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 Image 1 of 145 PHOTOS: The history of the Apollo program

 It took thousands of men and women to make NASA's Apollo program work.

 See what it took to put men on the moon... PHOTOS: The history of the Apollo program

 It took thousands of men and women to make NASA's Apollo program work.

 See what it took to put men on the moon... Photo: Science & Society Picture Librar/SSPL Via Getty Images

 Image 2 of 145 Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., lunar module pilot, stands on the lunar surface after the Apollo 11 moon landing on July 20, 1969. The Lunar Module is seen in the background. Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., lunar module pilot, stands on the lunar surface after the Apollo 11 moon landing on July 20, 1969. The Lunar Module is seen in the background. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 3 of 145 In this July 12, 1969, file photo, the spot on the moon where Apollo 11 astronauts will aim for in their landing in the first attempt by man to land on the moon is pointed out by Rocco Petrone, director of launch operations at the space complex, Cape Kennedy, Fla. less In this July 12, 1969, file photo, the spot on the moon where Apollo 11 astronauts will aim for in their landing in the first attempt by man to land on the moon is pointed out by Rocco Petrone, director of ... more Photo: Jim Kerlin, AP

 Image 4 of 145 Apollo astronauts listen to Deke Slayton, director of flight crew operations for historic Apollo 11 flight, right, as they have their pre-flight breakfast at Cape Kennedy, Florida, on July 16, 1969. From left, they are Command Module pilot Michael Collins, Command Pilot Neil A. Armstrong, William A. Anders, and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. Anders is a member of the Apollo 11 backup crew. less Apollo astronauts listen to Deke Slayton, director of flight crew operations for historic Apollo 11 flight, right, as they have their pre-flight breakfast at Cape Kennedy, Florida, on July 16, 1969. From left, ... more Photo: Anonymous, ASSOCIATED PRESS

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 Image 6 of 145 Newsmen and neighbors gather in front of a mobile television unit at the home of Astronaut Michael Collins, near the Manned Spacecraft Center, July 16, 1969, Houston, Texas. They were gathered to watch the blastoff of the Saturn rocket carrying the Apollo 11 spacecraft on its way to the moon. less Newsmen and neighbors gather in front of a mobile television unit at the home of Astronaut Michael Collins, near the Manned Spacecraft Center, July 16, 1969, Houston, Texas. They were gathered to watch the ... more Photo: Anonymous, ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 7 of 145 In this July 20, 1969 file, photo, Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong steps down from the lunar module lander and becomes the first man to set foot on the moon. A huge shadow of the Lunar module is cast on the moon's surface. The photo was made from 16mm color film and was taken with a Mauer camera at six and 12 frames per second. less In this July 20, 1969 file, photo, Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong steps down from the lunar module lander and becomes the first man to set foot on the moon. A huge shadow of the Lunar module is cast on the ... more Photo: Anonymous, AP

 Image 8 of 145 here. Astronaut Edwin Aldrin's son, Andrew, signs an OK from the top of his treehouse. Apollo 11 video here. Astronaut Edwin Aldrin's son, Andrew, signs an OK from the top of his treehouse. Apollo 11 video Photo: Tom Colburn, Houston Chronicle

 Image 9 of 145 American servicemen pause on a downtown Saigon Street to read a local newspaper account of the Apollo 11 lunar landing, July 21, 1969, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. From left are Air Force. Sgt. Michael Chivaris, Clinton, Mass., Army Spec. 4 Andrew Hutchins, Middlebury, Vt.; Air Force Sgt. John Whalin, Indianapolis, Ind.; and Army Spec. 4 Lloyd Newton, Roseburg, Ore. less American servicemen pause on a downtown Saigon Street to read a local newspaper account of the Apollo 11 lunar landing, July 21, 1969, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. From left are Air Force. Sgt. Michael Chivaris, ... more Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS

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 Image 11 of 145 The president greets the crew at the White House on the 40th anniversary of the landing. The president said he recalled watching Apollo astronauts return to Hawaii after splashing down in the Pacific Ocean. He said he'd sit on his grandfather's shoulders and "we'd pretend like they could see us as we were waving at folks coming home." less The president greets the crew at the White House on the 40th anniversary of the landing. The president said he recalled watching Apollo astronauts return to Hawaii after splashing down in the Pacific Ocean. He ... more Photo: Alex Brandon, AP

 Image 12 of 145 here. Here's who was on the rocket that day: Astronauts Neil Armstrong, left, Michael Collins, center, and Edwin A. Aldrin, are pictured in this 1969 Apollo II crew portrait. Apollo 11 video here. Here's who was on the rocket that day: Astronauts Neil Armstrong, left, Michael Collins, center, and Edwin A. Aldrin, are pictured in this 1969 Apollo II crew portrait. Apollo 11 video Photo: AP

 Image 13 of 145 This oblique photograph of the moon looks generally northwest into the Sea of Tranquility, projected landing site for the Apollo 11 astronauts. The lower (nearest) linear feature is the Cauchy Scarp. The upper linear feature is the Cauchy Rille. The prominent crater Cauchy lies between the rille and the scarp. This picture was made from the Apollo 8 spacecraft late December, 1968. less This oblique photograph of the moon looks generally northwest into the Sea of Tranquility, projected landing site for the Apollo 11 astronauts. The lower (nearest) linear feature is the Cauchy Scarp. The ... more Photo: NASA, Associated Press

 Image 14 of 145 In this July 5, 1969 file photo, Astronaut Neil Armstrong, left, the first man scheduled to walk on the moon, displays a plaque that will be attached to a landing leg of the lunar module descent stage and will be left on the moon by the Apollo 11 astronauts as Col. Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, center, holds the Apollo 11 insigna at a news conference at the Space Center. Command Module pilot Lt. Col. Michael Collins is at right. less In this July 5, 1969 file photo, Astronaut Neil Armstrong, left, the first man scheduled to walk on the moon, displays a plaque that will be attached to a landing leg of the lunar module descent stage and will ... more Photo: AP

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 Image 16 of 145 here. This photo shows Apollo 11 crew members, led by Neil Armstrong, heading for the van that will take them to the rocket for the launch to the moon. Apollo 11 video here. This photo shows Apollo 11 crew members, led by Neil Armstrong, heading for the van that will take them to the rocket for the launch to the moon. Apollo 11 video Photo: AP

 Image 17 of 145 The launch control team watches in Cape Canaveral, Fla. The launch control team watches in Cape Canaveral, Fla. Photo: New York Times

 Image 18 of 145 here. less The Saturn V makes history. The launch is marked in the annals of time by a period that included two other key events: Sen. Edward Kennedy's crash at Chappaquiddick (July 18) and Woodstock (Aug. 15). Apollo 11 video The Saturn V makes history. The launch is marked in the annals of time by a period that included two other key events: Sen. Edward Kennedy's crash at Chappaquiddick (July 18) and Woodstock (Aug. 15). Apollo 11 ... more Photo: NASA

 Image 19 of 145 here. The 3,817 ton ship rises from the earth. Who gave the order for ignition? Jack King, the "voice of Apollo." Apollo 11 video here. The 3,817 ton ship rises from the earth. Who gave the order for ignition? Jack King, the "voice of Apollo." Apollo 11 video Photo: AP

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 Image 21 of 145 here. Apollo 11 launches into orbit. Apollo 11 video here. Apollo 11 launches into orbit. Apollo 11 video Photo: NASA

 Image 22 of 145 here. Astronaut Edwin Aldrin's son, Andrew, with some neighborhood friends. Left to right: Mark Frantz (10), Charley Merrifield (11) and Andrew. Apollo 11 video here. Astronaut Edwin Aldrin's son, Andrew, with some neighborhood friends. Left to right: Mark Frantz (10), Charley Merrifield (11) and Andrew. Apollo 11 video Photo: Tom Colburn, Houston Chronicle

 Image 23 of 145 Berliners stand in front of a TV shop and look through the window to observe the start of the Apollo 11 space mission on television, June 16, 1969, Berlin, Germany. Berliners stand in front of a TV shop and look through the window to observe the start of the Apollo 11 space mission on television, June 16, 1969, Berlin, Germany. Photo: Edwin Reichert, ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 24 of 145 A group of unidentified people gather around televisions in a Sears Dept. store in White Plains, N.Y. to watch the lift off of Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969. A group of unidentified people gather around televisions in a Sears Dept. store in White Plains, N.Y. to watch the lift off of Apollo 11 on July 16, 1969. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS

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 Image 26 of 145 Wives of the three Apollo 11 astronauts make a joint apperance today today at one of their homes near the Space Center in Houston as their husbands continued the historical flight to the moon. From left: Mrs. Neil A. Armstrong, whose husband is scheduled to be the first man to step on the moon; Mrs. Michael Collins and Mrs. Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. less Wives of the three Apollo 11 astronauts make a joint apperance today today at one of their homes near the Space Center in Houston as their husbands continued the historical flight to the moon. From left: Mrs. ... more Photo: AP

 Image 27 of 145 In this July 1969 file photo, most of Africa and portions of Europe and Asia can be seen in this spectacular photograph taken from the Apollo 11 spacecraft during its translunar coast toward the moon, during the month of July, 1969. Apollo 11 was already about 98,000 nautical miles from earth when this picture was made. less In this July 1969 file photo, most of Africa and portions of Europe and Asia can be seen in this spectacular photograph taken from the Apollo 11 spacecraft during its translunar coast toward the moon, during ... more Photo: NASA, AP

 Image 28 of 145 A View of the Apollo Command Module with Astronaut Michael Collins aboard as seen from the Lunar Module, July 20, 1969. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin in the LM have separated from Apollo 11 and prepare to go to the lunar surface. Moon terrain in background is the far side of the moon. less A View of the Apollo Command Module with Astronaut Michael Collins aboard as seen from the Lunar Module, July 20, 1969. Astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin in the LM have separated from Apollo 11 and ... more Photo: Anonymous, ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 29 of 145 Past Apollo mission astronaut Frank Borman talks about the successful lunar landing of Apollo 11 and of the future of the space missions during a news conference at the White House, July 20, 1969. Borman viewed the telecast from the moon with President Nixon. less Past Apollo mission astronaut Frank Borman talks about the successful lunar landing of Apollo 11 and of the future of the space missions during a news conference at the White House, July 20, 1969. Borman viewed ... more Photo: JOHN DURICKA, ASSOCIATED PRESS

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 Image 31 of 145 The Apollo 11 Lunar Module ascent stage can be seen from the command service module during rendezvous in lunar orbit July 20, 1969. The large, dark-colored area in the background is Smith's Sea, centered at 85 degrees east longitude and 2 degrees south latitude on the lunar near side, looking west as the Earth rises above the Lunar horizon. It was announced Thursday, March 5, 1998, that small, scattered pockets of ice have been found beneath the lunar surface by a robot survey spacecraft that has spent the last month mapping the moon. less The Apollo 11 Lunar Module ascent stage can be seen from the command service module during rendezvous in lunar orbit July 20, 1969. The large, dark-colored area in the background is Smith's Sea, centered at 85 ... more Photo: AP

 Image 32 of 145 Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., lunar module pilot, descends steps of Lunar Module ladder as he prepares to walk on the moon, July 20, 1969. He had just egressed the Lunar Module. This picture was taken by Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong, Commander, with a 70mm surface camera during the Apollo 11 extravehicular activity. less Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., lunar module pilot, descends steps of Lunar Module ladder as he prepares to walk on the moon, July 20, 1969. He had just egressed the Lunar Module. This picture was taken by ... more Photo: NEIL A. ARMSTRONG, AP

 Image 33 of 145 Apollo 11 Astronaut Neil Armstrong is shown making history as he climbs down the ladder from the lunar module (left photo) and a few seconds later becomes the first human to set foot on the moon (right photo). The photos were taken during a telecast back to earth of the history-making achievement. less Apollo 11 Astronaut Neil Armstrong is shown making history as he climbs down the ladder from the lunar module (left photo) and a few seconds later becomes the first human to set foot on the moon (right photo). ... more Photo: AP

 Image 34 of 145 In this , July 20, 1969 file photo, Apollo 11 Commander Neil Armstrong walks slowly away from the lunar module to explore the surface of the moon. In this , July 20, 1969 file photo, Apollo 11 Commander Neil Armstrong walks slowly away from the lunar module to explore the surface of the moon. Photo: AP

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 Image 36 of 145 In this July 20, 1969 file photo, Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong, right, trudges across the surface of the moon leaving behind footprints. The U.S. flag, planted on the surface by the astronauts, can be seen between Armstrong and the lunar module. Edwin E. Aldrin is seen closer to the craft. The men reported the surface of the moon was like soft sand and they left footprints several inches deep wherever they walked. less In this July 20, 1969 file photo, Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong, right, trudges across the surface of the moon leaving behind footprints. The U.S. flag, planted on the surface by the astronauts, can be ... more Photo: AP

 Image 37 of 145 Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin E. 'Buzz' Aldrin, the first men to land on the moon, plant the U.S. flag on the lunar surface, July 20, 1969. Photo was made by a 16mm movie camera inside the lunar module, shooting at one frame per second. less Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin E. 'Buzz' Aldrin, the first men to land on the moon, plant the U.S. flag on the lunar surface, July 20, 1969. Photo was made by a 16mm movie camera inside the ... more Photo: AP

 Image 38 of 145 This NASA handout photo taken on July 20, 1969 shows Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., lunar module pilot of the first lunar landing mission, posing beside the deployed United States flag during Apollo 11 Extravehicular Activity (EVA) on the lunar surface area called the Sea of Tranquility. With one small step off a ladder, Neil Armstrong, commander of the Apollo 11 mission, became the first human to set foot on the moon on July 20, 1969, before the eyes of hundreds of millions of awed television viewers worldwide. With that step, he placed mankind's first footprint on an extraterrestrial world and gained instant hero status. The Lunar Module (LM) is on the left, and the footprints of the astronauts are clearly visible in the soil of the Moon. less This NASA handout photo taken on July 20, 1969 shows Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., lunar module pilot of the first lunar landing mission, posing beside the deployed United States flag during Apollo 11 ... more Photo: HO, AFP/Getty Images

 Image 39 of 145 In this July 20, 1969 file photo, a crowd watches, as the Apollo 11 crew lands on the moon, in Central Park, New York. In this July 20, 1969 file photo, a crowd watches, as the Apollo 11 crew lands on the moon, in Central Park, New York. Photo: Marty Lederhandler, AP

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 Image 41 of 145 A Japanese family watch their TV screen as President Richard Nixon is superimposed on a live TV Broadcast of the Apollo 11 astronauts salute from the Moon, July, 1969, Tokyo, Japan. The family is unidentified. A Japanese family watch their TV screen as President Richard Nixon is superimposed on a live TV Broadcast of the Apollo 11 astronauts salute from the Moon, July, 1969, Tokyo, Japan. The family is unidentified. Photo: AP

 Image 42 of 145 In this July 20, 1969 file photo, a footprint left by one of the astronauts of the Apollo 11 mission shows in the soft, powder surface of the moon. In this July 20, 1969 file photo, a footprint left by one of the astronauts of the Apollo 11 mission shows in the soft, powder surface of the moon. Photo: Anonymous, AP

 Image 43 of 145 Bikini clad hostesses of a Tokyo cabaret, led by their manager, shout "Banzai" cheers in Japanese, in front of the U.S. Embassy, July, 1969, Tokyo Japan. They were celebrating the successful landing of the Apollo 11 lunar module on the moon. The girls carry signs reading "Congratulation for successful landing on the Moon." less Bikini clad hostesses of a Tokyo cabaret, led by their manager, shout "Banzai" cheers in Japanese, in front of the U.S. Embassy, July, 1969, Tokyo Japan. They were celebrating the successful landing of the ... more Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 44 of 145 Bikini clad hostesses of a Tokyo cabaret, led by their manager, shout "Banzai" cheers in Japanese, in front of the U.S. Embassy, July, 1969, Tokyo Japan. They were celebrating the successful landing of the Apollo 11 lunar module on the moon. The girls carry signs reading "Congratulation for successful landing on the Moon." less Bikini clad hostesses of a Tokyo cabaret, led by their manager, shout "Banzai" cheers in Japanese, in front of the U.S. Embassy, July, 1969, Tokyo Japan. They were celebrating the successful landing of the ... more Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS

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 Image 46 of 145 A crowd gathers to watch the Apollo 11 crew land on the moon, July 20, 1969, Central Park, New York. A crowd gathers to watch the Apollo 11 crew land on the moon, July 20, 1969, Central Park, New York. Photo: Marty Lederhandler, ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 47 of 145 This July 20, 1969 file photo released by NASA shows commander of the Apollo 11 mission Neil Armstrong of the US near the lunar lander and the US flag, taken by Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr. on the surface of the Moon. With one small step off a ladder, Neil Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the moon on July 20, 1969, before the eyes of hundreds of millions of awed television viewers worldwide. With that step, he placed mankind's first footprint on an extraterrestrial world and gained instant hero status. less This July 20, 1969 file photo released by NASA shows commander of the Apollo 11 mission Neil Armstrong of the US near the lunar lander and the US flag, taken by Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr. ... more Photo: NASA, AFP/Getty Images

 Image 48 of 145 This July 20, 1969 file photo released by NASA shows Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr. removing a scientific experiment from the Lunar Module "Eagle" during the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission. As an estimated 500 million people around the world waited with bated breath crowded around fuzzy television screens and radios, Armstrong stepped down the lunar module's ladder and onto the lunar surface. "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind," Armstrong intoned, his words slightly distorted by distance and communications equipment, in a phrase now etched forever into the history books. less This July 20, 1969 file photo released by NASA shows Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr. removing a scientific experiment from the Lunar Module "Eagle" during the Apollo 11 lunar landing mission. As ... more Photo: -, AFP/Getty Images

 Image 49 of 145 Edwin Buzz Aldrin carries scientific experiments to a deployment site south of the lunar module Eagle. One experiment involved the inner composition of the moon, and another tried to determine the exact distance from Earth. Photo was taken by Neil Armstrong of the Apollo 11 mission in July 1969. From the book Full Moon (Knopf) by Michael Light. less Edwin Buzz Aldrin carries scientific experiments to a deployment site south of the lunar module Eagle. One experiment involved the inner composition of the moon, and another tried to determine the exact ... more Photo: AP

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 Image 51 of 145 In this July 20, 1969 file photo provided by NASA, mission control personnel watch the moon walk by Apollo 11 astronauts, in Houston. In this July 20, 1969 file photo provided by NASA, mission control personnel watch the moon walk by Apollo 11 astronauts, in Houston. Photo: Anonymous, AP

 Image 52 of 145 Picture taken by US astronaut Neil Armstrong of astronaut Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin conducting an experiment on the moon's surface on July 20, 1969, during the Apollo XI space mission. As an estimated 500 million people around the world waited with bated breath crowded around fuzzy television screens and radios, Armstrong stepped down the lunar module's ladder and onto the lunar surface on July 20, 1969. "That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind," Armstrong intoned, his words slightly distorted by distance and communications equipment, in a phrase now etched forever into the history books. less Picture taken by US astronaut Neil Armstrong of astronaut Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin conducting an experiment on the moon's surface on July 20, 1969, during the Apollo XI space mission. As an estimated 500 million ... more Photo: -, AFP/Getty Images

 Image 53 of 145 In this July 1969 file photo, Astronaut Edwin Aldrin walks by the footpad of the Apollo 11 Lunar Module. In this July 1969 file photo, Astronaut Edwin Aldrin walks by the footpad of the Apollo 11 Lunar Module. Photo: NASA, AP

 Image 54 of 145 Picture taken on July 20, 1969 shows astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., lunar module pilot, walking on the surface of the moon during the Apollo 11 extravehicular activity (EVA). Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong took this photograph with a 70mm lunar surface camera. With one small step off a ladder, commander of the Apollo 11 mission Neil Armstrong of the US became the first human to set foot on the moon on July 20, 1969, before the eyes of hundreds of millions of awed television viewers worldwide. With that step, he placed mankind's first footprint on an extraterrestrial world and gained instant hero status. less Picture taken on July 20, 1969 shows astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., lunar module pilot, walking on the surface of the moon during the Apollo 11 extravehicular activity (EVA). Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong took ... more Photo: NASA, AFP/Getty Images

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 Image 56 of 145 The Moon hangs high over the Neil Armstrong residence in El Lago, but when this picture was taken, Mrs. Janet Armstrong, her children, and a few friends were watching her husband, Neil and fellow astronaut Edwin Aldrin walk around on the surface of the Moon. less The Moon hangs high over the Neil Armstrong residence in El Lago, but when this picture was taken, Mrs. Janet Armstrong, her children, and a few friends were watching her husband, Neil and fellow astronaut ... more Photo: Curtis McGee, Houston Chronicle

 Image 57 of 145 In this July 20, 1969 file photo, Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong, Apollo 11 commander, is seen inside the Lunar Module while the LM rested on the lunar surface. Astronauts Armstrong and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., lunar module Pilot, had already completed their extravehicular activity when this picture was made. less In this July 20, 1969 file photo, Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong, Apollo 11 commander, is seen inside the Lunar Module while the LM rested on the lunar surface. Astronauts Armstrong and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr., ... more Photo: Anonymous, AP

 Image 58 of 145 ThinkFilm provided this photo of (left to right) Neil Armstrong, Mike Collins and Buzz Aldrin after the July, 1969 Apollo 11 mission from "In the Shadow of the Moon." ThinkFilm provided this photo of (left to right) Neil Armstrong, Mike Collins and Buzz Aldrin after the July, 1969 Apollo 11 mission from "In the Shadow of the Moon." Photo: Anonymous, ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 59 of 145 Dr. Bill Carpenter prepares skin swab containers in the mobile quarantine facility aboard the recovery ship USS Hornet, awaiting the return to Earth of the Apollo 11 astronauts, July 21, 1969. After their return, the astronauts will be isolated in the mobile quarantine facility aboard the Hornet. less Dr. Bill Carpenter prepares skin swab containers in the mobile quarantine facility aboard the recovery ship USS Hornet, awaiting the return to Earth of the Apollo 11 astronauts, July 21, 1969. After their ... more Photo: Anonymous, ASSOCIATED PRESS

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 Image 61 of 145 The media surround Janet Armstrong, wife of astronaut Neil Armstrong. The media surround Janet Armstrong, wife of astronaut Neil Armstrong. Photo: Bill Thompson, Houston Chronicle

 Image 62 of 145 This July 24, 1969 photo shows the re-entry of Apollo 11 into the earth's atmosphere. This July 24, 1969 photo shows the re-entry of Apollo 11 into the earth's atmosphere. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 63 of 145 Apollo 11 slashdown in the Pacific, July 24, 1969. Apollo 11 slashdown in the Pacific, July 24, 1969. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 64 of 145 U.S.Navy personnel, protected by Biological Isolation Garments, is recovering the Apollo 11 crew from the re-entry vehicle, which landed safely in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, 1969, after an eight day mission on the moon. less U.S.Navy personnel, protected by Biological Isolation Garments, is recovering the Apollo 11 crew from the re-entry vehicle, which landed safely in the Pacific Ocean on July 24, 1969, after an eight day mission ... more Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS

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 Image 66 of 145 US Navy pararescueman Lieutenant Clancey Hatleberg disinfects Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin in a life raft during recovery operations on July 24, 1969 at the successful completion of their lunar landing mission. less US Navy pararescueman Lieutenant Clancey Hatleberg disinfects Apollo 11 astronauts Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin in a life raft during recovery operations on July 24, 1969 at the ... more Photo: -, AFP/Getty Images

 Image 67 of 145 In this 1969 file photo, Apollo 11 astronauts stand next to their spacecraft in 1969, from left to right: Col. Edwin E. Aldrin, lunar module pilot; Neil Armstrong, flight commander; and Lt. Michael Collins, command module pilot. less In this 1969 file photo, Apollo 11 astronauts stand next to their spacecraft in 1969, from left to right: Col. Edwin E. Aldrin, lunar module pilot; Neil Armstrong, flight commander; and Lt. Michael Collins, ... more Photo: Anonymous, AP

 Image 68 of 145 Apollo 11 crew leaving recovery helicopter, July 24, 1969. Apollo 11 crew leaving recovery helicopter, July 24, 1969. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 69 of 145 Misson control personnel wave flags to celebrate the the return to earth of Apollo 11 on July 24, 1969. Misson control personnel wave flags to celebrate the the return to earth of Apollo 11 on July 24, 1969. Photo: NASA, NYT

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 Image 71 of 145 Mrs. Edwin E. Aldrin (Joan) admitted to being tense during parts of the Apollo 11 mission, but she said Thursday, the day her husband splashed down, was different. Mrs. Aldrin and her children, from left, Janice, Michael and Andrew, held a hot but happy post-splashdown press conference. less Mrs. Edwin E. Aldrin (Joan) admitted to being tense during parts of the Apollo 11 mission, but she said Thursday, the day her husband splashed down, was different. Mrs. Aldrin and her children, from left, ... more

 Image 72 of 145 In this July 24, 1969 file photo, President Richard Nixon, back to camera, greets the Apollo 11 astronauts in the quarantine van on board the U.S.S. Hornet after splashdown and recovery. The Apollo 11 crew from left: Neil Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin. less In this July 24, 1969 file photo, President Richard Nixon, back to camera, greets the Apollo 11 astronauts in the quarantine van on board the U.S.S. Hornet after splashdown and recovery. The Apollo 11 crew ... more Photo: AP

 Image 73 of 145 Neil A. Armstrong, commander of the Apollo 11 flight, greets his son Mark on telephone intercom system, while his wife Jan and another son Eric look on. Armstrong had just arrived in early morning with the Mobile Quarantine Facility at Ellington Air Force Base. Armstrong and fellow astronauts will remain in the MQF until arrival and confinement in the Crew Reception Area of the Lunar Receiving Laboratory at the Manned Spacecraft Center. Quarantine period will end on August 10, 1969. less Neil A. Armstrong, commander of the Apollo 11 flight, greets his son Mark on telephone intercom system, while his wife Jan and another son Eric look on. Armstrong had just arrived in early morning with the ... more

 Image 74 of 145 The Apollo 11 crew in their isolation trailer, left to right: Neil Armstrong; Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin and Michael Collins are greeted by their wives, left to right: Pat Collins; Jan Armstrong and Joan Aldrin after the spacemen arrived at Ellington AFB near the Manned Spacecraft Center, Houston, Tex. less The Apollo 11 crew in their isolation trailer, left to right: Neil Armstrong; Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin and Michael Collins are greeted by their wives, left to right: Pat Collins; Jan Armstrong and Joan Aldrin ... more Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS

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 Image 76 of 145 Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong, commander of the historic Apollo 11 lunar landing mission and the first man to set foot on the Moon, blows out the candles on his birthday cake as he celebrates his 39th birthday while still confined to the Crew Reception Area of the Manned Spacecraft Center's Lunar Receiving Laboratory. less Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong, commander of the historic Apollo 11 lunar landing mission and the first man to set foot on the Moon, blows out the candles on his birthday cake as he celebrates his 39th birthday ... more Photo: NASA

 Image 77 of 145 In this Aug. 13, 1969 file photo, amid ticker tape and American flags, Apollo 11 astronauts wave to welcoming New Yorkers during parade up lower Broadway on Wednesday, in New York. The spacemen, from left, are Michael Collins, Edwin Aldrin, Jr., and Neil A. Armstrong. less In this Aug. 13, 1969 file photo, amid ticker tape and American flags, Apollo 11 astronauts wave to welcoming New Yorkers during parade up lower Broadway on Wednesday, in New York. The spacemen, from left, are ... more Photo: Eddie Adams, AP

 Image 78 of 145 This picture shows a display in honor of the Apollo 11 astronauts in a window of the Saks 5th Avenue store in New York in 1969. This picture shows a display in honor of the Apollo 11 astronauts in a window of the Saks 5th Avenue store in New York in 1969. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 79 of 145 Apollo 11 ticker tape parade in downtown Houston. Apollo 11 Astronauts Neil A. Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. parade through downtown Houston in August 16, 1969. Apollo 11 ticker tape parade in downtown Houston. Apollo 11 Astronauts Neil A. Armstrong, Michael Collins, and Edwin E. Aldrin Jr. parade through downtown Houston in August 16, 1969. Photo: Jerry Click, Houston Chronicle

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 Image 81 of 145 Michael Collins during a ticker tape parade in downtown Houston. Michael Collins during a ticker tape parade in downtown Houston. Photo: JERRY CLICK, HOUSTON CHRONICLE

 Image 82 of 145 Neil Armstrong waves along with his wife and son from confetti-strewn car. Neil Armstrong waves along with his wife and son from confetti-strewn car. Photo: JERRY CLICK, HOUSTON CHRONICLE

 Image 83 of 145 Main Street Houston - Astronaut Neil Armstrong, first man on the moon, waves to Houstonians who came by the thousands August 16, 1969 to cheer the Apollo 11 astronauts, Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins after their historic moon landing in July. less Main Street Houston - Astronaut Neil Armstrong, first man on the moon, waves to Houstonians who came by the thousands August 16, 1969 to cheer the Apollo 11 astronauts, Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins after ... more Photo: JIM COKER, HOUSTON CHRONICLE

 Image 84 of 145 Celebration for Apollo 11 astronauts at the Astrodome, August 1969. Celebration for Apollo 11 astronauts at the Astrodome, August 1969.

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 Image 86 of 145 Pope Paul VI looks through a magnifying lens as he examines a microfilm of messages from world leaders, brought to the moon by the Apollo 11 astronauts, during an audience in the pontiff`s private studio for them and their wives, Oct. 16, 1969. Standing behind the Pope, in front row, are (l/r:) Michael Collins; Msgr. P. Conveney, acting as interpreter; Edwin Aldrin and Neil Armstrong. less Pope Paul VI looks through a magnifying lens as he examines a microfilm of messages from world leaders, brought to the moon by the Apollo 11 astronauts, during an audience in the pontiff`s private studio for ... more Photo: Anonymous, ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 87 of 145 President Jimmy Carter is shown at the White House with the Apollo 11 crew in July of 1979, left to right: Buzz Aldrin, Michael Collins, and Neil Armstrong. President Jimmy Carter is shown at the White House with the Apollo 11 crew in July of 1979, left to right: Buzz Aldrin, Michael Collins, and Neil Armstrong. Photo: ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 88 of 145 Apollo astronauts, from left, Neil Armstrong, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, Gene Cernan, and Walter Cunningham hold a press conference in a replica of an Apollo control room at Kennedy Space Center, Fla. Friday July 16, 1999. The men were at the center to help celebrate the 30th anniversary of the Apollo 11 launch. less Apollo astronauts, from left, Neil Armstrong, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, Gene Cernan, and Walter Cunningham hold a press conference in a replica of an Apollo control room at Kennedy Space Center, Fla. Friday July 16, ... more Photo: TERRY RENNA, ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 89 of 145 Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong, center, with fellow astronauts Edwin A. "Buzz" Aldrin, right, and Michael Collins, left, laugh Tuesday, July 20, 1999 at a ceremony in the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum in Washington, were they were presented the Langley Gold Medal for aviation by Vice President Al Gore. The event marks the 30th anniversay of the first landing on the moon by the three crew members. less Apollo 11 astronaut Neil Armstrong, center, with fellow astronauts Edwin A. "Buzz" Aldrin, right, and Michael Collins, left, laugh Tuesday, July 20, 1999 at a ceremony in the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum in ... more Photo: DOUG MILLS, ASSOCIATED PRESS

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 Image 91 of 145 Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin A. "Buzz" Aldrin is applauded by Vice President Al Gore after Gore presented him the Langley Gold Medal for aviation Tuesday, July 20, 1999 at a ceremony in the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum in Washington. The event marks the 30th anniversay of the first landing on the moon by the three Apollo 11 crew members. In the background is the original Apollo 11 capsule. less Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin A. "Buzz" Aldrin is applauded by Vice President Al Gore after Gore presented him the Langley Gold Medal for aviation Tuesday, July 20, 1999 at a ceremony in the Smithsonian Air and ... more Photo: DOUG MILLS, ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 92 of 145 President Clinton looks at a piece of moon rock presented to him by Apollo 11 crew members Michael Collins, left, Neil Armstrong, second left, and Edwin A. "Buzz" Aldrin, right, during a visit to the White House. Carol Armstrong, wife of Neil, third left, and Lois Aldrin, second right, wife of Buzz, joined the presentation. Tuesday marks 30th anniversary of the first landing on the moon, and the men of Apollo 11 received the prestigious Langley Gold Medal for aviation Tuesday, as well as, met with Clinton. less President Clinton looks at a piece of moon rock presented to him by Apollo 11 crew members Michael Collins, left, Neil Armstrong, second left, and Edwin A. "Buzz" Aldrin, right, during a visit to the White ... more Photo: RON EDMONDS, ASSOCIATED PRESS

 Image 93 of 145 U.S. President Barack Obama meets with Apollo 11 astronauts, from left, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, the second man to walk on the moon, Michael Collins, the command module pilot, and Neil Armstrong, who took the first step on the moon, in the Oval Office of the White House in Washington, D.C., U.S. Obama used the appearance with the astronauts to reinforce his call for greater emphasis on math and science in U.S. schools. less U.S. President Barack Obama meets with Apollo 11 astronauts, from left, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, the second man to walk on the moon, Michael Collins, the command module pilot, and Neil Armstrong, who took the first ... more Photo: MARTIN SIMON, VIA BLOOMBERG

 Image 94 of 145 If you are a space buff with a large computer monitor you will likely have your hands full poring over the thousands of photos currently in Project Apollo Archive on Flickr. If you are a space buff with a large computer monitor you will likely have your hands full poring over the thousands of photos currently in Project Apollo Archive on Flickr. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

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 Image 96 of 145 Here we see astronaut Harrison H. Schmitt shaving on Apollo 17. Here we see astronaut Harrison H. Schmitt shaving on Apollo 17. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 97 of 145 And astronaut Evans brushing his teeth. And astronaut Evans brushing his teeth. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 98 of 145 Drinking on Apollo 17. Drinking on Apollo 17. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 99 of 145 Sleeping on the way to the moon didn't seem easy. Sleeping on the way to the moon didn't seem easy. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

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 Image 101 of 145 The crew of Apollo 17, the last one to visit the moon, consisted of Gene Cernan, Ronald E. Evans, and Harrison H. Schmitt. They seem to have had a lot of fun on their 12-day mission judging by all the photos they took in Dec. 1972. less The crew of Apollo 17, the last one to visit the moon, consisted of Gene Cernan, Ronald E. Evans, and Harrison H. Schmitt. They seem to have had a lot of fun on their 12-day mission judging by all the photos ... more Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 102 of 145 That's some entralling "blue steel" there Mr. Cernan. That's some entralling "blue steel" there Mr. Cernan. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 103 of 145 Before going clean-shaven it looks like he wanted to play a bit. Before going clean-shaven it looks like he wanted to play a bit. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 104 of 145 The moustache seems to work for him. The moustache seems to work for him. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

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 Image 106 of 145 Astronaut Ron Evans shaving. Astronaut Ron Evans shaving. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 107 of 145 A possible Evans selfie. A possible Evans selfie. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 108 of 145 Astronaut Gene Cernan after a moon walk. Astronaut Gene Cernan after a moon walk. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 109 of 145 And Cernan covered in what looks like moon dust. And Cernan covered in what looks like moon dust. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

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 Image 111 of 145 This could be one of the first selfies taken from lunar orbit. This could be one of the first selfies taken from lunar orbit. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 112 of 145 Apollo 17 loved selfies. Apollo 17 loved selfies. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 113 of 145 Astronaut takes astronaut photo. Astronaut takes astronaut photo. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 114 of 145 The bright light of space reflected on an Apollo 15 astronaut. The bright light of space reflected on an Apollo 15 astronaut. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

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 Image 116 of 145 Looking at the sun required special glasses. Looking at the sun required special glasses. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 117 of 145 Which Instagram filter is this? Which Instagram filter is this? Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 118 of 145 Golf or sample collection? Golf or sample collection? Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 119 of 145 Astronaut Neil Armstrong, seen here just minutes after becoming the first man to walk on the moon. Astronaut Neil Armstrong, seen here just minutes after becoming the first man to walk on the moon. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

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 Image 121 of 145 Shadow selfies were a big part of the Apollo program. Shadow selfies were a big part of the Apollo program. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 122 of 145 Some were better than others. Some were better than others. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 123 of 145 Astronaut John Glenn aboard Apollo 11. Astronaut John Glenn aboard Apollo 11. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 124 of 145 And Glenn back to work... And Glenn back to work... Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

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 Image 126 of 145 Time to eat aboard Apollo 17. Time to eat aboard Apollo 17. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 127 of 145 Honey or scrambled eggs? Honey or scrambled eggs? Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 128 of 145 Chipping away rock on the lunar surface. Chipping away rock on the lunar surface. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 129 of 145 Sometimes you gotta snooze in space and you bring your favorite sleeping mask. Sometimes you gotta snooze in space and you bring your favorite sleeping mask. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

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 Image 131 of 145 A group picture featuring a few million people. A group picture featuring a few million people. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 132 of 145 Now watch me whip. Now watch me nae nae. Now watch me whip. Now watch me nae nae. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 133 of 145 Once more into the breach. Once more into the breach. Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

 Image 134 of 145 Is that Russell Crowe? Is that Russell Crowe? Photo: NASA / Project Apollo Archive

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 Image 136 of 145 Javier Caldera reads a book at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Javier Caldera reads a book at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle

 Image 137 of 145 Anthony Hernandez, left, Adajanae Jackson and Angel Wiggins listen to tutor Tasha Stoot during a math tutoring session at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Anthony Hernandez, left, Adajanae Jackson and Angel Wiggins listen to tutor Tasha Stoot during a math tutoring session at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle

 Image 138 of 145 Pre-K students at Robinson Elementary School walks down the hallway Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Pre-K students at Robinson Elementary School walks down the hallway Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle

 Image 139 of 145 Second grade teacher Yudith Vazquez, left, talks Emiliano Valdez during a reading class at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Second grade teacher Yudith Vazquez, left, talks Emiliano Valdez during a reading class at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle

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 Image 141 of 145 Silbia Rojas, left, and Mayra Alcantar read during Sustained Silent Reading at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. Rojas is seated under the desk as her "reading bubble". less Silbia Rojas, left, and Mayra Alcantar read during Sustained Silent Reading at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle

 Image 142 of 145 Tutor Fernando Lozano, center, works with Tashe Lilly, left, and Christopher Spillman during a math tutoring session at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Tutor Fernando Lozano, center, works with Tashe Lilly, left, and Christopher Spillman during a math tutoring session at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle

 Image 143 of 145 Jose Manuel Hernandez reads during Sustained Silent Reading at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Jose Manuel Hernandez reads during Sustained Silent Reading at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle

 Image 144 of 145 Tutor Ana Gonzales works with Jonathan Hernandez during a math tutoring session at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had the biggest gains, with the results better in math than in reading. The program includes small group tutoring in math. less Tutor Ana Gonzales works with Jonathan Hernandez during a math tutoring session at Robinson Elementary School Wednesday, Oct. 23, 2013, in Houston. A new study shows elementary schools in the Apollo program had ... more Photo: Brett Coomer, Houston Chronicle ||||| You’d be a lying crazy person if you said it hasn’t crossed your mind, and in the 1960s it was one of the most common questions posed to NASA’s astronauts: how do you go to the bathroom in space? The answer is less sophisticated than you might expect and there was never a space age solution to the problem. Rather, the galactic crapper was born out of necessity.

 NASA’s first manned spaceflight program flew the Mercury capsule, which was one of the most complex and intricate machines ever built when the program began manned flights in 1961. Closed negative feedback loops made all the onboard systems self-regulating. As a safety measure, the capsule could be controlled by the astronaut, mission control, or by a flight plan pre-programmed into the capsule’s computer. The cabin was pressurized, too, with 100-percent oxygen and featured an environmental control system that removed odors, carbon dioxide, and moisture. Pure oxygen also circulated through the astronauts’ pressure suit with the same effects; he stayed cool and dry because the oxygen flow promoted evaporation of his sweat.

 Despite the high-tech capsule and clothing, there was one glaring oversight in the original Mercury mission planning: there was no thought to the astronaut having to urinate during the flight. McDonnell Aircraft, the company who built the capsule, makes no mention of bathrooms of any kind in the nearly 500 page familiarization manual it sent to NASA.

 It wasn’t as if everyone just forgot astronauts are human and need to pee; no one thought it was something worth addressing this early on in the space age. The flights were short, surly the astronauts could hold it for a few hours while they orbited the Earth. Details of human functions in space could wait for later missions. It wasn’t a detail anyone thought should slow progress towards getting a man in space.

 From the astronaut’s perspective, however, a spaceflight is a different story. No mission ever lasted the few minutes or hours planned; the astronaut spent hours waiting for launch locked inside his capsule during countdown. Any holds for technical glitches or weather just made his wait longer. A short mission could easily turn into a full day.

 This was the problem facing Alan Shepard, America’s first astronaut, as he lay on his couch in his Freedom 7 capsule. Shepard’s flight was a fifteen minute suborbital hop — a very doable flight plan without a washroom handy. But Shepard’s role in the flight didn’t last a mere fifteen minutes. He entered the capsule hours before launch, and by the time he was getting close to blasting off, the astronaut had to, you know, go real bad.

 He radioed fellow Mercury astronaut Gordon Cooper who was serving as capcom for the mission for permission to leave the capsule to use the washroom — the gantry was still attached to the capsule, how difficult could it be? His request was denied. Depressurizing the capsule, exiting, and then going through the whole process of ingress and repressurization would set the countdown back. Cooper advised Shepard to hold it.

 Desperate, Shepard told Cooper he was going to have to wet his suit, a potentially risky move since he was covered inside and out with biomedical sensors. Sensing defeat, mission control relented. But no, they didn’t let him out to race to wherever an astronaut could potentially race at a launchpad, The biomed sensors were turned off and Shepard was free to relieve himself safely in his suit. His supine position meant he was momentarily lying in a sizable puddle of his own urine before the oxygen flow inside the suit dried his long underwear. Within minutes, he was dry and the biomed sensors were back online. Not long after, America’s first astronaut launched comfortably into history.

 The second manned spaceflight was a copy of the first — Gus Grissom made the same short flight, which meant that his mission also lacked a urine collection device. Hoping to prevent a repeat of Shepard’s wet episode, Grissom was given a makeshift, homemade system: a garter belt with a condom connected to a collection bag allowed Grissom to urinate without wetting his suit. It also gave Grissom the distinction of being the only astronaut of the era to fly in lingerie.

 The garter belt and condom was replaced with a properly designed urine collection system. An external urine collection device — a tube emptying into a bag with a one-way valve to prevent backflow — allowed the astronauts to relieve themselves during a mission.

 Longer missions complicated things as one bag wouldn’t be sufficient. For the last Mercury flight, Gordon Cooper’s Faith 7, a urine containment system was added to the capsule. Cooper had multiple urine bags to which he could attach the tube. His urine could either be pumped out the side of the capsule or brought back to the lab for scientific analysis.The system was a little difficult to use, but it did the job. The external urine collection device became a staple of space race-era missions.

 With the Gemini program, a second “function” posed a new challenge. One of the program’s central goals was to achieve long-duration spaceflight since a trip to the moon was expected to take up to two weeks. This means that a urine collection system wouldn’t be enough; Gemini mission planners had to develop a poop containment system as well.

 This was a harder nut to crack since fecal matter couldn’t be dumped out of the spacecraft like urine. It had to be stored as neatly as possible.

 As a preemptive measure, Gemini crews were given low residue foods in the hope of making their bowel movements smaller and less frequent. Nevertheless, they still needed a system. The solution was a foot long tube-shaped bag with an adhesive lining the open rim containing a small number of crystals designed to absorb moisture and neutralize odors. The bags were stored in the spacecraft and the samples analyzed by doctors after splashdown to determine how the body absorbs and digests nutrients without gravity.

 Using this crude space crapper was a difficult task. Astronauts had to take special care to make sure everything remained contained — feces floating around a spacecraft in zero gravity has got to be a universally unappealing image. In many cases, the astronauts would try to hold off using the “fecal containment system,” as it was called, but some missions were just too long, like Gemini 7’s record two week mission. Astronauts Jim Lovell and Frank Borman broke down and had to use. The Navy SEALS who recovered the crew after splashdown commented that their spacecraft smelled worse than a latrine.

 The larger Apollo spacecraft afforded the crew a very minimal amount of washroom privacy. Common practice had one astronaut strip down completely naked — wedding rings and all — while the other two crew members got has far away from him as possible. Being nude made clean up a comparatively easier affair.

 For the crews who landed on the moon, using the washroom was both easier and harder. The one-sixth gravity was enough to keep anything from floating around the cabin. The flip side of a stay on the moon was that astronauts couldn’t just pop back into the lunar module to relieve themselves midway through a moonwalk.

 So, NASA diapered its astronauts. (Neil Armstrong’s is pictured below.) Underneath their long johns and inside the highly sophisticated pressure suit that allowed the astronauts to travel freely around the lunar surface, delivered a steady flow of oxygen, controlled his temperature, and kept fresh drinking water within reach of his mouth, all moon-walking astronauts had a urine collection bag like the Mercury astronauts and a diaper.

 The prospect of cleaning up after using a diaper was unappealing — washing on an Apollo mission meant wiping up with a damp towel, and in the LM there was no source of hot water. With this in mind, no moonwalker ever used the diaper. Still, accidents happened. Charlie Duke chose to urinate just before lifting off from the moon on Apollo 16. He only found out that his urine containment system had become unattached from his person when he felt a warm stream running down one leg. He began his trip back to Earth with a squishy left boot.

 Longer term missions lasting months on the International Space Station have yielded advances in washroom technology in space, and the shift to mixed-gender crews has made moderate privacy a necessity. Still, there’s something so human about American heros dealing with diapers on the moon. And now you know how astronauts go to the bathroom on the moon.

 Connections: |||||

– It was a mission-critical element: the size of NASA astronauts' manhood. Seriously. The Houston Chronicle resurrects the fascinating historical tidbit by way of the Science Channel's Moon Machines documentary series, in which engineer Donald Rethke explained the very precise nature of early space diapers. The Maximum Absorbency Garment system, donned by Gemini and Apollo astronauts, featured one very specific element: a sleeve likened to a condom with a hole at the tip that enabled the men to urinate into a pouch with a one-way valve in their suits. Three sleeve sizes were available, small, medium, and large. And astronauts couldn't fib, explains Rethke. If they decided to order the next size up, the sheath wouldn't fit snugly, and liquid could potentially leak out, causing damage. To make the process a little less embarrassing, the sizes were later renamed: large, gigantic, and humongous. Motherboard notes that the urination issue was first brought to the fore by Alan Shepard, who spent hours in the Freedom 7 capsule in advance of a quick 15-minute "suborbital hop." Denied permission to leave the capsule, he opted to pee in his suit—forcing Mission Control to turn off his biomedical sensors until the flow of oxygen in the suit dried the pee, allowing the sensors to be switched on. Today's astronauts enjoy actual restrooms, though MAG systems are provided to astronauts who are operating outside space vehicles. (Other unusual NASA history: A scientist "stole" a satellite from the agency in 1983—and is ready to give it back.)


News article:

A major change in Apple’s iOS 7 update was its sleek, minimal aesthetic; however, the amount of motion now found within is anything but minimal.

 The screen zooms in and out as folders and apps are open and closed; the app switcher zooms and slides; full-screen slide transitions are commonplace; and a faux-3D parallax effect exists on home screens, with icons appearing to float and move independently of background wallpaper.

 For many people (most of Stuff included), this might seem dynamic and exciting. But iOS users with motion-sickness have suddenly found their iPhones and iPads are causing them problems.

 On his blog, The Tech Chat, Mark Coppock wrote that “iOS 7 makes me sick — literally�?, and thought the new animations were “all more aggressive�? than in iOS 6.

 The net result: “It feels to me like the whole screen is moving, and it generates a sort of motion sickness. I feel dizzy and can feel the very beginnings of nausea kicking in.�? ||||| The introduction of fake zooms, parallax, sliding and other changes in Apple's new iPhone and iPad software has a very real effect on people with vestibular disorders

 Apple's new mobile operating system for the iPhone and iPad, iOS 7, is stark and minimal, yet dynamic. It makes frequent use of zoom and slide animations; the home screen boasts parallax, with icons apparently floating above subtly animating wallpaper. And it's making people sick.

 Triggers and symptoms vary, but TidePool mobile app developer Jenni Leder's experience is not uncommon. A self-professed power-user, she frequently switches apps; but on iOS 7, this has caused headaches and feelings associated with motion sickness. "I now have to close my eyes or cover the screen during transitions, which is ridiculous," she told The Guardian, adding that there's nowhere to hide: "It's not apps that affect me, but accessing them. Tap a folder and the view zooms in. Tap an app and it's like flying through the icon and landing in that app's micro world — and I'm getting dizzy on the journey there."

 This wasn't the case under iOS 6. That system wasn't devoid of triggers (full-screen slide transitions being fairly common), but zooming was minimal and parallax was absent, as were gamified animation effects such as subtly shifting and sliding balloons in Messages.

 The same minimal effect is true of stock Android and Windows Phone, which lack triggering animations and effects as dynamic and aggressive as those in iOS 7.

 Jump up

 The severity of the jump from iOS 6 to iOS 7 means some organisations dealing with such motion-sickness problems are recommending that people with such conditions don't upgrade their iOS devices. A number of affected users have reportedly switched iPhones that had already been upgraded to iOS 7 for models running iOS 6.

 Reactions to screen-based systems — especially those utilising 3D effects — aren't new. Cynthia Ryan, executive director of the Vestibular Disorders Association, says 3D effects can cause "intense nausea, dizziness and vertigo", sometimes from general vision problems, but also from visual-vestibular conflict. She added symptoms "manifest more severely if a viewer already has a disorder of the vestibular system".

 The vestibular system is what gives us our sense of balance and sense of spatial awareness; it's dependent on three mutually orthogonal fluid-filled canals in the inner ear. But when the vestibular system and visual system come into conflict, the effect can be distressing.

 John Golding, professor of applied psychology at the University of Westminster, says visually-induced motion-sickness often arises from "the induction of perceived self-motion while at the same time the vestibular system and somatosensory systems signal that the body is in fact static".

 The number affected is hard to pin down. Golding says that "visually induced motion sickness" has "affected a relatively small proportion" - less than 5% - of the population, compared with other stimuli such as from boats (sea sickness), cars/coaches (car sickness), etc. But prevalence may be much higher in some clinical grpoups with vestibular disease."

 Ryan says: "These symptoms manifest even more severely if a viewer already has a disorder of the vestibular system. An estimated 69 million US adults aged 40 and over — 35% of all Americans — experience vestibular system dysfunction."

 Dizzying change

 Similar symptoms can also arise from neurological conditions that cause central dizziness. Matt Gemmell, an independent iOS developer, thought it made sense that those with such conditions "would find some parts of the new iOS 7 interface uncomfortable or disorienting," because it "makes more extensive use of animations — and those animations are more pronounced".

 The problem for those suffering is twofold: first, many other people refuse to believe a problem exists; secondly, there's no fix. "We're often contacted by people affected by moving images on screens, but people are affected in different ways — what's a problem for one person may not be for another," explained Natasha Harrington-Benton, director of the Ménière's Society, a UK charity for peopel with disorders causing dizziness or balance disorders. "But these disorders can be extremely debilitating, despite there being no visible symptoms".

 Marissa Christina, a podcaster and writer about hidden disabilities, suggests there was a "lack of awareness" about such issues: "The words 'dizziness' and 'vertigo' don't strike fear into people, but those living with severe cases are in ongoing angst awaiting the next unwarranted attack".

 The lack of a solution is the bigger problem. Apple provides a "Reduce Motion" option within the iOS 7 Settings app, but it is poorly labelled; it merely disables the parallax effect, but doesn't stop zooming or sliding. Apple did not respond to requests for comment for this article. Which for now, leaves affected people on their own.

 Golding's suggestions to those affected include to "rest often", avoid situations which reduce peripheral visual clues which give the correct information the person is static (in other words, don't hold your iPad to your nose), or "just not use the device". Those might suit some, but aren't practical if you're reliant on mobile devices.

 Blind spot

 What's surprising is Apple's apparent blind spot regarding balance and related concerns. Gemmell said: "Apple is more committed to accessibility than any other platform provider I know of." This is borne out by the software's otherwise plentiful aids for people with vision, hearing and motor-control issues.

 However, technology writer Kirk McElhearn quesions whether Apple is ignoring people with vision and balance problems. He told the Guardian: "If Apple wants to truly cater to users with disabilities, it must look more closely at which features cause difficulties, make more effort to listen to users who find them hard to use, and enable them to be more comfortable".

 Christina said Apple should start by acknowledging the issue and "initiating an open dialog with those affected, developers, and Apple's own accessibility team". The company must, she said, "narrow in on what's adversely affecting people and ensure features can be disabled".

 Gemmell says he is "sure suitable options to more comprehensively disable motion will be forthcoming". In the meantime, he recommended those affected send an email to accessibility@apple.com, succinctly stating which animations are problematic and requesting the means to disable them.

 Playing a part

 In the meantime, developers can also do their part. With app creators often following Apple's lead, it's perhaps inevitable the short-term will see yet more animation in iOS 7. Gemmell urges developers to "consider all categories and ability levels of user, and design interfaces judiciously"; they should enable users to disable anything that "could be annoying or intrusive", and UI effects should "have a useful function, such as showing context, hinting about functionality, or demonstrating transition, rather than being purely decorative".

 With the latest update to the popular calculator app PCalc, developer James Thomson has recognised the accessibility concerns, and provided the option to "remove full-screen transitions throughout the app".

 But he says= he'd sooner see Apple add this at system level, :so individual developers don't have to". Gemmell hopes Apple and developers alike would react accordingly regarding animations and transitions, simply because it's the right thing to do: "Accessibility affects everyone, and devices should be usable in all situations, by as many people as possible. Designing for accessibility levels the playing field, and increases the utility of devices for everybody." |||||
What is a shorter version of the above article?

– Some Apple users are sick of the company's new iOS 7 operating system. Literally. The new zoom and slide animations, and the 'floating" icons on the home screen, are causing motion sickness in many people with vestibular disorders—conditions that affect balance and vision, the Guardian reports. "I now have to close my eyes or cover the screen during transitions, which is ridiculous," says one app developer, who reports headaches and other symptoms associed with motion sickness. "Tap an app and it's like flying through the icon and landing in that app's micro world—and I'm getting dizzy on the journey there." Other symptoms from exposure to this kind of animation can include "intense nausea, dizziness and vertigo," says a spokesperson for the Vestibular Disorders Association. One developer affected by motion sickness has already built an app to disable the offending features, reports Stuff. But others say Apple itself needs to step up. Tech writer Kirk McElhearn says Apple was once "at the forefront of providing accessibility options," but now needs to demonstrate more sensitivity to users like him. "Their apparent disregard is disturbing, and shows a trend toward paying lip service to accessibility, but not thinking it through," he writes on his blog Kirkville.


Donald Trump. Win McNamee/Getty Images

 Hours after British Prime Minister Theresa May announced the UK will expel 23 Russian diplomats as punishment over the nerve agent attack against a former spy on British soil, President Donald Trump has yet to weigh in.

 "This will be the single biggest expulsion for over thirty years and it reflects the fact that this is not the first time that the Russian State has acted against our country," May said. "For those who wish to do us harm, my message is clear. You are not welcome here."

 May also said that Russians under suspicious would have their assets frozen, and that the British Royal Family and government ministers would not attend the 2018 World Cup in Russia.

 Meanwhile, Trump's silence on the matter since he briefly acknowledged the chemical attack Tuesday has been deafening to former US diplomats, many of whom wonder why the US hasn't been steadfast since the beginning in backing its closest international ally on the matter.

 May announced Monday that it was "highly likely" the Russian government ordered an assassination attempt against Sergei Skripal, a former Russian military intelligence officer who later became a double agent for the UK, in Salisbury, England earlier this month.

 Skripal and his 33-year-old daughter, Yulia, were both hospitalized and remain in critical condition after being exposed to Novichok, a nerve agent developed by the Soviet Union in the 1970s and 1980s.

 Shortly after May said Russia was the likely culprit in Skripal's case, the White House called the attack "reckless, indiscriminate, and irresponsible" but declined to specifically name Russia, saying the details still needed to be sorted out. That evening, Secretary of State Rex Tillerson took a more hardline stance, saying Russia was "clearly" behind the attack. Tuesday morning, Trump fired Tillerson via Twitter.

 While answering questions about Tillerson's firing, Trump said of the chemical attack on Skripal, "As soon as we get the facts straight, if we agree with them, we will condemn Russia or whoever it may be." Referring to the UK's findings, he added, "It sounds to me like they believe it was Russia, and I would certainly take that finding as fact."

 On Wednesday, after May announced the expulsion of the 23 Russian diplomats — the largest number ejected by the UK since the Cold War —multiple US officials, including the US ambassador to the UN and White House staff, said the US stands in solidarity with the UK.

 However, the president himself has not come out and publicly made that clear since his brief mention on Tuesday.

 'Judgment day for Donald Trump'

 President Donald Trump and Britain's Prime Minister Theresa May react during a ceremony at the new NATO headquarters before the start of a summit in Brussels, Belgium, May 25, 2017. REUTERS/Christian Hartmann

 "Judgment day for Donald Trump," R. Nicholas Burns, a former US ambassador to NATO, tweeted after the UK announced the measures it was taking to penalize Russia. "Will he support Britain unequivocally on the nerve agent attack? Back #NATO sanctions? Finally criticize Putin? Act like a leader of the West?

 Richard Kauzlarich, the former deputy assistant secretary of state in the Bureau of European Affairs, said the White House should have backed the British from the beginning.

 "When you have the British come out as clearly and decisively as they did about who was responsible, the logic and gravity of the situation would require the president to say something in solidarity," he said.

 "It should be almost automatic, especially with an ally this close to the US."

 Edward Price, the former senior director of the National Security Council under President Barack Obama, echoed that view.

 "For years, we heard from voices on the political right that America couldn't possibly confront its adversaries without first clearly naming them," he said. "And [on Monday], we heard the White House Press Secretary condemn the act but very deliberately skirt the actor, which, by all accounts, appears to be Moscow in this case."

 He added that not only did the US effectively hang the UK "out to dry" by not staying in lockstep with the ally from the start, it was also signaling to Russian President Vladimir Putin that "he is free to act with impunity, including by carrying out deadly acts in the UK."

 The Skripal attack is perhaps the most high-profile case of its kind since former Russian spy Alexander Litvinenko, a vocal Putin critic, was murdered in the UK in November 2006. A public inquiry into Litvinenko's death found in 2016 that Russian intelligence officials were responsible for the assassination, and that Putin was "probably" behind it.

 Moscow scoffed at the UK's latest accusations linking it to the Skripals' attempted assassination, dismissing them as a "circus show." After the UK announced the expulsion of nearly two dozen Russian diplomats on Wednesday, Russia called it a "very serious provocation" and a "hostile action."

 Meanwhile, Trump's silence since May's remarks on Wednesday morning mark yet another incident in which the president, "for whatever reason, is not prepared to put Russia on the spot," Kauzlarich said. "And Russia will draw the conclusion that anybody would: that if this president, for reasons no one can understand, will not criticize Russia on something this blatant, what will it take?"

 "All of us who have been around the block find it bizarre that we would not be 100% behind the Brits on this," he added. "They've earned it. Russia hasn't." ||||| Breaking News Emails Get breaking news alerts and special reports. The news and stories that matter, delivered weekday mornings.

 / Updated By Daniel Arkin

 U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Nikki Haley said on Wednesday the United States believes Russia is responsible for the attempted assassination of a former Russian double agent and his daughter in Britain — and the U.N. Security Council should hold the Kremlin "accountable."

 "The United States believes that Russia is responsible for the attack on two people in the United Kingdom using a military-grade nerve agent," Haley said at a Security Council meeting in New York.

 Haley said the United States stood in "absolute solidarity" with Britain after the country expelled 23 Russian diplomats in response to the chemical attack last week on the ex-spy, Sergei Skripal, and his daughter, Yulia.

 Related: U.K. to expel 23 diplomats in retaliation for spy poisoning

 She called on the U.N. to take action action, saying that the "credibility of this Council will not survive if we fail to hold Russia accountable."

 "If we don't take immediate, concrete measures to address this now, Salisbury will not be the last place we see chemical weapons used," Haley said, referring to the English city where Skripal and his daughter were discovered unconscious on a bench.

 Russia has denied any involvement in the assassination attempt.

 Haley's remarks echoed those of Rex Tillerson, the ousted secretary of state who this week called the nerve agent attack "a really egregious act" that appears to have "clearly" come from Russia.

 President Donald Trump, for his part, has not pinned the blame on the Kremlin, saying this week that "as soon as we get the facts straight," the United States would "condemn Russia or whoever it may be."

 British Prime Minister Theresa May, however, has blasted Russia in the wake of the March 4 attack, saying it was "highly likely" that the government of Vladimir Putin was responsible.

 "There is no alternative conclusion other than that the Russian State was culpable for the attempted murder of Mr. Skripal and his daughter — and for threatening the lives of other British citizens in Salisbury," May said on Wednesday.

 Related: How can U.K. respond to Russia-linked spy attack?

 Britain moved to expel the Russia diplomats on Wednesday after Moscow ignored a midnight deadline to explain how its nerve weapon was used in the attack. The expulsions — the largest in three decades — "will fundamentally degrade Russian intelligence capabilities in the U.K. for years to come," May said.

 Skripal, the 66-year-old ex-spy targeted with the nerve agent, is a former Russian military officer who was sentenced to 13 years in prison after being convicted in 2006 of spying for Britain. He passed the identity of dozens of spies to the U.K.'s foreign intelligence agency, according to news reports.

 He was freed in 2010 as part of a U.S.-Russian spy swap that also included spy Anna Chapman, who was arrested in New York earlier that year. ||||| (CNN) US Ambassador to the United Nations Nikki Haley said Wednesday the Trump administration "stands in absolute solidarity with Great Britain" following a nerve agent attack against a Russian double agent and his daughter in the English city of Salisbury last week.

 In the strongest statement yet from the US administration on the affair, Haley said Washington shared the UK's assessment that the Russian state was behind the poisoning and demanded a firm international response.

 "The United States believes that Russia is responsible for the attack on two people in the United Kingdom using a military-grade nerve agent," Haley said in her remarks at a UN Security Council emergency session, blasting the Russian government for flouting international law.

 "If we don't take immediate concrete measures to address this now, Salisbury will not be the last place we see chemical weapons used," said Haley. "They could be used here in New York or in cities of any country that sits on this council."

 The United Kingdom believes Russia was behind the attempted murders of Sergei Skripal and his daughter Yulia because the nerve agent used, Novichok , was developed in the Soviet Union and could not be replicated by non-state actors. London announced Wednesday it would expel 23 Russian diplomats after Moscow failed to meet a UK deadline to give a "credible response."

 Russia has dismissed the accusations as "fairy tales" and denied any involvement in the attack which landed the Skripals, along with a British police officer, in the hospital.

 Moscow's ambassador to the UN, Vassily Nebenzia, even suggested the UK might have been responsible for the attack in an attempt to smear Russia. "In the Russian Federation, no scientific research or development work under the title Novichok were carried out," he told the Security Council.

 "The most probable source origin this chemical are the countries which have since the end of the 90s been carrying... out intensive research on these kinds of weapons, including the UK."

 But Haley laid the blame firmly at Russia's door. Highlighting Moscow's support of the Assad regime in Syria following that government's use of chemical weapons against civilians, Haley told fellow diplomats the world had reached "a defining moment."

 "Time and time again, members states say they oppose the use of chemical weapons under any circumstance," said Haley. "Now one member stands accused of using chemical weapons on the sovereign soil of another member. The credibility of this council will not survive if we fail to hold Russia accountable."

 Presenting Britain's case, Deputy UK Ambassador to the UN Jonathan Allen called the attack "an unlawful use of force" and invited representatives from the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons to conduct an independent investigation of the incident.

 Nebenzia, Russia's envoy, reaffirmed his government's denial of involvement in a lengthy and colorful response.

 He called on the UK government to offer proof that Novichok was used and that Russia was responsible, and slammed UK Prime Minister Theresa May for making "completely irresponsible statements" and "threats."

 In questioning London's allegations, Nebenzia cited the English fictional detective Sherlock Holmes and his "hapless" Scotland Yard counterpart, Inspector Lestrade.

 "Lestrade latches on to something that is on the surface of a crime and is in a hurry to provide banal conclusions only to be overturned by Sherlock Holmes, who always finds what is behind the crime," Nebenzia said. "I do think we could all stand to benefit from having a Sherlock Holmes with us today."

 With apparent sarcasm, Nebenzia also suggested the UK government should look inward to determine why Russian nationals in the country so often find themselves in mortal peril, and mocked Haley's credibility as "an experienced chemist."

 The White House later backed up Haley's comments at the UN, saying it shared the British assessment of Russia's culpability in the Salisbury attack. "The United States stands in solidarity with its closest ally, the United Kingdom," the statement read.

 "This latest action by Russia fits into a pattern of behavior in which Russia disregards the international rules-based order, undermines the sovereignty and security of countries worldwide, and attempts to subvert and discredit Western democratic institutions and processes." |||||

Write a summary.

– Nikki Haley came out strong against Russia and in support of the United Kingdom on Wednesday following the nerve agent attack that left a former Russian spy and his adult daughter in critical condition in England, CNN reports. "The United States believes that Russia is responsible for the attack," the US ambassador to the UN told the Security Council, adding the White House "stands in absolute solidarity with Great Britain." "Time and time again, member states say they oppose the use of chemical weapons under any circumstance," Haley said. "Now one member stands accused of using chemical weapons on the sovereign soil of another member. The credibility of this council will not survive if we fail to hold Russia accountable." It was by far the most forceful statement out of the Trump administration. Rex Tillerson had said Russia was "clearly" responsible for the attack on Sergei Skripal and daughter Yulia but was shortly fired by Trump, NBC News reports. When asked about Tillerson's firing Tuesday, Trump said "as soon as we get the facts straight" the US would "condemn Russia or whoever it may be." According to Business Insider, former US diplomats have expressed confusion about why the White House hasn't done more to back its ally Great Britain, which has expelled 23 Russian diplomats. Nicholas Burns calls it "judgment day" for Trump. "Will he support Britain unequivocally on the nerve agent attack?" the former US ambassador to NATO says. "Back NATO sanctions? Finally criticize Putin? Act like a leader of the West?"


– Electronic waste is growing at a staggering rate—Americans alone chucked an average of 65 pounds of old electronic goods each last year—and it is set to surge another 33% within five years unless consumers and producers change their ways, LiveScience reports. Most of the waste ends up in developing nations, and those countries plus the former Soviet bloc now produce more electronic waste of their own than Western nations, according to a new map that tracks the problem worldwide for the first time. The world produced around 54 million tons of electronic waste in total last year, researchers found, and though it can be valuable—a million old cell phones can yield 53 pounds of gold and 550 pounds of silver, Reuters notes—recycling rates remain low and where e-waste is recycled, it is often done so in a way harmful to both the environment and workers' health. The rate of waste is so high because engineers are constantly creating innovative designs to lure people to buy more, an earth sciences professor tells the Toronto Star. "Why won’t these same smart people also find a way that electronics can be used longer or reused in the best way, too?”

Expand this summary.

The U.S. generated about 258.2 million units of used computers, monitors, TVs and cellphones in 2010, 171.4 million of which were collected for recycling, and 14.4 million were exported, according to a United Nations report.

 By 2017, the global volume of discarded refrigerators, TVs, cellphones, computers, monitors and other electronic waste will weigh almost as much as 200 Empire State Buildings, a new report predicts.

 The forecast, based on data gathered by United Nations organizations, governments, and nongovernment and science organizations in a partnership known as the "Solving the E-Waste Problem (StEP) Initiative," predicts e-waste generation will swell by a third in the next five years, led by the United States and China. The StEP Initiative created a map of the world's e-waste, which is available online. [Infographic: Tracking the World's E-Waste]

 Until now, comprehensive data on global e-waste has been hard to come by, and countries define e-waste very differently. For example, the United States only includes consumer electronics such as TVs and computers, whereas European nations include everything that has a battery or power cord in the e-waste category.

 "This is why we have developed this e-waste map. It's the first time we're introducing really comparable data," said Ruediger Kuehr of United Nations University, in Germany, and executive secretary of the StEP Initiative. "In addition, it gives magnitude to the issue on a national level, so policymakers are aware of the issue in order to take action," Kuehr told LiveScience.

 Mapping worldwide e-waste

 The U.S. and China produce more total e-waste than any other country. [ See full-size infographic Credit: Ross Toro, Infographic Artist

 The interactive e-waste map shows data from 184 countries on the estimated amount of electrical and electronic equipment that hits the market and how much e-waste it ultimately generates. Having this data could help governments and companies manage their e-waste.

 The world produced nearly 54 million tons (49 million metric tons) of used electrical and electronic products last year. That's an average of about 43 lbs. (20 kg), or the weight of eight bricks, for each of the 7 billion people on Earth.

 The StEP Initiative forecasts that by 2017, the world will produce about 33 percent more e-waste, or 72 million tons (65 million metric tons). That amount weighs about 11 times as much as the Great Pyramid of Giza.

 China currently leads the world in production of electrical and electronic equipment. In 2012, China produced about 12.2 million tons (11.1 million metric tons), followed by the U.S. with about 11 million tons (10 million metric tons).

 However, the United States eclipses China in e-waste generation, because more products previously put on the market in the U.S. are likely to be retired. In 2012, the U.S. produced about 10.4 million tons (9.4 million metric tons), versus China's 8 million tons (7.3 million metric tons).

 The U.S. generated the seventh highest amount of e-waste per person — about 66 lbs. (30 kg) per capita. (The country with the highest per capita e-waste was Qatar.)

 E-waste in the U.S.

 The U.S. National Center for Electronics Recycling (NCER) and MIT have released a detailed report on U.S. generation, collection and export of used electronics in conjunction with the e-waste map.

 The U.S. generated about 258.2 million units of used computers, monitors, TVs and cellphones in 2010, 171.4 million of which were collected for recycling, and 14.4 million were exported, according to the report. [Green Guide to Holiday Electronic Gifts (Op-Ed)]

 The U.S. is a major exporter of used electronics. The U.S. exports more CRT (cathode ray tube) monitors by weight than any other product, and more cellphones than any other electronics product in terms of numbers.

 However, export numbers could be an underestimate, because exporters want to keep them quiet in order to bypass restrictions or bad press, said Jason Linnell, executive director of NCER.

 In terms of recycling, "We are a little bit behind compared with countries in the European Union," Linnell told LiveScience.European countries have had established e-waste recycling programs for more than 10 years, whereas only 25 U.S. states have started similar programs, Linnell said.

 But recycling of e-waste is on the rise. "We're seeing more recycling programs, and a lot of states are collecting 5 to 6 lbs. (2.3 to 2.7 kg) of e-waste per person per year," he said.

 "It's better than the past, but we we still have a ways to go," Linnell said.

 Follow Tanya Lewis on Twitterand Google+. Follow us @livescience, Facebook& Google+. Original article on LiveScience. ||||| It has been called the “dirty underbelly” of electronics.

 E-waste — all those discarded electrical or electronic devices, from cell phones and TVs to tablets and computers.

 The numbers are staggering. And now, a world e-waste map — the first of its kind — shows just how staggering.

 The average Canadian, for example, generated about 24 kilograms of e-waste in 2012. That’s more than 860,000 tonnes for the entire country, roughly equivalent to the weight of about 1,700 fully loaded Boeing 747s at take off.

 But the biggest producer of e-waste is the United States, with an astonishing 9,359,000 tonnes produced in 2012, about 29 kilograms per person, according to the map, which was created by a number of agencies through their “solving e-waste problem” (StEP) initiative.

 The numbers are mind-boggling, said Josh Lepawsky, a professor at Memorial University in St. John’s, N.L., and a member of StEP.

 “The main purpose (of the map) is to give a sense how much electronic waste is present in any given any country,” said Lepawsky.

 It also allows a comparison between purchasing power in different countries, which is a measure of wealth, he said.

 (The richer the country, the more e-waste it generally generates.)

 By 2017, the volume of discarded e-products worldwide is expected to be 33 per cent higher than in 2012 and weigh the equivalent of eight of the Great Pyramids of Egypt.

 Haiti is among the lowest producers of e-waste in the world, with less than 8,000 tonnes produced in 2012, or less than one kilogram per person.

 Afghanistan, too, was among the lowest in the world, with less than 19,000 tonnes of e-waste for the country, or 0.58 kilogram per person.

 The map is surprising in parts, said Lepawsky.

 Singapore is much wealthier than Canada, he said, “when you look at e-waste generated.” In Singapore, a tiny country, the average person generated about 36 kilograms in 2012.

 “The world is changing quite quickly,” he said.

 Luxembourg is another example.

 It has a much smaller population than the U.S., 520,000, compared to more than 314 million, but more new electrical and electronic equipment comes to the market in Luxembourg per capita.

 (The U.S. is the largest consumer in absolute terms but it is behind Luxembourg in per capita terms.)

 It is a disheartening number, said Miriam Diamond, a professor in the department of earth sciences at the University of Toronto, referring to the e-waste that emanates from Canada.

 “It represents throwing away a tremendous amount of energy that went into making it in the first place.”

 Used electronics often make their way to the developing world where some are reused.

 But, Diamond says, “In a lot of the recycling sector, they are dismantled by hand. That is a serious threat to health and the environment.”

 Innovation is a trademark in the world of electronics, especially in the world of cellphones, laptops and computers, where engineers come up with distinct, sleek styles to lure people to buy more.

 “Why won’t these same smart people also find a way that electronics can be used longer or reused in the best way, too?” she asked.

 The cost of mining new resources is also staggering.

 “These minerals that we mine are scarce. . . is it worth it? Mining, too, has negative impact on people and places.”

 For Lepawsky, the solution to the tonnes of e-waste is relatively simple.

 “Stop buying new electronics; use what you have for longer,” he said, adding that sometimes buying new products is about fashion more than anything else. ||||| An employee holds circuit boards at the Coopermiti warehouse of electronic waste in Sao Paulo March 6, 2013. According to the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Brazil generates the greatest amount of electronic waste (e-waste) per capita among emerging countries.

 OSLO (Reuters) - China and other emerging economies have overtaken Western nations in dumping old electronic goods, from TVs to cellphones, and will lead a projected 33 percent surge in the amount of waste from 2012 to 2017, a U.N.-backed alliance said on Sunday.

 The report, the first to map electronic waste by country to promote recycling and safer disposal of often toxic parts, shows how the economic rise of developing nations is transforming the world economy even in terms of pollution.

 "The e-waste problem requires attention globally," Ruediger Kuehr of the U.N. University and executive secretary of the Solving the E-Waste Problem (StEP) initiative, told Reuters. StEP is run by U.N. agencies, governments, NGOs and scientists.

 The weight of electronic goods discarded every year worldwide would rise to 65.4 million tonnes from 2012 to 2017 from 48.9 million in 2012, with most of the growth in developing nations, StEP said.

 By 2017, it would make the annual piles of old washing machines, computers, fridges, electronic toys and other goods with an electric cord or battery the weight equivalent of 200 Empire State Buildings or 11 Great Pyramids of Giza, it said.

 Some waste from rich countries ends up in developing nations, where many people work in hazardous conditions for low wages dismantling it.

 Waste from emerging countries, as well as Russia and other former Soviet bloc nations, overtook totals from Western nations such as the United States, the European Union, Japan and Australia around 2012, StEP data showed.

 In that year, the West produced 23.5 million tonnes of waste and all others 25.4 million, a shift from the previous estimates for 2007 when the West accounted for most, StEP said.

 MOUNTAINS OF TRASH

 By 2017, trash from the West would rise to 28.6 million tonnes, far less than the 36.7 million from other countries, a side-effect of the economic rise of emerging nations such as India, Brazil and South Africa.

 "Although there is ample information about the negative environmental and health impacts of primitive e-waste recycling methods, the lack of comprehensive data has made it hard to grasp the full magnitude of the problem," Kuehr said in the report.

 Consumers could help with better recycling, especially at Christmas, he said.

 Waste can be valuable if recycled. One study estimated that a million cellphones can yield 24 kg (53 lb) of gold, 250 kg of silver, 9 kg of palladium and more than 9 tonnes of copper.

 Sunday's report also showed that the average person on the planet produces 7 kg of electronic waste every year. Americans were among the highest with 29.8 kg each.

 Separately, U.S.-based experts trying to track the fate of waste said that about two-thirds of U.S. electronics waste is collected for re-use or recycling and that only 8.5 percent of the collected units are exported.

 Bigger electronic items, especially TVs and computer monitors, were exported to nations including Mexico, Venezuela, Paraguay and China, it said. Smaller items often went to Asia.

 Jeremy Gregory, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a co-author of the report, told Reuters it was hard to track trade because the waste is often merely described as "mixed metals" on import documents.

 StEP urged nations to adopt clearer trade descriptions.

 For StEP maps, click here: here

 (Editing by Alison Williams) |||||


News article:

 Paris Saint-Germain players and officials observe a minute of silence in memory of the victims of the Paris attacks on Saturday. (David Vincent/AP)

 Soccer jerseys are as known for the well-placed sponsor messages as they are for their colors, so it’s a big deal whenever those get altered. When French Ligue 1 team Paris Saint-Germain plays its next two matches on Wednesday and Saturday, they will no longer be repping Emirates Airlines, but the people of Paris.

 PSG to wear a special "JE SUIS PARIS" jersey for the next two matches https://t.co/8oVeH7i7Cj pic.twitter.com/uO6ezLn91N — PSG English (@PSG_English) November 23, 2015

 “In tribute to the victims of Nov. 13 attacks, the Paris Saint-Germain players will wear a special jersey [that] only bears the message “I AM PARIS” and nothing else,” the team said in a statement Monday afternoon. “This message of unity will appear on the shirt in the space usually occupied by our main partner Emirates.”

 This is the second PSG jersey design meant to honor the victims of the attacks claimed by ISIS that killed more than 129 in the city. Previously, the players wore the words in smaller print just below the team’s crest and over their hearts.

 [Take a look at PSG’s previous memorial to the Paris victims]

 Emirates okay’ed this week’s bigger change, the team says, and has been cooperative throughout the process of memorializing the victims.

 The team will wear the new jerseys during Wednesday’s Champions League match against Malmö and during Saturday’s Ligue 1 home match against Troyes.

 Saturday’s match promises to be extra poignant. It will be the first home match in the team’s Paris-based Parc des Princes stadium since the attacks. ||||| These crawls are part of an effort to archive pages as they are created and archive the pages that they refer to. That way, as the pages that are referenced are changed or taken from the web, a link to the version that was live when the page was written will be preserved.Then the Internet Archive hopes that references to these archived pages will be put in place of a link that would be otherwise be broken, or a companion link to allow people to see what was originally intended by a page's authors.The goal is to fix all broken links on the web . Crawls of supported "No More 404" sites. ||||| Unlike football or baseball jerseys, soccer jerseys are adorned with a sponsor’s logo on the front. It’s a major source of revenue, which clubs then use to buy nice things like expensive players.

 But in honor of the victims of the recent terrorist attacks that have rocked France’s capital city, Paris Saint-Germain announced on Monday that it would part with its sponsors, Fly Emirates, for its next two games — against Malmo in the Champions League on Wednesday and then against Troyes on Saturday.

 In its place the team will wear the message “Je Suis Paris,” and although PSG weren’t the team that played during the bombing, its role as Paris’ biggest soccer team has made it a kind of national figurehead in its aftermath. |||||
What is a shorter version of the above article?

– The Paris Saint-Germain soccer team wanted to show the world that its thoughts are with its home city and the victims of the recent terror attacks—so it has (temporarily) ditched a major sponsor from its jerseys and replaced it with a message of solidarity instead, reports For the Win. "Je Suis Paris" ("I am Paris")—reminiscent of the "Je Suis Charlie" message that proliferated after January's Charlie Hebdo attack—will adorn the team's jerseys for the next two games, against Malmo on Wednesday and Troyes on Saturday. "This [message] of unity [will appear] on the shirt in the space usually occupied by our main partner Emirates," the team says on its website; it also tweeted a photo of some of the players sporting the jerseys. The team says Emirates Airline has given the A-OK for the limited redesign and "has been cooperative throughout the process of memorializing the victims," as the Washington Post puts it. (A poignant conversation about the Paris attacks between a father and son went viral.)