Go (programming language)

Go is a statically typed, compiled programming language designed at Google by Robert Griesemer, Rob Pike, and Ken Thompson. Go is syntactically similar to C, but with memory safety, garbage collection, structural typing, and CSP-style concurrency. The language is often referred to as Golang because of its domain name, codice_1, but the proper name is Go.
There are two major implementations:
A third-party transpiler GopherJS compiles Go to JavaScript for front-end web development.
History.
Go was designed at Google in 2007 to improve programming productivity in an era of multicore, networked machines and large codebases. The designers wanted to address criticism of other languages in use at Google, but keep their useful characteristics:
The designers were primarily motivated by their shared dislike of C++.
Go was publicly announced in November 2009, and version 1.0 was released in March 2012. Go is widely used in production at Google and in many other organizations and open-source projects.
In November 2016, the Go and Go Mono fonts were released by type designers Charles Bigelow and Kris Holmes specifically for use by the Go project. Go is a humanist sans-serif which resembles Lucida Grande and Go Mono is monospaced. Each of the fonts adhere to the WGL4 character set and were designed to be legible with a large x-height and distinct letterforms. Both Go and Go Mono adhere to the DIN 1450 standard by having a slashed zero, lowercase codice_2 with a tail, and an uppercase codice_3 with serifs.
In April 2018, the original logo was replaced with a stylized GO slanting right with trailing streamlines. However, the Gopher mascot remained the same.
In August 2018, the Go principal contributors published two "draft designs" for new language features, generics and error handling, and asked Go users to submit feedback on them.
Lack of support for generic programming and the verbosity of error handling in Go 1.x had drawn considerable criticism.
Version history.
Go 1 guarantees compatibility for the language specification and major parts of the standard library. All versions up to the current Go 1.15 release have maintained this promise.
Each major Go release is supported until there are two newer major releases.
Design.
Go is influenced by C, but with an emphasis on greater simplicity and safety. The language consists of:
Syntax.
Go's syntax includes changes from C aimed at keeping code concise and readable. A combined declaration/initialization operator was introduced that allows the programmer to write codice_9 or codice_10, without specifying the types of variables used. This contrasts with C's codice_11 and codice_12. Semicolons still terminate statements, but are implicit when the end of a line occurs. Methods may return multiple values, and returning a codice_13 pair is the conventional way a method indicates an error to its caller in Go. Go adds literal syntaxes for initializing struct parameters by name and for initializing maps and slices. As an alternative to C's three-statement codice_14 loop, Go's codice_15 expressions allow concise iteration over arrays, slices, strings, maps, and channels.
Types.
Go has a number of built-in types, including numeric ones (, , , etc.), booleans, and character strings (). Strings are immutable; built-in operators and keywords (rather than functions) provide concatenation, comparison, and UTF-8 encoding/decoding. Record types can be defined with the keyword.
For each type and each non-negative integer constant , there is an array type denoted ; arrays of differing lengths are thus of different types. Dynamic arrays are available as "slices", denoted for some type . These have a length and a "capacity" specifying when new memory needs to be allocated to expand the array. Several slices may share their underlying memory.
Pointers are available for all types, and the pointer-to- type is denoted . Address-taking and indirection use the and operators, as in C, or happen implicitly through the method call or attribute access syntax. There is no pointer arithmetic, except via the special type in the standard library.
For a pair of types , , the type is the type of hash tables mapping type- keys to type- values. Hash tables are built into the language, with special syntax and built-in functions. is a "channel" that allows sending values of type "T" between concurrent Go processes.
Aside from its support for interfaces, Go's type system is nominal: the keyword can be used to define a new "named type", which is distinct from other named types that have the same layout (in the case of a , the same members in the same order). Some conversions between types (e.g., between the various integer types) are pre-defined and adding a new type may define additional conversions, but conversions between named types must always be invoked explicitly. For example, the keyword can be used to define a type for IPv4 addresses, based on 32-bit unsigned integers:
type ipv4addr uint32
With this type definition, interprets the value as an IP address. Simply assigning to a variable of type is a type error.
Constant expressions may be either typed or "untyped"; they are given a type when assigned to a typed variable if the value they represent passes a compile-time check.
Function types are indicated by the keyword; they take zero or more parameters and return zero or more values, all of which are typed. The parameter and return values determine a function type; thus, is the type of functions that take a and a 32-bit signed integer, and return a signed integer (of default width) and a value of the built-in interface type .
Any named type has a method set associated with it. The IP address example above can be extended with a method for checking whether its value is a known standard:
// ZeroBroadcast reports whether addr is 255.255.255.255.
func (addr ipv4addr) ZeroBroadcast() bool {
 return addr == 0xFFFFFFFF
Due to nominal typing, this method definition adds a method to , but not on . While methods have special definition and call syntax, there is no distinct method type.
Interface system.
Go provides two features that replace class inheritance.
The first is "embedding", which can be viewed as an automated form of composition or delegation.
The second are its "interfaces", which provides runtime polymorphism. Interfaces are a class of types and provide a limited form of structural typing in the otherwise nominal type system of Go. An object which is of an interface type is also of another type, much like C++ objects being simultaneously of a base and derived class. Go interfaces were designed after protocols from the Smalltalk programming language. Multiple sources use the term duck typing when describing Go interfaces. Although the term duck typing is not precisely defined and therefore not wrong, it usually implies that type conformance is not statically checked. Since conformance to a Go interface is checked statically by the Go compiler (except when performing a type assertion), the Go authors prefer the term "structural typing".
The definition of an interface type lists required methods by name and type. Any object of type T for which functions exist matching all the required methods of interface type I is an object of type I as well. The definition of type T need not (and cannot) identify type I. For example, if , are defined as
import "math"
type Shape interface {
 Area() float64
type Square struct { // Note: no "implements" declaration
 side float64
type Circle struct { // No "implements" declaration here either
 radius float64
then both a and a are implicitly a and can be assigned to a -typed variable. In formal language, Go's interface system provides structural rather than nominal typing. Interfaces can embed other interfaces with the effect of creating a combined interface that is satisfied by exactly the types that implement the embedded interface and any methods that the newly defined interface adds.
The Go standard library uses interfaces to provide genericity in several places, including the input/output system that is based on the concepts of and .
Besides calling methods via interfaces, Go allows converting interface values to other types with a run-time type check. The language constructs to do so are the "type assertion", which checks against a single potential type, and the "type switch", which checks against multiple types.
The "empty interface" codice_16 is an important base case because it can refer to an item of "any" concrete type. It is similar to the class in Java or C# and is satisfied by any type, including built-in types like . Code using the empty interface cannot simply call methods (or built-in operators) on the referred-to object, but it can store the codice_16 value, try to convert it to a more useful type via a type assertion or type switch, or inspect it with Go's codice_18 package. Because codice_16 can refer to any value, it is a limited way to escape the restrictions of static typing, like codice_20 in C but with additional run-time type checks.
The codice_16 type can be used to model structured data of any arbitrary schema in Go, such as JSON or YAML data, by representing it as a codice_22 (map of string to empty interface). This recursively describes data in the form of a dictionary with string keys and values of any type.
Interface values are implemented using pointer to data and a second pointer to run-time type information. Like some other types implemented using pointers in Go, interface values are codice_23 if uninitialized.
Package system.
In Go's package system, each package has a path (e.g., codice_24 or codice_25) and a name (e.g., codice_26 or codice_27). References to other packages' definitions must "always" be prefixed with the other package's name, and only the "capitalized" names from other packages are accessible: codice_28 is public but codice_29 is not. The codice_7 command can retrieve packages stored in a remote repository and developers are encouraged to develop packages inside a base path corresponding to a source repository (such as example.com/user_name/package_name) to reduce the likelihood of name collision with future additions to the standard library or other external libraries.
Proposals exist to introduce a proper package management solution for Go similar to CPAN for Perl or Rust's cargo system or Node's npm system.
Concurrency: goroutines and channels.
The Go language has built-in facilities, as well as library support, for writing concurrent programs. Concurrency refers not only to CPU parallelism, but also to asynchrony: letting slow operations like a database or network read run while the program does other work, as is common in event-based servers.
The primary concurrency construct is the "goroutine", a type of light-weight process. A function call prefixed with the codice_31 keyword starts a function in a new goroutine. The language specification does not specify how goroutines should be implemented, but current implementations multiplex a Go process's goroutines onto a smaller set of operating-system threads, similar to the scheduling performed in Erlang.
While a standard library package featuring most of the classical concurrency control structures (mutex locks, etc.) is available, idiomatic concurrent programs instead prefer "channels", which provide send messages between goroutines. Optional buffers store messages in FIFO order and allow sending goroutines to proceed before their messages are received.
Channels are typed, so that a channel of type can only be used to transfer messages of type . Special syntax is used to operate on them; is an expression that causes the executing goroutine to block until a value comes in over the channel , while sends the value (possibly blocking until another goroutine receives the value). The built-in -like statement can be used to implement non-blocking communication on multiple channels; see below for an example. Go has a memory model describing how goroutines must use channels or other operations to safely share data.
The existence of channels sets Go apart from actor model-style concurrent languages like Erlang, where messages are addressed directly to actors (corresponding to goroutines). The actor style can be simulated in Go by maintaining a one-to-one correspondence between goroutines and channels, but the language allows multiple goroutines to share a channel or a single goroutine to send and receive on multiple channels.
From these tools one can build concurrent constructs like worker pools, pipelines (in which, say, a file is decompressed and parsed as it downloads), background calls with timeout, "fan-out" parallel calls to a set of services, and others. Channels have also found uses further from the usual notion of interprocess communication, like serving as a concurrency-safe list of recycled buffers, implementing coroutines (which helped inspire the name "goroutine"), and implementing iterators.
Concurrency-related structural conventions of Go (channels and alternative channel inputs) are derived from Tony Hoare's communicating sequential processes model. Unlike previous concurrent programming languages such as Occam or Limbo (a language on which Go co-designer Rob Pike worked), Go does not provide any built-in notion of safe or verifiable concurrency. While the communicating-processes model is favored in Go, it is not the only one: all goroutines in a program share a single address space. This means that mutable objects and pointers can be shared between goroutines; see , below.
Suitability for parallel programming.
Although Go's concurrency features are not aimed primarily at parallel processing, they can be used to program shared-memory multi-processor machines. Various studies have been done into the effectiveness of this approach. One of these studies compared the size (in lines of code) and speed of programs written by a seasoned programmer not familiar with the language and corrections to these programs by a Go expert (from Google's development team), doing the same for Chapel, Cilk and Intel TBB. The study found that the non-expert tended to write divide-and-conquer algorithms with one statement per recursion, while the expert wrote distribute-work-synchronize programs using one goroutine per processor. The expert's programs were usually faster, but also longer.
Lack of race condition safety.
There are no restrictions on how goroutines access shared data, making race conditions possible. Specifically, unless a program explicitly synchronizes via channels or other means, writes from one goroutine might be partly, entirely, or not at all visible to another, often with no guarantees about ordering of writes. Furthermore, Go's "internal data structures" like interface values, slice headers, hash tables, and string headers are not immune to race conditions, so type and memory safety can be violated in multithreaded programs that modify shared instances of those types without synchronization. Instead of language support, safe concurrent programming thus relies on conventions; for example, Chisnall recommends an idiom called "aliases xor mutable", meaning that passing a mutable value (or pointer) over a channel signals a transfer of ownership over the value to its receiver.
Binaries.
The linker in the gc toolchain creates statically linked binaries by default; therefore all Go binaries include the Go runtime.
Omissions.
Go deliberately omits certain features common in other languages, including (implementation) inheritance, generic programming, assertions, pointer arithmetic, implicit type conversions, untagged unions, and tagged unions. The designers added only those facilities that all three agreed on.
Of the omitted language features, the designers explicitly argue against assertions and pointer arithmetic, while defending the choice to omit type inheritance as giving a more useful language, encouraging instead the use of interfaces to achieve dynamic dispatch and composition to reuse code. Composition and delegation are in fact largely automated by embedding; according to researchers Schmager "et al.", this feature "has many of the drawbacks of inheritance: it affects the public interface of objects, it is not fine-grained (i.e, no method-level control over embedding), methods of embedded objects cannot be hidden, and it is static", making it "not obvious" whether programmers will overuse it to the extent that programmers in other languages are reputed to overuse inheritance.
The designers express an openness to generic programming and note that built-in functions "are" in fact type-generic, but these are treated as special cases; Pike calls this a weakness that may at some point be changed. The Google team built at least one compiler for an experimental Go dialect with generics, but did not release it. They are also open to standardizing ways to apply code generation. In June 2020, a new draft design document was published, which would add the necessary syntax to Go for declaring generic functions and types. A code translation tool was provided to allow users to try out the new syntax, along with a generics-enabled version of the online Go Playground.
Initially omitted, the exception-like / mechanism was eventually added, which the Go authors advise using for unrecoverable errors such as those that should halt an entire program or server request, or as a shortcut to propagate errors up the stack within a package (but not across package boundaries; there, error returns are the standard API).
Style.
The Go authors put substantial effort into influencing the style of Go programs:
Tools.
The main Go distribution includes tools for building, testing, and analyzing code:
It also includes profiling and debugging support, runtime instrumentation (for example, to track garbage collection pauses), and a race condition tester.
An ecosystem of third-party tools adds to the standard distribution, such as codice_50, which enables code autocompletion in many text editors, codice_51, which automatically adds/removes package imports as needed, and codice_52, which detects code that might unintentionally ignore errors.
Examples.
Hello world.
package main
import "fmt"
func main() {
 fmt.Println("Hello, world!")
where "fmt" is the package for "formatted I/O", similar to C's C file input/output.
Concurrency.
The following simple program demonstrates Go's concurrency features to implement an asynchronous program. It launches two lightweight threads ("goroutines"): one waits for the user to type some text, while the other implements a timeout. The statement waits for either of these goroutines to send a message to the main routine, and acts on the first message to arrive (example adapted from David Chisnall book).
package main
import (
 "fmt"
 "time"
func readword(ch chan string) {
 fmt.Println("Type a word, then hit Enter.")
 var word string
 fmt.Scanf("%s", &word)
 ch <- word
func timeout(t chan bool) {
 time.Sleep(5 * time.Second)
 t <- false
func main() {
 t := make(chan bool)
 go timeout(t)
 ch := make(chan string)
 go readword(ch)
 select {
 case word := <-ch:
 fmt.Println("Received", word)
 case <-t:
 fmt.Println("Timeout.")
Testing.
The testing package provides support for automated testing of go packages. Target function example:
func ExtractUsername(email string) string {
 at := strings.Index(email, "@")
 return email[:at]
Test code (note that assert keyword is missing in Go; tests live in <filename>_test.go at the same package):
import (
 "testing" 
func TestExtractUsername(t *testing.T) {
 t.Run("withoutDot", func(t *testing.T) {
 username := ExtractUsername("r@google.com")
 if username != "r" {
 t.Fatalf("Got: %v\n", username)
 })
 t.Run("withDot", func(t *testing.T) {
 username := ExtractUsername("jonh.smith@example.com")
 if username != "jonh.smith" {
 t.Fatalf("Got: %v\n", username)
 })
It is possible to run tests in parallel.
Web App.
The net/http package provides support for creating web applications.
This example would show "Hello world!" when localhost:8080 is visited.
import (
 "fmt"
 "log"
 "net/http" 
func helloFunc(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
 fmt.Fprintf(w, "Hello world!")
func main() {
 http.HandleFunc("/", helloFunc)
 log.Fatal(http.ListenAndServe(":8080", nil))
Applications.
Some notable open-source applications written in Go include:
Other notable companies and sites using Go (generally together with other languages, not exclusively) include:
See also related query to Wikidata.
Reception.
The interface system, and the deliberate omission of inheritance, were praised by Michele Simionato, who likened these characteristics to those of Standard ML, calling it "a shame that no popular language has followed [this] particular route".
Dave Astels at Engine Yard wrote:
Go was named Programming Language of the Year by the TIOBE Programming Community Index in its first year, 2009, for having a larger 12-month increase in popularity (in only 2 months, after its introduction in November) than any other language that year, and reached 13th place by January 2010, surpassing established languages like Pascal. By June 2015, its ranking had dropped to below 50th in the index, placing it lower than COBOL and Fortran. But as of January 2017, its ranking had surged to 13th, indicating significant growth in popularity and adoption. Go was awarded TIOBE programming language of the year 2016.
Bruce Eckel has stated:
A 2011 evaluation of the language and its implementation in comparison to C++ (GCC), Java and Scala by a Google engineer found:
The evaluation got a rebuttal from the Go development team. Ian Lance Taylor, who had improved the Go code for Hundt's paper, had not been aware of the intention to publish his code, and says that his version was "never intended to be an example of idiomatic or efficient Go"; Russ Cox then optimized the Go code, as well as the C++ code, and got the Go code to run slightly faster than C++ and more than an order of magnitude faster than the code in the paper.
Naming dispute.
On November 10, 2009, the day of the general release of the language, Francis McCabe, developer of the Go! programming language (note the exclamation point), requested a name change of Google's language to prevent confusion with his language, which he had spent 10 years developing. McCabe raised concerns that "the 'big guy' will end up steam-rollering over" him, and this concern resonated with the more than 120 developers who commented on Google's official issues thread saying they should change the name, with some even saying the issue contradicts Google's motto of: Don't be evil.
On October 12, 2010, the issue was closed by Google developer Russ Cox (@rsc) with the custom status "Unfortunate" accompanied by the following comment: "There are many computing products and services named Go. In the 11 months since our release, there has been minimal confusion of the two languages."
Criticism.
Go critics say that: