Formula One engines

Since its inception in 1947, Formula One has used a variety of engine regulations. "Formulae" limiting engine capacity had been used in Grand Prix racing on a regular basis since after World War I. The engine formulae are divided according to era.
Operation.
Formula One currently uses 1.6 litre four-stroke turbocharged 90 degree V6 double-overhead camshaft (DOHC) reciprocating engines. They were introduced in 2014 and have been developed over the past seasons.
The power a Formula One engine produces is generated by operating at a very high rotational speed, up to 15,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). This contrasts with road car engines of a similar size which typically operate at less than 6,000 rpm. The basic configuration of a naturally aspirated Formula One engine had not been greatly modified since the 1967 Cosworth DFV and the mean effective pressure had stayed at around 14 bar MEP. Until the mid-1980s Formula One engines were limited to around 12,000 rpm due to the traditional metal valve springs used to close the valves. The speed required to operate the engine valves at a higher rpm called for ever stiffer springs, which increased the power loss to drive the camshaft and the valves to the point where the loss nearly offset the power gain through the increase in rpm. They were replaced by pneumatic valve springs introduced by Renault in 1986, which inherently have a rising rate (progressive rate) that allowed them to have extremely high spring rate at larger valve strokes without much increasing the driving power requirements at smaller strokes, thus lowering the overall power loss. Since the 1990s, all Formula One engine manufacturers used pneumatic valve springs with the pressurised air allowing engines to reach speeds of over 20,000 rpm.
Short-stroke engine.
Formula One cars use short-stroke engines. To operate at high engine speeds, the stroke must be relatively short to prevent catastrophic failure, usually from the connecting rod, which is under very large stresses at these speeds. Having a short-stroke means a relatively large bore is required to reach a 1.6-litre displacement. This results in a less efficient combustion stroke, especially at lower rpm.
In addition to the use of pneumatic valve springs a Formula One engine's high rpm output has been made possible due to advances in metallurgy and design, allowing lighter pistons and connecting rods to withstand the accelerations necessary to attain such high speeds. Improved design also allows narrower connecting rod ends and so narrower main bearings. This permits higher rpm with less bearing-damaging heat build-up. For each stroke, the piston goes from a virtual stop to almost twice the mean speed (approximately 40 m/s), then back to zero. This occurs once for each of the four strokes in the cycle: one Intake (down), one Compression (up), one Power (ignition-down), one Exhaust (up). Maximum piston acceleration occurs at top dead center and is in the region of 95,000 m/s2, about 10,000 times standard gravity (10,000 "g").
History.
Formula One engines have come through a variety of regulations, manufacturers and configurations through the years. 
1947–1953.
This era used pre-war voiturette engine regulations, with 4.5 L atmospheric and 1.5 L supercharged engines. The Indianapolis 500 (which was a round of the World Drivers' Championship from 1950 onwards) used pre-war Grand Prix regulations, with 4.5 L atmospheric and 3.0 L supercharged engines. The power range was up to , though the BRM Type 15 of 1953 reportedly achieved with a 1.5 L supercharged engine.
In 1952 and 1953, the World Drivers' Championship was run to Formula 2 regulations, but the existing Formula One regulations remained in force and a number of Formula One races were still held in those years.
1954–1960.
Naturally-aspirated engine size was reduced to 2.5 L and supercharged cars were limited to 750 cc. No constructor built a supercharged engine for the World Championship. The Indianapolis 500 continued to use old pre-war regulations. The power range was up to .
1961–1965.
Introduced in 1961 amidst some criticism, the new reduced engine 1.5 L formula took control of F1 just as every team and manufacturer switched from front to mid-engined cars. Although these were initially underpowered, five years later average power had increased by nearly 50% and lap times were better than in 1960. The old 2.5 L formula had been retained for International Formula racing, but this didn't achieve much success until the introduction of the Tasman Series in Australia and New Zealand during the winter season, leaving the 1.5 L cars as the fastest single seaters in Europe during this time. The power range was between and .
1966–1986.
In 1966, with sports cars capable of outrunning Formula 1 car thanks to much larger and more powerful engines, the FIA increased engine capacity to 3.0 L atmospheric and 1.5 L compressed engines. Although a few manufacturers had been clamouring for bigger engines, the transition wasn't smooth and 1966 was a transitional year, with 2.0 L versions of the BRM and Coventry-Climax V-8 engines being used by several entrants. The appearance of the standard-produced Cosworth "DFV" in 1967 made it possible for small manufacturers to join the series with a chassis designed in-house. Compression devices were allowed for the first time since 1960, but it wasn't until 1977 that a company actually had the finance and interest of building one, when Renault debuted their new Gordini V-6 Turbo at the British Grand Prix at Silverstone that year. In 1980 Renault proved that turbocharging was the way to go in order to stay competitive in Formula One (particularly at high-altitude circuits like Kyalami in South Africa and Interlagos in Brazil); this engine had a considerable power advantage against the Ford-Cosworth "DFV", Ferrari and Alfa Romeo naturally aspirated engines. Following this, Ferrari introduced their all-new turbocharged engine in 1981. Following these developments, Brabham owner Bernie Ecclestone managed to get BMW to make the team turbocharged inline-4 engines from 1982 onwards. And in 1983, Alfa Romeo made a turbocharged V-8 engine, and in the same year and following years, Honda, Porsche (badged as TAG), Ford-Cosworth and other smaller companies made turbocharged engines, mostly twin-turbocharged V-6s. The massively-powerful "BMW M12/13" inline-four turbocharged engine, used to power the highly-successful Brabham BT52 in , which won Nelson Piquet the "Drivers' Championship" that year, produced around at over 5 bar of boost in qualifying trim, but was detuned to produce between in race-spec. By the midpoint of 1985, every competing team had a turbocharged engine in their car. By 1986, power figures were reaching unprecedented levels, with all engines reaching over during qualifying with unrestricted turbo boost pressures; This was especially seen with the BMW engines of Benetton's cars, reaching around 1,400 hp (1,040 kW) at a 5.5 bar boost pressure during qualifying. However, these engines & gearboxes were very unreliable because of the engine's immense power, and would only last about four laps. For the race, the turbocharger's boost was restricted to ensure engine reliability; But, the engines still produced during the race. The power range from 1966 to 1986 was between to , turbos to in race trim, and in qualifying, up to . Following their experiences at Indianapolis, in 1971 Lotus made a few unsuccessful experiments with a Pratt & Whitney turbine fitted to chassis which also had four-wheel-drive.
1987–1988.
Following the turbo domination, forced induction was allowed for two seasons before its eventual ban. The FIA regulations limited boost pressure, to 4 bar in qualifying in 1987 for 1.5 L turbo; and allowed a bigger 3.5 L formula. These seasons were still dominated by turbocharged engines, the Honda "RA167E" V6 supplying Nelson Piquet winning the 1987 Formula One season on a Williams also winning the constructors championship, followed by TAG-Porsche P01 V6 in McLaren then Honda again with the previous "RA166E" for Lotus then Ferrari's own "033D" V6.
The rest of the grid was powered by the Ford "GBA" V6 turbo in Benetton, with the only naturally-aspirated engine, the DFV-derived Ford-Cosworth "DFZ" 3.5 L V8 outputting in Tyrrell, Lola, AGS, March and Coloni. The massively-powerful "BMW M12/13" inline-four found in the Brabham BT55 tilted almost horizontally, and in upright position under the Megatron brand in Arrows and Ligier, producing at 3.8 bar in race in race trim, and an incredible at 5.5 bar of boost in qualifying-spec. Zakspeed was building its own turbo inline-four, Alfa Romeo was to power the Ligiers with an inline-four but the deal fell through after initial testing had been carried out. Alfa was still represented by its old "890T" V8 used by Osella, and Minardi was powered by a Motori Moderni V6.
The 1988 Formula One season was again dominated by turbocharged engines limited to 2.5 bar and Honda with its "RA168E" turbo V6 producing at 12,500 rpm in qualifying, this time with McLaren drivers Ayrton Senna and Alain Prost winning all the grands prix except one won by Ferrari with its "033E" V6 with about at 12,800 rpm in qualifying. Just behind, Ford introduced its DFR 3.5 L V8 producing at 11,000 rpm for Benetton, and the 640 hp (477 kW) Megatron-BMW "M12/13" was still powering Arrows ahead of the Lotus-Honda. Judd introduced its "CV" 3.5 L V8 for March, Williams and Ligier, and the rest of the grid was mainly using previous year's Ford Cosworth "DFZ" except Zakspeed with their own 640 hp (477 kW) engine and the Alfa-Romeo V8 turbo for Osella.
1989–1994.
Turbochargers were banned from the 1989 Formula One season, leaving only a naturally aspirated 3.5 L formula. Honda was still dominant with their "RA109E" 72° V10 giving @ 13,500 rpm on McLaren cars, enabling Prost to win the championship in front of his teammate Senna. Behind were the Renault "RS01" powered Williams, a 67° V10 giving @ 13,300 rpm. Ferrari with its "035/5" 65° V12 giving at 13,000 rpm. Behind, the grid was powered mainly by Ford Cosworth "DFR" V8 giving @ 10,750 rpm except for a few Judd "CV" V8 in Lotus, Brabham and EuroBrun cars, and two oddballs: the Lamborghini "3512" 80° V12 powering Lola, and the Yamaha "OX88" 75° V8 in Zakspeed cars. Ford started to try its new design, the 75° V8 "HBA1" with Benetton.
The 1990 Formula One season was again dominated by Honda in McLarens with the @ 13,500 rpm "RA100E" powering Ayrton Senna and Gerhard Berger ahead of the @ 12,750 rpm Ferrari "Tipo 036" of Alain Prost and Nigel Mansell. Behind them the Ford "HBA4" for Benetton and Renault "RS2" for Williams with @ 12,800 rpm were leading the pack powered by Ford "DFR" and Judd "CV" engines. The exceptions were the Lamborghini "3512" in Lola and Lotus, and the new Judd "EV" 76° V8 giving @ 12,500 rpm in Leyton House and Brabham cars. The two new contenders were the Life which built for themselves an "F35" W12 with three four cylinders banks @ 60°, and Subaru giving Coloni a "1235" flat-12 from Motori Moderni
Honda was still leading the 1991 Formula One season in Senna's McLaren with the @ 13,500-14,500 rpm 60° V12 "RA121E", just ahead of the Renault "RS3" powered Williams benefiting from @ 12,500 rpm. Ferrari was behind with its "Tipo 037", a new 65° V12 giving @ 13,800 rpm also powering Minardi, just ahead the Ford HBA4/5/6 in Benetton and Jordan cars. Behind, Tyrrell was using the previous Honda RA109E, Judd introduced its new "GV" with Dallara leaving the previous "EV" to Lotus, Yamaha were giving its "OX99" 70° V12 to Brabham, Lamborghini engines were used by Modena and Ligier. Ilmor introduced its "LH10", a @ 13,000 rpm V10 which eventually became the Mercedes with Leyton House and Porsche sourced a little successful 3512 V12 to Footwork Arrows; the rest of the field was "Ford DFR" powered.
In 1992, the Renault engines became dominant, even more so following the departure from the sport of Honda at the end of 1992. The 3.5 L Renault V10 engines powering the Williams F1 team produced a power output between @ 13,000 - 14,500 rpm during the end of the 3.5 L naturally-aspirated era, between 1992 and 1994. Renault won the last three consecutive world constructors' championships of the 3.5 L formula era with Williams (1992-1994).
The Peugeot "A4", used by the McLaren Formula One team in 1994, initially developed @ 14,250 rpm. It was later further developed into the "A6", which produced even more power, developing @ 14,500 rpm.
The Ford "EC Zetec-R", which powered the championship-winning Benetton team and Michael Schumacher in 1994, produced between @ 14,500 rpm.
By the end of the 1994 season, Ferrari's "043" was putting out over @ 15,800 rpm, which is to date the most-powerful naturally-aspirated V12 engine ever used in Formula One.
1995–2005.
This era used a 3.0 L formula, with the power range varying, between and , depending on the RPM, and from eight to twelve cylinders. Renault was the initial dominant engine supplier from 1995 until 1997, winning the first three world championships with Williams and Benetton in this era. The 1995 championship-winning Benetton B195 produced power output between , and the 1996 championship-winning Williams FW18 produced , both from a shared "Renault RS9" 3.0 L V10 engine. The 1997 championship-winning FW19 produced around @ 16,000 rpm, from its "Renault RS9B" 3.0 L V10. Most cars from 1995 to 2000 produced a constant power output, between 700 hp and 800 hp. Most Formula One cars during the season comfortably produced a consistent power output of @ 16,000 rpm. From 1998 to 2000 it was Mercedes' power that ruled giving Mika Häkkinen two world championships. The 1999 McLaren MP4/14 produced between 785 and 810 hp @ 17,000 rpm. Ferrari gradually improved their engine. In , they changed from their traditional V12 engine to a smaller and lighter V10 engine. They preferred reliability to power, losing out to Mercedes in terms of outright power initially. Ferrari's first V10 engine, in 1996, produced @ 15,550 rpm, down on power from their most powerful 3.5 L V12 (in 1994), which produced over @ 15,800 rpm, but up on power from their last 3.0 L V12 (in 1995), which produced @ 17,000 rpm. At the 1998 Japanese GP, Ferrari's "047D" engine spec was said to produce over . From 2000 they were never short of power or reliability.
BMW started supplying its engines to Williams from 2000. In the first season, the engine was very reliable though slightly short of power compared to Ferrari and Mercedes units. The "BMW E41"-powered Williams FW22 produced around 810 hp @ 17,500 rpm, during the 2000 season. BMW went straight forward with its engine development. The "P81", used during the 2001 season, was able to hit 17,810 rpm. Unfortunately, reliability was a big issue with several blowups during the season.
The BMW "P82", the engine used by the BMW WilliamsF1 Team in 2002, had hit a peak speed of 19,050 revolutions a minute in its final evolutionary stage. It was also the first engine in the 3.0 litre V10-era to break through the 19,000 rpm-wall, during the 2002 Italian Grand Prix's qualifying. BMW's "P83" engine used in 2003 season managed an impressive 19,200 rpm and cleared the mark, at around 940 bhp, and weighs less than . Honda's "RA003E" V10 also cleared the mark at the 2003 Canadian Grand Prix.
In 2005, the 3.0 L V10 engine was permitted no more than 5 valves per cylinder. Also, the FIA introduced new regulations limiting each car to one engine per two Grand Prix weekends, putting the emphasis on increased reliability. In spite of this, power outputs continued to rise. Mercedes engines had about in this season. Renault, Toyota, Ferrari, and BMW engines all produced around to @ 19,000 RPM. Honda had about .
2006–2013.
For 2006, the engines had to be 90° V8 of 2.4 litres maximum capacity with a circular bore of maximum, which implies a stroke at maximum bore. The engines must have two inlet and two exhaust valves per cylinder, be naturally-aspirated and have a minimum weight. The previous year's engines with a rev-limiter were permitted for 2006 and 2007 for teams who were unable to acquire a V8 engine, with Scuderia Toro Rosso using a Cosworth V10, after Red Bull's takeover of the former Minardi team did not include the new engines. The 2006 season saw the highest rev limits in the history of Formula One, at well over 20,000 rpm; before a 19,000 rpm mandatory rev limiter was implemented for all competitors in 2007. Cosworth was able to achieve just over 20,000 rpm with their V8, and Renault around 20,500 rpm. Honda did the same; albeit only on the dyno.
Pre-cooling air before it enters the cylinders, injection of any substance other than air and fuel into the cylinders, variable-geometry intake, and exhaust systems, and variable valve timing were forbidden. Each cylinder could have only one fuel injector and a single plug spark ignition. Separate starting devices were used to start engines in the pits and on the grid. The crankcase and cylinder block had to be made of cast or wrought aluminium alloys. The crankshaft and camshafts had to be made from an iron alloy, pistons from an aluminium alloy, and valves from alloys based on iron, nickel, cobalt or titanium. These restrictions were in place to reduce development costs on the engines.
The reduction in capacity was designed to give a power reduction of around 20% from the three-litre engines, to reduce the increasing speeds of Formula One cars. Despite this, in many cases, the performance of the car improved. In 2006 Toyota F1 announced an approximate output at 18,000 rpm for its new "RVX-06" engine, but real figures are of course difficult to obtain. Most cars from this period (2006-2008) produced a regular power output of approximately between 730 and 785 hp @ 19,000 RPM (over 20,000 RPM for the season). 
The engine specification was frozen in 2007 to keep development costs down. The engines which were used in the 2006 Japanese Grand Prix were used for the 2007 and 2008 seasons and they were limited to 19,000 rpm. In 2009 the limit was reduced to 18,000 rpm with each driver allowed to use a maximum of 8 engines over the season. Any driver needing an additional engine is penalised 10 places on the starting grid for the first race the engine is used. This increases the importance of reliability, although the effect is only seen towards the end of the season. Certain design changes intended to improve engine reliability may be carried out with permission from the FIA. This has led to some engine manufacturers, notably Ferrari and Mercedes, exploiting this ability by making design changes which not only improve reliability but also boost engine power output as a side effect. As the Mercedes engine was proven to be the strongest, re-equalisations of engines were allowed by the FIA to allow other manufacturers to match the power.
2009 saw the exit of Honda from Formula 1. The team was acquired by Ross Brawn, creating Brawn GP and the BGP 001. With the absence of the Honda engine, Brawn GP retrofitted the Mercedes engine to the BGP 001 chassis. The newly branded team won both the Constructors' Championship and the Drivers' Championship from better-known and better-established contenders Ferrari, McLaren-Mercedes, and Renault.
Cosworth, absent since the 2006 season, returned in 2010. New teams Lotus Racing, HRT, and Virgin Racing, along with the established Williams, used this engine. The season also saw the withdrawal of the BMW and Toyota engines, as the car companies withdrew from Formula One due to the recession.
In 2009, constructors were allowed to use kinetic energy recovery systems (KERS), also called regenerative brakes. Energy can either be stored as mechanical energy (as in a flywheel) or as electrical energy (as in a battery or supercapacitor), with a maximum power of 81 hp (60 kW; 82 PS). Four teams used it at some point in the season: Ferrari, Renault, BMW, and McLaren.
Although KERS was still legal in F1 in the 2010 season, all the teams agreed not to use it. KERS returned for the 2011 season when only three teams elected not to use it. For the 2012 season, only Marussia and HRT raced without KERS, and in 2013 all teams on the grid had KERS. From 2010 to 2013 cars have a regular power of 700–800 hp, averaging around 750 hp @ 18,000 RPM.
2014–2021.
The FIA announced to change the 2.4-litre V8 to 1.6-litre V6 engines for the 2014 season. The new regulations allow kinetic and heat energy recovery systems. Forced induction is now allowed, and instead of limiting the boost level, fuel flow restriction at 100 kg of gasoline per hour maximum is introduced. They sounded very different due to the lower rev limit (15,000 rpm) and the turbocharger. While superchargers are allowed, all constructors opted to use a turbo.
The new formula allows turbocharged engines, which last appeared in . These have their efficiency improved through turbo-compounding by recovering energy from exhaust gases. The original proposal for four-cylinder turbocharged engines was not welcomed by the racing teams, in particular Ferrari. Adrian Newey stated during the 2011 European Grand Prix that the change to a V6 enables teams to carry the engine as a stressed member, whereas an inline-4 would have required a space frame. A compromise was reached to allow V6 forced induction engines instead. The engines rarely exceed 12,000 rpm during qualifying and race, due to the new fuel flow restrictions.
Energy recovery systems such as KERS had a boost of and 2 megajoules per lap. KERS was renamed Motor Generator Unit–Kinetic (). Heat energy recovery systems were also allowed, under the name Motor Generator Unit–Heat ()
The 2015 season was an improvement on 2014, adding about 30–50 hp (20–40 kW) to most engines, the Mercedes engine being the most powerful with 870 hp (649 kW). In 2019, Renault's engine was claimed to have hit 1,000 hp in qualifying trim.
Of the previous manufacturers, only Mercedes, Ferrari and Renault produced engines to the new formula in 2014, whereas Cosworth stopped supplying engines. Honda returned in 2015 with their own engine, while McLaren used Honda power changing from Mercedes power in 2014. In 2019, Red Bull switched from using a Renault engine to Honda power. Honda supplies both Red Bull and AlphaTauri. Honda are due to withdraw as a power unit supplier at the end of , with Red Bull taking over the project onwards and producing the engine in house.
2022 and beyond.
In 2017, the FIA began negotiations with existing constructors and potential new manufacturers over the next generation of engines with a projected introduction date of but delayed to . The initial proposal was designed to simplify engine designs, cut costs, promote new entries and address criticisms directed at the 2014 generation of engines. It called for the 1.6 L V6 configuration to be retained, but abandoned the complex Motor Generator Unit–Heat () system. The Motor Generator Unit–Kinetic () would be more powerful, with a greater emphasis on driver deployment and a more flexible introduction to allow for tactical use. The proposal also called for the introduction of standardised components and design parameters to make components produced by all manufacturers compatible with one another in a system dubbed "plug in and play". A further proposal to allow four-wheel drive cars was also made, with the front axle driven by an unit—as opposed to the traditional driveshaft—that functioned independently of the providing power to the rear axle, mirroring the system developed by Porsche for the 919 Hybrid race car.
Engine specification progression.
Note:
Records.
"Figures correct as of the 2021 Spanish Grand Prix"
Bold indicates engine manufacturers that are competing in Formula One in the 2021 season.
World Championship Grand Prix wins by engine manufacturer.
 Built by Cosworth
 Built by Ilmor between 1997 and 2005
 Built by Porsche
 The Indianapolis 500 was part of the World Drivers' Championship from 1950 to 1960.
 Built by Renault
 Built by Mercedes