Spodumene

Spodumene is a pyroxene mineral consisting of lithium aluminium inosilicate, LiAl(SiO3)2, and is a source of lithium. It occurs as colorless to yellowish, purplish, or lilac kunzite (see below), yellowish-green or emerald-green hiddenite, prismatic crystals, often of great size. Single crystals of in size are reported from the Black Hills of South Dakota, United States.
The naturally occurring low-temperature form α-spodumene is in the monoclinic system whereas the high-temperature β-spodumene crystallizes in the tetragonal system. α-spodumene converts to β-spodumene at temperatures above 900 °C. Crystals are typically heavily striated parallel to the principal axis. Crystal faces are often etched and pitted with triangular markings.
Discovery and occurrence.
Spodumene was first described in 1800 for an occurrence in the type locality in Utö, Södermanland, Sweden. It was discovered by Brazilian naturalist Jose Bonifacio de Andrada e Silva. The name is derived from the Greek "spodumenos" (σποδούμενος), meaning "burnt to ashes," owing to the opaque, ash-grey appearance of material refined for use in industry.
Spodumene occurs in lithium-rich granite pegmatites and aplites. Associated minerals include: quartz, albite, petalite, eucryptite, lepidolite and beryl.
Transparent material has long been used as a gemstone with varieties kunzite and hiddenite noted for their strong pleochroism. Source localities include Democratic Republic of Congo, Afghanistan, Australia, Brazil, Madagascar, Pakistan, Québec in Canada and North Carolina, California in the US.
Since 2018 the Democratic Republic of Congo is known to have the largest lithium spodumene hard rock deposit in the world. The total resource of the deposit located in Manono, central DRC, has the potential to be in the magnitude of 1.5 billion tons of high-grade low-impurities lithium spodumene hard-rock. The two largest pegmatites (known as the Carriere de l'Este Pegmatite and the Roche Dure Pegmatite) are each of similar size or larger than the famous Greenbushes Pegmatite in Western Australia. In the near future by 2023, the Democratic Republic of Congo is expected to be a significant supplier of lithium to the world with its high grade and low impurities spodumene. In 2021, AVZ Minerals, an Australian company, is developing the Manono Lithium and Tin project in Manono, DRC, the resource has high grade low impurities at 1.65% Li2O (Lithium oxide) spodumene hard-rock based on studies and drilling of Roche Dure, one of several pegmatites in the deposit.
Economic importance.
Spodumene is an important source of lithium for use in ceramics, mobile phone and automotive batteries, medicine, Pyroceram and as a fluxing agent. Lithium is extracted from spodumene by fusing in acid after roasting to convert it to the more reactive β-spodumene.
In 2016, the price was forecast to be $500-600/ton for years to come. However, price spiked above $800 in January 2018, and production increased more than consumption, reducing price to $400 in September 2020. 
World production of lithium via spodumene was around 80,000 metric tonnes per annum in 2018, primarily from the Greenbushes pegmatite of Western Australia and from some Chinese and Chilean sources. The Talison mine in Greenbushes, Western Australia is reported to be the 2nd largest and to have the highest grade of ore at 2.4% Li2O (2012 figures).
In 2020 Australia expanded spodumene mining to become the leading lithium producing country in the world (see table below).
Two advantages of spodumene compared to brine are:
Demand in Lithium-ion batteries.
Hard rock (Spodumene) lithium concentrate offers a more direct refining route to Lithium Hydroxide production than brine processed lithium.
Spodumene is a sought-after commodity and the preferred raw material in the manufacture of lithium hydroxide (a key electric vehicle battery cathode raw material) by the majors like Ganfeng Lithium largest producer of lithium compounds in the world and of lithium hydroxide.
The growing trend for nickel-rich lithium-ion batteries require lithium hydroxide as the input in the chemistry of the battery cathode cells. Tesla have selected lithium hydroxide batteries for their electric vehicles. The game-changing nickel-rich battery chemistry technology increases the driving range of electric vehicles; lowers the cost of high-performance batteries; longer lifespan of battery; increases energy density and better safety. The nickel-rich batteries need lithium hydroxide for the battery cathode cells, namely NCM 811 cathodes, NCM 622, LFP and NCA. The demand for lithium hydroxide is expected to increase exponentially to 2025 through to 2030 along with it demand for spodumene hard rock lithium. In a February 2021 report, Canalys, a research company, have forecasted by 2028 the global production of new electric vehicles (EVs) is expected to be more than 30 million vehicles annually. 3.1 million EVs were sold globally in 2020.
The auto manufacturer Tesla is building a lithium conversion/refining facility in Austin, Texas that will turn spodumene hard rock 6% also known as spodumene concentrate 6% (SC6) into lithium hydroxide to be used in battery cells, allowing Tesla to better control the quality of the lithium hydroxide (a key battery cathode raw material). Tesla signed a 5 year supply deal for lithium spodumene hard rock directly from a lithium mining operation—Piedmont Lithium—in North Carolina. 
This trend will likely be repeated by other major auto manufacturers to secure more control over the upstream supply of lithium spodumene concentrate raw material by going directly to the miners, as lithium supply is forecast to be in deficit by 2023 according to forecast analysis by Benchmark Mineral Intelligence (BMI), London's price reporting agency and expert analysis on Lithium-ion battery and EV/electric storage industry. This deal represents about one-third of the expected 160,000 tonnes per annum production for Piedmont Lithium. 52,800 tons/yr of spodumene concentrate 6%, or SC6 ( equivalent to 8,000 tonnes of lithium hydroxide), this supply is to commence mid 2022/mid 2023, this amount is expected to satisfy over half of Tesla’s battery needs at Giga Texas in 2023, the year in which full production of the electric car maker’s 4680 cells for its Cybertrucks is planned.
Tesla would still need to secure more spodumene supply beyond the production capacity of Piedmont Lithium, in order to produce its own lithium hydroxide for Tesla's future battery production requirements.
In Dec 2020/early 2021 three significant long-term offtake agreements were executed with AVZ Minerals, an Australian company, for spodumene concentrate, the deals are for the total of 540,000 tons/yr supply of (hard rock) lithium spodumene concentrate 6% (SC6), or 16% of global LCE lithium carbonate equivalent production (2020 global production of LCE was 431,000 tons). 
The three deals were made with the world's leading battery materials producers Ganfeng Lithium, Yibin Tianyi Lithium Co./Contemporary Amperex Technology (CATL) and Shenzhen.
The following shows the links in the supply chains from spodumene mine to battery/electric vehicle final product as of December 2019: CATL and Ganfeng are suppliers to Tesla. Ganfeng is the major supplier of lithium hydroxide to Tesla and supplier to VW (10yr deal to 2030) and BMW Group (4yrs to 2024) / Panasonic / LG Chem / Samsung SDI. CATL has long-term battery supply agreements with BMW Group (11yr deal to 2031). In Dec 2019 BMW signed a 5 year deal for lithium hydroxide that will be produced from hard rock spodumene through Ganfeng, Dr. Andreas Wendt, member of the Board of Management of BMW AG responsible for Purchasing and Supplier Network says their lithium requirements by 2025 are expected to be seven times that of 2019. Demand for spodumene and lithium hydroxide is continually being secured thru long term contracts with majors and miners including joint ventures. Another spodumene mine is the Greenbushes in Western Australia where Tianqi Lithium produces lithium hydroxide from its Kwinana plant. Tianqi signed a supply agreement in Sept 2019 for 5 years (2020-2024) with Northvolt Ett, a Swedish lithium-ion battery producer, Northvolt's planned production is expected in 2021. Northvolt's investors are German automakers Volkswagen and BMW Group. Tianqi also has supply agreements with South Korean battery makers LG Chem (2020-2022) and SK Innovation. 
This is a strong show by the majors and Tier 1 companies of the demand for spodumene to meet expected uptake of electric vehicles (EVs), brought on partly through new government policies of the EU countries such as Norway; Germany; France; Iceland; Sweden; Denmark, the UK, China, Japan, India, South Korea, Egypt, Taiwan, Ireland and others around fossil fuel uses and the future banning of internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles and the push for renewable energy, sustainability, low carbon footprint and reaching Paris Climate Agreement targets for global warming.
The US election in late 2020 resulting in the Biden administration, has stoked excitement for the new energy and electric vehicle (EV) sector with the new US president recently signing executive orders in February 2021 directly related to electric vehicles and critical minerals such as lithium. Biden’s recent proposal in March 2021 for a $2 trillion infrastructure spending includes $175 billion towards New Energy electric vehicles and subsidies for US consumer adoption of EVs.
Europe and USA are beginning to build a market for the lithium-ion battery and electric vehicle supply chain by securing raw materials supply, of what has been a China-dominated market for the past generation through majors such as Tianqi Lithium and Ganfeng Lithium, in the conversion of spodumene.
Gemstone varieties.
Hiddenite.
Hiddenite is a pale, emerald-green gem variety first reported from Alexander County, North Carolina, US. It was named in honor of William Earl Hidden (16 February 1853 - 12 June 1918), mining engineer, mineral collector, and mineral dealer.
This emerald green variety of spodumene is colored by chromium, just like emeralds. Not all green spodumene is colored with chromium, which tend to have a lighter color, and therefore are not true hiddenite.
Kunzite.
Kunzite is a pink to lilac colored gemstone, a variety of spodumene with the color coming from minor to trace amounts of manganese. Some (but not all) kunzite used for gemstones has been heated to enhance its color. It is also frequently irradiated to enhance the color.
Kunzite was discovered in 1902, and was named after George Frederick Kunz, Tiffany & Co's chief jeweler at the time, and a noted mineralogist. It has been found in Brazil, US, Canada, CIS, Mexico, Sweden, Western Australia, Afghanistan and Pakistan.
One notable example of kunzite used in jewellery is in the Russian Palmette tiara and necklace worn by the Duchess of Gloucester.
Triphane.
Triphane is a synonym of spodumene, but also used for colourless or yellowish varieties.