In Defense of Reason

In Defense of Reason is a three-volume work of literary criticisms by the American poet and literary critic Yvor Winters. First published in 1947, the book is known for its meticulous study of metrical verse and for its examples of Winters' system of ethical criticism.
The collection consists of three books of critical essays that Winters had written earlier. The first, "Primitivism and Decadence: A Study of American Experimental Poetry", is Winters' revised doctoral dissertation on the classification and analysis of poetic structures. The second, "Maule's Curse: Seven Studies in the History of American Obscurantism", is a study of seven prominent American novelists and poets of the 19th century. The third, "The Anatomy of Nonsense", is a study of several prominent writers associated with modernism. The book also contains three general essays that are crucial to understanding Winters as a critic and poet: the Foreword to the whole collection, "Preliminary Problems," which is in effect the introduction to "The Anatomy of Nonsense", and "The Significance of 'The Bridge,' by Hart Crane, or 'What Are We to Do with Professor X?'".
Though he started his poetic career in the early 1920s as a free-verse imagist, by late in that decade Winters had become a modern classicist, of a sort. He argued that poets should use metrical verse more often in their compositions. He also argued that poems should have rational structures and favor discursive language rather than the loose, associationist structures and styles favored by the moderns, which emphasize the emotions and personal expression. As is explained in these essays, Winters considered the moderns the literary descendants of Romanticism.
Content.
The study of the structure of modern poetry in "Primitivism and Decadence: A Study of American Experimental Poetry" is complex and challenging. Winters presents an elaborate and unique classification system of structures and methods, with an assessment of each kind of structure or approach to help readers understand how poets write in the modern age. In the course of his discussion, Winters also lays out his moral theory of literature, along with his close study of metrical verse and his unusual and difficult theory of free verse, in which he first composed his poetry.
"Maule's Curse: Seven Studies in the History of American Obscurantism" offers erudite short studies and appraisals of the writing careers, work by work, of James Fenimore Cooper (moderately favorable), Nathaniel Hawthorne (moderately favorable), Herman Melville (strongly favorable), Edgar Allan Poe (sharply unfavorable), Emily Dickinson (favorable, with qualifications), Henry James (favorable, with qualifications), and the little-known American poet Jones Very (favorable), who was a friend of Ralph Waldo Emerson. Winters' evaluations of these writers and their works are sometimes unusual, if not eccentric.
The third work in the collection, "The Anatomy of Nonsense", offers short, crisp, but detailed overviews and interpretations of the writings of Henry Adams (moderately unfavorable), T.S. Eliot (unfavorable), and Wallace Stevens (favorable, with qualifications). In addition, this section contains an essay on American critic and poet John Crowe Ransom that serves as Winters' defense of his own critical concepts, which Ransom had judged to be wrongheaded.
The collection is so diverse that it is difficult to characterize in summary. Winters was opposed to the ascendant Romantic theory of literature, as he understood it. He strove to foster a particular kind of classicism in literature, his own brand of stately, polished, rational, discursive poetry (as well as controlled, stately fiction) that emphasizes ideas and concepts. Across this collection he also reveals his growing penchant for rating individual works of literature and for the centrality of literary evaluation to criticism, as well as his nascent interest in revising the canon of literature to conform to his ideas of classical greatness, or near perfection in poetry. (Winters uses the term, "great", frequently in these writings, and elsewhere, to refer to artworks that he judges to be nearly perfect literary achievements of one kind or another.)
The three general essays in critical theory mentioned in the introduction are crucial to understanding Winters' general theory of literature and his misgivings about and opposition to Romanticism. In the "Foreword," Winters gives a lengthy and learned summation of his theory of poetry, which he calls the "moral" theory of literature. Winters contrasts this theory with his explications of the "didactic", "hedonistic", and "Romantic" theories, which he holds to be the three main critical strands of thought in western literary criticism. In the "Preliminary Problems" essay, found in "The Anatomy of Nonsense", he gives a trenchant, painstakingly logical, step-by-step summary of the criteria he uses in evaluating poems and assessing their greatness, particularly precise diction that subordinates emotion to conceptual content and rational structure.
In the concluding "Bridge" essay, also found in "The Anatomy of Nonsense", Winters examines the literary and psychological dangers facing poets who push Romantic ideas to what Winters believed to be their logical limits, one of whom was, in his judgment, Hart Crane. ("The Bridge" referred to is a famous poem by Hart Crane, with whom Winters briefly corresponded about poetry shortly before Crane's death in 1932.) The essay considers Crane as a disciple of Walt Whitman, whose romantic concepts of life and literature Winters discusses at some length.
Style.
Yvor Winters' memorable prose is highly polished, formal, and exacting. He was a fine stylist and a strikingly scrupulous interpreter of literary artworks. He was often and sometimes still is mistakenly considered one of the New Critics because of his many careful readings of individual works of poetry, fiction, and drama. But, unlike the New Critics, his close reading was performed in the service of his moral theory of literature.
"In Defense of Reason" also features Winters' acerbic comments in opposition to, and sometimes strongly disapproving of, various writers and critics usually held in high esteem in modern literary culture. For such comments he has been often called "brutal," which, however, appears to be an exaggeration. Winters wrote like most other hard-hitting critics who waged battle in the critical wars surrounding the New Criticism in the middle of the 20th century.


Frank Chapman Sharp

Frank Chapman Sharp (July 30, 1866 – May 4, 1943) was an American philosopher who specialized in ethics, including business ethics and the ethical conduct of war.
Career.
He received his BA from Amherst College in 1887 and his Ph.D. at the Konigliche-Friedrich-Wilhelms University of Berlin in 1892. His thesis, "The Aesthetic Element in Morality and Its Place in a Utilitararian Theory of Morals", was published in book form in both English and German in 1893. His entire teaching career was spent on the philosophy faculty at the University of Wisconsin, where he was made a full professor in 1905. He served as President of the Western Division of the American Philosophical Society during the 1907-1908 term. Among Sharp's other publications are "Shakespeare's Portrayal of the Moral Life" (1902); "A Study of the Influence of Custom on Moral Judgment" (1908); "A Course in Moral Instruction for the High School" (1909); "Syllabus on Moral Instruction" (with Frederic James Gould, 1911); "Ethics" (1928); "Business Ethics: Studies in Fair Competition" (1937); "Problems in Business Ethics" (1937); and "Good Will and Ill Will: A Study in Moral Judgments" (1950), the last of which was published posthumously.
Philosophy.
Sharp was among the first philosophers to focus on business ethics, in which he discussed the fair treatment of employees, consumers, and competitors. His "Syllabus on Moral Instruction" was, for a time, used by the United States military for troop instruction. Sharp was also among the first philosophers to perform empirical studies of moral intuitions, conducting surveys at the University of Wisconsin, both of highly educated liberal arts students and of agricultural students who had had limited formal education. Sharp believed that these studies confirmed his utilitarian ethical positions. He is credited with being the first moral philosopher to use a variant of the now famous trolley problem in which a switchman must choose between saving many strangers or his own daughter from a runaway train. A brief summary of Sharp's philosophy may be found in Richard Brandt's review of Sharp's "Good Will and Ill Will."
Frank Chapman Sharp Memorial Prize.
The Frank Chapman Sharp Memorial Prize was established by the American Philosophical Society in 1990 to honor Sharp's memory. It is awarded every other year to the best unpublished essay or monograph on the philosophy of war and peace.


Snowball effect

Metaphorically, a snowball effect is a process that starts from an initial state of small significance and builds upon itself, becoming larger (graver, more serious), and also perhaps potentially dangerous or disastrous (a vicious circle), though it might be beneficial instead (a virtuous circle). This is a cliché in cartoons and modern theatrics and it is also used in psychology.
The common analogy is with the rolling of a snowball down a snow-covered hillside. As it rolls the ball will pick up more snow, gaining more mass and surface area, and picking up even more snow and momentum as it rolls along.
In aerospace engineering, it is used to describe the multiplication effect in an original weight saving. A reduction in the weight of the fuselage will require less lift, meaning the wings can be smaller. Hence less thrust is required and therefore smaller engines, resulting in a greater weight saving than the original reduction. This iteration can be repeated several times, although the decrease in weight gives diminishing returns.
The startup process of a feedback electronic oscillator, when power to the circuit is switched on, is a technical application of the snowball effect. Electronic noise is amplified by the oscillator circuit and returned to its input filtered to contain primarily the selected (desired) frequency, gradually getting stronger in each cycle, until a steady-state oscillation is established, when the circuit parameters satisfy the Barkhausen stability criterion.


Adam Roberts (British writer)

Adam Charles Roberts (born 30 June 1965) is a British science fiction and fantasy novelist. In 2018 he was elected Vice-President of the H.G. Wells Society.
Career.
He has a degree in English from the University of Aberdeen and a PhD from Cambridge University on Robert Browning and the Classics. He teaches English literature and creative writing at Royal Holloway, University of London.
Adam Roberts has been nominated three times for the Arthur C. Clarke Award: in 2001 for his debut novel, "Salt", in 2007 for "Gradisil" and in 2010 for "Yellow Blue Tibia". He won both the 2012 BSFA Award for Best Novel, and the John W. Campbell Memorial Award, for "Jack Glass". It was further shortlisted for The Kitschies Red Tentacle award. His short story "Tollund" was nominated for the 2014 Sidewise Award. Roberts' science fiction has been praised by many critics both inside and outside the genre, with some comparing him to genre authors such as Pel Torro, John E. Muller, and Karl Zeigfreid.
In May 2014, Roberts gave the second annual Tolkien Lecture at Pembroke College, Oxford, speaking on the topic of Tolkien and Women.


Benjamin Rosenbaum

Benjamin Rosenbaum (born August 23, 1969) is an American science fiction, fantasy, and literary fiction writer and computer programmer, whose stories have been finalists for the Hugo Award, the Nebula Award, the Theodore Sturgeon Award, the BSFA award, and the World Fantasy Award.
Career.
Born in New York City but raised in Arlington, Virginia, Rosenbaum received degrees in computer science and religious studies from Brown University.
His past software development positions include designing software for the National Science Foundation, designing software for the D.C. city government, and being one of the founders of Digital Addiction (which created the online game Sanctum).
His first professionally published story appeared in 2001. His work has been published in "The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction", "Asimov's Science Fiction", "Harper's", "Nature", and "McSweeney's Quarterly Concern". It has also appeared on the websites "Strange Horizons" and "Infinite Matrix", and in various year's best anthologies. "The Ant King and Other Stories", a collection of Rosenbaum's short fiction, was published by Small Beer Press.
His first novel was published by Piper Verlag in German under the title "Die Auflösung" in May 2018. It will be published in English in May 2021 by Liz Gorinsky's Erewhon Books as "The Unraveling".
Personal life.
Rosenbaum formerly lived in Washington, DC, with his wife Esther and children Aviva and Noah. He currently lives near Basel, Switzerland.
Selected stories.
He released all seven stories under Creative Commons licenses, in the latter three cases allowing others to modify the work.


Herbert Spiegelberg

Herbert Spiegelberg (May 18, 1904 – September 6, 1990) was an American philosopher who played a prominent role in the advancement of phenomenogical philosophy in the United States.
Life.
Spiegelberg was born in Strasbourg, in the Alsatian region of northeastern France. He studied at the universities of Heidelberg, Freiburg, and Munich, where he encountered Edmund Husserl and many others in the vanguard of the European phenomenological movement. He received his Ph.D. in 1928 from the University of Munich.
His doctoral dissertation was written under the direction of the phenomenologist Alexander Pfänder and was titled "Gesetz und Sittengesetz" ("Law and Morality").
In 1937 Spiegelberg left the continent and studied for a year in England before emigrating to the United States. In the U. S., he taught first at Swarthmore College and then at Lawrence University, which later awarded him an honorary doctoral degree.
In 1953-54 and 1955-56 he received grants from the Rockefeller Foundation for the preparation of the first edition of his landmark historical survey, "The Phenomenological Movement: A Historical Introduction".
In 1963, he relocated to Washington University in St. Louis, Missouri and remained there until his retirement as Emeritus Professor in 1971. He also served as visiting professor at the universities of Michigan and Southern California and as Fulbright Lecturer at the University of Munich.
Spiegelberg conducted five influential workshops in phenomenology, during the summers of 1965, 1966, 1967, 1969, and 1972. The first workshop was supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation and the second by a grant from the Monsanto Company.
In 1981 Washington University established a series of lectures in phenomenology in his honor.
Herbert Spiegelberg died of leukemia, at the age of 86, at his home in St. Louis, Missouri. His collected papers are available in the archives of the Washington University Libraries.
Philosophy.
Spiegelberg played a major role in the development of interest in phenomenology in America.


Mike Dash

Mike Dash (born 1963) is a Welsh writer, historian and researcher. He is best known for books and articles dealing with dramatic yet little-known episodes in history.
Biography.
Dash was born in London. He attended Peterhouse, a college at the University of Cambridge particularly noted for teaching history, and completed postgraduate work at King's College London, where he obtained a Ph.D.
Dash authored a series of books covering incidents in the history of the Dutch East India Company, the Netherlands, India under British rule, and New York during the Progressive Era. Each focuses on a single event or series of events, among them the wreck of the East Indiaman "Batavia", the Dutch tulip mania of 1634–1637, and the early years of the American Mafia. More recently he has become known as the author of a wide-ranging weekly historical blog, "Past Imperfect", written for the Smithsonian Institution.
As a historian, Dash is noted for the high quality of his research, which the academic journal "The Age of Sail" described as being "to a level rarely seen in books intended for a general audience." "The Globe and Mail" applauded his work as “up-close, personal, and full of you-are-there detail," adding, "Dash is that rarity: a perfectionist in his research and a writer who perfectly carves out his story with a pen as sharp as a stiletto," and the "New York Times" praised his "unabashedly cinematic flair, backed by meticulous research." On the other hand, "Publishers Weekly", writing of Dash's book on the "Batavia", charged that while he took the story "to a new level of grotesque accuracy," his "nautical drama never truly comes to life."
"Past Imperfect" has also attracted comment for introducing history that rarely features in text books to a new generation of readers. "The New Yorker" identified it as "the most mind-boggling read of the week", and the "Christian Science Monitor" added: "Show it to any kid who's complaining that history is boring and that will be the end of that conversation. And the beginning of a new one."
Dash's most recent book, "The First Family", is a new history of Giuseppe Morello and the establishment of the Mafia in the United States. He began writing for the Smithsonian in July 2011 when the Institution acquired his history site, A Blast from the Past, shortly after the History News Network awarded it the 2010 Cliopatria prize for history blogging. In addition to blogging, Dash regularly contributes to r/AskHistorians, and since January 2019 he has republished material written for AskHistorians on his personal blog's "Ask Mike" page.


Internal discourse


Jiu Jiu

 is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Touya Tobina which first began on December 2009. The series follows Takamichi Hachioji, a girl from a family of hunters who track down and kill demons, and her two "Jiu Jiu", a pair of shapeshifting wolves named Snow and Night who work with her.
Plot.
Takamichi Hachioji, is a sixteen (later seventeen) year old girl who comes from a family of "Dark Hunters", whose job it is to hunt down demons and slay them. Three years earlier her twin brother was killed while working. On December 26 of that year she was given a pair of Jiu Jiu: half-human, half-animal hunting partners, to help her. At first reluctant, she then accepts them and raises the two, calling them Snow[Setsu] (a white wolf who wears Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament-logo earrings) and Night[Yuugure] (a black wolf who wears glasses in his human form). Snow and Night live via a code obeyed by all the Jiu Jiu: "Never reveal your true identity", "Never kill a human", "Never go out during a full moon" and "Always obey your Mistress". Breaking any of the rules is punishable by death.
In the present day, Snow and Night have grown at their usual wolf-rate, meaning that in their human form they now look like teenages at the same age as Takamichi, despite being three years old. While always wishing to obey and be around their mistress, Takamichi finds them at times annoying because they are so protective. They always want to sleep in the same bed as her, and later manage to end up in the same school as her, attending in their human forms. Takamichi has to end up trying to keep them happy, while also coping with her work and her school studies.
Reception.
Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network gave the first volume a C and the fourth and fifth volumes a D.
Ian Wolf for Anime UK News gave the first volume a rating of 8 out of 10 saying: "The best way to describe the storyline would be "tender with moments of tension". Most of the time it is all nice and gentle and Snow (Setsu) and Night (Yuugure) try and win Takamichi's love and praise, albeit not entirely successfully. However, then the trio have to end up going out and fighting ghouls and werewolves. There is nothing too violent however.


Alexandros Rizos Rangavis

Alexandros Rizos Rangavis or Alexander Rizos Rakgabis (; ; 27 December 180928 June 1892), was a Greek man of letters, poet and statesman.
Early life.
He was born in Constantinople to a Greek Phanariot family. He was educated at Odessa and the military school at Munich. Having served as an officer of artillery in the Bavarian army, he returned to Greece, where he held several high educational and administrative appointments. He subsequently became ambassador to Washington, D.C. (1867), Paris (1868), and Berlin (1874–1886), and was one of the Greek plenipotentiaries at the Congress of Berlin in 1878.
Literary work.
He was the chief representative of a school of literary men, known as the First Athenian School, whose object was to restore as far as possible the ancient classical language.
Of his various works, "Hellenic Antiquities" (1842–1855, of great value for epigraphical purposes), "Archaeologia" (1865–1866), an illustrated "Archaeological Lexicon" (1888–1891), and the first "History of Modern Greek Literature" (1877) are of the most interest to scholars. He wrote also the following dramatic pieces: "The Wedding of Koutroulis" (comedy), "Dukas" (tragedy), "The" "Thirty Tyrants", "The Eve" (of the Greek revolution); the romances," The Prince of Morea", "Leila", and "The Notary of Argostoli"; and translated portions of Dante, Schiller, Lessing, Goethe and Shakespeare.
After his recall he lived in Athens, where he died on 28 June 1892. He had married Caroline, the daughter of James Skene of Rubislaw, near Aberdeen.
A complete edition of his philological works in nineteen volumes was published at Athens (1874–1890), and his "Memoirs" appeared posthumously in 1894–1895.


Arizona Dream

Arizona Dream is a 1993 French-American surrealist indie comedy drama film co-written and directed by Emir Kusturica and starring Johnny Depp, Jerry Lewis, Faye Dunaway, Lili Taylor and Vincent Gallo.
Plot.
Axel (Johnny Depp) has a dream about an Eskimo who catches a rare halibut and brings it back to his family in an igloo. Axel's cousin Paul (Vincent Gallo) coaxes Axel from his job tagging fish in New York City to Arizona to attend his uncle Leo's (Jerry Lewis) trophy wedding to a much younger woman (Paulina Porizkova). His uncle tries to persuade him to stay permanently and take over the family business of selling Cadillacs. Axel resists at first, but he decides to give it a try.
Axel encounters two strange women: Elaine (Faye Dunaway), a woman who always had a dream of building a flying machine, and her stepdaughter Grace (Lili Taylor), who is jealous of Elaine and dreams of killing herself and being reincarnated as a turtle. Axel starts lusting after Elaine and decides to help make her dreams come true. As he and Elaine build the machine day by day, Grace starts destroying the contraption. Axel then rebuilds. Leo and Paul arrive at Elaine and Grace's house to encourage Axel to come back, but Elaine threatens them with a shotgun. Axel and Elaine complete the machine and test it, but it crashes in a tree.
Axel then decides to put both Elaine and Grace out of their misery, but can not go through with it. Grace has the idea to play Russian Roulette with him. Axel is scared at first, but at his second turn he pulls the trigger multiple times. The gun does not fire. Axel, Elaine, and Grace come to Paul's talent show. He decides to play Cary Grant's role from "North by Northwest" with the famous crop duster scene. Paul receives the score of 1. Leo's fiancée then approaches them to say that there is something wrong with Leo. Axel realizes that Leo is dying and calls an ambulance but Leo dies.
The day before Elaine's birthday a few months later, Axel and Paul finally come back to Elaine and Grace's house. Elaine is mad at Axel for not contacting her but forgives him. The next day on Elaine's birthday, Elaine is given an airplane as a present. The four celebrate Elaine's birthday by beating a piñata, but are interrupted by a storm. As the others dry off inside, Grace remains outside to free her turtles, telling them to "Go play," Axel goes upstairs with Grace to wrap the presents where she gives Axel a globe, telling him that she wants him to have the world. Axel tells Grace that Elaine has changed and that he is not in love with her any more. He makes a promise to Grace to go to Alaska.
Axel, Elaine, Grace, and Paul talk about the manners in which they want to die. Grace says that she is going to sleep and walks upstairs, dressing herself in a white shift and a hat with a veil. As she walks outside, Axel and Elaine see her through the window and run outside in an attempt to stop her. Grace shoots herself, and a lightning bolt destroys Elaine's airplane. Sometime after Grace's death Axel breaks into Uncle Leo's abandoned Cadillac store at night and goes to sleep on top of a Cadillac with a cat that has just had her litter. The film ends with Axel and Uncle Leo as Eskimos in Axel's dream. They catch the halibut and discuss it. It flies from their hands into the sunrise.
Production.
Many of the Arizona scenes were filmed in Douglas, Arizona, and Patagonia, Arizona
The music video for the 1991 Tom Petty song, "Into the Great Wide Open", was shot during the filming of the movie.
Reception.
Critical response.
"Arizona Dream" received a generally positive response from critics, garnering an 87% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 15 reviews with an average score of 6.82/10.
Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" liked the film, praising it as "enjoyably adrift, a wildly off-the-wall reverie" and opining that its best feature is "its lunacy, which is so liberating".
Referring to "Arizona Dream" as "the quintessential Nuart movie", "Los Angeles Times"' Kevin Thomas sees it as "a dazzling, daring slice of cockamamie tragicomic Americana envisioned with magic realism by a major, distinctive European filmmaker".
In his affirmative review "Chicago Sun-Times"' Roger Ebert called "Arizona Dream" "goofier than hell" while adding that "you can't stop watching it because nobody in the audience, and possibly nobody on the screen, has any idea what's going to happen next" and referring to Kusturica as "a filmmaker who has his own peculiar vision of the world that does not correspond to the weary write-by-numbers formulas of standard screenplays".
Box office.
Although filmed in 1991 and released throughout Europe in 1993, "Arizona Dream" was not theatrically released in the U.S. until September 9, 1994. Warner Brothers initially reduced it to two hours and tried to market it for the middle-of-the-road audience; when these attempts failed, they released the full version. As a result its total U.S. gross, in three theaters, was only $112,547.
Awards.
The film won the Silver Bear - Special Jury Prize at the 43rd Berlin International Film Festival.
Alternate versions.
Although shown theatrically in the U.S. at its full length, the TV prints and home release versions run 119 minutes.
Home media.
Warner Archives released the film on made to order DVD in the United States on March 16, 2010. Studio Canal has released the film in Europe on DVD, HD DVD and Blu-ray.
Soundtrack.
Soundtrack was by Goran Bregović featuring the vocals and lyrics of Iggy Pop on tracks 1, 4 & 6 and the lyrics of Emir Kusturica as well as the vocals of Iggy Pop on track 10. In the film, apart from the music on soundtrack, there are also three songs of Django Reinhardt.
In popular culture.
Foo Fighters front man Dave Grohl has revealed that the song "Enough Space" off of their album "The Colour and the Shape" is based on "Arizona Dream".


Equative

The term equative (or equational) is used in linguistics to refer to constructions where two entities are equated with each other. For example, the sentence "Susan is our president", equates two entities "Susan" and "our president". In English, equatives are typically expressed using a copular verb such as "be", although this is not the only use of this verb. Equatives can be contrasted with predicative constructions where one entity is identified as a member of a set, such as "Susan is a president." This view has been contrasted by Otto Jespersen in the first part of the XX century and by Giuseppe Longobardi and Andrea Moro in the second. In particular, Andrea Moro in 1988 proved that either DP must be non referential in the sense of Geach (1962) by exploiting arguments based on binding theory. The idea is that when a DP plays the role of predicate it enlarges its binding domain: for example, in "John met his cook" the pronoun can refer to the subject "John" but in "John is his cook" it cannot. The key-step was to admit that the DP following the copula can be referential whereas the one preceding must not, in other words the key-step was to admit that there can be inverse copular sentences, namely those where the subject, which is referential, follows the predicate. For a discussion starting from Moro's data see Heycock (2012). For a historical view of the development of the analysis of the copula see Moro
Different world languages approach equatives in different ways. The major difference between languages is whether or not they use a copular verb or a non-verbal element (e.g. demonstrative pronoun) to equate the two expressions.
The term "equative" is also sometimes applied to comparative-like constructions in which the degrees compared are identical rather than distinct: e.g., "John is as stupid as he is blonde"; some languages have a separate equative case.
Theories and debate.
Debate on taxonomy.
The taxonomy or classification of copular clauses proposed by Higgins is the starting point of much work on syntax and semantics of copular clauses. Higgins' taxonomy distinguishes between four types of copular clauses:
 a. The hat is big.
 b. The hat/present/thing I bought for Harvey is big.
 c. What I bought for Harvey is big.
 a. The director of "Anatomy of Murder" is Otto Preminger.
 b. The only director/person/one I met was Otto Preminger.
 c. Who I met was Otto Preminger.
 a. That (woman) is Sylvia.
 b. That (stuff) is DDT.
 a. Sylvia Obernauer is HER.
 b. Cicero is Tully.
This taxonomy is based primarily on native speaker intuition, as well as on detailed observations of English copular sentences. The intuition about predicational clauses is that they predicate a property of the subject referent. The other three types of copular clauses do not involve predication. Equatives equate the referents of the two expressions on either side of the copular verb. Neither is a predicate of the other. Specificational clauses involve assigning a value to a variable: the subject expression sets up a variable and the post-copular expression provides the value for that variable. Identificational clauses typically involve a demonstrative subject and are used for teaching the names of people or of things. Many linguists are currently in disagreement regarding the taxonomy and status of equative clauses.
Reduction of taxonomy.
Caroline Heycock contributes to the discussion about whether specificational sentences are a special type of equatives or if they can be reduced to 'inverted predications': she argues that these sentences are a type of equative in which only one of the two noun phrases is a simple individual. Heycock claims that specificational sentences are an 'asymmetric' equation because the noun phrase that occurs in clause-initial position is interpreted as a more intentional subject than is the post-copular noun phrase.
Den Dikken states that the category of specificational sentences is more real and that it includes both categories (specificational and equative clauses).
Mikkelsen, on the other hand, maintains the distinction between specificational and equative clauses, but suggests that the identificational class be eliminated.
Moro It proposes a unified theory of copular sentences reducing the types to two different arrangements of the same basic structure, including existential sentences; it also contains a historical appendix. Many theories stem from this work including, among others, Heycock's proposal.
Heller goes further and gives a reduced taxonomy of two classes of clauses: predicational, which includes both identificational and predicational clauses, and equative, which involve equative and specificational clauses.
Debate on equatives.
Linguists have also been arguing about the very existence of equative clauses as a separate class. There are languages that are claimed to lack equative constructions, e.g. Adger & Ramchand analyze Scottish Gaelic as a language without equatives. Some languages use more elaborate locutions, e.g. "be the same person as" in English to express the meaning of the sentence like "Cicero is Tully." Geist claims that there are no monoclausal equatives in Russian. According to Geist, equation is mediated, syntactically and semantically, by a demonstrative pronoun. Mikkelsen argues that within English, outside special cases like Muhammad Ali is Cassius Clay, Mark Twain is Samuel CLemens, and Cicero is Tully, main clause equatives which involve two names are difficult to contextualize. However, equatives such as "Sylvia Obernauer is HER", where one NP is a pronoun and the other is a name, are easier to contextualize: they are natural answers to "Who is who?" in a situation where individuals can be identified both by name or by sight, e.g. at the conference.
Halliday's semantic analysis of equatives.
Halliday divides clauses into two categories: 'intensive', where the process is ascription (the assigning of an attribute) and the equative, which is treated as a type of effective clause with the process being syntactically one of action rather than ascription. The intensive clause, like Mary is/seems happy, Mary was/became a teacher, is a non-reversible, one-participant type with the verb being of the copulative class ('class o': be, becomes, seem, look, sound, get, turn, etc.); the equative, like 'John is the leader', is a reversible, two-participant type with the verb being of the equative sub-class (of 'class 2': be, equal, resemble, realize, represent, etc.).
The equative relates an 'identifier' with a 'thing to be identified', as in ('who is John?') // John is the leader //. This relates to the underlying WH-question, and either the identified or the identifier may come first in sequence. The equative has two interpretations, as decoding or as encoding: // John is the leader // as a decoding equative has the interpretation 'John realizes, has the function of the leader', with John as the variable and the leader as a value, and as an encoding equative has the interpretation' John is realized by, has the form of the leader', with John as value and the leader as variable. According to Halliday, all equative clauses are therefore ambiguous, for example:
 The noisiest ones are the freshmen.
 *Decoding: 'you notice those noisiest ones there? well they're freshmen'
 *Encoding: 'you want to know who makes the most noise? the freshmen do'
 What they're selling might be sports clothes.
 *Decoding: 'what are those things they're selling? they might be sports clothes'
 *Encoding: 'what do they sell? they might sell sports clothes'
Copular equative constructions.
Chinese.
Mandarin Chinese exhibits both DP-DP and DP-CP structures, and it is classified as having copular equative construction because there is overt copula. The copular verb 是 "shì" can be used in both of these structures.
DP = DP.
There is only one copular verb in Chinese, 是 "shì", which is used as an equative verb. This verb is necessary when the complement of the sentence is a noun phrase.
 (1) 我是中国人。 "wǒ shì Zhōnggúorén."
 I-NOM COP Chinese (person).
 'I am Chinese.'
In classical Chinese before the Han Dynasty, the verb 是 served as a demonstrative pronoun meaning "this".
In modern Chinese, the complementizer 的 "de" is needed at the end of a noun phrase that changes the category to an adjectival phrase. Consider the following two sentences:
 (2) a. *我的靴子是红色。 "wǒde xuēzi shì hóngsè."
 I-POSS GEN COP red (color).
 *'My boot(s) is(are) red.'
 b. 我的靴子是红色的。 "wǒde xuēzi shì hóngsè de."
 I-POSS GEN COP red (color) COMPL.
 'My boot(s) is(are) red.'
Whilst the two sentences aim to express the same meaning, only the second one is grammatical. The first cannot equate ’red' and 'boot(s)' without using the modifier 的 "de".
DP = CP.
The example below illustrates how a DP can be equated with a CP clause by employing the copular verb 是 "shì".
 (3) 事实是他不好看。"shìshí shì tā bū hǎokàn."
 Truth COP he-NOM NEG good-looking.
 'The truth is that he is not good-looking.'
English.
DP = DP.
Equative sentences resemble predicative sentences in that they have two noun phrases and the copular verb ‘to be’. However, the similarity is superficial. Compare the following two sentences:
 (4) "Cicero is Tully."
 (5) "Cicero is an orator and philosopher."
Analysis of these sentences will show that there is a radical difference between the equative sentence and the predicational sentence in English. The predicational sentence in (5) ascribes the property to the referent noun phrase whereas the equative sentence basically says that the first and second noun phrase share the same referent. It is difficult to distinguish between a predicative and equative sentence in English as both use a similar construction and both require the copular verb ‘to be’. Unlike specificational sentences, truly equative sentences cannot be analyzed as syntactically inverted predications, because neither expression is functioning as a predicate. Note that even English examples like (4) have predicational interpretations, as in a context where Tully is a character in a play, or where Tully refers to the property of being named Tully, rather than referring to the actual referent.
Haitian Creole.
DP = DP.
In Haitian Creole the equative clause pattern involves the equative copula "sé" which joins a subject noun phrase with a complement noun phrase that refers back to the subject.
 (6) "Misyé Pól sé vwézinaj mwen."
 "Mr. Paul Copula neighbour my"
 'Mr. Paul is my neighbour'
A simple copula predicate consists of "sé" 'am/is/are' only. The negative marker "pa" and the TMA (tense-mood-aspect) markers can co-occur with the copula-type predicate, subject to certain rules (TMA markers: "té" 'past' or 'anterior', "kay" 'prospective' or 'irrealis', "ka" 'nonpunctual', "sa" 'abilitative'). One such rule is that té + sé → sété (or just té without sé). The combinations permitted in an equative clause are limited in natural speech: a maximum number of two tense, mood, aspect and copula morphemes can co-occur in a given clause.
Here are some examples of the equative clause type in Haitian Creole (predicates are in bold):
 (7) "Ou sé jan mwen." 'You are my friend.'
 "Ou té jan mwen." 'You were my friend.'
 "Ou kay jan mwen." 'You will be my friend.'
 "Ou pa té kay jan mwen." 'You wouldn't be my friend.'
 "Ou sa jan mwen." 'You can be my friend.'
 "Ou pa sa jan mwen." 'You cannot be my friend.'
 "Non mwen sé Tjals." 'My name is Charles.'
 "Tjals sété an Endyen." 'Charles was an Indian.'
Escure & Schwegler claim that "sé" is a copula verb. DeGraff argues that "sé" in Haitian Creole is a resumptive pronominal that spells out the trace produced by subject-raising to Spec (CP) from within a small clause headed by the nominal predicate. The subject is first merged within the (extended) projection of the nominal predicate – i.e., in the subject position of the small clause – but it must move to Spec (CP) in order to check its Case and satisfy the Extended Projection Principle.
Korean.
DP = DP.
The copula -i- in Korean is ubiquitously found in presumed ‘Sluicing’ and ‘Fragment’ constructions. The copula denotes the equative relation between the subject and the complement of the copula. In (8), through the assumed equative relation, the complement of the copula describes the ‘categorial membership’ of the subject.
 (8) a. "Chelswu-nun chakhan haksayng-i-ta."
 Chelswu-Top kind-hearted student-Cop-Decl
 ‘Chelswu is a kind-hearted student’
 b. "hak-un twulwumi-i-ta."
 crane-Top crane-Cop-Decl
 ‘A crane is a crane.’
On top of it, again through the equative relation, in (9) the complement of the copula describes the ‘characteristic property’ of the subject.
 (9) a. "pangan-i engmang-i-ta."
 room-Nom mess-Cop-Decl
 ‘A room is a mess.’
 b. "toli-nun cengkwusomssi-ka seykyeycek4-i-ta."
 Toli-Top tennis skill-Nom world-class-Cop-Decl
 ‘Toli is world class in tennis skill.’
DP = CP.
When the copula is not present, no equative relation holds, prohibiting the pronominal subject of the small clause. In the former case, the indefinite expression as a correlate expression is equative with the surviving expression. In the latter case, the usual referring expression as a correlate expression cannot be equative with the surviving expression that it is in contrast with. Equative (Identificational) Copular Construction as shown in (10), both nominal expressions in the Equative Copular Construction are referential expressions and hence denote individual entities denoted by the two nominal expressions. The construction expresses the identity relation between the entities denoted by the two nominal expressions.
 (10) "Chelswu-ka [ne-ka ecey ttayli-n salam]-i-ta."
 C-Nom you-Nom yesterday hit-Adn person-Cop-Decl
 ‘Chelswu is the one that you hit yesterday.’
Since the Equative Copular Construction is involved with the two referential nouns, no word order restriction is expected with regard to the focus information.
Non-copular equative constructions.
Russian.
DP = DP.
Russian equative sentences have a distinct syntactical structure which distinguishes them from predicational sentences. They require a constant form of the demonstrative pronoun "eto" 'this' (Sg. Neutral) to indicate that the two XPs have the same referent.
 (11) "Mark Twain - *(éto) Samuel Clemens."
 Mark Twain. Nom this Samuel Clemens.Nom
 Mark Twain is Samuel Clemens
This is because Russian has a zero present form copula (the present tense form of "byt’", "est’", is never used in this context). The demonstrative pronoun, however, is excluded from predicational sentences. In addition, although Russian has case endings on the ends of nouns, both XPs occur in the Nominative case in an equative sentence but not in a predicational one. The demonstrative pronoun likewise never gets inflected in equative sentences. In order to warrant that XP2 in the Instrumental is excluded from éto-sentence (and not because of lacking an overt copula), we have an overt form of the "byt"' copula.
 (12) "Ciceron - éto byl Tullij."
 Cicero.Nom this was.Masc Tully.Nom
 'Cicero was Tully'
 (13) *"Ciceron - éto byl Tulliem."
 Cicero.Nom this.Neut was.Masc Tully.Ins
 'Cicero was Tully'
There is strong evidence that in (12), XP2 is the underlying subject: the copula agrees with XP2 and not with "ėto", which remains Singular Neuter. Nominative. Whereas XP1 functions as an external topic, the demonstrative pronoun éto is a base-generated internal topic.
Polish.
DP = DP.
Polish equatives differ in syntactic structure considerably from predicational and specificational copula classes, with respect to agreement pattern. Polish true equatives contain two nominative DPs (proper names or pronouns), which surround the copula. There are two types of copula: the pronominal copula "to", and the verbal copula "być" 'to be'. Unlike Polish to-predicational clauses in which they are restricted to 3rd person pronouns only, the equatives with pronominal copula "to" allows the pre-copular element to be in 1st or 2nd person perspective.
Moreover, in Polish equative sentences, the verb always agrees with the pre-copular element. The two copulas can also co-occur with each other. If it is in the present tense, it can always be omitted. If it is omitted in the past or future tense, the time interpretation will be misunderstood as referring to the present only.
Polish equatives sometimes involve both the operation of wh-movement and deletion. All instances of unbounded deletion obeying island constraints are instances of wh-movement and deletion. The deletion might apply in conjunction with wh-movement or it might apply alone. When it applies alone, it is both unbounded and subject to island constraints. For instance, in (17), "Jak" appears in wh-questions, which suggests that the equative shown in (18) involves wh-movement. In (19), deletion applies in conjunction with wh-movement.
Arabic.
This description concerns Modern Standard Arabic (MSA). Like Russian and Polish, MSA uses no copular verb in present tense equative sentences but requires one in the past and future. The subject and predicate in MSA equative sentences must agree in case (nominative), number, and gender The subject must always be definite for a sentential reading, while the predicate is definite or indefinite depending on whether an article is also used in the sentence.
The following equation does not involve an article, so the predicate 'the student' is in indefinite form.
 (20) samir-un taalib-un
 samir-nom student-nom
 "Samir (is) a student"
In the following construction, an article interferes between the subject and predicate, so the predicate is in definite form. 3MS means 3rd person masculine singular.
 (21) samir-un huwa t-taalib-u
 samir-nom 3MS the student-nom
 "Samir (is) the student"
Okanagan Salish.
This description concerns the Interior Salish language of the Colville-Okanagan region, named Nsyilxcən. Its classification here as non-copular is due to its lack of an overt copula. Rather, Nsyilxcən equatives are said to be projections of a null head.
Nsyilxcən DP-DP structures involve a null, equative copula.
The interpretation of DP-DP structures in Nsyilxcən overlaps with that of both predicational and equative clauses in English. The semantics of the equative head fit with intensionality-based accounts of English equatives. The distinction between predicational and equative sentences is motivated by a word order restriction that is for DP-DP structures in answer to WH-questions, which is not apparent for a corresponding direct predication. As well, Nsyilxcən does not have specificational sentences in the classic sense, but it does have DP-DP equatives with a fixed information structure resembling inverse specificational copular clauses in English.
DP = DP.
In Nsyilxcən, equatives exhibit a DP=DP structure. As in English, two adjacent DPs standing in an equivalence relationship are interpreted as semantically equative, given that neither DP can be a predicate. This equative has an encoded word order restriction which is absent from predications involving other syntactic categories, such that in answer to a WH-question, a directly referential demonstrative or proper name must precede a DP headed by the determiner "iʔ" (an “iʔ DP”). The implication is that specificational sentences are not possible in Nsyilxcən.
DP = DP Clefts.
Nsyilxcən clefts are structurally equivalent to DP=DP structures, implying that clefts are also equatives in this language.
 (22) ixíʔ iʔ səxw-m’aʔ-m’áyaʔ-m iʔ kwu qwəl-qwíl-st-s.
 DEM DET OCC-RED-teach-MID DET 1SG.ABS RED-speak-(CAUS)-3SG.ERG
 a. That’s the teacher that talked to me.
 b. That teacher is the one that talked to me.
 c. It’s the teacher who talked to me.
The null equative head in Nsyilxcən lexically assigns the syntactic feature ‘F’ to its second (leftmost) argument, which is interpretable as ‘focus’ at the interfaces
 (23) [ixíʔ DP]F = [iʔ pəptwínaxw DP].
 DEM = DET old.lady
 SHE is the old lady.
 (24) *[iʔ pəptwínaxw DP] = [ixíʔDP]F.
 DET old.lady = DEM
 The old lady is HER.
DP(DP(CP)).
Nsyilxcən equatives can also involve relative clause modification.
The bracketed, relative clause "iʔ wíkən" ‘that I saw’ restricts the bird under discussion in (36a), and the nominalized relative clause "[iʔ] isck’ʷúl" ‘the (one) that I made’ restricts the type of shirt under discussion in (36b).
For Nsyilxcən, a relative clause is not identifiable by special inflectional morphology on the clausal modifier, but instead by an "iʔ" determiner and/or "t" marker which precede the modifying head. Relative clause modification can be either head final or head initial.
Salish relative clauses can be analyzed based not only on relative head-modifier ordering, but also on whether or not a particle introduces both the head and modifier.
Chinese.
DP = DP.
Although Chinese was discussed earlier as having copular equative constructions, it also holds non-copular equative constructions.
 (24) a. 他不好看。 "tā bù hǎokàn."
 He-NOM NEG good-looking.
 'He is not good-looking.'
The copular verb 是 "shì" is often interpreted as having been left out optionally, but this is actually no the case, as the following sentence is ungrammatical:
 (25) b. *他是不好看。 "tā shì bù hǎokàn."
 He-NOM COP NEG good-looking.
 *'He is not good-looking.'
For (25b) to be grammatical, the complementizer 的 "de" is necessary at the end of the adjectival phrase ["bù hǎokàn"].


Heliodorus (sophist)

"For other people with this name, see Heliodorus"
Heliodorus, (Greek: Ἡλιόδωρος) sometimes known as "Heliodorus the Arab" was an ancient sophist of Arab origin. He became prominent in the 3rd century CE.
Heliodorus is known to be from the Roman province of Arabia Petraea. Although little is known about him, Greek sophist Philostratus in his work "Lives of the Sophists" (Βίοι Σοφιστῶν) mentioned that sophist Heliodorus made a strong impression on the Roman Emperor Caracalla.


Ivan Charota

Ivan Alexeyevich Charota (; born September 16, 1952) is a Belarusian literary critic, Slavist, critic, historian of culture, translator. He is a Doctor of Philological Sciences 1998, and professor since 1999. He is a Laureat of the Republic of Belarus Prize for Spiritual Revival 2003. Foreign member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts 2009. Member of the Association of Writers of Belarus, the Association of Writers of Russia and the Association of Writers of Serbia 1985.
Biography.
Ivan Alexeyevich Charota was born on September 16, 1952 in the village of Lishchyki, Kobrin region, Brest region, in Soviet Belarus.
From 1969 to 1974. he studied at the Department of Russian Language and Literature at the Faculty of Philology of the Belarus State University. After completing the studies, he worked for three years as a teacher at the Palackishka High School of the Voronezh district, Grodno region. In 1977. he was hired by Belarussian State University, as a lecturer - senior lecturer, associate professor, and after defending his PhD dissertation (studies lasting from 1991 until 1994, he became the head of the newly formed Chair of Slavic Studies (Slovene Literature). His Candidate dissertation "Творчество М.А.Шолохова и литературный процесс Югославии (1956-1986)", was defended at the Institute in Leningrad in 1986), and his PhD dissertation «Беларуская літаратура ХХ стагоддзя і працэсы нацыянальнага самавызначэння» at the Belarus State University in Minsk, 1998.
Scientific papers and books.
Charota's scientific interests are directed primarily on the literature and culture of Slovenian people. Investigating their genetic, typological and concrete connections, he became a leading Yugoslavist of Belarus, a specialist in the field of comparative literature and culture, the author of some 600 scientific publications, among which are the books: «Беларуская савецкая літаратура за мяжой» ( Minsk, 1988 – у сааўтарстве), «Пошук спрадвечнай існасці: Беларуская літаратура ХХ стагоддзя ў працэсах нацыянальнага самавызначэння» (Minsk, 1995), «Сербская Праваслаўная Царква» ( , 1998), «Беларуская мова і Царква» (Minsk, 2000), «Косовская битва продолжается» (Minsk, 2000), «Антологиjа белоруске поезиjе», (Belgrade: 1993; 2-е ed. – 2012), «Югаславянскія казкі» (Minsk, 1999), «Антологиjа лирике источних Словена” (Belgrade, 2000), «Насустрач Духу. Анталогія беларускай хрысціянскай паэзіі» (Minsk, 2001), «Насустрач Духу. Анталогія беларускай хрысціянскай прозы» (Minsk, 2002), «Слово и Дух. Антология русской духовной поезии ХХ –ХХ вв.» (Minsk, 2003, 2005, 2010), “Ні на небе, ні на зямлі.Казкі славянскіх народаў” (2013), «Српска књижевност. Антологија текстова. Књ.І -V» (Minsk, 2002-2007 – на сербскай мове), “Тэорыя і практыка мастацкага перакладу” (Minsk, 2012), “Испод крила роде. Антологиjа савремене белоруске поезиjе” (Podgorica, 2014), “Беларусы пра Сербію-Югаславію” (Minsk, 2015), « Белорусија и Србија: Трагом узајамног упознавања и деловања“(Šabac, 2016).
Academic work.
Charota is a member of 11 journal editorial boards (6 foreign), scientific adviser of the Belarusian Encyclopedia; Secretary of the Bible Commission of the Belarusian Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church and editor of the journal "Orthodoxy" (Праваслаўе).
In the scientific-methodological sphere, the professor has compiled the following manuals: «Советская литература в связях и взаимодействиях: Начала сравнительного и системного анализа» (Minsk, 1989), «Мастацкі пераклад на беларускую мову : Асновы тэорыі і практычныя рэкамендацыі» (Minsk, 1997), «Югаславянскія літаратуры і культуры» (Minsk, 1999 – у сааўтарстве), Праграма «Гісторыя славянскіх літаратур» (2000), «Гісторыя сербскай літаратуры. Практыкум» (2007).
Translations.
Charota is the head of the Bureau for the Translation and Literary Association of the Association of Writers of Belarus, and has published translations from Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, Polish and other languages into Belarusian and Russian, as well as from Belarusian and Russian into Serbian. He has produced more than 1200 printed translations, including over 70 books, including works by: Pavle, Serbian Patriarch, Nikolaj Velimirović, Justin Popović, Marko S. Marković, Elder Tadej Štrbulović, Ivo Andrić, Branislav Nušić, Rade Drainac, Dobrica Ćosić, Nevena Vitošević-Čeklić, Zoran Gavrilović Mira Radojević , Ljubodrag Dimić, Momir Lazić, Dragan Lakićević, Dragoslav Mihailović, Grozdana Olujić , Goran Petrović, Ljiljana Habjanović-Đurović, Bens Zupančič, Prežihov Voranc, Josip Jurčič, Drago Jančar, and others. He is the founder, compiler and translator of the series «Сербскае багаслоўе ХХ стагоддзя», in which more than forty books have already been published.
His collection of Serbian folk tales were translated into Belarusian: ”Мовы ўсяго жывога: Сербскія народныя казкі” (Minsk: Мастацкая літаратурa, 2007.), and was pronounced the most beautiful book in Belarus in the category of translations 2008. and awarded the National Award.
He is one of the founders of the "Committee for Support of Serbs and Montenegrins" and the public organization "Belarus - Sister of Serbia", acting vice-president of the "Belarus-Yugoslavia Society", president of the "Belarus-Serbia-Montenegro Society".
He is a member of the Association of Writers of the USSR (now: the Association of Writers of Belarus), as well as Russia and Serbia; his work appears in the press as a literary critic, critic, essayist, and publicist.


Perfect and imperfect rhymes

Perfect rhyme—also called full rhyme, exact rhyme, or true rhyme—is a form of rhyme between two words or phrases, satisfying the following conditions:
Word pairs that satisfy the first condition but not the second (such as the aforementioned "leave" and "believe") are technically identities (also known as identical rhymes or identicals). Homophones, being words of different meaning but identical pronunciation, are an example of identical rhyme.
Imperfect rhyme.
Half rhyme or imperfect rhyme, sometimes called near-rhyme, lazy rhyme, or slant rhyme, is a type of rhyme formed by words with similar but not identical sounds. In most instances, either the vowel segments are different while the consonants are identical, or vice versa. This type of rhyme is also called approximate rhyme, inexact rhyme, imperfect rhyme (in contrast to perfect rhyme), off rhyme, analyzed rhyme, suspended rhyme, or sprung rhyme.
Use in hip hop/rap.
Half rhyme is often used, along with assonance, in rap music. This can be used to avoid rhyming clichés (e.g., rhyming "knowledge" with "college") or obvious rhymes, and gives the writer greater freedom and flexibility in forming lines of verse. Additionally, some words have no perfect rhyme in English, necessitating the use of slant rhyme. The use of half rhyme may also enable the construction of longer multisyllabic rhymes than otherwise possible.
In the following lines from the song "N.Y. State of Mind" by rapper Nas, the author uses half rhyme in a complex cross rhyme pattern:
<poem>
And be prosperous, though we live "dangerous"
Cops could just arrest me, "blamin' us", we're held like hostages
</poem>
Unconventional exceptions.
Children's nursery rhyme This Little Piggy displays an unconventional case of slant rhyme. "Home" is rhymed with "none".
<poem>
This little piggy stayed (at) home...this little piggy had none.
</poem>
In The Hives's song "Dead Quote Olympics", singer Howlin' Pelle Almqvist rhymes "idea" with "library":
<poem>
This time you really got something, it's such a clever idea
 But it doesn't mean it's good because you found it at the libra-ri-a
</poem>
The Chuck Berry song "Let It Rock" (1960) rhymes "Alabama" with "hammer":
<poem>
In the heat of the day down in Mobile, Alabama
Workin' on the railroad with a steel drivin' hamma
</poem>


Free recall

Free recall is a common task in the psychological study of memory. In this task, participants study a list of items on each trial, and then are prompted to recall the items in any order. Items are usually presented one at a time for a short duration, and can be any of a number of nameable materials, although traditionally, words from a larger set are chosen. The recall period typically lasts a few minutes, and can involve spoken or written recall. The standard test involves the recall period starting immediately after the final list item; this can be referred to as immediate free recall (IFR) to distinguish it from delayed free recall (DFR). In delayed free recall, there is a short distraction period between the final list item and the start of the recall period. Both IFR and DFR have been used to test certain effects that appear during recall tests, such as the primacy effect and recency effect.
Methodology used in measuring performance.
One of the basic measures of performance in the free recall task is the number of words recalled from a list, which varies with a number of factors, including the list length, the type of material studied, and any task used to process the words (e.g., a simple judgement). When one examines the probability of recall by the position of the item in the list (its serial position), one finds that the initial and terminal items in the list are better remembered than those in the middle (also known as the primacy and recency items, respectively). Primacy effects generally come from the idea that greater attention is devoted to items that appear at the beginning of presentation lists. Bennet B. Murdock presents a classic study of serial position effects in free recall. In his experiment, Murdock used six groups of 103 participants. Each group was given different combinations of list lengths and presentation rates. Three of the groups were shown lists of ten, fifteen, and twenty words with a presentation rate of two seconds per word. The other three groups were shown lists of twenty, thirty, and forty words with a one-second presentation rate for each word. There were 80 lists in total that included randomly selected common English words. After the presentation of each list, subjects were asked to recall as many words as possible in any order. Results from the experiment showed that all groups expressed both primacy effects and recency effects. Recency effects were exhibited regardless of the length of the list, and it was strongest for the words in the last eight serial positions. The primacy effect extended over the first four serial positions.
Another evidence of the recency effect is found in the way that participants initiate recall of a list: they most often start with terminal (recent) list items (an early description of the recency effect in the probability of first recall can be found in Hogan, 1975). Recency effects come from the notion that terminal list items tend to be better recalled than other items. This particular effect has generated much controversy and experimentation due to the speculation about why items that are rehearsed less should be so well remembered. A standard explanation for these effects is that they represent output from primary memory, or the short-term memory buffer system.
Recency effects show how well subjects can remember the last items relative to how well they remember the other items. Glenberg's theory can be used to determine the magnitude of the recency effect, depending on how effective the retrieval cues are for the last item relative to the other items. Several types of experiments can be done to test the recency effect for free recall. One experiment that is commonly used is the distractor-recall paradigm, as done by Rundus (1980). Another study that exhibits the recency effect during free recall is when subjects learn several different lists followed by recall tests, and then a final unexpected recall test at the end of the experiment where they are required to recall as many items as possible from all of the lists. Results show that participants tend to recall items from the more recent lists.
Serial recall paradigm.
Studies have also been done to address the best method for recalling lists of unrelated words. In contrast to free recall, another type of study is known as the serial recall paradigm, where participants are asked to recall the presented items in their correct order rather than the order that comes to mind at the time of testing, randomly. Experiments have shown that in comparison to free recall, the serial recall learning curve increases linearly with the number of trials. The purpose of a study by Bruner, Miller, and Zimmerman (1955) was to determine if this learning difference is a result of the order in which the participant sees the items, or if it is instead dependent on the order in which the participant is told to recall the items. The study involved three different conditions: serial recall, free recall with items to be recalled randomized before each trial, and free recall with the order of the items kept constant. The experiment tested nine college students on 18 series of words. In addition to the linear serial recall learning curve, it was found that more words are forgotten when recall is free than when it is serial. This study also supported the notion that the difference between the types of recall depends on the order in which the learner must recall the items, and not on the order in which the items are presented.
Beyond examining the relative probability of particular items being recalled, one can examine the order in which items are retrieved during the recall period. When a participant successfully recalls an item from a set of studied items, there is a marked tendency for the next item recalled to come from neighboring positions in the study set, with an advantage for items that followed the recalled item over items that preceded it. This effect, known as the contiguity effect, was first characterized by Michael J. Kahana, and has been shown to be robust across many free recall experiments.
Subjective organization.
Classic studies of free recall often focused on the multi-trial free recall paradigm, in which the same set of items appear on successive trials (although usually the order of the items is scrambled across trials). In this version of the paradigm, researchers would focus on how many trials it took to learn a certain proportion of the items. Tulving (1968) describes the phenomenon of subjective organization, in which words that are recalled successively during the first recall period also tend to be recalled successively during later recall periods.
In addition to subjective organization, these multi-trial free recall paradigms are also used to analyze the effects of practice on recall tasks. Improvement in recall of items over multiple trials has been termed the learning-to-learn effect (LTL). To explore the results of practice on item recall, two experiments have been done to compare effects on free recall and ordered recall. The first experiment consisted of multiple presentations of words, and required the subjects to recall the lists by either ordered or free recall. The second experiment had multiple trials, where each trial consisted of the presentation of words followed by a recall test. Participants were given five trials for each of the lists. Results of the experiments showed that in order to produce the learning-to-learn effect in free recall, participants should be given multiple trials rather than multiple presentations.
Understanding of neurological processes.
Free recall studies have given yield to new understanding of neurological processes. In particular, the Dynamic Tagging Theory makes use of statistical data taken from such experiments in formulating a phenomenological explanation of short-term memory. George A. Miller wrote a widely known paper describing the limitations of memory and the power of categories to improve recall, especially in short-term memory. He popularized the short term memory limitation by calling it "The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two".
Some brain regions that are most commonly utilized in free recall include the hippocampus, fusiform gyrus, and inferior prefrontal cortex. In fact, greater activity in these brain regions while studying a list is linked to better subsequent recall.


On Ayn Rand

On Ayn Rand is a book about the life and thought of 20th-century philosopher Ayn Rand by scholar Allan Gotthelf. It was published in early 2000 by Wadsworth Publishing (now part of Cengage Learning) in its Wadsworth Philosophers series.
Reception.
Objectivist scholar Tara Smith reviewed the work for the "Review of Metaphysics" and described it as "an admirably essentialized review" that "joins scholarly rigor with firsthand knowledge of Rand’s thought to provide a systematic introduction to Rand’s philosophy." Smith does find some of Gotthelf's explanations to be "slightly too abbreviated for the targeted audience" and finds his brief treatment of some topics to be "somewhat frustrating."
In a review in "Teaching Philosophy", Irfan Khawaja says, "Gotthelf’s illuminating account of Rand’s epistemology offers an intriguing point of entry... as well as an object lesson on the relationship between epistemology and ethics... "On Ayn Rand" is a remarkable success... I can’t think of a piece of writing that better conveys both the systematicity and the grandeur of Rand’s thought than the last four pages of Gotthelf’s book." Rand enthusiast and accountancy scholar Edward W. Younkins also praised the work, calling it a "fine" but shorter version of Objectivist philosopher Leonard Peikoff's book about Rand's philosophy.
In a review, Rand scholar Chris Matthew Sciabarra welcomes the addition of another book to the literature about Rand, but criticizes Gotthelf for not addressing most other secondary works about Rand, in particular accusing him of "refusal to mention any non-orthodox works." Sciabarra says the book suffers from an "orthodox interpretation" of Rand's life and ideas, and also gives insufficient attention to her politics and aesthetics.
In a paper on the critical neglect of Rand's aesthetic philosophy, Michelle Marder Kamhi and Louis Torres criticized Gotthelf for spending a mere half a page of the book discussing the topic. Kamhi and Torres also criticised Gotthelf's statement that one's sense of life is directly dependent on philosophy (in contrast to Rand), and his uncritical acceptance of Rand's definition of romantic art in terms of the acceptance of man's free will.


Falling (Howard novel)

Falling () is a 1999 novel by British writer Elizabeth Jane Howard. It was later filmed as a drama for ITV.
Plot summary.
The book tells the story of a relationship that develops between Henry Kent, a sociopath and fantasist who preys on lonely rich women, and Daisy Langrish, an ageing novelist with two broken marriages behind her.
After meeting Daisy—who has recently bought a cottage in order to start a new life in the country—Henry quickly falls in love with her, and sets about tricking his way into her confidence.
He initially offers to become her gardener—something she reluctantly accepts—then later begins to correspond with her after she suffers an accident during a prolonged trip abroad. These letters start as run of the mill pieces, but as he perceives that she is taking an interest in him, Henry begins to weave her a series of elaborate stories about his life, designed to gain her attention and win her affection.
When Daisy eventually returns home and Henry makes himself indispensable to her after she suffers a fall, they begin an affair. But when Daisy's family and friends learn about the nature of the relationship, they become concerned and start to investigate Henry. However, they soon begin to fear that the facts they unearth about his past might have come to light too late to save Daisy from harm.
Howard wrote this novel based on her real life affair with a con-man, as described in her memoir, "Slipstream".
Television adaptation.
In 2005, the book was made into a drama for ITV, starring Michael Kitchen and Penelope Wilton. It was directed by Tristram Powell and the screenplay was written by Andrew Davies.


Leslie Hill

Leslie Hill is professor of French at the University of Warwick. He has written several influential books on French writers and philosophers including Samuel Beckett, Marguerite Duras, Maurice Blanchot, Georges Bataille, Pierre Klossowski and Jacques Derrida. Hill was elected to a fellowship of the British Academy in 2003.


Time-based prospective memory

Time-based prospective memory is a type of prospective memory in which remembrance is triggered by a time-related cue that indicates that a given action needs to be performed. An example is remembering to watch a television program at 3 p.m.
In contrast to time-based prospective memory, event-based prospective memory is triggered by an environmental cue that indicates that an action needs to be performed. An example is remembering to send a letter (the action) after seeing a mailbox (the cue). While event-based memory is dependent on the environment, time-based prospective memory is self-initiated; one must specifically monitor the passage of time.
Neuroanatomy.
Rostral prefrontal cortex.
Until recently, not a lot has been known about the cognitive functions of the rostral prefrontal cortex, also known as Area 10 of the brain. In humans, this area of the brain is very large (25-30 cubic cm). The Rostral Prefrontal Cortex supports a cognitive system that reflects either stimulus-oriented (SO) or stimulus-independent (SI) attending. SI attending supports self-generated or self-maintained thought, which is important in prospective memory. This part of the brain has also been shown to play a crucial role in the maintenance and realization of delayed intentions. Delayed intentions triggered by event cues are well understood; time cues however have been less studied.
In a positron emission tomography (PET) study, participants were asked to make a prospective response in either an event-based or time-based task condition. Differences in activation of regions of the rostral prefrontal cortex were seen in the results according to whether the task was time- or event- based. Three rostral prefrontal regions were more active in the time-based condition: the right superior frontal gyrus, anterior medial frontal lobe and anterior cingulate gyrus. These results suggest that there are different processing demands made by event- or time- based prospective memory tasks.
Parietal lobe.
In terms of prospective memory, the parietal lobe plays an important role in processing and recognizing cues that trigger and keep attention focused on intended actions while performing other tasks. This part of the brain is activated most intensely when these cues are visual or spatial. The parietal lobe is located in the superior region of the brain above the occipital lobe and behind the frontal lobe.
For time-based prospective memory, the parietal lobe is important especially when an individual is required to remember numbers, more specifically, a certain time that will act a cue to perform an intended task. The activation of this area is studied using PET as well as magnetoencephalography (MEG). Damage to this area of the brain increases the difficulty of performing time-based tasks more significantly than it does event-based tasks. This is because time-based tasks place more demand on inhibitory control mechanisms than do event-based tasks.
Factors affecting prospective memory.
Age.
Age is a significant factor that affects prospective memory. Smith et al. (2010) conducted a study comparing time-based prospective memory in children and young adults; they found an increase in preparatory attentional processing for adults –suggesting an improvement of time-based prospective memory from childhood to young adulthood. Consistent with the results of the prior study, Ceci and Bronfenbrenner (1985) found that in a time-based task with 10-year-olds and 14-year-olds, time monitoring was greater among older children.
Another study by Kvavilashvili et al. (2009) comparing time-based prospective memory among young adults (18- to 30-year-olds), young-old adults (60- to 75-year-olds) and old-old adults (79- to 90-year-olds), found that young adults performed the best on time-based tasks. A study further compared the difference between young-old adults and old-old adults in time-based prospective memory, finding that young-old adults outperformed old-old adults. The findings of the above studies suggest that there is ongoing improvement of time-based prospective memory from childhood into young adulthood; however, a decrease begins in later adulthood.
Substance use.
Substance abuse refers to the harmful use of substances, including alcohol and illicit drugs. Multiple studies have shown that abuse of substances can damage our memory system. Current research has looked at the effect of substances on prospective memory; ability to remember to do something in the future. In particular it has been found that cannabis, ecstasy, methamphetamine and alcohol are substances that directly affect time-based prospective memory.
Cannabis.
Marijuana is the world's most commonly abused illicit drug. The effects of cannabis are associated with deficits in memory, learning, decision-making, and speed of processing. Montgomery et al. (2012) conducted a study on twenty cannabis-only users and 20 non-illicit drug users to test the effect of cannabis on prospective memory. Cannabis users found it more difficult to perform an action at a certain time than nonusers. The results provide support for the cannabis-related deficits in prospective memory.
Ecstasy.
Prospective memory impairments in recreational drug users have been documented in recent years. Hadjiefthyvoulou et al. (2011) compared performance of ecstasy users, cannabis users, and nonuser on both event and time-based prospective memory tasks. Ecstasy users performed significantly worse in comparison to both cannabis only and non-user groups on time-based tasks. Time-based prospective memory is sensitive to regular and even moderate use of ecstasy. More importantly, ecstasy users experience generalized difficulties with prospective memory, demonstrating that these deficits are likely to have important implications for daily functioning.
Methamphetamine.
Methamphetamine more commonly known as crystal meth, is a highly addictive drug. A fair amount of research indicates that the use of methamphetamine is associated with neurocognitive impairment, more recently there has been a focus on whether these difficulties extend to memory for future intentions. Rendell et al. (2009) found that impairments in time-based prospective memory existed in both current and former users of methamphetamine.
Alcohol.
Research has shown that heavy alcohol use clearly leads to deficits in memory. Less is known about the effects of alcohol on day-to-day memory function, specifically, prospective memory, remembering to do things at some future point in time. The results of a study conducted by Heffernan et al. (2010) suggest that binge drinking in the teenage years leads to impairments in everyday prospective memory. A study by Heffernan and O'Neill (2011) further investigated the effect has alcohol on time-based prospective memory and concluded that binge drinking was associated with significantly reduced performance on time-based tasks.
Disease and disorders.
There has been an increase in interest of studying prospective memory deficiencies in individuals with disease or disorder; because daily life largely relies on previously planned intentions a lack thereof would cause major issues for an affected individual. It has been found that many diseases and disorders have negative impacts on prospective memory; the effects extend from mild cognitive impairment to dementia.
Parkinson's disease.
A study by Costa et al. (2008) found that individuals with Parkinson's disease were significantly less accurate in time-based tasks than healthy participants; however, there was no difference between the groups in ability to retrieve the intention to perform the actions in the event-based condition. For example, a person with Parkinson's disease might forget to take their prescription at a certain time of the day, but are less likely to forget if they see the medicine bottle. A study by Katai et al. (2003) found results inconsistent with those of Costa and colleagues; individuals with Parkinson's disease were not significantly impaired on time-based tasks, however, these specific results were affected by the fact that 18 out of the 20 participants were receiving levodopa medication –which has been proven to increase performance on time-based tasks.
Research done by Costa et al. (2008) specifically focused on studying the effect of levodopa on the performance of individuals with Parkinson's disease on a time-based prospective memory task. Participants were evaluated in two conditions: after levodopa administration and without drug administration. The researchers found that participants were significantly more accurate in complying with the time-based task following levodopa medication as opposed to the individuals who did not take medication.
Alzheimer's disease.
Carrying out an action depends on a variety of aspects, including how easily the intended action comes to mind. People may be able to remember what they intend to do, but will only be successful if the information is springs to mind at the appropriate time. People with Alzheimer's disease have great difficulty in remembering to do things, and doing them at the right moment. A study by Spíndola and Brucki (2011), found significant deficits for time-based tasks in patients with Alzheimer's compared with their healthy counterparts.
A failure to perform future intentions can have serious consequences. For example, failing to remember to turn off the burner after a 10-minute cooking time. However, there has been a number of studies, which indicate that individuals with Alzheimer's disease can learn a prospective memory task using spaced-retrieval practice; it is an effective means of helping cognitively impaired older adults maintain functional independence.
Schizophrenia.
Impairment of memory is a major problem for people diagnosed with Schizophrenia. Studies have shown that participants with schizophrenia were significantly impaired on prospective memory tasks; both time-based and event-based.
Medication and a therapeutic technique known as cognitive behavioral therapy are equally important in treating schizophrenia. Prospective memory is important for treating schizophrenia because affected individuals have to remember to take their medication or attend a therapy appointment. Failure to do so can result in the re-emergence of schizophrenic symptoms such as hallucinations, disorganized speech, and paranoia.
Emotion.
Research strongly suggests that emotional processes influence accuracy and the way in which humans carry out intended actions. It has been found that the ability to carry out time-based intended actions is negatively affected when individuals are in depressive emotional states. A study done by Kliegel and Jager (2006) found that performance on time-based tasks suffered when individuals were in a depressive state, as opposed to in an anxious state. The time-based prospective memory task was vulnerable to negative influence of depression, presumably because the time-based task required a high degree of self-initiated, effortful processing; and effortful processing is thought to be diminished in depression.
Further support comes from research done by Jeong and Cranney (2009) who found that depression is negatively associated with time-based prospective memory performance; people in a depressive emotional state were less likely to execute intended actions on time.
Kliegel et al. (2005) investigated the effects of sad mood on time-based prospective memory, and found results consistent with those of the above two studies. However, the study suggests that it would be of interest to extend these results to investigate effects of happy mood fluctuations, because happy mood states impair executive functions more reliably than sad mood.
Motivational incentive.
It is obvious that, to a large extent, people remember what they want to remember. If a person considers a task to be insignificant, they will be less motivated to remember the intention; and ultimately pay less attention to available time-cues. Thus, forgetting of the memory for the intended action is more likely to occur.
In a study by Jeong and Cranney (2009), it was shown that motivation had a rather strong impact on performance in time-based prospective memory tasks. The study involved students who were required to send text messages at a specific time; participants given the incentive of extra course credit (motivation condition) outperformed their counterparts on the time-based task. The results display a positive effect of high motivation on time-based prospective memory.
Another study, done by Kliegel et al. (2008), supports the aforementioned findings. This study explored the effect of motivation in two age groups (three-year-olds and five-year-olds) when completing the same prospective memory task, with different motivational conditions. In the high motivation condition there was no difference for the two age groups, however, in the low-motivation condition, the two age groups differed significantly, with a decline in the performance of three-year-old children.
In order to enhance time-based prospective memory, people should avoid low motivational states.
Cognitive load.
Prospective memory is performed in the context of another activity. Since memory is limited with the respect to the amount of information it can hold, and the number of operations it can perform, a higher cognitive load would deteriorate performance on prospective memory tasks.
A study by Khan et al. (2008) examined the influence of cognitive load (low vs. high) on time-based prospective memory. The findings implied that time-based prospective memory is severely affected when cognitive load is high. The study attributed the poor performance on time-based tasks as a result of dividing attentional resources into actively monitoring time, self-initiating the response at the appropriate time and the ongoing task. Humans have limited attentional capacity, and therefore high cognitive load affects monitoring of time and consequently time-based prospective memory performance negatively. Numerous aspects of daily life depend on time-based prospective memory, ranging from daily activities such as remembering what time to meet a friend, to more important tasks such as remembering what time to take medication.
Methods of testing.
Prospective memory as defined by Kvavilashvili et al. (1996) is remembering to do something at a particular moment in the future or the timely execution of a previously formed intention. Time-based prospective memory is when a specific time is the cue indicating that a given action needs to be performed (e.g. calling someone at 3pm). In contrast with time-based prospective memory there is also event-based prospective memory which requires less strain on the cognitive load.
Self-reports.
Smith et al. developed The Prospective and Retrospective Memory Questionnaire to make a self-report that covered both retrospective and prospective items, unlike previous self-reports like the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire created by Broadbent et al. (1982) and also the Everyday Memory Questionnaire developed by Sunderland et al. (1988). Consists of 16 items, 8 asking prospective failures and the other 8 asking retrospective failures. The items on the questionnaire are also designed to contain an equal number concerned with either self-cued memory or environmentally cued memory, and with short-term versus long-term memory. The questionnaire provides a useful measure of everyday memory for use in clinical research and practice.
Simulated naturalistic environments.
Crawford et al. (2006) constructed a virtual shopping precinct from photographs, sounds and video segments linked together. Their aim was to assess deficits in participants prospective remembering following chronic traumatic brain injuries, under conditions of high and low distractions. Participants are matched with a control group and their goal is complete a list of 10 errands with the help of a checklist. There are 3 targets that appear at certain times throughout their task that make up the prospective component. The group with traumatic brain injuries performed poorly compared to the control group, suggesting how extremely important certain brain areas are in time-based prospective memory.
Dual-task procedures.
Participants had to perform a working memory task and were also required to perform a time-based prospective action. Control participants either did one or the other, but not both. In the time-based task participants had to make a key press after intervals of 10 and 20 minutes while they were performing another task. Einstein et al. (1996) found a direct comparison between time-based prospective memory and age/memory type that did not exist when testing event-based prospective memory.
Test-Wait-Test-Exit (TWTE).
Harris et al. (1982) proposed a time-based prospective memory model stating that people encode the future task and then wait for a period of time until a test of memory seems reasonable. If the time is not correct, people tend to wait until the critical exit period. If performance turns out to be successful, then it is dependent that you check on critical time periods. It is also assumed that this monitoring was an intentional process requiring an individual's full attention.
Value of items taken.
Research performed by Bakker et al. (2002) examined the relationship between the value of an item borrowed from a patient for a prospective task and the number of cues required by a patient for requesting its return. 63 patients (27 men, 36 women) who underwent neuropsychological examinations in Cortical Function Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins Hospital between 1997 and 2000 were analyzed. Most of the patients were elderly and either had known or suspected dementia. The examiner asked the patients for a personal possession, which was then placed into a drawer in full view of the patient. They were then asked to request for their possession to be returned at the end of the testing period which was between 2–3 hours. At the end of the experiment the examiner would say, "O.K. We are done with testing. Let's find Dr. X." If the patient was able to remember to request for their item, she/he earned a score of zero because no additional cues were needed. If the patient was unable to remember to ask for their item back, an additional question asking "I wanted you to remember something at the end of the testing. Do you remember what that was?" If the patient could then remember, he/she was scored a 1 because of 1 additional cue. If the patient was still unable to ask for their item back, an additional question was added again increasing their score to 2. The highest score a patient could receive was 4, and that is when the experiment ended if the patient could not remember what to ask for after 3 additional cues. The relative value of the items taken from patients were determined by 15 Psychology faculty members from Johns Hopkins based on how much distress their owners would feel if the items were lost. A low rank value determines that the item is valuable and a high rank value indicates the item is less valuable. Results show that although sex and education do not affect the ability to remember the item taken, the age of the patient and value of the object are significant.
Everyday time-based memory.
Everyday functioning often depends on timely execution of intentions at specific times (e.g., paying bills, keeping appointments, making specific phone calls, taking medication).
Time management.
Time management has developed in order for us to be able to distribute time and get our activities/work complete. Although it is not proven that there is a significant relationship between time-based prospective memory and time management, there is significant correlations that indicate that people who are more organized and manage their time well report better memory.
Technological advancement.
Technological advancements such as smartphones and products from Apple Inc. allow organization of an individuals day to become a lot more efficient. A study done by Guger et al. explains how a severely memory impaired teenager MK is able to confidently go through her day with schedule and alarm systems provided from smartphones.
Contraception.
Time-based prospective memory is involved in taking oral contraceptive pills daily. A study investigating the satisfaction with oral contraceptive pills and time-based prospective memory by Matter et al. (2008) showed that women who provided higher time-based prospective memory were more satisfied with the pill, as well as receiving less stress levels.


Franz Roh

Franz Roh (21 February 1890 – 30 December 1965), was a German historian, photographer, and art critic. Roh is perhaps best known for his 1925 book "Nach Expressionismus: Magischer Realismus: Probleme der neuesten europäischen Malerei" ("After expressionism: Magical Realism: Problems of the newest European painting") he coined the term "magic realism".
Roh was born in Apolda (in present-day Thuringia), Germany. He studied at universities in Leipzig, Berlin, and Basel. In 1920, he received his Ph.D. in Munich for a work on Dutch paintings of the 17th century. As a photographer and critic, he absolutely hated photographs that mimicked painting, charcoal, or drawings. During the Nazi regime, he was isolated and briefly put in jail for his book Foto-Auge (Photo-Eye); he used his jail time he used to write the book "Der Verkannte Künstler: Geschichte und Theorie des kulturellen Mißverstehens" ("The unrecognized artist: history and theory of cultural misunderstanding"). After the war, in 1946, he married art historian Juliane Bartsch. He died in Munich.
Roh and magic realism.
Roh is perhaps best remembered as the critic who coined the term magic realism. But, though the lineage is direct, his magic realism has a very different meaning from the one used to describe the work of writers such as Gabriel Garcia Marquez and Isabel Allende that dominates our current understanding of the term.
Roh, celebrating the post-expressionist return of the visual arts to figural representation, utilized the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger to emphasize that "the autonomy of the objective world around us was once more to be enjoyed; the wonder of matter that could crystallize into objects was to be seen anew."
<br>Roh was, then, emphasizing the "magic" of the normal world as it presents itself to us (i.e., how, when we really look at everyday objects, they can appear strange and fantastic) and not the world of magic (in which objects are literally transformed into something fantastic) that the literary school emphasizes.
Roh himself, writing in the 1950s and perhaps already seeing the confusion his term had caused in this regard, emphasized that his use of the word magic was, "of course "not" in the religious-psychological sense of ethnology."
Roh's magic realism, though not often written about in recent years, is nonetheless an important contribution to a phenomenological or existential theory of aesthetics. This link is emphasized by the fact that it was the Spanish phenomenologist José Ortega y Gasset's disciple Fernando Vela who translated Roh's essay into Spanish, thereby setting the stage for its appropriation by the literary movement.


Martine Beugnet

Martine Beugnet is a French film theorist, and a Professor in Visual Studies at the Paris Diderot University. She has written primarily on corporeality and sensation in avant-garde and narrative cinema, and has had her work published in several film journals. She wrote her PhD thesis at the University of Edinburgh in 1999, on themes of sexuality and bodies in recent French cinema, citing filmmakers such as Claire Denis, Bertrand Blier, Jean-Jacques Beineix, Laetitia Masson, and Leos Carax. She later wrote an entire monograph on the work of Claire Denis, where she invoked the of French philosopher Gilles Deleuze. In 2005, she published a book on cinematic treatments of Marcel Proust, written in collaboration with Marion Schmid. Two years later, she wrote a book titled "Cinema and Sensation", where she further explored themes she had written about in her PhD thesis, again invoking Deleuze.


Irwin Weil

Irwin Weil (born 1928) is a Professor Emeritus in the Department of Slavic Languages and Literature at Northwestern University.
He is noted for his work in promoting cultural exchange and mutual understanding between
the USA and the USSR/Russia,
and for attracting large numbers of students
to his courses.
He recorded a popular series of lectures "Classics of Russian Literature"
for The Teaching Company in 2005.
Biography.
Irwin Weil was born in 1928 in Cincinnati, Ohio, of German Jewish and Lithuanian Jewish immigrants. His father, Sidney, was a former owner of the Cincinnati Reds baseball team. Initially majoring in economics at the University of Chicago, he was drawn to Slavic studies after discovering Dostoevsky's "The Brothers Karamazov" in a required literature course and being (in his words) "knocked for a loop". He reports that he ran to a bookstore, picked up a copy of "Crime and Punishment", read it in two days, and resolved to learn the language of such a great body of literature.
Weil received his bachelor's degree from the University of Chicago in 1948 and his master's degree in Slavic studies in 1951. After three years of working on a Soviet census for the U.S. Library of Congress, Weil began his Ph.D. at Harvard University, where he had received a Ford Foundation fellowship to work toward his doctorate in Slavic studies. After receiving the degree in 1960, he taught at Brandeis University.
While at Brandeis, Weil was a professor of Russian literature and linguistics. He was influential in the development and growth of the Slavic studies program at Brandeis. Weil's first major work—a dissertation on the development of the writing style of Maksim Gorky—was completed in 1958. His other works include "Notes on the Contemporary Soviet Literary Scene and Soviet Literary Activities."
At Northwestern University.
Weil moved to Northwestern University in 1966. He is published widely in the field of Russian literature and culture, with special attention to the classics of 19th-century Russian literature and the Soviet Period. His principal focus has been on the connections between Russian literature and music.
One of the most popular teachers at Northwestern, his classes in Russian literature attract hundreds of students each year.
His most popular course, "Introduction to the Soviet Union and Successor States", draws as many as 800 students each Spring Quarter.
"(Weil) is legendary in our department for getting enrollment numbers that no one else can touch," says Clare Cavanagh, current chairwoman of the Slavic department. The large enrollment in Slavic Studies has been attributed to Weil, whose reputation for warmth and passion for his subject, for caring about his students, and for occasionally breaking into Russian song to illustrate a point. has attracted generations of students
Work in promoting cultural exchange and understanding.
Weil is noted for his efforts to promote cultural exchange and understanding between USSR/Russia and the United States. Recently, he has worked with Professor Marina Kaul to establish an American Studies Center at the Moscow University for the Humanities.
He is a founder of the American Council of Teachers of Russian (ACTR)
and a member of the Board of Trustees of the Nevsky Institute of Language and Culture.
He is a frequent commentator on US-Russian relations.
Lecture videos.
Weil recorded a set of 36 half-hour lectures entitled "Classics of Russian Literature" for The Teaching Company. He
was selected by the company after considering his teaching awards, published evaluations, newspaper articles and other sources to determine the best professors. The Teaching Company placed him in the top 1 percent of professors in the United States.
Research interests.
According to his listing on the Northwestern University faculty web page, Weil's research interests include: