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text:
\section{\label{sec:introduction}Introduction.}
High voltage (HV) devices are commonplace in physics laboratories. When used in air they do not present a radiation safety hazard, since the mean free path of any emitted electrons is always very short (${\sim}100$~nm) compared to the electrode gap, the accumulated kinetic energy before a collision is too small to produce ionizing radiation. HV electrodes in vacuum, however, can produce dangerous levels of radiation. Electrons emitted from a cathode surface can be accelerated across a HV vacuum gap, then rapidly stopped when they strike the opposing anode. The bremsstrahlung X-rays arising from this process were discovered over a century ago, and since then have been both thoroughly studied and widely used \cite{BremsstrahlungReview}. Standard X-ray tubes work on this very principle, and deliver high X-ray flux by deliberately accelerating electrons across the HV vacuum gap.

However, in many physics experiments, HV vacuum electrodes are used for entirely different type of purpose with no intent to make X-rays. For example, in the atomic, molecular and optical (AMO) physics community, the tasks of steering, focusing, slowing, and trapping atomic and molecular beams have been achieved using HV electrodes since the 1950's, up until the present \cite{Bennewitz1955,Ramsey1985,Meerakker2012,Bethlem1999,Maddi1999,Bethlem2002}. In these (and similar) types of experiments, the production of X-rays is entirely undesirable. Nevertheless, it is typical that some small, unwanted current of electrons continues to flow between the HV electrodes even when the apparatus is designed to minimize this effect; hence, unwanted X-rays will almost inevitably be produced at some level with any HV vacuum electrode setup.

The potential hazard due to incidental X-ray production in HV vacuum electrode devices is often addressed in the radiation safety programs of laboratories and research institutions (e.g. \cite{SantaCruzXRay,WKUXRay,DOERadiologicalWorkerTraining}), and many researchers and technicians at nuclear facilities or particle accelerators are well aware of the hazard (e.g. \cite{IAEAXray,FRCM}). However, our experience, together with circumstantial evidence, suggests that awareness of the danger of X-rays arising from apparatus using HV vacuum electrodes may be less fully appreciated in university laboratories. In this paper, we wish to draw attention to the fact that essentially \textit{any} HV apparatus with in-vacuum electrodes can constitute an X-ray safety hazard, and that the associated dangers may not be appreciated by typical researchers in the field (particularly at universities). We begin with a discussion of the underlying mechanism leading to X-ray production, and give order-of-magnitude estimates for potential exposure while using equipment of this type; we then go on to discuss observations from a specific setup as a case study.

\section{\label{sec:oom_estimate}Basic Mechanisms and Order of Magnitude Dose Rate Estimate.}
In experiments using HV vacuum electrodes where X-ray production is \textit{not} a goal, it is typically preferred to minimize the current flowing between the HV electrodes.  In general, this so-called ``leakage current'' can take two physically distinct forms \cite{Bajic1989,Latham1995}.  In the first, current flows along the insulating spacers used to separate electrodes from each other and/or from ground.  With well-chosen materials, leakage through the bulk of the insulator is typically negligible.  However, current flowing on insulator surfaces is typically much larger. Suppressing such surface leakage currents requires careful consideration of surface cleanliness and geometrical layout. While frequently undesirable for a given experiment, these surface currents do not generally lead to significant X-ray production, since the electrons are continuously scattered on the surface and do not reach the anode with sufficient kinetic energy to produce bremsstrahlung.

The second source of leakage current is the direct emission of electrodes from the cathode, which then accelerate through vacuum till they hit a surface at much lower electric potential (either an anode, or a grounded surface).  While this process is frequently referred to as ``field emission'' --- a phrase which refers to a specific physical mechanism for electron emission --- in fact there are a variety of physical mechanisms that that can lead to leakage currents flowing through vacuum \cite{Bajic1989,Latham1995}.  We refer to them collectively as ``vacuum emission''.   Leakage currents from vacuum emission are specifically responsible for the bremsstrahlung X-rays that are the subject of this paper.

The magnitude of vacuum emission currents in HV devices can vary widely, and can depend strongly on the history of the electrodes' use. It is widely known that some methods of ``conditioning'' vacuum HV electrodes can lead to extremely small vacuum emission currents (in the pA range or lower even for applied voltages of many tens of kV) \cite{Bajic1989,Latham1995}.  However, it appears typical that unconditioned electrodes can have can have vacuum emission currents of 1~$\upmu$A or more \cite{Williams1972,BastaniNejad2014,Sudarshan1988,HudsonThesis} and indeed, this is typical of the levels observed in the apparatus described here.  As we explain below, this range of current can easily be sufficient to produce a significant radiation hazard.  We note in passing that, in any given HV setup, it is typically easy to measure total current but far less clear how to distinguish (radiation-benign) surface currents from (radiation hazard-inducing) vacuum emission currents.  Out of an abundance of caution, researchers should assume that any measured HV current could be a pure vacuum emission current that leads to bremsstrahlung X-rays, unless there is clear evidence to the contrary. In our setup, after some early efforts to suppress surface currents, it appears that most of the typically 1--10 $\upmu$A currents were indeed vacuum emission currents.

With this in mind, we next estimate the dose rate due to a vacuum emission current of ${\sim}1~\upmu$A (${\sim}10^{13}~e^-$~s$^{-1}$) accelerated across a 60~kV potential difference (similar to the currents observed and voltages used in our setup) and then incident on an iron surface (similar to the stainless steel anodes in our setup).  The total power in the electron current is ${\sim}60$~mW. For 60~keV electrons impacting on iron, ${\sim}0.2~\%$ of the energy is converted into bremsstrahlung \cite{NISTestar}, giving ${\sim}120~\upmu$W of X-ray power. We assume a photon energy spectrum following Kramers' law \cite{Kramers1923}. In traversing the distance from the in-vacuum electrode to the position of a lab worker, we assume that the photons pass through 3~mm of aluminum (the vacuum chamber wall). Using standard tables of X-ray absorption coefficients \cite{NISTXray}, we find that ${\approx}20~\%$ of the photon energy passes out of the chamber, with a mean transmitted X-ray energy of ${\approx}40$~keV. The total power emitted from the chamber is then ${\sim}20~\upmu$W. Although bremsstrahlung emission is typically mildly directional \cite{Jackson} we assume isotropic emission for simplicity. As a conservative estimate we assume that a person located at the closest accessible position, ${\sim}10$~cm from the source of radiation, subtends a solid angle of ${\sim}2\pi$. The dose rate received is then ${\sim}400~\upmu$Sv~hr$^{-1}$\footnote{For convenience, note that 1~nW of radiation absorbed by a body of 100~kg is equivalent to a dose rate of 36~nSv~hr$^{-1}$ (assuming a quality factor and tissue weighting factor of 1).}. In summary, we estimate the dose rate per current at a distance of 10~cm from a point of bremsstrahlung production, $D_I$, to be
\begin{equation}
D_I{\sim}400~\upmu{\rm Sv~hr}^{-1}~\upmu{\rm A}^{-1}.
\end{equation}
For comparison, the annual dose limit for radiation workers (members of the public) corresponds to a dose rate of 25~$\upmu$Sv hr$^{-1}$ (500~nSv hr$^{-1}$) assuming 2,000 hours (approximately one work year) of exposure.

This estimate makes it possible to provide rough guidelines for safe operating conditions in an apparatus with vacuum HV electrodes.  For example, when working with 60 kV potential differences as in the estimate above, vacuum emission currents as low as 50 nA can lead to a significant hazard for long-term exposure.  Repeating this calculation at other voltage levels suggests that currents near or above $1~\upmu$A, when used with voltage in the 40~kV range, also represent a significant potential hazard. By contrast, at a lower voltage of $\sim$20~kV and for current of $1~\upmu$A, the dose rate is estimated to be less than the public limit quoted above. Of course, we emphasize that all such estimates should be interpreted conservatively, and that direct measurement of dose rates is always the most accurate method in assessing potential radiation hazards.

With this discussion in mind, we now go on to describe a particular experience with X-ray production from an apparatus with HV vacuum electrodes in our laboratory, as a case study.

\section{Case Study: Electrostatic Lens}
\subsection{Construction and operation}
The apparatus we studied is a quadrupole electrostatic lens designed to focus a beam of $^{232}$ThO molecules as part of the Advanced Cold Molecule Electron EDM (ACME) experiment to measure the electric dipole moment of the electron \cite{Baron2014}. It consists of a set of four stainless steel (316L) electrodes, of diameter 2.5~cm and length 60~cm. Electrodes of opposite voltage polarity are separated by a minimum distance of ${\approx}1$~cm, as shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:electrodes_and_macor}, and are fastened to two macor ceramic mounts via polyether ether ketone (PEEK) plastic screws.
\begin{figure}[!ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\linewidth]{electrodes_and_macor.pdf}
\caption{Simulated end-on (oriented along $\hat{x}$) view of the HV electrodes and one of the macor ceramic mounts which support them. The $y$-axis points downwards in the laboratory. Plus and minus signs indicate the polarity of the applied HV.}
\label{fig:electrodes_and_macor}
\end{figure}

The electrodes were prepared as follows: metal stock was annealed, cold drawn and then ground to the appropriate diameter, after which it was cut to length and rounded to a spherical profile at either end. Some small features were machined to facilitate supporting the electrodes and making the electrical connections. Following machining, the electrodes were electropolished and then cleaned in an ultrasonic bath sequentially with Alconox, acetone, isopropanol, and deionized water. Any residual dust or debris was removed during assembly with optics tissue or an ultra pure gas duster.

Electrical connections to the electrodes are made via separate ellipsoidal stainless steel connectors (diameter ${\approx}1.9$~cm, length ${\approx}2.3$~cm) which attach via set screws directly onto flat surfaces of the electrodes on one side, and clamp onto a Kapton-coated wire via a set screw on the other side. Similar connectors are also used to connect the other ends of the wires to HV vacuum feedthrough pins.

The HV is supplied by two DC supplies which are continuously variable from 0 to $\pm30$~kV and can provide up to 250~$\upmu$A of current. Each supply provides the voltage for two (diagonally opposite) electrodes of the same polarity. The apparatus was designed to operate with voltages of $\pm30$~kV applied. Unless otherwise specified, all tests were performed with this voltage. A vacuum of less than 1~$\upmu$Torr is maintained in the chamber by a turbomolecular pump.

\subsection{Investigation of radiation emitted}
\subsubsection{Discovery}
X-ray radiation from the apparatus was first discovered incidentally during an independent radiation study in the same laboratory, in which activity from the $^{232}$Th isotope was being measured with a GM probe and survey meter. High count rates (${\sim}10^6$~cpm) were observed when surveying near the HV apparatus while it was powered on, with a measured leakage current of ${\sim}1$--10~$\upmu$A. At this point, the apparatus was moved to a separate lab where suitable shielding (lead blankets), radiation monitoring and personnel controls could be put in place. Shortly following the discovery, the Department of Environmental Health and Safety issued a warning to all on-campus radiation users and to any potential high voltage users, reiterating the possible hazards of working with high voltages in a vacuum environment. The case was presented to the Radiation Safety Committee and additional detail on this type of hazard was added to the relevant safety training programs.

After initial surveying, measurement of the radiation emitted was performed primarily using a GM-probe based dosimeter. A number of experimental parameters were monitored simultaneously, including the voltage and current provided by the power supplies, and the pressure inside the vacuum chamber. The remainder of this section describes the measurements taken.

\subsubsection{Initial Surveying}
\label{sec:initial_surveying}
Measurements were carried out with a GM-probe (Ludlum 44-9) to localize the source of radiation and provide initial estimates of the dose rate. During the measurements, leakage currents of ${\sim}1$--10~$\upmu$A were observed. Three locations with particularly high count rates were observed. These positions and the overall apparatus are shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:apparatus_schematic}.
\begin{figure*}[!ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.7\linewidth]{survey_positions.pdf}
\caption{A schematic of the experimental apparatus, showing the vacuum chamber containing the electrodes. The $x$-axis is aligned with the electrodes, while the $y$-axis points downwards. The bottom image is a cutaway in the $xy$ plane such that only two of the four electrodes are shown. The electrodes are oriented with their length along the $x$-axis, centered on $x=0$, and extend around 10~cm into the nipples on either end. The center of the quadrupole configuration shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:electrodes_and_macor} is positioned at $y=z=0$, i.e. centered within the chamber/nipples. Red asterisks indicate positions where particularly high count rates were observed during initial surveying. $d_0$ labels the estimated distance of a source of radiation, as described in Section~\ref{sec:dosimetry} (see Figure~\ref{fig:dose_rate_vs_distance}).}
\label{fig:apparatus_schematic}
\end{figure*}
We observed variation in the count rate by a factor of several hundred while moving around the apparatus. This variation is significantly larger than expected due to any variation in distance from the electrodes or in thickness of the vacuum chamber walls.

Using the count rate, $\dot{n}\approx2$~Mcpm, measured with the GM probe, it was possible to make an initial estimate of the dose rate. We calculated the expected energy spectrum both with commercial software \cite{Wu2009} and custom code; we describe here the procedure using the latter. As in our simple estimates above, we assumed a photon number energy spectrum, $N(E)$, following Kramers' law \cite{Kramers1923} for the case of 60~keV electrons, modified by the energy-dependent transmission by the vacuum chamber walls (aluminum), $T(E)$ \cite{NISTXray}. The dose rate, $\dot{D}$, can then be shown to be given by
\begin{equation}
\dot{D}=\frac{\dot{n}}{S}\frac{\int N(E)T(E)\mu(E)E\enspace dE}{\int N(E)T(E)R(E)\mu(E)E\enspace dE},
\end{equation}
where $S$ is the GM probe's sensitivity to Cs-137 gamma rays (count rate per dose rate) \cite{Ludlum449} and $R(E)$ is the sensitivity of the probe at an energy $E$, relative to the sensitivity to Cs-137 gamma rays \cite{Ludlum449}, and $\mu(E)$ is the mass attenuation coefficient for air at an energy $E$. From this we estimate a dose rate of ${\approx}3$~mSv hr$^{-1}$, which is in agreement with the order of magnitude estimate provided in Section~\ref{sec:oom_estimate} for a leakage current due to field emission of ${\approx}7~\upmu$A. In this calculation we assumed that the radiation is isotropic, meaning the quoted dose rate is likely an overestimate given the observed directionality.

\subsubsection{Dosimetry Surveying}
\label{sec:dosimetry}
More detailed quantitative measurement of the spatial variation in the measured X-ray flux was performed in two ways. The first method used dosimeter badges (Landauer Luxel+) which were placed around the device at several locations while the apparatus was operated continuously for approximately 40~mins. During this time, the leakage current was again ${\sim}1$--$10~\upmu$A. The positions of the badges and the resulting doses and dose rates are shown in Table~\ref{tab:badge_positions} (badge analysis was performed assuming radiation solely from X-rays). We define a coordinate system with its origin at the center of mass of the four electrodes. The $x$-axis is aligned with the long dimension of the electrodes and the $y$-axis is downward (see Figures~\ref{fig:electrodes_and_macor} and \ref{fig:apparatus_schematic}).
\begin{table*}[!ht]
\centering
\begin{tabular}{ccccccc}
\textbf{Badge} & \textbf{Position (cm)} & \textbf{DDE ($\upmu$Sv)} & \textbf{LDE ($\upmu$Sv)} & \textbf{SDE ($\upmu$Sv)} & \textbf{DDRE ($\upmu$Sv hr$^{-1}$)}\\\hline
1 & (46, -10, 3) & 10 & 10 & 0 & 20\\
2 & (46, 0, 23) & 10 & 10 & 10 & 20\\
3 & (51, 10, -20) & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0\\
4 & (0, -13, -3) & 1700 & 1890 & 1960 & 2550\\
5 & (0, -10, 20) & 180 & 180 & 180 & 270\\
6 & (10, 0, -25) & 260 & 260 & 240 & 390\\
7 & (-56, 10, -3) & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0\\
8 & (104, 0, 15) & 30 & 30 & 20 & 50\\
9 & (86, -8, 69) & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0\\
\end{tabular}
\caption{Positions surveyed with badge dosimeters. `DDE', `LDE' and `SDE' refer to deep dose equivalent, lens dose equivalent and shallow dose equivalent, respectively. `DDRE' is the deep dose rate equivalent. Doses listed as zero were below the minimal measurable dose of 10~$\upmu$Sv. Leakage currents of ${\sim}1$--$10~\upmu$A were present during these measurements.}
\label{tab:badge_positions}
\end{table*}

Out of the positions surveyed with badge dosimeters, three revealed particularly high dose rates. These were approximately located at coordinates $(0,-13,-3)$~cm, $(0,-10,20)$~cm, and $(10,0,-25)$~cm, all of which refer to positions near the center of the apparatus. Surprisingly, a large dose rate was \textit{not} observed by badges at one of the areas of highest count rate found during initial surveying, located near the viewport at one end of the electrodes ($x\approx+40$~cm, right-most asterisk in Fig.~\ref{fig:apparatus_schematic}). Further measurements showed that this was because the X-ray flux in that region was highly directional, being well-aligned with the $x$-axis. (For example, at an $x$ position corresponding to directly outside one of the viewports, the dose rates at $y\approx0$~cm and $y\approx15$~cm differed by a factor of ${\sim}10$.) The shielding provided by the electrodes themselves may have contributed to this directionality.

The second method for quantitative study of the dose rate utilized a handheld dosimeter (RadEye B20-ER). These measurements supported the conclusion from initial surveying and dosimeter badge readings that the source of radiation was well-localized at two positions, one near one of the viewports on the $x$-axis and the other near the center of the vacuum chamber where $x=0$ (cf. Figure~\ref{fig:apparatus_schematic}). After careful surveying, a maximum dose rate on contact with the vacuum chamber of ${\approx}2.5$~mSv hr$^{-1}$ was measured, although this maximum was observed to vary over the range ${\sim}0.1$--2.5~mSv hr$^{-1}$ on timescales of hours to days. During this time the leakage current was ${\sim}1$--10~$\upmu$A. We note that the maximum dose rate from the handheld dosimeter also agrees with our other estimates of dose rate.

In order to localize the source of the radiation production more precisely, measurements were carried out around the regions of highest observed dose rate. Directions along which the radiation was peaked were identified and the dose rate was then measured as a function of distance. Example data are shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:dose_rate_vs_distance}.
\begin{figure}[!ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.75\linewidth]{dose_rate_vs_distance.pdf}
\caption{Measured dose rate $D$ as a function of distance $d$ along the $+\hat{x}$ axis. Zero is located at the viewport surface. Black data points represent measurements and the red line is the result of a fit to a curve of the form $D(d)=D_0/(d-d_0)^2$, where $D_0$ is an adjustable fit parameter and the best fit gives $d_0\approx-8$~cm. Due to drifts in the count rate, fluctuations in the data are not anticipated to be Gaussian, so the error bars represent the overall range of measurements at a particular distance. During these data, the leakage current was ${\sim}1$--10~$\upmu$A.}
\label{fig:dose_rate_vs_distance}
\end{figure}
Given observations of the localized character of the radiation, we chose to model the radiation source as a point.
As shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:dose_rate_vs_distance}, this model fits the data well and suggests that there is a source of radiation located 8~cm inside the viewport. This position is physically plausible, since it is within the length of the electrodes (roughly 2~cm from their end). Similar analysis indicated another localized source of radiation close to $x=0$, the center of the electrodes' lengths and where the electrical connections are made, with comparable measured dose rates. This suggests that close examination of these connections may help mitigate electron emission.

\subsubsection{X-ray Energy Spectrum}
To verify our understanding of the X-ray emission process, and to predict what shielding methods would be sufficient to ensure safe use of the device, we performed a qualitative characterization of the X-ray spectrum. In the absence of an X-ray spectrometer, this was achieved by examining the variation in the count rate, as measured by the handheld dosimeter, as a function of the shielding present. Sheets of ${\approx}0.8$~mm thick aluminum were stacked to give thicknesses of up to ${\approx}1.4$~cm and placed in front of the dosimeter, which was located around 10~cm from the end of the vacuum chamber, in the $+\hat{x}$-direction. For each thickness the count rate was recorded 30 times over a period of ${\sim}2$~mins. The thickness of the aluminum was varied in a random order. The leakage current (typically ${\sim}10~\upmu$A for these data) was measured simultaneously.

Measured data were then compared to a simulated spectrum. The photon energy distribution was calculated as described in Section~\ref{sec:initial_surveying}, accounting for absorption by the vacuum chamber viewport and aluminum plates. To convert from photon number to measured count rate requires knowledge of the energy dependence of the dosimeter response, which is approximately constant \cite{RadeyeManual}. This simulation was then repeated while varying the thickness of aluminum shielding. A least squares fit of the resulting curve to the data was performed while varying an overall scaling factor. The results are shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:countrate_vs_al_thickness}.
\begin{figure}[!ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.75\linewidth]{count_rate_vs_al_thickness_range_as_error.pdf}
\caption{Observed dose rate (normalized to leakage current) as a function of thickness of aluminum shielding. Black data points represent measurements and the red line is the result of calculation assuming a 60~keV electron energy, fitting the overall scaling as a free parameter. Due to drifts in the count rate, fluctuations in the data are not anticipated to be Gaussian, so the error bars represent the overall range of measurements at a particular thickness.}
\label{fig:countrate_vs_al_thickness}
\end{figure}

The qualitative dependence of the dose rate on shielding thickness is fairly well reproduced under the assumption of a bremsstrahlung spectrum, crudely validating our understanding of the spectrum of X-rays emitted from our apparatus. The discrepancy between data and simulation is likely due to inaccuracy in our model --- for example there may be additional shielding of X-rays due to the electrodes themselves.

\subsubsection{Dependence on Voltage and Leakage Current}
The emission of bremsstrahlung radiation from our apparatus is a clear indication that electrons are flowing between the electrodes, though the apparatus was designed with the goal of producing no such leakage current. Minimizing this leakage current is an important step in mitigating the radiation hazard.

To further characterize the radiation emission, we measured the dose rate from X-rays while varying the applied voltage and monitoring the current drawn from the power supplies. Again, the measurement was performed on the $x$-axis, ${\approx}10$~cm from the viewport at one end of the vacuum chamber. For applied voltages below $\pm20$~kV, the measured dose rate was consistent with background. The resulting data are shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:doserate_vs_current_voltage_combined}.
\begin{figure}[!ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.8\linewidth]{doserate_vs_current_voltage_combined_new.pdf}
\caption{Measured dose rate $\dot{D}$ as a function of the leakage current $I$ between the electrodes. Each data series, represented by different colors/symbols, corresponds to a different voltage applied to the electrodes. Measurement was performed at position $(x,y,z)=(45,0,0)$~cm, i.e. a distance of ${\approx}15$~cm from the end of the electrodes, in the $+\hat{x}$ direction.}
\label{fig:doserate_vs_current_voltage_combined}
\end{figure}
For each value of the applied voltage, the dose rate increases with the observed leakage current as expected. As the voltage is increased, there is also a clear increase in the dose rate per unit of leakage current. Performing a linear fit to determine the slope of the dose rate vs.\ current line for each voltage value allowed us to quantify this variation. The resulting data are shown as black squares in Fig.~\ref{fig:dose_rate_per_current_vs_voltage}. We see that there is a roughly fivefold increase in the measured dose rate per leakage current when the voltage increases from $\pm20$ to $\pm28$~kV.
\begin{figure}[!ht]
\centering
\includegraphics[width=0.75\linewidth]{dose_rate_per_current_vs_voltage_new2.pdf}
\caption{Black circles: Measured dose rate divided by leakage current present, as a function of the applied voltage, produced by performing a least-squares fit to data such as that shown in Fig.~\ref{fig:doserate_vs_current_voltage_combined}. Red squares: black circle data points divided by a voltage-dependent factor which accounts for changes in the efficiency of bremsstrahlung production and detection --- see main text for description. The straight lines shown are fits to guide the eye.}
\label{fig:dose_rate_per_current_vs_voltage}
\end{figure}

To understand better the origin of this increase, we considered possible sources of variation in dose rate per leakage current. In general we can write the measured dose rate, $\dot{D}(V)$ as
\begin{equation}
\dot{D}(V)\propto2IV\times f\times C(2Ve)\times\frac{\int_0^{2Ve}N(E)ET(E)\mu(E)\enspace dE}{\int_0^{2Ve}N(E)EdE}\equiv fI\psi(V),
\label{eq:dosepropto}
\end{equation}
where $\pm V$ and $I$ are the measured electrode voltages and leakage current, $e$ is the electron charge, $C$ is the theoretical bremsstrahlung radiation yield \cite{NISTestar}, $N$ is the theoretical bremsstrahlung photon number distribution \cite{Kramers1923}, $\mu$ is the mass attenuation coefficient of air \cite{NISTXray}, $T$ is the calculated transmission of X-rays through the vacuum chamber viewport \cite{NISTXray} and $f$ is the fraction of electrical power from the leakage current that is associated with field-emitted electrons. Our goal is to deduce $f$ (up to a constant of proportionality). Equation~\ref{eq:dosepropto} can be understood intuitively as follows: $2IVf$ is the electrical power associated with field-emitted electrons, $C$ is the fraction of this energy that is converted into bremsstrahlung, and the term in the integral represents the fraction of the bremsstrahlung power which escapes the vacuum chamber and is recorded as a dose. In particular, both the radiation yield and the fraction of energy transmitted through the vacuum chamber increase with applied voltage. Using Equation~\ref{eq:dosepropto} we computed $\tilde{\psi}(V)\equiv\psi(V)/\psi(56~{\rm keV})$. Dividing the dose rate per current ($\dot{D}/I$) by $\tilde{\psi}(V)$ yields a quantity proportional to $f$. Plots of both $\dot{D}/I$ and $\dot{D}/(I\tilde{\psi})$ vs. applied voltage $V$ are shown in Figure~\ref{fig:dose_rate_per_current_vs_voltage}. As seen there, our data indicate that the fraction of the leakage current electrical power that is converted into field emission, $f$, increases with the applied voltage. This suggests that in our system field emission has a stronger dependence on voltage than surface current production does (surface current \cite{Gleichauf1951,Miller1989,Shannon1965,Kuffel1972,Grzybowski1983,Korzekwa1989} is a type of leakage current that does not produce bremsstrahlung).

\subsection{Reduction of Radiation}
The mitigation of leakage current and electrical breakdown in HV systems is an extensively studied problem \cite{Latham1995,Hawley1968,Faircloth2014}. It is known that field emission is enhanced by imperfections in the surface of the electrodes, either from impurities and defects \cite{Bommakanti1990} or from inherent roughness of the conducting surfaces \cite{Williams1972,Kato2007,Choulkov2005}. For these reasons it is important to ensure that all surfaces that are at HV are as smooth, uniform and clean as possible. Following such preparation, additional reduction of leakage current can be achieved through various methods of conditioning, such as spark conditioning \cite{Hatfield1988,Kuffel1972}, glow discharge conditioning \cite{Dylla1988,Anjali1994} or gas conditioning \cite{Yamamoto1989,BastaniNejad2014,Bajic1989}. The underlying principle behind all of these methods is the removal of surface imperfections that cause concentrations of electric field, usually microscopic metallic protrusions or foreign material, via destructive processes such as ion bombardment. It is of particular note that the use of emitted radiation has previously been recognized as an invaluable tool for diagnosing efficacy of conditioning \cite{Hernandez-Garcia2009}.

In our case we observed that spark conditioning was useful in preventing surface flashover; however, the vacuum leakage current and associated radiation remain large enough to be of concern in our setup at the moment. Testing of the HV apparatus suggested that electron emission and bremsstrahlung were caused by the electrodes themselves, rather than the connectors, wires or feedthroughs. Future work will focus on finding a surface preparation method that will mitigate the problem.

\section{Conclusion}
We have observed and characterized the generation of bremsstrahlung X-rays from a device with HV vacuum electrodes, based in a university atomic physics laboratory. Although we observed no radiation at applied voltages below $\pm20$~kV, we observed a dose rate as large as 2.5~mSv hr$^{-1}$ immediately outside the apparatus when leakage currents of ${\sim}1$--10~$\upmu$A were present at applied voltage in the $\pm20$--$\pm30$~kV range. This dose rate was consistently measured via three different methods, and agrees with a simple estimate based on an assumption that the measured leakage current is entirely due to vacuum emission in the appratus. This level of radiation represents a substantial hazard under conditions frequently used in university physics laboratories. We observed the radiation to be highly directional and its sources to be well-localized. This makes it clear that single-point radiation monitoring around apparatus of this type may not be sufficient to understand the associated hazard.
HV devices operating in vacuum in a similar range of operating parameters are widely used in university physics laboratories.  Given an apparent unawareness of the associated radiation hazard, at least within parts of the community of university physics researchers, it is important to highlight this issue as a potentially unrecognized safety hazard.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


I will try to describe the unique cosmetic product Belathena Fill us Patch in the best way I can. I am a pharmacist so if the description is somewhat too technical, I am sorry.
Belathena Fill us Patch is unique in the European Union = the only cosmetic product that allows at-home application of crosslinked hyaluronic acid to the facial skin. With Belathena Fill us Patch, you can take care of your fine wrinkles, especially wrinkles around your eyes, wrinkles outside the corners of your eyes or wrinkles around your mouth.
Belathena are small pads with microneedles made of slightly crosslinked hyaluronic acid. Cross-linking of Hyaluronic acid prolongs the resulting effect. After the Belathena Fill us Patch, the skin is hydrated and elastic.
Hyaluronic acid does not affect the function of mimic nerves (as opposed to, for example, botulinum toxin).
After attaching Belathena to the facial skin, the amount of hyaluronic acid in the skin increases, and the skin becomes hydrated, tightened, and looks natural and fresh.
Each bag contains 2 pads with microneedles made of crosslinked hyaluronic acid.
Pads are applied once a week (for a minimum of 5 hours) = 1 pack containing 4 bags is sufficient for 1 month (4 weeks) of treatment.
Aging of the skin is mainly due to the decrease of elasticity and the appearance of the first wrinkles. With age, the production of hyaluronic acid and collagen diminishes resulting in reduction of the skin's elasticity. (2) Skin and epidermis thus lose the ability to bind and retain water which keeps the skin tense. (3) Belathena Fill us Patch pads improve skin hydration, skin elasticity and its lifting, from the comfort of your home.
The sooner you start with a regular rejuvenation of your face, the better and longer-lasting effect you achieve.
Nowadays, physicians usually compensate for the natural loss, for example in the form of dermal (skin) fillings used in face wrinkle corrections, or inject orthopedics into large joints (most commonly knees) to alleviate the effects of damaged articular cartilage.
Binding large amounts of water (hyaluronic acid naturally "locks" itself).
Hyaluronic acid does not affect the function of mimic nerves (4) (as opposed to, for example, botulinum toxin).
After increasing the amount of hyaluronic acid, the skin is tightened and looks natural and fresh.
Injection application of dermal fillers is a relatively invasive method of wrinkle treatment, when usually 1-2 milliliters of hyaluronic gel is injected into the skin depth with a needle. This method is effective for deep wrinkles (for example in nasal and labial wrinkles) where the missing volume needs to be refilled. Unfortunately, dermal fillings do not work well for fine wrinkles (especially around the eyes and mouth). In contrast, Belathena Fill us Patch Cosmetic Cushion treatment is non-invasive and painless, because hyaluronic acid pads are only applied to the skin and gently pressed.
In 1 milliliter of dermal filling, there is maximum of 28 milligrams of hyaluronic acid (the price at the doctor for 1 milliliter is about 6,000 CZK.
While one pad of Belathena Fill us Patch contains 35 milligrams of hyaluronic acid (1 pack of Belathena Fill us Patch contains 8 pads and the price for all 8 pads is up to 3.200 CZK).
Hyaluronic acid does not affect the function of facial nerves. So, it could be beneficial to combine both rejuvenation methods: botulotoxin applied by experienced physician and cosmetic product Belathena as home care.
Remove the pad and hold it only at the edges. Rotate it to remove the transparent cover film, then place the pad on the selected application place.
After applying the pads to your skin, gently press your fingers against the center. This will improve the penetration of hyaluronic acid via micro-needles.
Leave the pads overnight. Application is possible even during the day. It is recommended to leave the pad on for at least 5 hours so that the active substances have enough time to penetrate the skin.
If there is little residue left on the skin after removing the pads, wash your face gently with water and wipe with a cotton swab. After washing your face, treat the skin with micellar water.
If you want to achieve faster effect, use the pads once a week for more than 4 weeks.
For a detailed description, see the brochure that is part of every Belathena Fill us Patch package.
Hyaluronic acid is a natural, biocompatible (body-own) substance that is present in every person's body. However, it can happen that this product will not be suitable for you so do not use it if it is not suitable for your skin.
Do not use it in areas of acne, open wounds, or inflammation sites.
Do not be afraid, they should disappear within 5-10 minutes.


ESO is a rapidly growing technology company passionate about improving community health and safety through the power of data. We provide software applications, interoperability and data management solutions to emergency medical services, fire departments and hospitals.
We're small enough to be nimble and fun, but big enough to be a great, stable place to work. We serve more than 14,000 customers out of our offices in Austin, Texas and Des Moines, Iowa.
We are looking for an experienced and driven Inside Sales Manager to help us successfully develop and grow our internal Inside Sales team. For this person to be successful they must be a hands-on manager with the ability to motivate others to achieve beyond expectations. The ideal candidate will be a true hunter and have the ability to transfer those skills to their team. They should also have a solid background selling software and/or high technology solutions. The Inside Sales Manager must also have the ability to transfer their skills in forecasting and pipeline management to their team.
The ideal candidate will have exceptional resource management and prioritization skills. They must be able to collaborate and communicate effectively with all levels of an organization. We need someone who is hands-on, dependable, and committed. Someone who is results orientated and can execute organizational goals with the utmost urgency and commitment.
Manage our inside sales team, including but not limited to motivating, training and coaching a high energy/high caliber sales team.
Facilitate new processes, tools, communications, training and methodologies to ensure sales program's success across teams and departments throughout the company.
Work with other department peers to facilitate relationships among various departments and locations in order to achieve sales goals and objectives.
Oversee resource planning, reporting, territories, incentives and communications for the assigned team.
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Some travel will be required on an "as-needed" basis.
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Experience building and working with a new inside sales team is strongly preferred.
Ability to demonstrate prior project management experience.
Proven ability to manage detail on multiple projects simultaneously.
Strong PC skills, including Microsoft Office Suite and CRM systems (preferably Salesforce).


Lil Bee's Boutique: Lil Bee's "Glam it up" Kit: White Gel pen and Winner announced!
Lil Bee's "Glam it up" Kit: White Gel pen and Winner announced!
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text:
How will IoT transform industry in Asia? Download our new report
Chia-Ling Koh
Director, Singapore
Email Chia-Ling
Chia-Ling is a Director of Singapore Law Practice, OC Queen Street LLC.
He supports digital innovation, investments and critical infrastructural transformation. Examples of digital projects:
commercialisation of artificial intelligence neural network technology
unified communications, which may include multi channel support for customer contact such as email, chat, voice, mobile and social media,
core banking and trading systems
satellite-based payment systems
satellite-based transportation tracking systems
collaboration between two gaming Asian giants transforming game from the web to mobile platform
digital mobile payment systems
high-profile IP/IT disputes involving digital innovation
Chia-Ling advises organisations on both contentious and non-contentious cyber security issues, data protection, data-mapping, data-governance, intellectual property management, validity and infringement, due-diligence, telecommunications and media regulations, competition, FinTech and payments financial regulations.
Chia-Ling's core areas of expertise lie in technology and dispute resolution. According to peers, he is 'known for his strength as a technology practitioner. Chambers Asia Pacific 2016
Praised by clients for having a "good balance of technology and legal skills"and for being a "good technology lawyer" in both IP and TMT Legal500 2016
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Chia-Ling has been consistently named as an "IP Star" by Managing IP.
Singapore Today – Payment Services Act: new Laws on cryptocurrencies and other digital payment tokens
The Payment Services Act (PSA) was passed by Parliament on 14 January 2019 and is projected to come into operation sometime this year. This piece of legislation emerged as a…
Copyright law update: Singapore government recommends significant changes that will impact IoT, data analytics, AI and other digital businesses
The proposed changes are significant for the copyright landscape in Singapore and will significantly impact digital businesses. They include the establishment of an exception against infringement for data analytics, a…
Published on 15 Feb 2019
The rise of e-Money and virtual currencies
Re-discovering the meaning of money from a legal perspective Whether you are a student trying to figure out how to save the salary from your first job, a café accepting…
ICOs in Singapore: regulatory and consumer protection concerns
In Singapore, initial coin offerings (ICO) of digital cryptographic tokens are not directly regulated. The Singapore government has not issued legislation which is specifically targeted at ICOs. In February 2018,…
Proposed Singapore Healthcare Services Bill: what are the key changes for healthcare providers?
The Singapore Ministry of Health (MOH) has recently concluded a public consultation on the draft Healthcare Services Bill (HCS Bill), which is intended to replace the existing regulatory framework set…
No standing to sue if assignment is merely of a bare right to sue, Singapore High Court rules
The Singapore High Court has ruled that a person who has been assigned by a copyright owner a mere right to sue for copyright infringement has no standing to commence…
Published on 8 May 2018
Greater protection for employees and gig workers
On 5 March 2018, the Singapore government introduced a raft of legislative changes which can be grouped into three broad themes: Expanded protections for employees; Introducing protections for gig workers;…
Managing Personal Data in the Digital Economy
The Personal Data Protection Commission (PDPC) of Singapore launched a public consultation "Managing Personal Data in the Digital Economy" on the 27th of July 2017. In adapting to technological advancements,…
Proposed payments services bill
On 21 November 2017, the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS – the central bank of Singapore) launched a second public consultation on a proposed payment services bill. This proposed bill…
Singapore PDPC issues public consultation relating to the NRIC numbers
Singapore's Personal Data Protection Commission ("PDPC") is seeking public feedback on its proposal to revise its Advisory Guidelines relating to the collection, use and disclosure of NRIC numbers (the "Revised…
Singapore's proposed fake news law
Singapore is likely to have a fake news law by the end of 2018. While this seems a sensible approach to tackling an increasingly prominent issue, it remains to be…
Published on 13 Sep 2017
China's Draft Regulation on the Protection of Critical Information Infrastructure issued
On 10 July 2017, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) issued a draft Regulation on the Protection of Critical Information Infrastructure (the Draft Regulation), pursuant to Article 31 of the…

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Tobias Sorensen has got a prominent scar on his left cheek, the effect of a sting he got from a dog when he was a lad. This gives him a "bad boy" look as well as a distinctive face in the modelling world. But most brands Photoshop out his scar in his print jobs. He's also graced several editorials for magazines like Details, GQ and Euroman. On the set of the best paid versions of 2013, he puts tenth, with total gains of $265,000.


text:
Pax Christi è un movimento cattolico internazionale per la pace, nato in Francia nel 1945.

Pax Christi International
Pax Christi International nasce in Francia nel 1945 per iniziativa di Mons. Thèas e M.me Dortel - Claudot.

Scopi iniziali del movimento erano la preghiera e la riconciliazione. La prima campagna organizzata fu Pax Christi in Regno Christi con lo scopo di riconciliare francesi e tedeschi dopo la seconda guerra mondiale.

Nei primi anni cinquanta alcune comunità furono fondate in Inghilterra, Belgio, Paesi Bassi, Austria e in Svizzera. Pio XII riconobbe di fatto il movimento nel 1952, concedendogli la sua benedizione. Il cardinale francese Feltin ne fu il primo presidente internazionale e ne strutturò il programma su tre linee portanti:
 preghiera
 studio
 azione

Dalla fine degli anni cinquanta e per tutti gli anni sessanta, il movimento si estese nell'Europa occidentale, aprendo sezioni nazionali in Irlanda, Spagna, Italia, Lussemburgo. In questi anni presidente fu il cardinale Alfrink.

L'enciclica Pacem in Terris di papa Giovanni XXIII (1963) segnò una svolta nella vita del movimento e ne divenne la nuova "Carta" ideale. Nell'enciclica la pace era legata alla giustizia ed al rispetto dei diritti umani. Papa Paolo VI, nella Populorum Progressio (1967), affiancò alla pace il tema dello sviluppo dei popoli. Questi documenti permisero al movimento di ampliare il proprio raggio di azione anche alla giustizia ed alla solidarietà. All'inizio degli anni settanta il movimento giunse negli USA ed in Australia.

Attualmente il movimento è presente in tutti e cinque i continenti, ha sezioni in diciannove stati, mentre in altri sette vi sono gruppi associati ed in dieci gruppi affiliati.

Presidenti
 Maurice Feltin (1950 - 1965), arcivescovo metropolita di Parigi
 Bernard Jan Alfrink (1965 - 1978), arcivescovo metropolita di Utrecht
 Luigi Bettazzi (1978 - 1985), vescovo di Ivrea
 Franz König (1985 - 1990), arcivescovo metropolita di Vienna
 Godfried Danneels (1990 - 1999), arcivescovo metropolita di Malines-Bruxelles
 Michel Sabbah (1999 - 2007), patriarca di Gerusalemme dei Latini

Dal 2007 è stata istituita una co-presidenza di un vescovo e una donna.

 Laurent Monsengwo Pasinya (2007 - 2010), arcivescovo metropolita di Kinshasa
 Marie Dennis (2007 - 2019)
 Kevin Patrick Dowling, C.SS.R. (2010 - 2019), vescovo di Rustenburg
 Suor Teresia Wamuyu Wachira, I.B.V.M., dal 2019
 Marc Stenger, dal 2019, vescovo di Troyes

Pax Christi Italia
Pax Christi Italia nacque nel 1954, per opera di mons. Giovanni Battista Montini della Segreteria di Stato Vaticana; il primo segretario nazionale fu mons. Angelo Fausto Vallainc.

Presidenti
 Carlo Rossi (1954 - 1959), vescovo di Biella
 Mario Ismaele Castellano (1959 - 1968), arcivescovo metropolita di Siena
 Luigi Bettazzi (1968 - 1985), vescovo di Ivrea. Nel 1991 ha fondato e tuttora presiede il Centro Studi Economico Sociali di Pax Christi Italia
 Tonino Bello (1985 - 1993), conosciuto come don Tonino, vescovo di Molfetta-Ruvo-Giovinazzo-Terlizzi, fu presidente nazionale fino al 1993, anno della sua morte. Fondatore della rivista Mosaico di Pace
 Diego Natale Bona (1994 - 2002), vescovo di Saluzzo con Tonio Dell'Olio coordinatore nazionale
 Tommaso Valentinetti (2002 - 2009), arcivescovo metropolita di Pescara-Penne con Fabio Corazzina coordinatore nazionale dall'agosto 2005
 Giovanni Giudici (2009 - 2014), vescovo di Pavia
 Giovanni Ricchiuti (dal 2014), arcivescovo, titolo personale, di Altamura-Gravina-Acquaviva delle Fonti

L'attuale coordinatore nazionale è don Renato Sacco, mentre il nuovo vicepresidente è il prof. Sergio Paronetto di Verona.

Note

Voci correlate
 Mosaico di Pace, la rivista italiana dell'associazione.

Altri progetti

Collegamenti esterni

Associazioni di promozione sociale
Movimenti cattolici
Nonviolenza
Pace

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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text:
#include <ucs/sys/compiler.h>
#include <ucs/debug/debug.h>
#include <ucs/debug/instrument.h>
#include <ucs/debug/log.h>
#include <ucs/debug/memtrack.h>
#include <ucs/stats/stats.h>
#include <ucs/async/async.h>

static void UCS_F_CTOR ucs_init()
{
    ucs_log_early_init(); /* Must be called before all others */
    ucs_global_opts_init();
    ucs_log_init();
#if ENABLE_STATS
    ucs_stats_init();
#endif
    ucs_memtrack_init();
    ucs_debug_init();
    ucs_instrument_init();
    ucs_async_global_init();
}

static void UCS_F_DTOR ucs_cleanup(void)
{
    ucs_async_global_cleanup();
    ucs_instrument_cleanup();
    ucs_debug_cleanup();
    ucs_memtrack_cleanup();
#if ENABLE_STATS
    ucs_stats_cleanup();
#endif
    ucs_log_cleanup();
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
History of Willimantic, The Thread City
Willimantic's earliest mill dams were located at natural water falls. Another great advantage of the river was the presence of granitic-gneiss outcroppings along its banks, a source of stone for building the early mills.
According to folklore, the name "Willimantic" is derived from an Indian word meaning "Place of the Swift Running Waters," an apt designation for this locality. The waters of the Willimantic River drop some 90 feet in a little over a mile, making the place an ideal location for water-powered enterprises. Even before there were any textile mills, the Willimantic River had been harnessed to power gristmills, sawmills, a powder mill that supplied the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War, a paper mill, and an iron works. These mills were all small-scale, employing but a handful of workers. Nevertheless, they pointed the way to what would become Willimantic's first great engine of growth, water-powered manufacturing.
The first to exploit the waterpower of the Willimantic River for textile manufacture was Perez Richmond, a Rhode Islander who in 1822 built a small wooden cotton mill near where the Natchaug River joins the Willimantic. The mill and the houses that were built for the millworkers created a village at the site that became known as Richmond Town. When the ownership of the mill changed, the village's name changed, too, to Wellesville. The mill was eventually incorporated into the operations of the Willimantic Linen Company.
This 1836 view, looking north on Bridge Street, shows three large cotton mills (arrows).
Also, in 1822, Charles Lee purchased a mill privilege on the east side of present-day Bridge Street and erected a large stone cotton mill. The mills were later known as the Smithville mills. Meanwhile, Matthew Watson, Nathan Tingley, and Arunah Tingley of Providence, R.I., purchased water rights and land just upstream on the west side of Bridge Street. Where earlier there had been a sawmill and gristmill, Watson and the Tingleys built a large stone mill to manufacture cotton cloth, along with houses for themselves and their workers. The Windham Cotton Manufacturing Company, as their enterprise was called, prospered and remained a major textile producer well into the 20th century. In 1907, the mills on both sides of Bridge Street were combined into a single operation. Today, the mills at this location are gone, though two dams, some foundations, some of the mill-worker houses, a former storehouse and a former company store remain standing.
Another successful investment in textile manufacturing was that of William, Asa, and Seth Jillson of Dorchester, Massachusetts. The Jillson Brothers cotton mill was built in 1824 near the present-day Jackson Street bridge (the "Frog Bridge") and its foundations can still be seen today. The mansion of William Jillson is the stone house maintained by the Windham Historical Society. The Jillson mill later became the spool-making shop of the Willimantic Linen Company.
The original Jillson Mill was later used by the Willimantic Linen Company as its first spool shop. In the 1880s, the company built a spool factory in Willimantic, Maine, to supplement the local shop's output. The Linen Company's Mill No. 1 is visible at the left.
In 1854, a group of Hartford investors, led by Austin Dunham and Lawson Ives, bought the old Jillson cotton mill with the intent of manufacturing linen. Shortly after they commenced operations, the Crimean War (1854-1855) interrupted the supply of European flax that the company had been counting on, and so the company switched to another specialty product, cotton thread for sewing machines. With expertise from thread-production managers from a mill in nearby Willington, the Willimantic Linen Company quickly became a leader in what would prove to be a tremendous growth industry. Prior to this time, thread wound on spools only came in black or white; colored thread was available in bulk skeins only. But from the beginning the Willimantic company offered spooled thread in a wide variety of colors, appealing to two growing segments of the economy: the emerging ready-to-wear clothing industry, centered in New York City's garment district, and the rising popularity of home sewing using Singer, Wheeler and Wilson, Howe, and other innovative sewing machines. The major sewing-machine manufacturers endorsed Willimantic thread and recommended it to their customers, and the company itself advertised far and wide, often piggy-backing on current events such as the acquisition of Jumbo the Elephant by Barnum's circus and the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge. Business was so good that in 1879 the company decided to buy property in Howard, Maine, close to the source of timber used to make its wooden spools, where it erected a large woodworking factory. In 1881, Howard was renamed Willimantic, the name that it continues to bear today.
In order to keep up with the ever-increasing demand for its product, the Willimantic Linen Company constantly expanded its manufacturing facilities. In addition to earlier mills acquired and merged into its operations, the company built additional huge granite mills in the 1850s and 1860s, along with new tracts of worker housing. Accompanying the expanded plant was Dunham Hall, built in 1867 as a company store and library for the workers, and today the home of the Mill Museum.
In 1880, the Willimantic Linen Company completed Mill No. 4, a huge brick factory, 168 feet wide by 840 feet long, that was, at that time, the largest cotton mill in the world. In addition to its size, Mill No. 4 was ahead of its time in other respects: its interior lighting used electric lamps instead of gaslights, all the belting and shafting were accommodated in conduits under the floor instead of overhead (both an aesthetic and safety improvement), and the mill was a single story in height, prefiguring the industrial architecture of the 20th century. People came from all over the world to see it. At the same time, the company built stylish new single-family cottages for the anticipated growth in its workforce. Unlike the earlier rows of plain, identical tenements, "The Oaks" used a variety of designs; the appearance and comfort of the homes received national attention as a model of industrial housing.
Mill No. 4, built on the south side of the river in 1880, the largest cotton mill in the world at the time. Inset: "The Oaks" cottages in 1895.
In 1898, the Willimantic Linen Company became part of the American Thread Company, a large corporation that was attempting to gain a dominant position in the international market for thread. Under its ownership, Mill No. 4 finally reached its full productive potential, and in the early 20th century other large brick mills and a huge reinforced-concrete warehouse were added to the plant. American Thread remained a major employer in Willimantic through the 1980s.
Although the dams on the Willimantic River created plenty of power, there was nowhere within the city to create millponds behind the dams. Millponds were essential to even out the flow during times of low water. Typically, a mill would draw down water from its millpond during the day, then let it fill back up at night. In order to create "pondage," as it was called, Willimantic manufacturers acquired control of the Hop River, a major tributary of the Willimantic River. The Bolton Lakes, formerly known as Willimantic Reservoir, and Columbia Lake were managed as pondage for the mills of Willimantic.
Willimantic manufacturers extended their influence miles upstream on the Hop River so as to maintain sufficient water to power their mills. This 1890 topographical map shows the location of the two reservoirs, the Bolton Lakes and Columbia Lake. Click to enlarge.
The Holland Silk Company on Valley Street began operation in 1866 and at its height employed more than 200 people.
Forty trains a day made the Willimantic train station a busy place.
Cotton-cloth and thread manufacturing were Willimantic's major industries, but there were numerous other manufacturing enterprises as well. While not nearly as large as the cotton and thread mills, the city's several silk factories employed hundreds of people. The first silk mill opened in 1860, and the last closed its doors in 1941. Willimantic at one time or another was also host to machine shops, woodworking factories, and commercial printing presses.
At first, Willimantic was more of a collection of mill villages along the river rather than a single distinct settlement, but the presence of the mills continued to attract people and businesses to the area and gradually the spaces between the mills were filled in. In 1833, the residents of Willimantic received a charter from the state legislature that established the place as an incorporated borough. Although it remained part of the larger town of Windham, Willimantic had its own government, a Board of Burgesses, and was empowered to tax its residents to pay for services such as improved streets and fire protection. At the time of its incorporation, Willimantic had about 2,000 residents.
Another major historical development that made Willimantic into a small city was the coming of the railroad. In 1849, the tracks of the New London, Willimantic, and Palmer Railroad were completed, linking Willimantic to the coastal line that ran to New Haven along Long Island Sound and to points north. Shortly thereafter, an east-west route, the Hartford, Providence & Fishkill Railroad, ran through Willimantic, connecting it to two of southern New England's largest cities. Willimantic became a railroad junction, the largest rail center in eastern Connecticut.
Railroad connections encouraged the development of wholesale and retail businesses serving not only Willimantic but the entire eastern Connecticut region. Coal, lumber, feed, farm equipment, groceries, architectural millwork—these are just a few of the businesses that relied on Willimantic's railroad facilities to bring in merchandise. In the 1870s, the two earlier rail lines were joined by a third, the so-called "Air Line" (i.e., as the crow flies) route between Boston and New York. A cluster of hotels and restaurants developed around the passenger depot, and Main Street and the side streets off Main became a dense concentration of businesses offering all kinds of goods and services. The Hooker Hotel, opened by Seth C. Hooker in 1884 (now known as Windham House) was in its day a state-of-the-art hotel, with every modern convenience:
The Hooker House is pre-eminently one of the finest hotels in eastern Connecticut, and perhaps the finest. It is a substantial four-story brick building, the interior arrangement of which is a marvel of convenience and economy. Corridors nine feet wide run through the center of the building on each floor, and a hydraulic elevator, steam heat, hot and cold water, electric bells and speaking tubes, are among the modern advantages in the generally complete equipment. There are one hundred chambers of uniform size, and the eating and sleeping accommodations are first-class in every respect. (Bayles, History of Windham County, 1889).
Perhaps feeling the competition, an older hotel, the Brainerd House, added "No Old Furniture - Everything New" to its advertisements, in which it referred to itself as "The Old Reliable."
Willimantic businesses advertised a wide variety of goods and services in the 1890s. Click for more examples.
Turn-of-the-century Main Street was lined with large commercial blocks; in this view, a trolley has started its west-bound run.
Willimantic's merchants built large Victorian houses along the shady streets of the Hill neighborhood.
In addition to its industrial and commercial preeminence, Willimantic served as a financial, educational, and judicial center not only for Windham but for all the surrounding towns. For example, the agricultural towns in the area—Mansfield, Columbia, Lebanon, Franklin, Scotland, Chaplin, Ashford, Hampton—were all too small to support banks, yet Willimantic had several: the Windham Bank founded in Windham Center in 1842 and relocated to Willimantic in 1879; the Willimantic Savings Institute, also founded in 1842; the Merchants Loan & Trust Company, 1871; the Dime Savings Bank, 1872; and the First National Bank, 1878.
The Willimantic State Normal School was the forerunner of today's Eastern Connecticut State University.
When the Willimantic State Normal School was established in 1889, it was one of only two teacher-training colleges in the State. At first, classes were held in the upper rooms of the Willimantic Savings Institute Building, but in 1895 a large new college building, with modern classrooms, library, and laboratories, was built on land donated by the town of Windham. Education remains an important part of the institution's mission, but Eastern Connecticut State University, as it is now known, supports a variety of other undergraduate and Master's Degree programs as well. Another educational institution that drew people to Willimantic was its high school. Few of the nearby towns could offer anything beyond the one-room schoolhouse, so children wishing to further their education came to Willimantic. At first, the high school was accommodated in rooms in the three-story Natchaug School; this is where Mansfield resident Wilbur L. Cross studied before going on to Yale and a career as a distinguished professor of literature (before serving as Governor of Connecticut in the 1930s). In 1897, a new building with all the latest features was built for the high school.
In addition to town and city government, Windham's Town Hall originally accommodated country court proceedings and a G.A.R. hall.
Willimantic's importance was enhanced in 1897 when a large and elaborately detailed courthouse was completed to accommodate the proceedings of the Windham County Court. The building, designed by noted Bridgeport architect Warren R. Briggs, was built of brick (more than a million of them) with granite trim from Munson, Massachusetts, and it cost $73,000, a fortune at the time. In addition to courtrooms, the building provided a hall for the Grand Army of the Republic, a Civil War veterans' group, and offices for the Town of Windham and the City of Willimantic (a charter revision in 1893 had changed Willimantic's status from a borough to a city in 1893; in 1983 the town and city governments were consolidated).
People crowd around a streetcar on the inaugural run to Coventry Lake.
In 1903 the Willimantic Traction Company introduced streetcar service to Main Street. At the east end, riders could change cars to take electrified cars to Taftville and Norwich, and eventually service at the west end was extended to Coventry Lake, where there was a small amusement park. At one time, Willimantic residents could even ride the trolley all the way to the beach in Westerly, R.I., with just one change in Norwich. The streetcars were generally a boon to the community, but they also added to the congestion and dangers for pedestrians posed by the frequent railroad trains and other downtown traffic. As a result, Willimantic in 1906 built a pedestrian footbridge over the Willimantic River and the railroad tracks so people could safely walk from the downtown to the residential neighborhoods on the south side of the river.
Like other small cities of its size, Willimantic had a huge number of community organizations in the late 1800s and early 1900s. These included sports teams organized by the mills and other companies; ethnic organizations catering to people of Irish, French-Canadian, and Scandinavian heritage; church-affiliated men's and women's clubs; bands, orchestras, and musical groups; and workers' organizations such as the Knights of Labor and railroad-employee brotherhoods. The mills maintained recreational parks for their employees. The Windham Company's park became what today is Memorial Park, and the American Thread Company's park became Rec Park.
Willimantic in the late 19th and early 20th centuries was a thriving, vibrant place with plenty of work in the textile mills and other factories, numerous wholesale and retail businesses, theaters and restaurants, several hotels, and various amenities that drew people into the city from miles around.
Willimantic History Resources on the Web
Willimantic History Bibliography.


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You are here: Home / Profiles / Deersbrook Farm: Thriving on pasture
Deersbrook Farm: Thriving on pasture
Filed under Profiles
Judith Tooth meets Anna Blumfield, whose biggest challenge is keeping up with demand for her Pasture for Life beef.
Training in sports therapy with nutrition and injury rehabilitation may not be a conventional route into farming – but knowing the importance of what we eat has proved extremely beneficial for Essex beef farmer Anna Blumfield.
"I was deciding on my options at school around the time of the BSE crisis, and then foot-and-Mouth," she says. "After I graduated I ran a successful sports injury clinic in Ipswich – but farming was what I always wanted to do."
Anna and husband Phil moved back to the family farm at Shalford Green, near Braintree, just as her parents – Mary and Peter – were retiring. Fast-forward seven years, and they have just opened a new butchery, complete with full-time butcher. Keeping up with demand is the biggest challenge.
So what's so special about meat from Deersbrook Farm?
"Ruminants are designed to process grass, and native breeds thrive on pasture alone. My parents built up a good herd of continentals, but I wanted to switch to a native breed as they are more suited to a grazing system. We chose Sussex because they produce really fine grained meat, they're a good shape and they're really docile."
Sussex breed
Anna now has 120 Sussex cows and their followers, and three bulls. They graze at the home farm, but 40ha is nowhere near enough, so hundreds more are rented across East Anglia, from marshy banks on the Shotley Peninsula to heritage sites such as the Marks Hall estate. As well as silage and hay, the herd feeds on fodder beet and stubble turnips in the winter months.
A herdsman in each area checks the cattle twice a day – although they tend to look after themselves: "They're such easy calvers and great mothers, they don't tend to need much handling."
Half of the cows calve in the spring, the other half during the autumn, to ensure continuity of beef and be able to bring them back closer to home if needed. The herd is still growing to meet demand, but size is dependent on finding enough grazing.
The farm is a member of the Pasture Fed Livestock Association, and meat from the herd is marketed under the Pasture for Life mark. Pasture for Life certifies that meat and dairy products come from animals raised only on grass and pasture, with no grain or manufactured feeds in their diet.
"My parents didn't farm intensively, but the cattle were finished on grain – and feeding grain, even for a short time, can reverse the nutritional benefits of grass fed beef. You can say an animal has been grass fed, but it only has to be so for 40 per cent of its life. Pasture for Life means an animal has been 100 per cent pasture fed, either grazing, or eating hay and silage over the winter.
Great tasting beef
"We send our meat off for nutritional analysis, and it is so rich in essential fatty acids, vitamin B12 and vitamin D, it's comparable to wild salmon. We know it tastes great, but it's good to know it's so good for us, too."
Compared with an intensive indoor system, a pasture fed herd is also better for the environment, says Anna. Careful management of species-rich grassland helps to encourage a wider range of wildlife, including ground nesting birds.
Carbon is locked into the soil, the cattle manure the land as they graze, ensuring it remains healthy and fertile, and the clover-rich swards, along with muck from winter housing, avoid the need for artificial fertilisers.
"We could have gone for organic certification, but we chose Pasture for Life to get the health and nutrition of the cattle right. Under an organic system we could have still fed soya and grain. For us, grazing management and nutrition were the priorities. It wasn't that organic was limiting, rather that it didn't cover what we needed it to cover."
The farm was the first in East Anglia to be awarded Pasture for Life certification; there are now around 150 farms nationally.
The cattle are slaughtered at 24 to 28 months of age at local abattoir Humphreys, a "fantastic, family run business".
Since the new on-farm butchery opened last December, the carcasses can be hung for 28 days: the addition of Himalayan rock salt in the drying chamber keeps humidity levels low, minimising wastage, while texture and depth of flavour are improved.
"We're now in full control, we can age the carcasses ourselves and butcher them exactly as we want. Our customers eat from nose to tail. With a very skilful butcher, we can offer so many different cuts: brisket, short ribs, picanha, Denver steaks, oxtail, shin on the bone … some customers know them, but others don't, so we help them by talking about recipes and how to make the best of each cut.
"Nearly all of our sales are fresh meat, but we have also started making our own Bresaola and Biltong, which are proving very popular."
Anna found her butcher through Facebook: the only woman student on the first intake of an advanced butchery degree with Crosby Management Training in Wolverhampton. Tara Davies trained first in the butchery at the Gog Farm Shop near Cambridge, and has just graduated from her studies.
Shopping ethically
"We have a lot of vegetarian customers, and even vegans, who come to shop for their families, to shop ethically, or sometimes to eat some meat for their own health. The vegan movement has been helpful in getting people to think about what they eat, and maybe to eat less but better quality."
Anna also keeps rare breed pigs: seven Oxford Sandy and Black and Gloucester Old Spot sows, three boars and their progeny, in total 100 animals. Fed on root vegetables – including some of the stubble turnips and fodder beet grown on the farm – and the ends of vegetables such as broccoli from various greengrocers, their diet helps to give the resulting pork a rich colour.
BBC1's Saturday Kitchen visited earlier in the year, throwing a welcome spotlight on the butchery and farm shop. Open Farm Sunday – Anna's favourite day of the year – drew in the crowds to see a real working farm and enjoy cow safaris, vintage and modern tractor displays, digger driving, crafts, a barbecue and more.
Then Anna took part in the recent Food and Farming Day at Writtle College, involving 3000 children. And next up is the British Food Fortnight in September, when the farm is holding a celebration with live music and street food.
"I think the butchery and farm shop have taken off so well because, although we're stuck out of the way, people like to come for the whole farm to fork experience: they see the cattle and appreciate the local provenance, and we can answer any questions they may have.
"The new building is more accessible, and we have a map on the wall showing where in the region all the other produce we sell comes from. We know the story behind everything we sell."


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