Man, Play and Games

Man, Play and Games () is the influential 1961 book by the French sociologist Roger Caillois, (French Les jeux et les hommes, 1958) on the sociology of play and games or, in Caillois' terms, sociology derived from play. Caillois interprets many social structures as elaborate forms of games and much behaviour as a form of play.
Caillois builds critically on the theories of Johan Huizinga, adding a more comprehensive review of play forms. Caillois disputes Huizinga's emphasis on competition in play. He also notes the considerable difficulty in defining play, concluding that play is best described by six core characteristics:
Caillois argues that we can understand the complexity of games by referring to four play forms and two types of play ("ludus" and "paidia"): 
Games and play combine these elements in various ways.
Examples:
Caillois also places forms of play on a continuum from "ludus", structured activities with explicit rules (games), to "paidia", unstructured and spontaneous activities (playfulness), although in human affairs the tendency is always to turn paidia into ludus, and that established rules are also subject to the pressures of paidia. It is this process of rule-forming and re-forming that may be used to account for the apparent instability of cultures.
Caillois also emphasizes that "paidia" and "alea" cannot coexist, as games of chance are inherently games of restraint and waiting for an external event. Likewise, "ludus" and "ilinx" are incompatible, as there are no structured rules in the state of disorientation. Any rules applied are solely to put a brake on the "ilinx" so as not to turn it into panic.
Like Huizinga, Caillois sees a tendency for a corruption of the values of play in modern society as well as for play to be institutionalised in the structures of society. For example agon is seen as a cultural form in sports, in an institutional form as economic competition and as a corruption in violence and trickery; Alea is seen as a cultural form in lotteries and casinos, as an institutional form in the stock market and as a corruption in superstition and astrology; mimicry is seen as cultural form in carnivals and theatre, as institutional form in uniforms and ceremonies and as corruption in forms of alienation; and ilinx is seen as cultural form in climbing and skiing, as institutional form in professionals requiring control of vertigo and as corruption in drugs and alcoholism.