it is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the methods and devices described herein . in this application , the use of the singular includes the plural unless specifically state otherwise . also , the use of “ or ” means “ and / or ” unless state otherwise . similarly , “ comprise ,” “ comprises ,” “ comprising ,” “ include ,” “ includes ,” “ including ,” “ has ,” “ have ,” and “ having ” are not intended to be limiting . in some embodiments a method of fabricating a printed circuit board ( pcb ) to promote adhesion or binding between a copper surface and an organic substrate is provided comprising the steps of : stabilizing the copper surface by forming a copper oxide layer therein , and conditioning the copper oxide layer by reducing the copper oxide with a reducing agent . of particular advantage , the copper oxide layer , also sometimes referred to as a stabilization layer , exhibits unique features . in some embodiments the copper oxide layer after conditioning has a thickness of about 200 nanometers and less . in some embodiments the copper oxide has morphology comprised of a substantially amorphous structure . in an exemplary embodiment the copper oxide layer has grains , and after conditioning the grains have a size in the range of 250 nanometers and less . in other embodiments the copper oxide layer has grains , and after conditioning the grains have a size in the range of 200 nanometers and less . in some embodiments the copper oxide has grains , and after conditioning the grains are substantially randomly oriented . the copper surface is stabilized by exposing the copper surface to an oxidant . in an exemplary embodiment the oxidant is selected from any one or more of : sodium chloride , hydrogen peroxide , permanganate , perchlorate , persulphate , ozone , or mixtures thereof . the step of stabilizing the copper surface may be carried out at a temperature in the range of room temperature to about 80 ° c . after stabilization , the copper oxide layer is conditioned with a reducing agent . in some embodiments the reducing agent is selected from any one or more of : formaldehyde , sodium thiosulfate , sodium borohydride , a borane reducing agent represented by the general formula bh 3 nhrr ′, wherein r and r ′ are each selected from the group consisting of h , ch 3 and ch 2 ch 3 , such as dimethylamine borane ( dmab ), a cyclic borane , such as morpholine borane , pyridium borane or piperidine borane . of particular advantage , embodiments of the present invention provide an approach for fabricating pcbs from a “ smooth ” copper substrate , meaning a copper substrate that has not been previously roughened . for example , copper substrates suitable for use in methods of the present invention include , but are not limited to , electrolytic or electroplated copper , electroless copper , and rolled copper , and are not restricted by the method of preparing the same . in some embodiments the copper substrate or surface has a roughness of about 0 . 13 μm ra . in some embodiment the copper oxide , or also referred to as treated smooth copper surface or stabilization layer , has a roughness of about 0 . 14 μm ra or less . in another aspect , the present invention provides methods of fabricating a printed circuit board , comprising the steps of : pre - cleaning a copper surface with an alkaline and / or peroxide solution ; stabilizing the copper surface by forming a copper oxide layer thereon ; conditioning the copper oxide layer with a reducing agent ; and bonding the treated copper surface with a resin . turing to fig1 a and 1b there is illustrated one exemplary embodiment of a simplified schematic of a smooth copper - resin bonding interface 100 a comprising a smooth copper substrate 102 bonded to a smooth resin substrate 104 . a stabilization layer 106 of either a dense oxide layer or an organic layer is formed on top of the copper to prevent the copper surface from corrosion or chemical attack which is a main cause of interface failure . in some embodiments it may be desirable , but not necessary , to facilitate chemical bonding by further conditioning or priming the stabilization layer 106 with an organic molecular layer to form active bonding sites x which will react with functional groups y in the resin 104 , forming covalent bonds . in the exemplary embodiment , the smooth copper - resin interface possesses superior adhesion strength and resistance to heat , moisture , and chemical attacks compared to roughened copper - resin interface 100 b known in the previous arts that the interface bonding is achieved mainly by mechanical anchors . referring to fig2 , in order to further illustrate the features of the present invention , an exemplary experimental process flow is schematically illustrated therein and comprises four major steps : ( 1 ) surface pre - treatment 200 , ( 2 ) surface stabilization and conditioning 300 , ( 3 ) vacuum lamination 400 , and ( 4 ) heat treatment 500 . the specific data and results are shown for illustrative purposes only and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention in any way . fig2 also shows where in the process the peel strength tests are carried out , however this is shown only to illustrate the testing procedures . the broad method steps of the present invention do not include the peeling test steps . in the exemplary method shown in fig2 , surface pre - treatment is carried out by alkaline clean at 202 , rinsing at 204 , soft etching and acid clean at 206 , and rinsing and drying the substrate at 208 . next the surface is stabilized by surface oxidation at 302 , and rinsing at 304 . then the surface is conditioned by reduction at 306 which may include optional functionalization , followed by rinsing and drying the substrate at 308 . after the conditioning step 306 , vacuum lamination is carried out by assembling the laminate film at 402 over the stabilized substrate , vacuum lamination at 404 , and optional vacuum press at 406 . next heat treatment is performed to cure or anneal the laminated assembly at 502 , which is then followed by peel strength testing at 600 . additionally , some embodiments of the present invention provide for contacting the metal surface with one or more organic molecules comprising a thermally stable base bearing one or more binding groups configured to bind the metal surface and one or more attachment groups configured to attach to the organic substrate . in an exemplary embodiment the one or more surface modifier molecules is a surface active molecule ( sam ) or moiety . of particular advantage , the pcb includes a copper oxide layer , also sometimes referred to as a stabilization layer , that exhibits unique features . in some embodiments the copper oxide layer after conditioning has a thickness of about 200 nanometers and less . in some embodiments the copper oxide has morphology comprised of a substantially amorphous structure . in an exemplary embodiment the copper oxide layer has a highly distributed grain structure , and after conditioning the grains have a size in the range of 200 nanometers and less . in other embodiments the copper oxide layer has grains , and after conditioning the grains have a size in the range of 100 nanometers and less . in some embodiments the copper oxide has grains , and after conditioning the grains are substantially randomly oriented . the copper surface is stabilized by exposing the copper surface to an oxidant . in an exemplary embodiment the oxidant is selected from any one or more of : sodium chlorite , hydrogen peroxide , permaganate , perchlorate , persulphate , ozone , or mixtures thereof . the step of stabilizing the copper surface may be carried out at a temperature in the range of room temperature to about 80 ° c . alternatively , the copper surface can be stabilized by thermal oxidation and electrochemical anodic oxidation . after stabilization , the copper oxide layer is conditioned with a reducing agent . in some embodiments the reducing agent is selected from any one or more of : formaldehyde , sodium thiosulfate , sodium borohydride , a borane reducing agent represented by the general formula bh 3 nhrr ′, wherein r and r ′ are each selected from the group consisting of h , ch 3 and ch 2 ch 3 , such as dimethylamine borane ( dmab ), a cyclic borane , such as morpholine borane , pyridium borane or piperidine borane . conditioning of the copper oxide layer may be carried out at a temperature in the range of room temperature to about 50 ° c . in some embodiments the entire method is carried out for a time in the range of about 2 to 20 minutes . additionally , some embodiments of the present invention provide for , after conditioning , contacting the copper oxide surface with one or more organic surface active molecules ( sams ) comprising a thermally stable base bearing one or more binding groups configured to bind the copper oxide surface and one or more attachment groups configured to attach to the organic substrate . in an exemplary embodiment the one or more organic surface active molecules is a surface active moiety . any suitable surface active molecule or moiety may be employed . in some embodiments the surface modifier moiety is selected from the group consisting of a macrocyclic proligand , a macrocyclic complex , a sandwich coordination complex and polymers thereof . alternatively the surface modifier compound may be comprised of a porphyrin . the one or more surface active molecules ( sam ) may be selected from the group of : a porphyrin , a porphyrinic macrocycle , an expanded porphyrin , a contracted porphyrin , a linear porphyrin polymer , a porphyrinic sandwich coordination complex , a porphyrin array , a silane , a tetraorgano - silane , aminoethyl - aminopropyl - trimethoxysilane , ( 3 - aminopropyl ) trimethoxysilane , ( 1 -[ 3 -( trimethoxysilyl ) propyl ] urea ), ( 3 - aminopropyl ) triethoxysilane , (( 3 - glycidyloxypropyl ) trimethoxysilane ), ( 3 - chloropropyl ) trimethoxysilane , ( 3 - glycidyloxypropyl ) trimethoxysilane , dimethyldichlorosilane , 3 -( trimethoxysilyl ) propyl methacrylate , ethyltriacetoxysilane , triethoxy ( isobutyl ) silane , triethoxy ( octyl ) silane , tris ( 2 - methoxyethoxy )( vinyl ) silane , chlorotrimethylsilane , methyltrichlorosilane , silicon tetrachloride , tetraethoxysilane , phenyltrimethoxysilane , chlorotriethoxysilane , ethylene - trimethoxysilane , an amine , a sugar or any combination of the above . alternatively , inorganic molecules from the group consisting of molybdates , tungstates , tantalates , niobates , vanadates , isopoly or heteropoly acids of molybdenum , tungsten , tantalum , niobium , vanadium , and combinations of any of the foregoing can be used for the same purpose . in some embodiments the one or more attachment group is comprised of an aryl functional group and / or an alkyl attachment group . when the attachment group is an aryl , the aryl functional group may be comprised of a functional group selected from any one or more of : acetate , alkylamino , allyl , amine , amino , bromo , bromomethyl , carbonyl , carboxylate , carboxylic acid , dihydroxyphosphoryl , epoxide , ester , ether , ethynyl , formyl , hydroxy , hydroxymethyl , iodo , mercapto , mercaptomethyl , se - acetylseleno , se - acetylselenomethyl , s - acetylthio , s - acetylthiomethyl , selenyl , 4 , 4 , 5 , 5 - tetramethyl - 1 , 3 , 2 - dioxaborolan - 2 - yl , 2 -( trimethylsilyl ) ethynyl , vinyl , and combinations thereof . when the attachment group is comprised of an alkyl , the alkyl attachment group comprises a functional group selected from any one or more of : acetate , alkylamino , allyl , amine , amino , bromo , bromomethyl , carbonyl , carboxylate , carboxylic acid , dihydroxyphosphoryl , epoxide , ester , ether , ethynyl , formyl , hydroxy , hydroxymethyl , iodo , mercapto , mercaptomethyl , se - acetylseleno , se - acetylselenomethyl , s - acetylthio , s - acetylthiomethyl , selenyl , 4 , 4 , 5 , 5 - tetramethyl - 1 , 3 , 2 - dioxaborolan - 2 - yl , 2 -( trimethylsilyl ) ethynyl , vinyl , and combinations thereof . in an alternative embodiment the at least one attachment group is comprised of an alcohol or a phosphonate . in further embodiments , the at least one attachment group may be comprised of any one of more of : amines , alcohols , ethers , other nucleophile , phenyl ethynes , phenyl allylic groups , phosphonates and combinations thereof . in general , in some embodiments the organic molecule is comprised of a thermally stable unit or base with one more binding groups x and one or more attachment groups y . in certain embodiments , the organic molecule is heat - resistant metal - binding molecule , and may be comprised of one or more “ surface active moieties ,” also referred to in associated applications as “ redox active moieties ” or “ reams ”. in general , in some embodiments there are several types of surface active moieties useful in the present invention , all based on polydentate proligands , including macrocyclic and non - macrocyclic moieties . suitable proligands fall into two categories : ligands which use nitrogen , oxygen , sulfur , carbon or phosphorus atoms ( depending on the metal ion ) as the coordination atoms ( generally referred to in the literature as sigma ( a ) donors ) and organometallic ligands such as metallocene ligands . in addition , a single surface active moiety may have two or more redox active subunits , and utilize porphyrins and ferrocenes . in some embodiments , the surface active moiety is a macrocyclic ligand , which includes both macrocyclic proligands and macrocyclic complexes . by “ macrocyclic proligand ” herein is meant a cyclic compound which contains donor atoms ( sometimes referred to herein as “ coordination atoms ”) oriented so that they can bind to a metal ion and which are large enough to encircle the metal atom . in general , the donor atoms are heteroatoms including , but not limited to , nitrogen , oxygen and sulfur , with the former being especially preferred . however , as will be appreciated by those in the art , different metal ions bind preferentially to different heteroatoms , and thus the heteroatoms used can depend on the desired metal ion . in addition , in some embodiments , a single macrocycle can contain heteroatoms of different types . a “ macrocyclic complex ” is a macrocyclic proligand with at least one metal ion ; in some embodiments the macrocyclic complex comprises a single metal ion , although as described below , polynucleate complexes , including polynucleate macrocyclic complexes , are also contemplated . a wide variety of macrocyclic ligands find use in the present invention , including those that are electronically conjugated and those that may not be . in some embodiments , the rings , bonds and substitutents are chosen to result in the compound being electronically conjugated , and at a minimum to have at least two oxidation states . in some embodiments , the macrocyclic ligands of the invention are selected from the group consisting of porphyrins ( particularly porphyrin derivatives as defined below ), and cyclen derivatives . a particularly preferred subset of macrocycles suitable in the invention include porphyrins , including porphyrin derivatives . such derivatives include porphyrins with extra rings ortho - fused , or ortho - perifused , to the porphyrin nucleus , porphyrins having a replacement of one or more carbon atoms of the porphyrin ring by an atom of another element ( skeletal replacement ), derivatives having a replacement of a nitrogen atom of the porphyrin ring by an atom of another element ( skeletal replacement of nitrogen ), derivatives having substituents other than hydrogen located at the peripheral meso -, 3 - or core atoms of the porphyrin , derivatives with saturation of one or more bonds of the porphyrin ( hydroporphyrins , e . g ., chlorins , bacteriochlorins , isobacteriochlorins , decahydroporphyrins , corphins , pyrrocorphins , etc . ), derivatives having one or more atoms , including pyrrolic and pyrromethenyl units , inserted in the porphyrin ring ( expanded porphyrins ), derivatives having one or more groups removed from the porphyrin ring ( contracted porphyrins , e . g ., corrin , corrole ) and combinations of the foregoing derivatives ( e . g . phthalocyanines , sub - phthalocyanines , and porphyrin isomers ). additional suitable porphyrin derivatives include , but are not limited to the chlorophyll group , including etiophyllin , pyrroporphyrin , rhodoporphyrin , phylloporphyrin , phylloerythrin , chlorophyll a and b , as well as thehemoglobin group , including deuteroporphyrin , deuterohemin , hemin , hematin , protoporphyrin , mesohemin , hematoporphyrin mesoporphyrin , coproporphyrin , uruporphyrin and turacin , and the series of tetraarylazadipyrromethines . as will be appreciated by those in the art , each unsaturated position , whether carbon or heteroatom , can include one or more substitution groups as defined herein , depending on the desired valency of the system . in addition , included within the definition of “ porphyrin ” are porphyrin complexes , which comprise the porphyrin proligand and at least one metal ion . suitable metals for the porphyrin compounds will depend on the heteroatoms used as coordination atoms , but in general are selected from transition metal ions . the term “ transition metals ” as used herein typically refers to the 38 elements in groups 3 through 12 of the periodic table . typically transition metals are characterized by the fact that their valence electrons , or the electrons they use to combine with other elements , are present in more than one shell and consequently often exhibit several common oxidation states . in certain embodiments , the transition metals of this invention include , but are not limited to one or more of scandium , titanium , vanadium , chromium , manganese , iron , cobalt , nickel , copper , zinc , yttrium , zirconium , niobium , molybdenum , technetium , ruthenium , rhodium , palladium , silver , cadmium , hafnium , tantalum , tungsten , rhenium , osmium , iridium , platinum , palladium , gold , mercury , rutherfordium , and / or oxides , and / or nitrides , and / or alloys , and / or mixtures thereof . there are also a number of macrocycles based on cyclen derivatives including macrocyclic proligands loosely based on cyclen / cyclam derivatives , which can include skeletal expansion by the inclusion of independently selected carbons or heteroatoms . in some embodiments , at least one r group is a surface active subunit , preferably electronically conjugated to the metal . in some embodiments , including when at least one r group is a surface active subunit , two or more neighboring r2 groups form cyclo or an aryl group . in the present invention , the at least one r group is a surface active subunit or moiety . furthermore , in some embodiments , macrocyclic complexes relying organometallic ligands are used . in addition to purely organic compounds for use as surface active moieties , and various transition metal coordination complexes with 8 - bonded organic ligand with donor atoms as heterocyclic or exocyclic substituents , there is available a wide variety of transition metal organometallic compounds with pi - bonded organic ligands ( see advanced inorganic chemistry , 5th ed ., cotton & amp ; wilkinson , john wiley & amp ; sons , 1988 , chapter 26 ; organometallics , a concise introduction , elschenbroich et al ., 2nd ed ., 1992 , 30 vch ; and comprehensive organometallic chemistry ii , a review of the literature 1982 1994 , abel et al . ed ., vol . 7 , chapters 7 , 8 , 1 . 0 & amp ; 11 , pergamon press , hereby expressly incorporated by reference ). such organometallic ligands include cyclic aromatic compounds such as the cyclopentadienide ion [ c 5 h 5 (− 1 )] and various ring substituted and ring fused derivatives , such as the indenylide (− 1 ) ion , that yield a class of bis ( cyclopentadieyl ) metal compounds , ( i . e . the metallocenes ); see for example robins et al ., j . am . chem . soc . 104 : 1882 - 1893 ( 1982 ); and gassman et al ., j . am . chem . soc . 108 : 4228 - 4229 ( 1986 ), incorporated by reference . of these , ferrocene [( c 5 h 5 ) 2 fe ] and its derivatives are prototypical examples which have been used in a wide variety of chemical ( connelly et al ., chem . rev . 96 : 877 - 910 ( 1996 ), incorporated by reference ) and electrochemical ( geiger et al ., advances in organometallic chemistry 23 : 1 - 93 ; and geiger et al ., advances in organometallic chemistry 24 : 87 , incorporated by reference ) reactions . other potentially suitable organometallic ligands include cyclic arenes such as benzene , to yield bis ( arene ) metal compounds and their ring substituted and ring fused derivatives , of which bis ( benzene ) chromium is a prototypical example , other acyclic n - bonded ligands such as the allyl (− 1 ) ion , or butadiene yield potentially suitable organometallic compounds , and all such ligands , in conjunction with other 7c - bonded and 8 - bonded ligands constitute the general class of organometallic compounds in which there is a metal to carbon bond . electrochemical studies of various dimers and oligomers of such compounds with bridging organic ligands , and additional non - bridging ligands , as well as with and without metal - metal bonds are all useful . in some embodiments , the surface active moieties are sandwich coordination complexes . the terms “ sandwich coordination compound ” or “ sandwich coordination complex ” refer to a compound of the formula l - mn - l , where each l is a heterocyclic ligand ( as described below ), each m is a metal , n is 2 or more , most preferably 2 or 3 , and each metal is positioned between a pair of ligands and bonded to one or more hetero atom ( and typically a plurality of hetero atoms , e . g ., 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ) in each ligand ( depending upon the oxidation state of the metal ). thus sandwich coordination compounds are not organometallic compounds such as ferrocene , in which the metal is bonded to carbon atoms . the ligands in the sandwich coordination compound are generally arranged in a stacked orientation ( i . e ., are generally cofacially oriented and axially aligned with one another , although they may or may not be rotated about that axis with respect to one another ) ( see , e . g ., ng and jiang ( 1997 ) chemical society reviews 26 : 433 - 442 ) incorporated by reference . sandwich coordination complexes include , but are not limited to “ double - decker sandwich coordination compound ” and “ triple - decker sandwich coordination compounds ”. the synthesis and use of sandwich coordination compounds is described in detail in u . s . pat . nos . 6 , 212 , 093 ; 6 , 451 , 942 ; 6 , 777 , 516 ; and polymerization of these molecules is described in wo 2005 / 086826 , all of which are included herein , particularly the individual substitutent groups that find use in both sandwich complexes and the “ single macrocycle ” complexes . in addition , polymers of these sandwich compounds are also of use ; this includes “ dyads ” and “ triads ” as described in u . s . pat . nos . 6 , 212 , 093 ; 6 , 451 , 942 ; 6 , 777 , 516 ; and polymerization of these molecules as described in wo 2005 / 086826 , all of which are incorporated by reference and included herein . surface active moieties comprising non - macrocyclic chelators are bound to metal ions to form non - macrocyclic chelate compounds , since the presence of the metal allows for multiple proligands to bind together to give multiple oxidation states . in some embodiments , nitrogen donating proligands are used . suitable nitrogen donating proligands are well known in the art and include , but are not limited to , nh2 ; nfir ; nrr ′; pyridine ; pyrazine ; isonicotinamide ; imidazole ; bipyridine and substituted derivatives of bipyridine ; terpyridine and substituted derivatives ; phenanthrolines , particularly 1 , 10 - phenanthroline ( abbreviated phen ) and substituted derivatives of phenanthrolines such as 4 , 7 - dimethylphenanthroline and dipyridol [ 3 , 2 - a : 2 ′, 3 ′- c ] phenazine ( abbreviated dppz ); dipyridophenazine ; 1 , 4 , 5 , 8 , 9 , 12 - hexaazatriphenylene ( abbreviated hat ); 9 , 10 - phenanthrenequinone diimine ( abbreviated phi ); 1 , 4 , 5 , 8 - tetraazaphenanthrene ( abbreviated tap ); 1 , 4 , 8 , 11 - tetra - azacyclotetradecane ( abbreviated cyclam ) and isocyanide . substituted derivatives , including fused derivatives , may also be used . it should be noted that macrocylic ligands that do not coordinatively saturate the metal ion , and which require the addition of another proligand , are considered non - macrocyclic for this purpose . as will be appreciated by those in the art , it is possible to covalent attach a number of “ non - macrocyclic ” ligands to form a coordinatively saturated compound , but that is lacking a cyclic skeleton . suitable sigma donating ligands using carbon , oxygen , sulfur and phosphorus are known in the art . for example , suitable sigma carbon donors are found in cotton and wilkenson , advanced organic chemistry , 5th edition , john wiley & amp ; sons , 1988 , hereby incorporated by reference ; see page 38 , for example . similarly , suitable oxygen ligands include crown ethers , water and others known in the art . phosphines and substituted phosphines are also suitable ; see page 38 of cotton and wilkenson . the oxygen , sulfur , phosphorus and nitrogen - donating ligands are attached in such a manner as to allow the heteroatoms to serve as coordination atoms . in addition , some embodiments utilize polydentate ligands that are polynucleating ligands , e . g . they are capable of binding more than one metal ion . these may be macrocyclic or non - macrocyclic . the molecular elements herein may also comprise polymers of the surface active moieties as outlined above ; for example , porphyrin polymers ( including polymers of porphyrin complexes ), macrocycle complex polymers , surface active moieties comprising two surface active subunits , etc . can be utilized . the polymers can be homopolymers or heteropolymers , and can include any number of different mixtures ( admixtures ) of monomeric surface active moiety , wherein “ monomer ” can also include surface active moieties comprising two or more subunits ( e . g . a sandwich coordination compound , a porphyrin derivative substituted with one or more ferrocenes , etc .). surface active moiety polymers are described in wo 2005 / 086826 , which is expressly incorporated by reference in its entirety . in certain embodiments , the attachment group y comprises an aryl functional group and / or an alkyl attachment group . in certain embodiments , the aryl functional group comprises a functional group selected from the group consisting of amino , alkylamino , bromo , iodo , hydroxy , hydroxymethyl , formyl , bromomethyl , vinyl , allyl , s - acetylthiomethyl , se - acetylselenomethyl , ethynyl , 2 -( trimethylsilyl ) ethynyl , mercapto , mercaptomethyl , 4 , 4 , 5 , 5 - tetramethyl - 1 , 3 , 2 - dioxaborolan - 2 - yl , and dihydroxyphosphoryl . in certain embodiments , the alkyl attachment group comprises a functional group selected from the group consisting of bromo , iodo , hydroxy , formyl , vinyl , mercapto , selenyl , s - acetylthio , se - acetylseleno , ethynyl , 2 -( trimethylsilyl ) ethynyl , 4 , 4 , 5 , 5 - tetramethyl - 1 , 3 , 2 - dioxaborolan - 2 - yl , and di hydroxyphosphoryl . in certain embodiments , the attachment group comprises an alcohol or a phosphonate . in some embodiments , the surface active moieties are silanes , characterized by the formula , a ( 4 - x ) sib x y , wherein each a is independently a hydrolysable group , e . g . a hydroxyl or alkoxy group , where x = 1 to 3 , and b is independently an alkyl or aryl group , that may or may not contain attachment groups , y , as described above . in some embodiments the invention provides a method of manufacturing a pcb using a smooth copper substrate , meaning a copper substrate that has not been previously roughened . for example , copper substrates suitable for use in methods of the present invention include , but are not limited to , electrolytic or electroplated copper , electroless copper , and rolled copper , and not restricted by the method of preparing the same . in further aspects , a printed circuit board is provided comprising a polymer material , such as an epoxy , which may contain a substantial amount of a filler material , such as glass , silica , or other materials , modified on its surface with a chemical adhesive material , such as a porphyrin , that substantially alters its chemical affinity for a metal , such as but not limited to copper , in order to facilitate strong adhesion between the polymer composite and the metal layer . a second layer of the chemical adhesive layer may be applied to the metal surface , to promote adhesion between it and subsequent polymer ( epoxy / glass ) layers . in some embodiments , the pcb is a multilayer conductive structure . in another aspect , the present invention provides methods of fabricating a printed circuit board , comprising the steps of : pre - cleaning a copper surface with an alkaline and / or peroxide solution ; stabilizing the copper surface by forming a copper oxide layer thereon ; terminating formation of the copper oxide by a self limiting reaction between the copper oxide and one or more inhibitor compounds ; and bonding the treated copper surface with a resin . is some embodiments , one or more molecules may be coupled to the copper oxide layer , the one or more organic molecules comprising a thermally stable base bearing one or more binding groups configured to bind the copper oxide surface and one or more attachment groups configured to attach to the resin . a number of experiments were conducted as described below . these examples are shown for illustration purposes only and are not intended to limit the invention in any way . this example illustrates one exemplary approach for treating a smooth copper substrate according to some embodiments of the present invention . as discussed above , methods of the invention enable the use of a smooth copper substrate , meaning a copper substrate that has not been previously roughened . such a copper substrate can be from a variety of sources . for example , copper substrates suitable for use in methods of the present invention include , but are not limited to , electrolytic or electroplated copper , electroless copper , and rolled copper , and not restricted by the method of preparing the same . in this example 1 , an electrolytic copper substrate was first cleaned with 20 - 40 g / l sodium hydroxide solution at 40 - 60 ° c . for 2 - 5 minutes , and then rinsed with water . the copper substrate was further cleaned in 1 - 3 wt % hydrogen peroxide solution plus 2 - 5 wt % sulfuric acid at rt for 1 - 5 minute , and 5 - 20 wt % sulfuric acid solution at rt for 1 minute , and then followed by water rinse . the substrate was then stabilized by oxidation in a 140 - 200 g / l chlorite solution with 10 - 50 g / l sodium hydroxide containing less than 1 % of a sam at 50 - 80 ° c . for 2 - 8 minutes followed by water rinse . the sample can then be treated in a reducing bath of 10 - 40 g / l dimethylamine borane ( dmab ) with ph adjusted to 10 . 5 - 12 . 5 at rt - 40 ° c . for 2 - 5 minutes . the sample was then rinsed and dried by hot air . the surface morphology and the thickness of the stabilization layer can be adjusted by varying the concentrations of the treatment solutions , the temperature , and duration , and characterized by sem , xrd , and auger depth profile . fig3 a is an exemplary sem micrograph at a magnification of 50 , 000 showing a typical morphology of a conventional electrolytic copper surface ( i . e . a smooth copper surface , or in other words a copper surface that has not been roughened ) with nodular grains and directional grain growth reflecting the long range order of the crystalline structure . in comparison , the morphology of an electrolytic copper surface treated according to the methods of the present invention is shown in fig3 b . as is very apparent , the stabilization layer on the treated copper surface shown in fig3 b exhibits a morphology of finer grains , unidirectional grain growth , and greater uniformity . by contrast , fig3 c shows a conventional black oxide surface which exhibits a much thicker and fragile fibrous structure . fig3 d is an exemplary sem micrograph of a conventional micro - etched copper surface which shows a morphology of highly un - uniform micro - ravines and ridges . the tabular data of fig4 compares the surface roughness expressed in both ra and rz , and demonstrates that the treatment of the present invention does not roughen the copper surface . the stabilization layer of the treated smooth copper surface prepared according to example 1 was further characterized by auger electron spectroscopy ( aes ) to determine the surface composition and thickness distribution of the layer . referring to fig5 , the aes depth profile for the treated smooth copper surface shows that the stabilization layer contains mixed copper and copper oxide , presumably cuprous oxide , and its thickness is about 100 nm . in contrast , the conventional black oxide layer extends to a distance above 1000 nm . the thickness of the stabilization layer is desired to be within a range of about 100 to 200 nm for securing good bonding strength . demonstration of the enhancement of resin bonding on a smooth copper substrate this example illustrates one exemplary approach to enhance the adhesion of epoxy on a smooth copper substrate . the above - mentioned treated cu test strips were laid out on a temporary backing as illustrated in fig6 . a commercial build - up ( bu ) epoxy ( or dielectric ) laminate film of 35 μm thickness , which had been stabilized at ambient condition for at least 3 hours , was laid on top of the cu strips as illustrated by fig7 a to 7d . the assembly was then vacuum laminated at 100 ° c ., 30 s vacuum , and 30 s press at 3 kg / cm 2 . the lamination step was repeated twice to form a total of 3 plies of bu films . it is worthy to note that the copper surface changed from reddish into a light brown or green after surface treatment , and then became black after the lamination suggesting that a chemical bonding reaction had taken place . the resin surface often contains chemically reactive groups , such as hydroxyls , amines , epoxies , and others , which can react with the oxygen rich copper surface by forming bonds . to quantify the adhesion strength , a rigid backing substrate ( stiffener ) was laminated on top of the bu film as illustrated by fig7 b . the assembly was then heat treated or cured in a convection oven at 180 ° c . for 90 min . next the assembly was diced to remove the temporary backing substrate and separate into individual test coupons for peel strength testing and testing using the highly accelerated stress test ( hast ). the adhesion strength of the resulting laminate was quantified by a force gauge of a peel tester on a peel strip of 10 mm width at a 90 degree peel angle and peel speed of 50 mm / min . specifically , peel strength was tested on the substrates as initially formed , and then after preconditioning and reflow . preconditioning was carried out at 125 ° c . for 25 hours , followed by 30 ° c . and 60 % relative humidity ( rh ) for 192 hours . reflow was carried out three times at 260 ° c . thereafter hast testing was conducted 130 ° c . and 85 % rh for 96 hours . fig8 a and 8b illustrates the impact of the treatment on the peel strength retention post hast testing . the smooth control without ( i . e . without a stabilization layer according the invention ) dropped 88 % in peel strength post hast , and the conventional roughened control showed a 40 % loss . in significant contrast the treated smooth copper substrate ( i . e . with the stabilization layer formed according to the invention ) showed not only higher initial peel strength but also a higher retention of only 11 % loss . the tabular data of fig8 b also demonstrates that the enhancement in peel strength stability was achieved without change in the surface roughness . this result is superior , and would not have been predicted according to the teaching of the prior art . sem cross - sectional views of laminated treated smooth copper surface with stabilization layer as compared to a smooth control were taken and showed that methods of the present invention do not significantly roughen the copper surface . fig9 a and 9b shows a sem cross - sectional views , pre and post hast , of laminated treated smooth copper surface with stabilization layer formed according to embodiments of the present invention demonstrating no delamination after reflow and hast reliability tests . fig1 a and 10b are exemplary sem micrographs of peeled copper surfaces showing that the copper - resin interface breaks right at the copper surface for a smooth copper control ( fig1 a ), whereas the interface breaks within the resin for a treated smooth copper with stabilization layer ( fig1 b ) formed according to methods of the present invention . the surprising result demonstrates that the bonding strength between the resin and the treated copper surface of the present invention is stronger than the bonding strength of the bulk resin materials themselves . devices were formed to demonstrate that patterning of fine lines is enabled by embodiments of the present invention . specifically , comb patterns of lines and spaces with equal dimensions ( 50 / 50 , 30 / 30 , 20 / 20 , 10 / 10 , and 8 / 8 μm ) were treated and laminated following the same procedures as described in example 1 and example 2 . sem cross - sectional views confirmed again that the methods of the invention did not roughen the copper lines and there was no delamination after reflow and hast tests . the electrical isolation resistance remained at above 10 12 ω at 2 v after reflow and hast , which is five orders of magnitude higher than that of pcb manufacturing specifications . table 1 below summarizes the results . good results were obtained on all of these structures , indicating that treatment of the present invention significantly improves the ability to pattern copper lines at fine line spacing , a significant advance in the art . devices with laser vias were formed and then further processed to demonstrate process compatibility . specifically , smooth copper substrates were treated and laminated following the same procedures as described in example 1 and example 2 . via arrays of 30 , 40 , 50 , 75 , 100 , 150 , and 200 μm diameter were prepared through co 2 and uv laser drilling . the via structures were then subjected to a soft etch and acid clean or desmear process followed by electroless copper plating and then electroplating . fig1 shows sem cross - sections of laser vias formed on laminated smooth treated copper surfaces formed according to embodiments of the present invention demonstrating no undercutting and delamination post desmear and plating processes . demonstration of the enhancement of solder resist bonding on a smooth copper substrate this example illustrates one exemplary approach to enhance the adhesion of solder resist on a smooth copper substrate . the smooth copper test strips were treated following the same procedures as described in example 1 and laid out on a temporary backing as illustrated in fig6 . a commercial solder resist ( sr ) laminate film of 30 μm thickness , which had been stabilized at ambient condition for at least 3 hours , was laid on top of the copper strips as illustrated by fig7 a . the assembly was then vacuum laminated at 75 ° c ., 30 s vacuum , and 60 s press at 1 kg / cm 2 . the assembly was then subjected to 400 mj / cm 2 uv exposure followed by curing in a convection oven at 150 ° c . for 60 min and post uv curing at 1000 mj / cm 2 . to quantify the adhesion strength , a rigid backing substrate ( stiffener ) was laminated on top of the sr film as illustrated by fig7 b . the assembly was then diced to remove the temporary backing substrate and then separated into individual test coupons for peel strength testing and highly accelerated stress test ( hast ) testing . specifically , peel strength was tested on the substrates as initially formed , and then after preconditioning , reflow , and hast . fig1 a and 12b illustrate the impact of the treatment methods of the present invention on the peel strength retention post hast testing . the smooth control without treatment dropped 87 % in peel strength post hast , and the conventional roughened control showed 69 % loss . in significant contrast the treated smooth copper surface formed according to embodiments of the present invention showed not only higher initial peel strength but also a higher retention of only 22 % loss . the tabular data of fig1 b also demonstrates that the enhancement in peel strength stability was achieved without change in surface roughness . demonstration of uv patterning and via clean / plating compatibility of sr laminated cu surface devices of via array and copper lines were formed and then further processed to demonstrate the process compatibility . specifically , smooth copper substrates were treated and laminated following the same procedures as described in example 5 . via arrays of bottom diameter ranging from 80 to 440 μm and copper lines of 62 to 500 μm width were formed through uv exposure and development . fig1 a shows the copper line pattern and via arrays , and fig1 b shows the ball grid array ( bga ) pattern . the patterned structures were then subjected to a soft etch and an acid clean or desmear process followed by electroless ni plating and then au emersion deposition . fig1 shows sem cross - sections of sr vias formed on laminated smooth copper demonstrating no delamination post desmear and plating processes . good results were obtained on all of these structures , suggesting that treatment methods of the present invention significantly improved the ability to pattern sr at fine line spacing , a significant advance in the art . the foregoing methods , devices and description are intended to be illustrative . in view of the teachings provided herein , other approaches will be evident to those of skill in the relevant art , and such approaches are intended to fall within the scope of the present invention .