detailed example embodiments are disclosed herein . however , specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are merely representative for purposes of describing example embodiments . example embodiments may , however , be embodied in many alternate forms and should not be construed as limited to only the embodiments set forth herein . accordingly , while example embodiments are capable of various modifications and alternative forms , embodiments thereof are shown by way of example in the drawings and will herein be described in detail . it should be understood , however , that there is no intent to limit example embodiments to the particular forms disclosed , but to the contrary , example embodiments are to cover all modifications , equivalents , and alternatives falling within the scope of example embodiments . like numbers refer to like elements throughout the description of the figures . it will be understood that , although the terms first , second , etc . may be used herein to describe various elements , these elements should not be limited by these terms . these terms are only used to distinguish one element from another . for example , a first element could be termed a second element , and , similarly , a second element could be termed a first element , without departing from the scope of example embodiments . as used herein , the term “ and / or ” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items . it will be understood that when an element is referred to as being “ connected ” or “ coupled ” to another element , it may be directly connected or coupled to the other element or intervening elements may be present . in contrast , when an element is referred to as being “ directly connected ” or “ directly coupled ” to another element , there are no intervening elements present . other words used to describe the relationship between elements should be interpreted in a like fashion ( e . g ., “ between ” versus “ directly between ”, “ adjacent ” versus “ directly adjacent ”, etc .). the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of example embodiments . as used herein , the singular forms “ a ”, “ an ” and “ the ” are intended to include the plural forms as well , unless the context clearly indicates otherwise . it will be further understood that the terms “ comprises ”, “ comprising ,”, “ includes ” and / or “ including ”, when used herein , specify the presence of stated features , integers , steps , operations , elements , and / or components , but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features , integers , steps , operations , elements , components , and / or groups thereof . it should also be noted that in some alternative implementations , the functions / acts noted may occur out of the order noted in the figures . for example , two figures shown in succession may in fact be executed substantially concurrently or may sometimes be executed in the reverse order , depending upon the functionality / acts involved . fig3 is cross - sectional views of a fuel rod 14 , in accordance with an example embodiment . as shown in fig3 , the cladding 24 of the fuel rod 14 may include a fret resistant layer 26 , for increasing the wear resistance of the cladding 24 . the fret resistant layer 26 may include ceramic particles that are embedded into the actual cladding 24 , itself . the particles may be applied to the cladding , as described in detail herein . fig4 is a schematic depicting an electro - spark discharge ( esd ) process , in accordance with an example embodiment . esd is a process that may provide a true metallurgical bond between cladding and a wear resistant layer . the process may involve creating a voltage differential between the electrode 30 ( containing wear resistant particles ) and the cladding 24 of a fuel rod , in order to deposit the electrode material onto the cladding . the tip end 30 a of the electrode may contact the cladding 24 while cyclic power pulses may be applied to the electrode 30 to create a high energy density that forms a plasma arc 34 . the heat associated with the plasma arc 34 causes the tip 30 a of the electrode to deposit onto cladding 24 . by running the tip 30 a along the surface of cladding 24 , a fret resistant layer 26 consisting of hardened electrode material ( containing wear resistant particles ) and re - hardened cladding 24 is formed above diffusion layer 36 . fig4 a is a flowchart showing the method steps of an electro - spark discharge process , in accordance with an example embodiment . as shown in step s 40 , the electrode 30 ( fig4 ) may be electrically charged ( relative to the cladding 24 ). the voltage applied to the electrode 30 may be , for instance , about 150v . in step s 42 , the tip end 30 a of the electrode is brought into contact with the cladding 24 , and the power cycled at a frequency of about 50 - 60 hz , for example . electrical discharge of a capacitor bank ( applied to the electrode ), ranging for instance at about 100 - 500 micro - farad , may produce an arc between the electrode tip 30 a and the cladding 24 , melting the electrode and the surface of the cladding . in step s 44 , the tip 30 a of the electrode may then be moved along a surface of the cladding 24 ( at about 0 . 5 inches / minute ) in order to deposit the electrode on the cladding 24 . the resulting fret resistant layer 26 is a mix of the electrode material and the cladding surface material . ceramic particles may be used within the electrode , to provide a fret resistant layer with the necessary hardness to resist wear . it should be understood that while this discussion of fret resistant particles is being described in the context of the esd process , the requirements for these particles is equally applicable to the other processes of applying particles to cladding , as described herein . acceptable ceramic materials that may be used to make the fret resistant particles may include zirconium carbide or stabilized zirconia , though example embodiments are not limited to these materials . other requirements for the fret resistant particles are as follows . 1 . the fret resistant coating must have a hardness that prevents fretting of the cladding ( typically & gt ; 30 rc ). 2 . the particles must be compatible with both the base cladding material ( the target material ) and the applied material ( the material contained in the electrode ). that is to say , the particles should not cause an adverse chemical reaction or create an adverse material phase as a result of processing . 3 . the particles must be compatible with the application process , to ensure that the particles are not damaged while being applied to the cladding . 4 . the selection of a particle &# 39 ; s elemental composition should include a consideration of the impact of neutron consumption and isotopic activation . elements with a high neutron cross section may adversely affect power , while specific elements such as zn and co can undesirably activate into isotopes that may adversely affect personnel dosage and fuel rod storage concerns . the electrode may contain both fret resistant materials and an applied material . during the esd process , the applied material and the cladding ( the target material , otherwise known as the base material ) may melt and re - harden to form a mixture of the applied material and the base material , capturing the dispersed fret resistant particles within the fret resistant recast layer 26 ( shown in fig4 ). the diffusion barrier layer 36 between the applied material and the base material may be a thin layer ( microns thick ) where the two materials form a metallurgical bond . a relationship therefore exists between the characteristics of the applied material , the fret resistant particle size , and the particle density , as described herein . it should be understood that while this relationship is being described in the context of the esd process , this relationship also applies to the other processes of applying particles to cladding , as described in this document . the total thickness of the fret resistant layer , and the size and number density of the wear resistant particles within the fret resistant layer , impacts the operation of the fuel rod cladding while in operation . if the fret resistant layer is too thick , the layer may cause undesirable thermal hydraulic issues within an operating fuel bundle . if the fret resistant layer is too thick , the overall diameter of the fuel rod may also be increased to the point where the rod may not offer a proper clearance from other fuel bundle components ( and , not allow adequate fluid flow around the rod , during operation ). if the fret resistant layer is too thin , the ability of the layer to mitigate fretting may be compromised . therefore , a preferred thickness of the fret resistant layer ( containing base cladding material , applied material from the electrode , and fret resistant particles from the electrode ) is about 0 . 5 - 2 mils . however , other thicknesses of the fret resistant layer may be used , such as a range of thicknesses of 10 mils or less , or preferably 5 mils or less , or even more preferably 3 mils or less . an acceptable particle size is also a consideration in forming the fret resistant layer . fig5 a - 5f are simplified schematics ( not to scale ) depicting fret resistant layers 26 using different layer thicknesses , different particle 25 sizes , and different number densities of the particles 25 . fig5 a and 5b show cladding with fret resistant layers 26 a / 26 b having small diameter particles 25 a . as shown in fig5 a , when a thickness of the fret resistant layer is thick and small diameter particles 25 a are used , and increased number density of the particles 25 a is required to provide an adequate particle coverage . the example embodiment of fig5 b may offer better protection against fretting , as a more thin fret resistant layer 26 b is used with the small diameter particles 25 a to ensure that more of the particles are located at an outer surface of the fret resistant layer 26 b ( note that approximately the same number density of particles is used in fig5 a and 5b , with a more efficient use of particles being shown in fig5 b where more of the particles are located near a surface of the fret resistant layer ). fig5 c and 5d use medium sized particles 25 b of a similar number density , with fig5 d providing slightly more effective fret resistance ( notice that a greater number of particles 25 b are located near an outer surface of the fret resistant layer 26 d of fig5 d ). fig5 e and 5f use large sized particle 25 c , with a more effective fret resistant layer 26 e being shown in fig5 e ( fig5 f uses a fret resistant layer 26 f that is too thin , thereby fully exposing particles 25 c that may detach from cladding 24 while in use ). therefore , based on the simplified schematic of fig5 , it is to be understood that the particles 25 must be small enough to remain captured in the fret resistant layer 26 , while being large enough to effectively mitigate fretting . additionally , as a particle size 25 is reduced , the number density of the particles must be increased ( especially when a thickness of the fret resistant layer 26 is also increased ) to provide an effective coverage of the particles 25 within the fret resistant layer 26 . therefore , to produce an adequate coverage of particles 25 within the fret resistant layer 26 , particles must be finely dispersed within the electrode . particles with a diameter on the order of about 2 - 15 microns may preferably be used to ensure that the particles are dispersed within the electrode , as shown in table 1 below . below is a table describing the characteristics of different suitable electrodes containing fret resistant particles . the electrodes of table i have been chosen for the purpose of using an esd process to apply a fret resistant layer to fuel rod cladding made of a zirconium alloy . however , it should be understood that an esd process may be used to apply a fret resistant coating to another component other than fuel rod cladding . additionally , the esd process may be used to apply a fret resistant coating to another target material , besides zirconium . the core material of the electrode ( i . e ., the applied material ) should ideally match the cladding material ( the target material , which in this case is zirconium ). that is to say , the core material of the electrode should not be a dissimilar material from that of the target material . to ensure that the two materials are similar , the core material ( which may be an alloy ) may share at least one common chemical element with the target material . for instance , in applying the electrode core materials of table 1 ( below ) to zirconium cladding , the common chemical element between the two materials is zirconium ( zr ). using the common chemical element of zirconium , a range of zirconium in the electrode core material may be preferably at least 90 % zirconium ( by weight , but not including the weight of the entrained particles ), more preferably greater than 95 % zirconium , even more preferably 97 % zirconium , and most preferably 98 % zirconium . it should be understood that the example materials of table 1 are merely examples of preferred materials that work well ( due to the materials low neutron absorption ) regardless of the final fret resistant layer . however , applied materials with higher neutron absorption rates may be used . to minimize this increase in parasitic neutron absorption , the thickness of fret resistant coating may be minimized . in the event of using non - preferred applied materials ( that exceed a neutron absorption rate of typically associated with zircaloy materials ), thicknesses of the final fret resistant material preferably should not exceed 5 mils ( preferably not to exceed 3 mils , more preferably not to exceed 2 mils , and most preferably should not exceed 1 mil ). fig6 is a schematic depicting cold spray process , in accordance with an example embodiment . cold spray is a kinetic metallization process that may retain the composition and phases of the initial wear resistant particles without requiring fuel gasses or extreme electrical heating . cold spray may be considered a subset of thermal spray processes . the process may involve compressing inert gas in a high pressure gas supply 94 , and mixing a portion of the high pressure gas with a coating powder ( in powder feeder 92 ) that is entrained with fret resistant particles . a portion , or all , of the high pressure gas may be heated to temperatures of up to approximately 1 , 000 ° c . before being injected into a receiving port 82 of a cold spray gun 80 . the gun 80 may include a nozzle 84 that may restrict a flow of the pressurized , heated gas to increase a speed of the gas within a barrel 86 of the gun 80 to about 500 to 900 m / s . a discharge flow of cold spray gas 88 may discharge from gun 80 , at a distance of about 20 - 40 millimeters from a target cladding , to form a fret resistant layer 26 on the cladding 24 . due to the high kinetic energy of the cold spray gas 80 , localized thermal energy may be produced that creates small micro welds between the entrained fret resistant particles and the cladding that melts cladding 24 ( down to a diffusion barrier layer 36 ) to effectively fuse the particles within the fret resistant layer 26 . fig6 a is a flowchart showing the method steps of a cold spray process , in accordance with an example embodiment . as shown in method step s 100 , an inert gas may be pressurized to provide an adequate velocity for the cold spray process . in step s 102 , the pressurized gas may be heated to temperatures as high as 1 , 000 ° c ., and injected with a coating powder ( described below ). in step s 104 , the gas may then be accelerated to speeds of about 500 to 900 m / s . in step s 106 , the high speed gas may be directed at cladding to produce a fret resistant layer 26 on the cladding 24 , as shown in fig6 . it should be understood that discussion of the fret resistant material thickness , particle sizes , and number density of the particles , as discussed in relation to the esd process , are also applicable to this application method ( with the understanding that the base material must be in powdered form ). below is a table describing the characteristics of different suitable coating powders . ideally , the composition of the powder should match the target material ( in this case , the target material is assumed to be fuel rod cladding , made from zirconium ). the particle size of the powder must be small enough to be carried by the gas stream to the target cladding , and large enough to have sufficient mass to keep from melting and deforming upon impact with the cladding . therefore , the particle size of the powder is dependent on the other process parameters , such as gas composition , temperature and velocity . similar to esd ( and table 1 ), it should be understood that the example materials of table 2 are merely examples of preferred materials that work well ( due to the materials low neutron absorption ) regardless of the final fret resistant layer . however , applied materials with higher neutron absorption rates may be used if only a very thin fret resistant thickness is used . in the event of using non - preferred applied materials ( that exceed a neutron absorption rate typically associated with zircaloy materials ), thicknesses of the final fret resistant material preferably should not exceed 5 mils ( preferably not to exceed 3 mils , more preferably not to exceed 2 mils , and most preferably should not exceed 1 mil ). it should be understood that other processes , besides the esd and cold spray processes described above , may also be used to produce a fret resistant layer on a target material . the target material may be a component other than fuel rod cladding . the target material may be made from a material other than zirconium , or a zirconium alloy . other such processes must ensure that an applied material entrained with fret resistant particles adheres to a thin film of the target material by using an applied material that matches the target material , thereby ensuring that the fret resistant particles are effectively captured within the target material matrix itself . to reduce costs and increase the overall effectiveness of the methods described above , target materials do not have to be fully coated with a fret resistant layer . instead , applications of the fret resistant layer may simply be applied to areas of fuel rods ( or other components in the nuclear reactor ) where debris failures occur most often . in particular , a fret resistant layer may only be applied to fuel rod cladding that is to be located near spacer grids ( with the fret resistant coating being applied in locations that span from a few centimeters above spacer grid locations to a few centimeters below spacer grid locations ). because approximately 7 - 9 spacer locations generally exist in a typical reactor , a fret resistant layer may therefore be applied along the fuel rod in approximately 7 - 9 bands along the outer surface of each fuel rod . the fret resistant layer may also be applied to other areas and other components of the reactor that experience high degrees of shadow corrosion , fretting , or other such wear example embodiments having thus been described , it will be obvious that the same may be varied in many ways . such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the intended spirit and scope of example embodiments , and all such modifications as would be obvious to one skilled in the art are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims .