Drought

A drought is an event of prolonged shortages in the water supply, whether atmospheric (below-average precipitation), surface water or ground water. A drought can last for months or years, or may be declared after as few as 15 days. It can have a substantial impact on the ecosystem and agriculture of the affected region and harm to the local economy. Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought developing and subsequent bush fires. Periods of heat can significantly worsen drought conditions by hastening evaporation of water vapour.
Drought is a recurring feature of the climate in most parts of the world. However, these regular droughts have become more extreme and more unpredictable due to climate change. In fact studies based on dendrochronology, or tree rings dating, confirm that drought affected by global warming goes back to 1900.
Many plant species, such as those in the family Cactaceae (or cacti), have drought tolerance adaptations like reduced leaf area and waxy cuticles to enhance their ability to tolerate drought. Some others survive dry periods as buried seeds. Semi-permanent drought produces arid biomes such as deserts and grasslands. Prolonged droughts have caused mass migrations and humanitarian crisis. Most arid ecosystems have inherently low productivity. The most prolonged drought ever in the world in recorded history occurred in the Atacama Desert in Chile (400 Years).
Droughts affect food production and human society, so they are considered a disaster, of natural, supernatural or human cause (which itself could be supernatural causes, malediction, sin, ...). It is among the earliest documented climatic events, present in the Epic of Gilgamesh and tied to the Biblical story of Joseph's arrival in and the later Exodus from Ancient Egypt. Hunter-gatherer migrations in 9,500 BC Chile have been linked to the phenomenon, as has the exodus of early humans out of Africa and into the rest of the world around 135,000 years ago. Rituals exist to prevent or avert drought, rainmaking could go from dances to scapegoating to human sacrifices. Nowadays, those ancient practices are for the most part relegated to folklore and replaced by more rational water management.
Types.
People tend to define droughts in three main ways:
As a drought persists, the conditions surrounding it gradually worsen and its impact on the local population gradually increases.
Causes.
Precipitation deficiency.
Mechanisms of producing precipitation include convective, stratiform, and orographic rainfall. Convective processes involve strong vertical motions that can cause the overturning of the atmosphere in that location within an hour and cause heavy precipitation, while stratiform processes involve weaker upward motions and less intense precipitation over a longer duration. Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice. Droughts occur mainly in areas where normal levels of rainfall are, in themselves, low. If these factors do not support precipitation volumes sufficiently to reach the surface over a sufficient time, the result is a drought. Drought can be triggered by a high level of reflected sunlight and above average prevalence of high pressure systems, winds carrying continental, rather than oceanic air masses, and ridges of high pressure areas aloft can prevent or restrict the developing of thunderstorm activity or rainfall over one certain region. Once a region is within drought, feedback mechanisms such as local arid air, hot conditions which can promote warm core ridging, and minimal evapotranspiration can worsen drought conditions.
Dry season.
Within the tropics, distinct, wet and dry seasons emerge due to the movement of the Intertropical Convergence Zone or Monsoon trough. The dry season greatly increases drought occurrence, and is characterized by its low humidity, with watering holes and rivers drying up. Because of the lack of these watering holes, many grazing animals are forced to migrate due to the lack of water in search of more fertile lands. Examples of such animals are zebras, elephants, and wildebeest. Because of the lack of water in the plants, bushfires are common. Since water vapor becomes more energetic with increasing temperature, more water vapor is required to increase relative humidity values to 100% at higher temperatures (or to get the temperature to fall to the dew point). Periods of warmth quicken the pace of fruit and vegetable production, increase evaporation and transpiration from plants, and worsen drought conditions.
El Niño.
Drier and hotter weather occurs in parts of the Amazon River Basin, Colombia, and Central America during El Niño events. Winters during the El Niño are warmer and drier than average conditions in the Northwest, northern Midwest, and northern Mideast United States, so those regions experience reduced snowfalls. Conditions are also drier than normal from December to February in south-central Africa, mainly in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Botswana. Direct effects of El Niño resulting in drier conditions occur in parts of Southeast Asia and Northern Australia, increasing bush fires, worsening haze, and decreasing air quality dramatically. Drier-than-normal conditions are also in general observed in Queensland, inland Victoria, inland New South Wales, and eastern Tasmania from June to August. As warm water spreads from the west Pacific and the Indian Ocean to the east Pacific, it causes extensive drought in the western Pacific. Singapore experienced the driest February in 2014 since records began in 1869, with only 6.3 mm of rain falling in the month and temperatures hitting as high as 35 °C on 26 February. The years 1968 and 2005 had the next driest Februaries, when 8.4 mm of rain fell.
Erosion and human activities.
Human activity can directly trigger exacerbating factors such as over farming, excessive irrigation, deforestation, and erosion adversely impact the ability of the land to capture and hold water. In arid climates, the main source of erosion is wind. Erosion can be the result of material movement by the wind. The wind can cause small particles to be lifted and therefore moved to another region (deflation). Suspended particles within the wind may impact on solid objects causing erosion by abrasion (ecological succession). Wind erosion generally occurs in areas with little or no vegetation, often in areas where there is insufficient rainfall to support vegetation.
Loess is a homogeneous, typically nonstratified, porous, friable, slightly coherent, often calcareous, fine-grained, silty, pale yellow or buff, windblown (Aeolian) sediment. It generally occurs as a widespread blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers and tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Loess tends to develop into highly rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, areas with loess are among the most agriculturally productive in the world. Loess deposits are geologically unstable by nature, and will erode very readily. Therefore, windbreaks (such as big trees and bushes) are often planted by farmers to reduce the wind erosion of loess. Wind erosion is much more severe in arid areas and during times of drought. For example, in the Great Plains, it is estimated that soil loss due to wind erosion can be as much as 6100 times greater in drought years than in wet years.
Climate change.
Global climate change is expected to trigger droughts with a substantial impact on agriculture throughout the world, and especially in [[developing nation]]s. Along with drought in some areas, flooding and erosion could increase in others. Some proposed [[Mitigation of global warming|solutions to global warming]] that focus on more active techniques, [[solar radiation management]] through the use of a [[space sunshade]] for one, may also carry with them increased chances of drought.
According to the [[Special Report on Climate Change and Land]] of the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] climate change increase drought and [[desertification]]. Hundreds of million people are affected. The affected area includes large territories in Africa, Asia, Australia, and South America.
Consequences.
[[File:Global Drought Total Economic Loss Risk Deciles (5457316295).jpg|thumb|Global drought total economic loss risk]]
[[File:DroughtinNamibia.jpg|thumb|right|Pair of dead oryx in Namibia during the [[2018–19 Southern Africa drought]].]] One can divide the effects of droughts and water shortages into three groups: environmental, economic and social.
Effects vary according to vulnerability. For example, subsistence farmers are more likely to migrate during drought because they do not have alternative food-sources. Areas with populations that depend on water sources as a major food-source are more vulnerable to famine.
Drought can also reduce water quality, because lower water-flows reduce dilution of pollutants and increase [[contamination]] of remaining water-sources. Common consequences of drought include:
Protection, mitigation and relief.
[[File:Huntington Desert Garden Cactus (etc).jpg|thumb|Succulent plants are well-adapted to survive long periods of drought.|alt=|left]]
[[File:FEMA - 917 - Photograph by Angel Santiago taken on 04-03-1998 in Marshall Islands.jpg|thumb|upright|Water distribution on [[Marshall Islands]] during [[El Niño-Southern Oscillation|El Niño]].]]
Agriculturally, people can effectively mitigate much of the impact of drought through irrigation and [[crop rotation]]. Failure to develop adequate drought mitigation strategies carries a grave human cost in the modern era, exacerbated by [[population growth|ever-increasing]] population densities. [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] on April 27, 1935, signed documents creating the [[Soil conservation|Soil Conservation]] Service (SCS)—now the [[Natural Resources Conservation Service]] (NRCS). Models of the law were sent to each state where they were enacted. These were the first enduring practical programs to curtail future susceptibility to drought, creating agencies that first began to stress soil conservation measures to protect farm lands today. It was not until the 1950s that there was an importance placed on water conservation was put into the existing laws (NRCS 2014).
Strategies for drought protection, mitigation or relief include:
History.
[[File:Dust Bowl - Dallas, South Dakota 1936.jpg|thumb|A South Dakota farm during the [[Dust Bowl]], 1936]]
Well-known historical droughts include:
[[File:Sahel Map-Africa rough.png|thumb|right|Affected areas in the western [[Sahel]] belt during the [[2012 Sahel drought|2012 drought]].]]
The Darfur conflict in [[Sudan]], also affecting [[Chad]], was fueled by decades of drought; combination of drought, [[desertification]] and [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]] are among the causes of the Darfur conflict, because the [[Arab]] [[Baggara]] [[nomads]] searching for water have to take their livestock further south, to land mainly occupied by non-Arab farming people.
[[File:Drought affected area in Karnataka, India, 2012.jpg|thumb|Drought-affected area in [[Karnataka]], [[India]] in 2012.|alt=|left]]
Approximately 2.4 billion people live in the [[drainage basin]] of the Himalayan rivers. [[India]], [[China]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Nepal]] and [[Myanmar]] could experience floods followed by droughts in coming decades. [[Drought in India]] affecting the Ganges is of particular concern, as it provides [[drinking water]] and agricultural [[irrigation]] for more than 500 million people. The west coast of [[North America]], which gets much of its water from [[glacier]]s in mountain ranges such as the [[Rocky Mountains]] and [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]], also would be affected.
In 2005, parts of the [[Amazon basin]] experienced the worst drought in 100 years. A 23 July 2006 article reported [[Woods Hole Research Center]] results showing that the forest in its present form could survive only three years of drought. Scientists at the Brazilian [[National Institute of Amazonian Research]] argue in the article that this drought response, coupled with the effects of [[deforestation]] on regional climate, are pushing the rainforest towards a "[[tipping point (climatology)|tipping point]]" where it would irreversibly start to die. It concludes that the [[rainforest]] is on the brink of being turned into [[savanna]] or [[desert]], with catastrophic consequences for the world's climate. According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], the combination of [[climate change]] and deforestation increases the drying effect of dead trees that fuels forest fires.
[[File:ShrinkingLakeChad-1973-1997-EO.jpg|thumb|right|[[Lake Chad]] in a 2001 satellite image. The lake has shrunk by 95% since the 1960s.]]
By far the largest part of [[Australia]] is [[Deserts of Australia|desert]] or semi-arid lands commonly known as the [[outback]]. A 2005 study by Australian and American researchers investigated the desertification of the interior, and suggested that one explanation was related to [[human]] settlers who arrived about 50,000 years ago. Regular burning by these settlers could have prevented [[monsoon]]s from reaching interior Australia. In June 2008 it became known that an expert panel had warned of long term, maybe irreversible, severe ecological damage for the whole [[Murray-Darling basin]] if it did not receive sufficient water by October 2008. Australia could experience more severe droughts and they could become more frequent in the future, a government-commissioned report said on July 6, 2008. Australian environmentalist [[Tim Flannery]], predicted that unless it made drastic changes, [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] in [[Western Australia]] could become the world's first [[ghost town|ghost metropolis]], an abandoned city with no more water to sustain its population. The long Australian [[2000s Australian drought|Millennial drought]] broke in 2010.
Recurring droughts leading to [[desertification]] in [[East Africa]] have created grave ecological catastrophes, prompting food shortages in [[1983–85 famine in Ethiopia|1984–85]], [[2006 Horn of Africa food crisis|2006]] and [[2011 East Africa drought|2011]]. During the 2011 drought, an estimated 50,000 to 150,000 people were reported to have died, though these figures and the extent of the crisis are disputed. In February 2012, the UN announced that the crisis was over due to a scaling up of relief efforts and a bumper harvest. Aid agencies subsequently shifted their emphasis to recovery efforts, including digging irrigation canals and distributing plant seeds.
In 2012, a severe [[2012 Sahel drought|drought]] struck the western [[Sahel]]. The [[Methodist Relief & Development Fund (MRDF)]] reported that more than 10 million people in the region were at risk of famine due to a month-long heat wave that was hovering over [[Niger]], [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]] and [[Burkina Faso]]. A fund of about £20,000 was distributed to the drought-hit countries.
External links.
[[Category:Droughts| ]]
[[Category:Meteorological phenomena]]
[[Category:Civil defense]]
[[Category:Climate variability and change]]
[[Category:Hydrology]]
[[Category:Water and the environment]]
[[Category:Weather hazards]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Natural disasters]]