Gyrocompass

A gyrocompass is a type of non-magnetic compass which is based on a fast-spinning disc and the rotation of the Earth (or another planetary body if used elsewhere in the universe) to find geographical direction automatically. The use of a gyrocompass is one of the seven fundamental ways to determine the heading of a vehicle. Although one important component of a gyrocompass is a gyroscope, these are not the same devices; a gyrocompass is built to use the effect of gyroscopic precession, which is a distinctive aspect of the general gyroscopic effect. Gyrocompasses are widely used for navigation on ships, because they have two significant advantages over magnetic compasses:
Aircraft commonly use gyroscopic instruments (but not a gyrocompass) for navigation and attitude monitoring; for details, see Flight instruments and Gyroscopic autopilot.
Operation.
A gyroscope, not to be confused with gyrocompass, is a spinning wheel mounted on a set of gimbals so that its axis is free to orient itself in any way. When it is spun up to speed with its axis pointing in some direction, due to the law of conservation of angular momentum, such a wheel will normally maintain its original orientation to a fixed point in outer space (not to a fixed point on Earth). Since our planet rotates, it appears to a stationary observer on Earth that a gyroscope's axis is completing a full rotation once every 24 hours. Such a rotating gyroscope is used for navigation in some cases, for example on aircraft, where it is known as heading indicator or directional gyro, but cannot ordinarily be used for long-term marine navigation. The crucial additional ingredient needed to turn a gyroscope into a gyrocompass, so it would automatically position to true north, is some mechanism that results in an application of torque whenever the compass's axis is not pointing north.
One method uses friction to apply the needed torque: the gyroscope in a gyrocompass is not completely free to reorient itself; if for instance a device connected to the axis is immersed in a viscous fluid, then that fluid will resist reorientation of the axis. This friction force caused by the fluid results in a torque acting on the axis, causing the axis to turn in a direction orthogonal to the torque (that is, to precess) along a line of longitude. Once the axis points toward the celestial pole, it will appear to be stationary and won't experience any more frictional forces. This is because true north (or true south) is the only direction for which the gyroscope can remain on the surface of the earth and not be required to change. This axis orientation is considered to be a point of minimum potential energy.
Another, more practical, method is to use weights to force the axis of the compass to remain horizontal (perpendicular to the direction of the center of the Earth), but otherwise allow it to rotate freely within the horizontal plane. In this case, gravity will apply a torque forcing the compass's axis toward true north. Because the weights will confine the compass's axis to be horizontal with respect to the Earth's surface, the axis can never align with the Earth's axis (except on the Equator) and must realign itself as the Earth rotates. But with respect to the Earth's surface, the compass will appear to be stationary and pointing along the Earth's surface toward the true North Pole.
Since the gyrocompass's north-seeking function depends on the rotation around the axis of the Earth that causes torque-induced gyroscopic precession, it will not orient itself correctly to true north if it is moved very fast in an east to west direction, thus negating the Earth's rotation. However, aircraft commonly use heading indicators or directional gyros, which are not gyrocompasses and do not align themselves to north via precession, but are periodically aligned manually to magnetic north.
Mathematical model.
We consider a gyrocompass as a gyroscope which is free to rotate about one of its symmetry axes, also the whole rotating gyroscope is free to rotate on the horizontal plane about the local vertical. Therefore there are two independent local rotations. In addition to these rotations we consider the rotation of the Earth about its north-south (NS) axis, and we model the planet as a perfect sphere. We neglect friction and also the rotation of the Earth about the Sun.
In this case a non-rotating observer located at the center of the Earth can be approximated as being an inertial frame. We establish cartesian coordinates formula_1 for such an observer (whom we name as 1-O), and the barycenter of the gyroscope is located at a distance formula_2 from the center of the Earth.
First time-dependent rotation.
Consider another (non-inertial) observer (the 2-O) located at the center of the Earth but rotating about the NS-axis by formula_3 We establish coordinates attached to this observer as
so that the unit formula_5 versor formula_6 is mapped to the point formula_7. For the 2-O neither the Earth nor the barycenter of the gyroscope is moving. The rotation of 2-O relative to 1-O is performed with angular velocity formula_8. We suppose that the formula_9 axis denotes points with zero longitude (the prime, or Greenwich, meridian).
Second and third fixed rotations.
We now rotate about the formula_10 axis, so that the formula_11-axis has the longitude of the barycenter. In this case we have
With the next rotation (about the axis formula_13 of an angle formula_14, the co-latitude) we bring the formula_15 axis along the local zenith (formula_16-axis) of the barycenter. This can be achieved by the following orthogonal matrix (with unit determinant)
so that the formula_18 versor formula_19 is mapped to the point formula_20
Constant translation.
We now choose another coordinate basis whose origin is located at the barycenter of the gyroscope. This can be performed by the following translation along the zenith axis
so that the origin of the new system, formula_22 is located at the point formula_23 and formula_2 is the radius of the Earth. Now the formula_25-axis points towards the south direction.
Fourth time-dependent rotation.
Now we rotate about the zenith formula_26-axis so that the new coordinate system is attached to the structure of the gyroscope, so that for an observer at rest in this coordinate system, the gyrocompass is only rotating about its own axis of symmetry. In this case we find
The axis of symmetry of the gyrocompass is now along the formula_28-axis.
Last time-dependent rotation.
The last rotation is a rotation on the axis of symmetry of the gyroscope as in
Dynamics of the system.
Since the height of the gyroscope's barycenter does not change (and the origin of the coordinate system is located at this same point), its gravitational potential energy is constant. Therefore its Lagrangian formula_30 corresponds to its kinetic energy formula_31 only. We have
where formula_33 is the mass of the gyroscope, and
is the squared inertial speed of the origin of the coordinates of the final coordinate system (i.e. the center of mass). This constant term does not affect the dynamics of the gyroscope and it can be neglected. On the other hand, the tensor of inertia is given by
and
Therefore we find
The Lagrangian can be rewritten as
where
is the part of the Lagrangian responsible for the dynamics of the system. Then, since formula_40, we find
Since the angular momentum formula_42 of the gyrocompass is given by formula_43 we see that the constant formula_44 is the component of the angular momentum about the axis of symmetry. Furthermore, we find the equation of motion for the variable formula_45 as
or
Particular case: the poles.
At the poles we find formula_48 and the equations of motion become
This simple solution implies that the gyroscope is uniformly rotating with constant angular velocity in both the vertical and symmetrical axis.
The general and physically relevant case.
Let us suppose now that formula_50 and that formula_51, that is the axis of the gyroscope is approximately along the north-south line, and let us find the parameter space (if it exists) for which the system admits stable small oscillations about this same line. If this situation occurs, the gyroscope will always be approximately aligned along the north-south line, giving direction. In this case we find
Consider the case that
and, further, we allow for fast gyro-rotations, that is
Therefore, for fast spinning rotations, formula_55 implies formula_56 In this case, the equations of motion further simplify to
Therefore we find small oscillations about the north-south line, as formula_58, where the angular velocity of this harmonic motion of the axis of symmetry of the gyrocompass about the north-south line is given by
which corresponds to a period for the oscillations given by
Therefore formula_61 is proportional to the geometric mean of the Earth and spinning angular velocities. In order to have small oscillations we have required formula_62, so that the North is located along the right-hand-rule direction of the spinning axis, that is along the negative direction of the formula_63-axis, the axis of symmetry. As a side result, on measuring formula_64 (and knowing formula_65), one can deduce the local co-latitude formula_66
History.
The first, not yet practical, form of gyrocompass was patented in 1885 by Marinus Gerardus van den Bos. A usable gyrocompass was invented in 1906 in Germany by Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe, and after successful tests in 1908 became widely used in the German Imperial Navy. Anschütz-Kaempfe founded the company Anschütz & Co. in Kiel, to mass produce gyrocompasses; the company is today Raytheon Anschütz GmbH. The gyrocompass was an important invention for nautical navigation because it allowed accurate determination of a vessel’s location at all times regardless of the vessel’s motion, the weather and the amount of steel used in the construction of the ship.
In the United States, Elmer Ambrose Sperry produced a workable gyrocompass system (1908: patent #1,242,065), and founded the Sperry Gyroscope Company. The unit was adopted by the U.S. Navy (1911), and played a major role in World War I. The Navy also began using Sperry's "Metal Mike": the first gyroscope-guided autopilot steering system. In the following decades, these and other Sperry devices were adopted by steamships such as the RMS Queen Mary, airplanes, and the warships of World War II. After his death in 1930, the Navy named the USS "Sperry" after him.
Meanwhile, in 1913, C. Plath (a Hamburg, Germany-based manufacturer of navigational equipment including sextants and magnetic compasses) developed the first gyrocompass to be installed on a commercial vessel. C. Plath sold many gyrocompasses to the Weems’ School for Navigation in Annapolis, MD, and soon the founders of each organization formed an alliance and became Weems & Plath.
Before the success of the gyrocompass, several attempts had been made in Europe to use a gyroscope instead. By 1880, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) tried to propose a gyrostat (tope) to the British Navy. In 1889, Arthur Krebs adapted an electric motor to the Dumoulin-Froment marine gyroscope, for the French Navy. That gave the "Gymnote" submarine the ability to keep a straight line while underwater for several hours, and it allowed her to force a naval block in 1890.
In 1923 Max Schuler published his paper containing his observation that if a gyrocompass possessed Schuler tuning such that it had an oscillation period of 84.4 minutes (which is the orbital period of a notional satellite orbiting around the Earth at sea level), then it could be rendered insensitive to lateral motion and maintain directional stability.
Errors.
A gyrocompass is subject to certain errors. These include steaming error, where rapid changes in course, speed and latitude cause deviation before the gyro can adjust itself. On most modern ships the GPS or other navigational aids feed data to the gyrocompass allowing a small computer to apply a correction.
Alternatively a design based on a strapdown architecture (including a triad of fibre optic gyroscopes, ring laser gyroscopes or hemispherical resonator gyroscopes and a triad of accelerometers) will eliminate these errors, as they do not depend upon mechanical parts to determinate rate of rotation.