Trehalose

Trehalose (from Turkish 'trehala' – a sugar derived from insect cocoons + -ose) is a sugar consisting of two molecules of glucose. It is also known as mycose or tremalose. Some bacteria, fungi, plants and invertebrate animals synthesize it as a source of energy, and to survive freezing and lack of water.
Extracting trehalose was once a difficult and costly process, but around 2000, the Hayashibara company (Okayama, Japan) discovered an inexpensive extraction technology from starch. Trehalose has high water retention capabilities, and is used in food, cosmetics and as a drug. A procedure developed in 2017 and using trehalose allows sperm storage at room temperatures.
Structure.
Trehalose is a disaccharide formed by a bond between two α-glucose units. Two other isomers are not found in nature. It is found in nature as a disaccharide and also as a monomer in some polymers.
Synthesis.
At least three biological pathways support trehalose biosynthesis. An industrial process can derive trehalose from corn starch.
Properties.
Chemical.
Trehalose is a nonreducing sugar formed from two glucose units joined by a 1–1 alpha bond, giving it the name The bonding makes trehalose very resistant to acid hydrolysis, and therefore is stable in solution at high temperatures, even under acidic conditions. The bonding keeps nonreducing sugars in closed-ring form, such that the aldehyde or ketone end groups do not bind to the lysine or arginine residues of proteins (a process called glycation). Trehalose is less soluble than sucrose, except at high temperatures (>80 °C). Trehalose forms a rhomboid crystal as the dihydrate, and has 90% of the calorific content of sucrose in that form. Anhydrous forms of trehalose readily regain moisture to form the dihydrate. Anhydrous forms of trehalose can show interesting physical properties when heat-treated.
Trehalose aqueous solutions show a concentration-dependent clustering tendency. Owing to their ability to form hydrogen bonds, they self-associate in water to form clusters of various sizes. All-atom molecular dynamics simulations showed that concentration of 1.5–2.2 molar, allow trehalose molecular clusters to percolate and form large, continuous aggregates.
Trehalose directly interacts with nucleic acids, facilitates melting of double stranded DNA and stabilizes single-stranded nucleic acids.
Biological.
Organisms ranging from bacteria, yeast, fungi, insects, invertebrates, and lower and higher plants have enzymes that can make trehalose.
In nature, trehalose can be found in plants, and microorganisms. In animals, trehalose is prevalent in shrimp, and also in insects, including grasshoppers, locusts, butterflies, and bees, in which trehalose serves as blood-sugar. Trehalase genes are found in tardigrades, the microscopic ecdysozoans found worldwide in diverse extreme environments.
Trehalose is the major carbohydrate energy storage molecule used by insects for flight. One possible reason for this is that the glycosidic linkage of trehalose, when acted upon by an insect trehalase, releases two molecules of glucose, which is required for the rapid energy requirements of flight. This is double the efficiency of glucose release from the storage polymer starch, for which cleavage of one glycosidic linkage releases only one glucose molecule.
In plants, trehalose is seen in sunflower seeds, moonwort, "Selaginella" plants, and sea algae. Within the fungi, it is prevalent in some mushrooms, such as shiitake ("Lentinula edodes"), oyster, king oyster, and golden needle.
Even within the plant kingdom, "Selaginella" (sometimes called the resurrection plant), which grows in desert and mountainous areas, may be cracked and dried out, but will turn green again and revive after rain because of the function of trehalose.
The two prevalent theories as to how trehalose works within the organism in the state of cryptobiosis are the vitrification theory, a state that prevents ice formation, or the water displacement theory, whereby water is replaced by trehalose.
Nutritional and dietary properties.
Trehalose is rapidly broken down into glucose by the enzyme trehalase, which is present in the brush border of the intestinal mucosa of omnivores (including humans) and herbivores. It causes less of a spike in blood sugar than glucose. Trehalose has about 45% the sweetness of sucrose at concentrations above 22%, but when the concentration is reduced, its sweetness decreases more quickly than that of sucrose, so that a 2.3% solution tastes 6.5 times less sweet as the equivalent sugar solution.
It is commonly used in prepared frozen foods, like ice cream, because it lowers the freezing point of foods. The Cargill corporation promotes the use of its brand of trehalose, "Treha", as a substance that "enhances and intensifies certain flavors to bring out the best in your products."
Deficiency of trehalase enzyme is unusual in humans, except in the Greenlandic Inuit, where it occurs in 10–15% of the population.
Medical use.
Trehalose is an ingredient, along with hyaluronic acid, in an artificial tears product used to treat dry eye. Outbreaks of "Clostridium difficile" were initially associated with trehalose, although this finding was disputed in 2019.
History.
In 1832, H.A.L. Wiggers discovered trehalose in an ergot of rye, and in 1859 Marcellin Berthelot isolated it from "Trehala manna", a substance made by weevils and named it trehalose.
Trehalose has long been known as an autophagy inducer that acts independently of mTOR. In 2017 research was published showing that trehalose induces autophagy by activating TFEB, a protein that acts as a master regulator of the autophagy-lysosome pathway.