Rocca di Manerba del Garda

The Rocca di Manerba del Garda (fortress of Manerba del Garda) is a rocky promontory, that extends along the south-western coast of Lake Garda, in Lombardy, Italy. The site, named after its medieval fortification period, is archaeologically significant, with human occupation evidenced from the Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age, Iron Age, ancient Roman and Medieval periods. Archaeological features include the ruins of this medieval fortification on the summit, and, on the south-western side of the peninsula, the remains of an ancient Roman villa. It consists of two main peaks: the Rocca Vecchia and the hill with the hermitage of San Giorgio.
Location.
The Rocca di Manerba del Garda is located on a rocky spur overlooking Lake Garda in the municipality of Manerba del Garda (Province of Brescia), in Lombardy, Italy. It is at an elevation of 162 meters above sea level and has a surface area of . It is the location of an archaeological park, Parco Naturalistico-Archeologico di Manerba del Garda, which is a UNESCO Heritage Site and it was named after its Roman temple built for the goddess Minerva. The fortification can be reached by car from the center of Manerba del Garda and the car park is a few meters from the remains of the Rocca di Manerba del Garda. It is possible to access the site through the path that crosses the park, cuts across the "Sasso" plateau, and climbs up to the ruins of the castle.<mapframe latitude="45.557408" longitude="10.572131" zoom="13" width="200" height="115" align="left">{
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History.
Prehistoric period.
The Rocca di Manerba del Garda was subject to many archaeological excavations which brought to light remains of various prehistoric settlements. In 1955, the announcement of the first proof of prehistoric finds in the area was published. Archaeological excavations in the Sasso area, just below the fortress, revealed traces of a Mesolithic settlement that evidences the presence of human beings about 8000 to 5000 years ago. The area around Sopra Sasso, between the fortification and the lakefront, was the site of a Neolithic Age settlement. It appears possible that fragments of Square Mouth Pottery found on the Rocca di Manerba del Garda are testimony to further activity in the same period. Such as ruins date back to the Lagozza Culture (4000 BC). There is evidence of rituals, cultural and religious activities during the Bronze Age (3000 BC), such as bronze objects. These are evidence of life, even during the Iron Age in the Rocca di Manerba del Garda. 
The area of the Rocca is also known for the pile-dwelling sites located by the small basins on the lake. Between 1971 and 1980, a 150 meters long pile-dwelling settlement was found in the area of San Sivino and it is part of the UNESCO heritage site. Further excavations revealed the existence of two housing phases: one between the 20th century and the 17th century B.C. and another one between the 17th century and the 16th century B.C. There is also evidence of the rule of the Etruscans.
Historic period.
Numerous archaeological finds have evidenced the presence of subsequent human occupation over a considerable period. It has been ruled and affected by different cultural and ethnic groups, including the Cenomani, the ancient Rome, and the Langobards.
The first archaeological explorations began in the period 1881–1885 with the excavation of the Roman burial land at the foot of the hill. In September 1971, trenches dug along the north-western side of the hill during work laying water mains revealed finds connecting to prehistoric, Roman, and medieval periods.
Archaeologists discovered defensive walls surrounding the highest point of the fortress built between the 7th century and the 8th century A.D. .
Because of these discoveries, the Soprintendenza alle Antichità Della Lombardia chose to start a formal archaeological excavation. In the years between 1971 and 1981, various trenches were found in several locations, also inside the chapel of San Niccolò.
Field-walking surveys accompanied the excavations along the slopes and at the foot of the outcrop. The integration of these with the study of aerial photographs of the area led to the identification of the terraced Roman villa. The retaining walls of this villa are still partly observable in the undergrowth, at the bottom of the north-western slope of the Rocca di Manerba del Garda. Some coins date back to the years 375-392 A.d. and a bronze ring indicates that the site was inhabited during the Late-Roman period.
In 776 the Rocca di Manerba del Garda was the last bastion of resistance of the Lombards to the Franks of King Charlemagne, which a century later donated the surrounding territory and the lake to the monks of San Zeno di Verona. Over time, as for many other fortresses, the property was conquered by the Scaligeri of Verona. It was then passed to the Visconti family and during the Renaissance was owned by the Republic of Venice. The defensive structures progressively decayed and resulted in it becoming abandoned. It was subsequently occupied by bandits, due to its strong defensive characteristics. Later, in 1574, the last medieval structure was destroyed by the Venetian Republic, as it had become a refuge for bandits. Today there are still some remains of it.
Geology.
The landscape is typically hilly with slight creases in the land, while in the Rocca di Manerba del Garda area the landscape has an older formation, with more bold slopes and angular terrain. It is primarily due to tectonic plate movements along the faults found in those areas. The Rocca di Manerba del Garda is on the lakeside of Lake Garda. It was formed by complex adjustments to the planet's crust which happened millions of years ago and has been the subject of investigations by geologists.
Archaeological features.
Among the numerous archaeological features, there are:
Churches.
Church of Saint Mary: This is an old baptismal church, a triple-naved structure built with a bell tower and a large central apse. The interior is now bare, but many documents, dating from the early medieval period, identify the baptismal church of Valtenesi with the church of Saint Mary. There is evidence of an oratory that was probably founded in the early Middle Ages and discovered between 1977 and 1979. A chapel was subsequently added to this building, built with blocks of Tufo alternated with Roman bricks. At the beginning of the 12th century, in the presbytery of the church, there were many paintings such as the Maiestas Domini, figures of saints, and martyrdom, that were later damaged in the 12th and the 14th century.
Civic Archaeological Valtenesi Museum.
The Civic Archaeological Valtenesi Museum was first built close to Pieve Santa Maria and then relocated to the top of the Rocca di Manerba del Garda. It offers basic information about the flora, fauna, and nature treks. It provides archaeological and historical information about the site history, which dates back to the ages between the Mesolithic and the 16th century. It features details about San Sivino (a World Heritage Site); Pieve di Santa Maria (where there are the ruins of an ancient Roman villa and medieval buildings; and, ruins of pile dwelling from the Bronze Era. On the ground floor, it is possible to see the finds from the excavations conducted in Sasso and Riparo Valtenesi, Rocca, Pieve e San Sivino. The first floor is dedicated to nature with photos of the fauna of the park and a map of the cycling tracks and footpaths. All the information is written both in English and Italian.
The museum is part of the Visitor Center. This building is located in a strategic position on the way to the top of the Rocca di Manerba del Garda and has a large window. The main aim of the center is to educate visitors about the archaeological features, the landscape and nature of Manerba del Garda, and provide information about the park. It is also one of the main starting points of various trails.
Flora and fauna.
The Rocca di Manerba del Garda is part of a large natural reserve of 900,000 square meters which has the peculiarity of containing the Parco Archeologico e Naturalistico della Rocca e del Sasso and Parco Lacuale di Manerba del Garda, the largest lake park in Italy.
Flora.
The site is characterized by the presence of numerous varieties of Mediterranean essences, some prehistorical plants, and botanical rarities, including flowers such as the wild Orchidaceae, located widely over the park, and the "Erythronium dens-canis", a Liliaceae situated on the underbrush of the Rocca di Manerba del Garda. The location is distinguished by the development of grassy vegetation typical of the region, such as the feather grass or ("Stipa pennata") and gramineous ornamental grass "Melica ciliata". Variety of woodlands, depending on the exposure, gradient, and soil conditions. Examples present on the Rocca di Manerba del Garda include "Quercus pubescens" or pubescent oak; "Cupressus"; the "Cotinus coggygria" or "Rhus cotinus"; and, "Cercis siliquastrum", commonly known as the Judas tree.
Fauna.
The territory is home to aquatic and volatile flying and gliding animals. Due to the protection given to lake areas, there is the presence of great biodiversity, firstly birds common buzzard ("Buteo buteo"), common kestrel ("Falco tinnunculus"), European nightjar ("Caprimulgus europaeus") and also seagulls. There are reptiles such as the common green lizard ("Lacerta bilineata"). There are also many kinds of insects. Very ordinary in the Rocca di Manerba del Garda are butterflies, it is possible to find different species such as scarce swallowtail ("Iphiclides modalities"), marbled white ("Melanargia galatea") and Old World swallowtail ("Papilio machaon").
Selected species of fish in the adjacent lake area are subject to protection and cannot be fished, to maintain the rarest and most endangered species. 
The most common fishes present on the reef of Rocca di Manerba del Garda are the common carp ("Cyprinus carpio"), "Squalius cii", eel ("Anguilla"), and the black bullhead ("Ameiurus melas").
In order to maintain the ecological diversity, study, and monitor the species, it is strictly prohibited to hunt, build, or drive motor vehicles in the designated area.
Mountain bike and running trails.
It is possible to reach the peak of the Rocca di Manerba del Garda by a range of paths and viewpoints. The paths start at an altitude of 63 meters, reaching a maximum altitude of 213 meters. Parts of the ascent are exposed due to the lack of protective barriers by the cliff. From the summit both the Monte Baldo and the Veronese coast up to the peninsula of Sirmione are visible.
Curiosities.
Origin of the name.
The origin of the name dates back to possibly between the late republican and the early Roman imperial ages in the late 1st century BC. A small temple has been built on the southern side of the summit of the fortress, which represents a sign of a location of worship. It was built in honor of the goddess Minerva, who is recognized as an autochthonous divinity assimilated to the Roman one, and from whom can be derived the identity of "Manerba". This is confirmed by an inscription dedicated to the goddess Minerva, which was located near the top of the fortress and recorded in the Codex Parisinus of Ferrarin in the late 15th century, and in a drawing in the subsequent Codex Medici.
The legend of the Rocca di Manerba del Garda.
This local tradition narrates that a long time ago, a ferocious wolf was living in and defending a den overlooking the lake. The wolf prevented anyone from approaching, causing great fears in the population. There were several attempts to capture the dangerous wolf but all with adverse outcomes. The citizens of Manerba del Garda decided to put a price on his head. The news attracted considerable numbers of peoples, due to the size of the payment, but the numerous attempts to kill the beast were all unsuccessful. Three young hunters came: a boy from Moniga del Garda, one from Raffa, and one from Pieve Vecchia. The legend states that the young hunter from Moniga del Garda attempted to capture the wolf by using live bait, but fell off the cliff. Raffa's young man tried to catch it using a huge net, but he also failed and died. The boy from Pieve Vecchia attempted to attract the wolf by simulating fake wolf howls. He ended up facing the ferocious animal, protecting himself using a large cross as a shield. The fearful wolf retreated and fell off the cliff. In honor of the young hunter from Pieve Vecchia, a large cross was erected on the top of the Rocca di Manerba del Garda. The other hunters' bodies are remembered through two large rocks that emerged from the Lake Garda.
Sacredness and rites.
The area was and is still recognized as a sacred place and site of ritual activity, dating from as early as the Copper Age (3rd millennium BC). The Copper Age was the intermediate phase between the Neolithic and Bronze Age. This is demonstrated at the northern edge of the natural shelf at Riparo Valtenesi, where there is an area of earthen fireplaces, scorched and burnt clay, and isolated post-holes, which are interpreted as the place of wooden statues and stelae. At the summit of the fortress, there is no evidence of the celebration of rituals dating earlier than the Final Bronze Age (11th-10th centuries BC), to which period bronze finds can be attributed. This tentative burnt offering site was then destroyed by the construction of the Late Roman cistern. The bronze finds are decorated by fibulae, as well as by fragments of other objects from the Early Iron Age (8th century BC).
Books.
Publications about Rocca di Manerba del Garda include:
Similar fortifications.
Rocca di Manerba del Garda is one of many historic fortifications in Lake Garda; some others are: