
Sijo

Sijo () is a Korean traditional poetic form that emerged in the Goryeo period, flourished during the Joseon Dynasty, and is still written today. Bucolic, metaphysical and cosmological themes are often explored. The three lines average 14–16 syllables, for a total of 42–48: theme (3, 4,4,4); elaboration (3,4,4,4); counter-theme (3,5) and completion (4,3).
"Sijo" may be narrative or thematic and introduces a situation in line 1, development in line 2, and twist and conclusion in line 3. The first half of the final line employs a "twist": a surprise of meaning, sound, or other device. "Sijo" is often more lyrical and personal than other East Asian poetic forms, and the final line can take a profound turn. Yet, "The conclusion of "sijo" is seldom epigrammatic or witty. A witty close to a sentence would have been foreign to the genius of stylized Korean diction in the great "sijo" periods."
Early "sijo" in the Koryŏ dynasty.
Although "sijo" gained much of its popularity in the Chosŏn dynasty, it is important to note that the roots of the "sijo" are attributed to the late Koryŏ dynasty. In fact, the earliest existing "sijo" was found to have been written towards the end of the 14th century as Confucian scholars sought to overcome the existing Buddhist-dominated literary, music, and art forms. As a result, there are important differences between the "sijo" written at the end of the Koryŏ dynasty and those written in the Chosŏn dynasty. The "sijo" of the times, mostly written by men of elite status, are very reflective of the contemporary politics; thus, to understand the importance of the themes of Koryŏ dynasty "sijo", it is important to understand the political climate surrounding the poetry.
Much of the Koryŏ dynasty was plagued with political strife. In 1170, the military aristocracy seized power from the civil aristocracy. Instability reigned in the government and the countryside for the next 25 years as military leaders plotted against each other and peasants rebelled against landowners and local officers. It was not until 1196 that things stabilized, when Choe Chung-heon seized power and established rule of the Choe family. Much of his power came from the parallel government he created, which was based on house institutions under his direct control staffed with people personally loyal to him. He also made effective use of "mun'gaek", private military retainers of great clans.
Korea then endured repeated Mongol invasions from 1217 to 1258, and from 1270 to 1356, Korea was under Mongol domination. After Korea was liberated from Mongol control, there were still political conflicts on all sides of Koryŏ. Koryŏ was consistently under attack from Japanese pirates and Yuan refugees and faced two invasions from the Red Turbans. Finally, the Koryŏ dynasty ended when Yi Seong-gye rose to power, proclaiming himself as King Taejo and renaming the state as the Chosŏn. This transition was quite violent and unstable, as the crown princes and members of the Wang royal house were reinstated only to be purged, and two factions arose towards the later Koryŏ era – one whose loyalty to the existing regime continued, another whose loyalty shifted towards the new movement of the Chosŏn.
It was this incident for which the "sijo" poems of the late Koryŏ are most well-known. The most prevalent theme of this era is loyalty to a lost cause, arising as a reaction to the rise of the new Chosŏn dynasty as the most powerful groups of the period struggled with where their loyalties lay. However, exacerbating the situation were the simultaneous struggles of China's Sung dynasty and the ascending Ming dynasty, further conflicting the people's loyalties. Thus, the ensuing confusion and chaos of the times gave way to themes of strong emotions such as regret over aging and sorrow over love, as many sought to express their mixed, complicated thoughts and harken back to the time of peace and stability.
One of the most famous "sijo" poems that demonstrates such political upheavals and tensions of the period is Chŏng Mongju's "sijo", seen below, with the English translation:
Chŏng, a great scholar of the time referred to as P'oŭn, supposedly wrote this poem in response to Yi Seong-gye's son's suggestion to defect and join the growing Chosŏn movement. The very idea that one's "undivided heart" remains loyal to the same despite dying "a hundred times" and one's "bleached bones all turn(ing) to dust" clearly exhibits the overall sense of honor, integrity, and fidelity that is emblematic of this generation's "sijo" poetry. In fact, this poem has become one of the prototypical examples of loyalty in Korea, even possibly one of the best known of all Korean "sijo" poems among Koreans. Today, this "sijo" has become to be known as the "Song of a Loyal Heart," or the "Tansim ka."
Reemergence of the "sijo" in the 18th century.
"Sijo" was first written in the 14th century during the end of the Goryeo dynasty. However, it was not until the Joseon dynasty that it gained immense popularity. During the rise of the early Joseon dynasty "sijo" became very popular among "yangban" and the ruling class. In its earlier stages "sijo" was often written in classical Chinese by "yangban" and the ruling class. A lot of the poems used language which showed social hierarchy. It was not accessible to the masses due to it being written in classical Chinese characters. It was also hard to adapt to "sijo-chang" ("sijo" in song form) because of the Chinese characters.
The 18th century marked two very important events in "sijo". The first being the reemergence of the term. The second being the shift from classical or traditional "sijo" to modern "sijo". During the 18th century, the word "sijo" reemerged and with it came changes. "Sijo" was now written in Korean and was more accessible to the masses. It was no longer confined to just being a product by and for the ruling class and the "yangban". "Sijo" was now available, created and performed by the general Korean public. New poems outside of Confucian ideal and hierarchy were being written and performed. This led to the invention of different forms of "sijo" such as "sasol sijo", "ossijo", and "yon sijo". The themes of "sijo" expanded and included more than just the narrative of the upper class.
In early to mid 18th century "sijo" reemerged and can be seen as traditional "sijo". This is mainly due to the fact that this period signified Korea's isolation to the outside world. After the Treaty of Ganghwa which opened Korea to a foreign nation, "Sijo" also shifted to become a modern poetry form. Up until the end of the Joseon dynasty, there was not a singular name for this form of poetry and "sijo" was not considered a literary genre. Instead, they were seen as songs and were labeled to signify what type of song it was. For example, it would have names such as "sijoelga" or "sijeoldanga" due to the situation in which it was a sung source. It was not until late 18th century that the word "sijo" reemerged as a literary poetic genre. It was in the 19th century that the movement of the restoration of "sijo" began. The activists involved in that movement took the first part of the word "sijochang" which historically was sung and kept the word as "sijo" to define this literary genre.
"Sijo chang".
"Sijo" emerged in the late Koryŏ Period as a performing art and eventually gained popularity through the Chosŏn period. Initially, it spread amongst the "yangban", or upper class, and later amongst the commoners. "Sijo" was passed down as an oral tradition during this period as a means to preserve the art form. While "sijo" encompasses a wide variety of traditional Korean poetry, one specific variation that derives from it is known as "sijo chang". One of the most significant differences when comparing standard "sijo" with "sijo chang" is the presence of musical instruments. "Sijo chang" poetry employs the use of various Korean instruments to accompany the vocalist reciting the poem.
"Sijo chang" is known as "short song" because it has slow tunes with long, drawn-out ending pronunciation. For this reason it may also be called "the slowest song in the world". It demands a high level of ability and coordination between drummer and performer in order to keep the song flowing well. Throughout each "sijo", the singer employs practiced techniques, such as vibrato and pitch changes.
The singer is accompanied by the "dae-gum" (bamboo flute) and the "chang-gu" (hour-glass shaped drum). The singer uses a wide range of vibrato in addition to pitch changes. All "sijo chang" are sung in a very deliberate pace. The singer must be trained to extend the notes of the song for effect. Other instruments are used as the background musical support to keep the flow. For instance, the "piri" (bamboo oboe), "taegum" (transverse flute), "tanso" (vertical flute), and "haegum" (two-fiddle zither) may also be used to accompany the vocalist. Although a wide variety of instruments may be used as an accompaniment to the "sijo chang" vocalist, not all may be used at one time. In more informal settings the "chang-gu" may be used as the sole instrument. Oftentimes, the sound of hitting one's lap may also serve as the only instrumental accompaniment.
Chinese influences on Korean "sijo".
"Sijo" was first written in Chinese because Chinese was the only written language in Korea before Joseon dynasty. The borrowing and usage of Chinese characters can be traced back to the 5th century. With the adoption of Chinese literary exams during the Goryeo dynasty, the usage of Chinese characters became more popular and it lasted for thousands of years until King Sejong invented Hangul in the Joseon dynasty. This brought about a close relationship between Korean and Chinese literature.
"Sijo" was influenced by Chinese Tang poetry and "jueju" poetry, one kind of Chinese Tang poetry that has four lines, can be found in the three line organization of "sijo". In "jueju", the first line states the theme; the second line develops the theme; the third line offers a twist or a contrasting idea, and the last line presents a conclusion. In "sijo", the first two lines play a similar role to Chinese Tang poetry, but the third line can be considered as a combination of the third and fourth line of Chinese Tang poetry. "Sijo" first part of the third line gives a twist and the whole third line offers a conclusion.
Yuefu poetry accepted in the ancient Joseon Dynasty Koreans accepted the influence of Chinese literature and made Chinese literary works. It can be said that it started from the Han Dynasty. Jin Yu Cui Bao's "Ancient and Modern Annotations" contained "The Quotation", the wife of the ancient Korean Jin Bai's mad husband, Li Yu, as a hint to the situation at that time. The poem said: "Gong did not cross the river, Gong actually crossed the river. When he fell into the river and died, the general did nothing." Except for this Yuefu poem, there is no word left on the Chinese literature in the ancient Korean era. However, we pay attention to the identity of Li Yu, the author of "Quote". She is a dalit woman. The unofficial class's Yuefu poems have reached such a complete state. At that time, the general society's concern and attained level of Yuefu literature could be imagined. The Chinese and the five-character poems accepted in the second and third kingdom eras.
Among the three kingdoms, Goguryeo accepted advanced ideology and culture such as Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism earlier, as the basis of national development. Baekje and Silla, later accepted the Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist ideas from Goguryeo to achieve their own unique culture
The unification of the five-seven-character poems and the scriptures that were accepted during the Silla era, used Tang aid to achieve the unification of the Three Kingdoms, so they had frequent contact with Tang. Among them, contained in the history of Korean literature is the historical fact that the Silla royal family sent many students to the Tang Dynasty to study the close-up poems of five or seven-word verse and the four or six scriptures.
Similarities with Tang poetry in themes and expression of emotion.
There are many similarities between Korean "sijo" poetry and Chinese Tang poetry: the reason that people wrote poems, the messages that they want to deliver, and how they express their feelings by talking about natural things. The following passage shows the translation of Kwon Homun's "The Wind is Pure and Clear" ():
There are only wind, moon, pine, lute and books in the poem. However, Kwon Homun used these to paint a world of himself that he dreams of. For him, a simple life like this is enough, but even this seemly simple life is hard for him to realize. Similarly, Chinese poets in the Tang dynasty also wrote poems in this way and for this reason. Here is the translation of Li Bai's "At the Yellow Crane Tower to Bid Meng Haoran Bon Voyage" ():
On the surface, this poem is about the view and the landscape that Li Bai saw while he was in the tower of yellow crane superficially, but it actually expresses the deep feeling of Li Bai when he was still gazing at the river even though his friend Meng Haoran has left. The first line gives readers the background and the second line constructs a confused and sorrowful air. In the last two lines, it describes how Li Bai gazed after Meng Haoran and how he felt, metaphorizing his feelings as the Long River.
By comparing the meanings of these two poems, we know that both Korean "sijo" and Chinese Tang poetry often employ natural objects such as landscape, pines, bamboo, plants and flowers in order to express human emotions.
Authors.
"Kisaeng".
The "Kisaeng" were women who functioned as professional entertainers, performing artists, and courtesans. These women were selected at a young age from the lower class for their beauty and talents; then trained to work for the government performing-arts bureaucracy. Their presence as poets that contributed to the art of "sijo" is notable due to their position as lower class women. They were considered barely above beggars due to their association with prostitution. Since the Choson period was heavily influenced by Confucianist ideals, social stratification was heavily enforced. "Kisaeng"s ability to create artwork admired by the "yangban"—upper class men—was remarkable.
Many scholars note that the "sijos" written by "kisaeng" contain "a rare blend of emotional freedom, ironic perspective, and technical mastery" because they were free of the shackles of societal expectations. Their lower class standing released them from having to conform to themes of nature or filial piety. Therefore, despite the fact that the number of "kisaeng" authored "sijo" is unknown, their work is heavily associated with love poetry. Hwang Jini is one of the most notable "kisaeng" poets along with Yi Maechang.
In film.
The title of the 2016 film "Love, Lies" in English refers to a famous "sijo":
This follows the "classic format" of the three line structure and love-longing content. In , the title of the film literally means "flowers that understand words", which refers to a kiseang's ability to understand the desire or need of men. This film give clear facts on the connection between "sijo" and "kiseang". It also shows on how "kiseangs" trained since they were very young, and how they performed "sijo chang".
"Hwang Jin Yi", a 2007 film, gives an introduction to the well-known "kiseang" Hwang Jin Yi, and her legendary life. The film examples give a clear view and introduction about kisaeng. Also, in these films, there is clear description of the well-educated kisaengs' accomplishmenst in literature. As one of the two classes who contributed to the composition the "sijo" poems, "kisaeng" also leave numbers of memorable sijo poems.
Modern "sijo".
Emergence of modern "sijo".
There are two established developments of "sijo": before 1876 and after. Before 1876 was when traditional "sijo" was prevalent and after 1876 modern "sijo" was "so-called" created (p. 25). "Sijo" is a genre of short Korean poems with a strictly defined structure reflecting the rhythm of a traditional Korean song known as pansori. It originated from Korea in the Koryǒ dynasty which began to flourish in the Chosǒn dynasty. Established with the Confucian ideology, "sijo" became the most popular type of poetry among the ruling Confucian scholars and noblemen. During the time, "sijo" was sung and recorded by word of mouth or transcribed. "Sijo" is an official name of the genre of poems, which came to be in the period of modernism; especially after a movement for the restoration of "sijo" that became active in the 19th century. The activists of the movement copied the first part of the name of the music "sijo chang" as the term to reference the poetry as it did not previously have a name.
Structure and comparison to traditional "sijo".
Modern sijo is a further developed upon and expanded category of Korean vernacular poetry also known as sijo. The original style that was developed and used prior to the 20th century is referred to as p’yǒng sijo. This new style first emerged during 'The open-door period' (개화기) (1876) and continued on to flourish during The Empire of Korea (1897–1910), Japanese Colonial Period (1910–1945), and even still is written today. It refers only to the written form. Modern sijo is generally structured the same as p’yǒng sijo with three line poems consisting of various amounts of syllables per foot. However, there are still several key differences between the two. The first being that modern sijo all have titles whereas none of the p’yǒng sijo did. Also given that sijo creation and literature in general was exclusive to the yangban class, p’yǒng sijo often used a lot of references to Chinese classics as well as focusing on the rhythm that it would be sung to as they were originally songs that were written down later on. Modern sijo was the product of literature becoming more widespread and available to the populace so it became filled with more wit, humor, and everyday life experiences. The rhythm also was not fixed as they were not focused on the performance aspect as it originally was. Instead of using Chinese characters or references to Tang Dynasty classics, more colloquial language became the norm. Also, the above-mentioned structure of three lines generally stayed the same, rather than just writing one standalone sijo, modern sijo can go on for much longer and in most cases often does so. On top of this, although there was never a standard syllable count for p’yǒng sijo, in general each foot seem to be shorter than those in modern sijo. Overall, modern sijo became more free in style and departed in many ways from p’yǒng sijo.
Examples.
This poem was written by Yi Pyǒnggi (1891–1968), who was a well known author and encouraged the creation of "sijo". His work is referred to as gentle. This poem, "Orchid", has a traditional moral approach about flowers and is maintained in a modern idiom (Rutt, 260). Yi Pyǒnggi was the father of "sijo" and came up with the three variants consisting of "ossijo", "sasol", and "yon-sijo". He mentioned that "sijo" should convey modern life by the extension of the structure from the conventional single stanza to two or more.
그 눈물 고인 눈으로 순아 보질 말라
미움이 사랑을 앞선 이 각박한 거리에서
꽃같이 살아보자고 아아 살아보자고
이호우 시조 '바람 벌' 중
근심이 산이 되어 울멍줄멍 솟아 둘리고
물은 여울여울 눈물 받아 흐르는 나라
가서 내 살고 싶은 곳 거기는 또 내 죽어 묻힐 곳
이은상 시조 '가서 내 살고 싶은 곳'
 
그럴싸 그러한지 솔빛 벌써 더 푸르다
산골에 남은 눈이 다산 듯이 보이고녀
토담집 고치는 소리 별밭 아래 들려라
정인보 시조 '조춘 (早春)' 중
Examples.
"Sijo", unlike some other East Asian poetic forms, frequently employs metaphors, puns, allusions and similar word play. Most poets follow these guidelines very closely although there are longer examples. An exemplar is this poem by Yun Seondo (1587–1671) :
Yun Seondo also wrote a famous collection of forty "sijo" of the changing seasons through the eyes of a fisherman. Following is the first verse from the Spring sequence; notice the added refrains in lines 2 and 4.
Either narrative or thematic, this lyric verse introduces a situation or problem in line 1, development (called a turn) in line 2, and a strong conclusion beginning with a surprise (a twist) in line 3, which resolves tensions or questions raised by the other lines and provides a memorable ending.
Korean poetry can be traced at least as far back as 17 BC with King Yuri's "Song of Yellow Birds" but its roots are in earlier Korean culture (op. cit., Rutt, 1998, "Introduction"). "Sijo", Korea's favorite poetic genre, is often traced to Confucian monks of the eleventh century, but its roots, too, are in those earlier forms. One of its peaks occurred as late as the 16th and 17th centuries under the Joseon Dynasty. One poem of the "sijo" genre is from the 14th century:
"Sijo" is, first and foremost, a song. This lyric pattern gained popularity in royal courts amongst the "yangban" as a vehicle for religious or philosophical expression, but a parallel tradition arose among the commoners. "Sijo" were sung or chanted with musical accompaniment, and this tradition survives. The word originally referred only to the music, but it has come to be identified with the lyrics.
Note: The English adaptations of verses by Yun Seondo and U Tak are by Larry Gross (op. cit.) The English adaptation of the verse by Hwang Jin-i is by David R. McCann (op. cit.); Some of the information on the origins of "sijo" are cited from The Bamboo Grove: An Introduction to Sijo, ed. Richard Rutt (U. of Michigan Press, 1998); Kichung Kim's "An Introduction to Classical Korean Literature: From Hyangga to P'ansori"; and Peter H. Lee.
Contemporary "sijo".
In South Korea today, "sijo" is widely considered to be a dead art-form, to the point that there are more "sijo" written in the U.S. today than in South Korea.
In English.
In 1986 the journal "Poet" dedicated an issue to "classic" Korean "sijo" translated into English by Korean-American Kim Unsong (aka William Kim). This was followed by Kim's "Classical Korean Poems (Sijo)" in 1987, "Sijo by Korean Poets in China", and "Poems of Modern Sijo" (a collection of his originals) in the mid-1990s. They found a devoted audience in American "theWORDshop" publisher Dr. Larry Gross and Canadian haiku poet Elizabeth St. Jacques. As a result, a volume of original English-language "sijo" ("Around the Tree of Light") by St. Jacques appeared and soon after, Gross launched the first issue of "Sijo West" with St. Jacques as assistant editor. It was the world's first poetry journal dedicated to English-language "sijo" and caught on well with poets dedicated to haiku and other forms of Asian verse.
"Sijo West" folded in 1999 reportedly due to health problems and tragedies with Gross. St. Jacques reemerged with online postings known as "Sijo Blossoms" (circa 2001), which, apparently, has since evolved into the "Sijo In The Light" section of her "Poetry In The Light" website. "Sijo In The Light", like the defunct "Sijo West", featured original English-language "sijo", as well as essays and reviews. Gross, meanwhile, has maintained a significant presence for "sijo" on his website "Poetry in theWORDshop", which includes translations from Korean masters as well as original contributions by contemporary poets. Gross moderated a Yahoo! discussion group, "sijoforum."
"Urban Temple", a collection of "sijo" composed in English by the Harvard University Emeritus Professor David McCann is available from Bo-Leaf Books. Nominated for the Griffin Poetry Prize, this collection was praised by Jane Shore as "at once present and universal, contemporary and timeless ... a book well worth waiting for." "Sijo: an international journal of poetry and song" is published by the Cambridge Institute for the Study of Korea and volumes 1 and 2 are currently available. "For Nirvana: 108 Zen Sijo Poems" by Musan Cho Oh-Hyun was translated by Heinz Insu Fenkl and published by Columbia University Press in 2017. The page "Sijo Poet" on Facebook shares "sijo" composed in English as well as poems translated from Korean.