Intersection type

In type theory, an intersection type can be allocated to values that can be assigned both the type formula_1 and the type formula_2. This value can be given the intersection type formula_3 in an intersection type system.
Generally, if the ranges of values of two types overlap, then a value belonging to the "intersection" of the two ranges can be assigned the "intersection type" of these two types. Such a value can be safely passed as argument to functions expecting "either" of the two types.
For example, in Java the class implements both the and the interfaces. Therefore, an object of type can be safely passed to functions expecting an argument of type and to functions expecting an argument of type .
Intersection types are composite data types. Similar to product types, they are used to assign several types to an object.
However, product types are assigned to tuples, so that each tuple element is assigned a particular product type component. 
In comparison, underlying objects of intersection types are not necessarily composite. A restricted form of intersection types are refinement types.
Intersection types are useful for describing overloaded functions. For example, if is the type of function taking a number as an argument and returning a number, and is the type of function taking a string as an argument and returning a string, then the intersection of these two types can be used to describe (overloaded) functions that do one or the other, based on what type of input they are given.
Contemporary programming languages, including Ceylon, Flow, Java, Scala, TypeScript, and Whiley (see comparison of languages with intersection types), use intersection types to combine interface specifications and to express ad hoc polymorphism.
Complementing parametric polymorphism, intersection types may be used to avoid class hierarchy pollution from cross-cutting concerns and reduce boilerplate code, as shown in the TypeScript example below.
The type theoretic study of intersection types is referred to as the intersection type discipline.
Remarkably, program termination can be precisely characterized using intersection types.
TypeScript example.
TypeScript supports intersection types, improving expressiveness of the type system and reducing potential class hierarchy size, demonstrated as follows.
The following program code defines the classes , , and that each have a method returning an object of either type , , or .
Additionally, the functions and require arguments of type and , respectively.
//produces eggs
//produces milk
//produces a random number
//requires an egg
function eatEgg(egg: Egg) {
 return "I ate an egg.";
//requires milk
function drinkMilk(milk: Milk) {
 return "I drank some milk.";
The following program code defines the ad hoc polymorphic function that invokes the member function of the given object .
The function has "two" type annotations, namely and , connected via the intersection type constructor .
Specifically, when applied to an argument of type returns an object of type type , and when applied to an argument of type returns an object of type type .
Ideally, should not be applicable to any object having (possibly by chance) a method.
//given a chicken, produces an egg; given a cow, produces milk
let animalToFood: ((_: Chicken) => Egg) & ((_: Cow) => Milk) =
 function (animal: any) {
 return animal.produce();
Finally, the following program code demonstrates type safe use of the above definitions. 
var chicken = new Chicken();
var cow = new Cow();
var randomNumberGenerator = new RandomNumberGenerator();
console.log(randomNumberGenerator.produce()); //0.2626353555444987
//console.log(animalToFood(randomNumberGenerator)); //ERROR: Argument of type 'RandomNumberGenerator' is not assignable to parameter of type 'Cow'
console.log(eatEgg(animalToFood(chicken))); //I ate an egg.
//console.log(eatEgg(animalToFood(cow))); //ERROR: Argument of type 'Milk' is not assignable to parameter of type 'Egg'
console.log(drinkMilk(animalToFood(cow))); //I drank some milk.
//console.log(drinkMilk(animalToFood(chicken))); //ERROR: Argument of type 'Egg' is not assignable to parameter of type 'Milk'
The above program code has the following properties:
Comparison to inheritance.
The above minimalist example can be realized using inheritance, for instance by deriving the classes and from a base class .
However, in a larger setting, this could be disadvantageous.
Introducing new classes into a class hierarchy is not necessarily justified for cross-cutting concerns, or maybe outright impossible, for example when using an external library. 
Imaginably, the above example could be extended with the following classes:
This may require additional classes (or interfaces) specifying whether a produce method is available, whether the produce method returns food, and whether the produce method can be used repeatedly.
Overall, this may pollute the class hierarchy.
Comparison to duck typing.
The above minimalist example already shows that duck typing is less suited to realize the given scenario.
While the class contains a method, the object should not be a valid argument for .
The above example can be realized using duck typing, for instance by introducing a new field to the classes and signifying that objects of corresponding type are valid arguments for .
However, this would not only increase the size of the respective classes (especially with the introduction of more methods similar to ), but is also a non-local approach with respect to .
Comparison to function overloading.
The above example can be realized using function overloading, for instance by implementing two methods and .
In TypeScript, such a solution is almost identical to the provided example. 
Other programming languages, such as Java, require distinct implementations of the overloaded method.
This may lead to either code duplication or boilerplate code.
Comparison to the visitor pattern.
The above example can be realized using the visitor pattern.
It would require each animal class to implement an method accepting an object implementing the interface (adding non-local boilerplate code).
The function would be realized as the method of an implementation of .
Unfortunately, the connection between the input type ( or ) and the result type ( or ) would be difficult to represent.
Limitations.
On the one hand, intersection types "can" be used to locally annotate different types to a function without introducing new classes (or interfaces) to the class hierarchy.
On the other hand, this approach "requires" all possible argument types and result types to be specified explicitly.
If the behavior of a function can be specified precisely by either a unified interface, parametric polymorphism, or duck typing, then the verbose nature of intersection types is unfavorable.
Therefore, intersection types should be considered complementary to existing specification methods.
Dependent intersection type.
A dependent intersection type, denoted formula_4, is a dependent type in which the type formula_2 may depend on the term variable formula_6.
In particular, if a term formula_7 has the dependent intersection type formula_4, then the term formula_7 has "both" the type formula_1 and the type formula_11, where formula_11 is the type which results from replacing all occurrences of the term variable formula_6 in formula_2 by the term formula_7.
Scala example.
Scala supports type declarations as object members. This allows a type of an object member to depend on the value of another member, which is called a "path-dependent type".
For example, the following program text defines a Scala trait Witness, which can be used to implement the singleton pattern.
trait Witness {
 type T
The above trait Witness declares the member T, which can be assigned a "type" as its value, and the member value, which can be assigned a value of type T.
The following programm text defines an object booleanWitness as instance of the above trait Witness .
The object booleanWitness defines the type T as Boolean and the value value as true.
For example, executing System.out.println(booleanWitness.value) prints true on the console.
object booleanWitness extends Witness {
 type T = Boolean
 val value = true
Let formula_16 be the type (specifically, a record type) of objects having the member formula_17 of type formula_1.
In the above example, the object booleanWitness can be assigned the dependent intersection type formula_19.
The reasoning is as follows. The object booleanWitness has the member T that is assigned the type Boolean as its value.
Since Boolean is a type, the object booleanWitness has the type formula_20.
Additionally, the object booleanWitness has the member value that is assigned the value true of type Boolean.
Since the value of booleanWitness.T is Boolean, the object booleanWitness has the type formula_21.
Overall, the object booleanWitness has the intersection type formula_22.
Therefore, presenting self-reference as dependency, the object booleanWitness has the dependent intersection type formula_19.
Alternatively, the above minimalistic example can be described using "dependent record types".
In comparison to dependent intersection types, dependent record types constitute a strictly more specialized type theoretic concept.
Intersection of a type family.
An intersection of a type family, denoted formula_24, is a dependent type in which the type formula_2 may depend on the term variable formula_6.
In particular, if a term formula_7 has the type formula_24, then for "each" term formula_29 of type formula_1, the term formula_7 has the type formula_32.
This notion is also called "implicit Pi type", observing that the argument formula_29 is not kept at term level.