Pastors and Masters

Pastors and Masters (Pastors and Masters: A Study in the first edition) is a short novel by Ivy Compton-Burnett published in 1925. Called "a work of genius" by "The New Statesman", it was the author's second novel and the first in which she introduced the characteristic style of clipped, precise dialogue that was to make her name. It is largely a character study, dealing with themes of tyranny, female subservience and unconventional sexuality within the setting of a boys’ preparatory school.
Plot.
The greater part of the book consists of a character study of the staff of a boys’ preparatory school and their small circle of friends – the ‘masters’ and the ‘pastors’ of the title. The school is owned and nominally headed by the 70-year-old self-absorbed Nicholas Herrick who has established it in an old university town to be near the college where he spent his youth, although he spends only about 10 minutes a day on school business. Living with Herrick is his unmarried half-sister Emily Herrick, 20 years his junior, who puts on a front of sarcastically extolling him in public while privately despising him. The Herricks are friendly with the Fletcher family comprising the elderly Reverend Peter Fletcher, his wife Teresa, his unmarried sister Lydia, and his nephew Francis.
The day-to-day running of the school is left to the senior master, Mr Merry, a man with no academic or personal qualifications for the role other than his ability to present the school in a wholly false favourable light to the parents of potential scholars. His wife Mrs Merry (known as ‘Mother’) helps out. The teaching staff comprise Miss Basden, an unmarried middle-aged schoolmistress, and Mr Burgess, a young and inexperienced graduate.
William Masson and Richard Bumpus are unmarried fellows of the college who have been close friends for 30 years and who "meant romance for each other in youth". Many years earlier Bumpus had written a short novel but, considering it not good enough for publication, had had his sole copy of the manuscript buried in the grave of a friend.
Herrick regrets that he has never got round to writing a novel, which in his eyes would make him a "real author”, though in truth it is his lack of talent. While clearing out the room of Crabbe, an elderly don who has recently died, Herrick comes across the typescript of a short novel. Believing that nobody knows about Crabbe’s writing, he steals it and claims that he has had a sudden inspiration for his long-overdue book. At about the same time Bumpus announces his intention to publish a new novel of his own, a complete rewriting of the book he had authored as a young man, though he says that in his case the death of Crabbe has caused his work to be put back. He does not tell anybody that the reason for the delay is that his typescript, which he had left in Crabbe’s room shortly before his death, has disappeared.
Herrick and Bumpus both announce that they intend to give readings of their respective new works. Before Bumpus can start, Masson surprises him by saying that he had actually kept, and read, Bumpus's youthful foray into fiction and that he is looking forward to comparing the two versions. When the two authors discover that their first sentences are identical it becomes clear that neither of them has written anything recently and that the only novel which ever existed is Bumpus's early work.
In the final chapter of the novel the Herricks, the Fletchers and the school staff arrange a dinner party to present a false but impressive facade to the autocratic Reverend Henry Bentley, an important parent with two boys at the school.
Critical reception.
The "New Statesman" said "As for "Pastors and Masters", it is astonishing, alarming. It is like nothing else in the world. It is a work of genius. How to describe it – since there is nothing of which to take hold? ... No quotation could do this book justice".
Themes and style.
Although the book is now normally known as a novel, the first edition was entitled "Pastors and Masters: A Study". It was described on the cover as "like nothing but itself" and as "a little book which is a study rather than a story, but which has a story in it".
It was in this novel that Compton-Burnett first introduced the characteristic style of clipped, precise dialogue that was to make her name. The book marked the start of what became a remarkable series of fierce but decorous novels dealing with tyranny and power struggles in secluded late-Victorian households, written almost entirely in mordantly witty dialogue. Although Compton-Burnett's had in 1911 published an earlier novel ("Dolores"), she considered that to have been an apprentice piece and she never listed it among her publications.
Writing in "The Spectator" in 2009, the novelist Francis King noted that even in this early work Compton-Burnett had perfected her skill in implying what her characters think without either her or them openly revealing it. The novel includes some types, he said, that reappear in various guises in the author’s later works: tyrants who, though full of self pity, brutally victimise all those around them; and decent and loyal female slaves who dedicate themselves to the unrewarding task of trying to keep their families happy. King also considered it astonishing that, while E. M. Forster was agonising over whether he could publish his homosexual novel "Maurice", Compton-Burnett, a seemingly prim spinster, "should have already embarked on dealing with unconventional sexuality with such candour and aplomb".
Pamela Hansford Johnson noted that "this small, quiet, blistering book ... almost solid with conversations" came into the world in 1925, unrelated in any way to that year's actual realities, fantasies, hopes, and fears.


Robert Stam

Robert Stam (born October 29, 1941) is an American film theorist working on film semiotics. He is a University Professor at New York University, where he teaches about the French New Wave filmmakers. Stam has published widely on French literature, comparative literature, and on film topics such as film history and film theory. He wrote with Ella Shohat "Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media".
Biography.
Born in Paterson, New Jersey, Robert Stam completed his Ph.D. in Comparative Literature at U.C. Berkeley in 1977, after which he went directly to New York University, where he has been teaching ever since. Stam's graduate work ranged across Anglo-American literature, French and Francophone literature, and Luso-Brazilian literature, a confluence which explains a basic feature of his scholarship – a tendency to cross-reference all of these cultural zones. His dissertation-later-book "Reflexivity in Film and Literature" (1985) traced reflexive strategies from Miguel de Cervantes to Jean-Luc Godard, tracing three broad types of artistic reflexivity based on the basic impulses undergirding them– ludic and playful (Fielding, Keaton), aggressive and avant-garde (Jarry, Buñuel); and didactic (Brecht and later Godard).
Stam has authored, co-authored and edited some seventeen books on film and cultural theory, literature and film, national cinema (French and Brazilian), aesthetic and politics, intellectual history, and comparative race and postcolonial studies. With work that has ranged across a number of different fields, Stam has participated in a number of post-structuralist and postcolonial “turns” within film and cultural studies. A 1983 Screen essay “Colonialism, Racism, and Representation” brought post-structuralist theory to bear on issues of representations of colonial history and racial oppression. Attempting to go beyond the methodological limitations of the then dominant paradigm of “positive image” and “negative stereotype” analysis, Stam argued for an approach that emphasized not social accuracy or characterological merits but rather such issues as perspective, address, focalization, mediation, and the filmic orchestration of discourses.
The concern with issues of colonialism, postcolonialism, race, and cultural difference also found expression in a number of seminal texts co-authored with Ella Shohat. Their 1985 Screen essay “The Cinema After Babel: Language, Difference, Power,” introduced a Bakhtinian “translinguistic” and trans-structuralist turn into the study of language difference, translation, and postsynchronization in the cinema. Their "Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media" (Routledge, 1994) formed part of and helped shape the surge of writing about race, colonialism, identity politics, and postcoloniality in the 1990s. Hailed by many critics, including Edward Said, as a “brilliant” and landmark book, "Unthinking Eurocentrism" combines two strands of work – an ambitious study of colonialist discourse and Eurocentrism – and a comprehensive and transnational study of cinematic texts related to those issues. One striking feature, which came to characterize all of the Stam-Shohat collaborations, was to see such issues within a longue duree by placing at the very center of the debate the various 1492s – i.e. the Inquisition against Jews, the expulsion of the Muslims, the conquest of the Americas, TransAtlantic slavery – at the center of the debates. A related strategy was to stress the centrality of indigenous peoples for the history of radical thought and resistance in the Atlantic world, which they began in their 2006 book "Flagging Patriotism" to call the “Red Atlantic.” "Unthinking Eurocentrism" addressed such issues as “Eurocentrism versus Polycentrism,” “Formations of Colonialist Discourse,” “The Imperial Imaginary,” “Tropes of Empire,” the “Esthetics of Resistance,” “postcolonial hybridity,” and “indigenous media.” (A 20th anniversary edition with a substantial update-Afterward was published in 2014).
Stam and Shohat continued with an anthology -- "Multiculturalism, Postcoloniality, and Transnational Media" (Rutgers, 2003); followed by a more frankly political polemic which excoriated the militaristic pseudo-patriotism of the Bush/Cheney period -- "Flagging Patriotism: Crises in Narcissism and Anti-Americanism" (Routledge, 2006). "Race in Translation: Culture Wars Around the Postcolonial Atlantic" (NYU, 2012), finally, constituted an ambitious exercise in intellectual history which charted the multidirectional traffic of ideas around the “Red, Black, and White Atlantic.” More precisely, the book dealt with the postwar debates about colonialism, postcoloniality, race, multiculture and Affirmative Action in three cultural zones—the U.S., and Anglophone zone, France and the Francophone zone, and Brazil and the Lusophone zone. Contesting the monolingual and Anglo-Americano-centric approach to these issues, the book elaborates such concepts as “the seismic shift” provoked by the decolonization of culture, the radicalization of the academic disciplines, the philosophical centrality of indigenous thought, the “left/right” convergence on identity politics, and “inter-colonial narcissism.”
Stam has also been a major figure within the “transtextual turn” in adaptation and intertextuality studies. Stam's later work in literature and film formed part of and helped advance the field of adaptation studies, which has been undergoing a boom since the turn of the 21st century. Stam's essay “Beyond Fidelity,” included in the James Naremore 1999 anthology "Film Adaptation", called for a larger paradigm shift in which authors like Naremore, Dudley Andrews, Kamilla Elliot, Deborah Cartmell, Imelda Whelehan, Thomas Leitch, Jack Boozer, Christine Geraghty, Alessandra Raengo, and Linda Hutcheon moved from a binary novel-film fidelity approach to a more open transtextual approach. The interest in film-literature relations culminated in two monographs and two anthologies. "Literature through Film: Realism, Magic, and the Art of Adaptation" (Blackwell, 2005) offered a historicized account of key trends in the history of the novel – the proto-magic realism of a Cervantes, the colonialist realism of a Defoe (and his critics), the parodic reflexivity of a Henry Fielding or Machado de Assis, or proto-cinematic perspectivalism of a Flaubert, the neurotic narrators of a Dostoyevsky or a Nabokov, the feminist experimentations of Clarice Lispector and Marguerite Duras, and the “marvelous latin-american real” of Mario de Andrade and Alejo Carpentier, all as seen through the many filmic adaptations – both “faithful” and revisionist – of their work. "Francois Truffaut and Friends: Modernism, Sexuality, and Adaptation" (Rutgers, 2006), meanwhile, explored the “transtextual diaspora” generated by a highly literary ménage-a-trois in the 1920s that led to the books and published journals of Henri-Pierre Roche, Franz Hessel and Helen Hessel, as well as three films by Truffaut based on the life and work of Roche ("Jules and Jim", "Two Englishwomen", and "The Man Who Loved Women"). Two anthologies co-edited with Alessandra Raengo (both published by Blackwell) fleshed out the project: "Literature and Film: A Guide to the Theory" and "Practice of Adaptation" (Blackwell, 2005), and "Companion to Literature and Film" (Blackwell, 2004).
Another field of intervention for Stam has been in cultural theory, especially in "Subversive Pleasures: Bakhtin, Cultural Criticism, and Film" (Johns Hopkins, 1989), the first book-length study to extrapolate for film and cultural studies Bakhtin's conceptual categories, such as “translinguistics” and “dialogism” and the “carnivalesque.” Stam has also been an advocate-exegete of semiotics, poststructuralism, and film theory in such books as "New Vocabularies in Film Semiotics: Structuralism, Poststructuralism, and Beyond" (Routledge, 1992) and "Film Theory: An Introduction" (Blackwell, 2000), the first book to recount the history of film theory from its beginnings to the present within a transnational framework that included Latin America, Africa and Asia alongside Europe and North America. (Widely translated, the book has been used in film studies courses in many countries). "Film Theory: An Introduction" was published in tandem with two Blackwell anthologies co-edited with Toby Miller both from 2000: "Film and Theory" and "A Companion to Film Theory".
Brazilian cinema, literature, and popular culture form another node in Stam's research, ranging from the first book-length study in English of Brazilian Cinema ("Brazilian Cinema" (co-edited with Randal Johnson and first published in 1982 by Associated University Presses, then picked up, by University of Texas Press in 1989, and finally by Columbia University Press in 1992, this time with a new afterward penned by Stam, Joao Luiz Vieira and Ismail Xavier. Another book ("Tropical Multiculturalism: A Comparative History of Race in Brazilian Cinema and Culture" (Duke, 1997) offered the first book-length study in English of racial representation, especially of Afro-Brazilians, during the century of Brazilian Cinema, within a comparative framework in relation to similar issues in American cinema.
Another ongoing interest has been in the convergence of aesthetic and political radicalism, where Stam has explored such concepts as "the aesthetics of garbage", "Afro-diasporic aesthetics", and “trance-Brechtanism,” which will form part of a forthcoming Blackwell book on radical politics and aesthetics – "Keywords in Subversive Film Aesthetics".
Robert Stam has taught in Brazil, France, Germany, Tunisia, and Abu Dhabi.
Awards and honors.
Stam has won Woodrow Wilson, NDEA, Rockefeller, Fulbright, and Guggenheim Fellowships. In 2009, he was named a Fellow at the Shelby Cullom Davis Center for Historical Studies at Princeton, where he presented a paper on "The Red Atlantic". In 2006, he co-taught (with Ella Shohat) a seminar on "The Culture Wars in Translation" at Cornell's Society for Criticism and Theory. In 2003, Stam was honored at the Curitiba Film Festival for his "Noteworthy Service to Brazilian Cinema". In 2002, he was named “University Professor” at New York University, the institutions highest honor. In 1998: Honored by Africana Studies "Evening of Readings from Recently Published Work by Critically Acclaimed Authors" In 1995: a panel was dedicated to "Unthinking Eurocentrism" as opening for series of book-related events at the Museum of Modern Art in San Francisco.
"Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Media" (co-authored with Ella Shohat) won the Katherine Singer Kovacs "Best Film Book" Award in 1994. Stam's "Subversive Pleasures; Bakhtin, Cultural Criticism and Film" was a Choice "Outstanding Academic Book of the Year" in 1989 and Runner-Up for the Katherine Singer Kovacs "Best Film Book" Award in the same year.


Episodic memory

Episodic memory is the memory of every day events (such as times, location geography, associated emotions, and other contextual information) that can be explicitly stated or conjured. It is the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at particular times and places; for example, the party on one's 7th birthday. Along with semantic memory, it comprises the category of explicit memory, one of the two major divisions of long-term memory (the other being implicit memory).
The term "episodic memory" was coined by Endel Tulving in 1972, referring to the distinction between knowing and remembering: "knowing" is factual recollection (semantic) whereas "remembering" is a feeling that is located in the past (episodic).
One of the main components of episodic memory is the process of recollection, which elicits the retrieval of contextual information pertaining to a specific event or experience that has occurred. Tulving seminally defined three key properties of episodic memory recollection as:
Aside from Tulving, others named additional aspects of recollection, including visual imagery, narrative structure, retrieval of semantic information and feelings of familiarity.
Events that are recorded into episodic memory may trigger episodic learning, i.e. a change in behavior that occurs as a result of an event, such as a fear of dogs after being bitten by a dog.
Nine properties.
There are essentially nine properties of episodic memory that collectively distinguish it from other types of memory. Other types of memory may exhibit a few of these properties, but only episodic memory has all nine:
Cognitive neuroscience.
The formation of new episodic memories requires the medial temporal lobe, a structure that includes the hippocampus. Without the medial temporal lobe, one is able to form new procedural memories (such as playing the piano) but cannot remember the events during which they happened (See the hippocampus and memory).
The prefrontal cortex (and in particular the right hemisphere) is also involved in the formation of new episodic memories (also known as episodic encoding). Patients with damage to the prefrontal cortex can learn new information, but tend to do so in a disordered fashion. For example, they might show normal recognition of an object they had seen in the past, but fail to recollect when or where it had been viewed. Some researchers believe that the prefrontal cortex helps organize information for more efficient storage, drawing upon its role in executive function. Others believe that the prefrontal cortex underlies semantic strategies which enhance encoding, such as thinking about the meaning of the study material or rehearsing it in working memory.
Other work has shown that portions of the inferior parietal lobe play a role in episodic memory, potentially acting as an accumulator to support the subjective feeling that something is “old”, or perhaps supporting mental imagery which allows you a sense of the vividness of memories. Indeed, bilateral damage to the inferior parietal lobe results in episodic memory that is largely intact, however it lacks details and lesion patients report low levels of confidence in their memories.
Researchers do not agree about how long episodic memories are stored in the hippocampus. Some researchers believe that episodic memories always rely on the hippocampus. Others believe the hippocampus only stores episodic memories for a short time, after which the memories are consolidated to the neocortex. The latter view is strengthened by recent evidence that neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus may ease the removal of old memories and increase the efficiency of forming new memories.
Relationship to semantic memory.
Endel Tulving originally described episodic memory as a record of a person's experience that held temporally dated information and spatio-temporal relations. A feature of episodic memory that Tulving later elaborates on is that it allows an agent to imagine traveling back in time. A current situation may cue retrieval of a previous episode, so that context that colours the previous episode is experienced at the immediate moment. The agent is provided with a means of associating previous feelings with current situations. Semantic memory, on the other hand, is a structured record of facts, concepts, and skills that we have acquired. Semantic information is derived from accumulated episodic memory. Episodic memory can be thought of as a "map" that ties together items in semantic memory. For example, all encounters with how a "dog" looks and sounds will make up the semantic representation of that word. All episodic memories concerning a dog will then reference this single semantic representation of "dog" and, likewise, all new experiences with the dog will modify the single semantic representation of that dog.
Together, semantic and episodic memory make up our declarative memory. They each represent different parts of context to form a complete picture. As such, something that affects episodic memory can also affect semantic memory. For example, anterograde amnesia, from damage of the medial temporal lobe, is an impairment of declarative memory that affects both episodic and semantic memory operations. Originally, Tulving proposed that episodic and semantic memory were separate systems that competed with each other in retrieval. However, this theory was rejected when Howard and Kahana completed experiments on latent semantic analysis (LSA) that supported the opposite. Instead of an increase in semantic similarity when there was a decrease in the strength of temporal associations, the two worked together so semantic cues on retrieval were strongest when episodic cues were strong as well.
Age differences.
Episodic memory emerges at approximately 3 to 4 years of age. Activation of specific brain areas (mostly the hippocampus) seems to be different between younger (aged 23–39) and older people (aged 67–80) upon episodic memory retrieval. Older people tend to activate both their left and right hippocampus, while younger people activate only the left one.
Relationship to emotion.
The relationship between emotion and memory is complex, but generally, emotion tends to increase the likelihood that an event will be remembered later and that it will be remembered vividly. Flashbulb memory is one example of this. An example of this would be an experience such as a close family member dying or the Christmas that you got the exact toy you wanted as a kid. The experience holds so much emotional significance that it is encoded as an extremely vivid, almost picture-perfect memory. However, whether the vividness of the flashbulb memory is due to a virtual "flash" that occurs because of the emotional experience has been hotly contested. Flashbulb memories may occur because of our propensity to rehearse and retell those highly emotional events, which strengthens the memory.
Pharmacological enhancement.
In healthy adults, longterm visual episodic memory can be enhanced specifically through administration of the Acetylcholine esterase inhibitor Donepezil, whereas verbal episodic memory can be improved in persons with the val/val genotype of the val158met polymorphism through administration of the CNS penetrant specific catecholamine-O-methyltransferase inhibitor Tolcapone. Furthermore, episodic memory is enhanced through AZD3480, a selective agonist at the neuronal alpha4beta2 nicotinic receptor, which is developed by the company Targacept. Currently, there are several other products developed by several companies—including new catecholamine-O-methyltransferase inhibitors with fewer side effects—that aim for improving episodic memory. A recent placebo controlled study found that DHEA, which is a functional cortisol antagonist, improves episodic memory in healthy young men (Alhaj et al. 2006).
A 2015 meta-analysis of high quality evidence found that therapeutic doses of amphetamine and methylphenidate improve performance on working memory, episodic memory, and inhibitory control tests in normal healthy adults.
In animals.
Tulving (1983) proposed that to meet the criteria of episodic memory, evidence of conscious recollection must be provided. Demonstrating episodic memory in the absence of language, and thus in non-human animals, is impossible, because there are no agreed upon non-linguistic behavioral indicators of conscious experience (Griffiths et al., 1999).
This idea was first challenged by Clayton and Dickinson in their work with the western scrub jay ("Aphelocoma californica"). They were able to demonstrate that these birds may possess an episodic-like memory system as they found that they remember where they cached different food types, and discriminately recovered them depending on the perishability of the item and time that elapsed since caching. Thus, scrub-jays appear to remember the "what-where-and-when" of specific past caching events. The authors argued that such performance meets the behavioral criteria for episodic memory, but referred to the ability as "episodic-like" memory because the study did not address the phenomenological aspects of episodic memory.
After a study done by the University of Edinburgh (2006), hummingbirds were the first animal to demonstrate two of the aspects of episodic memory—the ability to recall where certain flowers were located and how recently they were visited. Other studies have demonstrated this type of memory in different animal species, such as dogs, rats, honey bees, and primates.
The ability of animals to encode and retrieve past experiences relies on the circuitry of the medial temporal lobe, a structure including the hippocampus. Animal lesion studies have provided significant findings related to the importance of particular brain structures in episodic-like memory. For example, hippocampal lesions have severely impacted all three components (what, where, and when) in animals, suggesting that the hippocampus is responsible for detecting novel events, stimuli, and places when forming new memories and on retrieving that information later on.
Despite similar neural areas and evidence from experiments, some scholars remain cautious about comparisons to human episodic memory. Purported episodic-like memory often seems fixed to a particular domain or could be explained in terms of procedural or semantic memory. The problem may be better tractable by studying episodic memory's adaptive counterpart: the capacity to flexibly imagine future events. However, a recent experiment addressed one of Suddendorf and Busby (2003)'s specific criticisms (the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis, which states that nonhuman animals can only take actions based on immediate needs, as opposed to future needs). Correia and colleagues demonstrated that western scrub-jays can selectively cache different types of foods depending on which type of food they will desire at a future time, offering strong evidence against the Bischof-Köhler hypothesis by demonstrating that scrub-jays can flexibly adjust their behavior based on past experience of desiring a particular food. Similarities and differences between humans and other animals are currently much debated.
Autobiographical memory.
An autobiographical memory is a personal representation of general or specific events and personal facts. Autobiographical memory also refers to memory of a person's history. An individual does not remember exactly everything that has happened in one's past. Memory is constructive, where previous experience affects how we remember events and what we end up recalling from memory. Autobiographical memory is constructive and reconstructed as an evolving process of history. A person's autobiographical memory is fairly reliable, although the reliability of autobiographical memories is questionable because of memory distortions.
Autobiographical memories can differ for special periods of life. People recall few personal events from the first years of their lives. The loss of these first events is called childhood or infantile amnesia. People tend to recall many personal events from adolescence and early adulthood. This effect is called the reminiscence bump. Additionally, people recall many personal events from their previous few years. For adolescents and young adults the reminiscence bump and the recent events can coincide.
It is known that autobiographical memories initially are stored as episodic memories, but it is currently unknown if autobiographical memories are the same as episodic memories or if the autobiographical memories become converted to semantic memories with time.
Neural network models.
Episodic memories can be stored in autoassociative neural networks (e.g., a Hopfield network) if the stored representation includes information on the spatiotemporal context in which an item was studied.
Neural networks help us understand how the brain sends and receives different messages to the body, and how they are connected. These networks are a group of neurons or structures that are connected together. These structures work harmoniously to produce different cognitions within the brain. One of the largest proposals for this ideology is that of Diffusion Tensor Imaging. This technique traces the differing pathways of nerve fibres that further create communication throughout differing structures. These networks can be thought of as neural maps that can expand or contract according to the information being processed at that time.


Cuthbert Tunstall

Cuthbert Tunstall (otherwise spelt Tunstal or Tonstall; 1474 – 18 November 1559) was an English Scholastic, church leader, diplomat, administrator and royal adviser. He served as Prince-Bishop of Durham during the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I.
Childhood and early career.
Cuthbert Tunstall was born at Hackforth near Bedale in North Yorkshire in 1474, an illegitimate son of Thomas Tunstall of Thurland Castle in Lancashire, later an esquire of the body of Richard III, and of his future second wife, a daughter of Sir John Conyers. His parents' subsequent marriage legitimated him under canon and civil law, if not under common law. His legitimate half-brother, Brian Tunstall, the so-called "stainless knight," was killed at the Battle of Flodden in 1513. Sir Walter Scott mentions "stainless Tunstall's banner white" in Canto Six, line 790 of "Marmion".
Nothing is known of Tunstall's early life, except that he spent two years as a kitchen boy in the household of Sir Thomas Holland, perhaps at Lynn, Norfolk. He was admitted to Balliol College, Oxford around 1491, where he studied mathematics, theology, and law. Around 1496 he became a scholar of the King's Hall, Cambridge. He did not receive a degree from either Oxford or Cambridge, but he graduated from the University of Padua in 1505 with a Doctor of Civil Law and a Doctor of Canon Law. At Padua he studied under some of the leading humanists, and became proficient in Greek and Hebrew.
William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury, made Tunstall his chancellor on 25 August 1511, and shortly afterward appointed him rector of Harrow on the Hill. He eventually became a canon of Lincoln (1514) and archdeacon of Chester (1515). Soon thereafter he was employed on diplomatic business by King Henry VIII and Cardinal Wolsey. In 1515, Tunstall was sent to Flanders with Sir Thomas More. It was at Brussels that he would meet Erasmus as well, becoming the intimate friend of both scholars. In 1519 he was sent to Cologne; a visit to Worms (1520–21) gave him a sense of the significance held by the Lutheran movement and its literature.
Tunstall was made Master of the Rolls in 1516, and Dean of Salisbury in 1521. In 1522 he became Bishop of London by papal provision, and on 25 May 1523 he was made Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal. In 1525 he negotiated with the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V after the Battle of Pavia, and helped to arrange the Peace of Cambrai in 1529.
Bishop of Durham under Henry VIII and Edward VI.
On 22 February 1530 — again by papal provision — Tunstall succeeded Cardinal Wolsey as Bishop of Durham. This role involved the assumption of quasi-regal power and authority within the territory of the diocese. In 1537 he was also made President of the new Council of the North. Although he was often engaged in time-consuming negotiations with the Scots, he took part in other public business, and attended parliament, where in 1539 he participated in the discussion on the Bill of Six Articles.
In the question of Henry's divorce, Tunstall acted as one of Queen Catherine's counselors. Unlike Bishop John Fisher and Sir Thomas More, during the troubled years that followed Tunstall adopted a policy of passive obedience and acquiescence in many matters regarding which he likely had little support. While Tunstall adhered firmly to Roman Catholic doctrine and practices, after some hesitation he accepted Henry as head of the Church of England, and publicly defended this position – thus accepting a schism with Rome.
Tunstall disliked the religious policy pursued by the advisers of King Edward VI, and voted against the first Act of Uniformity in 1549. However, he continued to discharge his public duties without interruption, and hoped that the Earl of Warwick might be induced to reverse the anti-Catholic policy of the Duke of Somerset. This hope failed, and after Somerset's fall, Tunstall was summoned to London in May 1551, and confined to his house there. During this captivity he composed a treatise on the Eucharist, which was published at Paris in 1554. At the end of 1551 he was imprisoned in the Tower of London, and a bill for his deprivation was introduced into the House of Commons. When this failed, he was tried by a commission on 4–5 October 1552, and deprived of his bishopric.
Bishop of Durham under Mary I and Elizabeth I.
On the ascension of Mary I to the throne in 1553, Tunstall was granted liberty. His bishopric, which had been dissolved by Act of Parliament in March 1553, was re-established by a further Act in April 1554. Tunstall, now an octogenarian, again assumed his office as Bishop of Durham. He maintained his earlier conciliatory approach, indulging in no systematic persecution of Protestants. Through Mary's reign he ruled his diocese in peace.
When Elizabeth I ascended to the throne, Tunstall refused to take the Oath of Supremacy, and would not participate in the consecration of the Anglican Matthew Parker as Archbishop of Canterbury. He was arrested, deprived of his diocese in September 1559, and held prisoner at Lambeth Palace, where he died within a few weeks, aged 85. He was one of eleven Roman Catholic bishops to die in custody during Elizabeth's reign.
He was buried in the parish church of St Mary-at-Lambeth, now a deconsecrated building.
The Anglican historian Albert F. Pollard wrote:"Tunstall's long career of eighty-five years, for thirty-seven of which he was a bishop, is one of the most consistent and honourable in the sixteenth century. The extent of the religious revolution under Edward VI caused him to reverse his views on the royal supremacy and he refused to change them again under Elizabeth."


Richard Marple

Arthur Richard Marple, commonly known as Richard Marple (1931-2019), was a Republican member of the New Hampshire House of Representatives from the town of Hooksett, who as of his death in December of 2019 had served six terms in that body. He was succeeded by Democrat Kathleen Martins in a January 2020 special election.
Marple repeatedly introduced legislation recognizing and seeking to enforce various pseudolaw arguments of the sovereign citizen movement.


The Brigand (film)

The Brigand is a 1952 American adventure romance film directed by Phil Karlson. It is the second film that Anthony Dexter made for producer Edward Small for Columbia Pictures after his debut in "Valentino".
Plot.
A rogue exile impersonates a King and a virtuous person wants to be so because he is the rightful heir to the throne.
Loosely based on "The Brigand" by Alexandre Dumas, the film is set in the Napoleonic era in 1804 in the mythical Iberian nation of "Mandorra". The film bears a resemblance to "The Prisoner of Zenda" with Dexter playing a dual role of a rogue exile who impersonates a King in danger of being overthrown by his cousin played by Anthony Quinn.
The scheming Quinn plans a "premeditated accident" to King Lorenzo by giving him a hunting weapon that is rigged to fire backwards; an idea reused by director Phil Karlson in his "The Silencers". With the real King unable to perform his duties, the swashbuckling distant relative Carlos DeLago, late of the Sultan of Morocco's Guard steps in to save the Kingdom.
Production.
There is no producer credit on the film but the movie was produced by Edward Small just before he left Columbia to return to United Artists.
In May 1949 it was reported that Small had hired Robert Libott and Frank Burt to write the script in 1949. In December 1949 Small signed a two-year contract with Columbia to make "two to six" films, which would include "Lorna Doone" and "The Brigand", "projects he had been developing for some time." This contract was separate to one Small had signed with Columbia to distribute "Valentino".
In August 1950 Small announced that he would make two films starring Anthony Dexter, who had made "Valentino" for the producer. The films would be "The Brigand" and a remake of "The Sheik". In May 1951 Jesse Lasky Jr was reportedly writing the script. The same month Phil Karlson was announced as director.
Ron Randell had appeared in "Lorna Doone" for Small. In August 1951 he signed to appear in "The Brigand"; he was to do it at the same time as appearing in "Broadway Bill" at the Pasadena Playhouse".
Filming started 9 July 1951.
Reception.
The "New York Times" called it "no great shakes. But neither, as a standard sample of this type of entertainment, is it hard to take." "Variety" called it "a program swashbuckler". The "Los Angeles Times" said "serious characterisation gives way to dash and colour."


Verbum dicendi

A verbum dicendi (Latin for "word of speaking" or "verb of speaking"), also called verb of utterance, is a word that expresses speech or introduces a quotation. English examples of verbs of speaking include "say", "utter", "ask" and "rumble". Because a verbum dicendi ("verb of speaking") often introduces a quotation, it may grammaticalize into a quotative.
The plural of "verbum dicendi" is "verba dicendi".
Complement of a verbum dicendi: direct and indirect speech.
A complement of a verbum dicendi can be direct or indirect speech. Direct speech is a single unit of linguistic object that is '"mentioned" rather than used.' In contrast, indirect speech is a proposition whose parts make semantic and syntactic contribution to the whole sentence just like parts of the matrix clause (i.e. the main clause/sentence, as opposed to an embedded clause).
Cross-linguistically, there are syntactic differences between direct and indirect speech, which include verbatimness, interpretations of deictic expressions, tense, presence or absence of complementizers, and syntactic opacity.
The complement clause may or may not be verbatim.
If a complement of a verbum dicendi is direct speech, it is presented as a faithful report of what the original speaker exactly said. In the following examples, the first means that "I will go to Tokyo" was the exact sentence that John uttered. In the second, on the other hand, John might have uttered a different sentence, for example, "I'll spend my vacation in Tokyo."a. John said (to me): "I will go to Tokyo"b. John said (to me) that he would go to Tokyo.
Indexicals in the complement clause may or may not be utterance-bound.
If a complement of a verbum dicendi is direct speech, deictic expressions in the complement are interpreted with respect to the context in which the original sentence was uttered. In (2)a, the embedded clause is direct speech; the first person pronoun "I" and the second person pronoun "you" in ""I"i will give "you"j a hand" respectively refer to the utterer and the addressee in the context in which this quoted speech was uttered. In contrast, if the embedded clause is indirect speech, all deictic expressions in the sentence are interpreted in the context in which the matrix clause is uttered. In (2)b, the embedded clause is indirect speech, so all the occurrences of the first person pronoun "me" and the second person pronoun "you" in the sentence respectively refer to the utterer and the addressee in the immediate context in which 2(b) is uttered.(2)a. Youi said to mej: ""I"i will give "you"j a hand."(2)b. Youi said to mej that "you"i would give "me"j a hand.
Sequence of tense.
Some languages, including English, show difference in tense between direct and indirect quotes. This phenomenon is formalized as "the sequence of tense rules."
Complementizer.
In some languages, the distinction between direct and indirect speech can be diagnosed by presence of an overt complementizer. Many languages, including English, have an overt complementizer (e.g. "that" in English) when the complement of a verbum dicendi is indirect speech, as seen in (1)b and 2(b) above. Some languages, such as Tikar, on the other hand, use an overt complementizer to introduce indirect speech.
Syntactic opacity.
If a complement of a verbum dicendi is direct speech, it is "syntactically opaque," meaning that syntactic elements inside this embedded clause cannot interact with elements in the matrix clause.
For example, Negative Polarity Items (NPI) inside an embedded direct quote cannot be licensed by a syntactic element in the matrix clause.(3)a. ?Nobody said "we saw anything."(3)b. Nobody said that they had seen anything.Note that (3)a is still syntactically well-formed but cannot communicate the same meaning as (3)b, in which the NPI "anything" inside the embedded indirect quote [they had seen anything] is licensed by "nobody" in the matrix clause.
Another example is that wh-movement out of an embedded direct quote is prohibited, as seen in (4)a below.(4)a. *What did John say: "I read _"?(4)b. What did John say that he had read _?
In English.
In English, verba dicendi such as "say" and "think" are used to report speech and thought processes.
 (1)a. If you touched a one they would say ‘wey you’re on’. (UK)
 b. And I thought ‘Well we need some more popcorn’. (US)
Such examples are prototypical, but many variants exist within an open class of manner-of-speaking verbs, such as "ask", "shout", "scream", "wonder", "yell", "holler", "bellow", "grunt", "mumble", "mutter", etc. These may be considered semantically more specific, implying a clause type (as in "ask") or indicating the intensity or prosody of the reported material (e.g. "shout", "mutter").
Quotation indicates to a listener that a message originated from a different voice, and/or at a different time than the present. An utterance like “Jim said ‘I love you’” reports at the present moment that Jim said “I love you” at some time in the past. Thus, there are two distinct active voices: that of the narrator and that of the reportee.
Written English often employs manner-of-speaking verbs or verba dicendi in conjunction with quotation marks to demarcate the quoted content. Speakers use more subtle phonetic and prosodic cues like intonation, rhythm, and mimesis to indicate reported speech.
Properties.
There are numerous syntactically and semantically relevant properties of verba dicendi and manner-of-speaking verbs, several of which are highlighted below:
i. They are so-called Activity Verbs. They may occur in progressive and imperative forms, among other tests:
 (2)a. He was shouting obscenities.
 b. Yell to George about the new quota.
 c. What John did was lisp French to Mary.
ii. The subject of verba dicendi is normally sentient:
 (3)a. My father howled for me to pick up the chair.
 b. *My desk howled for me to pick up the chair.
However, it is possible, at least colloquially, to assign the subject role of some verba dicendi to abstracta. An expression like "When you're late, it says you don't care" could be one such example.
iii. Verba dicendi may have an indirect object, which may be marked by "to" and which is also normally sentient:
 (4)a. Scream ‘Up the Queen’ (to the first person who passes)
 b. *She will howl 'O my stars and garters' to the essence of friendship
iv. Manner-of-speaking verbs may have a direct object, which may be a noun describing the speech act itself, a desentential complement (that-clause, indirect question or infinitive), or a direct quotation:
 (5)a. Hoffman will probably mutter a foul oath.
 b. Martin shrieked that there were cockroaches in the caviar.
 c. Regrettably, someone mumbled, “I suspect poison.”
Further, the direct object of some manner-of-speaking verbs may be deleted, resulting in a sentence that does not indicate an act of communication, but rather a description of the sound made:
 d. My companion shrieked.
Other verba dicendi do not permit this, however. "Say", "ask", "tell", for instance, cannot occur freely without an object:
 e. *Said John
"Speak" may occur without an object. In fact, its occurrence with an object is restricted. A that-clause, for example, is ungrammatical:
 f. Margaret spoke (to me)
 g. *Margaret spoke that there were cockroaches in the caviar
v. Some manner-of-speaking verbs may occur with directional adverbials, which cannot co-occur with indirect objects:
 (6)a. He bellowed at us (*to Sam)
Other verba dicendi cannot occur in "at" constructions:
 b. *She {said/remarked/declared} (something) at me
vi. Some manner-of-speaking verbs may have a nominal (noun) counterpart which sounds the same, but which has no communicative content, such as "mutter", "bellow", "shriek", "whine" and "whisper". Notice that other verba dicendi do not have these homophonous nouns (e.g. "speak"/"speech", "tell/tale", "declare/declaration").
There are many such observations. Another property of verbs of speaking is the lack of so-called factivity effect; in other words, the speaker is not required to actually believe what they are saying. This has implications for the truth conditions of quotative constructions:
 (7) Mary says that Paul is her friend.
Mary's statement may be false, though it may be true that she actually said it. In fact, she may even believe it to be false. However, whether or not believing is part of speaking has been debated for some time.
Syntax.
The syntax of quotation and verba dicendi appears at first glance to be a straightforward case of transitivity, in which the quoted material is interpreted as a direct object. In a case like
 (8) Jim said “I love you”
the traditionally held analysis takes the reported clause “I love you” to be the complement of "say". Thus the quote is termed an NP (noun phrase) and introduced as a direct object.
This analysis is supported by some of the typical syntactic tools for testing direct objects, such as moving into the focus of a question and clefting. However, constituency, movement and replacement tests show that the quotative clause does not behave like a normal transitive construction. For example, clefting and passivization of these forms give marked (ungrammatical, or strange at least) results:
 (9)a. ?“I’ll call you” was said by Pat
 cf. The cat was held by Pat
 b. ?What Pat did with “I’ll call you” was say it
 cf. What Pat did with the cat was hold it
Quotation may also be less restricted than ordinary transitive verbs. They may occur parenthetically, unlike other verbs:
 (10)a. “I’ll call you” Pat said “and I hope you answer”
 cf. ?The cat Pat held and a book
 b. “I” Pat said “will call you and I hope you answer”
 cf. *The Pat held cat and a book
Another issue is that manner-of-speaking verbs are not always obligatorily transitive. Verbs like "think", "laugh", "scream", "yell", "whisper" may be intransitive.
A different model has been proposed, which does not rely on transitivity, but rather an asymmetrical construction containing a reporting clause (head) and an independent reported clause. Note that the asymmetry arises from the fact that the reporting clause is dependent on the quoted content for grammaticality, while the reverse is not true.
 (11)a.*I said
 b.“I love you”
In this model, the dependent clause has a site of elaboration (e-site) which is filled by the independent clause:
 HEAD[Pat said e-site] COMPLEMENT[“I’ll call you”]
 HEAD[Pat thought e-site] COMPLEMENT[“I’ll call you”]
 HEAD[Pat was like e-site] COMPLEMENT[“I’ll call you”]
Direct/indirect quotation.
Direct quotation is reported from the perspective of the experiencer:
 (12) He said “I am leaving now”
However, indirect quotation is often paraphrased, and reported by a narrator from the perspective of the reportee. Verbs like "ask" and "tell" are frequently associated with indirect speech. English indirect quotation also shows a sequence-of-tense effect: a past tense reporting verb requires a "back-shift" in verb tense within the indirect quote itself
 (13)a. He said "I am leaving now"
 b. He said (that) he was leaving immediately
Indirect quotation is, in theory, syntactically constrained and requires that the quoted content form a subordinate clause under the CP node. However, what is heard in speech does not necessarily conform to theory. The complementizer "that", though considered to be a marker of indirect quotation, is not obligatory and is often omitted. Further, it can (and does) occur with direct quotes in some dialects of English (e.g. Hong Kong, Indian).
Verbs of speaking often employ the Conversational Historical Present tense, whereby actions in the past are referred to with present-tense morphology. This is considered to add immediacy or authority to the discourse. However, it also illustrates the difficulty in differentiating direct and indirect quotation.
 (14) So uh ... this lady says ... uh this uh Bert (‘)His son’ll make them. He’s an electrician(‘)
Inverted constructions.
Sentences with verba dicendi for direct quotation may use the somewhat antiquated verb-first (V2) order of English syntax. Inversion of this type with verbs of speaking or thinking frequently occurs in written English, though rarely in spoken English. It is also possible to invert the clause without changing subject-verb order. This is not possible with regular English transitives:
 (15)a. “No no no” said Harry
 b. “You’re not drunk” she says
 cf. *The cat held Pat (where Pat did the holding)
There are several restrictions, however. For example, quantifiers may occur to the right of the subject in a non-inverted quotative sentence, but not in an inverted sentence. They can, however, occur to the immediate left of the subject in an inverted sentence:
 (16)a.”We must do this again”, the guests all declared to Tony
 b.”We must do this again”, declared all the guests to Tony
 c.*”We must do this again”, declared the guests all to Tony
Inversion and negation with verba dicendi may co-occur only if the reporting clause itself is not inverted:
 (17)a.“Let’s eat”, said John just once
 b.“Let’s eat”, John didn't just say once
 c.*”Let’s eat”, said not John just once
 d.*”Let’s eat”, not said John just once
Other constraints involve subject position, DP direct objects, and movement, among others.
Grammaticalization.
Grammaticalization is the attribution of grammatical character to a previously independent, autonomous word. There is significant cross-linguistic evidence of verba dicendi grammaticalizing into functional syntactic categories. For instance, in some African and Asian languages, these verbs may grammaticalize into a complementizer. In other East African languages, they may become markers of Tense-Aspect-Mood (TAM). In English, the verb "say" in particular has also developed the function of a comment clause:
 (18)a. Say there actually were vultures on his tail
 b. What say he does answer?
 c. Buy a big bottle – say about 250 mils
 d. If we ran out of flour or sugar, say, we would gather up a few eggs and take them to Mr. Nichols's general store
 e.“Say, isn’t that–” Lance started, but Buck answered before the question was even asked
 f.“Say, that’s our City,” bubbles Dolores
 g. Jump, I say, and be done with it
In these examples, the verb "say" fulfils many roles. In the first two examples (a & b), it means ‘suppose', or 'assume.’ In the third and fourth examples (c & d) the meaning of "say" could be paraphrased as 'for example', or 'approximately.' Example (e) uses "say" as an imperative introducing a question and connotes 'tell me/us.' "Say" may also function as an interjection to either focus attention on the speaker or to convey some emotional state such as surprise, regret, disbelief, etc. Finally, example (f) uses "say" in an emphatic, often imperative way. This function dates from the (early) Middle English period
Emergence of innovative forms: "go", " be all", "be like".
In addition to basic verba dicendi and manner of speaking verbs, other forms are frequently used in spoken English. What sets these apart is that they are not, semantically speaking, reporting verbs at all. Such forms include "be like", "be all", and "go".
 (19)a. Pat was like “I’ll call you.”
 b. [...]and then my sister’s all “excuse me would you mind if I gave you, if I want your autograph” and she’s like “oh sure, no problem.”
 c. And he goes “yeah” and looks and you can tell maybe he thinks he's got the wrong address[...]
These forms, particularly "be like", have captured the attention of much linguistic study and documentation. Some research has addressed the syntax of these forms in quotation, which is highly problematic. For example, a verbum dicendi like "say" may refer to a previously quoted clause with "it". However, this is not possible with these innovative forms:
 (20)a. “I don’t know if he heard it, but I know I definitely said it
 b. *I’m like it
 c. *She was all it
 d. *I went it
Notice that these forms also don’t behave as basic verba dicendi in many other ways. Clefting, for example, produces ungrammatical forms like
 (21)a. *That’s nice was gone by me
 b. *Um, yah, I know, but there’s going to be wine there was been all by her
They also can’t participate in inverted constructions like other manner-of-speaking verbs:
 (22)a. *“Go home”, he was like
 b. *“I’m leaving”, was all John
Several other issues concerning these forms are the topic of much current study, including their diachrony, or change in use over time. "Go", for example, dates as far back as the eighteenth century, in contexts like "go bang", "go crack", "go crash", etc.
Research on these forms has also shown that "be like" in particular is associated with young people. However, this assumption is questioned on the basis of more recent findings which suggest that it is used by older speakers as well. It has also been largely attributed to female speakers, especially white females in California (Valley Girls). However, it is regularly used by speakers of both sexes, and in dialects of English outside of the US, including Canada and the UK. This is a topic of a great deal of research in current syntax and sociolinguistics.
In Japanese.
Syntactic construction.
In Japanese, verba dicendi (発話行為動詞 "hatsuwa kōi dōshi" 'speech act verb'), also referred to as verbs of communication or verbs of saying, include 言う "iu/yuu" 'say', 聞く "kiku" 'ask', 語る "kataru" 'relate', 話す "hanasu" 'talk', and 述べる "noberu" 'state'.Verba dicendi occur in the following construction: [_________] {と -"to", って -"tte"} Verbum dicendi.と -"to" has been described as a complementizer and a quotative particle. Historically, use of と -"to" was restricted to reporting a statement by another speaker, but it has a much wider distribution in modern Japanese. In conversational Japanese, って -"tte" is more frequently used, and it has been described as a quotative particle, a hearsay particle, a quotation marker, and a quotative complementizer. In the above construction, the underlined phrase headed by {と -"to", って -"tte"} can be a word, a clause, a sentence, or an onomatopoetic expression.
Like in English, verba dicendi in Japanese can introduce both direct and indirect speech as their complement. This is contrasted with verbs of thinking, which only introduce indirect speech. An exception to this is a verb of thinking 思う "omou" 'think', which can introduce a speech that is not uttered but takes place in one's mind as direct speech in the simple past tense; this use of 思う "omou" 'think' is called a "quasi-communicative act".
Direct or indirect speech: ambiguity.
In Japanese, a complement of a verbum dicendi can be ambiguous between direct and indirect readings, meaning that the distinction can only be inferred from the discourse context. For example, in (1), [boku ga Tookyoo e iku], which is in the complement of the verb 言う "iu" (past tense: "itta"), can be interpreted as either direct speech (2)a or indirect speech (2)b.(1) 太郎は僕が東京へ行くと言った。Taroo wa [boku ga Tookyoo e ik-u] to it-taTaro TOP I(MALE) NOM Tokyo to go-PRS QUOT say-PST.(2)a. Taroi said, "Ii will go to Tokyo."(2)b. Taroi said that Ij would go to Tokyo.
One reason for this direct-indirect ambiguity in Japanese is that Japanese indirect speech does not involve "backshifting of tense" observed in other languages including English. In the English translations, the direct speech in (2)a has "will" in the tense of the embedded clause, but in (2)b, it has been "backshifted" to "would" so that it matches the past tense of the matrix clause. Tense does not serve as a diagnostics of direct-indirect distinctions in Japanese.
Another reason for the ambiguity is that both direct and indirect quotes are introduced by {と -"to", って -"tte"} in Japanese. Hence, presence of an overt complementizer cannot disambiguate direct and indirect speech either.
Diagnostics of direct speech in Japanese.
Disambiguation of direct and indirect speech in Japanese depends on switches in deictic expressions and expressions of "speaker-addressee relationship". One language-specific diagnostics of direct speech is so-called "addressee-oriented expressions," which trigger a presupposition that there is an addressee in the discourse context. Some examples are listed below:sentence final particles: さ -"sa" 'let me tell you'; ね -"ne" 'you know'; よ -"yo" 'I tell you'; わ -"wa" 'I want you to know'imperative forms: 「走れ！」"hashire" 'Run!’polite verbs/polite auxiliary verbs: です "desu"; ございます "gozaimasu"; ます"masu"For example, in (3), [Ame da yo] in the complement of the verb 言う "iu" (past tense: "itta") is unambiguously interpreted as direct speech because of the sentence final particle よ -"yo" 'I tell you'.(3) 太郎は花子に「雨だよ」と言った。Taro wa Hanako ni [Ame da yo] to it-taTaro TOP Hanako DAT rain COP "yo" QUOT say-PST'Taro said to Hanako, "It is raining, I tell you."Similarly, in (4), [Ame desu] in the complement of the verb 言う "iu" (past tense: "itta") is unambiguously interpreted as direct speech because of the polite verb です "desu".(4) 太郎は花子に「雨です」と言った。Taro wa Hanako ni [Ame desu] to it-taTaro TOP Hanako DAT rain "desu" QUOT say-PST'Taro said to Hanako politely, "It is raining."
Diagnostics of indirect speech in Japanese.
One diagnostics of indirect speech in Japanese is presence of the reflexive pronoun 自分 "zibun" 'self'. It is a gender-neutral pronoun that uniformly refers to "the private self," or an agent of thinking, as opposed to "the public self," an agent of communicating, expressed by various personal pronouns (e.g. 僕 "boku" 'I(MALE)'), occupational roles (e.g. 先生 "sensei" 'teacher'), and kinship terms (e.g. お母さん "okaasan" 'mother').
For example, in (5), [zibun ga Tookyoo e iku] in the complement of the verb 言う "iu" (past tense: "itta") is unambiguously interpreted as indirect speech because of the presence of 自分 "zibun" 'self', which is co-referential with 太郎 "Taro".(5) 太郎は自分が東京へ行くと言った。Tarooi wa [zibuni ga Tookyoo e iku] to it-taTaro TOP self NOM Tokyo to go QUOT say-PST.'Taro said that he would go to Tokyo.'Note that (5) only differs from (1) in the subject of the embedded clause; (5) has 自分 "zibun" 'self' and (1) has 僕 "boku" 'I(MALE)'.
Simultaneously direct and indirect speech.
It has been reported that some sentences in Japanese have characteristics of both direct and indirect modes simultaneously. This phenomenon is called "semi-indirect mode" or "quasi-direct mode". It is also observed in a reported speech, and Kuno (1988) has termed it "blended discourse". (6) is an example of blended discourse.(6) 太郎は奴のうちに何時に来いと言ったのか。Taroi wa [yatui-no uti-ni nanzi-ni ko-i] to it-ta no ka?Taro TOP [he-GEN house-DAT what.time-DAT come-IMP] QUOT say-PST Q Q'What time did Taroi say, [come to hisi house ______]?'[yatu-no uti-ni nanzi-ni ko-i] in the complement of the verb 言う "iu" (past tense: "itta") appears to be direct speech because it has an imperative verb form 来い "ko-i" 'Come!'.
On the other hand, the third person pronoun 奴 "yatu" 'he' inside the embedded clause is co-referential with the matrix subject 太郎 "Taro". This means that this deictic expression inside the embedded clause is interpreted in the context in which the whole sentence (6) is uttered; cross-linguistically, this is considered to be a property of indirect speech.
Moreover, the wh-phrase 何時 "nanzi" 'what time' inside the embedded clause is taking matrix scope, meaning that it interacts with the matrix clause to influence the meaning of the whole sentence. This sentence means that, for example, 太郎 "Taro" had said "Come to my house at ten o'clock!," and the utterer of (6), not knowing the content of "ten o'clock," is requesting for this information. Availability of this meaning is an indication of indirect speech because if the embedded clause was direct speech, it would be syntactically opaque.


Wolfgang Kasack

Wolfgang Kasack (Potsdam, 20 January 1927 – Much, 10 January 2003) was a German Slavic studies scholar and translator.
After his death, his academic estate was donated to the University of Mainz.
He was son of the German writer Hermann Kasack.


Bmon

bmon is a free and open-source monitoring and debugging tool to monitor bandwidth and capture networking related statistics, and present them visually. It features various output methods including an interactive curses user interface and a programmable text output for scripting. bmon allows the user to see:


Constituent (linguistics)

In syntactic analysis, a constituent is a word or a group of words that function as a single unit within a hierarchical structure. The constituent structure of sentences is identified using "tests for constituents". These tests apply to a portion of a sentence, and the results provide evidence about the constituent structure of the sentence. Many constituents are phrases. A phrase is a sequence of one or more words (in some theories two or more) built around a head lexical item and working as a unit within a sentence. A word sequence is shown to be a phrase/constituent if it exhibits one or more of the behaviors discussed below. The analysis of constituent structure is associated mainly with phrase structure grammars, although dependency grammars also allow sentence structure to be broken down into constituent parts.
Tests for constituents in English.
Tests for constituents are diagnostics used to identify sentence structure. There are numerous tests for constituents that are commonly used to identify the constituents of English sentences. 15 of the most commonly used tests are listed next: 1) coordination (conjunction), 2) pro-form substitution (replacement), 3) topicalization (fronting), 4) "do-so"-substitution, 5) "one"-substitution, 6) answer ellipsis (question test), 7) clefting, 8) VP-ellipsis, 9) pseudoclefting, 10) passivization, 11) omission (deletion), 12) intrusion, 13) wh-fronting, 14) general substitution, 15) right node raising (RNR).
The order in which these 15 tests are listed here corresponds to the frequency of use, coordination being the most frequently used of the 15 tests and RNR being the least frequently used. A general word of caution is warranted when employing these tests, since they often deliver contradictory results. The tests are merely rough-and-ready tools that grammarians employ to reveal clues about syntactic structure. Some syntacticians even arrange the tests on a scale of reliability, with less-reliable tests treated as useful to confirm constituency though not sufficient on their own. Failing to pass a single test does not mean that the test string is not a constituent, and conversely, passing a single test does not necessarily mean the test string is a constituent. It is best to apply as many tests as possible to a given string in order to prove or to rule out its status as a constituent.
The 15 tests are introduced, discussed, and illustrated below mainly relying on the same one sentence:
By restricting the introduction and discussion of the tests for constituents below mainly to this one sentence, it becomes possible to compare the results of the tests. To aid the discussion and illustrations of the constituent structure of this sentence, the following two sentence diagrams are employed (D = determiner, N = noun, NP = noun phrase, Pa = particle, S = sentence, V = Verb, VP = verb phrase):
These diagrams show two potential analyses of the constituent structure of the sentence. A given node in a tree diagram is understood as marking a constituent, that is, a constituent is understood as corresponding to a given node and everything that that node exhaustively dominates. Hence the first tree, which shows the constituent structure according to dependency grammar, marks the following words and word combinations as constituents: "Drunks", "off", "the", "the customers", and "put off the customers". The second tree, which shows the constituent structure according to phrase structure grammar, marks the following words and word combinations as constituents: "Drunks", "could", "put", "off", "the", "customers", "the customers", "put off the customers", and "could put off the customers". The analyses in these two tree diagrams provide orientation for the discussion of tests for constituents that now follows.
Coordination.
The coordination test assumes that only constituents can be coordinated, i.e., joined by means of a coordinator such as "and", "or", or "but": The next examples demonstrate that coordination identifies individual words as constituents:
The square brackets mark the conjuncts of the coordinate structures. Based on these data, one might assume that "drunks", "could", "put off", and "customers" are constituents in the test sentence because these strings can be coordinated with "bums", "would", "drive away", and "neighbors", respectively. Coordination also identifies multi-word strings as constituents:
These data suggest that "the customers", "put off the customers", and "could put off the customers" are constituents in the test sentence.
Examples such as (a-g) are not controversial insofar as many theories of sentence structure readily view the strings tested in sentences (a-g) as constituents. However, additional data are problematic, since they suggest that certain strings are also constituents even though most theories of syntax do not acknowledge them as such, e.g.
These data suggest that "could put off", "put off these", and "Drunks could" are constituents in the test sentence. Most theories of syntax reject the notion that these strings are constituents, though. Data such as (h-j) are sometimes addressed in terms of the right node raising (RNR) mechanism.
The problem for the coordination test represented by examples (h-j) is compounded when one looks beyond the test sentence, for one quickly finds that coordination suggests that a wide range of strings are constituents that most theories of syntax do not acknowledge as such, e.g.
The strings "from home on Tuesday" and "from home on Tuesday on his bicycle" are not viewed as constituents in most theories of syntax, and concerning sentence (m), it is very difficult there to even discern how one should delimit the conjuncts of the coordinate structure. The coordinate structures in (k-l) are sometimes characterized in terms of non-constituent conjuncts (NCC), and the instance of coordination in sentence (m) is sometimes discussed in terms of stripping and/or gapping.
Due to the difficulties suggested with examples (h-m), many grammarians view coordination skeptically regarding its value as a test for constituents. The discussion of the other tests for constituents below reveals that this skepticism is warranted, since coordination identifies many more strings as constituents than the other tests for constituents.
Proform substitution (replacement).
Proform substitution, or replacement, involves replacing the test string with the appropriate proform (e.g. pronoun, pro-verb, pro-adjective, etc.). Substitution normally involves using a definite proform like "it", "he", "there", "here", etc. in place of a phrase or a clause. If such a change yields a grammatical sentence where the general structure has not been altered, then the test string is likely a constituent:
These examples suggest that "Drunks", "the customers", and "put off the customers" in the test sentence are constituents. An important aspect of the proform test is the fact that it fails to identify most subphrasal strings as constituents, e.g.
These examples suggest that the individual words "could", "put", "off", and "customers" should not be viewed as constituents. This suggestion is of course controversial, since most theories of syntax assume that individual words are constituents by default. The conclusion one can reach based on such examples, however, is that proform substitution using a definite proform identifies phrasal constituents only; it fails to identify sub-phrasal strings as constituents.
Topicalization (fronting).
Topicalization involves moving the test string to the front of the sentence. It is a simple movement operation. Many instances of topicalization seem only marginally acceptable when taken out of context. Hence to suggest a context, an instance of topicalization can be preceded by "...and" and a modal adverb can be added as well (e.g. "certainly"):
These examples suggest that "the customers" and "put off the customers" are constituents in the test sentence. Topicalization is like many of the other tests in that it identifies phrasal constituents only. When the test sequence is a sub-phrasal string, topicalization fails:
These examples demonstrate that "customers", "could", "put", "off", and "the" fail the topicalization test. Since these strings are all sub-phrasal, one can conclude that topicalization is unable to identify sub-phrasal strings as constituents.
"Do-so"-substitution.
"Do-so"-substitution is a test that substitutes a form of "do so" ("does so", "did so", "done so", "doing so") into the test sentence for the target string. This test is widely used to probe the structure of strings containing verbs (because "do" is a verb). The test is limited in its applicability, though, precisely because it is only applicable to strings containing verbs:
The 'a' example suggests that "put off the customers" is a constituent in the test sentence, whereas the b example fails to suggest that "could put off the customers" is a constituent, for "do so" cannot include the meaning of the modal verb "could". To illustrate more completely how the "do so" test is employed, another test sentence is now used, one that contains two post-verbal adjunct phrases:
These data suggest that "met them", "met them in the pub", and "met them in the pub because we had time" are constituents in the test sentence. Taken together, such examples seem to motivate a structure for the test sentence that has a left-branching verb phrase, because only a left-branching verb phrase can view each of the indicated strings as a constituent. There is a problem with this sort of reasoning, however, as the next example illustrates:
In this case, "did so" appears to stand in for the discontinuous word combination consisting of "met them" and "because we had time". Such a discontinuous combination of words cannot be construed as a constituent. That such an interpretation of "did so" is indeed possible is seen in a fuller sentence such as "You met them in the cafe because you had time, and we did so in the pub". In this case, the preferred reading of "did so" is that it indeed simultaneously stands in for both "met them" and "because we had time".
"One"-substitution.
The "one"-substitution test replaces the test string with the indefinite pronoun "one" or "ones". If the result is acceptable, then the test string is deemed a constituent. Since "one" is a type of pronoun, "one"-substitution is only of value when probing the structure of noun phrases. In this regard, the test sentence from above is expanded in order to better illustrate the manner in which one-substitution is generally employed:
These examples suggest that "customers", "loyal customers", "customers around here", "loyal customers around here", and "customers around here who we rely on" are constituents in the test sentence. Some have pointed to a problem associated with the "one"-substitution in this area, however. This problem is that it is impossible to produce a single constituent structure of the noun phrase "the loyal customers around here who we rely on" that could simultaneous view all of the indicated strings as constituents. Another problem that has been pointed out concerning the "one"-substitution as a test for constituents is the fact that it at times suggests that non-string word combinations are constituents, e.g.
The word combination consisting of both "loyal customers" and "who we rely on" is discontinuous in the test sentence, a fact that should motivate one to generally question the value of "one"-substitution as a test for constituents.
Answer fragments (answer ellipsis, question test, standalone test).
The answer fragment test involves forming a question that contains a single wh-word (e.g. "who", "what", "where", etc.). If the test string can then appear alone as the answer to such a question, then it is likely a constituent in the test sentence:
These examples suggest that "Drunks", "the customers", and "put off the customers" are constituents in the test sentence. The answer fragment test is like most of the other tests for constituents in that it does not identify sub-phrasal strings as constituents:
These answer fragments are all grammatically unacceptable, suggesting that "could", "put", "off", and "customers" are not constituents. Note as well that the latter two questions themselves are ungrammatical. It is apparently often impossible to form the question in a way that could successfully elicit the indicated strings as answer fragments. The conclusion, then, is that the answer fragment test is like most of the other tests in that it fails to identify sub-phrasal strings as constituents.
Clefting.
Clefting involves placing the test string X within the structure beginning with "It is/was": "It was X that...". The test string appears as the pivot of the cleft sentence:
These examples suggest that "Drunks" and "the customers" are constituents in the test sentence. Example c is of dubious acceptability, suggesting that "put off the customers" may not be constituent in the test string. Clefting is like most of the other tests for constituents in that it fails to identify most individual words as constituents:
The examples suggests that the each of the individual words "could", "put", "off", "the", and "customers" are not constituents, contrary to what most theories of syntax assume. In this respect, clefting is like many of the other tests for constituents in that it only succeeds at identifying certain phrasal strings as constituents.
VP-ellipsis (verb phrase ellipsis).
The VP-ellipsis test checks to see which strings containing one or more predicative elements (usually verbs) can be elided from a sentence. Strings that can be elided are deemed constituents: The symbol ∅ is used in the following examples to mark the position of ellipsis:
These examples suggest that "put off" is not a constituent in the test sentence, but that "immediately put off the customers", "put off the customers when they arrive", and "immediately put off the customers when they arrive" are constituents. Concerning the string "put off the customers" in (b), marginal acceptability makes it difficult to draw a conclusion about "put off the customers".
There are various difficulties associated with this test. The first of these is that it can identify too many constituents, such as in this case here where it is impossible to produce a single constituent structure that could simultaneously view each of the three acceptable examples (c-e) as having elided a constituent. Another problem is that the test can at times suggest that a discontinuous word combination is a constituent, e.g.:
In this case, it appears as though the elided material corresponds to the discontinuous word combination including "help" and "in the office".
Pseudoclefting.
Pseudoclefting is similar to clefting in that it puts emphasis on a certain phrase in a sentence. There are two variants of the pseudocleft test. One variant inserts the test string X in a sentence starting with a free relative clause: "What...is/are X"; the other variant inserts X at the start of the sentence followed by the "it/are" and then the free relative clause: "X is/are what/who..." Only the latter of these two variants is illustrated here.
These examples suggest that "Drunks", "the customers", and "put off the customers" are constituents in the test sentence. Pseudoclefting fails to identify most individual words as constituents:
The pseudoclefting test is hence like most of the other tests insofar as it identifies phrasal strings as constituents, but does not suggest that sub-phrasal strings are constituents.
Passivization.
Passivization involves changing an active sentence to a passive sentence, or vice versa. The object of the active sentence is changed to the subject of the corresponding passive sentence:
The fact that sentence (b), the passive sentence, is acceptable, suggests that "Drunks" and "the customers" are constituents in sentence (a). The passivization test used in this manner is only capable of identifying subject and object words, phrases, and clauses as constituents. It does not help identify other phrasal or sub-phrasal strings as constituents. In this respect, the value of passivization as test for constituents is very limited.
Omission (deletion).
Omission checks whether the target string can be omitted without influencing the grammaticality of the sentence. In most cases, local and temporal adverbials, attributive modifiers, and optional complements can be safely omitted and thus qualify as constituents.
This sentence suggests that the definite article "the" is a constituent in the test sentence. Regarding the test sentence, however, the omission test is very limited in its ability to identify constituents, since the strings that one wants to check do not appear optionally. Therefore, the test sentence is adapted to better illustrate the omission test:
The ability to omit "obnoxious", "immediately", and "when they arrive" suggests that these strings are constituents in the test sentence. Omission used in this manner is of limited applicability, since it is incapable of identifying any constituent that appears obligatorily. Hence there are many target strings that most accounts of sentence structure take to be constituents but that fail the omission test because these constituents appear obligatorily, such as subject phrases.
Intrusion.
Intrusion probes sentence structure by having an adverb "intrude" into parts of the sentence. The idea is that the strings on either side of the adverb are constituents.
Example (a) suggests that "Drunks" and "could put off the customers" are constituents. Example (b) suggests that "Drunks could" and "put off the customers" are constituents. The combination of (a) and (b) suggest in addition that "could" is a constituent. Sentence (c) suggests that "Drunks could put" and "off the customers" are not constituents. Example (d) suggests that "Drunks could put off" and "the customers" are not constituents. And example (e) suggests that "Drunks could put off the" and "customers" are not constituents.
Those that employ the intrusion test usually use a modal adverb like "definitely". This aspect of the test is problematic, though, since the results of the test can vary based upon the choice of adverb. For instance, manner adverbs distribute differently than modal adverbs and will hence suggest a distinct constituent structure from that suggested by modal adverbs.
Wh-fronting.
Wh-fronting checks to see if the test string can be fronted as a wh-word. This test is similar to the answer fragment test insofar it employs just the first half of that test, disregarding the potential answer to the question.
These examples suggest that "Drunks", "the customers", and "put off the customers" are constituents in the test sentence. Wh-fronting is like a number of the other tests in that it fails to identify many subphrasal strings as constituents:
These examples demonstrate a lack of evidence for viewing the individual words "would", "put", "off", "the", and "customers" as constituents.
General substitution.
The general substitution test replaces the test string with some other word or phrase. It is similar to proform substitution, the only difference being that the replacement word or phrase is not a proform, e.g.
These examples suggest that the strings "Drunks", "the customers", and "could" are constituents in the test sentence. There is a major problem with this test, for it is easily possible to find a replacement word for strings that the other tests suggest are clearly not constituents, e.g.
These examples suggest that "could put", "Drunks could", and "could put of the" are constituents in the test sentence. This is contrary to what the other tests reveal and to what most theories of sentence structure assume. The value of general substitution as test for constituents is therefore suspect. It is like the coordination test in that it suggests that too many strings are constituents.
Right node raising (RNR).
Right node raising, abbreviated as RNR, is a test that isolates the test string on the right side of a coordinate structure. The assumption is that only constituents can be shared by the conjuncts of a coordinate structure, e.g.
These examples suggest that "could put off the customers", "put off the customers", and "the customers" are constituents in the test sentence. There are two problems with the RNR diagnostic as a test for constituents. The first is that it is limited in its applicability, since it is only capable of identifying strings as constituents if they appear on the right side of the test sentence. The second is that it can suggest strings to be constituents that most of the other tests suggest are not constituents. To illustrate this point, a different example must be used:
These examples suggest that "their bicycles (his bicycle) to us to use if need be", "to us to use if need be", and "to use if need be" are constituents in the test sentence. Most theories of syntax do not view these strings as constituents, and more importantly, most of the other tests suggest that they are not constituents.
In short, these tests are not taken for granted because a constituent may pass one test and fail to pass many others. We need to consult our intuitive thinking when judging the constituency of any set of words.
@shams
Other languages.
A word of caution is warranted concerning the tests for constituents as just discussed above. These tests are found in textbooks on linguistics and syntax that are written mainly with the syntax of English in mind, and the examples that are discussed are mainly from English. The tests may or may not be valid and useful when probing the constituent structure of other languages. Ideally, a battery of tests for constituents can and should be developed for each language, catered to the idiosyncrasies of the language at hand.
Competing theories.
Constituent structure analyses of sentences are a central concern for theories of syntax. The one theory can produce an analysis of constituent structure that is quite unlike the next. This point is evident with the two tree diagrams above of the sentence "Drunks could put off the customers", where the dependency grammar analysis of constituent structure looks very much unlike the phrase structure analysis. The crucial difference across the two analyses is that the phrase structure analysis views every individual word as a constituent by default, whereas the dependency grammar analysis sees only those individual words as constituents that do not dominate other words. Phrase structure grammars therefore acknowledge many more constituents than dependency grammars.
A second example further illustrates this point (D = determiner, N = noun, NP = noun phrase, Pa = particle, S = sentence, V = Verb, V' = verb-bar, VP = verb phrase):
The dependency grammar tree shows five words and word combinations as constituents: "who", "these", "us", "these diagrams", and "show us". The phrase structure tree, in contrast, shows nine words and word combinations as constituents: "what", "do", "these", "diagrams", "show", "us", "these diagrams", "show us", and "do these diagrams show us". The two diagrams thus disagree concerning the status of "do", "diagrams", "show", and "do these diagrams show us", the phrase structure diagram showing them as constituents and the dependency grammar diagram showing them as non-constituents. To determine which analysis is more plausible, one turns to the tests for constituents discussed above.
Within phrase structure grammars, views about of constituent structure can also vary significantly. Many modern phrase structure grammars assume that syntactic branching is always binary, that is, each greater constituent is necessarily broken down into two lesser constituents. More dated phrase structures analyses are, however, more likely to allow n-ary branching, that is, each greater constituent can be broken down into one, two, or more lesser constituents. The next two trees illustrate the distinction (Aux = auxiliary verb, AuxP = auxiliary verb phrase, Aux' = Aux-bar, D = determiner, N = noun, NP = noun phrase, P = preposition, PP = prepositional phrase, Pa = particle, S = sentence, t = trace, V = Verb, V' = verb-bar, VP = verb phrase):
The details in the second diagram here not crucial to the point at hand. This point is that the all branching there is strictly binary, whereas in the first tree diagram ternary branching is present twice, for the AuxP and for the VP. Observe in this regard that strictly binary branching analyses increase the number of (overt) constituents to what is possible. The word combinations "have sent many things to us" and "many things to us" are shown as constituents in the second tree diagram but not in the first. Which of these two analyses is better is again at least in part a matter of what the tests for constituents can reveal.


Jainism in North Karnataka

Jainism in North Karnataka flourished under the Chalukyas, Kadamba, Rashtrakutas, and Vijayanagara empire. Imbued with religious feeling, patronage was extended towards the building of Jain temple and it garnered high repute among the people, particularly the ruling classes and the mercantile community; effectively getting treated as the state religion.
Literature.
The Kannada poet Adikavi Pampa’s wrote Vikramarjuna Vijaya, also known as "Pampa Bharata", and also "Adipurana" which narrates the story of Shri Rishabhadev, the first Tirthankara. "Neminatha Purana" a history of the 22nd Tirthankara, provides a Jain interpretation for the story of Krishna and the Pandavas.
Jain architecture.
Jain architecture can be classified into two categories namely "basadi" and "betta". "Basadi" is a Jain monastery or temple where an image of one of the twenty-four tirthankaras (saints) is installed and worshipped. They were built in the Dravidian style and the oldest basadi can be traced back to at least the first century AD. "Betta" is a hill with an open courtyard containing the image of Gommata or Gommateswara.
The earliest dated structure is a basadi at Halasi built under the Kadamba Dynasty of Banavasi laying the foundation for Jain architecture in North Karnataka.
Rastrakutas period is the golden age of Jainism in Karnataka. The Jaina monuments of the Rashtrakutas period are found at Pattadakal, Malkhed, Lakshmeshwar, Koppal, Bankur, of North Karnataka. Jainism exerted considerable influence over the cultural life of Karnataka during the rule of the Rashtrakutas. Several basadi were erected for the further propagation of the religion in the State. Important among them is the Parsvanatha Basadi at Ron with its exquisitely carved grills depicting gandharvas in scrollwork.
Kadambas of Banavasi were known to be patrons of Jainism. After the rule of the Kadambas of Banavasi most parts of north Karnataka came under the rule of the early Chalukya or Badami Chalukyas.
Aihole has Jaina cave temple, it has an open mandapa and a Sabhamandapa. Garbhagriha has the sculpture of "Shri Mahaviraswami in Padmasana". On the sides are yaksha and yakshi standing. Shanka Basadi at Lakshmeshwar was built in 7th century during Rashtrakuta period. This Jinalaya is dedicated to Lord Neminatha and Jinalya got his name from Shankha, the symbol of Shri Neminath. Adi Purana was written by Adikavi Pampa in this Basadi.Other Jain temple includes Jinalaya at Hallur, The Jinalaya at Adur built by Dharmagamunda.
Jain Narayana temple located on the Pattadakal, was built in the Dravidian style by the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta in 9th century. It consists of a "mukhamantapa" (main hall), a "navaranga", "shukanasa" and garbhagriha. The principle deity of the temple is Lord Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara of Jainism.
Badami cave temples were built in 7th century by Chalukya dynasty. It features detailed carvings of tirthankar Shri Mahaviraswami, Shri Parshvanatha, Shri Adinatha and kevali Bahubali, Indrabhuti Gautama etc. Idols of Yakshas, Yakshis, Padmavati are also present here.
Brahma Jinalaya, Lakkundi was built during Western Chalukya rule in mid-11th century. The temple has single shrine connected to a closed hall via a vestibule that is connected to a mantapa. The temple has idol of Tirthankar Shri Mahaviraswami, God Brahma, Goddess Saraswati and Gajalakshmi.
Padmabbarasi basadi is the biggest Rashtrakuta temple in Karnataka. This temple was built during the period of Krishna III, by Padmabbarasi, the queen of Ganga Permadi Bhutayya in 950 AD.
Navagraha Jain Temple at Varur near Hubli is one of the major pilgrimage. The temple features a 61 feet (18.6 m) tall monolithic idol of the Shri 1008 Bhagavan Parshvanatha and the smaller statues of the other 8 Jain Teerthankaras. The statue stands on a 48-foot high pedestal making the total height 109 feet. The statue is the tallest statue of the Lord Parshvanatha.
Dakshina Bharati Jain Sabha.
Dakshina Bharati Jain Sabha is a social service organization of the Jains of South India. The organization has its headquarter at Kolhapur. The association is credited with being one of the first Jain associations to start reform movements among the Jains in modern India. The organization mainly seeks to represent the interests of the native Jains of Maharashtra (Marathi Jains), Karnataka (Kannada Jains) and Goa.


Shaun Nichols

Shaun Nichols (born 7 February 1964) is an American professor of philosophy at Cornell University specializing in moral psychology and philosophy of mind.
Education and career.
Nichols received his PhD in philosophy from Rutgers in 1992 under the supervision of Stephen Stich and his BA in philosophy from Stanford. He is a leading contributor to experimental philosophy and was awarded the Stanton Prize by the Society for Philosophy and Psychology in 2005.
He taught at the College of Charleston, University of Arizona and, since 2019, Cornell University.
Philosophical work.
His early work was concerned primarily with questions in theory of mind.
Nichols's current research projects are in experimental philosophy, moral psychology, cultural evolution, free will, and the self.
Experimental philosophy.
In his work within experimental philosophy, Nichols has addressed questions about cross-cultural differences in semantic intuitions, free will, intentional action, the nature of moral judgment, and a number of other key philosophical concepts.


Ten Rules for Air Fighting

Adolph Gysbert Malan DSO & Bar DFC (24 March 1910 – 17 September 1963), better known as Sailor Malan, was a South African World War II fighter pilot who led No. 74 Squadron RAF during the height of the Battle of Britain. Malan developed a set of simple rules for fighter pilots, which eventually could be found throughout RAF Fighter Command:
"TEN OF MY RULES FOR AIR FIGHTING"


Marcela Donoso

Marcela Donoso Concha (Santiago, Chile; February 16, 1961) is a Chilean painter, belonging to the Magical Realism movement.
Biography.
Marcela Donoso was born February 16, 1961 in Santiago, Chile and was a Chilean. She spent part of her childhood in the United States and Venezuela, returning to Chile in 1970. Between the years 1972 and 1973, she attended the Concepción Steel Artists' Workshop.
She studied at the University of Chile School of Art between 1984 and 1988, studying under Adolfo Couve. She ultimately received her degree in Art with a specialization in painting and engraving. Donoso lived in Mozambique, Africa between 1989 and 1991, where she studied under the artists, Malangatana Ngwenya. She also learned to speak Portuguese and created various works. Among the works created was an iron monument dedicated to the Heroes of Mozambican independence (1990), a mural at the Inhambane airport (1989), and a commemorative mural in a governmental building in the same city. She also participated in an art show for the Mozambique Association of Friendship and Solidarity with the People (AMASP) and a UNICEF Artistic Development Project for child war victims. At the same time, she worked for the organization Handicap International.
She returned to Chile and won the Palestinian Women's Union prize in 1992. Her work for that competition was acquired by the Banco Osorno (Bank of Osorno).
In 1999, she conducted a series of open workshops in the Sala 508 South in Brasilia, Brasil, under the auspices of the Chilean Embassy.
In July 1998 the itinerant exhibition Iconography of Myths and Legends of Chile was inaugurated at the Montecarmelo Cultural Center, which was also presented at the Cultural Center of Puente Alto and at the University of Concepción. Under the patronage of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1999, this same work was exhibited at the Centro Cultural 508 in Brasilia and at the Latin American Memorial in São Paulo, Brazil. Both individual samples. Among the group presentations in Brazil are the Latin American Painting Exhibition at the Latin American Memorial, sponsored by the Consulate of Chile in 2000 and Latin American Religious Art, with part of the work Patronos de Chile and Some Spells at the Academy of Art and Culture of Brazil in March 2001. In the year 2002 publishes the book Iconography of Myths and Legends of America. In April 2010 the exhibition Iconography of Myths and Legends of America was inaugurated in the UDLA, this same work was presented in September of the same year in the Palace of Courts of Justice as Bicentennial Exposition of the Supreme Court of Chile.