Dharampal

Dharampal (/ˈdɑːrməpɑːl/; Hindi: धर्मपाल; 19 Feb 1922-24 Oct 2006) was a Gandhian thinker, historian and political philosopher from India. He authored The Beautiful Tree (1983), Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century (1971) and Civil Disobedience in Indian Tradition (1971), among other seminal works which have led to a reappraisal of conventional views of the cultural, scientific and technological achievements of Indian society on the eve of the British conquest.[i] 
Dharampal was born on 19th February 1922 in Kandhla, a small town in the Muzaffarnagar district of Uttar Pradesh, and died on 24th October 2006 at Sevagram (Mahatma Gandhi’s last ashram, set up in 1936), near Wardha, Maharashtra, which was his main base from the early 1980s. He has been associated in various ways with ideas and practices to enable the regeneration of India’s diverse communities to restore their decentralized social, political and economic organization.[ii]
Early Life and Involvement in the Indian Freedom Movement.
Dharampal was inspired by Mahatma Gandhi throughout his life; he received his first glimpse of Gandhiji at the age of seven, when he accompanied his father to attend the 1929 Lahore Congress.[i] In March 1931, when Sardar Bhagat Singh and his colleagues were sentenced to death and executed by the British colonial authorities, Dharampal recalls that many of his friends took to the streets of Lahore, shouting slogans in protest. Yet despite this rebellious assertion by his peers, Dharampal was drawn towards the movement led by Mahatma Gandhi: soon he started wearing khadi, a practice he followed all his life. Gandhiji’s call for Individual Satyagraha in October 1940 marked the beginning of his involvement in national politics and the subsequent abandonment of his B.Sc. in Physics. In August 1942, he was present as an ardent spectator at the Quit India session of the Indian National Congress in Bombay, whereupon he joined the movement and was active as an underground member of the AICC group run by Sucheta Kriplani until his arrest in April 1943. After 2 months in police detention, he was released, but debarred from Delhi. A year later in August 1944, being interested in village community work, he was introduced to Mirabehn (the British born disciple of Mahatma Gandhi) and joined her soon after at the Kisan Ashram, situated midway between Roorkee and Haridwar.
Engagement in national reconstruction, post 1947.
At the time of Partition, he was put in charge of the Congress Socialist Party centre for the rehabilitation of refugees from West Pakistan, and came in close contact with Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya and Ram Manohar Lohia, as well as with numerous younger friends, such as L.C. Jain, in Delhi. He was also a founding member of the Indian Cooperative Union set up in 1948. The following year he intended to visit Israel for the purpose of studying its rural and community reconstruction programmes (the Kibbutz movement), but due to the closure of the Suez Canal, he had to reschedule his route via England where he met and married Phyllis[i] who was English. On their way back to India by land, they stayed in Israel to study the communitarian life-style in Degania Alef, the oldest kibbutz, set up in 1910 by Russian Jews. In 1950, Dharampal resumed his work with Mirabehn, as the community village of Bapugram near Rishikesh began to be formed. However, disillusioned by the futility of this idealistic experiment in community development, which seemed to be rather unviable within the Nehruvian mainstream, he left the village in 1954 to join his wife and two small children in London where he spent three years, mostly working for Peace News, a journal published by the War Resisters’ International, focusing on "peace" issues and nonviolent social change. Dharampal returned to Delhi in late 1957 after a visit to several Buddhist and Hindu holy places in Sri Lanka and South India.[ii] From 1958 to 1964 he was elected General Secretary of the Association of Voluntary Agencies for Rural Development (AVARD), founded in 1957 by Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya who, a year later, passed on the office of President to Jayaprakash Narayan [JP], with whom Dharampal developed a very close relationship of mutual respect and appreciation.
Socio-Political statements.
While at AVARD, Dharampal made regular contributions to the AVARD Newsletter, which were often critical of governmental planning and development projects. In 1962, he published a small monograph containing the proceedings of the Indian Constituent Assembly (1946-1949) relating to the discussion on the subject of "Panchayat Raj as the Basis of Indian Polity[i]" which highlighted the failure of the Constitution to incorporate indigenous administrative and political structures. In November 1962, incensed by the debacle of the Indo-Chinese war, Dharampal wrote an open letter to the members of the Lok Sabha asking for the resignation of the Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, on moral grounds.[ii] For this act of protest, Dharampal (along with two friends Narendra Datta[iii] and Roop Narain[iv] who were co-signatories of the letter) was arrested and imprisoned in Tihar jail. After some months, the three detainees were released after Lal Bahadur Shastri, the then Home-Minister, and JP had intervened. Towards the end of 1963, Dharampal was appointed Director of Study and Research of the All India Panchayat Parishad. He spent more than a year in Tamil Nadu collecting historical material that was later published as "The Madras Panchayat System: A General Assessment" (1971).[v] In this study, he underscored not only the destruction of the indigenous panchayat-based polity due to the colonial land revenue system,[vi] compounded with systematic political and bureaucratic intervention, but also its replacement in the late 19th century by a colonial bureaucratic apparatus which has continued even after Independence, more or less unchanged, despite its debilitating influence.[vii] 
Historical research into 18th and early 19th century Indian society.
From the mid-1960s, Dharampal was based in London for family reasons. Since he was convinced about the urgent need for an objective understanding of India’s past, before the onslaught of colonial rule, he decided to embark on an exploration of British-Indian archival material, based on documents emanating from commissioned surveys of the East India Company, lodged in various depositories spread over the British Isles. His pioneering historical research, conducted intensively over a decade, led to the publication of works that have since become classics in the field of Indian studies. The first book on "Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century" (1971),[i] containing detailed empirical data on Indian astronomy, medical science and practice, the technologies involved in the manufacture of iron and steel, ice making, and agricultural implements created a stir in academic and political circles, and held out the promise of developing a completely new and comprehensive perspective on the development of Indian Science and Technology. Dharampal’s second book on "Civil Disobedience in Indian Tradition" (1971)[ii] elaborates on the historical roots of Gandhian satyagraha by focusing on British administrative reports of a major protest against the imposition of a house-tax in Varanasi and neighboring regions which took place between 1810-1811. The documentation exemplifies, firstly, how socio-political popular assertions, governed by deeply rooted conceptions of justice, explicitly aiming to safeguard the interests of the governed, were simultaneously attempting to redress the balance of power between the rulers and the ruled. Secondly, that colonial intervention changed the hitherto practiced “rules of the game” with regard to negotiating political asymmetries of power: on the one hand, by illegalizing such traditionally exercised ‘trials of strength’, and on the other, by redefining relationships between social groups and, more importantly, by foregrounding the starkly rigid asymmetry between colonial authority and the colonized. Dharampal’s third major work entitled "The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century" (1983)[iii] provides evidence from extensive early British administrators’ reports of the widespread prevalence of educational institutions in the Bengal and Madras Presidencies as well as in the Punjab. These schools were described as teaching a sophisticated curriculum, with daily school attendance by about 30% of children aged 6-15 years. Interestingly, the majority of students belonged to communities who were classed as Shudras or even lower. Further, in some areas, for instance in Kerala, Muslim girls were quite well represented.
The impressive picture of early colonial India that emerges from this pioneering historical research is supplemented by an extensive collection of essays[iv] in which Dharampal stresses the need for further investigation, firstly, into the sophisticated societal, economic, and cultural mechanisms that had facilitated these accomplishments, and secondly, into understanding the processes by which these institutions declined and gradually fell into oblivion, and thirdly, into how knowledge generated in India had been appropriated, refined and integrated into early modern British and European scientific and cultural institutions, and fourthly, into the mechanisms by which Indian society had been shattered and cognitively colonized under the impact of British rule. 
Other significant publications.
An incisive understanding of the Indian cultural ethos, and the manner in which it differs from modern conceptions, is presented in a slim volume in Hindi entitled "Bharatiya Chitta, Manas aur Kaal" (1991, English translation: 1993).[i]
"The British Origin of Cow-Slaughter in India" (2002),[ii] besides providing historical evidence about the genesis of mass cow-slaughter under British auspices, presents extensive documentary material about one of the most significant resistance movements in India against kine-killing by the British during the years 1880-1894.[iii] By highlighting the participation of prominent Muslims in this mass protest as well as by emphasizing the crucial fact that it was the British, and not the Muslims, who were the main consumers of beef, Dharampal is able to dispel one of the deep-seated myths perpetuated to reinforce divisive colonial strategies.[iv]
"Understanding Gandhi" (2005)[v] is a profoundly insightful portrayal of the unfolding of Mahatma Gandhi’s genius in leading the Indian struggle for Swaraj. 
A complete listing of his published works is compiled below.
Activities and influence in the public sphere.
1958-1964 Founder General Secretary of the Association of Voluntary Agencies for Rural Development [AVARD] of which Smt. Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay was the Founder Chairperson; succeeded in 1959 by Shri  Jayaprakash Narayan as President;
1972-1973 Appointed a Senior Fellow of A. N. Sinha Institute of Social Sciences, Patna during 1972-73;
1977–2004 Lectures delivered in public venues, academic conferences (in Pune, Bangalore, Kolkata, Bikaner, Delhi, Chennai, Hyderabad, etc.); articles published in the press and various journals; 
1985 Elected President of the Patriotic and People-Oriented Science and Technology (PPST) Foundation;
1987 Appointed Member of the Indian Council of Historical Research, re-appointed in 1991, and again in 1999–2001;
1990-2006 Distinguished Fellow (Emeritus Fellow since 2000) of the Centre for Policy Studies, Chennai; 
2001 Chairman of National Commission on Cattle set up by the Government of India;
2002 December, Infinity Foundation Award
Legacy.
Whereas Dharampal’s published oeuvre, in dispelling colonial myths about India’s recent past, serves as a seminal and powerful inspiration for engaging in crucial reinterpretations about the nature of Indian society, the enormous portent of his research (whereby a large corpus of notes and typed extracts of documents from British and Indian Archives still remains in manuscript form) has yet to make a deeper impact on conventional Indian historiography of the past three centuries. 
Copies (both paper and digital) of Dharampal’s extensive archival collection are lodged at the Centre for Policy Studies, Chennai, and digitized versions are held by the Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi and the Gandhi Research Foundation, Jalgaon. 
List of Published Books.
1.   Dharampal, "Panchayat Raj as the Basis of Indian Polity: An Exploration into the Proceedings of the Constituent Assembly" (with a foreword by Jayaprakash Narayan), AVARD, New Delhi, 1962; reprinted in: Dharampal, "Collected Writings", Other India Press: Mapusa 2000 (reissued 2003 & 2007), vol. IV, pp. 1-95; also in "Dharampal Classics Series", ed. J.K. Bajaj and M.D. Srinivas, Vol. 1, Rashtrotthana Sahitya: Bengaluru and Centre for Policy Studies: Chennai, 2021. Translations into Gujarati and Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), ed. Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively.
2.   Dharampal, "Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century: Some Contemporary European Accounts" (foreword by Dr. D.S. Kothari and introduction by Dr. William A. Blanpeid)"," Impex India, Delhi, 1971; reprinted by Academy of Gandhian Studies, Hyderabad 1983; and in: Dharampal, "Collected Writings", Other India Press: Mapusa 2000 (reissued 2003 & 2007), vol. I; also in "Dharampal Classics Series," ed. J.K. Bajaj and M.D. Srinivas, Vol. 2, Rashtrotthana Sahitya: Bengaluru and Centre for Policy Studies: Chennai, 2021. Translations into Gujarati and Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), ed. Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively; Tamil translation "Azhagiya nathi, pathinettam nootrandil India winyanamum thozhilnutpamum" by B.R. Mahadevan, Kizhakku pathipagam, Chennai, 2019.
3.   Dharampal, "Civil Disobedience and Indian Tradition: with Some Early Nineteenth Century Documents" (with a foreword by Sri Jayaprakash Narayan), Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan, Varanasi, 1971; reprinted in: Dharampal, "Collected Writings", Other India Press: Mapusa 2000 (reissued 2003 & 2007), vol. II; also in "Dharampal Classics Series", ed. J.K. Bajaj and M.D. Srinivas, Vol. 3, Rashtrotthana Sahitya: Bengaluru and Centre for Policy Studies: Chennai, 2021. Translations into Gujarati and Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), ed. Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively.  
4.   Dharampal, "The Madras Panchayat System, Vol II: A General Assessment", Impex India, Delhi 1972; reprinted in: Dharampal, "Collected Writings", Other India Press: Mapusa 2000 (reissued 2003 & 2007), vol. IV, pp. 97-300. Translations into Gujarati and Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), ed. Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively.
5.   Dharampal, "The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century", Biblia Impex Private Limited, New Delhi 1983; reprinted by Keerthi Publishing House Pvt Ltd., Coimbatore 1995; also in: Dharampal, "Collected Writings", Other India Press: Mapusa 2000 (reissued 2003 & 2007), vol. III; also in "Dharampal Classics Series," ed. J.K. Bajaj and M.D. Srinivas, Vol. 4, Rashtrotthana Sahitya: Bengaluru and Centre for Policy Studies: Chennai, 2021. Translations into Gujarati and Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), ed. Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively.  Tamil translation "Azhagiya maram: pathinettam Nootrandil India Paarambariya Kalvi" by B.R. Mahadevan. Kizhakku pathipagam, Chennai, 1st edition, May 2016, 2nd edition, December 2019; Kannada translation, "Cheluva Taru" (ಚೆಲುವ ತರು) by Prof. Madhava Peraje, Dravida Samskruthi Adhyayana Vibhaga, Kannada University, Hampi, 2015.
6.   Dharampal, "Some Aspects of Early Indian Society and Polity and their Relevance to the Present", Indian Association for Cultural Freedom, Pune 1988; 1st published in "New Quest" (Nos.56, 57 and 58, 1986), editorial comment by M.P. Rege “Against the Current” ("New Quest", No.57, May-June 1986); Hindi translation “Angrazon se Pehale ka Bharat”, in "Jansatta" (March 19-31, 1986, in 10 parts);  reprinted by Shatabdi Prakashan, Vidisha, Calcutta, 1988; Marathi translation in Marathi, "Paramparik Bharatiya Samajik Va Rajkiya Vyavastha Ani Nava Bharatachi Ubharani", Navabharata Masik 1987; Tamil translation "Munthaya India samuthayam, arasamaippu sila amsangal: avattrin inraya porutham" by K. Ramasubramanian, Cre-A, Chennai 1992; also Malayalam translation. Hindi reprints in "Himalaya Raibaar" (ed. Pawan K. Gupta, SIDH, Mussoorie), and Azadi Bachao Andolan, Allahabad; also reprinted in: Dharampal, "Collected Writings", Other India Press: Mapusa 2000 (reissued 2003 & 2007), vol. V, pp. 1-49. Translations into Gujarati and Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), edited by Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively.
7. Dharampal, "Bharatiya Chitta, Manas va Kala" (Hindi), Pushpa Prakashan, Patna and Centre for Policy Studies, Chennai 1991; English translation "Bharatiya Chitta, Manas and Kala" (with a Preface and Glossary) by J.K. Bajaj, Centre for Policy Studies, Madras 1993; symposium in "Hindu-Christian Studies Bulletin" (No.8, 1995, pp.2-19); Kannada translation "Bharatiya Chitta, Manasikate, Kala" by S.R.Ramaswamy, Rashtrotthana Sahitya, Bangalore 1996; also in "Uthhana" (April 1993, pp.82–112); translations into Gujarati and Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), ed. Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively; English reprint in "Dharampal Classics Series," ed. J.K. Bajaj and M.D. Srinivas, Vol. 5, Rashtrotthana Sahitya: Bengaluru and Centre for Policy Studies: Chennai, 2021.
8. Dharampal", Bharat ka Svadharma" (Hindi), Vagdevi Prakashan, Bikaner 1994; translations into Gujarati and reprint in Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), ed. Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively.
9. “India’s Polity, its Characteristics and Current Problems.” In "The Origins of the Modern State in Europe, 13th to 18th Century: The Heritage of the Pre-industrial European State", ed. Wolfgang Reinhard, Lisbon 1996, pp. 137-163 (paper at a conference organised by the European Science Foundation, Lisbon, April 19929); reprinted in: Dharampal, "Collected Writings", Other India Press: Mapusa, 2000 (reissued 2003 & 2007), vol. V, pp.109-144. Translations into Gujarati and Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), ed. Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively.
10.  Dharampal, "Despoliation and Defaming of India: The Early Nineteenth Century British Crusade", Bharat Peetham, Wardha, 1999; translations into Gujarati and Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), ed. Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively.
11.  Dharampal and T.M. Mukundan, "The British Origin of Cow-Slaughter in India": "with some British Documents on the Anti-Kine-Killing movement 1880-1894", Society for Integrated Development of Himalayas, Mussoorie 2002; translations into Gujarati and Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), ed. Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively.
12.  Dharampal, "Understanding Gandhi", Other India Press: Mapusa 2003; translations into Gujarati and Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), ed. Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively; Tamil translation "Gandhiyai aridal" by Janakipriyan, Kalachuvadu Pathippagam, Nagercoil 2010.
Dharampal, "Rediscovering India:  Collection of Essays and Speeches (1956-1998)", Society for Integrated Development of Himalayas [SIDH]: Mussoorie 2003; translations into Gujarati and Hindi in "Dharampal Samagra Lekhan" (11 vols.), ed. Indumati Katdare, Punarutthan Trust, Ahmedabad 2005 and 2007, respectively.
[i] Dharampal, "Bharatiya Chitta, Manas and Kaal," translated from the original Hindi by J.K. Bajaj (Chennai: Centre for Policy Studies, 1993); a symposium on the book was published by the "Hindu-Christian Studies Bulletin" (No.8, 1995, pp.2-19, contd. in No.9, 1996), ed. by Francis Clooney. 
[ii] Dharampal and T.M. Mukundan, "The British Origin of Cow-Slaughter in India" (Mussoorie: Society for Integrated Development of Himalayas, 2002).
[iii] See Gyanendra Pandey, "The Construction of Communalism in Colonial North India", New Delhi: OUP, 1990, & “Rallying around the Cow: Sectarian Strife in the Bhojpuri Region, c. 1888-1916”, in Ranajit Guha, ed. "Writings on South Asian History and Society. Subaltern Studies", New Delhi: OUP, vol. 2, pp. 60-129. 
[iv] See also Bipan Chandra, Communalism in Modern India, New Delhi: Vikas, 1984. 
[v] Dharampal, "Understanding Gandhi" (Mapusa: Other India Press, 2003).
[i] Dharampal, "Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century: Some Contemporary European Accounts" (New Delhi: Biblia Impex, 1971); foreword by Dr. D.S. Kothari (President of the Indian Science Academy), and an introduction by Dr. William A. Blanpied, a prominent American physicist. For reviews, see "Times Literary Supplement" [TLS], 21.01.1972:, Arnold Pacey, "Journal of Appropriate Technology", 1972, p. 28; David Pingree, "Journal of Asian Studies" 32/1, 1972, pp. 178-179; P.J. Marshall, "South Asian Review" 1974, 255-256; Madras Group, "PPST Bulletin" 2/1, 1982, pp. 45-80; Ram Swarup, “A Newton among Brahmins”, "Times of India", 19.08.1984; N. Krishnaswamy, “Bharatiya Vijnana Parampare” [in Kannada], "Utthana", May 1985, pp. 19-32. A national seminar on “Science, Technology and Society in 18th century India” (New Delhi, November 1971) was sponsored by the Gandhi Peace Foundation and the Gandhian Institute of Studies, with an inaugural address by Jayaprakash Narayan. This volume formed the cornerstone of Claude Alvares’ PhD research (published as "Homo Faber: Technology and Culture in India, China and the West. 1500 to the Present Day", Bombay 1979). For recent reviews, see M.S. Sriram, “The traditional sciences and technologies of India”, "The New Indian Express" (27.04.2020), & “Metallurgy in ancient and medieval India”, "The New Indian Express" (03.04.2021).
[ii] Dharampal, "Civil Disobedience in Indian Tradition: With Some Early Nineteenth Century Documents" (Varanasi: Sarva Seva Sangh Prakashan, 1971); the book’s foreword is by Jayaprakash Narayan. See review entitled “People’s right to disobey”, "Resurgence" (edited by Satish Kumar), November/December 1973.
[iii] Dharampal, "The Beautiful Tree: Indigenous Indian Education in the Eighteenth Century" (New Delhi: Biblia Impex, 1983); see reviews by P. Radhakrishna ("Indian Express", 26.02.1984), Claude Alvares ("The Illustrated Weekly of India", 18.04.1984, 42-46; G.S.R. Krishnan ("The Illustrated Weekly of India", 22.07.1984), Dharma Kumar ("Seminar", May 1984; response by J.K. Bajaj & M.D. Srinivas, "Seminar", June 1984), G.S.R. Krishnan & Madras Group ("PPST Bulletin" 4/1, June 1984, pp. 22-47; pp. 48-63), G. Sivaramakrishnan ("Economic Political Weekly", 25.08.1984, pp. 1473-1475), Amrik Singh ("Indian Book Chronicle" 10/11, 01.06.1985, pp. 201-204), Ganesh Mantri ("Dharmayug", 14.07.1985), Aloka Parasher Sen & S.G. Kulkarni ("Studies in History" 2/2, 1986, pp. 288-291), Sebastian Joseph ("Deccan Herald", 29.03.1987).
[iv] See "Essays on Tradition, Recovery and Freedom", in: Dharampal "Collected Writings," vol. 5, Mapusa: Other India Press, 2000; and Dharampal, "Rediscovering India: Collection of Essays and Speeches (1956-1998)" Mussoorie: Society for Integrated Development of Himalayas [SIDH], 2003.
[i] Dharampal, "Panchayat Raj as the Basis of Indian Polity: An Exploration into the Proceedings of the Constituent Assembly" (New Delhi: Association of Voluntary Agencies for Rural Development, 1962)
[ii] Pratham Bhaskara Srinivas, “Holding a Mirror to Nehru's Intolerance : How criticism of Nehru’s policy by freedom fighter Sh. Dharampal led to imprisonment on charges of sedition during Indo-China War of 1962”, "Manushi" (November 04, 2020) [Accessed here:- https://www.manushi.in/national-security/holding-a-mirror-to-nehrus-intolerance--how-criticism-of-nehrus-policy-by-freedom-fighter-sh-dharampal-led-to-imprisonment-on-charges-of-sedition-during-indo-china-war-of-1962]. This article contains the text of the open letter, dated 22nd November 1962, and also refers to the subsequent debate in the national press.
[iii] Narendra Nath Datta (14th December 1926 – 17th June 2017) was born and brought up in the former Northwest Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan). As a teenager, he participated in the Freedom Struggle, and was known for his rousing speeches. After Partition he was in charge of the refugee settlement near Faridabad. Later in the 1950s, he joined the cooperative movement, and together with Lakshmi C. Jain established the Cottage Industries Emporium, of which he was one of the Directors; see above article by PB Srinivas, op. cit. vii.
[iv] Roop Narain (ca. 1923-January 2007) originated from Haryana and was active during the Freedom Movement. After Independence he served as a committed Congress worker in the Chandni Chowk District of Old Delhi, see above article by PB Srinivas, op. cit. note vii. 
[v] Dharampal, "The Madras Panchayat System, vol. II: A General Assessment" (New Delhi: Impex India, 1972); see reviews by R.K. Patil ("Interdiscipline", 10/2, 1972, 121-128) and by P.C. Mathur ("Political Science Review" 12/1, 2, 1973, 161-167).
[vi] See “The Problem”, reprinted in "Essential Writings of Dharampal" (New Delhi: Publications Division, 2015), pp. 177-190; for further details, see Kenneth Ballhatchet, "Social Policy and Change in Western India, 1817-1830" (OUP 1957).
[vii] See “Introduction” to this volume, reprinted in "Essential Writings of Dharampal" (New Delhi: Publication Division, 2015), pp. 169-176.