considering the significant problems with existing methods of graphite oxide synthesis , it is highly desirable to develop a new , more efficient synthetic method . recent studies have focused on the improvements which can be made by relatively minor modifications to hummers method [ 10 , 11 ]. high - energy ball milling can be used to produce partially oxidized graphite . by directly milling graphite powder with a solid oxidizing agent , graphite is oxidized without the need for concentrated acid , or any type of solvent . several solid oxidizing agents were investigated , and urea hydrogen peroxide adduct ( uhp ) was determined to be the most effective . uhp has some history of use for solvent free and non - aqueous reactions , because it provides an anhydrous , solid delivery system for h 2 o 2 [ 12 , 13 ]. uhp is also valued for its mild nature in comparison to the oxidizing agents used in current synthetic methods . the optimum parameters for oxidizing graphite with uhp and varying degrees of oxidation were identified herein . oxidized graphites with oxygen content from about 5 to about 15 % mass were produced . this is equivalent to compositions ranging from about c 25 o to about c 7 o . the partially oxidized material retains much of the electrical conductivity of graphite and is hydrophilic . this dispersible material consists of large graphene sheets approximately 3 - 10 layers thick , as show in fig1 . aside from the potential to generate completely oxidized graphite , generating partially oxidized graphite has its own value . partial oxidation can allow graphite to retain some of its properties while taking on certain properties of graphite oxide . this discovery is particularly useful for applications of graphite that include the deposition of a film or use of colloidal graphite . these applications are difficult to achieve with graphite , because as aforementioned , suspension of graphite in a solvent can be challenging . one particularly significant benefit of oxidized graphite mentioned above is that it is hydrophilic , and therefore fully dispersible in water . carbon fiber is a material consisting of extremely thin fibers and typically composed mostly of carbon atoms . the carbon atoms are bonded together in microscopic crystals that are more or less aligned parallel to the long axis of the fiber . the crystal alignment makes the fiber very strong for its size . current approaches to the preparation of carbon fibers use polyacrylonitrile ( pan ) as a precursor . as of 2010 , pan contributes $ 5 / lb or about 50 % to the cost of carbon fibers ($ 9 . 88 / lb ). utilization of a feedstock with a lower cost will increase the profitability of carbon fibers and facilitate their use in low - cost applications such as structural components for vehicles . therefore , a need exists for a low - cost method of producing carbon fibers which exhibit enhanced mechanical properties . graphite ( asbury carbons tc306 grade 99 . 92 % and 146 grade 96 . 86 %) and urea hydrogen peroxide adduct ( alfa aesar , 97 %, across organics ) were the primary reagents for the preparation of graphite oxide . also investigated as solid oxidizing agents were kmno 4 ( it . baker chemical co . ), zno 2 ( alfa aesar 50 %), and cao 2 ( alfa aesar 65 %). acetone ( mallinckrodt 99 . 5 %), methanol ( mallinckrodt 99 . 8 %), and absolute ethanol ( pharmco - aaper ) were all utilized in processing the reaction mixture between steps . small scale milling experiments were performed in 8000m and 8000d spex certiprep mixer / mills . milling vials were constructed from 440c stainless steel with an approximate volume of 65 ml . viton and quad o - rings were used to maintain a seal during milling . high kinetic energy milling was performed with three about 0 . 5 ″ stainless steel balls weighing approximately 8 g each milling was carried out in about 30 - minute increments , followed by about 30 minutes of cooling to reduce wear on the mill &# 39 ; s motor . large scale milling experiments were performed in a fritsch pulverisette 6 planetary ball mill milling vials were constructed of x10crnis18 - 9 stainless steel with an approximate volume of 250 ml . a viton gasket was used to maintain a seal during milling . milling was performed with about 45 0 . 5 ″ stainless steel balls weighing about 8 g each . milling was carried out in about 60 minute increments with approximately 30 minutes of cooling between each increment . the oxidized graphite was prepared by milling graphite with stoichiometric amounts of uhp according to the theoretical maximum oxygen content of c 2 o . about one ( 1 ) gram of graphite was milled stepwise with portions of the total uhp in order to prevent buildup of urea and h 2 o from inhibiting the reaction . between steps , approximately 40 ml of solvent was added to the vial and milled for about one ( 1 ) minute to suspend the reaction mixture in the solvent . this suspension was then transferred to a centrifuge tube and centrifuged for approximately 10 minutes at approximately 10 , 000 rpm . the solvent , containing with it the large majority of any urea or h 2 o present was decanted off , and the remaining solid ( partially oxidized graphite ) was left to dry . once completely dry , the solid was transferred back in the vial , where it was then milled with the next portion of uhp . once the desired amount of uhp had been reacted , the powder was suspended in water and placed in dialysis tubing left soaking in deionized water to isolate the graphite oxide product . after a few days in the dialysis tubing , the sample was removed and dried by rotary evaporation . at any phase of the milling process , it is possible to remove a small amount of the reaction mixture and test it for the presence of peroxide by mixing it with water and adding a few drops of prepared luminal solution . if no fluorescence is observe , all of the uhp has reacted and further milling serves only to decompose the product . if fluorescence is observed , unreacted uhp is still present in the reaction mixture and further milling is still required . the optimum procedure used methanol as a solvent , tc306 graphite , about 4 equal portions of uhp ( about 1 gram each ), which were milled for about 90 , 60 , 45 , and 30 minutes as determined by testing with luminal for complete reaction . milling stepwise followed by drying in an oven , results in an increased oxidation level . about 1 . 0171 g of graphite ( tc306 ) was milled stepwise with about 5 portions of 0 . 7966 g of uhp ( alfa aesar ) for about 2 hours each . in between millings , the vial was opened and placed into an approximately 70 ° c . drying oven to evaporate any excess water . once all the milling was complete , the solid was suspended in water and placed into dialysis tubing . after several days in a recirculating deionized water bath , the suspension was removed from the dialysis tubing and dried via rotary evaporation . the oxygen content was determined to be about 11 . 50 %. acetone can be used as an intermediate solvent to eliminate any heating that may result in degradation of the graphite oxide being produced . about 1 . 0171 g of graphite ( tc306 ) was milled stepwise with about 3 portions of about 1 . 3276 g of uhp ( alfa aesar ) for about 2 hours each . in between millings , the vial was filled with approximately 40 ml acetone and milled for 1 minute to suspend the reaction mixture . this suspension was then transferred to a centrifuge tube and centrifuged at about 10 , 000 rpm for about 10 minutes . the solvent was then decanted off ( the solid was allowed to dry ) and was then placed back into the vial for the next step . once all the milling was complete , the solid was suspended in water and placed into dialysis tubing . after several days in a recirculating deionized water bath , the suspension was removed from the dialysis tubing and dried via rotary evaporation . the oxygen content was determined to be about 11 . 60 %. lower surface area graphite ( grade 146 ) results in a product with less oxidation . about 1 . 0171 g of graphite ( grade 146 ) was milled stepwise with about 3 portions of about 1 . 3276 g of uhp ( alfa aesar ) for about 2 hours each . in between millings , the vial was filled with approximately 40 ml acetone and milled for about 1 minute to suspend the reaction mixture . this suspension was then transferred to a centrifuge tube and centrifuged at about 10 , 000 rpm for about 10 minutes . the solvent was then decanted off ( the solid was allowed to dry ) and was then placed back into the vial for the next step . once all the milling was complete the solid was suspended in water and placed into dialysis tubing . after several days in a recirculating deionized water bath , the suspension was removed from the dialysis tubing and dried via rotary evaporation . the oxygen content was determined to be about 6 . 02 %. a luminol test for peroxides shows the minimal milling times needed for full reaction of the uhp . the use of methanol as an intermediate solvent increases the efficiency of urea removal . about 1 . 0171 g of graphite ( tc306 ) was milled stepwise with about 4 portions of about 0 . 9957 g of uhp ( alfa aesar ) for about 90 minutes , 60 minutes , 60 minutes , and then 30 minutes , respectively . in between millings , the vial was filled with approximately 40 ml methanol and milled for about 1 minute to suspend the reaction mixture . this suspension was then transferred to a centrifuge tube and centrifuged at about 10 , 000 rpm for about 10 minutes . the solvent was then decanted off ( the solid was allowed to dry ) and was then placed back into the vial for the next step . small portions of the reaction mixture were removed to test with luminol between steps , and in all cases no light or bubbles were observed . once all the milling was complete , the reaction mixture was once again processed with methanol , allowed to dry , suspended in water , and placed in dialysis tubing . after several days in a recirculating deionized water bath , the suspension was removed from the dialysis tubing and dried via rotary evaporation . the oxygen content was determined to be about 32 . 88 %. the extent of oxidation can be increased by milling with more uhp . about 0 . 7568 g of product ( oxidized graphite ) with about 9 . 93 mass % oxygen was milled stepwise with about 4 portions of about 0 . 7411 g of uhp ( alfa aesar ) for about 90 minutes , 60 minutes , 60 minutes , and then about 30 minutes , respectively . in between millings , the vial was filled with approximately about 40 ml of about a 50 : 50 methanol / acetone mixture and milled for about 1 minute to suspend the reaction mixture . this suspension was then transferred to a centrifuge tube and centrifuged at about 10 , 000 rpm for about 10 minutes . the solvent was then decanted off ( the solid was allowed to dry ) and was then placed back into the vial for the next step . once all the milling was complete , the reaction mixture was washed about three times with about 50 : 50 methanol / acetone mixture and allowed to dry . the oxygen content was determined to be about 15 . 25 %. using a planetary mill allows scale up to be achieved . about 7 . 5147 g of graphite ( tc306 ) was milled in one portion with about 30 . 0284 g of uhp ( alfa aesar ). once all the milling was complete , the reaction mixture was suspended in water and placed in dialysis tubing . after several days in a recirculating deionized water bath , the suspension was removed from the dialysis tubing and dried via rotary evaporation . the oxygen content was determined to be about 14 . 47 %. films were prepared by starting with a dilute suspension of the oxidized graphite in water and dropping onto a about 3 . 1 mm × about 25 mm gap between two layers of palladium deposited on a glass slide . the water was allowed to slowly evaporate . electrical measurements were performed with a zentech lcz meter . fig3 illustrates the size of the particles . these slides exhibited a transparency of 66 %. as shown in fig4 , powder x - ray diffraction ( xrd ) was taken using a rigaku multiflex theta - theta powder x - ray diffractometer with a copper source ( cu kαλ = 1 . 5418 ). spectra were collected from about 5 to 80 degrees 2θ using 0 . 010 - degree steps and 0 . 3 seconds of dwell time . partial oxidation can allow graphite to retain some of its properties while taking on certain properties of graphite oxide . this has particular potential for application of graphite that requires the deposition of a film or use of colloidal graphite , which is difficult to achieve with graphite . thin films of oxidized graphite were deposited by drop casting from water . optically transparent ( at least 66 % transparent ) films can be produced with a resistivity of about 8 kω / cm 2 . thicker films can be produced with resistivities near about 50 ω / cm 2 , as shown in fig2 . transparency on regenerated cellulose was produced at at least 50 % transparency . in one embodiment , a fiber component and oxidized graphite is combined to form a fiber combination . the fiber combination is subjected to heat and a reducing atmosphere so as to reduce the oxidized graphite to graphite , forming a carbon fiber covered in graphite . in a particular embodiment , the fiber component includes rayon . in a further embodiment , the fiber component includes pva , nylon , cotton , or polycarbonate . pyrolysis under a reducing atmosphere such as hydrogen will result in fiber shrinkage and reduction of the oxidized graphite to graphite carbon fiber with a sheath of graphite results ( fig5 ), which exhibits enhanced mechanical properties . other reducing atmospheres include hydrogen compounds and metal vapor . rayon is a regenerated cellulose product , its surface consists of free — oh groups and ether linkages . inventors have demonstrated the ability to coat rayon and sheets of transparent cellulose ( fig5 ). fig5 presents a table illustration of a method of preparing a carbon fiber from rayon . the method includes coating rayon with oxidized graphite sheets and reducing it . the fiber shrinks due to fiber loss and the graphene sheets link in a uniform sheet of graphite under the reducing conditions . in a preferred embodiment , rayon fiber is soaked in a colloidal suspension of oxidized graphite prepared by the above - mentioned method , hummer &# 39 ; s methods , or another similar method , and a fiber coated in sheets of graphene is produced . after pyrolysis , under a reducing atmosphere such as hydrogen , the fiber will shrink and the oxidized graphite will be reduced to graphite . as a result , carbon fiber will be covered with a sheath of graphite . fig6 shows an example of a few pieces of rayon fabric coated with oxidized graphite . the resulting product exhibits enhanced mechanical properties . fig7 provides an image showing the coated rayon fabric , where most of the material has been uniformly coated with a conductive layer of oxidized graphite . fig8 demonstrates that in an embodiment , an optically transparent regenerated cellulose sheet can be coated to produce a transparent , flexible , and conductive material . in one embodiment , a method of producing oxidized graphite is provided . the method includes milling graphite powder directly with a solid oxidizing agent . in another embodiment , a method of producing partially oxidized graphite is provided , including milling graphite powder with a solid oxidizing agent . in a particular embodiment , the solid oxidizing agent is urea hydrogen peroxide ( uhp ). in another embodiment , a method for preparing a carbon fiber is provided . the method includes milling graphite powder directly with a solid oxidizing agent to produce oxidized graphite . the method further includes subjecting a fiber component to the oxidized graphite , wherein the oxidized graphite binds to the fiber component . the method further includes introducing the oxidized graphite - bound fiber component to pyrolysis in a reducing atmosphere , wherein the oxidized graphite is reduced to graphite . in a further embodiment , following the milling step , the method includes suspending the oxidized graphite in water to form a colloidal suspension . in yet a further embodiment , the reducing atmosphere is a hydrogen atmosphere . in another embodiment , a carbon fiber covered in graphite is provided . in a further embodiment , the carbon fiber includes increased tensile strength as compared to that of uncoated fibers . in a further embodiment , a carbon fiber is formed comprising a layer of graphene surrounding a fiber component core . the term “ carbon fiber ” as used herein refers to a fiber component covered in graphene . the terms “ covered ” or “ covered in ”, as used herein , relates to a fiber component wherein at least some portion of the fiber component is contacted by graphene . the term “ fiber component ” as used herein relates to a substrate in fiber form ( solid or tubular ) onto which graphite may be deposited in accordance with the teachings herein . a non - limiting list of materials which a fiber component may comprise , includes , but is not limited to rayon , pva , nylon , cotton , or polycarbonate . in another embodiment , a method of producing a graphene covered surface is provided . the method includes depositing graphite oxide from a graphite oxide water suspension on a surface to form graphene layers on said surface . the method further includes subjecting the graphene layers to a reducing agent and heat , such that graphite is produced on the surface . in a particular embodiment , the reducing agent is hydrogen or a hydrogen compound . in another particular embodiment , the reducing agent is hydrazine . in another embodiment , a carbon fiber comprising a fiber component covered in graphene is provided . the carbon fiber is produced by combining a fiber component and oxidized graphite to form a fiber combination , and subjecting the fiber combination to heat and a reducing atmosphere so as to reduce the oxidized graphite to graphite and form the carbon fiber covered in graphene . the term “ carbon nanotube ” as used herein refers to a nanotube structure which comprises single or multiple sheets of graphene . typically , one or more graphene sheets are rolled into a cylinder and the edges of the sheets are joined to form a tube . a nanotube can be comprised of a hollow cylinder of graphene in one embodiment . in an alternative embodiment , a nanotube may be formed of graphene with an amorphous carbon in the middle . carbon nanotubes can be formed in a variety of manners . in one particular embodiment , a fiber component ( e . g ., rayon ), can be covered in oxidized graphite and subjected to heat in an oxidizing atmosphere to remove the fiber component . higher temperature turns rayon into an amorphous carbon . in another embodiment , a polymer such as pva may be used , such that when it is heated the middle vaporizes leaving a carbon nanotube shell remaining in order to remove the center , the nanotube may be heated in an oxidizing environment . alternatively , the carbon nanotube may be subjected to a piranha bath or to plasma etching . a piranha bath , or piranha solution is also known as a piranha etch . the bath includes a mixture of sulfuric acid and hydrogen peroxide . piranha baths are used to remove organic residue from substrates , because the combination of the solution provides a strong oxidizing environment . the piranha bath functions to hydroxylate ( add oh groups ) most surfaces and make them highly hydrophilic . alternatively , plasma etching is a technique in which a high - speed stream of plasma of an appropriate gas mixture is shot at a sample . as a result of the chemical reactions between the elements of the material being “ etched ” and the reactive species generated by the plasma , volatile etch products will be generated from the plasma at room temperature . the physical properties of the target will eventually be modified after the atoms of the shot element eventually embed themselves at or just below the surface of the target . in another embodiment , a carbon nanotube is provided , including a hollow cylinder of graphite . in a further embodiment , a method of making a carbon nanotube is provided , including combining a fiber component and oxidized graphite thereby forming a fiber combination . the method further includes subjecting the fiber combination to heat in a reducing atmosphere so as to reduce the oxidized graphite thereby forming a carbon fiber component covered in graphite . the method further includes heating the carbon fiber covered in graphite in an oxidizing environment at a temperature sufficient to convert the fiber component to amorphous carbon , or to vaporize the fiber component , thereby removing the fiber component to form a hollow carbon nanotube . in yet a further embodiment , a carbon fiber covered in graphite is provided , the carbon fiber exhibiting an increased electrical conductivity as compared to that formed by a hummers method . in a particular embodiment , the carbon fiber includes a conductivity of 50 ω / cm 2 - 1000 ω / cm 2 . in another embodiment , oxidized graphite with a ratio of 4 - 7 carbon atoms per hydrogen atom is provided . in a further embodiment , the oxidized graphite is hydrophilic . in a more particular embodiment , the oxidized graphite has a resistivity of 50 ω / cm 2 - 8000 ω / cm 2 . 1 . rasor , n . s . and j . d . mcclelland , thermal properties of graphite , molybdenum and tantalum to their destruction temperatures . journal of physics and chemistry of solids , 1960 . 15 ( 1 - 2 ): p . 17 - 26 . 2 . hamwi , a . and v . marchand , some chemical and electrochemical properties of graphite oxide . journal of physics and chemistry of solids . 57 ( 6 - 8 ): p . 867 - 872 . 3 . he , h ., et al ., a new structural model for graphite oxide . chemical physics letters , 1998 . 287 ( 1 - 2 ): p . 53 - 56 . 4 . lerf , a ., et al ., structure of graphite oxide revisitedâ — . the journal of physical chemistry b , 1998 . 102 ( 23 ): p . 4477 - 4482 . 5 . stankovich , s ., et al ., graphene - based composite materials . nature , 2006 . 442 ( 7100 ): p . 282 - 286 . 6 . dikin , d . a ., et al ., preparation and characterization of graphene oxide paper . nature , 2007 . 448 ( 7152 ): p . 457 - 460 . 7 . stankovich , s ., et al ., synthesis of graphene - based nanosheets via chemical reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide . carbon , 2007 . 45 ( 7 ): p . 1558 - 1565 . 8 . geim , a . k ., the rise of graphene . nature materials , 2007 . 6 ( 3 ): p . 183 . 9 . hummers , w . s . and r . e . offeman , preparation of graphitic oxide . journal of the american chemical society , 1958 . 80 ( 6 ): p . 1339 - 1339 . 10 . marcano , d . c ., et al ., improved synthesis of graphene oxide . acs nano , 2010 . 4 ( 8 ): p . 4806 - 4814 . 11 . paquette , m . s ., t . d . gregory , and s . t . chen , process for manufacturing graphite oxide with purge of chlorine dioxide . p . 29 pp . 12 . varma , r . s . and k . p . naicker , the ureaâ ̂‘ hydrogen peroxide complex : â %∘ solid - state oxidative protocols for hydroxylated aldehydes and ketones ( dakin reaction ), nitriles , sulfides , and nitrogen heterocycles . organic letters , 1999 . 1 ( 2 ): p . 189 - 192 . 13 . zielinska , a . and l . skulski , a solvent - free synthesis of ( dichloroiodo ) arenes from iodoarenes . tetrahedron letters , 2004 . 45 ( 5 ): p . 1087 - 1089 . 14 . benjamin c . brodie ( 1859 ), on the atomic weight of graphite . proceedings of the royal society of london , volume 10 , page 249 . 15 . marcano et al . ( 2010 ) improved synthesis of graphene oxide . acs nano , web available on 21 jul . 2010 . it will thus be seen that the objects set forth above , and those made apparent from the foregoing disclosure , are efficiently attained . since certain changes may be made in the above construction without departing from the scope of the invention , it is intended that all matters contained in the foregoing disclosure or shown in the accompanying drawings shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense . it is also to be understood that the following claims are intended to cover all of the generic and specific features of the invention herein disclosed , and all statements of the scope of the invention that , as a matter of language , might be said to fall there between . the teachings of all references herein , including patent related documents and scientific articles are incorporated herein in their entirety to the extent not inconsistent with the teachings herein .