Q-ball

In theoretical physics, Q-ball is a type of non-topological soliton. A soliton is a localized field configuration that is stable—it cannot spread out and dissipate. In the case of a non-topological soliton, the stability is guaranteed by a conserved charge: the soliton has lower energy per unit charge than any other configuration. (In physics, charge is often represented by the letter "Q", and the soliton is spherically symmetric, hence the name.)
Intuitive explanation.
A Q-ball arises in a theory of bosonic particles, when there is an attraction between the particles. Loosely speaking, the Q-ball is a finite-sized "blob" containing a large number of particles. The blob is stable against fission into smaller blobs, and against "evaporation" via emission of individual particles, because, due to the attractive interaction, the blob is the lowest-energy configuration of that number of particles. (This is analogous to the fact that nickel-62 is the most stable nucleus because it is the most stable configuration of neutrons and protons. However, nickel-62 is not a Q-ball, in part because neutrons and protons are fermions, not bosons.)
For there to be a Q-ball, the number of particles must be conserved (i.e. the particle number is a conserved "charge", so the particles are described by a complex-valued field formula_1), and the interaction potential formula_2 of the particles must have a negative (attractive) term. For non-interacting particles, the potential would be just a mass term formula_3, and there would be no Q-ball. But if one adds an attractive formula_4 term (and positive higher powers of formula_1 to ensure that the potential has a lower bound) then there are values of formula_1 where formula_7, i.e. the energy of these field values is "less" than the energy of a free field. This corresponds to saying that one can create blobs of non-zero field (i.e. clusters of many particles) whose energy is lower than the same number of individual particles far apart. Those blobs are therefore stable against evaporation into individual particles.
Construction.
In its simplest form, a Q-ball is constructed in a field theory of a complex scalar field formula_1, in which Lagrangian is invariant under a global formula_9 symmetry. The Q-ball solution is a state which minimizes energy while keeping the charge Q associated with the global formula_10 symmetry constant. A particularly transparent way of finding this solution is via the method of Lagrange multipliers. In particular, in three spatial dimensions we must minimize the functional
where the energy is defined as
and formula_13 is our Lagrange multiplier. The time dependence of the Q-ball solution can be obtained easily if one rewrites the functional formula_14 as
where formula_16. Since the first term in the functional is now positive, minimization of this terms implies
We therefore interpret the Lagrange multiplier formula_13 as the frequency of oscillation of the field within the Q-ball.
The theory contains Q-ball solutions if there are any values of formula_19 at which the potential is less than formula_20. In this case, a volume of space with the field at that value can have an energy per unit charge that is less than formula_21, meaning that it cannot decay into a gas of individual particles. Such a region is a Q-ball. If it is large enough, its interior is uniform, and is called "Q-matter". (For a review see Lee "et al." (1992).
Thin-wall Q-balls.
The thin-wall Q-ball was the first to be studied, and this pioneering work was carried out by Sidney Coleman in 1986. For this reason, Q-balls of the thin-wall variety are sometimes called "Coleman Q-balls".
We can think of this type of Q-ball a spherical ball of nonzero vacuum expectation value. In the thin-wall approximation we take the spatial profile of the field to be simply
formula_22
In this regime the charge carried by the Q-ball is simply formula_23. Using this fact we can eliminate formula_24 from the energy, such that we have
formula_25
Minimization with respect to formula_26 gives
formula_27
Plugging this back into the energy yields
formula_28
Now all that remains is to minimize the energy with respect to formula_29. We can therefore state that a Q-ball solution of the thin-wall type exists if and only if
formula_30 for formula_31.
When the above criterion is satisfied the Q-ball exists and by construction is stable against decays into scalar quanta. The mass of the thin-wall Q-ball is simply the energy
formula_32
Although this kind of Q-ball is stable against decay into scalars, it is not stable against decay into fermions if the scalar field formula_33 has nonzero Yukawa couplings to some fermions. This decay rate was calculated in 1986 by Andrew Cohen, Sidney Coleman, Howard Georgi, and Aneesh Manohar.
History.
Configurations of a charged scalar field that are classically stable (stable against small perturbations) were constructed by Rosen
in 1968. Stable configurations of multiple scalar fields were studied by Friedberg, Lee, and Sirlin in 1976. The name "Q-ball" and the proof of quantum-mechanical stability
(stability against tunnelling to lower energy configurations) come from Sidney Coleman.
Occurrence in nature.
It has been theorized that dark matter might consist of Q-balls (Frieman "et al.". 1988, Kusenko "et al.". 1997) and that Q-balls might play a role in baryogenesis, i.e. the origin of the matter that fills the universe (Dodelson "et al.". 1990, Enqvist "et al.". 1997). Interest in Q-balls was stimulated by the 
suggestion that they arise generically in supersymmetric field theories (Kusenko 1997), so if
nature really is fundamentally supersymmetric then Q-balls might have been created in the early universe, and still exist in the cosmos today.