the present invention is preferably performed on a computer system , such as a pentium ™- class personal computer , running computer software that implements the algorithm of the present invention . the computer includes a processor , a memory and various input / output means . a series of ct axial or other digital images representative of a thoracic volume are input to the computer . examples of such digital images or sections are shown in fig1 ( a ) and 1 ( b ). the terms “ digital ” and “ digitized ” as used herein will refer to images or volumes , as appropriate , in a digital or digitized format acquired via a digital acquisition system or via conversion from an analog image . the present invention provides for systems and methods capable of effective and accurate nodule detection from 2 - d and 3 - d digital images , particularly thoracic images . the digital image sections to be processed , rendered , displayed or otherwise used include digitized images acquired through any plane , including , without limitation , saggital , coronal and axial ( or horizontal , transverse ) planes and including planes at various angles to the saggital , coronal or axial planes . while the disclosure may refer to a particular plane or section , such as an axial section or plane , it is to be understood that any reference to a particular plane is not necessarily intended to be limited to that particular plane , as the invention can apply to any plane or planar orientation acquired by any digital acquisition system . the methods and systems disclosed herein can be adapted to other organs or anatomical regions including , without limitation , the heart , brain , spinal , colon , liver and kidney systems . the software application and algorithm disclosed herein can employ 2 - d and 3 - d renderings and images of an organ or organ system . for illustrative purposes , a lung system is described . as used herein , the term “ pleural nodules ” refers to nodules that are based on pleura such as costal pleura and mediastinal pleura . nodules that reside on interlobular fissures are not within the scope of this application . pleural nodules have the appearance of protrusions from pleura , and can be identified as violations of the natural smoothness presented by the overall conical shape of lungs . based on this characteristic , the problem of pleural nodule detection becomes one of pleural surface extraction and regularization , particularly in smoothness . the anatomy of the lungs provides an excellent guideline for surface analysis , particularly given the general characteristics of lungs . for example , each lung is generally conical in shape , and presents for examination an apex , a base , three borders ( inferior border , posterior border and anterior border ) and two surfaces ( costal surface and mediastinal surface ). the problem of pleural surface analysis in thoracic volume can be dissected into surface fittings in four types , so as to reduce the complexity of the problem . this is further identified in fig6 : apex : the apex is rounded , and extends into the root of the neck , reaching from 2 . 5 to 4 mm . volume averaging is usually heavy in the apex . costal surface and posterior border : costal surface is smooth , convex and corresponds to the form of the cavity of the chest . posterior border is rounded and is received into the deep concavity of either side of the vertebral column . the deformable surface is preferably initialized piece - wise linearly with landmark points on consecutive axial image sections , and deformed outward to fit the pleural boundary . lung base and inferior border : the lung base is broad , concave and rests upon the convex surface of the diaphragm . a deformable surface model can be conveniently initialized , for example , with landmark points on reconstructed saggital image sections on inferior borders . mediastinal surface and anterior border : in contact with the mediastinal pleura , mediastinal surface presents a deep concavity of cardiac compression . the anterior border is thin and sharp , and overlaps the front of the pericardium . the deformable surface model can also be conveniently initialized with landmark points on reconstructed saggital image sections for this fitting . high accuracy of algorithms is crucial for successful nodule detection . preprocessing generally reduces the complexity of the domain of the function to be estimated . preprocessing is generally more effective when it is based on known characteristics of what is being imaged . for example , for lung fields , in addition to the above - identified characteristics , a natural lung image should be spatially smooth and strictly positive in amplitude . examples of preprocessing techniques include various smoothing , morphological and regularization techniques . the present invention involves two techniques of preprocessing : morphological closing for detecting smaller nodules and surface fitting with deformable models for recovering larger nodules . for the case of lungs , such nodules are pleural nodules . segmentation is also preferably performed on a lung field image based on certain anatomic structures , such as the ribcage , that can be used in presegmentation and segmentation portions of an algorithm . the result of the segmentation algorithm is passed to subsequent processing . fig1 ( b ) pictorially depicts the result of lung field segmentation of the axial section of fig1 ( a ). fig2 is a flow chart depicting a preferred algorithm for pleural nodule detection through surface regularization . the algorithm operates on slice sections and digital image volumes constructed from stacked slice sections through various construction techniques and methods known in the art . an image , and any resulting image volume , may be subject to noise and interference from several sources including sensor noise , film - grain noise and channel errors . optional , but preferable , noise reduction and cleaning are initially performed on the image volume . various statistical filtering techniques can reduce noise effects , including various known linear and non - linear noise cleaning or processing techniques . for example , a noise reduction filter employing a gaussian smoothing operation can be applied to the whole image volume or partial image volume to reduce the graininess of the image . the algorithm begins at step 205 with a series of digital lung field images . the lung field images preferably have been segmented and processed so as to identify and process the lung field , pleural boundary and other thoracic regions in accordance , for example , with the ser . no . 09 / 993 , 793 for “ lung field segmentation from ct thoracic images ,” filed concurrently herewith and incorporated herein ). such processing may also have removed from the image certain image information relating to pleural nodules . in accordance with the present invention , a morphological operation is performed at step 210 on a digital lung field image volume to recover small pleural nodules . general morphological closing “ closes ” gaps in and between image objects . morphological closing is an increasing operation , composed of a known morphological dilation operation followed by a known morphological erosion operation . morphology allows for filtering and / or enhancing only some characteristics of objects , depending on their morphological shape . a morphological filter depends on its structuring element , a small , quasi image that defines the operational neighborhood of a pixel . the structuring element is chosen to be ellipsoid . closing the lung field images with an ellipsoidal structuring element smoothes the lung surface , fuses narrow breaks and thin gulfs and eliminates holes smaller in size than the ellipsoidal structuring element . consequently , pleural nodules smaller than the size of the structuring element are recovered in the lung field images . since morphological closing is a generic operation , it does not involve error - prone numerical calculations and is quite effective and robust . details of one morphological dilation and erosion operation 310 are provided in fig3 . at step 320 , a morphological dilation of the lung field image is performed using an ellipsoidal structuring element . the size of the ellipsoidal structuring element is chosen with attention to sensitivity of the process and computational burden . the lower the size of the structuring element the higher the sensitivity of the morphological operation in detecting nodules . however , too small a size often yields excessive false positives and adds to computation burden . for purposes of detecting small pleural nodules , an ellipsoid having an average radius of 3 mm is selected . the average radius for an ellipse or ellipsoid is the average of its major axis and minor axis . at step 330 a morphological erosion of the lungs is performed . next , the difference between the image volume before the morphological operation and the image volume after the morphological operation is labelled or otherwise identified or highlighted at step 340 . these regions of difference in the lungs operation are identified as pleural nodule candidates for further analysis . various methods of making such a comparison are known in the art . examples of comparisons of pre - and post - morphological images are shown in fig7 ( a )-( d ). for nodules larger than the size of the ellipsoidal structuring element , a deformable surface model is used at step 220 . the deformation begins with an initialization of the model via the landmarks associated with the lung or other organ . the basic idea is to explicitly extract known organ surfaces , such as lung surfaces . thereafter , regularization and smoothing processes are applied to recovering regions of pleural nodules that are lost in the lung field segmentation . this approach can preferably be implemented using a surface fitting mechanism with a deformable surface model and a chamfer distance potential . one illustrative approach using the chamfer distance potential technique is to search for a suitable match between two binary images : a candidate image and a reference image based on prior knowledge of object geometry . a distance map is generally created associating each pixel or voxel of the reference image with its distance from the closest profile pixel or voxel in the candidate image . the goal is to reduce an overall global distance that is a function of the sum of pixel - to - pixel or voxel - to - voxel distances . the candidate image is not directly superimposed on the reference image . rather , the candidate image is preferably compensated via various geometric transformations , e . g ., translations along x - and y - axes , rotation effects . a set of parameters is selected for the organ from which the global distance is computed or compared against , and the best fit is determined by minimizing a global distance function . the residual distance between the best compensated and the reference profiles can be used to determine whether an appropriate matching or comparison has occurred . deformable contour and surface models have been widely used in image segmentation . (“ snakes : active contour models ”. ijcv88 . m . kass , a . witkin and d . terzopoulos ; “ finite element methods for active contour models and balloons for 2d and 3d images .” ieee trans . pam193 . l . d . cohen and i . cohen .) in general , a deformable surface - fitting model is an energy - minimizing parameterized surface whose deformation in image space is driven by two forces — an external force that guides the surface toward the feature of interest , and an internal force that controls surface smoothness . the feature of interest in the present application is boundaries of the lung field . the external force in the present application is derived from chamfer distance potential instead of image gradient as in many applications of deformable models . one use of a chamfer distance potential is as a measure of how close the deformable surface - fitting model is to the boundary of an organ volume . chamfer distance is an approximation of euclidean distance , and can be computed very efficiently with recursive operations . further details of such a process 400 are shown in fig4 . at step 420 , the algorithm identifies lung border voxels and at step 425 computes for each voxel in an image volume its chamfer distance to the nearest lung boundary point from the extracted lung field images . this computation of chamfer distance potential takes place only once before surface fitting . in segmentation processses not involving lung shape analysis , large pleural nodules that show as prominent protrusions from the pleura are often lost due to their similarity in intensity to body volume . to ensure that such pleural nodules are included in the lung field , the pleura smoothness and other surfaces of interest are initialized at step 430 . a deformable surface model is used to fit to the lung field boundary at 435 . after a balance between the desired smoothness and a faithful fit to the pleura is achieved at 440 , recovery of pleural nodule candidate is performed at 445 . deformable surface - fitting capturing costal pleura and a posterior border for nodule detection are depicted in fig5 ( a )-( d ). for the figures , the apex of the lungs is not included in any of the surface models , but the front of the pericardium is included . fig5 ( a ) shows the initialization of a deformable surface of an axial image section in accordance with step 430 . a 3 - d initialization of the deformable surface is depicted in fig5 ( b ). fig5 ( c ) is a representation of the deformable surface after deformation in accordance with step 440 . the representation balances smoothness and faithfulness to the original pleura based on a chamfer distance potential and threshold . approximately 6000 points on the surface were used in processing . such a resolution results in acceptable results in the image . for example , the slight grooves on the surface correspond to overlying ribs . recovery of nodule candidates in accordance with step 445 is represented by fig5 ( d ). a recovered lung field on the same axial image section as in ( a ) is shown in fig5 ( d ) with a pleural nodule candidate indicated by the circle . further information and approaches regarding nodule detection and identification in 2 - d and 3 - d images is described , for example , in “ density nodule detection in 3 - dimensional medical images ” referenced above . after the morphological operation 210 is performed to recover and detect the smaller nodules , i . e . nodules that are detectable by a morphological dilation and erosion technique below the threshold size of the structuring element employed , and deformable surface fitting with chamfer distance potential analysis 220 is performed to detect and recover larger nodules , a lung field image with recovered small and large nodules is produced and displayed at 230 . fig7 ( a )-( d ) depict pleural nodule candidates indicated with circles and identified in axial sections and in corresponding recovered lung field images processed by the algorithms disclosed herein . each figure highlights a candidate nodule in a recovered lung field that may or may not be cancerous . however , as can be seen in fig7 ( a )-( d ), the candidate nodules 725 , 745 , 765 , and 785 in their respective recovered image 720 , 740 , 760 , and 780 are more easily seen as compared to their corresponding image 715 , 735 , 755 , and 775 in original axial images 710 , 730 , 750 , and 770 , respectively . the various candidate nodules can be shown highlighted in the recovered lung field images or in the axial sections for ease in identification . moreover , recovered lung field images can be displayed alongside corresponding axial sections for ease in comparison . various nodule highlighting systems and methods and various display configurations can be found in copending applications “ graphical user interface for display of anatomical information ,” ser . no . 09 / 990 , 511 , filed nov . 21 , 2001 , claiming priority from ser . no . 60 / 252 , 743 , filed nov . 22 , 2000 and from ser . no . 60 / 314 , 582 filed aug . 24 , 2001 , each of which have been incorporated by references above . for purposes of providing further details regarding the nodule detection algorithm disclosed herein , the following notations can be adopted for illustration : i denotes an image domain , and ( x , y , z ) denotes a voxel within i ; the energy of the snake model is defined as : energy = e smooth + e boundary = ∫ ω  [ a  (  s u  2 +  s v  2 ) + c ]  u    v ( 1 ) the first term in the function of eqn . ( 1 ) is the internal energy that penalizes the unsmoothness of the deformable surface , and the second term is the external chamfer distance potential which draws the deformable surface right onto the pleural boundary . minimizing the energy function above simulates the process of balancing between the two energies , resulting in a good surface fit with desired smoothness . in general the surface deformation along tangent directions affects only surface parameterization and does not affect surface spatial location . if the surface deformation along tangent directions is ignored , the following equation can be derived from equation ( 1 ) for the update of the surface model : ∂ s  ( u , v ) ∂ t =  f smooth + f boundary =  a  ( s uu + s vv ) + ( ∇  c · n  ( u , v ) )  n  ( u , v ) ( 2 ) given an initialization of the deformable surface , the above equation can be solved iteratively until the deformation of surface is within a pre - set threshold . regions that are considered part of the resulting relaxed surface are considered as part of the lung field , and are used as candidates for further feature analysis and for the detection of nodules . in the case of processing a single image section , or when inter - slice image smoothness is not significant ( e . g . for images with large thickness ), the above surface model can be simplified into a curve model for in - slice processing by retaining only the in - slice parameterization and smoothness constraint . in this application , an efficient method for nodule detection from digital images is presented . the present invention provides a system and method that is accurate , efficient , flexible and detects pleural nodules that prior systems and approaches overlook or are incapable of detecting . the foregoing examples illustrate certain exemplary embodiments of the invention from which other obvious embodiments , variations , and modifications will be apparent to those skilled in the art . the invention should therefore not be limited to the particular embodiments discussed above , but rather is defined by the claims . while we described our method as it would specifically apply to the detection of pleural nodules in digital or digitized thoracic volumes , the present invention could also apply to other organ and organ regions .