Sustainable Development Goal 15

Sustainable Development Goal 15 (SDG 15 or Global Goal 15) is about "Life on land." One of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in 2015, the official wording is: "Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss". The Goal has 12 targets to be achieved by 2030. Progress towards targets will be measured by 14 indicators.
The nine "outcome targets" include: Conserve and restore terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems; end deforestation and restore degraded forests; end desertification and restore degraded land; ensure conservation of mountain ecosystems, protect biodiversity and natural habitats; protect access to genetic resources and fair sharing of the benefits; eliminate poaching and trafficking of protected species; prevent invasive alien species on land and in water ecosystems; and integrate ecosystem and biodiversity in governmental planning. The three "means of achieving targets" include: Increase financial resources to conserve and sustainably use ecosystem and biodiversity; finance and incentivize sustainable forest management; combat global poaching and trafficking.
Humans depend on earth and the ocean to live. This goal aims at securing sustainable livelihoods that will be enjoyed for generations to come. The human diet is composed 80% of plant life, which makes agriculture a very important economic resource. Plant life provides 80 percent of the human diet, and we rely on agriculture as an important economic resources. Forests cover 30 percent of the Earth's surface, provide vital habitats for millions of species, and important sources for clean air and water, as well as being crucial for combating climate change.
An annual report is prepared by the Secretary-General of the United Nations evaluating the progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals. The report from 2020 stated that key biodiversity and species remain threatened with extinction and forest areas continue to diminish.
Background.
The Sustainable Development Goals are a collection of 17 global goals set by the United Nations. The broad goals are interrelated though each has its own targets to achieve. The SDGs cover a broad range of social and economic development issues. 
SDG 15l articulates targets for preserving biodiversity of forest, desert, and mountain eco-systems, as a percentage of total land mass. A "land degradation-neutral world" can be reached by restoring degraded forests and land lost to drought and flood. Goal 15 calls for more attention to preventing invasion of introduced species and more protection of endangered species. Forests have a prominent role to play in the success of Agenda 2030, notably in terms of ecosystem services, livelihoods, and the green economy; but this will require clear priorities to address key tradeoffs and mobilize synergies with other SDGs.
Around 1.6 billion people depend on forests for their livelihoods, 2.6 billion people depend directly on agriculture for a living, 80% of forests are home to more than 80 percent of all species of animals, plants and insects.
Some 31% of the earth's land surface is covered by forests. The world lost nearly 100 million ha of its forests. The extinction of species extinction threatens sustainable development and compromises global heritage. It is mainly due to habitat loss from unsustainable agriculture, harvest and trade, deforestation and invasive alien species.
Efforts that could help to reverse those outcomes include sustainable forest management; gains in protected area coverage for terrestrial, freshwater and mountain areas; and progress in implementing programs, legislation and accounting principles to protect biodiversity and ecosystems.
Targets, indicators and progress.
The UN has defined 12 Targets and 14 Indicators for SDG 15. Four of them are to be achieved by the year 2020, two by the year 2030 and the rest have no target year. 
Each of the targets also has one or more indicators to measure progress. In total there are fourteen indicators for SDG 15. FAO is the custodian agency for three of the indicators for SDG targets 15.1, 15.2 and 15.4.
Target 15.1: Conserve and restore terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems.
The full title of Target 15.1 is: "By 2020, ensure the conservation, restoration and sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and their services, in particular forests, wetlands, mountains and drylands, in line with obligations under international agreements." 
This target has two indicators: 
Forests cover roughly 4 billion hectares or 30.7 per cent of the world's land area. 93 percent are natural forests and 7 percent are planted. The forest area is defined by the land under natural or planted groups of trees of at least 5 meters in situ. The trees can be either be productive or non-productive and should not include fruit plantations and agroforestry systems and trees in urban parks and gardens. Protected areas are defined by three indicators: 1) the proportion of total terrestrial area classified as protected 2) the proportion of important sites of terrestrial biodiversity who are protected 3) and proportion of important sites of freshwater biodiversity that are protected.
A progress report in 2020 provided the following data for forest areas:
In 2020 it was found that the proportion of forests in protected areas and under long-term management plans, as well as certified forest area, increased or remained stable at the global level and in most regions of the world.  
Target 15.2: End deforestation and restore degraded forests.
The full title of Target 15.2 is: "By 2020, promote the implementation of sustainable management of all types of forests, halt deforestation, restore degraded forests and substantially increase afforestation and reforestation globally."
This target has one Indicator: Indicator 15.2.1 is the "Progress towards sustainable forest management".
The United Nations General Assembly has defined Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) as a dynamic and evolving concept that aims to maintain and enhance the economic, social and environmental values of all types of forests, for the benefit of present and future generations (Resolution A/RES/62/98). It aims to find a balance between the increasing demands for forest products and the benefits as well as preserving the health and diversity of the forests. 
SDG indicator 15.2.1 is composed of five sub-indicators that measure progress towards all dimensions of sustainable forest management. They provide qualification to the management of forest areas and assess areas with a set on national and international standards.
Target 15.3: End desertification and restore degraded land.
The full title of Target 15.3 is: "By 2030, combat desertification, restore degraded land and soil, including land affected by desertification, drought and floods, and strive to achieve a land degradation-neutral world."
This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.3.1 is the "Proportion of land that is degraded over the total land area".
Desertification is defined by the degradation of drylands as a result of various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Desertification can be prevented by integrating land and water management to protect soils from erosion and degradation, protecting the vegetations, integrating the use of land for farming among others. Desertification affects as much as one-sixth of the world's population, 70% of all drylands, and one-quarter of the total land area of the world. It also leads to spreading poverty and the degradation of billion hectares of cropland.
Target 15.4: Ensure conservation of mountain ecosystems.
The full title of Target 15.4 is: "By 2030, ensure the conservation of mountain ecosystems, including their biodiversity, in order to enhance their capacity to provide benefits that are essential for sustainable development."
This target has two indicators:
The Mountain Green Cover Index measured the percentage of mountain environments covered by green areas and the capacity of those areas to fulfil their ecosystem roles.
As of 2017, 76% of the world's mountain areas were covered by green vegetation, including forests, shrubs, grassland and cropland. The Mountain Green Cover was lowest in Western Asia and Northern Africa (60%) and highest in Oceania (96%).
Target 15.5: Protect biodiversity and natural habitats.
The full title of Target 15.5 is: "Take urgent and significant action to reduce the degradation of natural habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity and, by 2020, protect and prevent the extinction of threatened species."
This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.5.1 is the "Red List Index".
The Red List Index (RLI) shows trends in overall extinction risk for species and is used by governments to track their progress towards targets for reducing biodiversity loss. If the RLI value is 1.0, it means that species are categorized as 'Least Concern'. They will be expected to go extinct in the near future. If the RLI value is 0, this means that the species have gone extinct.
A report in 2020 stated that globally, the species extinction risk has worsened by about 10 per cent over the past three decades. The Red List Index is declining, from 0.82 in 1990 to 0.75 in 2015 to 0.73 in 2020.
A report in 2018 stated that "biodiversity must be mainstreamed across these sectors and spatial planning integrated accordingly." It also tackles the importance of taking care of land degradation and restoring them where possible.
Target 15.6: Protect access to genetic resources and fair sharing of the benefits.
The full title of Target 15.6 is: "Promote fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources and promote appropriate access to such resources, as internationally agreed." 
This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.6.1 is the "Number of countries that have adopted legislative, administrative and policy frameworks to ensure fair and equitable sharing of benefits".
This indicator is used to track countries’ participation in protocols related to the promotion and sharing of genetic resources for plants, food and agriculture. 
The Nagoya Protocol on "Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity" is an international agreement which aims to share the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equal way.
As of 2020, there are  now 146 contracting parties to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, and  56  countries have  provided information  about their access and benefit-sharing measures.
Target 15.7: Eliminate poaching and trafficking of protected species.
The full title of Target 15.7 is: "Take urgent action to end poaching and trafficking of protected species of flora and fauna and address both demand and supply of illegal wildlife products."
This target has one Indicator: Indicator 15.7.1 is the "Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked".
No data are available for this indicator yet.
Target 15.8: Prevent invasive alien species on land and in water ecosystems.
The full title of Target 15.8 is: "By 2020, introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems and control or eradicate the priority species."
This target has one Indicator: Indicator is 15.8.1 is the "Proportion of countries adopting relevant national legislation and adequately resourcing the prevention or control of invasive alien species".
Poaching is defined by illegal hunting and capturing of wild animals. The world is facing an unprecedented spike in illegal wildlife trade. It is the largest direct threat to the future of many of the world's most threatened and vulnerable species.
Wildlife poaching and trafficking threaten biodiversity and ecosystems as well as local livelihoods, wellbeing and security. Trafficking is normally driven by organized crime, and made easy by corruption and weak governance. Trafficking is a cross-cutting issue. Hence, addressing SDG 15.7 also addresses many other SDGs.
Target 15.9: Integrate ecosystem and biodiversity in governmental planning.
The full title of Target 15.9 is: "By 2020, integrate ecosystem and biodiversity values into national and local planning, development processes, poverty reduction strategies and accounts."
Indicator is 15.9.1 is the "Progress towards national targets established in accordance with Aichi Biodiversity Target 2 of the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020".
"Aichi Biodiversity Target 2" addresses the underlying causes of biodiversity loss by mainstreaming biodiversity across government and society. The target is to have all biodiversity values integrated into national and local development by 2020 as well the incorporation of planning processes into national reporting systems. 
As at January 2020, 129 parties, including the European Union, had reported their sixth national report. It was found that "about half the parties had made progress towards their targets, but not at a rate that will allow them to meet their goals".
Target 15.a: Increase financial resources to conserve and sustainably use ecosystem and biodiversity.
The full title of Target 15.a is: "Mobilize and significantly increase financial resources from all sources to conserve and sustainably use biodiversity and ecosystems."
This target has one Indicator: Indicator 15.a.1 is the "Official development assistance and public expenditure on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems".
The official development assistance (ODA) is defined by "the flows to countries and territories on the Development Assistance Committee (DAC) list of ODA recipients and to multilateral institutions". Institutions can by official agencies, state and local governments. The transactions should mainly promote the economic development and welfare of developing countries.
The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) highlights the fact that biodiversity-related ODA may often target multiple objectives at the same time, such as climate change and gender equality.
Target 15.b: Finance and incentivize sustainable forest management.
The full title of Target 15.b is: "Mobilize significant resources from all sources and at all levels to finance sustainable forest management and provide adequate incentives to developing countries to advance such management, including for conservation and reforestation." 
This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.b.1 is the "Official development assistance and public expenditure on conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity and ecosystems". 
This target aims at mobilizing resources at all levels to finance sustainable forest management. The United Nations Strategic Plan for Forests 2017-2030 (UNSPF) presents a global framework for actions at all levels to sustainably manage forests and halt deforestation and forest degradation. Forests present essential ecosystem services like timber, food, fuel as well as soil and water conservation and clean air. They also contribute to climate change mitigation and conservation of biodiversity. When we sustainably manage forests, they become healthy and resilient and provide essential goods and services to everyone. 
Target 15.c: Combat global poaching and trafficking.
The full title of Target 15.c is: "Enhance global support for efforts to combat poaching and trafficking of protected species, including by increasing the capacity of local communities to pursue sustainable livelihood opportunities." 
This target has one indicator: Indicator 15.c.1 is the "Proportion of traded wildlife that was poached or illicitly trafficked". 
The illegal trade and animal trafficking has grown significantly to become one of the world's largest black markets values at tens of billions of dollars. 
The challenges to combat global poaching and trafficking need to be addressed by enforcing laws and strengthening institutions.
Custodian agencies.
The custodian agencies are responsible for data gathering and reporting on the indicators. They are:
Monitoring and progress.
An annual report is prepared by the Secretary-General of the United Nations evaluating the progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals. According to the expert group meeting in preparation for the High-level Political Forum of 2018, progress on SDG 15 is related to actions rather than status. For example, there is progress on the numbers of protected areas but enough on the Red List numbers. The monitoring framework still needs to be linked to quality to obtain more meaningful results. It also needs more indicators in areas such as forest intactness, management effectiveness of protected areas, and meaningful integration of biodiversity into other processes. 
The biggest constraints to achieving SDG 15 are lack of political profile and cohesive action. This is accompanied by the fragmented nature of efforts to stabilize the loss of nature and life and land. It is very important to understand the political relevance of SDG 15 and act accordingly. This will give a clear picture of the costs of achieving this goal.
Challenges.
Impacts of COVID-19 pandemic.
In FAO's 2020 report on the state of the world's forests, the degradation and loss of forests was mentioned as an underlying cause of the COVID-19 pandemic. It is a contributing factor to disrupting nature's balance and increasing the risk and exposure of people to animal-related diseases. COVID-19 is a proof that degraded habitats will continue to lead to more animal-human interactions, diversification of diseases, evolutionary processes because parasites spread easily from livestock to human beings. It is evident from the pandemic that wildlife trafficking is a great contributor to ecosystems disruptions and spread of infections.
Links with other SDGs.
It is important to ensure that tools and solutions to achieving SDG 15 are linked to the tools to achieve other SDGs, including those related to gender equality, water and climate change. The interlinkages among water, forests, soils and climate change are especially important. 
The environmental SDGs and socio-economic SDGs are equally important and interconnected. Women play a major role and must be taken into consideration when trying to achieve SDG 15. Biodiversity and land degradation have strong, mainly synergistic links with SDG 6 (water), SDG 12 (consumption), SDG 13 (climate), SDG 2 (food security), SDG 1 (poverty), SDG 11 (cities) and SDG 7 (energy).
All other 17 sustainable development goals are linked either directly or indirectly with SDG 15. SDG 3 and SDG 6 have a high level of synergy with SDG 15.