Sound intensity

Sound intensity, also known as acoustic intensity, is defined as the power carried by sound waves per unit area in a direction perpendicular to that area. The SI unit of intensity, which includes sound intensity, is the watt per square meter (W/m2). One application is the noise measurement of sound intensity in the air at a listener's location as a sound energy quantity.
Sound intensity is not the same physical quantity as sound pressure. Human hearing is sensitive to sound pressure which is related to sound intensity. In consumer audio electronics, the level differences are called "intensity" differences, but sound intensity is a specifically defined quantity and cannot be sensed by a simple microphone.
Sound intensity level is a logarithmic expression of sound intensity relative to a reference intensity.
Mathematical definition.
Sound intensity, denoted I, is defined by
where
Both I and v are vectors, which means that both have a "direction" as well as a magnitude. The direction of sound intensity is the average direction in which energy is flowing.
The average sound intensity during time "T" is given by
Also,
Where,
Inverse-square law.
For a "spherical" sound wave, the intensity in the radial direction as a function of distance "r" from the centre of the sphere is given by
where
Thus sound intensity decreases as 1/"r"2 from the centre of the sphere:
This relationship is an "inverse-square law".
Sound intensity level.
Sound intensity level (SIL) or acoustic intensity level is the level (a logarithmic quantity) of the intensity of a sound relative to a reference value.
It is denoted "L""I", expressed in nepers, bels, or decibels, and defined by
where
The commonly used reference sound intensity in air is
being approximately the lowest sound intensity hearable by an undamaged human ear under room conditions.
The proper notations for sound intensity level using this reference are or , but the notations , , dBSIL, or dBSIL are very common, even if they are not accepted by the SI.
The reference sound intensity "I"0 is defined such that a progressive plane wave has the same value of sound intensity level (SIL) and sound pressure level (SPL), since
The equality of SIL and SPL requires that
where is the reference sound pressure.
For a "progressive" spherical wave,
where "z"0 is the characteristic specific acoustic impedance. Thus,
In air at ambient temperature, , hence the reference value .
In an anechoic chamber which approximates a free field (no reflection) with a single source, measurements in the far field in SPL can be considered to be equal to measurements in SIL. This fact is exploited to measure sound power in anechoic conditions.
Measurement.
Sound intensity is defined as the time averaged product of sound pressure and acoustic particle velocity. Both quantities can be directly measured by using a sound intensity "p-u" probe comprising a microphone and a particle velocity sensor, or estimated indirectly by using a "p-p" probe that approximates the particle velocity by integrating the pressure gradient between two closely spaced microphones.
Pressure-based measurement methods are widely used in anechoic conditions for noise quantification purposes. The bias error introduced by a "p-p" probe can be approximated by
formula_16
where formula_17is the “true” intensity (unaffected by calibration errors), formula_18 is the biased estimate obtained using a "p-p" probe, formula_19is the root-mean-squared value of the sound pressure, formula_20 is the wave number, formula_6 is the density of air, formula_7 is the speed of sound and formula_23 is the spacing between the two microphones. This expression shows that phase calibration errors are inversely proportional to frequency and microphone spacing and directly proportional to the ratio of the mean square sound pressure to the sound intensity. If the pressure-to-intensity ratio is large then even a small phase mismatch will lead to significant bias errors. In practice, sound intensity measurements cannot be performed accurately when the pressure-intensity index is high, which limits the use of "p-p" intensity probes in environments with high levels of background noise or reflections.
On the other hand, the bias error introduced by a "p-u" probe can be approximated by
formula_24
where formula_25 is the biased estimate obtained using a "p-u" probe, formula_26 and formula_27 are the Fourier transform of sound pressure and particle velocity, formula_28is the reactive intensity and formula_29is the "p-u" phase mismatch introduced by calibration errors. Therefore, the phase calibration is critical when measurements are carried out under near field conditions, but not so relevant if the measurements are performed out in the far field. The “reactivity” (the ratio of the reactive to the active intensity) indicates whether this source of error is of concern or not. Compared to pressure-based probes, "p-u" intensity probes are unaffected by the pressure-to-intensity index, enabling the estimation of propagating acoustic energy in unfavorable testing environments provided that the distance to the sound source is sufficient.