Lactic acid bacteria

Lactobacillales are an order of gram-positive, low-GC, acid-tolerant, generally nonsporulating, nonrespiring, either rod-shaped (bacilli) or spherical (cocci) bacteria that share common metabolic and physiological characteristics. These bacteria, usually found in decomposing plants and milk products, produce lactic acid as the major metabolic end product of carbohydrate fermentation, giving them the common name lactic acid bacteria (LAB).
Production of lactic acid has linked LAB with food fermentations, as acidification inhibits the growth of spoilage agents. Proteinaceous bacteriocins are produced by several LAB strains and provide an additional hurdle for spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms. Furthermore, lactic acid and other metabolic products contribute to the organoleptic and textural profile of a food item. The industrial importance of the LAB is further evidenced by their generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status, due to their ubiquitous appearance in food and their contribution to the healthy microbiota of animal and human mucosal surfaces. The genera that comprise the LAB are at its core "Lactobacillus", "Leuconostoc", "Pediococcus", "Lactococcus", and "Streptococcus", as well as the more peripheral "Aerococcus", "Carnobacterium", "Enterococcus", "Oenococcus", "Sporolactobacillus", "Tetragenococcus", "Vagococcus", and "Weissella". All but "Sporolactobacillus" are members of the Lactobacillales order, and all are members of the Firmicutes phylum.
Although lactic acid bacteria are generally associated with the order Lactobacillales, bacteria of the genus Bifidobacterium (phylum Actinobacteria) also produce lactic acid as the major product of carbohydrate metabolism.
Characteristics.
The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are either rod-shaped (bacilli), or spherical (cocci), and are characterized by an increased tolerance to acidity (low pH range). This aspect helps LAB to outcompete other bacteria in a natural fermentation, as they can withstand the increased acidity from organic acid production (e.g., lactic acid). Laboratory media used for LAB typically include a carbohydrate source, as most species are incapable of respiration. LAB are catalase-negative. LAB are amongst the most important groups of microorganisms used in the food industry. Their relative simple metabolism has also prompted their use as microbial cell factories for the production of several commodities for the food and non-food sectors 
Metabolism.
Two main hexose fermentation pathways are used to classify LAB genera. Under conditions of excess glucose and limited oxygen, homolactic LAB catabolize one mole of glucose in the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway to yield two moles of pyruvate. Intracellular redox balance is maintained through the oxidation of NADH, concomitant with pyruvate reduction to lactic acid. This process yields two moles of ATP per mole of glucose consumed. Representative homolactic LAB genera include "Lactococcus", "Enterococcus", "Streptococcus", "Pediococcus", and group I lactobacilli 
Heterofermentative LAB use the pentose phosphate pathway, alternatively referred to as the pentose phosphoketolase pathway. One mole of glucose-6-phosphate is initially dehydrogenated to 6-phosphogluconate and subsequently decarboxylated to yield one mole of CO2. The resulting pentose-5-phosphate is cleaved into one mole glyceraldehyde phosphate (GAP) and one mole acetyl phosphate. GAP is further metabolized to lactate as in homofermentation, with the acetyl phosphate reduced to ethanol via acetyl-CoA and acetaldehyde intermediates. In theory, end products (including ATP) are produced in equimolar quantities from the catabolism of one mole of glucose. Obligate heterofermentative LAB include "Leuconostoc", "Oenococcus", "Weissella", and group III lactobacilli 
Some members of "Lactobacillus" appear also able to perform aerobic respiration, making them facultative anaerobes instead of aerotolerant ones like the rest of the order. Using oxygen helps these bacteria deal with stress better.
"Streptococcus" reclassification.
In 1985, members of the diverse genus "Streptococcus" were reclassified into "Lactococcus", "Enterococcus", "Vagococcus", and "Streptococcus" based on biochemical characteristics, as well as molecular features. Formerly, streptococci were segregated primarily based on serology, which has proven to correlate well with the current taxonomic definitions. Lactococci (formerly Lancefield group N streptococci) are used extensively as fermentation starters in dairy production, with humans estimated to consume 1018 lactococci annually. Partly due to their industrial relevance, both "L. lactis" subspecies ("L. l. lactis" and "L. l. cremoris") are widely used as generic LAB models for research. "L. lactis" ssp. "cremoris", used in the production of hard cheeses, is represented by the laboratory strains LM0230 and MG1363. In similar manner, "L. lactis" ssp. "lactis" is employed in soft cheese fermentations, with the workhorse strain IL1403 ubiquitous in LAB research laboratories. In 2001, Bolotin "et al." sequenced the genome of IL1403, which coincided with a significant shift of resources to understanding LAB genomics and related applications.
Phylogeny.
The currently accepted taxonomy is based on the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature 
and the phylogeny is based on 16S rRNA-based LTP release 106 by 'The All-Species Living Tree' Project.
Lactobacillales part 2 (continued).
Notes:<br>
♠ Strains found at the National Center for Biotechnology Information, but not listed in the List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature
Bacteriophages.
A broad number of food products, commodity chemicals, and biotechnology products are manufactured industrially by large-scale bacterial fermentation of various organic substrates. Because enormous amounts of bacteria are being cultivated each day in large fermentation vats, the risk that bacteriophage contamination rapidly brings fermentations to a halt and cause economical setbacks is a serious threat in these industries. The relationship between bacteriophages and their bacterial hosts is very important in the context of the food fermentation industry. Sources of phage contamination, measures to control their propagation and dissemination, and biotechnological defense strategies developed to restrain phages are of interest. The dairy fermentation industry has openly acknowledged the problem of phage contamination, and has been working with academia and starter culture companies to develop defence strategies and systems to curtail the propagation and evolution of phages for decades.
Bacteriophage–host interaction.
The first contact between an infecting phage and its bacterial host is the attachment of the phage to the host cell. This attachment is mediated by the phage's receptor binding protein (RBP), which recognizes and binds to a receptor on the bacterial surface. RBPs are also referred to as host-specificity protein, host determinant, and antireceptor. For simplicity, the RBP term will be used here. A variety of molecules have been suggested to act as host receptors for bacteriophages infecting LAB; among those are polysaccharides and (lipo)teichoic acids, as well as a single-membrane protein. A number of RBPs of LAB phages have been identified by the generation of hybrid phages with altered host ranges. These studies, however, also found additional phage proteins to be important for successful phage infection. Analysis of the crystal structure of several RBPs indicates that these proteins share a common tertiary folding, and support previous indications of the saccharide nature of the host receptor. Gram-positive LAB have a thick peptidoglycan layer, which must be traversed to inject the phage genome into the bacterial cytoplasm. Peptidoglycan-degrading enzymes are expected to facilitate this penetration, and such enzymes have been found as structural elements of a number of LAB phages.
Uses.
Probiotics.
Probiotics are products aimed at delivering living, potentially beneficial, bacterial cells to the gut ecosystem of humans and other animals, whereas prebiotics are indigestible carbohydrates delivered in food to the large bowel to provide fermentable substrates for selected bacteria. Most strains used as probiotics belong to the genus "Lactobacillus". (Other probiotic strains used belong to the genus "Bifidobacterium").
Probiotics have been evaluated in research studies in animals and humans with respect to antibiotic-associated diarrhea, travellers' diarrhea, pediatric diarrhea, inflammatory bowel disease, and irritable bowel syndrome. In the future, probiotics possibly will be used for different gastrointestinal diseases, vaginosis, or as delivery systems for vaccines, immunoglobulins, and other therapies.
Foods.
The quest to find food ingredients with valuable bioactive properties has encouraged interest in exopolysaccharides from LAB. Functional food products that offer health and sensory benefits beyond their nutritional composition are becoming progressively more important to the food industry. The sensory benefits of exopolysaccharides are well established, and there is evidence for the health properties that are attributable to exopolysaccharides from LAB. However, there is a wide variation in molecular structures of exopolysaccharides and the complexity of the mechanisms by which physical changes in foods and bioactive effects are elicited.
In a study for postharvest food product safety conducted with 119 LAB isolated from the rhizosphere of olive trees and desert truffles, mostly within the genera of "Enterococcus" and "Weissella", researchers found strong antibacterial activity against "Stenotrophomonas maltophilia", "Pantoea agglomerans", "Pseudomonas savastanoi", "Staphylococcus aureus" and "Listeria monocytogenes", and anti-fungal activity against "Botrytis cinerea", "Penicillium expansum", "Verticillium dahliae" and "Aspergillus niger".
Fertilizer.
Researchers have studied the impact of lactic acid bacteria on indeoleacetic acid production, phosphate solubilization, and nitrogen fixation on citrus. While most of the bacterial isolates, were able to produce IAA, phosphate-solubilization was limited to only one of the eight LAB isolates.
Fermentation.
Lactic acid bacteria are used in the food industry for a variety of reasons such as the production of cheese and yogurt products. This process has been going on for thousands of years by human ancestors. But, some of the beverages we enjoy today are produced by using lactic acid bacteria. Popular drinks such as kombucha have known to have traces of "lactobacillus" and "pediococcus" once the drink is made. Even the beer and wine-making process utilizes certain lactic acid bacteria mostly "lactobacillus". The interesting relationship between lactic acid bacteria and yeast can be observed in the wine-making process. The LAB is used to start the wine-making process by starting the malolactic fermentation. After the malolactic fermentation, yeast cells are used to start the alcoholic fermentation process in grapes. The malolactic fermentation mechanism is mainly transformation of L-malic acid (dicarboxylic acid) to an lactic acid (monocarboxylic acid). This change occurs due to the presence of malolactic and malic enzymes. All malic acid are degraded and this increase the pH levels which changes the taste of the wine. Not only do they start the process but they are responsible for the different aromas produced in wine by the nutrients presence and the quality of the grapes. Also, the presence of different strains can change the desirability of aromas' presence. The different availability of enzymes that contribute to the vast spectrum of aromas in wine are associated with glycosidases, "β"-glucosidases, esterases, phenolic acid decarboxylases and citrate lyases. By using molecular biology, researchers can help pick out different desirable strains that help improve the quality of wine and help with the removable of the undesirable strains. The same can be said about brewing beer as well which uses yeast with some breweries using lactic acid bacteria to change the taste of their beer.
Lactic acid bacteria and dental plaque.
LAB are able to synthesize levans from sucrose, and dextrans from glucose. Glucans, such as dextran, enable bacteria to adhere to the surface of teeth, which in turn can cause tooth decay through the formation of dental plaque and production of lactic acid. While the primary bacteria responsible for tooth decay is "Streptococcus mutans", LAB are among the most common oral bacteria which cause dental cavities.