Inverse element

In abstract algebra, the idea of an inverse element generalises the concepts of negation (sign reversal) (in relation to addition) and reciprocation (in relation to multiplication). The intuition is of an element that can 'undo' the effect of combination with another given element. While the precise definition of an inverse element varies depending on the algebraic structure involved, these definitions coincide in a group.
The word 'inverse' is derived from that means 'turned upside down', 'overturned'.
Formal definitions.
In a unital magma.
Let formula_1 be a unital magma, that is, a set with a binary operation formula_2 and an identity element formula_3. If, for formula_4, we have formula_5, then formula_6 is called a left inverse of formula_7 and formula_7 is called a right inverse of formula_6. If an element formula_10 is both a left inverse and a right inverse of formula_11, then formula_10 is called a two-sided inverse, or simply an inverse, of formula_11. An element with a two-sided inverse in formula_1 is called invertible in formula_1. An element with an inverse element only on one side is left invertible or right invertible.
Elements of a unital magma formula_16 may have multiple left, right or two-sided inverses. For example, in the magma given by the Cayley table
the elements 2 and 3 each have two two-sided inverses.
A unital magma in which all elements are invertible need not be a loop. For example, in the magma formula_16 given by the Cayley table
every element has a unique two-sided inverse (namely itself), but formula_16 is not a loop because the Cayley table is not a Latin square.
Similarly, a loop need not have two-sided inverses. For example, in the loop given by the Cayley table
the only element with a two-sided inverse is the identity element 1.
If the operation formula_2 is associative then if an element has both a left inverse and a right inverse, they are equal. In other words, in a monoid (an associative unital magma) every element has at most one inverse (as defined in this section). In a monoid, the set of invertible elements is a group, called the group of units of formula_1, and denoted by formula_21 or "H"1.
In a semigroup.
The definition in the previous section generalizes the notion of inverse in group relative to the notion of identity. It's also possible, albeit less obvious, to generalize the notion of an inverse by dropping the identity element but keeping associativity, i.e., in a semigroup.
In a semigroup "S" an element "x" is called (von Neumann) regular if there exists some element "z" in "S" such that "xzx" = "x"; "z" is sometimes called a pseudoinverse. An element "y" is called (simply) an inverse of "x" if "xyx" = "x" and "y" = "yxy". Every regular element has at least one inverse: if "x" = "xzx" then it is easy to verify that "y" = "zxz" is an inverse of "x" as defined in this section. Another easy to prove fact: if "y" is an inverse of "x" then "e" = "xy" and "f" = "yx" are idempotents, that is "ee" = "e" and "ff" = "f". Thus, every pair of (mutually) inverse elements gives rise to two idempotents, and "ex" = "xf" = "x", "ye" = "fy" = "y", and "e" acts as a left identity on "x", while "f" acts a right identity, and the left/right roles are reversed for "y". This simple observation can be generalized using Green's relations: every idempotent "e" in an arbitrary semigroup is a left identity for "Re" and right identity for "Le". An intuitive description of this fact is that every pair of mutually inverse elements produces a local left identity, and respectively, a local right identity.
In a monoid, the notion of inverse as defined in the previous section is strictly narrower than the definition given in this section. Only elements in the Green class "H"1 have an inverse from the unital magma perspective, whereas for any idempotent "e", the elements of "H"e have an inverse as defined in this section. Under this more general definition, inverses need not be unique (or exist) in an arbitrary semigroup or monoid. If all elements are regular, then the semigroup (or monoid) is called regular, and every element has at least one inverse. If every element has exactly one inverse as defined in this section, then the semigroup is called an inverse semigroup. Finally, an inverse semigroup with only one idempotent is a group. An inverse semigroup may have an absorbing element 0 because 000 = 0, whereas a group may not.
Outside semigroup theory, a unique inverse as defined in this section is sometimes called a quasi-inverse. This is generally justified because in most applications (e.g., all examples in this article) associativity holds, which makes this notion a generalization of the left/right inverse relative to an identity.
"U"-semigroups.
A natural generalization of the inverse semigroup is to define an (arbitrary) unary operation ° such that ("a"°)° = "a" for all "a" in "S"; this endows "S" with a type 2,1 algebra. A semigroup endowed with such an operation is called a "U"-semigroup. Although it may seem that "a"° will be the inverse of "a", this is not necessarily the case. In order to obtain interesting notion(s), the unary operation must somehow interact with the semigroup operation. Two classes of "U"-semigroups have been studied:
Clearly a group is both an "I"-semigroup and a *-semigroup. A class of semigroups important in semigroup theory are completely regular semigroups; these are "I"-semigroups in which one additionally has "aa"° = "a"°"a"; in other words every element has commuting pseudoinverse "a"°. There are few concrete examples of such semigroups however; most are completely simple semigroups. In contrast, a subclass of *-semigroups, the *-regular semigroups (in the sense of Drazin), yield one of best known examples of a (unique) pseudoinverse, the Moore–Penrose inverse. In this case however the involution "a"* is not the pseudoinverse. Rather, the pseudoinverse of "x" is the unique element "y" such that "xyx" = "x", "yxy" = "y", ("xy")* = "xy", ("yx")* = "yx". Since *-regular semigroups generalize inverse semigroups, the unique element defined this way in a *-regular semigroup is called the generalized inverse or Penrose–Moore inverse.
Examples.
All examples in this section involve associative operators, thus we shall use the terms left/right inverse for the unital magma-based definition, and quasi-inverse for its more general version.
Real numbers.
Every real number formula_10 has an additive inverse (i.e., an inverse with respect to addition) given by formula_23. Every nonzero real number formula_10 has a multiplicative inverse (i.e., an inverse with respect to multiplication) given by formula_25 (or formula_26). By contrast, zero has no multiplicative inverse, but it has a unique quasi-inverse, "formula_27" itself.
Functions and partial functions.
A function formula_28 is the left (resp. right) inverse of a function formula_29 (for function composition), if and only if formula_30 (resp. formula_31) is the identity function on the domain (resp. codomain) of formula_29. The inverse of a function formula_29 is often written formula_34, but this notation is sometimes ambiguous. Only bijections have two-sided inverses, but "any" function has a quasi-inverse, i.e., the full transformation monoid is regular. The monoid of partial functions is also regular, whereas the monoid of injective partial transformations is the prototypical inverse semigroup.
Galois connections.
The lower and upper adjoints in a (monotone) Galois connection, "L" and "G" are quasi-inverses of each other, i.e. "LGL" = "L" and "GLG" = "G" and one uniquely determines the other. They are not left or right inverses of each other however.
Matrices.
A square matrix formula_35 with entries in a field formula_36 is invertible (in the set of all square matrices of the same size, under matrix multiplication) if and only if its determinant is different from zero. If the determinant of formula_35 is zero, it is impossible for it to have a one-sided inverse; therefore a left inverse or right inverse implies the existence of the other one. See invertible matrix for more.
More generally, a square matrix over a commutative ring formula_38 is invertible if and only if its determinant is invertible in formula_38.
Non-square matrices of full rank have several one-sided inverses:
The left inverse can be used to determine the least norm solution of formula_44, which is also the least squares formula for regression and is given by formula_45
No rank deficient matrix has any (even one-sided) inverse. However, the Moore–Penrose inverse exists for all matrices, and coincides with the left or right (or true) inverse when it exists.
As an example of matrix inverses, consider:
So, as "m" < "n", we have a right inverse, formula_47 By components it is computed as
The left inverse doesn't exist, because
which is a singular matrix, and cannot be inverted.