Richard Reeve Baxter

Richard Reeve Baxter (14 February 1921 – 25 September 1980) was a widely published American jurist and from 1950 until his death the preeminent figure on the law of war. Baxter served as a judge on the International Court of Justice (1979–1980), as a professor of law at Harvard University (1954 - 1979) and as an enlisted man and officer in the U.S. Army (1942–46,1948–54). He is noted for consistently favoring moves that enhanced the protections afforded to those injured or threatened by armed conflict. Baxter authored the 1956 revision of the " U.S. Army Manual on the Law of Land Warfare " (FM27-10 ) and was a leading representative of the U.S. at the Geneva conferences that concluded the Protocols to the Geneva Conventions on the Laws of War. Baxter also, at the time of his death, was the preeminent scholar on the law of international waterways. He died of cancer one year into his term as a judge of the International Court of Justice.
Early life & academic career.
Richard Reeve Baxter was born in New York city and graduated from Brown University in 1942. After university, Baxter joined the U.S. Army and served as an enlisted man until the end of World War II. He then entered the Harvard School of Law and rejoined the U.S. Army after graduating from the law school in 1948. In 1950 the army sent Baxter (then Captain) to work for a year with Professor Sir Hersch Lauterpacht, the Whewell Professor of International Law at Cambridge University and, at the time, the world's leading international legal scholar. Lauterpacht became a patron of Baxter's and was instrumental in Baxter leaving the Army in 1954 for a teaching position at Harvard Law School. At the time of his resignation from the U.S. Army, Baxter was awarded the Legion of Merit and held the position of Chief of the International Law Branch – Office of the Judge Advocate General. Baxter was later appointed as a full professor of law and first holder of the Manley O Hudson Chair of International Law. Baxter's research at Harvard concerned the legal regime of inter oceanic canals with an emphasis on the Panama and Suez. He became the leading scholar in the area of law concerning international waterways and his advice was actively sought by the Pentagon and State Department during the Suez crisis. Baxter's research was published as the monograph, "The Law of International Waterways " and is considered the definitive work on the subject and a classic in its field. In the latter part of his twenty years of teaching at Harvard Law School, he devoted a great deal of time and effort to the writing, together with Professor Louis B. Sohn, of a study on State responsibility for the U.N. International Law Commission.
International Court of Justice.
In 1978 U.S. President Jimmy Carter informed the U.S. National Group at the Permanent Court of Arbitration that he desired former Supreme Court Justice Arthur Goldberg selected as the nominee to the International Court of Justice. However, Baxter's nomination for the 1978 election to the ICJ was universally supported in the international law community and, as a result, the US national group at the Permanent Court of Arbitration did not honor President Carter's request. The group nominated Baxter and he was subsequently elected to the Court by the U.N. General Assembly and U.N. Security Council. Before falling terminally ill, Baxter was able to take part in the case, " The U.S. Diplomatic and Consular Staff in Tehran". Several of Baxter's fellow judges commented on his well reasoned and objective analysis during deliberations of the case.
Baxter and the law of war.
Contribution to "Rules of Land Warfare".
Baxter participated in a British–United States conference in 1953 focusing on the amendment of both the British "Manual of Military Law" and the United States'"Rules of Land Warfare". Amendments needed to the British and American manuals were made necessary by the adoption of the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and the great development in the jurisprudence of the law of war which took place as a result of World War II and Korean war. In 1956, Baxter authored the complete revision to the "Rules of Land Warfare". The 1956 version guided many American military officers over the years and remains the basic text.
Impact of weapons on non-combatants.
A large part of Baxter's work addressed the need to protect non-combatant civilians from death and injury during conflicts. As a result, Baxter took a strong interest in old and new weaponry and in the ways weapons could be controlled in order to minimize injury to non-combatants. He wrote about nuclear warfare and addressed the use of poison gas during World War I.
 He also wrote extensively about the 1925 Geneva Convention that outlawed the use of gas in armed conflict and stridently urged congress to ratify the Geneva Protocol on Chemical and Biological Warfare. Baxter's writings also addressed the devastation of civilian homelands during World War II, in particular, through area bombing. 
Protocols to Geneva Conventions.
Baxter's writings on the impact of aerial bombings on non-combatants was an impetus for the U.N. General Assembly to add additional humanitarian conventions needed to protect civilians from death and injury during armed conflicts. In 1969 Baxter represented the U.S. at the conference of government experts held prior to the convening of the Geneva diplomatic conferences. Assisting Baxter was Waldemar A. Solf, chief of the international affairs division at the Office of the Judge Advocate General of the Army and the person who became Baxter's functional successor as the Department of the Army's doctrinal authority on the laws of war. These meetings resulted in two draft Protocols to the Geneva Conventions of 1949:
The Geneva Diplomatic Conferences met in four sessions between 1974 and 1977. Along with the U.S. State Dept. Legal Adviser and seven senior staff officers from the Department of Defense, Baxter participated actively in the negotiations. Although the United States did not ratify the Protocols, it has regarded important portions of them as representing customary international law binding on all nations. As a result, Air Force operations during the Gulf and Iraq Wars were carefully planned and monitored to minimize civilian losses.
Contribution to the American Society of International Law.
As a member of the American Society of International Law and later as president, Baxter had a significant impact on the propagation of interest in the field of international law. It was Baxter's suggestion to organize a student branch of the society which led to the creation of the Association of Student International Law Societies and a proliferation of student interest in international law, which was manifested in scores of new law journals and societies in law schools throughout the United States. It was also Baxter's idea for the Society to sponsor the international moot court competition which he recommended be named in honor of Philip Jessup The Phillip Jessup Moot Court Competition has grown considerably since its inception and involves students from law schools worldwide. Baxter was also one of the founders of the publication " International Legal Materials " that has been published every month since 1962 and provides a source of important treaties, judicial and arbitral decisions, national legislation, international organizations resolutions and other documents for scholar, practitioners, business and government officials.