Conformal map

In mathematics, a conformal map is a function that locally preserves angles, but not necessarily lengths. 
More formally, let formula_1 and formula_2 be open subsets of formula_3. A function formula_4 is called conformal (or angle-preserving) at a point formula_5 if it preserves angles between directed curves through formula_6, as well as preserving orientation. Conformal maps preserve both angles and the shapes of infinitesimally small figures, but not necessarily their size or curvature.
The conformal property may be described in terms of the Jacobian derivative matrix of a coordinate transformation. The transformation is conformal whenever the Jacobian at each point is a positive scalar times a rotation matrix (orthogonal with determinant one). Some authors define conformality to include orientation-reversing mappings whose Jacobians can be written as any scalar times any orthogonal matrix.
For mappings in two dimensions, the (orientation-preserving) conformal mappings are precisely the locally invertible complex analytic functions. In three and higher dimensions, Liouville's theorem sharply limits the conformal mappings to a few types.
The notion of conformality generalizes in a natural way to maps between Riemannian or semi-Riemannian manifolds.
Conformal maps in two dimensions.
If formula_1 is an open subset of the complex plane formula_8, then a function formula_9 is conformal if and only if it is holomorphic and its derivative is everywhere non-zero on formula_1. If formula_11 is antiholomorphic (conjugate to a holomorphic function), it preserves angles but reverses their orientation.
In the literature, there is another definition of conformal: a mapping formula_11 which is one-to-one and holomorphic on an open set in the plane. The open mapping theorem forces the inverse function (defined on the image of formula_11) to be holomorphic. Thus, under this definition, a map is conformal if and only if it is biholomorphic. The two definitions for conformal maps are not equivalent. Being one-to-one and holomorphic implies having a non-zero derivative. However, the exponential function is a holomorphic function with a nonzero derivative, but is not one-to-one since it is periodic.
The Riemann mapping theorem, one of the profound results of complex analysis, states that any non-empty open simply connected proper subset of formula_8 admits a bijective conformal map to the open unit disk in formula_8.
Global conformal maps on the Riemann sphere.
A map of the Riemann sphere onto itself is conformal if and only if it is a Möbius transformation. 
The complex conjugate of a Möbius transformation preserves angles, but reverses the orientation. For example, circle inversions.
Conformal maps in three or more dimensions.
Riemannian geometry.
In Riemannian geometry, two Riemannian metrics formula_16 and formula_17 on a smooth manifold formula_18 are called conformally equivalent if formula_19 for some positive function formula_20 on formula_18. The function formula_20 is called the conformal factor.
A diffeomorphism between two Riemannian manifolds is called a conformal map if the pulled back metric is conformally equivalent to the original one. For example, stereographic projection of a sphere onto the plane augmented with a point at infinity is a conformal map.
One can also define a conformal structure on a smooth manifold, as a class of conformally equivalent Riemannian metrics.
Euclidean space.
A classical theorem of Joseph Liouville shows that there are much fewer conformal maps in higher dimensions than in two dimensions. Any conformal map on a portion of Euclidean space of dimension three or greater can be composed from three types of transformations: a homothety, an isometry, and a special conformal transformation.
Applications.
Cartography.
In cartography, several named map projections, including the Mercator projection and the stereographic projection are conformal. They are specially useful for use in marine navigation because of its unique property of representing any course of constant bearing as a straight segment. Such a course, known as a rhumb (or, mathematically, a loxodrome) is preferred in marine navigation because ships can sail in a constant compass direction.
Physics and engineering.
Conformal mappings are invaluable for solving problems in engineering and physics that can be expressed in terms of functions of a complex variable yet exhibit inconvenient geometries. By choosing an appropriate mapping, the analyst can transform the inconvenient geometry into a much more convenient one. For example, one may wish to calculate the electric field, formula_23, arising from a point charge located near the corner of two conducting planes separated by a certain angle (where formula_24 is the complex coordinate of a point in 2-space). This problem "per se" is quite clumsy to solve in closed form. However, by employing a very simple conformal mapping, the inconvenient angle is mapped to one of precisely formula_25 radians, meaning that the corner of two planes is transformed to a straight line. In this new domain, the problem (that of calculating the electric field impressed by a point charge located near a conducting wall) is quite easy to solve. The solution is obtained in this domain, formula_26, and then mapped back to the original domain by noting that formula_27 was obtained as a function ("viz"., the composition of formula_28 and formula_27) of formula_24, whence formula_26 can be viewed as formula_32, which is a function of formula_24, the original coordinate basis. Note that this application is not a contradiction to the fact that conformal mappings preserve angles, they do so only for points in the interior of their domain, and not at the boundary. Another example is the application of conformal mapping technique for solving the boundary value problem of liquid sloshing in tanks.
If a function is harmonic (that is, it satisfies Laplace's equation formula_34) over a plane domain (which is two-dimensional), and is transformed via a conformal map to another plane domain, the transformation is also harmonic. For this reason, any function which is defined by a potential can be transformed by a conformal map and still remain governed by a potential. Examples in physics of equations defined by a potential include the electromagnetic field, the gravitational field, and, in fluid dynamics, potential flow, which is an approximation to fluid flow assuming constant density, zero viscosity, and irrotational flow. One example of a fluid dynamic application of a conformal map is the Joukowsky transform. 
Conformal maps are also valuable in solving nonlinear partial differential equations in some specific geometries. Such analytic solutions provide a useful check on the accuracy of numerical simulations of the governing equation. For example, in the case of very viscous free-surface flow around a semi-infinite wall, the domain can be mapped to a half-plane in which the solution is one-dimensional and straightforward to calculate. 
For discrete systems, Noury and Yang presented a way to convert discrete systems root locus into continuous root locus through a well-know conformal mapping in geometry (aka inversion mapping).
Maxwell's equations.
A large group of conformal maps for relating solutions of Maxwell's equations was identified by Ebenezer Cunningham (1908) and Harry Bateman (1910). Their training at Cambridge University had given them facility with the method of image charges and associated methods of images for spheres and inversion. As recounted by Andrew Warwick (2003) "Masters of Theory":
Warwick highlights this "new theorem of relativity" as a Cambridge response to Einstein, and as founded on exercises using the method of inversion, such as found in James Hopwood Jeans textbook "Mathematical Theory of Electricity and Magnetism".
General relativity.
In general relativity, conformal maps are the simplest and thus most common type of causal transformations. Physically, these describe different universes in which all the same events and interactions are still (causally) possible, but a new additional force is necessary to effect this (that is, replication of all the same trajectories would necessitate departures from geodesic motion because the metric tensor is different). It is often used to try to make models amenable to extension beyond curvature singularities, for example to permit description of the universe even before the Big Bang.