Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States

Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States is significantly supportive, with a majority of Americans being in favor of same-sex marriage. National support for the legal recognition of same-sex marriage rose above 50% for the first time in 2011. Today, support for gay marriage is in the low 70s.
From 1988 to 2009, support for same-sex marriage increased between 1% and 1.5% per year and accelerated thereafter. As of 2016, 69% of Americans aged 18–29 support the right to enter a same-sex marriage. As of 2017, there is majority support for same-sex marriage in 44 states, plurality support in 4 states, plurality opposition in 1 state, and majority opposition in 1 state.
Overview.
Public opinion of same-sex marriage in the United States has changed radically since polling of the American people regarding the issue was first conducted in 1988. The issue of same-sex marriage was not brought up as an issue for public debate until at least the 1950s and wasn't a political issue until the 1970s. According to statistician Nate Silver of the poll aggregator "FiveThirtyEight", from 1988 to April 2009, support for same-sex marriage increased between 1% and 1.5% per year and about 4% from April 2009 to August 2010. A Pew Research Center poll, conducted from May 21, 2008 to May 25, 2008, found that, for the first time, a majority of Americans did not oppose same-sex marriage, with opposition having fallen to 49%.<ref name="PEW RESEARCH CENTER FOR THE PEOPLE & THE PRESS MAY 2008 POLITICAL/BELIEVABILITY SURVEY FINAL TOPLINE May 21–25, 2008"></ref> An ABC News/"Washington Post" poll, conducted from April 21, 2009 to April 24, 2009, found that, for the first time, a plurality of Americans supported same-sex marriage at 49% and that a majority of Americans supported the marriages of same-sex couples validly entered into in one state being recognized in all states at 53%. A CNN/Opinion Research poll, conducted from August 6, 2010 to August 10, 2010, found that, for the first time, a majority of Americans supported same-sex marriage at 52%. A Greenberg Quinlan Rosner Research poll, conducted from January 25, 2015 to January 31, 2015, found that, for the first time, 60% of Americans supported same-sex marriage.
Continual polling by Gallup over the course of more than two decades has shown that support for same-sex marriage has grown rapidly, while opposition has simultaneously collapsed. In 1996, 68% of Americans opposed same-sex marriage, while only 27% supported. In 2018, 67% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, while only 31% opposed. As of 2018, 60% of Americans said they would not mind if their child married someone of the same gender.
National polls.
Post-"Obergefell v. Hodges".
An October 2020 Public Religion Research Institute poll found that 70% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, while 28% were opposed.
A June 2020 Gallup poll found that 67% of Americans supported same sex marriage, while 31% were against, matching their May 2018 record high.
A June 2019 CBS News poll found that 67% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, while 28% were against.
A June 2019 IPSOS/Reuters poll found that 58% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, while 28% were against.
A May 2019 Pew Research Center poll found 61% of Americans supported same-sex marriage while 31% were against.
A May 2019 Gallup poll found that 63% of Americans supported same sex marriage, with 36% opposing it. While this is a drop when compared to 2018, same sex marriage approval still remains stable.
A May 2018 Gallup poll found that 67% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, 31% opposed, and 2% had no opinion.
An April 2018 NBC News poll found that 64% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, 33% opposed, and 3% had no opinion. The poll was reported by NBC News as notable as it found that 55% of Southerners supported same-sex marriage, which represented an historic change for a region that was previously staunchly opposed.
A Public Religion Research Institute nationwide & state-by-state poll conducted throughout 2017 found that 61% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, 30% opposed, and 9% had no opinion, with there being majority support for same-sex marriage in 44 states, plurality support in 4 states, plurality opposition in 1 state, and majority opposition in 1 state.
An August 2017 NBC News/"The Wall Street Journal" poll found that 60% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, 33% opposed, and 7% had no opinion.
A June 2017 Pew Research Center poll found 62% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, 32% opposed, and 6% had no opinion. This marked the first Pew poll where a majority of Baby Boomers supported same-sex marriage, did not oppose same-sex marriage.
A May 2017 Gallup poll found 64% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, 34% opposed, and 2% had no opinion. This marked the first Gallup poll where a majority of Protestants supported same-sex marriage.
A May 2016 Gallup poll found 61% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, 37% opposed, and 2% had no opinion. This marked the first Gallup poll where a majority of Americans aged 65 and older supported same-sex marriage.
Pre-"Obergefell v. Hodges".
A May 2015 Gallup poll found 60% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, 37% opposed, and 3% had no opinion.
A February–March 2015 "Wall Street Journal" poll found that 59% of Americans favored same-sex marriage.
A January–February 2015 Human Rights Campaign poll found that 60% of Americans favored same-sex marriage, while 37% opposed. The same poll also found that 46% of respondents knew a same-sex couple who had gotten married.
A February 12–15, 2015 CNN/ORC poll found that 63% of Americans believed same-sex marriage is a constitutional right, while 36% disagreed.
A May 2014 Gallup poll found that 55% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, 42% opposed, and 4% had no opinion.
An April 2014 Public Religion Research Institute poll sponsored by the Ford Foundation found that 55% of all Americans supported same-sex marriage, while 39% were opposed.
A Pew Research Center poll released in March 2014 found 54% of Americans favored same-sex marriage, 39% opposed, and 7% didn't know. It also researched support for same-sex marriage among Republican leaning voters in the United States. 61% of Republican leaning voters aged 18–29 supported allowing same-sex couples to marry, while only 27% of Republican leaning voters over 50 years of age were supportive. 52% of Republican voters aged 18–50 supported same-sex marriage.
A "Washington Post"/ABC News poll from February–March 2014 found that a record high of 59% of Americans approved of same-sex marriage, with only 34% opposed and 7% with no opinion. The poll also revealed that 53% of the population in the states that did not allow same-sex couples to marry at the time approved of same-sex marriage. 50% of respondents agreed that the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the freedom to marry regardless of sex or sexual orientation, while 41% disagreed, and 9% had no opinion. The same poll also found that 81% of people believed that businesses should not be allowed to refuse to serve gays and lesbians. 16% disagreed, and 3% had no opinion. 78% thought that gay couples can be "just as good parents" as straight couples, while 18% disagreed and 4% had no opinion.
A November/December 2013 Public Religion Research Institute poll sponsored by the Ford Foundation found that 53% of all Americans supported same-sex marriage, while 41% were opposed and 6% unsure. The margin of error was 1.1%. The same poll found clear majorities in favor of same-sex marriage in the Northeast (60%), West (58%), and Midwest (51%). Only the South was evenly divided 48% in favor to 48% opposed. Further, nearly 7-in-10 (69%) of those born after 1980 (ages 18–33) favored allowing same-sex couples to marry.
A Bloomberg National Poll conducted by Selzer & Company taken during September 20–23, 2013 found that 55% supported same-sex marriage, while 36% opposed and 9% were unsure.
A September Quinnipiac University poll found that 56% of American adults and 57% of registered voters supported same-sex marriage. Only 36% of both groups were opposed.
A July 10–14 poll by Gallup found support for same-sex marriage at 54%, a record high, and double the support of 27% Gallup first measured when the question was asked in 1996.
A July poll by "USA Today" found that 55% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, while 40% did not.
A May 9 "Washington Post"-ABC News poll found that 55% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, while 40% did not.
A March 20–24 CBS News Poll found that 53% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, 39% opposed it, and 8% were undecided. The same poll also found that 33% of Americans who thought same-sex couples should be allowed to legally marry said they once held the opposite view and had changed their opinion.
A March 7–10 "Washington Post"-ABC News poll found that 58% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, while 36% opposed. The poll indicated that 52% of GOP-leaning independents under 50 years old supported same-sex marriage.
A March Quinnipiac University poll of voters found 47% supported same-sex marriage and 43% were opposed.
A November 26–29 Gallup poll found that 53% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, while 46% did not.
A November 16–19 CBS News poll found that 51% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, while 40% did not.
A November 7–11 ABC News/"Washington Post" poll found that 51% of respondents supported same-sex marriage, while 47% were opposed.
A June 6 CNN/ORC International poll showed that a majority of Americans supported same-sex marriage being legalized at 54%, while 42% were opposed.
A May 22 NBC News/"Wall Street Journal" poll showed that 54% of Americans would support a law in their state making same-sex marriage legal, with 40% opposed.
A May 17–20 ABC News/"Washington Post" poll showed that 53% believed same-sex marriage should be legal, with only 39% opposed, a low point for opposition in any national poll that far.
A May 10 "USA Today"/Gallup Poll, taken one day after Barack Obama became the first sitting president to express support for same-sex marriage, showed 51% of Americans agreed with the President's endorsement, while 45% disagreed. A May 8 Gallup Poll showed majority support for same-sex marriage nationwide, with 50% in favor and 48% opposed.
An April Pew Research Center poll showed support for same-sex marriage at 48%, while opposition fell to 44%.
A March 7–10 ABC News/"Washington Post" poll found 52% of adults thought it should be legal for same-sex couples to get married, while 42% disagreed and 5% were unsure. A March survey by the Public Religion Research Institute found 52% of Americans supported allowing same-sex couples to marry, while 44% opposed.
A February 29 – March 3 NBC News/"Wall Street Journal" poll found 49% of adults supported allowing same-sex couples to marry, while 40% opposed.
Public support for same-sex marriage continued to grow in 2011. In February and March, a Pew Research Center for the People & the Press survey found about as many adults favored (45%) as opposed (46%) allowing same-sex couples to marry legally, compared to a 2009 Pew Research survey that found just 37% backed same-sex marriage while 54% opposed. In March and April, polls by Gallup, ABC News/"Washington Post", and CNN/Opinion Research all showed that a majority of Americans approved of same-sex marriage.
As had been the case since 1996, there remained a wide partisan division. In March, Pew reported that 57% of Democrats favored legal recognition for same-sex marriage, and 51% of independents agreed, but only 23% of Republicans agreed. An April CNN/Opinion Research Poll showed majority support including 64% of Democrats and 55% of independents, but only 27% of Republicans.
In March 2011, Democracy Corps conducted a survey of 1,000 likely 2012 election voters in 50 congressional districts considered political battlegrounds. It asked respondents to rate their feelings on the same-sex marriage issue on a 0–100 scale, with 100 being "very warm" or favorable feelings, and 0 being "very cold" or unfavorable feelings. 42% were on the "cool" or unfavorable side, and 35% were on the "warm" or favorable side.
A May 2011 Gallup Poll also showed majority support for same-sex marriage, 53% in favor to 45% opposed. Gallup measured a 9-point increase in support, from 44% to 53%, indicating that support increased faster than in any previous year.
An August Associated Press/National Constitution Center poll found 52% agreed that the federal government should give legal recognition to marriages between couples of the same sex, an increase from 46% in 2009. 46% disagreed, compared to 53% in 2009.
An August CNN/Opinion Research Poll showed that 49% of respondents thought gays and lesbians "do" have a constitutional right to get married and have their marriage recognized by law as valid, and 52% thought gays and lesbians "should" have that right.
Earlier polls in February and May found opinion divided within the margin of error, but with a consistent trend of increasing support and decreasing opposition compared to prior years. One August poll found majority opposition, and a November exit poll of 17,504 voters by CNN during the 2010 midterm elections found 53% opposition with 41% support.
An April 30, 2009 ABC News/"Washington Post" poll found support for allowing same-sex couples to marry in the United States ahead of opposition for the first time: 49% support, 46% opposition, and 5% with no opinion. In addition, 53% believed that same-sex marriages performed in other states should be legal in their states. 62% of Democrats and 52% of Independents supported same-sex marriage, while 74% of Republicans opposed.
An April 22–26, 2009, poll by CBS/"New York Times" found 42% supported marriage for same-sex couples, 25% supported civil unions, and 28% opposed any legal recognition of same-sex couples. 5% of respondents were unsure.
Nate Silver noted that the discrepancy in support for same-sex marriage appeared to result from 5-10% of respondents who favored civil unions over same-sex marriage, but given only two choices, would support same-sex marriage.
A LifeWay Research poll conducted in August 2009 found that 61% of Americans born between 1980 and 1991 saw nothing wrong with two people of the same gender getting married, while 39% disagreed. The survey was conducted on a demographically representative survey of 1,200 U.S. adults between 18 and 29 years old.
In a poll, conducted on July 17, 2008, by the Quinnipiac University Polling Institute, 55 percent opposed same-sex marriage, and 36 percent were in favor. An ABC News poll found that a majority (58%) of Americans remained opposed to same-sex marriages, while a minority (36%) support them. However, on the question of a constitutional amendment, more were opposed than for it. The majority (51%) of Americans said the issue should be left for the states to decide, while 43% would agree with amending the Constitution.
When asked about the legal status, a July 2008 poll by Quinnipiac University Polling Institute revealed that 32% of respondents would allow homosexual partners to legally marry, 33% would permit them to form civil unions, and 29% would grant them no legal recognition. A December 2008 poll revealed that 32% of respondents supported the concept of civil unions, 31% would offer full marriage rights to same-sex couples, and 30% opposed any legal recognition for gay and lesbian partnerships.
Prior to this poll, Gallup conducted a poll on the issue through May 2006. The poll found that opposition to same-sex marriage had fallen slightly, as other polls found a sharper dip. In the poll, when asked if marriages between homosexuals should be recognized by law as valid, with the same rights as traditional marriages, 58% (down 1 point from Aug 2005, and 9 points from March 1996) of Americans responded that they should not be recognized. 39% (up 2 points from Aug 2005, and 12 points from 1996) felt same-sex marriages should be recognized by law. If "homosexuals" is replaced with "same-sex couples", 42% backed same-sex marriage while 56% opposed it.
A similar poll conducted in March 2006, a Princeton Survey Research Associates/Pew Research Center poll concluded that 39% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, while 51% opposed it, and 10% were undecided. In December 2004, a poll by the same company found that 61% of Americans opposed – with 38% "strongly opposed". Less than 2 years later, just 23% were "strongly opposed". However, an identical poll taken by the same group in June 2006 found a rise in those opposed to same-sex marriage, with 56% disapproving of the practice.
A Pew study in March 2006 found that 51% opposed same-sex marriage, with 39% supporting it, and the level of "strongly opposing" same-sex marriage had fallen from 42% to 28%. Pew's May 2008 Survey found that for the first time, a majority of people did not oppose same-sex marriage at 49%. 20% opposed and 29% strongly opposed same-sex marriage, up 1% from the March 2006 Pew Research Results.
An October 1989 Yankelovich Clancy Shulman telephone poll found that 69% of Americans opposed same-sex marriage, with 23% supporting same-sex marriage, and 8% being not sure.
A 1988 International Social Survey Programme poll found that 68.3% of Americans opposed same-sex marriage, while 11.9% of Americans supported same-sex marriage, and 14.1% of Americans neither agreed or disagreed.
A 1988 National Opinion Research Center / General Social Survey / University of Chicago poll found that 67.6% of Americans opposed same-sex marriage, 10.7% of Americans supported it, 13.9% of Americans neither agreed or disagreed, and 7.8% didn't know / etc.


Yoshio Kimura (shogi)

was a Japanese professional shogi player who achieved the rank of 8-dan (which was the highest dan level during his time).
He was a Lifetime Meijin who won the title eight times. At the time, the Meijin title was the only shogi title.


Anda Skadmane

Anda Skadmane born 19 March 1990 in Riga, Latvia, is an artist.
Biography.
Anda Skadmane is a daughter of Latvian Jānis Skadmanis (12 January 1955 - 21 November 2013) and Zinta Skadmane; Marcis Liors Skadmanis is her brother. She attended the Grammar school of Nordic languages and Janis Rozentāl Art High School. She studied at the Art Academy of Latvia from 2011 to 2018, she holds Master of Fine Arts (MFA) degree in Painting and Bachelor of Fine Arts (MFA) degree in Textile Arts. Skadmane's twin sister Daina Skadmane and her father Jānis Skadmanis lost their lives in the Zolitūde shopping centre roof collapse on 21 November 2013, when in total 54 people were killed and dozens injured.
In 2014, in response to the request of the Zolitude Society 21/11, Latvijas Pasts issued a commemorative envelope devoted to the victims of Zolitude tragedy, and Anda designed the commemorative envelope and postmark.
In January 2018, The Latvian Television, LTV1, "Aculiecinieks" created a short documentary film "Twin Sisters" "(Latvian: Dvīņu māsas)" dedicated to the memory of Daina Skadmane. The film explored the life and art of Anda and Daina Skamanes.


Willy Heeks

William E. F. Heeks, Jr. (born 1951), popularly known as Willy Heeks, is an American abstract expressionist painter.
Biography.
Heeks was born in Providence, Rhode Island in 1951. During his childhood, he lived in both Providence and Bristol, Rhode Island.
He participated in the Independent Study Program at the Whitney Museum of American Art in 1973 and earned a BFA from the University of Rhode Island that same year. He studied in the Tyler School of Art's Graduate Program in 1978, and received an honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts from Rhode Island College in 1995.
Heeks lived and painted in New York City for many years before returning to his native Rhode Island in 1996. He currently resides there.
Awards & Grants.
The following museums and institutions hold Heeks’s work:


Alexandre Istrati

Alexandre Istrati (9 March 1915 in Dorohoi, Romania – 28 October 1991 in Paris, France) was a Franco-Romanian painter. He won numerous prizes, including 1953 the Prix Kandinsky.
He married fellow Romanian abstract expressionist painter, Natalia Dumitresco.


Automata theory

Automata theory is the study of abstract machines and automata, as well as the computational problems that can be solved using them. It is a theory in theoretical computer science. The word "automata" (the plural of "automaton") comes from the Greek word αὐτόματα, which means "self-making". An automaton (Automata in plural) is an abstract self-propelled computing device which follows a predetermined sequence of operations automatically. An automaton with a finite number of states is called a Finite Automaton (FA) or Finite State Machine (FSM).
The figure at right illustrates a finite-state machine, which belongs to a well-known type of automaton. This automaton consists of states (represented in the figure by circles) and transitions (represented by arrows). As the automaton sees a symbol of input, it makes a transition (or jump) to another state, according to its transition function, which takes the previous state and current input symbol as its arguments.
Automata theory is closely related to formal language theory. In this context, automata are used as finite representations of formal languages that may be infinite. Automata are often classified by the class of formal languages they can recognize, as in the Chomsky hierarchy, which describes a nesting relationship between major classes of automata. Automata play a major role in theory of computation, compiler construction, artificial intelligence, parsing and formal verification.
History.
The theory of abstract automata was developed in the mid-20th century in connection with finite automata. Automata theory was initially considered a branch of mathematical systems theory, studying the behavior of discrete-parameter systems. Early work in automata theory differed from previous work on systems by using abstract algebra to describe information systems rather than differential calculus to describe material systems. The theory of the finite-state transducer was developed under different names by different names by different research communities. The earlier concept of Turing machines were also included in the discipline along with new forms of infinite-state automaton, such as pushdown automata.
1956 saw the publication of "Automata Studies", which collected work by scientists including Claude Shannon, W. Ross Ashby, John von Neumann, Marvin Minsky, Edward F. Moore, and Stephen Cole Kleene. With the publication of this volume, "automata theory emerged as a relatively autonomous discipline". The book included Kleene's description of the set of regular events, or regular languages, and a relatively stable measure of complexity in Turing machine programs by Shannon.
In the same year, Noam Chomsky described the Chomsky hierarchy, a correspondence between automata and formal grammars, and Ross Ashby published "An Introduction to Cybernetics", an accessible textbook explaining automata and information using basic set theory.
The study of linear automata led to the Myhill-Nerode theorem, which gives a necessary and sufficient condition for a formal language to be regular, and an exact count of the number of states in a minimal machine for the language. The pumping lemma for regular languages, also useful in regularity proofs, was proven in this period by Michael O. Rabin and Dana Scott, along with the computational equivalence of deterministic and nondeterministic finite automata.
In the 1960s, a body of algebraic results known as "structure theory" or "algebraic decomposition theory" emerged, which dealt with the realization of sequential machines from smaller machines by interconnection. While any finite automaton can be simulated using a universal gate set, this requires that the simulating circuit contain loops of arbitrary complexity. Structure theory deals with the "loop-free" realizability of machines.
The theory of computational complexity also took shape in the 1960s. By the end of the decade, automata theory came to be seen as "the pure mathematics of computer science".
Automata.
What follows is a general definition of automaton, which restricts a broader definition of system to one viewed as acting in discrete time-steps, with its state behavior and outputs defined at each step by unchanging functions of only its state and input.
Informal description.
An automaton "runs" when it is given some sequence of "inputs" in discrete (individual) "time steps" or steps. An automaton processes one input picked from a set of "symbols" or "letters", which is called an "input alphabet". The symbols received by the automaton as input at any step are a sequence of symbols called "words". An automaton has a set of "states". At each moment during a run of the automaton, the automaton is "in" one of its states. When the automaton receives new input it moves to another state (or "transitions") based on a "transition function" that takes the previous state and current input symbol as parameters. At the same time, another function called the "output function" produces symbols from the "output alphabet", also according to the previous state and current input symbol. The automaton reads the symbols of the input word and transitions between states until the word is read completely, if it is finite in length, at which point the automaton "halts". A state at which the automaton halts is called the "final state".
To investigate the possible state/input/output sequences in an automaton using formal language theory, a machine can be assigned a "starting state" and a set of "accepting states". Then, depending on whether a run starting from the starting state ends in an accepting state, the automaton can be said to "accept" or "reject" an input sequence. The set of all the words accepted by an automaton is called the "language recognized by the automaton". A familiar example of a machine recognizing a language is an electronic lock which accepts or rejects attempts to enter the correct code.
Variant definitions of automata.
Automata are defined to study useful machines under mathematical formalism. So, the definition of an automaton is open to variations according to the "real world machine", which we want to model using the automaton. People have studied many variations of automata. The following are some popular variations in the definition of different components of automata.
Different combinations of the above variations produce many classes of automaton.
Automata theory is a subject matter that studies properties of various types of automata. For example, the following questions are studied about a given type of automata.
Automata theory also studies the existence or nonexistence of any effective algorithms to solve problems similar to the following list:
Classes of automata.
The following is an incomplete list of types of automata.
Discrete, continuous, and hybrid automata.
Normally automata theory describes the states of abstract machines but there are discrete automata, analog automata or continuous automata, or hybrid discrete-continuous automata, which use digital data, analog data or continuous time, or digital and analog data, respectively.
Hierarchy in terms of powers.
The following is an incomplete hierarchy in terms of powers of different types of virtual machines. The hierarchy reflects the nested categories of languages the machines are able to accept.
Applications.
Each model in automata theory plays important roles in several applied areas. Finite automata are used in text processing, compilers, and hardware design. Context-free grammar (CFGs) are used in programming languages and artificial intelligence. Originally, CFGs were used in the study of the human languages. Cellular automata are used in the field of artificial life, the most famous example being John Conway's Game of Life. Some other examples which could be explained using automata theory in biology include mollusk and pine cones growth and pigmentation patterns. Going further, a theory suggesting that the whole universe is computed by some sort of a discrete automaton, is advocated by some scientists. The idea originated in the work of Konrad Zuse, and was popularized in America by Edward Fredkin. Automata also appear in the theory of finite fields: the set of irreducible polynomials which can be written as composition of degree two polynomials is in fact a regular language.
Another problem for which automata can be used is the induction of regular languages.
Automata simulators.
Automata simulators are pedagogical tools used to teach, learn and research automata theory. An automata simulator takes as input the description of an automaton and then simulates its working for an arbitrary input string. The description of the automaton can be entered in several ways. An automaton can be defined in a symbolic language or its specification may be entered in a predesigned form or its transition diagram may be drawn by clicking and dragging the mouse. Well known automata simulators include Turing's World, JFLAP, VAS, TAGS and SimStudio.
Connection to category theory.
One can define several distinct categories of automata following the automata classification into different types described in the previous section. The mathematical category of deterministic automata, sequential machines or "sequential automata", and Turing machines with automata homomorphisms defining the arrows between automata is a Cartesian closed category, it has both categorical limits and colimits. An automata homomorphism maps a quintuple of an automaton "A"i onto the quintuple of another automaton
" A"j. Automata homomorphisms can also be considered as "automata transformations" or as semigroup homomorphisms, when the state space, S, of the automaton is defined as a semigroup Sg. Monoids are also considered as a suitable setting for automata in monoidal categories.
One could also define a "variable automaton", in the sense of Norbert Wiener in his book on "The Human Use of Human Beings" "via" the endomorphisms formula_53. Then, one can show that such variable automata homomorphisms form a mathematical group. In the case of non-deterministic, or other complex kinds of automata, the latter set of endomorphisms may become, however, a "variable automaton groupoid". Therefore, in the most general case, categories of variable automata of any kind are categories of groupoids or groupoid categories. Moreover, the category of reversible automata is then a
2-category, and also a subcategory of the 2-category of groupoids, or the groupoid category.


Ranks and insignia of the German Red Cross

The ranks and insignia of the German Red Cross ("Deutsches Rotes Kreuz", abbr. "DRK") were the paramilitary rank system used by the national Red Cross Society in Germany during World War II.
Insignia.
Medics within the German Red Cross would wear helmets with special decals with the Red Cross eagle. Likewise, were the belt buckle issued with the same eagle.


Cups (game)

Cups was one of several games invented in 1965 by father and son Arthur Amberstone and Wald Amberstone who were both cofounders of the New York Gamers Association (N.Y.G.A.). They also invented Power, and High Deck, a card game based on medieval society. At the time both were working as basket makers as well as game designers in New York City. This game was first published in A Gamut of Games by Sid Sackson in 1969. Wald Amberstone co-founded the Tarot School in 1995 along with his wife Ruth Amberstone. The game Cups is a contemporary two-ranked single-lap member of the ancient game family of Mancala.
Rules.
Equipment.
The Cups board is constructed from ten containers: eight small containers called cups and two large containers called pots. In addition to these, 80 beans are needed. Traditionally, the game is played with odds and ends, jars, drinking cups and assorted items serving as the beans.
Setup.
Each player has four cups in front of him and a pot at the end of each row on the farthest right. Each of the player's four cups is aligned adjacent to one of the other player’s four cups. Each player receives forty beans as his stock and sits across from the other player.
Play.
Example Start of Game.
"Lower player begins by sowing four beans from his stock left to right."
"Higher player sows three beans from his stock right to left and captures a bean."
"Lower player sows the bean closest to his pot into his pot."
Players only play on their own four cups. At the beginning of a player's turn the player has the option of doing one of two things.
Capturing.
If the player chooses option one and the last bean lands in an empty cup a capture may take place. In a capture the opponent's cup adjacent to the formerly empty cup is emptied and placed into the capturing player's pot, unless the opponents cup is empty.
Blocked cups.
A blocked cup is one that contains more beans than would be needed to perform option two, sowing the beans into the pot. Generally, it is unwise to block one's cups because it makes sowing from that cup impossible.
Object.
The object of Cups is to have more beans in one's pot than one's opponent. The game ends when neither player can make a move: a turn is always made if one is possible.
Variation.
This game can also be played with any even number of cups. The cups are arranged in the same manner as above were each cup has one of the opponent's cup adjacent to it and a pot on each end. Ten beans are added to a player's stock for each extra cup he has. For example, if a player has ten cups he would have 100 beans and the board would consist of 22 containers.


Mario Prassinos

Mario Prassinos (30 July 1916 – 23 October 1985) was a French modernist painter, printmaker, illustrator, stage designer, and writer of Greek-Italian descent.
Life and work.
Prassinos was born in Constantinople, Ottoman Empire (now Turkey) in 1916, the son of Victorine and Lysandre Prassinos. In 1922, at the age of six, he immigrated to France with his family, who had escaped the brutal persecution of Greeks and other ethnic minorities by the Ottoman government. Prassinos became a naturalized French citizen in 1949.
He attended the Sorbonne in Paris beginning in 1932 and briefly trained in the studio of the French painter Clement Serveau (1886–1972).
Through his father's literary interests Prassinos became acquainted with Surrealism, meeting Paul Eluard, André Breton, Salvador Dalí, Man Ray. Max Ernst, Marcel Duchamp and others in 1934, and decided to become an artist. From 1932 to 1936 he worked in a Surrealist style, introducing procedures of automatism and formal ambiguities that he retained in his later work.
His first exhibition took place in 1938 at the Galerie Billiet-Pierre Vorms in Paris. That same year he married Yolande Borelly (1915-2015). His daughter Catherine Prassinos was born in 1946.
Prassinos volunteered for military service in 1940, was seriously wounded and later received the Croix de Guerre (Cross of War). He also worked with the French Resistance during World War II, helping Allied soldiers escape Nazi-occupied France.
During the period 1942 to 1950 he met Raymond Queneau and Albert Camus and produced work for Editions Gallimard.
Prassinos' work is found in major art museums in Europe and North America, including the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam; Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris; Kunsthalle Bremen, Germany; Victoria and Albert Museum, London; Museum of Modern Art, New York; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; Art Institute of Chicago, and others.
Prassinos died at his home in Eygalières, France on 23 October 1985. After his death, a donation of 800 of the artist's works was made to the French state. The "Donation Mario Prassinos" collection is housed in the Chapel of Notre-Dame de Pitié (also called Notre-Dame des Sept Douleurs) in Saint Remy de Provence, France.
His sister Gisèle Prassinos (1920-2015) is a noted surrealist writer.


Calvin Albert

Calvin Albert (1918 Grand Rapids, Michigan - June 4, 2007) was a member of American Abstract Artists, and Professor of Art at the Pratt Institute, from 1950 to 1985.
He was a 1966 Guggenheim Fellow.
He won an American finalist to the 1953 International Sculpture Competition.
Life.
He studied with Alexander Archipenko and László Moholy-Nagy.
He moved to New York City in 1947.
He lived in East Hampton, New York from 1965 to 1988.
His work is in the Art Institute of Chicago, the Brooklyn Museum, the Jewish Museum, the Heckscher Museum of Art, and the Museum of Modern Art.
His papers are in the Archives of American Art.


Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.
Paradigm summaries.
A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.


Friedel Dzubas

Friedel Dzubas (April 20, 1915 in Berlin, Germany – December 10, 1994 in Auburndale, Massachusetts) was a German-born American abstract painter.
Life and work.
Friedel Dzubas studied art in his native land before fleeing Nazi Germany in 1939 and settling in New York City. In Manhattan during the early 1950s, he shared a studio with fellow abstract painter Helen Frankenthaler. He began exhibiting his Abstract expressionist paintings at this time.
His work was included in the Ninth Street Show in New York City in 1951, and in group exhibitions at the Leo Castelli gallery, the Stable Gallery, and the Tibor de Nagy Gallery among others. After the Ninth Street Show annual invitational exhibitions were held at the Stable Gallery throughout the 1950s. The poster of the second New York Painting and Sculpture Annual at The Stable Gallery in 1953, included an introduction by Clement Greenberg:
In the 1960s he became associated with Color field painting and Lyrical Abstraction. He was included in "Post-painterly abstraction" a 1964 exhibition curated by Clement Greenberg. Dzubas was a friend of Clement Greenberg, who in turn introduced him to Jackson Pollock and other artists.
His large work (up to wide) became more fluid. During the last three decades of his career, Dzubas had more than sixty solo exhibitions around the world. He was represented by the André Emmerich gallery and Knoedler Contemporary Arts in New York for more than thirty years. His works were exhibited at galleries including the Anita Shapolsky Gallery and the
Jacobson Howard Gallery in New York City. In 1976 he settled in Massachusetts, but also painted and lived in New York City, where his paintings were regularly exhibited.
Technique.
Dzubas used Magna paint, an acrylic paint favored by many of the artist's peers over oil paint, from 1966 onward. The artist would apply thick layers of color over washes, scrubbing the paint into the unprimed canvas. Dzubas used staining, brushing and other ways of applying color. His paintings were generally large in size and scale, but he made many very small paintings as well.
Teaching.
He was a teacher and lecturer at:
he had the longest relationship with the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, where he taught from 1976 to 1983.


Tamil 99

Tamil 99 is a keyboard layout approved by the Tamil Nadu Government. The layout, along with several monolingual and bilingual fonts for use with the Tamil language, was approved by government order on 13 June 1999.
Designed for use with a normal QWERTY keyboard, typing follows a consonant-vowel pattern. The arrangement of the characters allow for fast and simple tying for users familiar with the script.


Mat Benote

Mat Benote is a contemporary American artist associated with the graffiti urban art movement. He is most commonly known for placing fine art in museums and public spaces. His work has been displayed in many museums including the Guggenheim in New York City and the Los Angeles County Museum. He is a proponent of the "gifted" art and "added" art movements.
One of his more interesting stunts to date was an exhibition of a single painting split into twelve different sections and displayed in twelve different museums. The work acted basically like a giant puzzle with the pieces spread all over the nation. The Joslyn Museum of Art in Omaha announced soon after receiving, that their section was going into the Museum's permanent collection.


Addressable heap

In computer science, an addressable heap is an abstract data type. Specifically, it is a mergeable heap supporting access to the elements of the heap via handles (also called references). It allows the key of the element referenced by a particular handle to be removed or decreased.
Definition.
An addressable heap supports the following operations:
Examples.
Examples of addressable heaps include:
A more complete list with performance comparisons can be found here.


Portuguese

Portuguese may refer to:


Alan Leitner

Alan Leitner is an American abstract artist. He was born in 1947 in an ethnically diverse section of Los Angeles. Alan was the middle of three children in a Jewish family. He received his B.S. in art in 1971 from Woodbury University in Los Angeles, where he met his first wife who wanted to move to Hawaii. Also in 1971, he acquired an art foundry that produced blown glass, sculpture, ceramics and paintings, which contributed greatly to his understanding of art. In 1987, he received a M.F.A. in painting from the University of Hawaii at Manoa. The graduate program required students to do some teaching, and through this teaching he met Alyn Brownley who at the time headed the art program at Leeward Community College. Brownley requested Alan to teach her art class for one semester while she pursued a move to University of Hawaii at Manoa. After graduation, Dr. John Conner, the department associate dean, offered Alan a full-time teaching position at Leeward Community College, where he is currently a professor. Alan has also taught at Honolulu Community College and University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Leitner's art is abstract, utilizing muted earth tones as the main colors. He often affixes various objects to his canvases. "Untitled #4", in the collection of the Honolulu Museum of Art, is typical of his later work.


Christian Dotremont

Christian Dotremont, (12 December 1922 – 20 August 1979), was a Belgian painter and poet who was born in Tervuren, Belgium. He was a founding member of the Revolutionary Surrealist Group (1946) and he also founded COBRA together with Danish artist Asger Jorn. In this capacity he was responsible for bringing Henri Lefebvre's "Critique de la vie quotidienne" (1946) to the group's attention. He later became well known for his painted poems (French: "Peinture mots"), which he called logograms.
He died of tuberculosis in Buizingen.


Sittuyin

Sittuyin (), also known as Burmese chess, is a variant of chess that is a direct offspring of the Indian game of "chaturanga" which arrived in 8th century AD. "Sit" is the modern Burmese word for "army" or "war" ; the word "sittuyin" can be translated as "representation of the four characteristics of army"—chariot, elephant, cavalry and infantry.
In its native land the game has been largely overshadowed by Western (international) chess, although it remains popular in the northwest regions.
Board.
The "sittuyin" board consists of 64 squares, 8 rows and 8 columns, without alternating colors. It also consists of two diagonal lines across the board known as "sit-ke-myin" (general's lines).
Pieces and their moves.
Pieces are commonly made in wood and sometimes in ivory. The height of the pieces is varied by class. The official colors of the pieces are red and black.
"Min-gyi (king)"
it can move one step in any direction.
"Sit-ke (general)"
It can move one step in any diagonal direction (as "fers" in shatranj).
"Sin (elephant)"
It can move one step in any diagonal direction or one step forward (as silver general in shogi).
"Myin (horse)"
It can jump two horizontal squares and one vertical square or two vertical squares and one horizontal square, as in Western chess.
"Yahhta (chariot)"
It can move any number of free squares along four orthogonal directions.
"Nè (feudal lord)"
It can move one step forward but cannot retreat. It captures one diagonal step forward.
Rules.
Only feudal lords (pawns) are on the board in the initial position. The game starts with the Red player (depicted here having white pieces), followed by the Black player, placing their other pieces arbitrarily on their own halves of the board (known as "sit-tee" or troops deployment): chariots can be put on any square on the back rank. In official tournaments, a small curtain is used on the middle of the board to prevent the players seeing each other's deployment during the "sit-tee" phase. One of the possible game openings is shown in the diagram.
Feudal lords promote to general when they reach diagonal lines marked on the board. The promotion is possible only if that player's general has been captured. If the player has a feudal lord on a promotion square and his or her general is no longer on the board, the player can (if he or she wishes to) promote the feudal lord to general instead of making a move. A feudal lord which passes the promotion square cannot promote anymore.
The goal of the game is to "khwè" (checkmate) the opponent's king. Putting the opponent in stalemate is not allowed.
In the version reported in "A History of Chess" in 1913, a game of sittuyin had three stages:
Dice rules.
Anne Sunnucks writes that three dice were thrown and each player made three moves at a time.
References.
Bibliography


Gandy Brodie

Gandy Brodie (May 20, 1924 - October 22, 1975) was an American painter working primarily in New York City and Townshend, Vermont during the middle part of the 20th century. He had ties to Abstract Expressionism through artists such as Willem de Kooning and his style, though singular, was considered second-generation Abstract Expressionism. His paintings were influenced by the works of artists such as Camille Corot, Paul Cézanne, Vincent van Gogh, Piet Mondrian, Chaïm Soutine, Georges Rouault, Pablo Picasso, and Paul Klee. Shane Brody, his only child, is a jazz and Americana guitarist who resides in Underhill, Vermont.
Personal life.
Gabriel Solomon Brodie was born May 20, 1924 in Brooklyn, New York to a family of Romanian Jewish produce vendors. Brodie lived and worked in and around New York City throughout his life, while also spending extensive time in Florence, Italy, Provincetown, Massachusetts, and West Townshend, Vermont. He and his wife, Jocelyn Brodie, and are remembered for their establishment of The Gandy Brodie School of Art in Newfane, Vermont.
Career.
Brodie started out as a self-taught painter, arriving at painting only after studying dance with Martha Graham and delving into the world of jazz and bebop. Once he discovered painting, he dedicated himself to learning from fellow artists and from works he could access in the museums of New York. After a time, he studied with Hans Hofmann and with the art historian, Meyer Schapiro, who praised Brodie as “one of the best painters of his generation.”
He was the winner of many awards, including a Guggenheim Fellowship, a National Council for The Arts Award, a Longview Foundation Purchase Grant, an Ingram Merrill Foundation Award, a Mark Twain Art award, and numerous residencies at colleges and universities nationwide. In addition, Brodie taught at Carnegie-Mellon University, The University of Pennsylvania and Elmira College, in Elmira New York, where he was a Fine Arts Instructor at the time of his death.
Brodie’s work is characterized by dense layers of paint, or drawn marks, culminating in an abstract, yet vivid encapsulation of everyday objects such as a flower in a can, a tree in the park, a sea gull over the ocean, or a tenement in New York. He was known for painting and drawing certain subjects repeatedly throughout his relatively short career. The subjects are often, at first glance, indiscernible from thick paint or charcoal marks; however, his reoccurring motifs become more recognizable once viewed in relation to his other works.
Brodie died on October 22, 1975 at the age of 51. A memorial for Brodie was held at The New School for Social Research, in New York City. Among the speakers were Meyer Shapiro and Elaine de Kooning. After his death, exhibitions of Brodie's art continued to be shown at the Sidney Janis, Knoedler, Edward Thorpe, and Salander - O'Rielly galleries. Brodie's work is currently represented by Steven Harvey Fine Art Project, New York. Brodie’s paintings and drawings can be found in Museum collections including the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Neuberger Museum of Art, and The Phillips Collection.


Haruko Saida

 is a Japanese women's professional shogi player ranked 5-dan. She is a former , and title holder. She is currently serving as a non-executive director for the Japan Shogi Association.
JSA director.
At the Japan Shogi Association's 70th General Meeting held in June 2019, Saida was elected as a non-executive director to the association's board of directors.
Promotion history.
Saida's promotion history is as follows:
Note: All ranks are women's professional ranks.
Titles and other championships.
Saida has appeared in major title matches twelve times and has won a total of four titles. In addition to major titles, Saida has won two other shogi championships.
Other championships.
Note: Tournaments marked with an asterisk (*) are no longer held or currently suspended.
Awards and honors.
Saida received the Japan Shogi Association's "Women's Professional" Annual Shogi Award for the April 2000March 2001 shogi year. She received the JSA's "25 Years Service Award" in recognition of being an active professional for twenty-five years in 2010.


Christopher H. Martin

Christopher H. Martin (born 1969) is an American artist working with paintings on acrylic and canvas mediums. A self-taught artist, he is known for his signature technique of painting in reverse, using acrylic paint on a clear sheet of acrylic. Martin modernizes the 14th century technique of "Verre Églomisé" to layer acrylic paint on the reverse side of his acrylic canvas in creating his original pieces. In 2006 Martin began working on his third medium, Metallic Prints. Martin has created twenty-two Metallic Print series, totaling two hundred and fifty-one photographs.
Born in Fort Lauderdale, Florida and raised in Orlando, Florida, Martin started his career in the financial retirement industry and quickly realized that his passion was art and creating art. Martin began painting in 1994 in Dallas, Texas where he worked and lived at his studio in Uptown. Over the years, as his career evolved, he has had five different studio/gallery locations in Dallas. Martin then partnered with another gallery owner in Los Angeles in opening The Martin Lozano Gallery. He opened Christopher Martin Gallery in Aspen, Colorado in November 2010. In 2016, Martin opened a third location in Santa Fe, New Mexico on the city's famed Canyon Road. Martin currently has his galleries in Dallas, Santa Fe and Aspen, along with ongoing exhibitions in galleries in Houston and San Francisco.
In 2010, D Magazine recognized Christopher Martin "for [his] power and grace in all settings social."
Christopher Martin currently resides and creates in Aspen, Colorado.
Commissions and exhibits.
In November 2012, Martin completed the commission, "Velocity", a 120-foot by five-foot painting located in the lounge of the Circuit of the Americas Formula One track in Austin, Texas."
In April of 2009, Equinox of Dallas, Texas commissioned Martin to create a collection of 30 circular acrylic on acrylic pieces for their sixty-by-twenty-foot entry wall. In March of 2010 The Ritz Carlton of Dove Mountain commissioned Martin to create an array of 24 acrylic discs for their grand entry way. The discs are installed above the entrance.
In October 2011, the Omni Hotel in downtown Dallas, Texas commissioned Martin to create two twelve-foot by eight-foot paintings. The pieces now hang on either side of the entrance to the Grand Ballroom on the third floor.
In May 2013 he exhibited in Laguna Art Museum's Palate to Palette, the 4th Annual Art Aspen, and Unique Dialogue.
Most recently, Martin exhibited in the Venice Biennale collateral exhibition, "Personal Structures – Time, Space and Existence". He also participated in Scope Basel in Switzerland in June 2013, and was featured in a group show in Paris that opened in November 2013 at Galleie Mondapart.
The McLoughlin Gallery: Organic Fusion - Christopher H. Martin.
Projects.
Martin also created a series of paintings by adhering 9-11 newspaper headlines to canvas, then painting the U.S. flag over them. Proceeds from the sale of the series were donated to the American Red Cross. Former President George Bush Sr. was given one of Chris' 9-11 flags as the recipient of the Joseph Prize for Human Rights in 2002.


Sally Schoch

Sally Schoch (born 1934) MFA is an American artist and abstract painter living in Wilmette, Illinois. She received her Master of Fine Arts degree from the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. Schoch has worked in fiber arts and painted in oils and watercolor, and is most known for her abstract paintings of flowers. Schoch has received commissions for works by Marshall Field's, Bank of America, and other organizations. She is a member of the Wilmette Art Guild and the Chicago Artists' Coalition. Her work has been exhibited primarily in the Midwestern United States
Personal life.
Sally Davis was born in 1934 in Joliet, Illinois Her parents were George, an oil salesman, and Agnes Davis, both of whom were born in Illinois. Sally was the fifth child. Her elder siblings were Mary Ann, Jo Ann, Suzanne, and George. All five children were born within a six-year period. The family lived on Glenwood Avenue in Joliet, Illinois.
She attended Farragut Grade School, and graduated from Joliet Township High School in 1952. Sally Davis married Richard Schoch about 1963. He was born on January 13, 1931 to Harry and Helen Schoch; He had two brothers, Harry and Tom. Richard Schoch graduated from Joliet Township High School in 1949, three years before his wife. He attended Northwestern University and then worked for Jack Daniel's distillery. They had four children: Bret, an investment banker; Brad, an architect; Kari, an art wholesaler; and Brandon, who works in the restaurant industry. In 2003, they had three grandchildren. Sally and Richard Schoch lived in Wilmette, Illinois.
Her husband, Richard died on May 21, 2010; he was living in Wilmette at the time of his death.
Education.
She studied at School of the Art Institute of Chicago earning a Bachelor of Fine Arts and, in 1962, a Master of Fine Arts degree in drawing and painting. Schoch also studied at the University of Miami and the University of Chicago.
Art career.
After graduating from the School of the Art Insititue, Schoch worked briefly as a commercial artist. When her children were young, she focused on weaving and later she resumed painting. She has been painting in oils for more than 40 years and specializes in abstract flower and portrait paintings. She believes that abstract art is "the marriage of imagination, spontaneity and color." A notable fiber arts work is "Opus 535," which was commissioned by The Oakton Community College Educational Foundation in 1992. It is a tapestry wall hanging of an architectural landscape. The weaving, like a detailed bas relief, is a "narrative assemblage [that] brings together a sense of history and community."
Schoch has been commissioned by Marshall Field's, Bank of America, the Chubb Corp., and the American Meat Export Association in Denver, Colorado to create paintings. Her works have been exhibited at the Art Institute of Chicago, Marshall Field's, the National College of Education in Evanston, Ruth Volid in Chicago, and at other locations in northern Illinois and southwestern Michigan. She made "Sports Star", a sculpture for the Winnetka Community House, Winnetka, Illinois.
She was one of the artist whose works were auctioned to benefit the Joanne Silverman Memorial Fund. Some of the proceeds were used to support early ovarian cancer detection. Her work was exhibited that year at the Wilmette Village Hall<ref name="WL 10/25/2001"></ref> and the Wilmette Arts Guild's Festival of Arts.
Schoch made a unique tapestry of modern-day Jerusalem in memory of Patricia Flint, a friend's sister. It was dedicated on June 16, 2002 and hangs in the narthex of First Presbyterian Church of Joliet.
In 2005 she was one of 80 artists that participated in the Wilmette Festival of Fine Arts. The two-day event was run by the Wilmette Arts Guild. The same year, she was one of the local artists that contributed a painted outdoor umbrella for The Deer Path Art League's 50th anniversary gala. She is one of the Art Institute of Chicago's barewall artists of 2007, 2008 and 2009. From May 20 through August 5, 2011, a reception entitled "Celebrating Experience" was held in Evanston, Illinois with watercolor paintings by Schoch and John Martin. Services for Adults Staying in Their Homes (SASI) received 20% of the proceeds. "Robe of Roses" was exhibited at the "Women's Journeys in Fiber" exhibition at the Anderson Arts Center (Kenosha, Wisconsin) in 2013.
Her work is available at the Deer Path Art League, a non-profit organization to cultivate arts in the Chicago’s North Shore.
Schoch has been a member of the Wilmette Arts Guild and the Chicago Artists' Coalition.


Gabriele Evertz

Gabriele Evertz (born 1945 in Berlin) is an American painter, curator and professor who is applying the history and theory of color in her work. She is known for abstract color painting and Geometric abstraction.
Life and work.
Gabriele Evertz emigrated to the United States at the age of 19. She holds an M.F.A. in painting and a B.A. in art history, both from Hunter College where she is teaching since 1998. She is a member of the American Abstract Artists. Gabriele Evertz lives and works in New York. 2012 she received the "Basil H. Alkazzi Award for Excellence in Painting".
Evertz is considered a longtime member of the "Hunter Color School", along with Doug Ohlson, Robert Swain, Vincent Longo, Joanna Pousette-Dart, and Sanford Wurmfeld. Although all artists have found their own individual means of expression, they are united in their exploration of the phenomenology of color in order to initiate a "transformative effect" on the viewer.
Work.
Evertz's paintings consist of vertical lines, for which she uses all colors of the color circle. In her latest compositions she turns to the color grey and its effects on surrounding colors. Occasionally, she also uses metallic colors, as these can reflect the light and set additional color impulses. She often repeats certain color constellations within an artwork.
While viewing the painting, the mind's eye constantly swings between perceiving the entire picture and the concentration on individual aspects of the work. The viewer thus perceives a kind of vibration of the color: "The resulting paintings present a barrage of visual information that moves color and form in and out of sequence and symmetry causing the eye to move through undulating, pulsating spaces." This becomes particularly evident when the viewer takes different distances from the picture. The resulting parallax intensifies the experience of the vibration and oscillation of the color.
It is solely through the viewers' perception of the composition, through their movement in the room and the resulting different perception of closeness and distance, that oscillation and vibration arise, which turns the viewing of the works into an individual and possibly even spiritual experience: "People think geometry is very static, but it isn't. It's moving all the time. I'm keeping the same color sequence but changing the background. so as you engage in it, it changes. The colors are the actors. These are really vessels of contemplation.


Cora Cohen

Cora Cohen (born October 19, 1943) is an American artist whose works include paintings, drawings, photographs, and altered x rays. Cohen is most known for her abstract paintings and is often identified as continuing the tradition of American Abstraction. "The New York Times" critic Michael Brenson wrote of her 1984 exhibition, "Portraits of Women": "The works are dense, brooding and yet elated. The turbulence of the paint not only looks but also feels like freedom." Cohen interviewed many other artists also associated with continuing the tradition of American Abstraction for Bomb Magazine including; Ralph Humphrey, Dona Nelson, Craig Fisher, Carl Ostendarp and Joan Mitchell. Her work has also been identified with traditions of European abstraction, and specifically German abstraction, including the work of Wols, Sigmar Polke, Gerhard Richter. She began exhibiting in Germany in the early nineties and continues to show at some of its most prestigious institutions.
Early life and education.
 Cora Cohen was born in New York City. She attended the High School of Music & Art (1957–60) and Bennington College (1960-64), where she studied with Paul Feeley, and Lawrence Alloway. Cohen was Artist in Residence in Painting at the University of Pennsylvania (1969–70), after which she returned to Bennington College as a graduate student (1970–72). During this time, she studied with Richard Haas, and met sound artist Liz Phillips who introduced her to new music, in particular that of Pauline Oliveros and Steve Reich. In this work Cohen found reinforcement for using traditional art materials to create decompositional abstractions.
Career.
Cohen's first solo museum exhibition was initiated by James Harithas at the Everson Museum of Art in 1974. She began exhibiting regularly in New York at the Max Hutchinson Gallery in 1976. Cohen exhibited widely from the late eighties onward, in New York at the Holly Solomon Gallery, and Wolff Gallery. In the early nineties she began exhibiting in Europe. In 2008, her exhibition "Come in a Little Closer" at Michael Steinberg Fine Art received wide attention. It was written about in "The New York Times", artcritical.com, and reviewed in depth in The Brooklyn Rail by Joan Waltemath who wrote, "her brushstrokes...hover between the task of delineating form and the state of becoming form. They mimic the fluctuation between being and reflecting on being and so embody the Cartesian dualism that determines our consciousness."
The first exhibition of Cohen's altered x rays, her works on exposed x ray films in which cuts and other interventions subvert or enhance the image, was held at The Field Institute Hombroich, , Neuss in 2011. In 2013, "The Responsibility of Forms", an exhibition of Cohen's 2012-13 paintings that examine a place between uncertainty and sureness was held at Guided by Invoices, New York. It was written about extensively, in artcritical.com, The Huffington Post and The Brooklyn Rail. In 2013, a selection of drawings from 2007 to 2013 was exhibited at Galerie Hafemann, Wiesbaden.
In recent years, Cohen's work has been exhibited in many group exhibitions throughout the United States and abroad, including, "70 Years of Abstract Painting - Excerpts", 2011, curated by Stephanie Buhmann at the Jason McCoy Gallery, New York; "Auf Papier", 2011, at Galerie Hafemann, Wiesbaden; "Invitational Exhibition of Visual Arts 2012", at the American Academy of Arts and Letters, New York; "Assembly 2012", at Edward Thorp Gallery, New York; "Paper Band", 2012, curated by Stephanie Simmons at Jason McCoy Gallery, New York, with Frederick Kiesler, Lee Krasner, Jim Lee, etc., and "Season Review 2013", at Edward Thorp Gallery, New York with Andrew Guenther, June Leaf, Henri Michaux.
Cohen has been the recipient of awards from the Yaddo Foundation (1982), the National Endowment for the Arts (1987), the New York Foundation for the Arts (1989), the Pollock-Krasner Foundation (1998), the Adolph and Esther Gottlieb Foundation (1990, 2006), the Marie Walsh Sharpe Foundation Space Program (2008), and the Edward F. Albee Foundation Residency (2009). Her painting, Curtain, 2008, 75 x 103” (190.5 x 261.62 cm) received a purchase award from the American Academy of Arts and Letters (2012), and she is the recipient of a John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation Fellowship (2013).
Cohen is a frequent guest teacher and lecturer at various institutions including The School of the Art Institute of Chicago, Columbia University School of the Arts, Maryland Institute College of Art, and Medicine Hat College, Alberta. She lives and works in Long Island City and continues to spend time in Germany.
Collections.
Cohen’s works are in many public collections, including The Swedish State Art Council (Stockholm), The Ulla and Heiner Pietzsch Collection (Berlin), the Weatherspoon Art Museum (Greensboro), Yale University (New Haven), The William and Uytendale Scott Memorial Study Collection of Works by Women of The Bryn Mawr College Art and Archaeology Collection (Bryn Mawr), the Neuberger Museum of Art and Purchase College, (Purchase, New York).
Further reading.
Jablon, Samuel. The Formative Formlessness of Cora Cohen hyperallergic.com, August 2013
Griffin, Nora. CORA COHEN The Responsibility of Forms The Brooklyn Rail, March 2013
Riley, Jennifer. Cora Cohen: Come in a Little Closer at Michael Steinberg artcritical.com, October 2008
Buhmann, Stephanie. Cora Cohen The Brooklyn Rail, November 2004
Schwabsky, Barry. Cora Cohen: One Art Text accompanying exhibition at Jason McCoy, September 2004


Alan Reynolds (artist)

Alan Munro Reynolds (27 April 1926 – 28 August 2014) was a British painter.
Reynolds was born on 27 April 1926 at Newmarket, Suffolk, where his father worked as a stableman. He studied at the Woolwich Polytechnic from 1948 to 1952 and in 1954, and at the Royal College of Art from 1952 to 1953. He taught at the Central School of Art and Design from 1954 to 1961, and from 1961 or 1962 at Saint Martin's School of Art, where he became a senior lecturer in painting in 1985. His work is in the permanent collections of the Museum of Modern Art, New York, the National Museum of Canada, the V&A and the Tate among others. He was known first as a landscape painter, but changed to a totally abstract style from 1960. He lived and worked in Kent.


Probabilistic programming

Probabilistic programming (PP) is a programming paradigm in which probabilistic models are specified and inference for these models is performed automatically. It represents an attempt to unify probabilistic modeling and traditional general purpose programming in order to make the former easier and more widely applicable. It can be used to create systems that help make decisions in the face of uncertainty.
Programming languages used for probabilistic programming are referred to as "probabilistic programming languages" (PPLs).
Applications.
Probabilistic reasoning has been used for a wide variety of tasks such as predicting stock prices, recommending movies, diagnosing computers, detecting cyber intrusions and image detection. However, until recently (partially due to limited computing power), probabilistic programming was limited in scope, and most inference algorithms had to be written manually for each task.
Nevertheless, in 2015, a 50-line probabilistic computer vision program was used to generate 3D models of human faces based on 2D images of those faces. The program used inverse graphics as the basis of its inference method, and was built using the Picture package in Julia. This made possible "in 50 lines of code what used to take thousands".
The Gen probabilistic programming library (also written in Julia) has been applied to vision and robotics tasks.
More recently, the probabilistic programming systems Turing.jl has been applied in various pharmaceutical and economics applications.
Probabilistic programming in Julia has also been combined with differentiable programming by combining the Julia package Zygote.jl with Turing.jl.
Probabilistic programming languages.
PPLs often extend from a basic language. The choice of underlying basic language depends on the similarity of the model to the basic language's ontology, as well as commercial considerations and personal preference. For instance, Dimple and Chimple are based on Java, Infer.NET is based on .NET Framework, while PRISM extends from Prolog. However, some PPLs such as WinBUGS and Stan offer a self-contained language, with no obvious origin in another language.
Several PPLs are in active development, including some in beta test. The two most popular tools are Stan and PyMC3.
Relational.
A probabilistic relational programming language (PRPL) is a PPL specially designed to describe and infer with probabilistic relational models (PRMs).
A PRM is usually developed with a set of algorithms for reducing, inference about and discovery of concerned distributions, which are embedded into the corresponding PRPL.
Difficulty.
Reasoning about variables as probability distributions causes difficulties for novice programmers, but these difficulties can be addressed through use of Bayesian network visualisations and graphs of variable distributions embedded within the source code editor.


Andada (game)

Andada is a traditional mancala game played by the Kunama people of western Eritrea. It closely resembles other mancalas from East Africa such as Enkeshui and Layli Goobalay.
Rules.
The Andada board comprises two rows of holes; the number of holes per row may vary from 12 to 24, but is always a multiple of 3. Holes are traditionally called "ita" (meaning "houses"). At the beginning, two seeds are placed in each hole. Seeds are called "ayla" ("cows"). Each player owns the row of holes closest to him.
The game is opened by a special move made by one of the players, who will take all seeds from one of his holes and sows them counterclockwise; then takes the seeds from the hole immediately after the one where the first sowing has ended and sows them too, and so on, repeating this procedure until all holes have either 3 or 0 seeds. This will lead the board in one of the following situations (assuming the board has 12 holes per row):
The opponent then will choose who will move first in the remainder of the game.
Players will then take turns as in other mancalas. At his/her turn, the player takes all seeds from a hole and sows them counterclockwise. If the last seed falls in a non empty hole, the player will take all seeds from that hole and sow them too (relay sowing). When the last seed falls in an empty hole, if this hole is in the player's own row, he will capture any seeds in the opposing hole in the opponent's row. Captured seeds are removed from the game.
When no hole holds more than 1 seed, any seed that reaches the end of one player's row will be removed from the game instead of moved to the opponent's row.
The first player to be without any seeds in his row loses the game.
References.
R. Pankhurst. "Gabata and Related Board Games of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa". In «Ethiopia Observer», 1971, 14 (3), pp. 154–206.


Robin Kornman

Robin Kornman (April 17, 1947 – July 31, 2007) is best known for his work as a Tibetan Buddhist scholar, as well as a founding member of the Nalanda Translation Committee. Up until his death, he had spent many years working on an English translation of the Tibetan (living) epic "Gesar of Ling" — it is his work on this translation that has gained him the most recognition. A longtime student of Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche, Kornman had been co-director of Trungpa Rinpoche's first Shambhala Buddhist retreat center in North America, Karmê Chöling, when first established in 1970.
Having earned his Ph.D. degree from Princeton University, Kornman was a professor of Comparative Literature at the University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee, published various translations and articles dealing with Buddhism, and acted as a meditation instructor and mentor to the Shambhala Buddhist Community.


Vincent Cavallaro

Vincent Cavallaro (November 8, 1912, Cambridge, Massachusetts - May 22, 1985, New York City) was a painter, sculptor and abstract artist. He was a United States citizen, raised and educated in Italy (Milan).
He has been honored in the States with an award from the MoMA (War Poster, 1941), commissions from the National Gallery of Art ("Man in Space" program, 1968), and commissions to create many public and private murals and monuments individuals and institutions, including public schools in the New York City area (circa 1963 - 1975).
Family History.
Mr. Cavallaro was married to Fulvia Burbi (b Oct 22, 1916, Milan, Italy - d. April 17, 1967). His parents were Giovanni Cavallaro and Maria Giuseppa DeBenedetti. He completed a year of formal studies in art in 1933 at Brera Academy in Milan. Under the Italian spelling of his first name, "Vincenzo," he enlisted as a private in the U.S. Army Warrant Officers Program on April 15, 1942, at Fort Jay, Governors Island and served until 1946 (US Army Serial No. 32315213). His enlistment papers reflect that, among other things, he had one year of college and was working as a canvas cover repairman, animation artist, motion picture animation artist, model maker for motion pictures, and general artist. His enlistment papers also indicate that he was 5'7", 120 lbs. and married.


Randall Schmit

Randall Schmit (born 1955) is a contemporary American artist of Luxembourger and Dutch descent, working primarily in painting.
Biography.
Visual artist Randall Schmit was born in Newark, New Jersey, and grew up along the Mississippi River in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. After initial studies in architecture at Texas A&M University, Schmit began to paint, and was Studio Assistant to abstract colorist, Ray Parker (painter) during the late-seventies and early eighties in New York.
Schmit's calligraphic and buoyant abstractions first came to public attention in New York in the 1980s, where he exhibited extensively in the East Village, Manhattan. His first solo exhibition in New York was held in 1982 at "Betty Cuningham Gallery" on Prince Street in Soho; later exhibitions of the artist's work were held in East Village venues such as José Freire's "fiction/nonfiction" (solo exhibition, 1987), the "Pyramid Club" (1986), and "Virtual Garrison" (1985). Schmit's paintings were characterised as "loud, cartoonish" by critic Michael Brenson during this period.
Recent solo exhibitions have been in Hudson, New York at the David Bruner Gallery (2010) and at McDaris Fine Art (2013), both on Warren Street; and a (2014) solo exhibition in Woodstock, NY, at the Woodstock Artists Association Museum (W.A.A.M.) on Tinker Street.
Influences.
In addition to the obvious influences of Surrealism and the mature New York School found in the studio of Schmit's mentor, Ray Parker—a colleague of Abstract Expressionists Willem de Kooning, Robert Motherwell, Michael Goldberg and others—the graphic influence of comics and contemporary 1980s East Village Graffiti artists is also seen in Schmit's early work.
According to museum curator Lowery Stokes Sims, Schmit has been "fascinated with cartoons, which have been a starting point in his early work, and has incorporated comic imagery into his work" since at least the early eighties.
Whether from his childhood in Louisiana, or the influence of Parker's musical interests, Schmit has long held an interest in jazz music, and was included in the important 1997 Smithsonian traveling exhibition, "Seeing Jazz", alongside a quote from jazz composer, Miles Davis.
Drawing with graphite and acrylic paint over snipped images from art magazines, science fiction ephemera, movie and other books and magazines, Schmit has worked with collage since 1991. During a visit to Istanbul, Turkey in 2000, Schmit studied the historic mosaics installed within the ancient architecture there. He exhibited an important group of collage paintings at Galerie Apel in Istanbul that year. These works are psychedelic in nature, with swirling comic and science fiction imagery woven into web-like trails and gestures of paint that bind disparate images together as one entity.
Education.
Schmit entered Texas A&M University as a student of architecture. He soon migrated to the department of fine arts there, where he graduated with BFA and MFA degrees in Painting. He also studied painting during 1979-1981 at Empire State College at the State University of New York. The artist currently lives and works in New York and Columbia County, NY.


Futurist cooking

Futurist meals comprised a cuisine and style of dining advocated by some members of the Futurist movement, particularly in Italy. These meals were first proposed in Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and Luigi Colombo Fillia's "Manifesto of Futurist Cooking", published in the Turin "Gazzetta del Popolo" on December 28, 1930.
Concept.
According to Marinetti, he developed his concept of Futurism on October 11, 1908 while he was pondering the liberation of the Italian lyrical genius. He concluded that, for this to happen, it is necessary to change the method by going down into the streets, by attacking the theaters, and by bringing "the fist into the midst of the artistic struggle." When he introduced Futurist cooking, it was directed at combining gastronomy and art as well as the transformation of dining into a performance art. The Futurist movement recognized that people "think, dream and act according to what they eat and drink" so cooking and eating needed to become subservient to the proper aesthetic experience that Futurism favored. It has been associated with the notion of avant-garde in the sense that Futurist banquets are seen as great performances. Futurist food is also considered a means to address political and social issues. Marinetti's "Manifesto" has been described as a satirical polemic more than a cooking manual and was published in response to the Italian economic needs during the Depression.
As it expects the overturning of set patterns, some of its more interesting ideas for the realm of cuisine include Marinetti wanted Italians to stop eating foreign food and to stop using foreign food words: a bar should be called "quisibeve" (literally, "here one drinks" in Italian), a sandwich should be called "traidue" (between-two), a "maître d'hôtel" a "guidopalato" (palate-guide), and so on. [[Elizabeth David]], the cookery writer, comments that Marinetti's ideas about food contained a germ of common sense, but behind his jesting lay the [[Fascism|Fascist]] obsession with nationalism. Marinetti wanted to prepare the Italians for war. "Spaghetti is no food for fighters," he declared.
External links.
[[Category:Futurist movements|Meals]]
[[Category:Italian cuisine]]


Ford Crull

Ford Crull (born June 6, 1954) is an American neo-symbolist abstract artist. Crull was born in Boston, MA, but lived in Seattle until 1976, after which he moved to Los Angeles to embark on his professional career. While still an art student at the University of Washington, he won many prizes at local arts festivals, and was the youngest ever artist to be invited to show at the Northwest Art Annual. Considered a precocious talent, Crull joined Foster White Gallery, one of Seattle's premier at galleries where he had several exhibitions before graduating university.
From 1976 to 1983 Crull's paintings focused on organic, biomorphic shapes on white backgrounds, a gestational period for the artist that expressed in a pure abstract manner with impasto like surfaces. He joined the Stella Polaris Gallery in 1983, where he met art critic and writer Edward Goldman, and host of KCRW's “Art Talk.” Goldman championed Crull's works, which were acquired by corporate art collections, and was also instrumental in Crull's first significant non-gallery show at the USC Fisher Museum of Art (then, the Fisher Gallery) at the University of Southern California.
In 1983 Crull relocated to New York City, and became a seminal figure in the East Village art scene. He was discovered by Colin de Land, founder of Vox Populi, and the Armory Art Show. Crull had several shows at the Vox Populi, a time marked also by commercial success, and national recognition for the artist. Crull's works were acquired by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Brooklyn Museum, the National Gallery of Art, and the Dayton Art Institute.
In 1989, Crull was part of the very first showing of American artists in the USSR, "Painting Beyond the Death of Painting" at the Kuznetsky Most Exhibition Hall in Moscow curated by American art critic and historian, Donald Kuspit. This coincided with the time Crull was influenced by the Philosophy of Dualism. Upon his return from Russia, Crull began using steel framing for his paintings, with the edges burned. It was an invention that came to him after seeing the ancient icons in Russia. The new works were titled, “Relic Series”.
In a 1994 interview on the artist's work at Howard Scott Gallery in NYC noted art critic Eleanor Heartney stated,"The key to Crull’s vision is his simultaneous embrace of the uncertainties of the contemporary world and his affirmation of the reality of the individual consciousness within it. In his work, the authentic self remains the last bulwark against an anarchic world."
From 2006 - 2010, Crull made several visits to Shanghai, China, culminating in the first of his subsequent interdisciplinary live art works. At the opening of the Bund 1919 art bank, a cultural and art enclave developed from five 1919 buildings at Shanghai No. 8 Cotton and Textile Factory, Crull executed a public art project to a live performance of pianist Shi Wen.


Alfred L. Copley

Alfred Lewin Copley (1910–1992) was a German-American medical scientist and an artist at the New York School in the 1950s. As an artist he worked under the name L. Alcopley. He is best known as an artist for his abstract expressionist paintings, and as a scientist for his work in the field of hemorheology. He was married to the Icelandic artist Nína Tryggvadóttir.
Work as a medical scientist.
As a scientist, Copley studied the rheology of blood. In 1948 he introduced the word biorheology to describe rheology in biological systems.
In 1952 he introduced the word hemorheology, to describe the study of the way blood and blood vessels function as part of the living organism.
In 1966 he established the International Society of Hemorheology, which changed its name and scope in 1969 to the International Society of Biorheology (ISB). In 1972 the ISB awarded him its Poiseuille gold medal.
Work as an artist.
In 1949 he was one of twenty artists who founded the Eighth Street Club. The group also included Franz Kline, Willem de Kooning and Alcopley's close friend, the composer Edgard Varèse.
He participated in the Ninth Street Show in 1952 and had a solo exhibition at the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam in 1962. His work is held in the collection of the National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo.


Intentional programming

In computer programming, Intentional Programming is a programming paradigm developed by Charles Simonyi that encodes in software source code the precise "intention" which programmers (or users) have in mind when conceiving their work. By using the appropriate level of abstraction at which the programmer is thinking, creating and maintaining computer programs become easier. By separating the concerns for intentions and how they are being operated upon, the software becomes more modular and allows for more reusable software code.
"Intentional Programming" was developed by former Microsoft chief architect Charles Simonyi, who led a team in Microsoft Research, which developed the paradigm and built an integrated development environment (IDE) called IP (for Intentional Programming) that demonstrated the paradigm. Microsoft decided not to productize the Intentional Programming paradigm, as in the early 2000s Microsoft was rolling out C# and .NET to counter Java adoption. Charles Simonyi decided, with approval of Microsoft, to take his idea out from Microsoft and commercialize it himself. He founded the company Intentional Software to pursue this. Microsoft licensed the Intentional Programming patents Simonyi had acquired while at Microsoft, but no source code, to Intentional Software.
An overview of Intentional Programming as it was developed at Microsoft Research is given in Chapter 11 of the book "Generative Programming: Methods, Tools, and Applications".
Development cycle.
As envisioned by Simonyi, developing a new application via the Intentional Programming paradigm proceeds as follows. A programmer builds a WYSIWYG-like environment supporting the schema and notation of business knowledge for a given problem domain (such as productivity applications or life insurance). Users then use this environment to capture their intentions, which are recorded at high level of abstraction. The environment can operate on these intentions and assist the user to create semantically richer documents that can be processed and executed, similar to a spreadsheet. The recorded knowledge is executed by an evaluator or is compiled to generate the final program. Successive changes are done at the WYSIWYG level only. As opposed to word processors, spreadsheets or presentation software, an Intentional environment has more support for structure and semantics of the intentions to be expressed, and can create interactive documents that capture more richly what the user is trying to accomplish. A special case is when the content is program code, and the environment becomes an intelligent IDE.
Separating source code storage and presentation.
Key to the benefits of Intentional Programming is that domain code which capture the intentions are not stored in source code text files, but in a tree-based storage (could be binary or XML). Tight integration of the environment with the storage format brings some of the nicer features of database normalization to source code. Redundancy is eliminated by giving each definition a unique identity, and storing the name of variables and operators in exactly one place. This makes it easier to intrinsically distinguish declarations from references, and the environment can show them differently.
Whitespace in a program is also not stored as part of the source code, and each programmer working on a project can choose an indentation display of the source. More radical visualizations include showing statement lists as nested boxes, editing conditional expressions as logic gates, or re-rendering names in Chinese.
The system uses a normalized language for popular languages like C++ and Java, while letting users of the environment mix and match these with ideas from Eiffel and other languages. Often mentioned in the same context as language-oriented programming via domain-specific languages, and aspect-oriented programming, IP purports to provide some breakthroughs in generative programming. These techniques allow developers to extend the language environment to capture domain-specific constructs without investing in writing a full compiler and editor for any new languages.
Programming Example.
A Java program that writes out the numbers from 1 to 10, using a curly bracket syntax, might look like this:
 for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
 System.out.println("the number is " + i);
The code above contains a common construct of most programming languages, the bounded loop, in this case represented by the codice_1 construct. The code, when compiled, linked and run, will loop 10 times, incrementing the value of "i" each time after printing it out.
But this code does not capture the "intentions" of the programmer, namely to "print the numbers 1 to 10". In this simple case, a programmer asked to maintain the code could likely figure out what it is intended to do, but it is not always so easy. Loops that extend across many lines, or pages, can become very difficult to understand, notably if the original programmer uses unclear labels. Traditionally the only way to indicate the intention of the code was to add source code comments, but often comments are not added, or are unclear, or drift out of sync with the source code they originally described.
In intentional programming systems the above loop could be represented, at some level, as something as obvious as "codice_2". The system would then use the intentions to generate source code, likely something very similar to the code above. The key difference is that the intentional programming systems maintain the semantic level, which the source code lacks, and which can dramatically ease readability in larger programs.
Although most languages contain mechanisms for capturing certain kinds of abstraction, IP, like the Lisp family of languages, allows for the addition of entirely new mechanisms. Thus, if a developer started with a language like C, they would be able to extend the language with features such as those in C++ without waiting for the compiler developers to add them. By analogy, many more powerful expression mechanisms could be used by programmers than mere classes and procedures.
Identity.
IP focuses on the concept of identity. Since most programming languages represent the source code as plain text, objects are defined by names, and their uniqueness has to be inferred by the compiler. For example, the same symbolic name may be used to name different variables, procedures, or even types. In code that spans several pages – or, for globally visible names, multiple files – it can become very difficult to tell what symbol refers to what actual object. If a name is changed, the code where it is used must carefully be examined.
By contrast, in an IP system, all definitions not only assign symbolic names, but also unique private identifiers to objects. This means that in the IP development environment, every reference to a variable or procedure is not just a name – it is a link to the original entity.
The major advantage of this is that if an entity is renamed, all of the references to it in the program remain valid (known as referential integrity). This also means that if the same name is used for unique definitions in different namespaces (such as "codice_3"), references with the same name but different identity will not be renamed, as sometimes happens with search/replace in current editors. This feature also makes it easy to have multi-language versions of the program; it can have a set of English-language names for all the definitions as well as a set of Japanese-language names which can be swapped in at will.
Having a unique identity for every defined object in the program also makes it easy to perform automated refactoring tasks, as well as simplifying code check-ins in versioning systems. For example, in many current code collaboration systems (e.g. Git), when two programmers commit changes that conflict (i.e. if one programmer renames a function while another changes one of the lines in that function), the versioning system will think that one programmer created a new function while another modified an old function. In an IP versioning system, it will know that one programmer merely changed a name while another changed the code.
Levels of detail.
IP systems also offer several levels of detail, allowing the programmer to "zoom in" or out. In the example above, the programmer could zoom out to get a level that would say something like:
 «print the numbers 1 to 10»
Thus IP systems are self-documenting to a large degree, allowing the programmer to keep a good high-level picture of the program as a whole.
Similar works.
There are projects that exploit similar ideas to create code with higher level of abstraction. Among them are:


Ugo Pagano

Ugo Pagano (born 1951) is an Italian economist and Professor of Economic Policy at the University of Siena (Italy) where he is also Director of the PhD programme in Economics and President of S. Chiara Graduate School.
Biography.
Pagano graduated with a M.A. from the University of Siena in 1973. Subsequently, he received his PhD in Economics from Cambridge University where he was later to become University Lecturer and Fellow of Pembroke College.
Pagano was the President of the Italian Association for the Study of Comparative Economic Systems and member of the Council of the European Association for Evolutionary Political Economy. He is former founding editor of the Journal of Institutional Economics.
Currently, Pagano is Professor of Economic Policy and Director of the PhD programme in Economics at the University of Siena where he teaches courses on Theory of the Firm, Law and Economics and Political Economy. He teaches also at Central European University, Budapest.
In 1997 he was awarded the Kapp Prize for the essay 'Transition and the Speciation of the Japanese Model' by the European Association for Evolutionary Political Economy.
Work and research interest.
In the first part of his career Pagano has challenged the long tradition that sees economics as a relation between means and ends. Within this context his main contribution has been to endogenise the definition of both means and ends, and to clarify that by considering only leisure as argument of the utility function is tantamount to assuming that workers are physical 'things' not different from iron instead of human beings. On the basis of this critique various welfare theorems could be re-stated: the sum of utilities and productivity of work instead of the utility alone have to be equal in each use; the technological efficiency is not any more an essential requirement for economic efficiency; and the maximisation of profit does not any more imply an efficient allocation of work.
Following this line of research Pagano has enlarged the standard economic view about scarcity. In addition to standard material scarcity he has taken into account some dimensions usually neglected in mainstream economics among which social and intelligence scarcities. With reference to social scarcity Pagano has suggested a way of integrating the analysis of goods such as prestige and power in economic theory. This has been done by introducing a new type of good – positional goods – which have been defined as having the opposite character of public goods. The positive consumption of this type of good is possible only if corresponding negative quantities are consumed by other individuals. Pagano has shown that while public goods are typically undersupplied, positional goods are typically oversupplied. For what concerns instead intelligence scarcity he has suggested that bounded rationality has many dimensions each of which can be represented as a maximisation problem with some additional constraints, only at the cost of contradicting the scarcity assumption at a higher level.
In the literature on the theory of the firm the main contribution of Pagano has been the development of the concept of organizational equilibrium. Combining the literatures of the Neo-institutional and Radical schools he has defined organizational equilibria as situations where a set of rights (technological characteristics of the resources) brings about technological characteristics of the resources (rights) which are consistent with this set of rights (technology). This concept is directly related to the Marxian concept of mode of production and has been lately adopted as a tool to study the evolution of organizational forms in knowledge-intensive productions.
In the field of political economy, following the work of Ernest André Gellner, Pagano has established a link between nationalism and globalisation, highlighting similarities and discontinuities.
Being strongly influenced by the Darwinian theory of evolution, Pagano has also done some works on bioeconomics. In a recent article, in particular, he has suggested that in the course of human evolution sexual selection supplied the development of human brain and intelligence.
Pagano has been deeply involved in the debate concerning the economic crisis started in 2007. He has advanced the hypothesis that some of the roots of the crisis are to be found in the institutions of the knowledge economy, in particular the TRIPs, which have substantially increased the cost of investments. According to this interpretation, the possible remedies to the crisis should not only focus on monetary policy, financial regulations or even on standard Keynesian policies, but should be coupled with policies that decrease the level of intellectual monopolisation of the economy.
On his personal website, Pagano says that as a Director of the PhD Programme in Economics at the University of Siena, he has tried to co-operate with his colleagues to organise graduate programmes where research students feel part of a community within which they make autonomous choices on their research.


General Systems

General Systems: Yearbook of the Society for General Systems Research, known as General Systems, is the first annual journal in the field of systems science initiated in 1956, and initially edited by Ludwig von Bertalanffy and Anatol Rapoport.
Since 1998, it has been published as issue 5 of Systems Research and Behavioral Science.
Overview.
General Systems has been the first journal of the Society for General Systems Research published independently until the 1980s. Ever since it has been published as one of the items of the Systems Research and Behavioral Science. The journal started as a selecting of publications by several of the "foundational authors of the systems sciences", and contains some of the classic works in the field of systems theory, such as:
The General Systems Yearbook also contains examples of the third kind of general systems activity — creating new laws and refining old.
In 1998, the "General Systems Yearbook" was transitioned to be included each year as issue 5 of "Systems Research and Behavioral Sciences".