , -a word which is frequently employed to express the beautiful green tint of young vegetation , and which I chose on account of the green line which it communicated to the spectrum recalling with peculiar vividness the fresh colour of early spring . In the same note I gave the localities and description of several minerals in which I had found the element , and also a method of extracting it from them in a pure state . Considering that I had sufficiently announced the discovery in these papers , which were republished in nearly every chemical journal in Europe , I turned my ? Philosophical Magazine , S. 4 . vol. xxi . p. 301 ; and Chemical News , vol. iii . p. 194 , March 30 , 1861 . t Chemical News , vol. iii . p. 303 , May 18 , 1861L 1 attention towards procuring a source of thallium which would enable me to prepare this body on the large scale ; my experiments having hitherto been confined to mineralogical specimens which I had difficulty in tracing to their source , and the whole amount of thallium which I had as yet obtained not exceeding three grains in weight . After some delay , Mr. Thornthwaite was good enough to supply me with a considerable quantity of crude sulphur distilled from Spanish copper pyrites . In this I found thallium present to the extent of one or two grains to the pound , and up to within the last few months it has been from the element prepared from this source that I have been working . I have recently , however , succeeded in finding an ore containing thallium , which is worked in this country , and from which I hope to be able to prepare the metal in larger quantities . I have found the following the most advantageous method for extracting the new element from sulphur or pyrites : Powder the ore very finely , and dissolve it as completely as possible in strong hydrochloric acid , with gradual addition of nitric acid until all solvent action ceases ; then dilute with water , and filter . Evaporate down to drive off the excess of nitric acid , add a little sulphuric acid if necessary , and take care that thei solution does not get dry , or even pasty . Then dilute with water , and heat gently , to be certain of getting all the soluble portion dissolved . Filter : if lead be present , the greater portion will be left behind in this operation in the form of insoluble sulphate . Dilute the filtrate considerably , and add a solution of carbonate of soda until the reaction is distinctly alkaline ; then add an excess of solution of cyanide of potassium ( free from sulphide of potassium ) . Heat gently for some time , and then filter . The precipitate contains the whole of the lead and bismuth which may be present as carbonates , whilst the thallium is in solution . A current of sulphuretted hydrogen now being passed through the liquid , precipitates all the thallium , whilst the copper , antimony , tin , and arsenic remain dissolved . ' If cadmium and mercury are present , they will accompany the thallium . The former can readily be dissolved out by warm dilute sulphuric acid , which has scarcely any solvent action on the sulphide of thallium , whilst this in its turn can be separated from the sulphide of mercury by being boiled in moderately dilute nitric acid , in which the sulphide of mercury is insoluble . These two metals are , however , seldom present with thallium in the ores which I have examined . The nitric-acid solution is now to be evaporated to dryness , the residue dissolved in hot dilute sulphuric acid , and a piece of pure metallic zinc placed in the liquid ; the thallium will be at once precipitated in the form of a deep-brown powder , which soon changes to a heavy black , granular precipitate . The metal can be obtained in the coherent form by fusion in hydrogen . This method of analysis is given on the supposition that all the above metals are present . It may generally be much abridged , as the ore is seldom of so complicated a character . If there is a difficulty in procuringperfectly pure zinc for the reduction of the sulphate to the metallic state , this can be effected by passing a weak voltaic current through the liquid , using platinum poles ; the metal will then be precipitated in the reguline , or spongy state , according to the strength of the current . I have not been very successful in reducing the oxide by hydrogen . The current of gas carries the volatile oxide away from the heated part of the tube before complete reduction takes place . It is , however , probable , from an observation made towards the conclusion of this experiment , that , with a longer tube in proportion to the quantity of material , kept at a good heat throughout its length , this plan might give good results , the metal being considerably less volatile than the oxide . In many cases , when minute traces only of thallium accompany large quantities of other metals , it may be advisable to repeat the whole or some of the above operations , in order to purify this element from foreign metals which may have escaped complete removal . I now pass on to a description of thallium and its chemical reactions . Thallium in the pure state is a heavy metal , bearing a remarkable resemblance to lead in its physical properties . Its specific gravity is , however , higher-about 12 . The freshly scraped surface has a brilliant metallic lustre not quite so blue in colour as lead , and it tarnishes more rapidly than this latter metal . It is very soft , being readily cut with a knife and indented with the nail ; it may also be hammered out and drawn into wire , but has not much tenacity in this form . It easily marks paper . The fusing-point is below redness , and with care several pieces may be melted together and cast into one lump . There is , however , generally a loss in this operation , owing to its rapid oxidation . The metal itself does not appear to be sensibly volatile below a red heat . I have made no special attempts at present to determine the atomic weight , although from two estimations of the amount of sulphur in the sulphide it appears to be very heavy . The figures obtained did not , however , agree well enough to enable me to speak more definitely on this point , than that I believe it to be above 100 . I may mention that I obtained this element in the pure metallic state and exhibited it to several friends as early as January last * , and should then have published an account of it , had it not been for the reasons already mentioned . Thallium is soluble in nitric , hydrochloric , and sulphuric acids , the former attacking it with greatest energy , with evolution of red vapours . Oxides of Thallium.-Thallium forms two , and probably three oxides : one possessing basic properties , which I shall call the oxide ; another containing more oxygen , possessing acid properties , which may therefore be called thallic acid ; and most likely a third , or suboxide , which forms the first portions of the precipitate formed by zinc in solutions of this metal ; the first action being a darkening of the solution , and the production of a deep-brown powder , which by longer contact with zinc turns to a dense black precipitate . Upon carefully evaporating the nitric-acid solution upon a waterbath , but not carrying it to dryness , a mass of deliquescent crystals is obtained on cooling , which are decomposed upon addition of water with separation of a white or pale-yellow precipitate , which appears to be a subnitrate , and an acid solution containing nitrate of thallium . If the liquid is evaporated quite to dryness and kept at a temperature of 100 ? C. for a little time , the nitric acid goes off , and leaves a residue of thallic acid . Thallic Acid.-This acid is soluble in water , and may be obtained in the crystalline form from its aqueous solution . It then forms crystals , which are permanent in the air , and have an acid reaction to test-paper . The thallates of the alkalies are also soluble in water , an( may be prepared by dissolving the acid in the alkali , or by fusing thallium or its oxide with a mixture of alkaline carbonate and nitrate . The method I originally published for extracting thallium was based upon the formation in this manner of an alkaline thallate soluble in water . This acid is also produced in solution when permanganate of potash is added to a soluble salt of oxide of thallium . Chloride of Thallium.-If a current of dry chlorine is passed over precipitated thallium at a moderate heat , they combine with formation of a volatile chloride , which condenses in the cool part of the tube in the form of a pale-yellow crystalline powder , fusing together in parts to a crystalline lump . Water only partially dissolves this , with production of a white insoluble residue . Dilute hydrochloric acid added to the turbid solution immediately renders it clear ; upon evaporating this solution over a water-bath , white crystals of the chloride are deposited . When the nitric-acid solution of thallium or its sulphide is evaporated with an excess of hydrochloric acid , and then more hydrochloric acid added and the evaporation repeated to a syrup , a residue is obtained which is apparently decomposed by water with production of a white precipitate : this is chloride of thallium ; it is insoluble or nearly so in water , but readily soluble in dilute hydrochloric or nitric acid . Sulphide of Thallium.-When sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through the acid solution of chloride of thallium , a partial precipitation of a reddish-brown powder takes place ; this appears to be a combination of the chloride and sulphide , and the metal is never entirely removed from solution by this means . The best method of obtaining the sulphide is to precipitate it with sulphide of ammonium in an alkaline solution : unless a large quantity of thallium is present , no immediate effect is produced beyond the darkening of the liquid ; it assumes a brown tint , which becomes rapidly more and more intense , especially upon gently heating it , until the sulphide of thallium separates in the form of a deep-brown heavy precipitate which shows a great tendency to collect together in clots at the bottom of the vessel : this formation of the sulphide is very characteristic of the metal . Sulphide of thallium is insoluble in an excess of sulphide of ammonium , ammonia , or cyanide of potassium . Its complete precipitation as sulphide from solutions containing an excess of cyanide of potassium affords a ready means of separating thallium from several metals with which it is frequently associated . It is difficultly soluble in hydrochloric or sulphuric acids , but readily so in nitric acid . When dry , it is a deep-brown , almost black powder , fusing and volatilizing when heated : when pure , it is neither so fusible nor so volatile as sulphur ; but when it occurs with an excess of this latter element , it is very difficult to separate from it by sublimation . Carbonate of Thallium is precipitated upon adding an alkaline carbonate to the acid chloride solution ; it is moderately soluble in an excess of carbonate of ammonia , and readily so in cyanide of potassium . This is a very definite reaction , and enables thallium to be separated with accuracy from lead and bismuth . Sulphate of Thallium.-When the hydrochloric or nitric solution is evaporated down with sulphuric acid , the more volatile acid is driven off and the sulphate is left behind . It is crystalline and soluble in water . Iodide of Thallium is precipitated as a yellowish-red powder upon cautious addition of iodide of potassium to a solution of thallium . It is readily soluble in excess of iodide of potassium , forming a colourless solution . Phosphate of Thallium forms a white flocculent precipitate soluble in mineral acids , but sparingly soluble in acetic acid . Ferrocyanide of Thallium is white and insoluble in water . Cyanide of Thallium is precipitated as a white or light-brown powder upon the cautious addition of cyanide of potassium to a solution of thallium . It is readily soluble in an excess of the precipitant . Chromate of Thallium is a pale-yellow precipitate soluble in acids and reprecipitated upon neutralization with ammonia . No precipitates are produced when a solution of thallium is mixed with protochloride of tin , oxalic acid , carbazotic acid , sutlphurous acid , or protosulphate of iron . Most of these reactions have been independently verified by my friends E. 0 . Brown , Esq. , and J. Spiller , Esq. , of the Chemical Department , Woolwich Arsenal ; and I am glad to be enabled to take this opportunity of expressing my obligations to them for their valuable aid . The reactions are sufficient to prove chemically that the body under examination is a new element . Its behaviour in the spectrum apparatus is perhaps the most conclusive test upon this point . When a minute portion of the metal ( the sulphide , chloride , or , in fact , any compound of thallium ) is introduced into the flame of the spectroscope , it immediately produces a single green line , perfectly sharp and well defined upon a black ground , and of extraordinary purity and intensity , almost equal to the sodium-line in brilliancy . It is not , however , very lasting . Owing to its great volatility , a portion introduced at once into the flame merely shows the line as a brilliant flash , remaining only a fraction of a second ; but if it be introduced into the flame gradually , the line continues present for a much longer time . If , also , a piece of metallic thallium be introduced into the flame on a platinum wire loop , they fiuse together , and the alloy gives the green line rather more permanently , although of course fainter . Working on a small scale , it is not easy to obtain these compounds free from soda ; but when that is effected , and a tolerable quantity of substance is held on a loop of platinum wire in a flame , the green colour is most brilliant , and produces very extraordinary effects upon the appearance of surrounding objects . If thallium could be obtained in quantity , this ready means of producing an intense and homogeneous green light could not fail to be applicable to some usefil purpose . The green line of the thallium spectrum appears to be unaccompanied by any line or band in other parts of the spectrum . A flame of sufficient temperature to bring the orange line of lithium into view produces no addition to the one thallium-line ; and an application of telescopic power strong enough to separate the two sodium-lines a considerable distance apart still shows the thallium-line single . I consider therefore that I am justified in stating that thallium produces the simplest spectrum of any 7knoton element . Theoretical inquiries into the cause of the spectrum lines , and their relation to other constants of an element , may be facilitated now we know a metal which gives rise to luminous vibrations of only one degree of refrangibility . The remarkable simplicity of the thallium spectrum offers a strong contrast to the complicated spectra given by mercury , bismuth , and lead the metals to which it has the most chemical resemblance . The position of the green line does not coincide with any definite line in the solar spectrum . According to Kirchhoff 's theory , we must 1862 . therefore assume that thallium is not present to any great extent in the sun . Under the highest telescopic power of my apparatus , the line appears to be absolutely identical in refrangibility with a sharp welldefined line in the barium spectrum , to which Professors Bunsen and Kirchhoff have given the name BaB . Want of material has hitherto prevented me from taking accurate measurements of the distance between the thallium-line and the principal lines of the solar spectrum . This green line is an exquisitely delicate test for the presence of thallium , and shows it to be a somewhat widely distributed element . Many specimens of crude sulphur contain it ( especially when rather dark-looking ) . In most cases it is only necessary to set fire to as large a piece of sulphur ( less than a pea ) as the platinum loop will hold , and when it has nearly burned away to blow it out , and then introduce it at leisure into the flame of the spectroscope , for the thallium to show its presence by a bright-green line which will flash for an instant into the field of view . Although the greater part of the thallium is left behind after burning off the excess of sulphur in this manner , some of it volatilizes , and consequently , if the specimen gives no indications of thallium by this treatment , it will be advisable to dissolve out as much of the sulphur as possible with bisulphide of carbon , and then to test the residue in the flame . Thallium is a constituent of very many mineral ores . Upon examining a large collection of cupriferous pyrites from different parts of the world , I found it present in more than one-eighth . It is not confined to any particular locality ; neither does it seem to bear any relation to the presence or absence of arsenic in the mineral . I have , however , very rarely met with it in pyrites in which copper was absent . In most cases it is only necessary to powder a small fragment of the mineral and ignite a little of it in the flame on a moistened platinum wire , for the green line to be distinctly visible . If a thalliferous pyrites is finely powdered and then heated to redness in a glass tube , as much as possible out of contact with air , the sulphide of thallium , together with some free sulphur , sublimes from it and may be condensed by appropriate arrangement . This sublimate gives the thallium-line with great brilliancy . Owing to the frequent occurrence of thallium in copper ores , it is very probable that this element may sometimes be present in commercial copper , and may give rise to some of the well-known , but unexplained , differences of its quality . I am at present engaged in investigating this subject , and have already found some indications of thallium in commercial products . I have no hesitation in saying that in some of our large copper , sulphur , and sulphuric-acid works , thallium is at the present time being thrown away by the hundredweight : a very slight modification of the present arrangements of the furnaces and condensing flues , or even an examination of some of the residues , would enable nearly the whole of this to be saved . Bearing this in view , I am now in communication with several large consumers of thalliferous minerals . My applications have without exception . been met with the utmost courtesy and most obliging offers of assistance , and there is therefore every probability that I shall soon have an opportunity of preparing this new element in considerable quantities , and thus be enabled to pursue the investigation with more comfort and accuracy than hitherto , when my stock of material has had to be counted by the grain .

112219

3701662

On the Photographic Transparency of Various Bodies, and on the Photographic Effects of Metallic and other Spectra Obtained by Means of the Electric Spark. [Abstract]

159

166

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. Allen Miller

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112219

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112219

Chemistry 2

Optics

Chemistry

IX . " On the Photographic Transparency of various Bodies , and on the Photographic Effects of Metallic and other Spectra obtained by means of the Electric Spark . " By Prof. W. ALLEN MILLER , M.D. , LLD. . , V.P. and Treas . R.S. Received June 19 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) In this paper the author pursues an inquiry the commencement of which was communicated to the Chemical Section of the British Association last year . Owing to the employment of a prism of bisulphide of carbon , he was then led to believe that the photographic effects of the electric spectra produced by the different metals were in a great degree similar , if not identical . Subsequent investigations have , however , shown himr that the absorbent effects of the bisulphide upon the chemical rays are so great , that the conclusions then drawn from observations made by this refracting medium require very considerable modification . Notwithstanding the great length of the chemical spectra obtained by the aid of the bisulphide , not more than one-sixth or one-seventh of the true extent of the spectrum produced by the electric spark between various metals is procured , as may be shown by comparing the spectrum with one of the same metal furnished by the use of a lens and prism of rock-crystal . Rock-crystal , however , possesses but a comparatively small refractive and dispersive power , whilst it almost always affords some trace of double refraction in one portion or other of the spectrum procured by its means . In searching for some singly refracting medium which should possess sufficient refractive and dispersive power to enable it to be used advantageously in the construction of lenses and prisms suitable for this inquiry , the author was led to examine the photographic absorption of a variety of colourless substances which appeared perfectly transparent to the luminous rays . The experiments detailed in the first portion of the present paper refer to this absorbent action of various media upon the chemical rays of the spectrum ; whilst the second portion of the paper is devoted to a description of the electric spectra of some of the more important elementary bodies , and the effect of varying the gaseous media in which the sparks producing these spectra are made to originate . 1 . The Photographic Transparency of Bodies . In the experiments upon the absorbent action of the different media , the source of light employed was the electric spark obtained between two metallic wires ( generally of fine silver ) , connected with the terminals of the secondary wires of a ten-inch induction-coil . The light , after passing through a narrow vertical slit , either before or after traversing a stratum of the material the chemical transparency or diactinic quality of which was to be tested , was allowed to fall upon a quartz prism placed at the angle of minimum deviation for the mean of the refracted rays . Immediately behind this was a lens of rock-crystal , and behind this , at a suitable distance , the spectrum was received upon a collodion-film coated with iodide of silver ; this was supported in the frame of a camera , and after an exposure , generally lasting for five minutes , the image was developed by means of pyrogallic acid , and fixed with cyanide of potassium . The general results of these experiments were as follows1 . Colourless bodies which are equally transparent to the visible rays , vary greatly in permeability to the chemical rays . 2 . Bodies which are photographically transparent in the solid form , preserve their transparency in the liquid and in the gaseous states . 3 . Colourless transparent solids which exert a considerable photographic absorption , preserve their absorptive action with greater or less intensity both in the liquid and in the gaseous states . Whether the compound is liquefied by heat or dissolved in water , these conclusions respecting liquids are equally true . The perfect permeability of water to the chemical rays , conjoined with the circumstance that in no instance does the process of solution seem to interfere with the special action upon the incident rays of the substance dissolved , renders it practicable to submit to this test a great number of bodies which it would otherwise be impossible to subject to this species of experiment on account of the extreme difficulty of obtaining them in crystals of sufficient size and limpidity . Glass vessels cannot be employed to contain the liquids during the trial . Flint-glass , crown , hard white Bohemian , plate-glass , windowsheet , and Faraday 's optical glass , all , even in thin layers , shorten the spectrum by from three-fifths to four-fifths or even more of its length . Mica produces a similar effect . Indeed , the only substance which the author found could be employed with advantage is rockcrystal cut into thin slices and polished . The value of this material in researches upon the more refrangible end of the spectrum was pointed out by Prof. Stokes and M. E. Becquerel several years ago . In order to hold the liquids for experiment , a small trough was prepared by cutting a notch in a thick plate of plate-glass , the sides being completed by means of thin plates of quartz , which were pressed against the ground surfaces of the plate-glass by the aid of elastic bands of caoutchouc ; a stratum of liquid of 0-75 inch in depth was thus obtained for each experiment . The substances which , after atmospheric air and certain other gases , are most perfectly diactinic , are rock-crystal , ice , as well as pure water , and white fluor-spar . Rock-salt is scarcely inferior to them , if at all . Then follow various sulphates , including those of baryta , and the hydrated sulphates of lime and magnesia , as well as those of the alkalies . The carbonates of the alkalies and alkaline earths , as also the phosphates , arseniates , and borates , are likewise tolerably transparent , though saturated solutions of phosphoric and arsenic acids exerted considerable absorbent power ; so also did those of the alkalies , potash , and soda , possibly from the presence of a trace of some foreign colouring matter , as those liquids had an extremely faint greenish tinge . The soluble fluorides , as well as the chlorides and bromides of the metals of the alkalies and alkaline earths , are freely diactinic , but the iodides are much less so , and exhibit certain peculiarities . All the organic acids and their salts which were tried by the author exerted a marked absorptive action upon the more refrangible rays . Amongst those subjected to experiment were the oxalates , tartrates , acetates , and citrates , those mentioned first in order having the greatest absorptive action . It is , however , much more difficult to obtain organic compounds in a state of purity sufficient to furnish trustworthy results , than is the case with the salts of the inorganic acids . The author , therefore , expresses himself with more reserve upon some of these organic bodies , particularly the acetates , than in other cases . The different varieties of sugar are freely diactinic . Amongst the salts of inorganic acids , the nitrates are the most remarkable for their power of arresting the chemical rays . A solution of each of these salts , in all the instances tried , cut off all the more refrangible rays , and reduced the spectrum to less than a sixth of its ordinary length . The chlorates , however , do not participate in this absorptive power to nearly the same extent . Although the sulphates , as a class , are largely diactinic , the sulphites are much less so ; and the hyposulphites cut off about threefourths of the length of the spectrum , leaving only the less refrangible portion . Of eighteen different liquids tried by the author , two only can be regarded as tolerably diactinic , viz. water , which is eminently so , and absolute alcohol , which , however , exhibits a considerable falling off . The liquids which follow are mentioned in the order of their chemical transparency , those most transparent being mentioned first : -Dutch liquid , chloroform , ether ; then benzol and distilled glvy cerin , which differ but little ; then fousel oil , wood-spirit , and oxalic ether , which are also nearly alike ; acetic acid , oil of turpentine , glycol , carbolic acid , liquid paraffin , boiling at 360 ? F. , and bisu phide of carbon . Finally , terchloride and oxychloride of phosphorus , although perfectly colourless and limpid , arrest all the chemical rays . The experiments upon aeriform bodies yielded important results ; they show but little coincidence with those of Tyndall on the absorptive power of the gases for radiant heat . These experiments were made by interposing in the track of the ray between the vertical slit and the quartz prism , a brass tube two feet long , closed at each end air-tight by means of a plate of quartz . Each gas or vapour in succession was introduced into the tube , and the results compared with those produced by causing the rays to traverse the tube when filled with atmospheric air . Amongst the colourless gases , oxygen , hydrogen , nitrogen , carbonic acid , and carbonic oxide exhibit no absorptive power . Olefiant gas , protoxide of nitrogen , cyanogen , and hydrochloric acid exert a slight but perceptible absorbent effect . But in the case of coal-gas the absorptive action is extremely marked , the more refrangible half of the spectrum being cut off by it abruptly . The absorption exerted by sulphurous acid is still more powerful and as sharply defined ; sulphuretted hydrogen and the vapour of bisulphide of carbon exhibit a still more decided absorbent action ; the effect of the terchloride and oxychloride of phosphorus is not less marked . This absorbent action of these different compounds of sulphur and phosphorus is very striking . Coal-gas appears to owe its remarkable power of arresting the chemical rays to the presence of the vapour of benzol and other heavy hydrocarbons ; since the vapour of benzol at 65 ? , diffused to saturation through a column of atmospheric air two feet long , exerts a still more powerful absorptive effect than coal-gas . On the other hand , the effect of a similar arrangement , in which the vapour of ether , of chloroform , and of oil of turpentine was substituted for that of benzol , gave effects which , though perceptible , were much less marked . An arbitrary scale is laid down , by which a comparative estimate of the absorptive power of each compound , whether solid , liquid , or gaseous , may be effected with tolerable accuracy . With a view of facilitating the production of a spectrum on a flat field , at a uniform distance at all points from the prism , the author instituted a series of experiments , in which a small metallic speculum was substituted for the lens of rock-crystal ; but the loss of chemical power in the reflected rays was so considerable , and this loss occurred so unequally at different points , that the method was abandoned . The results of the photographic action of light reflected at an angle of 45 ? from the polished surface of several of the principal metals is given . The reflexion from gold , although not very intense , was found to be more uniform in quality than that from any other metal that was tried . Burnished lead also gave very good results . The reflexion from silver is singularly deficient in some portions of the less refrangible rays , although in most other parts the reflexion is tolerably perfect , except for rays of extremely high refrangibility . 2 . The Electric Spectra of the Metals.-The author proceeds then to detail his experiments upon the spectra obtained by causing the sparks caused by the secondary current from the induction-coil to pass between electrodes composed of various elementary substances , and he gives photographs of the impressions obtained from collodion negatives of a considerable number of different elementary bodies . The spectra were procured by arranging a quartz-train in the manner already described . Among the elements so examined are the following : Platinum . Arsenic . Copper . Palladium . Tellurium . Aluminum . Gold . Tungsten . Cadmium . Silver . Molybdenum . Zinc . Mercury . Chromium . Magnesium . Lead . Manganese . Sodium . Tin . Iron . Potassium . Bismuth . Cobalt . Graphite , and Antimony . Nickel . Gas-coke . The commencement of each spectrum in its less refrangible portion is similar in nearlyall cases ; and as it is this portion only which is transmissible through bisulphide of carbon , this circumstance explains the similarity of all the spectra procured by the author from different metals in his earlier experiments , already laid before the British Association . In the more refrangible parts of the spectrum great and characteristic differences between the results obtained with the different metals are at once manifest . In some cases , as in those of copper and nickel , the action is greatly prolonged in the more refrangible extre mity , whilst the intense and highly characteristic spectrum of magnesium is much shorter . In many cases metals which are allied in chemical properties exhibit a certain similarity in their spectra . This occurs , for example , with the magnetic metals , iron , cobalt , and nickel , and with the group embracing bismuth , antimony , and arsenic . The more volatile metals exhibit generally the most strongly marked lines . Cadmium , for instance , gives two intense groups . Zinc , two very strong lines near the less refrangible extremity , three near the middle , and four nearly equidistant lines towards the termination of the more refrangible portion , whilst in the spectrum of magnesium the chemical action is almost suddenly terminated near the middle by a triple group of very broad and strong lines . It will be observed , on examining the photographs of these spectra of the various metals , that the impressions , particularly in the more refrangible portions , consist of a double row of dots , running parallel with the length of the spectrum , and forming the terminations of lines rather than lines themselves , as though the intense ignition of the detached particles of metal , necessary to furnish rays capable of exciting chemical action , had ceased before the transfer of these particles to the opposite electrode had been completed . If each electrode be composed of a different metal , the spectrum of each metal is impressed separately upon the plate , as is evident on examining the photographs . When alloys are employed as electrodes , the spectrum exhibited is that due to both the metals ; but if the metals made use of are approximatively pure , the spectrum is hardly to be distinguished from that of the pure metal . In the case when alloys are used as electrodes , it is not always the more volatile metal which impresses its spectrum most strongly . A specimen of brass , for example , containing 38 per cent. of zinc , gave a spectrum which could not be distinguished from that of pure copper , though an alloy of three parts of gold and one of silver gave a spectrum in which the lines due to silver predominated . The author then proceeds to describe a number of experiments upon the transmission of sparks between electrodes of different metals in a current of several different gases . The apparatus employed consisted of a glass tube ; into the side an aperture was drilled , which could be closed by a plate of quartz ; the ends of the tube were closed by ground brass plates , each supporting a pair of brass forceps , into which the electrodes were fitted ; through the axis of the tube a current of each gas was transmitted at the ordinary atmospheric pressure . Among the gases thus tried were hydrogen , protoxide of nitrogen , carbonic acid , carbonic oxide , defiant gas , marsh-gas , cyanogen , sulphuretted hydrogen , sulphurous acid , nitrogen , and oxygen . The spectrum obtained from the same metal varied considerably in these different media . In hydrogen the intensity of the spectrum was greatly reduced , and the more refrangible rays were wanting , but no new rays made their appearance . In carbonic acid , carbonic oxide , olefiant gas , marsh-gas , and cyanogen , the special lines due to the metal were produced , but in each a series of identical lines appeared , and these new lines were referable to the carbon contained in each of these gases . Each gas exhibits special lines which are continued across the spectrum , and are never interrupted like those of the metals . The author observed that many of these gases , such as protoxide of nitrogen , hydrochloric and sulphurous acid , presented a considerable obstacle to the passage of the sparks from the induction-coil .

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3701662

On the Long Spectrum of Electric Light. [Abstract]

166

168

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George G. Stokes

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112220

Optics

Atomic Physics

Optics

X. " On the Long Spectrum of Electric Light . " By Professor GEORGE G. STOKES , M.A. , Sec. R.S. &c. Received June 19 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) The author 's researches on fluorescence had led him to perceive that glass was opaquie for the more refrangible invisible rays of the solar spectrum , and that electric light contained rays of still higher refrangibility , which were quite intercepted by glass , but that quartz transmitted these rays freely . Accordingly he was led to procure prisms and a lens of quartz , which , when applied to the examination of the voltaic arc , or of the discharge of a Leyden jar , by forming a pure spectrum and receiving it on a highly fluorescent substance , revealed the existence of rays forming a spectrum no less than six or eight times as long as the visible spectrum . This long spectrum , as formed by the voltaic are with copper electrodes , was exhibited [ June I9y 166 at a lecture given at the Royal Institution in 1853 ; but the author , for reasons he mentioned , did not then further pursue the subject . Having subsequently found that the spark of an inductioncoil with a Leyden jar in connexion with the secondary terminals yielded a spectrum quite bright enough to work by , he resumed the investigation , and examined the spectra exhibited by a variety of metals as electrodes , as well as the mode of absorption of the rays of high refrangibility by various substances . The spectra of the metals may be viewed at pleasure by means of fluorescence , and the mode of absorption of the invisible rays by a given solution may be at once observed ; but there are difficulties attending the preparation in this way of sufficiently accurate maps of the metallic lines ; and the great liability of the rays of high refrangibility to be absorbed by impurities present in very minute quantity renders the certain determination of the optical character , in this respect , of substances which are only moderately opaque a matter of considerable difficulty . Having found that Dr. Miller had been engaged independently at the same subject , working by photography , the author deemed it unnecessary to attempt a delineation of the metallic lines ( for which , however , he has recently devised a practical method that was found to work satisfactorily ) , or to examine further the absorption of rays of high refrangibility by solutions of metallic salts , &c. The present paper contains therefore mainly results obtained in other directions in the same wide field of research . Among the metals examined , the author had found aluminium the richest in invisible rays of extreme refrangibility ; and accordingly aluminium electrodes were employed when the deportment of such rays had to be specially examined . As the bright aluminium lines of high refrangibility do not appear to have been taken by photography , a drawing of the aluminium spectrum is given , with zinc and cadmium for comparison . The author has also described and figured the mode of absorption of the invisible rays by solutions of various alkaloids and glucosides . Bodies of these classes , he finds , are usually intensely opaque , acting on the invisible spectrum with an intensity comparable to that with which colouring matters act on the visible . This intensity of action causes the effect of minute impurities to disappear , and thereby increases the value of the characters observed . It very often happens that at some part or other of the long spectrum a band of absorption , or maximum of opacity , occurs ; and the position of this band affords a highly distinctive character of the substance which produced it . Among natural crystals , besides the previously known yellow uranite , the althor found that in adullaria , and felspar generally , a strong fluorescence is produced under the action of the rays of high refrangibility , referable not to impurities , but to the essential constituents of the crystal . A particular variety of fluor-spar shows also an interesting feature , though in this case referable to an impurity , exhibiting a well-marked reddish fluorescence under the exclusive influence of rays of the very highest refrangibility . This property renders such a crystal a useful instrument of research . With some metals broad , slightly convex electrodes were found to have a great advantage over wires , exhibiting the invisible lines far more strongly , while with some metals the difference was not great . The blue negative light formed when the jar is removed , and the electrodes are close together , was found to be exceedingly rich in invisible rays , especially invisible rays of moderate refrangibility . These exhibited lines independent of the electrodes , and therefore referable to the air . This blue light has a very appreciable duration , and is formed by what the author calls an arc discharge . The paper concludes with some speculations as to the cause of the superiority of broad electrodes , and of the heating of the negative electrode .

112221

3701662

On the Reflexion of Polarized Light from Polished Surfaces. [Abstract]

168

170

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Samuel Haughton

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112221

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112221

Optics

Chemistry 2

Optics

XI . " On the Reflexion of Polarized Light from Polished Surfaces . " By the Rev. SAMUEL HAUrGHTON , M.A. , F.R.S. , Fellow of Trinity College , Dublin . Received June 9 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) When a plane-polarized beam of light is incident on a polished surface at a certain angle of incidence , and polarized in a certain azimuth , the reflected beam of light is circularly polarized . The tangent of this angle of incidence is called by the author the Coefficient of Refraction , and upon it appears to depend the brilliancy of a polished surface . The cotangent of the azimuth of incident polarization is called the Coefficient of Reflexion , and upon it appears to depend the rich lustre , strikingly exhibited in polished copper and gold . The paper contains an account of the experiments made to determine , with precision , these constants for the following substances : A. Transparent Bodies . 1 . Munich glass ( a ) . 4 . Fluor-spar . 2 . Munich glass ( b ) . 5 . Glass of antimony . 3 . Paris glass . 6 . Quartz crystal . B. Pure Metals . 1 . Silver . 7 . Zinc . 2 . Gold . 8 . Lead . 3 . Mercury . 9 . Bismuth . 4 . Platinum . 10 . Tin . 5 . Palladium . 11 . Iron and steel . 6 . Copper . 12 . Aluminium . C. Alloys . 1 . Copper and tin ( speculum metal ) . 9 . Copper and zinc ( 3 Cu+Zn ) . 2 . Copper and zinc ( 10 Cu+Zn ) . 10 . , , , , ( 2Cu+Zn ) . 3 . , , , , ( 9Cu+Zn ) . 11 . , , , , ( Cu+Zn ) . 4 . , , , ( 8 Cu+Zn ) . 12 . , , , , ( Cu+2 Zn ) . 5 . , , , ( 7Cu+Zn ) . 13 . , , ( Cu+3 Zn ) . 6 . , , ( 6Cu+Zn ) . 14 . , , , ( Cu+4 Zn ) . 7 . , ( 5 Cu+Zn ) . 15 . , , , , ( C+5 Zn ) . 8 . , , , , ( 4Cu+Zn ) . The determination of the optical constants of these substances leads to many interesting conclusions ; among which the following may be stated:1 . That transparent bodies , as well as metals , possess a coefficient of reflexion , which is sometimes very sensible , although there are bodies in which it is very small . 2 . That Silver is the only substance which possesses the qualities of brilliancy and lustre , represented by the coefficients of refraction and reflexion , in a high degree . 3 . Of the metals which have high brilliancy and little lustre may be named Mercury , Palladium , Zinc , and Iron . 4 . Of the metals which have high lustre and little brilliancy there are only two , Gold and Copper . 5 . Results of the highest interest appear from an examination of the optical constants of the alloys of copper and zinc , which cannot be given in an abstract . 6 . In the details of the several experiments , the author calls attention to several remarkable laws , or indications of laws , which appear to him to require some notice from theorists . a. When the azimuth of the incident beam is less than the circular limit , the axis major of the reflected ellipse , at the principal incidence , lies in the plane of incidence ; but when the azimuth is greater than the circular limit , it is perpendicular to the plane of incidence , and as the incidence varies , the axis major twice approaches to a minimum distance from that plane . 6 . There appears to the author to be some indication in the experiments on metals , that the quantity known to theorists as ( ) is not a function of the incidence only ; a conclusion which , if correct , would require the intervention of a third wave suppressed , or some such theoretical supposition , to account for it .

112222

3701662

On the Loess of the Valleys of the South of England and of the Somme and the Seine. [Abstract]

170

173

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Joseph Prestwich

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112222

Geography

Biography

Geography

XII . " On the Loess of the Valleys of the South of England and of the Somme and the Seine . " By JOSEPH PRESTWICHU Esq. , F.R.S. Received June 19 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) In this paper the author takes up and discusses a point connected with the former inquiry , but postponed in the paper he read before the Royal Society in March last , a recent visit to France having led him to form a conclusion with regard to the origin of the Loess sooner than he then expected . On that occasion he referred the loam and brick-earth , with land and freshwater shells , which occurs in the valleys and on many of the hills in the South of England and North of France , to temporary inundations of the old rivers . On the present occasion he shows that this deposit is intimately connected with the origin of the rivervalleys and with the fluviatile highand low-level gravels described in his last paper . Reference is first made to the Loess of the valley of the Rhine , and the author accepts Sir Charles Lyell 's explanation that it is the result of a river-deposit ; but he does not agree in the explanation as to the mode which led to the actual results , so far as the present district is concerned . One difficulty in understanding the spread of the loess in England and France has always been the greatly different levels on which it occurs , being present in the bottom of the valleys , and occurring on ground 100 , 200 , and 300 feet higher . This evidently places it beyond the reach of inundations with the valleys formed as they are at present , and the prior origin of which the common covering of loess might lead one at first to infer . But if , instead of starting at the present low levels , the valleys be taken at the level the author showed them to have had at the period of the upper highlevel gravels , it will give a base for the original river-levels of 100 to 200 feet above the existing valleys , and therefore it will reduce the difference of level of the higher deposits of loess to be accounted for , to 100 or 150 feet . In many cases it is less , but it is still considerable . It thus brings the whole of the loess within the possible range of inundations of the old Post-pliocene rivers at different periods of their age ; the higher beds of loess having been deposited during floods at an early period , and before the excavation of the present river-valleys , and the lower beds having been deposited after the excavation of the valley , and while some of the old meteorological conditions still prevailed . The author shows that the loess is , in fact , like the highand lowlevel gravels , always connected with river-valleys , although it extends much beyond the limits of these beds , rising to much higher levels , and extending far beyond their limits . He then shows that in the valley of the Somme , the difference between the highest levels of the loess and the upper gravels thus becomes reduced to 60 or 80 feet ; in the Oise , to apparently about 50 feet ; in the Seine valley , to about 120 to 150 feet ; and in the Bresle valley to 70 feet . The loess contains the same mammalian remains and the same species of land mollusca as the gravels . Of freshwater mollusca it contains hardly any . Notwithstanding the extension of the loess over the higher grounds flanking the river-valleys , still such grounds are always bounded by higher hills , which seem to have formed barriers to its further spread . It seems , therefore , that although the connexion of these several and distinct deposits is , owing to their irregular and wide spread , not always apparent , it is probable that they are aelated to the same phenomena , and that they present two phases of causes having a common and contemporaneous origin . In all rivers subject to floods , three forms of sediment will be deposited : first , gravel and shingle in the more direct channel ; secondly , sand in the more sheltered places ; thirdly , fine silt where the floodwaters are at rest out of the direct channel . In such manner the author conceives the highand low-level gravels and the loess of all the levels to have been formed . ------.----------------..- ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... b ' b ' b " . Representing the Loess . d. A high-level gravel . c ' e ' . Lower-level gravel . m , n , o. The levels to which the river rose during inundations at different periods . If , therefore , the flood-water origin of the loess be admitted , it follows that , as it is found rising from 50 to 100 feet above the highest bed of the fluviatile gravels which mark the channels of the old rivers , it gives a measure of the magnitude of the floods of that period , showing that they rose at times 50 to 100 feet above their summer low levels ; like , in fact , the Tivers in arctic regions , but to a greater extent . Such conditions show their great erosive power , and furnish the evidence wanting on the former occasion to prove that such greater power had existed . Though a greater rainfall was inferred from other causes , this more direct evidence was wanting . The author mentions his discovery , on the occasion of his last visit to Paris , of freshwater shells of the genera imJineus and Valvata at two places in the low-level gravels of Paris , and again at Rouen . He also gives a section of some remarkable contortions , which he refers to ice-action , in the high-level gravel of Charonne . The fluviatile origin of the different gravels , as well as the greater action of ice at the higher levels , is therefore confirmed , as is also the suggestion that the volume of water carried down at the period in question by the rivers was infinitely greater thaa it now is . At the same time the view now given both explains the origin of the loess , so long an unsettled problem , and harmonizes with the hypothesis before advanced in explanation of the accompanying general phenomena .

112223

3701662

On the Simultaneous Distribution of Heat throughout Superficial Parts of the Earth. [Abstract]

173

175

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

H. G. Hennessy

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112223

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112223

Meteorology

Fluid Dynamics

Meteorology

XIII . " On the Simultaneous Distribution of Jet throughout superficial parts of the Earth . " By Professor H. G. HENNESSY , F.R.S. Peceived June 19 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) The principal object of this memoir is to develope the laws of the distribution of temperature in the portion of the atmosphere in contact with the earth , and to point out the connexion between the phenomena of a6rial temperature and those of soil and oceanic temperature . The author umintains that hitherto no perfect physical representation of the distribution of heat over the earth 's surface has been obtained . Humboldt 's luminous method of representing the distribution of mean temperatures necessarily presents us with the temperatures of places at those hours of local time when the temperature happens to be equal to that of the entire day . But such hours occur at different places not at the same moment of absolute time , and therefore the isothermal lines traced by the aid of their results alone , are not true isothermal lines in the same sense as we understand an isothermal line or surface within crystals , or other definite geometrical solids which have been recently the subjects of thermological inquiry . The distribution of sunshine at the outer limits of the atmosphere and at its base is first considered , and the nearly circular shape of the lines of equal sunshine is pointed out . After showing the connexion between these lines and the simultaneous isothermals for the air , land , and water , the author proceeds to more particularly discuss the aerothermal lines . As the term isothermal line has become universal in the sense of a line joining places possessing the same mean temperatures , the author proposes to designate the true lines of si multaneous equal temperature as synthermal lines . If any number of places have the same temperature at a given hour corresponding to the mean time of any one meridian , these places will be synthermal , and a line joining them will be a synthermal line . For this purpose the meridian of Greenwich has been selected , and a series of synthermal Tables have been calculated for different places corresponding to the Greenwich hours . For the construction of these Tables , the hourly observations of temperature made at the British Home and Colonial Observatories , the observations of Russia , Austria , Prussia , and Central Europe , as well as those of the United States , have been employed . The few series of hourly observations made by Arctic and African travellers have been also applied ; and in addition to the Tables thus directly constructed , others have been deduced by interpolation for stations whose geographical position rendered it desirable to bring them into the general view of temperature-distribution . All results expressed in Centigrade and Reaumur degrees have been reduced to the Fahrenheit scale . A fresh set of Tables has been formed from those corresponding to local time , with hours corresponding to the meridian at Greenwich . The synthermal Tables thus obtained show , as might be h priori expected , still greater differences between the temperatures of places in the same parallels of latitude than the Tables of mean temperature . Thus Rome and Tiflis differ in latitude by only 13 ' , and the mean temperature of Rome is 5§ 1 in excess of that of Tiflis . At 8 A.M. Greenwich time , they are synthermal , both possessing the temperature of 59§ 1 , while at 7 A.M. Tiflis surpasses Rome by 0 ? '6 , and at all other times besides these Rome surpasses Tiflis . At 4 A.M. this excess amounts to 9 ? 05 , Although Pekin is situated in the isothermal line which passes close to the Isle of Wight , it is synthermal at 5 A.M. ( Greenwich ) to some place 6 ? warmer than Rome , and probably therefore on the north coast of Africa , and is synthermal with a point north of the Orkneys at between 8 and 9 in the evening . Similar comparisons of distant places in both hemispheres lead to similar results . It appears that during certain periods of the day , alternately hot and cold spaces exist in the interior of the continents compared to the surrounding oceans . In the southern hemisphere the rising of synthermal temperatures appears to be a little inferior to what it is in the northern , if we compare together stations with nearly corresponding latitudes and differences of longitude in both hemispheres . From the results tabulated in his synthermal Tables , the author has projected on an equatorial map of the world , the synthermal lines of 4 A.M. and 2 P.M. Greenwich time . This map clearly exhibits the risings of the synthermals , and the existence of spaces of maximum temperature . The synthermals in both hemispheres rise towards the poles opposite these spaces , and converge towards the space of minimum tropical temperature . In islands circumstanced like the British Isles , the synthermals may be represented by two systems of closed curves , one for the day with an interior space of maximum temperature , and the other for the night with an interior space of minimum temperature . These groups would be connected somewhat in the way of the magnetic curves delineated by Gauss in his Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism ( Taylor 's Scientific Memoirs , vii . ) . The shapes of these groups would closely resemble the isothermals already published by the author* , and which , from the small differences of longitude in our islands , may be conceived to represent very closely the synthermals of 9 A.M. and 8 P.M. The probable shapes of the lines of equal soil temperature , or syngeothermals as the author calls them , are next considered ; and it is shown that they must not only present far more remarkable deviations from equatorial parallelism than the syna6rothermals , but also that their diurnal rising must be very considerable . The author points to the connexion between some of his results and the diurnal law of the wind force discovered by Mr. Osler ; and he also shows how the abnormal regressions of temperature in the latter months of spring may be partly explained by the circumstance that , although the isothermals of mean temperature during these months do not deviate widely from equatorial parallelism , the synthermals not only swing to a greater extent than during most of the other months of the year , but that they are also more closely crowded together . These results are most strikingly developed during the month of May .

112224

3701662

On the Differential Coefficients and Determinants of Lines, and Their Application to Analytical Mechanics. [Abstract]

176

179

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

A. Cohen

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http://www.jstor.org/stable/112224

Formulae

Fluid Dynamics

Mathematics

XIV . " On the Differential Coefficients and Determinants of Lines , and their application to Analytical Mechanics . " By A. COHEN , Esq. Communicated by Professor STOKES , Sec. R.S. Received May 8 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) 1 . The object of this paper is to develope a new method of proving and extending the formulae of analytical mechanics , and at the same time to show how the different steps themselves , in the analytical work by which those formulae are generally arrived at , exactly correspond to mechanical or geometrical facts , just as it is shown in modern geometry that the various equations of analytical geometry are capable of important interpretation . 2 . If OA and OB be two straight lines drawn from the origin 0 , then for well-known reasons AB may be called " the complete difference " of OA and OB , and may be denoted by ( OB)(OA ) . Similarly , if OA and OB represent two successive states of a variable line P at times t and t +at , then the line whose direction is the limiting direction of AB , and whose magnitude is the limit of AB , will be at called " the complete diffeirential coefficient " of P , and will be denoted by D , ( P ) . 3 . It is easy to see that the line which represents , in magnitude and direction , a particle 's velocity is the complete differential coefficient of the particle 's radius vector , and that , similarly , the line representing the particle 's acceleration is the complete differential coefficient of the line representing the velocity , and is therefore the second differential coefficient of the radius vector . In this case , therefore , Kinematics may be considered as the calculus of the first and second differential coefficients of lines . 4 . The following is the fundamental theorem concerning the differential coefficients of lines : the differential coefficient of a line is compounded of what would be the differential coefficient if the length alone varied , and of what would be the differential coefficient if the direction alone varied . Supposing the line to move in one and the same plane , it is easy to deduce from that theorem the expression for a line 's differential coefficient , and by applying to the component parts of that expression the same theorem again , we arrive at the elements of which a line 's second differential coefficient is composed . Moreover , since those first and second differential coefficients are the representatives of a particle 's velocity and acceleration , we are led by these investigations at once to all the analytical formule for motion in one plane relatively to moving axes , and are at the same time enabled to give to those formtlae a very simple interpretation . 5 . I conclude the first chapter by indicating how all the results thus obtained may be made to flow from the ordinary mode of representing lines by means of imaginary quantities . For instance , by differentiating the expression re ? 0 / l twice successively , we obtain d2 , ? \ 2 / -1 d ( ,2di\ WF -3 Vdt Trd ( ddt ) which expression is evidently compounded of the radial and transversal accelerations of a particle . 6 . On passing to the general case of a line moving in space , a new conception has to be introduced-one , however , which presents itself , more or less disguised , in almost all the ordinary formule of statics and dynamics . Let OA and OB be two straight lines ; draw OD perpendicular to and equal to twice the area of the triangle AOB ; then OD may be called " the determinant " of OA and OB , inasmuch as its projections on three axes of coordinates are the simplest determinants that canbe found with the coordinate projectionsofOAand OB . Moreover , if OD be drawn in such a direction that to an eye looking along DO the rotation from OA to OB appears a positive rotation , OD will be called the determinant of OA to OB , and may be denoted by det ( OA , OB ) . 7 . The connexion of the determinant , as above defined , with the axis of a couple and with statics in general is self-evident . Nor is its connexion with dynamics less intimate ; for if OA represent in magnitude and direction the angular velocity with which , and the instantaneous axis about which , OB is revolving at time t , then the linear velocity of a particle at B , the extremity of OB , is represented in magnitude and direction by det ( OA , OB ) . 8 . Having thus defined the determinants of lines , I proceed to prove a few fundamental propositions concerning them , which will often be found very useful in abbreviating and giving a clear meaning to complicated analytical work . Moreover , those propositions indi cate a remarkable symbolical resemblance between det ( P , Q ) and the product PQ . For instance , it may be proved that if P , P ' , Q be any three straight lines , then the resultant of det ( P , Q ) and det ( P ' , Q ) is det ( P+P ' , Q ) , where P+P ' denotes the resultant or complete sum of P and P ' . Again , it may be shown that the complete differential coefficient of det ( P , Q ) is exactly similar in form to the differential coefficient of the product P , Q. 9 . Furnished with these propositions , it is easy to extend the formule of the first chapter to lines moving in space of three dimensions . Let A denote the instantaneous axis about which , and the angular velocity with which , a line R , whose length at time t is r , revolves , then the complete differential coefficient of R is the resultant of d in the direction of IR , and the determinant of A to R , or Dt ( R)= -r 11 to Eu +det ( A , R ) . dt This is the fundamental proposition concerning the differential coefficient of a line . Applying it to the component parts of the last formula , we obtain a somewhat remarkable expression for the second differential coefficient of a line , and therefore also for a particle 's acceleration . That expression easily leads to the formulae for the acceleration of a particle relatively to any moving axes , and also to a very simple proof of Corioli 's beautiful theorem concerning relative motion . The use of this method is illustrated by showing how it enables us at once to write down the equations for the motion of the simple pendulum , taking the earth 's rotation into account . 10 . I now pass to the dynamics of a rigid body . Compounding the momenta of the different particles of a body as if they were forces , they may be reduced to a single momentum at 0 and a couple of momenta . The former I call the body 's single momentum , and denote it by U ; the latter I call the body 's momentum couple , and denote it , or rather denote its axis , by H. If now the external forces acting on the body be similarly reduced to a force P at 0 , and a couple whose axis is G , it may be shown that D'Alembert 's principle is contained in the proposition " that P and G are respectively the complete differential coefficients of U and H. " 178 11 . U and H , the body 's single momentum and momentum couple , may be found without difficulty in the ordinary way . In the case of a rigid body moving about a fixed point 0 , if A , B , C be the moments of inertia , and w % , wy/ , w be the angular velocities of rotation about the principal axes O. , O , 0 , then H is the resultant of Awe , , Bwy , C , o. Let then A denote the instantaneous axis and angular velocity of rotation , then Dt ( H ) is , by one of our fundamental theorems , equivalent to det ( A , H ) , together with dddd ( Awx ) II to O , t ( Bw ) I to 0 , t ( Cw ) I1 to , , and by D'Alembert 's principle D , ( H ) is the axis of the resultant couple formed by transferring to O all the external forces . 12 . The last theorem includes Euler 's equations , and the different extensions which those have of late received . I have attempted to show that , in solving mechanical problems , the above theorem will be generally found more useful than any of those equations . Moreover , it serves to explain the geometrical reason , independently of Euler 's equations , why the results are so much simplified in the case of two of the principal moments of inertia being equal to one another . 13 . In order to illustrate how advantageously and how completely the most complicated formule of dynamics may be interpreted , I have given a direct analytical proof of Euler 's equations , and have then shown that the consideration of each step of the analytical work leads to an extremely short demonstration of the same equations by means of the theory of the differential coefficients and determinants of lines .

112225

3701662

On the Theory of Probabilities. [Abstract]

179

184

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George Boole

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6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112225

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112225

Formulae

Tables

Mathematics

XV . " On the Theory of Probabilities . " By GEORGE BOOLE , Esq. , F.R.S. Received May 21 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) This paper has for its object the investigation of the general analytical conditions of a method for the solution of questions in the Theory of Probabilities , which was published in a work entitled " An Investigation of the Laws of Thought , &c. " * The application of the method to particular problems has been illustrated in the work referred to , and more fully in a Memoir published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh , entitled " On the Application of the Theory of Probabilities to the Question of the Combination of Testimonies or Judgments . " The latter contains also the foundations of the general analytical theory of the method . But the complete development of that theory is attended with mathematical difficulties which I have only just succeeded in overcoming . A correspondence on the subject between Mr. Cayley and myself also appears in the current ( May ) Number of the 'Philosophical Magazine , ' and I owe it to AMr . Cayley that these further researches , of the results of which an account will here be given , were undertaken . I shall make but few remarks here upon the i priori grounds of the method . Generally it may be said that the solution of a question in the Theory of Probabilities depends upon the possibility of mentally constructing the problem from hypotheses which appear , whether as a consequence of our knowledge or as a consequence of our ignorance , to be simple and independent . When the data are the probabilities of simple events , and no conditions are added , the problem is in theory sufficiently easy , the sole difficulty consisti ; ng in the calculation of complex combinations . But when the data are the probabilities of compound events , or when the events are connected by absolute conditions expressible in logical propositions , or when both these circumstances are present , the difficulty of the required mental construction becomes greater . If we assume the independence of the simple events from which the compound events according to their expression in language are formed , we meet , first , the difficulty that the number of equations thus formed may be greater or less than that which is requisite to obtain a solution ; and , secondly , the far more fundamental difficulty that the conditions under which the solution , supposing it to be obtained , is analytically valid may not coincide with the conditions under which the data are possible . It seems indeed likely-at any rate the evidence of particular examples points uniformly to the conclusion-that any attempts to construct the problem upon hypotheses which , while not involved in the actual data are of the same nature as those data ( i. e. which might conceivably have resulted as facts of observation from the same experience from which the data were derived ) , limit the problem , and lead to solutions which are analytically valid under conditions narrower than those under which the data are possible . But the processes of mathematical logic enable us , without any addition to the actual data , to effect the required construction of the problem formally-formally because the hypotheses which are regarded as ultimate and independent in that construction refer to an ideal state of things . The nature of the conceptions employed , and their connexion with the conceptions involved in the actual statement of the problem , are discussed in the paper . It is sufficient to say here that , whatever difficulty there may be in these conceptions as conceptions , there is nothing arbitrary in the formal procedure of thought with which they are connected . The probabilities of the ideal events enter as auxiliary quantities into the process of solution , and disappear by elimination from the final result , but they are throughout treated as probabilities , and combined according to the laws of probabilities . I will only say here that the difficulty which has been felt in the conception of the ideal events appears to me to arise from a misdirected attempt to conceive those events by means of the events in the statement of the problem the true order of thought being that the events in the statement of the problem are , not indeed in their material character , but as subjects of probability and of relations affecting probability , to be conceived by means of the ideal events . Now the probabilities which constitute the actual data will in general be subject to conditions in order that they may be derived from actual experience . Those conditions admit of mathematical expression . Generally , if the events in the data are all or any of them compound , and if p , p , ... Pn represent their probabilities , those quantities will be subject to certain conditions , expressible in the form of linear equations or inequations , beside the condition that , as representing probabilities , they must be positive proper fractions . All such conditions of either kind are ultimately expressible in the general form 61Pb + 6b22.+ bnPn+ AT the coefficients , , b , ... 6b , 6 differing in the different conditions so as to indicate that each of the quantities p , p2 , ... p , varies between a system of inferior limits expressed by linear functions of the other quantities , and a system of superior limits also so expressed . Thus , if A , B , C represent any simple events , and if p represent the probability of the concurrence of B and C , p2 that of the concurrence of C and A , p3 that of the concurrence of A and B , then p , P2 , p3 must , in order that they may be derived from experience , satisfy the conditions P1 o ? P2+3 3-1 , P2 J > P 3+p1-l , 3 > 1+)2 -1as well as the conditions implied in their being positive proper fractions . On the other hand , the ideal events being by hypothesis simple and independent , the auxiliary quantities which represent their probabilities will be subject to no other condition a priori than that of being positive proper fractions-to no other condition a priori , because their actual values are determined in the process of solution . Now the most general results of the analytical investigation are 1st . That the auxiliary quantities representing the probabilities of the ideal events admit of determination as positive proper fractions , and , further , of a single definite determination as such , precisely when the original data supply the conditions of a possible experience . 2ndly . That as a consequence of this the probability sought will always lie within such limits as it would have had if determined by actual observation from the same experience as the data . The proof of these propositions rests upon certain general theorems relating to the solution of a class of simultaneous algebraic equations , and , auxiliary to this , to the properties of a functional determinant . The following are the principal of those theorems:-1st . If the elements of any symmetrical determinant are all of them linear homogeneous functions of certain quantities al , a , ... are -if the coefficients of these quantities in the terms on the principal diagonal of the determinant are all positive-and if , lastly , the coefficients of any of these quantities in any row of elements are proportional to the corresponding coefficients of the same quantity in any other row , then the determinant developed as a rational and integral function of the quantities a a2 , c ... a , will consist wholly of positive terms . A nd , as a deduction from the above , 18 2ndly . If V be a rational and entire function of any quantities x1 x2 ... xQ , involving , however , no powers of those quantities , and all the coefficients being constant , and if in general V , represent the sum of those terms in V which contain xi as a factor , and Vij the sum of those terms in V which contain the product xi xj , then the determinant w * ... v V1 V11 V12 V ... V '2 V21 '22 *** '2n W V V2 * ... V2.n will on development consist wholly of positive terms . 3rdly . The definitions being as above , and the function V being in form complete , i. e. containing all the terms which by definition it can contain , the system of simultaneous equations VVVy V=PI --22 , * * grounds of the method , it is a perfect method of interpolation . The analytical investigation , however , shows that , for the mere purpose of interpolation , the process might be modified by altering the coefficients of V without affecting its form ; but it indicates at the same time that such modifications have no definite analogy with that process by which weight is assigned to astronomical observations , and , from their arbitrary character , lead to results which cannot properly be regarded as expressions of probability in any sense .

112226

3701662

On Simultaneous Differential Equations in Which the Number of Variables Exceeds by More Than Unity the Number of the Equations. [Abstract]

184

184

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George Boole

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112226

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112226

Biography

Formulae

Biography

XVI . " On Simultaneous Differential Equations in which the number of Variables exceeds by more than unity the number of the Equations . " By GEORGE BOOLE , Esq. , F.R.S. Received June 19 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) This paper contains the proof , with some applications , of a method described in a paper bearing nearly the same title which was published in the 'Proceedings of the Royal Society ' for March 6 , 1862 .

112227

3701662

On the Calculus of Symbols.--Third Memoir. [Abstract]

184

184

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. H. L. Russell

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112227

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112227

Formulae

Biography

Mathematics

XVII . " On the Calculus of Symbols."-Third Memoir . By W. H. L. RUSSELL , Esq. , A.B. Communicated by Professor STOKES , Sec. R.S. Received June 18 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) The following paper is a continuation of the two preceding Memoirs on the same subject . It has a fourfold object . In the first place , I calculate the general values of the coefficients in the BinomialTheorem given in the first Memoir . In the next place , I give an expression for the form of the coefficient of the general term of the multinomial theorem as previously explained . I then give a theorem for the multiplication of symbolical factors emanating from each other after a given law ; and lastly , I investigate a binomial theorem , reciprocal to the binomial theorem already considered . 184

112228

3701662

On The Properties of Electro-Deposited Antimony (concluded). [Abstract]

185

185

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

George Gore

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6.0.4

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112228

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112228

Chemistry 2

Chemistry 1

Chemistry

XVIII . " On the Properties of Electro-deposited Antimony " ( concluded ) . By GEORGE GORE , Esq. Communicated by Professor STOKES , Sec. R.S. Received May 24 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) In this communication the author has described two additional kinds of electro-deposited antimony possessing the property of evolving heat ; one of them is obtained from a solution of bromide , and the other from a solution of iodide of antimony ; there is also given additional information respecting the peculiar heating-antimony obtained from the aqueous terchloride . The following is a brief statement and comparison of some of the properties of the three kinds of thermically active antimony . The specific gravity of the chloride deposit is 5*8 , the bromide one 5'44 , and the one from the iodide 5'25 . The amount of heat evolved is greatest with the one from the chloride solution , and least with that from the iodide ; the former evolves all its heat at 60 ? Fahr. , by contact with a red-hot wire , the bromide one at 280 ? Fahr. , whilst the iodide one requires a temperature of 340 ? Fahr. ; the latter also acquires a reddish-brown colour by exposure to solar light . The chloride deposit contains about 6'3 per cent. of saline matter , the bromide one about 20 , and the one from the iodide liquid about 22'2 . The quantities deposited by a single equivalent of zinc were about 42*5 in the chloride , 50 in the bromide , and 51 in the iodide solution . The explanation proposed of their formation is , that the antimony in depositing , being in the " c nascent " state , combines chemically in a feeble manner with the saline ingredients of the electrolyte ; but the complete sources of the evolved heat remain undecided .

112229

3701662

On the Sulphur-Compounds in Purified Coal-Gas, and on Crystallized Hydrosulphocarbonate-of Lime

185

190

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W.R. Bowditch

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6.0.4

http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1862.0039

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http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112229

10.1098/rspl.1862.0039

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112229

Chemistry 2

Chemistry 1

Chemistry

XIX . '"On the Sulphur-Compounds in Purified Coal-Gas , and on Crystallized Hydrosulphocarbonate of Lime . " By the Rev. W. R. BOWDITCIH , B.A. , F.C.S. , Wakefield . Communicated by Professor WILLIAM THOMSON , M.A. Received June 14 , 1862 . The following facts relative to sulphur in what is called purified coal-gas , are additional to those already submitted to the Royal Society . When I first made known the action of heated lime upon coal-gas , chemists accounted for the phenomena observed by two assumptions : -I . That the sulphur-compound decomposed was free bisulphide of carbon . II . That the decomposition was due to a reaction between water and bisulphide according to the following equation CS2 + 2HO =2HS + CO2 . It was easy to show that these assumptions were erroneous , but exceedingly difficult to demonstrate the truth . That the sulphur in gas does not usually exist as free bisulphide of carbon is proved thus . Gas which has been purified at the gas-works by lime , and which contains 20 or 30 grains of sulphur in 100 cubic feet , may be passed for a considerable time through a tube containing cold slaked lime without producing discoloration ; but if the same gas be charged with a minute quantity of bisulphide-of-carbon vapour and passed through the same lime-tube , the lime becomes yellow and green from decomposition of the bisulphide of carbon . If instead of passing the gas through lime it be passed through triethylphosphine , the beautiful red crystals which this base gives with bisulphide of carbon are not formed ; but if the base be dissolved in alcohol or ether , and the gas passed through this solution , the red crystals are formed , as Dr. Hofinann first proved . The alcohol or ether dissolves out the bisulphide of carbon from the hydrocarbon compounds of which it forms a part ; and when it is thus dissolved it reacts with triethylphosphine . Naphthalin , benzole , and other fluid hydrocarbons condensed from purified gas yield sulphide of hydrogen and other sulphuretted compounds by simple distillation , yet these do not produce the wellknown red crystals with triethylphosphine . They may , moreover , be digested for weeks in an alkaline solution of oxide of lead without producing any sulphide of lead . Under similar treatment bisulphide of carbon yields hydrosulphocarbonate and sulphide of lead in a few hours . If the sulphuretted fluid hydrocarbons condensed from gas be mixed with ammoniacal alcohol and heated , and an alcoholic solution of acetate of lead be then added , a black precipitate is formed after some time , which evolves sulphide of hydrogen upon addition of an acid . In this case neither hydrosulphocarbonate nor hydro sulphocyanide of ammonia is formed ; yet it is well known that both are formed when bisulphide of carbon is added to ammoniacal alcohol . The erroneous view of the action of heated hydrate of lime upon the sulphur-compounds in gas arose , I think , from the generally received opinion that the blackening of lead-salts by a gas is a proof that that gas is sulphide of hydrogen-joined to the fact that sulphide of hydrogen is one of the compounds produced by the action of the heated lime . If the sulphide of hydrogen had been separated from the mixture of gaseous compounds produced , the truth would have been apparent ; but as , I believe , all experimenters have failed to separate them , the subject was obscure . After having failed in many processes devised by myself and suggested by others , I at last removed the sulphide of hydrogen , and showed that the blackening of leadsalts is no proof of the presence of sulphide of hydrogen . Ordinary purified gas was passed over heated hydrate of lime , then through a considerable quantity of well-washed hydrated peroxide of iron , over lead-paper , and subsequently through moist slaked lime . The peroxide of iron was slightly blackened , and withdrew every trace of sulphide of hydrogen : the lead-paper became black , and the slaked lime yellow . This yellow lime gave a primrose-coloured solution with water , which precipitated leadand silver-salts brownish red , thus showing the presence of impure hydrosulphocarbonate of lime . To be certain of the absence of sulphide of hydrogen , some of the yellow lime was treated with hydrochloric acid , and the gases evolved thereby were conducted into a solution of potash . The potash solution gave no reaction with nitroprusside of sodium , showing the absence of sulphide of hydrogen , and when boiled with nitric acid gave no precipitate with a salt of baryta . The hydrochloric solution of the lime contained a sulphur-salt , which was obtained as sulphate of lime when nitric acid was added and the whole was boiled . The blackening of the lead-paper in this case could not be due to sulphide of hydrogen , as that compound was absent . Nor I think is it due to the hydrosulphocarbonic acid which passed over , and in contact with , the lead-paper , and was arrested by the lime . The red compound which this acid produces with lead-salts is said to turn black rapidly ; and the red compound produced by a lead salt , and those of Berzelius and Zeise , undoubtedly does so blacken , as also does that produced by a salt of lead and an alkaline pentasulphide . I have , however , obtained a red lead-salt by the reaction of crystallized hydrosulphocarbonate of lime and basic acetate of lead , which remains red after drying in the air at ordinary temperatures and exposure for weeks to the free atmosphere . I therefore conclude that the blackening of the lead-paper in the above case was not due to hydrosulphocarbonic acid , but to some unknown or unsuspected compound . In order to understand this matter fully , I commenced some investigations into the reactions of bisulphide of carbon with metallic oxides and other compounds , a portion of which I have now the pleasure of submitting . Red Crystallized Lime^Salt.-Slaked lime and bisulphide of carbon are mixed in a close vessel , and allowed to stand for three or four days . The lime at first becomes of a pale primrose-colour , which gradually deepens to a fine lemon-yellow . Water added to the yellow lime gives a solution of a gold-colour , which precipitates salts of lead and silver reddish brown , and salts of mercury brown . These precipitates become black upon standing a short time . If the yellow solution be allowed to remain for a few days in contact with the lime , crystals are formed which will be very small , and so distributed through the lime as merely to give it a fine salmon-colour . This lime-salt is of a bright ruby colour , and by the following process it may be obtained in beautiful crystals . Freshly slaked lime is to be mixed with so much water that , when stirred , it will aggregate into small lumps about the size of peas . These lumps are dried upon a sand-bath till they are hard , and will bear handling without producing powder . The lumps ( quite free from dust ) are placed in tubes not more than an inch in diameter . When the lime is cold , bisulphide of carbon is poured upon it in sufficient quantity to saturate the lime , and leave a few drops in each tube . The tubes are corked , and allowed to stand for three or four days . Water is then poured in carefully , so as riot to remove any powder from the lumps of lime , and the tubes are closed and allowed to stand as long as the crystals increase in size . To obtain the crystals , the mother-liquor is poured off , the mass of lime , &c. is dried at ordinary temperatures , and the crystals are picked out . For success , it is absolutely necessary that the lime should be in lumps , the vessel in which the reaction takes place of small diameter , and that undecomposed bisulphide of carbon be present . Crystals so prepared appear to be perfectly permanent ; they do not undergo alteration from several weeks ' exposure to atmospheric changes . I have not yet obtained them free from adhering lime , as all acids which will dissolve the lime decompose the crystals . They are soluble in water , but cannot be recrystallized from their solution . All the solutions I have yet tried decomposed without crystallizing . Other processes have equally failed to furnish a salt which can be obtained dry and pure ; and I am therefore unable at present to furnish reliable concurrent analyses which will establish its formula . I have not ventured an explanation of the reaction , because I am not yet acquainted with the compounds produced and their relative proportion . To ascertain whether an explanation based upon a reaction between the elements of water and bisulphide of carbon was tenable , I caused caustic lime to be heated to whiteness in a platinum crucible for two hours , and cooled out of contact with air . When cold , this anhydrous lime was saturated with dry bisulphide of carbon ; and in a short time the lime became of a greenish-yellow colour , showing the progress of a reaction between the dry lime and the bisulphide of carbon . Some of the reactions of this salt are remarkable ; and more than one will exhibit the liability to error from the use of any but the most perfectly crystalline , dry , and clean specimens . Baryta-water added in excess throws down from an aqueous solution of the pure salt an amorphous , red , insoluble precipitate quite as brilliant in colour as vermilion . If this be washed directly after precipitation , the colour is retained for a considerable period ; but if left in the mother-liquor , it soon darkens . The washed salt dries a brickdust red . If , instead of the perfectly pure lime-salt , a solution of the salmoncoloured compound , which is formed when the salt is prepared in large vessels and with powdery lime , be taken , a brownish-yellow crystalline double salt of baryta and lime is formed , which is very soluble in water . Nitrate of baryta gives lemon-yellow crystals in a red-brown motherliquor with solution of the salmon-coloured mass , but an amorphous dirty grey precipitate in a yellowish mother-liquor with solution of the pure salt . 1862 . ] 189 As soon as a quantity of the latter can be prepared , I hope to isolate the acid . Salts of the oxides of barium , magnesium , strontium , silver , zinc , manganese , and chromium have been prepared by the direct action of bisulphide of carbon . Some of these differ considerably from the salts prepared by Berzelius by the action of the bisulphide of carbon upon the sulphides of the metals . The process which furnishes the lime-salt well crystallized will be tried with other compounds , and the results submitted to the Society . A very offensive suffocating gas is evolved during the decomposition of bisulphide of carbon by lime , which is injurious , if not poisonous ; and having suffered severely from breathing this and other noxious compounds derived from the same source , I think it right to call attention to it . I have formed a gas of similar properties by passing bisulphide of carbon and hydrogen together through heated lime , and should not be surprised if it prove to be the long-sought simple sulphide of carbon . Slightly ammoniacal alcohol breathed from a cloth appears to be the best restorative for the severe depression caused by respiring the offensive gases and vapours above named .

112230

3701662

On the Geometrical Isomorphism of Crystals

190

194

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

W. Mitchell

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspl.1862.0041

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112230

10.1098/rspl.1862.0041

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112230

Formulae

Atomic Physics

Mathematics

XX . " On the Geometrical Isomorphism of Crystals . " By the Rev. W. MITCHELL . Communicated by Dr. FRANKLAND . Received June 12 , 1862 . In a paper " On the Geometrical Isomorphism of Crystals , " published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1857 , by H. J. Brooke , F.R.S. , it was shown that all the substances crystallizing in the various forms of the pyramidal and rhombohedral systems might be regarded to be as isomorphous as those belonging to the cubical system . This isomorphism was shown by so taking the* arbitrary primitive pyramid of the one system , or the rhomboid of the other , as to bring these forms nearly isomorphous for every substance in the one system or the other . In this way tables were formed showing that the same notation for any form would be not strictly isomorphous , but plesiomorphous for any other form of another substance bearing the same notation . It is the object of the present paper to show that not only the forms of the pyramidal and rhombohedral systems , but also those of the prismatic , are as strictly isomorphous as those of the cubical system . This is effected by demonstrating all the forms of these three systems to be but partial developments of the cubical system . Consequently every form can be indicated by the symbols of the cubical system . In other words , instead of having distinct axes and parameters for each system , and for every substance in that system , all are referred to the rectangular axes and equal parameters of the cubical system . The pyramidal system is regarded as a tritohedral development of the cubical system , the faces so developed being all symmetrically taken with respect to one of the cubical axes . Thus , adopting the notation for the cubical system in the last edition of Phillips 's 'Mineralogy , ' the two faces of the cube 001 and 001 will form the basal pinacoids , while the remaining faces 10 0 , 01 0 , 10 0 , and 010 will give the direct square prism . The faces of the rhombic dodecahedron 1 0 , 11 0 , 11 0 , and 110 will give those of the inverse square prism . There will be two groups of square pyramids derived from the four-faced cubes , the first in the development of the faces indicated by the symbols kOh k , Okh , Oh , kh kOh , Okh , kOh , Okh ; the second by hOk , Ohk , Ohk , hO Oh k , Oh k , hOk OOhk ; the poles of both of these forms always lying in the zone 00 1 , 1O 0 . The remaining eight faces of the four-faced cube , when developed symmetrically with respect to the cubic axes , viz. hkO , khO , khO , hk O , hkO , khO , khO , and hkO , give the octagonal prism . The inverse square pyramids are derived from the tritohedral development of the faces of the twenty-four-faced trapezohedron and three-faced octahedrcn , the one group being derived from the faces k h , kkh , k kh , kkh k ih , kihc , kih , k h , the other from hh k , h hi , hhk , hhik hh k , hhk , hhk , hhk . The tritohedral development of the form hkI gives the ditetragonal pyramid ; of these there are three groups . 1st . klh , Ikh , lkh , kl , h , kklh , Ikh c , Ikh , klh , l k , lIk h I , l , klh c , lk I kh , klh . 2nd . hlk , hk , Ihk , , Ih k l , hk , ih , h lk , hlk hlic , hk lh , Ih , hhk , h lk , I , k. 3rd . hkl , khl , h l , kkk , ikh , , h k , khi , kcl h k , k hl , khA , hl , hkl , khi , kAl , k l. Ditetragonal pyramids may also be developed from the faces of the forms hAk andc k h , whose poles lie in the zones 0 1 , 10 0 , and 10 1 , 01 0 . The forms of the hexagonal system are regarded as tetartohedral developments of the cubical system , the groups of faces being always taken symmetrically with respect to the diagonal of the cube or one of the octahedral axes . The two faces of the octahedron 111 and 1 11 thus form the basal pinacoids . The six faces of the rhombic dodecahedron 101 , 011 , 110 , 101 , 011 , and 110 give one hexagonal prism , while the other is derived from six faces of the twenty-four-faced trapezohedron , whose symbols are 211 , 112 , 121 , 211 , 112 , 121 . The dihexagonal prisms are derived from those faces of the form hk I which lie in the zone 101 , 211 . There are three groups of positive rhomboids , two derived from the three-faced octahedron , and one from the twenty-four-faced trapezohedron . The following are the symbols of these groups:hhk , khh , hkh hh k , k hh , hAkh hhk , khh , hkh hhk , kIhk , hh kkh , hikk , khk kkh , hkk , khk . The last group is restricted to those forms of kkh whose poles lie between those of 11 and 112 , &c. The direct rhomboids are all derived from the form hk k , and consist of two groups , hkA k , khk , kkh hkk , k hk , kkh , and hkk , khk , kkh h/ c/ , kh/ c , kCIth . The form hkI furnishes four groups of hexagonal scalenohedrons . 1st . hkl , hlk , klh , Ikh , 1hk , khl hk/ l , h , hlIk kl , I kkh , k chl . 2nd . hkl , hik , k Th , Ikh , Ihk , khlI hXkl , hlk , klh , Ikh , Ihk , khl . 3rd . 1h7 , hkl , , hl , Ikh , klh , hl , hk hl k , h/ l , Ikh , klh , khi , Ihk . 4th . hl k , hk , 1kh , klh , kh/ , hk IhlkC , hkl , lkh , i , khl , Ihk . The forms of the prismatic system are then shown to be formed by an analogous development of faces about the rhombic axes ; making two of the faces of the rhombic dodecahedron the basal pinacoids . In examining the Tables accompanying the paper , in which all the known faces of crystals are expressed in the notation of the cubical system , it will be seen that the indices are necessarily somewhat large . This inconvenience is more than compensated for by the fact that the angular elements of every face , and its relation to another face , can at once be calculated from the symbols of the faces by very easy formulae . The magnitude of the indices are also shown to be much diminished by using approximations bringing every pole to its place on the sphere of projection within 5 or 6 minutes-an approximation not greater than that constantly used to make observations tally with the calculated symbols

112231

3701662

On the Forces Concerned in Producing the Larger Magnetic Disturbances. [Abstract]

194

197

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Balfour Stewart

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112231

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112231

Fluid Dynamics

Meteorology

Fluid Dynamics

XXI . " On the Forces concerned in producing the larger Magnetic Disturbances . " By BALFOUR STEWART , ESQ . , M.A. , F.R.S. Received June 14 , 1862 . ( Abstract ) . The author begins by alluding to a previous communication made to the Royal Society , containing an account of the great magnetic storm of August 28-September 7 , 1859 , in which he had shown that the first effect of this great disturbance was to diminish in intensity both components of the earth 's magnetic force at Kew , during a period of about six hours . Such an effect , he argues , can scarcely be supposed due to any combination of earth-currents , of which the period is only a few minutes . But another appearance is noticeable on the photographic curves which regard the progress of this great disturbance . While the great wave of force had a period of about six hours , there were superimposed upon it smaller disturbances having a period of a few minutes , and therefore comparable in this respect with earth-currents . These smaller disturbances are of very frequent occurrence , and show themselves in the Kew magnetograph curves as serrated appearances , occasionally magnified into peaks and hollows . Two hypotheses may be entertained regarding them . 1st . They may be conceived to represent small and rapid changes in the intensity of the whole disturbing force which acts upon the magnet ; and since ( as stated above ) this force cannot be supposed due to earth-currents , so neither can its variations be caused by these . 2nd . The peaks and hollows may be supposed due to the direct action of earth-currents upon the magnets . The following argument is advanced to show that the second of these hypotheses is untenable . Let us compare together the two magnetic disturbances of August and September 1859 and August 1860 ; and suppose the peaks and hollows of the disturbance curves of these dates to be caused by earth-currents . This would require that currents of the same name should have simultaneously travelled between Margate and Ramsgate , and between Ramsgate and Ashford during the latter disturbance , whereas during the former these currents should have been of different names , that is to say , the one positive and the other negative . According to Mr. Walker 's observations however , on both these occasions a current between Margate and Ramsgate was simultaneous with one of the same name between Ramsgate and Ashford . Thus , if we adopt the second hypothesis , it would appear that these lines ought to have been affected differently on these two occasions , whereas by observation they were affected in the same manner ; the conclusion is that this hypothesis does not represent the truth . The author then shows that earth-currents observed simultaneously with a very abrupt disturbance which commenced about 1 1h 17m A.M. , September 1 , 1859 , would lead us to infer that the former are induced currents due to sudden and rapid changes in the magnetism of the earth . Referring now to the first hypothesis , which asserts that the peaks and hollows represent small and rapid changes in the intensity of the whole disturbing force which acts upon the magnet , it would follow that these peaks and hollows should in this case comport themselves with regard to the three elements of the earth 's magnetism in the same way as the whole disturbing force of which they represent the changes . Thus , if the tendency of the great body of the disturbing force is to raise the curves for the three elements simultaneously , then a small peak in one element should correspond to a peak , and not to a hollow , in the other two . But if , on the other hand , the tendency of the disturbing force is to raise one of the curves and lower the other two , then a peak in the first should correspond to a hollow in the others . This is shown to be the case in the disturbances extending from the beginning of 1858 to the end of 1860 ; and the author therefore concludes that peaks and hollows represent small and rapid changes in the intensity of the whole disturbing force which acts upon the magnet . It is then shown that use may be made of these peaks and hollows , if we wish to analyse the forces concerned in producing disturbances . Let us suppose that several independent forces are concerned . It is very unlikely that a small and rapid change takes place at the same instant in more than one of these . The measurement therefore of simultaneous abrupt changes for the three elemenets may enable us to determine the character of one of the elementary disturbing forces at work . It is not even necessary to confine ourselves to very rapid changes , provided we take peaks or hollows which present a similar appearance for all the elements , as such can only be produced by the action of a single force . The author then shows that a peak of the horizontal force always corresponds to a peak of the vertical force , and not to a hollow , and that , when similar peaks are compared together , the horizontal-force peak is always as nearly as possible double in size that of the vertical force . This curious fact would imply that the resolved portion of the disturbing force which acts in the plane of the magnetic meridian is always in nearly the same direction . The dip of this resolved portion will be about 17 . It is also found that a declination peak corresponds to a peak of either force , except in the case of the great disturbance of August to September 1859 , during the most violent portion of which a peak of the declination corresponded to a hollow in either force . The length , however , of a declination peak does not bear an invariable ratio to that of a force peak-this ratio varying much from one disturbance to another , but not much from one part to another of the same disturbance . In this last case , however , the variation of the ratio , although not great , is yet greater than that of the ratio between the two force peaks ; so that it is somewhat difficult to obtain similar peaks when comparing the declination curve with that of either force . It thus appears that the force which acts upon the magnets does not vary much from one part to another of the same disturbance , and it therefore becomes possible to give the elements of this force , which will thus characterize the disturbance . The author then attempts , by means of comparing similar appearances , to represent the force at work for each disturbance between the beginning of 1858 to the end of 1860 . The great disturbance of August to September 1859 is here remarkable as one in which two independent disturbing forces seem to have acted at once , -one of these being of the normal type , in which all the elements were raised or depressed together , while in the other the declination was raised when both elements of the force were depressed . It will be observed that this method of analysis does not completely determine the disturbing force , but merely fixes the line of its resultant action , along which the force itself may be either positive or negative ; or , again , there may be two nearly opposite forces acting against one another , the visible disturbance denoting merely the difference in strength between the two ; and there is some reason to think that this last supposition represents the true state of the case . For while the definite relation which exists between the peaks of the two force-components shows that all disturbing forces affect these in nearly the same way , yet sometimes , though very rarely , in the general progress of the curve one of the elements will be above the normal while the other is below it . Now , this may be accounted for in the following manner . Suppose we have a disturbance producing an elevation in the horizontal force represented by + 40 , and one in the vertical force represented by + 20 . This will be of the normal type . Suppose now that at the same time we have another force nearly similar , whose action on the two force-elements is represented by -39 -21 . This is also sufficiently near the normal type . The result of these two disturbances superimposed will be +1 and 1 , showing that the one element is raised above its normal position , while the other is depressed below it . This idea of two opposite forces acting simultaneously in disturbances is that entertained by General Sabine from other considerations .

112232

3701662

Experimental Researches on the Transmission of Electric Signals through Submarine Cables. --Part I. Laws of Transmission through Various Lengths of One Cable. [Abstract]

198

201

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

Fleeming Jenkin

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112232

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112232

Electricity

Tables

Electricity

XXII . " Experimental Researches on the Transmission of Electric Signals through Submarine Cables."-Part I. Laws of Transmission through various lengths of one Cable . By FLEEMING JENKIN , Esq. Communicated by Prof. WHEATSTONE . Received May 20 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) Professor W. Thomson has in various papers stated and developed the mathematical theory of the transmission of signals through long submarine cables . The present paper contains an experimental research into the same subject . The conclusions arrived at by theory are confirmed by the experiments , and some new facts of considerable importance are established . All the observations in this part of the paper were made on the Red Sea cable , when coiled in iron tanks at Birkenhead . By observation on a reflecting galvanometer , an arrival-curve was obtained for various lengths of cable with various arrangements of battery . By arrival-curve is meant the curve representing the gradual rise of the current at the remote end of the cable when the near end is put in permanent connexion with the battery . The analysis of the various arrival-curves led to the following conclusions : 1 . " The electromotive force has no appreciable effect on the velocity with which the current is transmitted . 2 . " The rate of decrease in the current at the remote end , after contact has been made for a given time with earth at the near end , is the same as the rate of increase observed after making contact with the battery at the near end for an equal time . " With reference to the use of alternate positive and negative currents as compared with alternate connexion with the positive or negative pole of a battery and earth , 3 . It was found that the '"reversals in no way modified the arrival-curve during its increase , nor did they modify the curve showing the decrease of the current . " The effect of ordinary morse signals was next observed on the gal . vanometer through various'lengths of cable . The changes in the received current , caused by repeated dots , by repeated dashes , by dots and dashes alternately , and by dots and dashes separated by a pause , were observed at different speeds . Repeated dots , when represented graphically , give an even wavy line with large amplitudes of oscillation for slow speeds or through short lengths , but rapidly approaching a straight line as the speed of transmission or the length of the cable was augmented . If the maximum permanent deflection caused by the battery be called 100 , dots sent at the rate of 15 per minute through 2192 knots of cable caused oscillations in the received current of 12'7 per cent. ; and sent at the rate of 50 per minute , this caused an oscillation of less than 1 per cent. 4 . From this it was concluded that " on all submarine cables there is a limit to the number of signals which can be sent per minute , a limit which cannot be exceeded by any ingenious contrivance . " If we continue to call the maximum deflection due to permanent contact 100 , the mean height of the current observed during dots is below 50 , on account of time lost between the two contacts while moving the sending-key . When dashes or lines are sent , i. e. long contacts with the battery followed by short earth-contacts , an even wavy line is obtained , the mean height of which is above 50 ; and when dots and dashes are combined , the curves representing the changes of the current become very irregular , sometimes flying above 50 , sometimes falling below this line ; and when long pauses , or a succession of long battery-contacts are introduced , the curves become hopelessly confused , especially at the higher speeds , so that the signals cannot be disentangled , even when the change of current can be continually followed . From this it is concluded that , 5 . " There is a wide margin between the limit set to the speed of transmission by the gradual diminution of the received signals , and that set by their interference . " Reverse currents have been recommended as a means of accelerating the rate of speaking through submarine cables . Their effect was tested ; the arrival-curves and signal-curves obtained by their use differed in no way from those obtained by simple currents and earthcontacts . Hence it was concluded that , 6 . " The use of reverse currents does not alter the limit set by the gradual diminution of the received signals , nor that set by their interferernce . " It occurred to the author that , if by any means the current could invariably after each signal be brought to one constant strength and P2 maintained at that strength between the signals , the confusion of interference would be avoided . He considered that , if the second or earth-contact of each signal bore a fit proportion to the first contact , this object might be effected ; and he considered that a succession of very short pairs of contacts of a certain relative length , would maintain the current at the constant final strength during any pause separating signals . He therefore prepared a paper band with openings cut so as to make pairs of equal batteryand earth-contacts for dots , long battery-contacts , followed by nearly equal earth-contacts , for a dash , and a succession of pairs of very short contacts wherever a pause was required , the battery contacts being rather the shorter of the two . The success of this plan was such that the signals were distinctly recorded , not only by the galvanometer , but by a relay when the total variations caused by the shortest signals were invisible on the galvanometer , i. e. even less than 1 per cent. of the maximum final current . 7 . Hence it was concluded that by the means adopted , or by analogous means , " signals can be sent without confusion at any speed which will allow the shortest signal used to cause a sensible variation in the received current . " These experiments were tried on dry cable coiled in iron tanks , and might therefore not be applicable to extended and submerged cables . The author has , however , proved that the retardation and insulation of an iron-covered cable are very little affected by the mere presence or absence of water ; and wherever the conclusions obtained from the experiments agree with the deductions of theory , it is clear that the experiments and theory confirm one another , and the conclusions may be safely applied to the practical case of a submerged and extended cable ; for it is impossible to suppose that results due only to an accidental arrangement of the cable should by chance coincide with the deductions from a defective hypothesis . The experimental arrival-curves do not exactly agree with the curve given by Professor W. Thomson ( Proceedings of the Royal Society , 1855 . Phil. Mag. 1856 ) . The experimental curve approaches its maximum much more slowly than the mathematical curve , and continues to rise 1 or 2 per cent. long after all effects from retardation as given by theory would cease . Some of this effect may be due to the mutual influence of the coils of the cable* ; but the greater part of the discrepancy is due to the changeof the insulation due to continued electrification , first published by the author in a paper read before the Royal Society in 1859-60 . The identity of the arrival-curve during increase and decrease shows that , 8 . " The apparent increase of resistance of the gutta percha is rather due to an absorption of electricity which is again given out , than to a real change in the conductivity of the material . " The theoretical and practical conclusions on the effect of repeated signals were next examined . Little change of insulation could take place during the repeated signals , because the greater part of the cable remained continually electrified ; and greater coincidence between the experiments and the theory was therefore to be expected . The curve expressing the rate at which the amplitude of oscillation in the received current diminishes as the number of signals increases , was constructed from Professor W. Thomsoi 's equationst ; and the experimental amplitudes with 1500 , 1802 , and 2192 knots of cable in circuit , were found to coincide in the most accurate manner with this curve-establishing completely the soundness of the mathematical theory . 9 . These results prove beyond all question that " the rate of transmission varies as the square of the length , whether by rate of transmission be meant that speed at which repeated signals fail to produce any sensible effect , or the rate producing so great an amplitude that common hand-signals can be received without confusion . " It is also found ( when small compared with the total resistance ) that , 10 . " The resistance of the battery and receiving instrument produces nearly the same effect as the addition of an equal length of submarine cable . " If the amplitude of oscillation in the received current caused by dots at any one speed through any one straight cable were known , the amplitude through any other cable at any other speed could immediately be taken from the curve , now verified by experiment . Unfortunately this one fact is wanting . The author hopes to be able to supply the want in the second part of this paper . deen , 1859 . Also paper by Professor W. Thomson and F. Jenkin , Phil. Mag. 1861 ; also a letter from Mr. F. C. Webb in ' The Engineer , ' August 1859 . * Published in full in Appendix to the Report of the Committee of the Board of Trade on the Construction of Submarine Cables . t Vide Proceedings of the Royal Society , 1855 . Phil. Mag. 1856 .

112233

3701662

On the Thermal Effects of Fluids in Motion. --Part IV. [Abstract]

202

202

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

J. P. Joule|W. Thomson

abs

6.0.4

proceedings

http://corpora.clarin-d.uni-saarland.de/surprisal/6.0.3/?id=112233

http://www.jstor.org/stable/112233

Atomic Physics

Biography

Atomic Physics

XXIV . " On the Spectra of Electric Light , as modified by the Nature of the Electrodes and the Media of Discharge . " By the Rev. T. R. ROBINSON , D.D. , F.R.S. Received June 19 , 1862 . ( Abstract . ) The author , after referring briefly to the researches of previous inquirers , and the hypothesis now generally adopted , that the bright lines observed in these spectra depend so absolutely on the chemical nature of the substances present that their occurrence is an unerring test of that presence , expresses his belief that it cannot be admitted

112234

3701662

On the Spectra of Electric Light, as Modified by the Nature of the Electrodes and the Media of Discharge. [Abstract]

202

205

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London

T. R. Robinson

abs

6.0.4

proceedings