Semantic change

Semantic change (also semantic shift, semantic progression, semantic development, or semantic drift) is a form of language change regarding the evolution of word usage—usually to the point that the modern meaning is radically different from the original usage. In diachronic (or historical) linguistics, semantic change is a change in one of the meanings of a word. Every word has a variety of senses and connotations, which can be added, removed, or altered over time, often to the extent that cognates across space and time have very different meanings. The study of semantic change can be seen as part of etymology, onomasiology, semasiology, and semantics.
Evolution of types.
A number of classification schemes have been suggested for semantic change.
Recent overviews have been presented by Blank and . Semantic change has attracted academic discussions since ancient times, although the first major works emerged in the 19th century with , , and . Studies beyond the analysis of single words have been started with the word-field analyses of , who claimed that every semantic change of a word would also affect all other words in a lexical field. His approach was later refined by . introduced Generative semantics. More recent works including pragmatic and cognitive theories are those in , Dirk Geeraerts, and .
A chronological list of typologies is presented below. Today, the most currently used typologies are those by and .
Typology by Reisig (1839).
Reisig's ideas for a classification were published posthumously. He resorts to classical rhetorics and distinguishes between
Typology by Darmesteter (1887).
The last two are defined as change between whole and part, which would today be rendered as "synecdoche".
Typology by Stern (1931).
This classification does not neatly distinguish between processes and forces/causes of semantic change.
Typology by Bloomfield (1933).
The most widely accepted scheme in the English-speaking academic world is from :
Typology by Ullmann (1957, 1962).
Ullmann distinguishes between nature and consequences of semantic change:
Typology by Blank (1999).
However, the categorization of has gained increasing acceptance:
Blank considered it problematic to include amelioration and pejoration of meaning (as in Ullman) as well as strengthening and weakening of meaning (as in Bloomfield). According to Blank, these are not objectively classifiable phenomena; moreover, Blank has argued that all of the examples listed under these headings can be grouped under other phenomena, rendering the categories redundant.
Forces triggering change.
Blank has tried to create a complete list of motivations for semantic change. They can be summarized as:
This list has been revised and slightly enlarged by :
The case of reappropriation.
A specific case of semantic change is reappropriation, a cultural process by which a group reclaims words or artifacts that were previously used in a way disparaging of that group, for example like with the word queer. Other related processes include pejoration and amelioration.
Practical studies.
Apart from many individual studies, etymological dictionaries are prominent reference books for finding out about semantic changes.