Penny

A penny is a coin ( pennies) or a unit of currency ( pence) in various countries. Borrowed from the Carolingian denarius (hence its former abbreviation d.), it is usually the smallest denomination within a currency system. Presently, it is the formal name of the British penny ( p) and the informal name of the American one-cent coin ( ¢) as well as the informal Irish designation of the 1 cent euro coin ( c). It is the informal name of the cent unit of account in Canada, although one-cent coins are no longer minted there. The name is also used in reference to various historical currencies also derived from the Carolingian system, such as the French denier and the German pfennig. It may also be informally used to refer to any similar smallest-denomination coin, such as the euro cent or Chinese fen.
The Carolingian penny was originally a 0.940-fine silver coin weighing pound. It was adopted by Offa of Mercia and other English kings and remained the principal currency in Europe over the next few centuries until repeated debasements necessitated the development of more valuable coins. The British penny remained a silver coin until the expense of the Napoleonic Wars prompted the use of base metals in 1797. Despite the decimalization of currencies in the United States and, later, throughout the British Commonwealth, the name remains in informal use.
No penny is currently formally subdivided, although farthings (¼d), halfpennies, and half cents have previously been minted and the mill (1/10¢) remains in use as a unit of account in some contexts.
Etymology.
"Penny" is first attested in a 1394 Scots text, a variant of Old English , a development of numerous variations including , , and . The etymology of the term "penny" is uncertain, although cognates are common across almost all Germanic languages and suggest a base *"pan-", *"pann-", or *"pand-" with the individualizing suffix "-ing". Common suggestions include that it was originally *"panding" as a Low Franconian form of Old High German "pawn" (in the sense of a pledge or debt, as in a pawnbroker putting up collateral as a pledge for repayment of loans); *"panning" as a form of the West Germanic word for "frying pan", presumably owing to its shape; and *"ponding" as a very early borrowing of Latin ("pound"). Recently, it has been proposed that it may represent an early borrowing of Punic ("Pane" or "Pene", "Face"), as the face of Carthaginian goddess Tanit was represented on nearly all Carthaginian currency. Following decimalization, the British and Irish coins were marked "new penny" until 1982 and 1985, respectively.
From the 16th century, the regular plural "pennies" fell out of use in England when referring to a sum of money (e.g. "That costs tenpence."), but continued to be used to refer to more than one penny coin ("Here you are, a sixpence and four pennies."). It remains common in Scottish English and is standard for all senses in American English, where, however, the informal "penny" is typically only used of the coins in any case, values being expressed in "cents". The informal name for the American cent seems to have spread from New York State.
In British English, prior to decimalization, values from two to eleven pence and to a lesser extent 18 pence, were often written and spoken as a single word, as "twopence" or "tuppence", "threepence" or "thruppence", etc. (Other values were usually expressed in terms of shillings and pence or written as two words, which might or might not be hyphenated.) Where a single coin represented a number of pence, it was treated as a single noun, as "a sixpence". Thus, "a threepence" (but more usually "a threepenny bit") would be single coin of that value whereas "three pence" would be its value and "three pennies" would be three penny coins. In British English, divisions of a penny were added to such combinations without a conjunction, as "sixpence-farthing", and such constructions were also treated as single nouns. Adjectival use of such coins used the ending -penny, as "sixpenny".
The British abbreviation d. derived from the Latin . It followed the amount, e.g. "11d". It has been replaced since decimalization by p, usually written without a space or period. From this abbreviation, it is common to speak of pennies and values in pence as "p". In North America, it is common to abbreviate cents with the currency symbol ¢. Elsewhere, it is usually written with a simple c.
History.
Antiquity.
The medieval silver penny was modeled on similar coins in antiquity, such as the Greek drachma, the Carthaginian shekel, and the Roman denarius. Forms of these seem to have reached as far as Norway and Sweden. The use of Roman currency in Britain seems to have fallen off after the Roman withdrawal and subsequent Saxon invasions.
Frankish Empire.
Charlemagne's father Pepin the Short instituted a major currency reform around aiming to reorganise Francia's previous silver standard with a standardized .940-fine () weighing 1⁄240 pound. (As the Carolingian pound seems to have been about 489.5 grams, each penny weighted about 2 grams.) Around 790, Charlemagne introduced a new .950 or .960-fine penny with a smaller diameter. Surviving specimens have an average weight of although some estimate the original ideal mass at But despite the purity and quality of these pennies, they were often rejected by traders throughout the Carolingian period in favor of the gold coins used elsewhere; this led to repeated legislation against such refusal to accept the king's currency.
England.
Some of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms initially copied the solidus, the late Roman gold coin; at the time, however, gold was so rare and valuable that even the smallest coins had such a great value that they could only be used in very large transactions and were sometimes not available at all. Around 641–670, there seems to have been a movement to use coins with a lower gold content. This decreased their value and may have increased the number that could be minted, but these paler coins do not seem to have solved the problem of the value and scarcity of the currency. The miscellaneous silver sceattas minted in Frisia and Anglo-Saxon England after around 680 were probably known as "pennies" at the time. (The misnomer is based on a probable misreading of the Anglo-Saxon legal codes.) Their purity varied and their weight fluctuated from about 0.8 to about 1.3 grams. They continued to be minted in East Anglia under Beonna and in Northumbria as late as the mid-9th century.
The first Carolingian-style pennies were introduced by King Offa of Mercia ( 757–796), modeled on Pepin's system. His first series was of the Saxon pound of , giving a pennyweight of about His queen Cynethryth also minted these coins under her own name. Near the end of his reign, Offa minted his coins in imitation of Charlemagne's reformed pennies. Offa's coins were imitated by East Anglia, Kent, Wessex and Northumbria, as well as by two Archbishops of Canterbury. As in the Frankish Empire, all these pennies were notionally fractions of shillings (; ) and pounds (; ) but during this period neither larger unit was minted. Instead, they functioned only as notional units of account. (For instance, a "shilling" or "solidus" of grain was a measure equivalent to the amount of grain that 12 pennies could purchase.) English currency was notionally .925-fine sterling silver at the time of Henry II, but the weight and value of the silver penny steadily declined from 1300 onwards.
In 1257, Henry III minted a gold penny which had the nominal value of 1 shilling 8 pence (i.e. 20 "d."). At first, the coin proved unpopular because it was overvalued for its weight; by 1265 it was so undervalued—the bullion value of its gold being worth 2 shillings (i.e. 24 "d.") by then—that the coins still in circulation were almost entirely melted down for the value of their gold. Only eight gold pennies are known to survive. It was not until the reign of that the florin and noble established a common gold currency in England.
The earliest halfpenny and farthing (¼"d.") found date from the reign of Henry III. The need for small change was also sometimes met by simply cutting a full penny into halves or quarters. In 1527, Henry VIII abolished the Tower pound of 5400 grains, replacing it with the Troy pound of 5760 grains (making a penny 5760/240 = 24 grains) and establishing a new pennyweight of 1.56 grams, although, confusingly, the penny coin by then weighed about 8 grains, and had never weighed as much as this 24 grains. The last silver pence for general circulation were minted during the reign of Charles II around 1660. Since then, they have only been coined for issue as Maundy money, royal alms given to the elderly on Maundy Thursday.
United Kingdom.
Throughout the 18th century, the British government did not mint pennies for general circulation and the bullion value of the existing silver pennies caused them to be withdrawn from circulation. Merchants and mining companies—such as Anglesey's Parys Mining Co.—began to issue their own copper tokens to fill the need for small change. Finally, amid the Napoleonic Wars, the government authorized Matthew Boulton to mint copper pennies and twopences at Soho Mint in Birmingham in 1797. Typically, 1 lb. of copper produced 24 pennies. In 1860, the copper penny was replaced with a bronze one (95% copper, 4% tin, 1% zinc). Each pound of bronze was coined into 48 pennies.
United States.
The United States' cent—popularly known as the "penny" since the early 19th century—began with the unpopular copper chain cent in 1793. Abraham Lincoln was the first historical figure to appear on a U.S. coin when he was portrayed on the one-cent coin to commemorate his 100th birthday.
South Africa.
The penny that was brought to the Cape Colony (in what is now South Africa) was a large coin—36 mm in diameter, 3.3 mm thick and —and the twopence was correspondingly larger at 41 mm in diameter, 5 mm thick and . On them was Britannia with a trident in her hand. The English called this coin the Cartwheel penny due to its large size and raised rim, but the Capetonians referred to it as the Devil's Penny as they assumed that only the Devil used a trident. The coins were very unpopular due to their large weight and size. On 6 June 1825, Lord Charles Somerset, the governor, issued a proclamation that only British Sterling would be legal tender in the Cape Colony (colonial South Africa). The new British coins (which were introduced in England in 1816), among them being the shilling, six-pence of silver, the penny, half-penny, and quarter-penny in copper, were introduced to the Cape. Later two-shilling, four-penny, and three-penny coins were added to the coinage. The size and denomination of the 1816 British coins, with the exception of the four-penny coins, were used in South Africa until 1960.
Criticism.
Handling and counting penny coins entail transaction costs that may be higher than a penny. It has been claimed that, for micropayments, the mental arithmetic costs more than the penny. Changes in the market prices of metals, combined with currency inflation, has caused the metal value of penny coins to exceed their face value.
Australia and New Zealand adopted 5¢ and 10¢, respectively, as their lowest coin denomination, followed by Canada, which adopted 5¢ as its lowest denomination in 2012. Several nations have stopped minting equivalent value coins, and efforts have been made to end the routine use of pennies in several countries, including the United States. In the UK, since 1992, one- and two-penny coins have been made from copper-plated steel (making them magnetic) instead of bronze.


Proinsias Mac Cana

Proinsias Mac Cana (6 July 1926 – 21 May 2004) was an academic and Celtic scholar. He held professorships at the Dublin Institute of Advanced Studies and University College Dublin.
Career.
Proinsias Mac Cana was born in Belfast on 6 July 1926 to George McCann and his wife Mary Catherine, "née" Mallon; his Catholic parents were supporters of Irish nationalism. He attended Queen's University Belfast, graduating with a degree in Celtic languages in 1948. After a year at the Sorbonne, he completed a Master of Arts degree at Queen's, where he was appointed an assistant lecturer in 1951. Two years later, the university awarded him a doctorate (PhD). In 1955, he moved to the University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, as an assistant lecturer in Early Irish. In 1957, he was promoted to a lectureship. While there, he taught Old and Middle Welsh. In 1961, he was appointed Professor of Celtic Studies at the Dublin Institute of Advanced Studies and two years later became Professor of Welsh at University College Dublin where he became Professor of Early Irish in 1971. In 1985, he returned to the Dublin Institute to take up a senior professorship, and retired in 1996 afterwards being appointed to emeritus professorship. He had been President of the Royal Irish Academy between 1979 and 1982.
According to "The Irish Times", Mac Cana's "main field of research was early Irish tales, and the mythology informing them, and in this field he was pre-eminent. ... He broadened and deepened the understanding of the links between the languages, cultures and traditions of the Celtic peoples of Ireland and Britain. And through his scholarship and teaching he was an interpreter of the Irish to the Welsh and of the Welsh to the Irish." Mac Cana published widely and in retirement worked to restore the Collège des Irlandais in Paris. He died on 21 May 2004.
Honours and awards.
Mac Cana was a member of Academia Europaea and an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Gustavus Adolphus Academy. In 1997, the British Academy awarded him its Derek Allen Prize for Celtic Studies. He was also awarded honorary doctorates by several universities, and was presented with a Festschrift: "Ildánach Ildírech" in 1999.


Love and Death in the American Novel


Victor Gollancz

Sir Victor Gollancz (; 9 April 1893 – 8 February 1967) was a British publisher and humanitarian.
Gollancz was known as a supporter of left-wing causes. His loyalties shifted between liberalism and communism, but he defined himself as a Christian socialist and internationalist. He used his publishing house chiefly to promote pacifist and socialist non-fiction, and also launched the Left Book Club.
In the postwar era, he focused his attention on Germany and became known for his promotion of friendship and reconciliation based on his internationalism and his ethic of brotherly love. He founded the organisation Save Europe Now (SEN) in 1945 to campaign for humane treatment of German civilians, and drew attention to their suffering, especially children, and atrocities committed against German civilians. He received an honorary doctorate at the University of Frankfurt in 1949, the Großes Bundesverdienstkreuz of Germany in 1953 and the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade in 1960, and several streets in Germany, including the Gollanczstraße in West Berlin, and two schools, the Victor Gollancz Elementary School and the Victor-Gollancz-Volkshochschule Steglitz-Zehlendorf, were named in his honour. He also campaigned for friendship with Soviet Russia. Gollancz once said: "I hate everything that is pro and anti (different peoples). I am only one thing: I am pro-humanity." Since 2000, the Society for Threatened Peoples has awarded the Victor Gollancz Prize.
Early life.
Born in Maida Vale, London, to a family of German Jewish/Polish Jewish background, Victor Gollancz was the son of a wholesale jeweller and the nephew of Rabbi Professor Sir Hermann Gollancz and Professor Sir Israel Gollancz. His grandfather, Rabbi Samuel Marcus Gollancz, had migrated to the United Kingdom in the mid-19th century from Witkowo, near Gniezno (then Gnesen in Prussia) to become cantor of the Hambro' Synagogue in London.
After being educated at St Paul's School, London and taking a degree in classics at New College, Oxford, he became a schoolteacher. Gollancz was commissioned into the Northumberland Fusiliers in October 1915, although he did not see active service. In March 1916 he transferred to Repton School Junior Officers' Training Corps. Gollancz proved to be an innovative and inspiring teacher; he introduced the first civics class to be taught at an English public school and many of his students went on to become teachers themselves, including James Harford and James Darling. In 1917 he became involved in the Reconstruction Committee, which was planning for post-war Britain. There he met Ernest Benn, who hired him to work in his publishing company, Ernest Benn Limited. Starting with magazines, Gollancz then brought out a series of art books, after which he started signing novelists.
The publisher and man.
Gollancz formed his own publishing company in 1927, publishing works by writers such as Ford Madox Ford and George Orwell, who wrote that "Gollancz is of course part of the Communism-racket," to Rayner Heppenstall in July 1937 (Orwell went to Secker and Warburg from "Homage to Catalonia" onwards). The firm, Gollancz Ltd., published pacifist and socialist nonfiction as well as, by the mid-1930s, a solid selection of contemporary fiction, including authors such as Elizabeth Bowen, Daphne du Maurier, and Franz Kafka. While Gollancz published "The Red Army Moves" by Geoffrey Cox on the Winter War in 1941, he omitted some criticisms of the USSR.
Gollancz was one of the founders of the Left Book Club, the first book club in the UK. He had a knack for marketing, sometimes taking out full-page newspaper advertisements for the books he published, a novelty at the time. He also used eye-catching typography and book designs, and used yellow dust-covers on books. Starting in 1948, Gollancz made yearly scouting trips to the USA; by 1951 American books made up half of his publications.
Gollancz's politics started as those of the Liberal Party and Guild Socialism. By 1931 he had joined the Labour Party, and by the early 1930s he had started publishing left-wing political works, in addition to his more popular titles. Although he never joined the CPGB, Gollancz was closely allied to the Communist Party during the second half of the 1930s. He finally broke with the party after the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact in 1939, and pledged himself to Christian Socialism. In the early 1940s, Gollancz was sympathetic to Richard Acland's socialist Common Wealth Party and gave talks for the group before the general election of 1945. Although he never thought the party would win an election, he believed it represented a useful, socialist pressure group.
Religious faith was important part of Gollancz's life. His father was an Orthodox Jew with a very literal interpretation of his faith; Gollancz's dislike of this attitude coloured his approach to organised Judaism for much of his life, but he continued to practise many Jewish rituals at home. Gollancz often claimed to be a Christian, although he was never baptised and his understanding of the religion was highly idiosyncratic. Overall his personal syncretic faith drew on Pelagian Christianity, Judaism, and wide-ranging reading across religious traditions. His faith manifested itself in a consciousness of bliss and his lifelong political and social campaigning. He compiled a number of books of religious writings, including "A Year of Grace", "From Darkness to Light", "God of a Hundred Names" and "The New Year of Grace". Gollancz was also a keen music lover, an enthusiasm he explained in his final book, "Journey Towards Music".
Gollancz was knighted in the 1965 Queen's Birthday Honours List.
Campaigner.
In addition to his highly successful publishing business, Gollancz was a prolific writer on a variety of subjects, and put his ideas into action by establishing campaigning groups. The Left Book Club was not only a book club run along commercial lines, but also a campaigning group that aimed to propagate left-wing ideas in Britain. The founding of the club marked the end of his career solely as a publisher, after which he devoted much of his energy to campaigning.
His first few pamphlets addressed what he saw as the communist betrayal of left wing ideals, although after the Soviet Union was invaded by Nazi Germany in 1941 he founded the Anglo-Soviet Public Relations Association (ASPRA) to promote cordial relations between the UK and Russia. This was followed by refutation of the anti-German (as opposed to anti-Nazi) doctrine of Sir Robert Vansittart in the pamphlet "Shall Our Children Live or Die" published in late 1941.
1942 prediction of the Holocaust.
Gollancz publicised the anti-Semitism of the Nazi regime early on; in 1933 he had published the compilation volume "The Little Brown Book of the Hitler Terror" and Fritz Seidler's book on the Nazi persecution of the Jews "The Bloodless Pogrom" in 1934. In the summer of 1942 Gollancz came to realise that he and the rest of the world had been seriously underestimating the horrific extent of the Nazi persecution of the Jews. He explained in his 16,000-word pamphlet "Let My People Go", written over Christmas 1942, that between one and two million Jews had already been murdered in Nazi-controlled Europe and "unless something effective is done, within a very few months these six million Jews will all be dead." Gollancz proposed a series of practical responses, centred around a rescue plan, and undertook a lecture and fundraising tour; he was also made Vice-President of Eleanor Rathbone's "National Committee for Rescue from Nazi Terror". Published early in the new year of 1943, the pamphlet sold a quarter of a million copies within three months and was quoted in the Parliament of Canada in 1943, and in "The Adelaide Advertiser" on Saturday 15 May 1943. Along with Rathbone, Gollancz was the foremost British campaigner during the Second World War on the issue of the Nazi extermination of European Jewry.
Towards the end of June 1943, Gollancz suffered a serious nervous breakdown, believed to have been brought on by overwork (he had cut out holidays and reduced his social and cultural life) and his identification with the Nazis' victims. After his recovery he started work on a book to be called "The Necessity for Zionism"; although the book was never written, he did publish a number of books on Jewish topics. His work for Zionism at this time led to him being appointed as a governor of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In May 1945, he wrote his last major contribution to Jewish refugees, the pamphlet "Nowhere to Lay Their Heads: The Jewish tragedy in Europe and its solution", a personal appeal for the opening up of Palestine for large-scale Jewish immigration from Europe, which he distributed for free and was a great success.
Occupation of Germany after World War II.
In April 1945, Gollancz addressed the issue of German collective guilt in a pamphlet, "What Buchenwald Really Means" that explained that all Germans were not guilty. He maintained that hundreds of thousands of gentiles had been persecuted by the Nazis and many more had been terrorized into silence. Equally, British citizens who had done nothing to save the Jews despite living in a democracy, were not free of guilt. This marked a shift of Gollancz's attention towards the people of Germany. In September 1945, he started an organisation to campaign for the support of Germans, and over the next four years he wrote another eight pamphlets and books addressing the issue and visited the country several times.
Gollancz's campaign for the humane treatment of German civilians involved efforts to persuade the British government to end the ban on sending provisions to Germany and ask that it pursue a policy of reconciliation, as well as organising an airlift to provide Germany and other war-torn European countries with provisions and books. He wrote regular critical articles for, and letters to, British newspapers, and after a visit to the British Zone of Occupation in October and November 1946, he published these along with shocking close-up photos of malnourished children he took there in "In Darkest Germany" in January 1947.
On the expulsion of Germans after World War II he said: "So far as the conscience of humanity should ever again become sensitive, will this expulsion be an undying disgrace for all those who remember it, who caused it or who put up with it. The Germans have been driven out, but not simply with an imperfection of excessive consideration, but with the highest imaginable degree of brutality." In his book, "Our Threatened Values" (London, 1946), Gollancz described the conditions Sudeten German prisoners faced in a Czech concentration camp: "They live crammed together in shacks without consideration for gender and age ... They ranged in age from 4 to 80. Everyone looked emaciated ... the most shocking sights were the babies ... nearby stood another mother with a shrivelled bundle of skin and bones in her arms ... Two old women lay as if dead on two cots. Only upon closer inspection, did one discover that they were still lightly breathing. They were, like those babies, nearly dead from hunger ..." When Field Marshal Montgomery wanted to allot each German citizen a guaranteed diet of only 1,000 calories a day and justified this by referring to the fact that the prisoners of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp had received only 800, Gollancz wrote about starvation in Germany, pointing out that many prisoners never even received 1,000 calories. "There is really only one method of re-educating people," explained Gollancz, "namely the example that one lives oneself."
Gollancz's motives for his work for Germany can be traced to his internationalism and his ethic of brotherly love. He explained his rationale thus, "In the management of our helping actions should nothing, but absolutely nothing else, be decisive than the degree of need." For his biographer, Ruth Dudley Edwards, Gollancz's campaign was based in his concern for the moral underdog and his enjoyment in fighting for unpopular causes. The campaign led Gollancz's friend, Rev. John Collins to start "Christian Action" in December 1946, an organisation with similar aims (which later became involved in the campaign against Apartheid). In 1960 Gollancz was awarded the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade for his work with SEN.
Other humanitarian issues.
During the fighting that marked the creation of the state of Israel, Gollancz became concerned for the plight of the Arabs and in October 1948 he founded the Jewish Society for Human Service (JSHS), with Rabbi Leo Baeck as its president. This body was based on "the universalist ethic of Judaism" and aimed to work in the newly formed state of Israel "to relieve the suffering of Jews and Arabs indifferently."
In February 1951, Victor Gollancz wrote a letter to "The Manchester Guardian" asking people to join an international struggle against poverty. Gollancz's letter called for a negotiated end to the Korean War and the creation of an international fund "to turn swords into ploughshares", readers were asked to send a postcard to Gollancz with the simple word 'yes'. He received 5,000 responses. This led to the founding of the Association for World Peace (AWP) with Gollancz as chairman and Canon Charles Raven the vice-Chairman. In May 1951, Gollancz invited Harold Wilson to chair an AWP committee and write a pamphlet which was eventually called 'War on Want - a Plan for World Development', published on 9 June 1952. This document led to the founding of the international anti-poverty charity War on Want; its parent body, the AWP, waned after Gollancz stepped down from the chairmanship in 1952.
With Arthur Koestler and John Collins, Gollancz set up the National Campaign for the Prevention of Legal Cruelty in 1955. This organisation was renamed The National Campaign for the Abolition of Capital Punishment (NCACP) and campaigned against judicial killing in the UK. This drive against capital punishment would later lead Gollancz to campaign against the execution of the Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann. He addressed the issue in a controversial pamphlet, "The Case of Adolf Eichmann".
Personal life and death.
Victor married Ruth Gollancz née Lowy, an artist who had studied at the Slade School of Art under Henry Tonks. The couple had five daughters among them Vita Gollancz, an artist; Livia Ruth Gollancz, musician and later head of Victor Gollancz Ltd; and Diana Gollancz, a confidante of poet Philip Larkin.
Gollancz died in London.


Crachach

Crachach () is a pejorative term used to refer to a perceived Welsh-speaking interconnected elite who control the arts, media, civil service and higher education sectors in Wales. The term translates as "petty gentry", "conceited upstarts", or "snobs", but has developed into a wider populist conspiracy theory.
The theory is similar to English theories asserting the existence of a cabal which exists in much of the Western world. Welsh language detective thriller show Y Gwyll translated the term in its English subtitles as "cognoscenti". The broader theories claim that the Welsh-speaking elite dominate influential positions in the arts, politics, academia and the media largely on the basis of their Welsh language knowledge.
To some Welsh speakers, the term is offensive in meaning. Some writers have described it as "an attack on Welsh speakers".
Origins.
"Crachach" in Welsh means 'petty gentry; conceited upstarts, snobs'. It is most common in the dialects of south Wales. "Crachach" is derived from "crach", which has the basic meaning of 'scabs (on the skin)' and a secondary meaning of 'snobs'.
The term has only taken hold as a wider conspiracy theory in recent decades as documented by Richard Wyn Jones. The theory is unique to other British populist theories in that the elite described are claimed to be largely Welsh-speaking. It is compared and contrasted with the pejorative term "taffia".
Term of abuse.
The term "crachach" is considered to be offensive by some, as it stigmatises a linguistic minority, and suggests their involvement in a conspiracy of some sorts. The late Labour MP Paul Flynn had called "crachach" 'a term of mild abuse'.
Simon Brooks has written that "crachach" 'is best described as "hate speech" against those from a minority (i.e. Welsh-speaking) background who have the impunity not to be poor, and not to be bullied into giving up their own culture'. He notes that there are no equivalent terms for those of other backgrounds who hold influential posts in Wales.
Critics of the term have described its users as making "an attack on Welsh speakers." Author Patrick McGuinness has described the term as "generating a culture of envy" and "tribalism and divisiveness" in Welsh society. Opposing Conservative politicians at the time responded to his comments by stating the term is merely "challenging a cosy consensus within the arts world in Wales."
Political use.
Among English speaking political commentators, the theory is often employed to suggest the existence of a Welsh-speaking elite whose interests are opposed to those of the majority of the Welsh people. Academic Richard Wyn Jones has argued that fear of such a supposed Welsh-speaking elite was characteristic of anti-devolutionists in the 1979 Welsh devolution referendum:
The term is sometimes used in political discourse in Wales. As First Minister of Wales, the Labour politician Rhodri Morgan stated that Wales would have 'Cynulliad y werin, nid Cynulliad y crachach' ('an Assembly of the people, not an Assembly of the "crachach"').
In 2010, Welsh Labour education minister Leighton Andrews criticized the Higher Education sector in Wales for not contributing to Welsh prosperity levels: 'For too many in Wales, higher education remains a distant, and irrelevant activity, clouded in mystery [...] It appears that higher education governance in post-devolution Wales has become the last resting place of the crachach.'
Use in the media.
The theory does not regularly arise in the English-language media in Wales. However since the development of the National Assembly for Wales in the late 1990s and the legislature's policy of increasing the number of Welsh speakers, it has been used in debate often by critics of the language and of devolution more broadly.
Journalist Carolyn Hitt referred to the theory in an article written in the early 2000s, which she would later downplay as "tongue-in-cheek".
When then Welsh Secretary, William Hague MP, in 1997 became engaged to marry a member of his staff Ffion Jenkins (the daughter of the one-time head of the Welsh Arts Council, Emyr Jenkins), Roger Dobson of the "Independent" wrote that Hague was marrying into the crachach. He quoted Rhodri Morgan as saying of Ffion Jenkins:


A Closed Book

A Closed Book is a short novel by Gilbert Adair, published in 2000.
The book starts with a slightly awkward meeting between a crotchety blind author and a sighted interviewee he seeks to employ as his assistant.
The narrative is presented almost entirely through dialogue between the two men, punctuated by fragments of the writer's diary. As the two men's relationship develops it becomes clear that both have something to hide.
A film based on the novel was released in 2010.


Mad Love Chase

Mad Love Chase, known in Japan as , is a manga by Kazusa Takashima. In 2001, it began serialization in "Asuka" and the first volume was released in July 2002. In 2009, it was licensed by TokyoPop under the name "Mad Love Chase", the subtitle of the series.
Plot.
A supernatural comedy about the Prince of Hell, Kaito, and his cat, Levun, who decide to run away together to escape an arranged marriage the Prince wants no part of. Somehow upon entering the human world, the Prince's appearances changes from tall, dark and handsome to short, light and skinny, and his cat becomes a tall, busty female. Now the Prince is living life as a regular high school student and his cat is the school's nurse. Meanwhile, the King of Hell sends a womanizing vampire, a short tempered werewolf, and a kind-hearted zombie to retrieve his son. Not to mention, the Prince's fiancée is not going to just wait around forever.
Characters.
 - The Prince of Hell: Tall, dark, and handsome in Hell, but an average, skinny kid (under the alias: ) in the human world. His best friend is the overprotective, Taiki Asakura. When under disguise, it appears that he can turn back to his original self involuntarily. However, this has only happened twice in the manga so far; when falling into the pond at the festival and when falling into the lake to rescue Levun. He can turn back to his human disguise when Levun kisses him. He has feelings for Levun as show in chapter 12. He has a distinctive, black tattoo on the whole of his back, which identifies him as the Prince of Hell.
 - The Prince's Cat: Kaito's cat in Hell, but a tall, beautiful, and busty female (under the alias: or "Haga-sensei/Ms. Haga") in the human world. She poses as the school nurse in Kaito's high school to keep an eye on him. It appears that she can kiss Kaito to turn him back to his human disguise. Like Kaito, she has involuntarily changed back to her form from Hell and changed back into her human disguise afterward without warning, but why this happens is still unknown. It looks as if she has a somewhat attraction to Kaito although this is probably because he is her master. Asakura Taiki and Souya (the vampire) have very obvious feelings for her. She seems to have special feelings for Taiki (it is hinted to be romantic).
 - The Zombie: He is best friends with Kaito and has a crush on Levun in her human form, Haga-sensei. Taiki is kind-hearted but muscled. He tries his best to protect Kaito from danger. He is sent by the King of Hell along with two others to find Kaito's whereabouts. Souya (the vampire) and Kisaragi Touma (the werewolf) believe that Kujou Yamato (Kaito) is in fact the Prince, but Taiki is reluctant to believe so.
 - The Vampire - Mr. Janitor: He is one of three lackeys sent by the King of Hell to find Kaito's whereabouts. He is a womanizer who also, like Taiki, has a crush on Levun's human form, Haga-sensei. He has failed to gain her affection more than a few times. He poses as a janitor at Kaito's high school and is popular with the school girls there.
 - The werewolf: He is one of three lackeys sent by the King of Hell to find Kaito's whereabouts. He is short tempered, likes to nap, and skilled with knives. He poses as a senior in Kaito's high school. He is most often seen arguing with Souya (the vampire).
 - The Prince of Hell's Fiance: Went to the human world off on her own to find Kaito's whereabouts. She poses as a new counselor at his high school and performs "uniform checks" without warning on unsuspecting students. She is looking for the black tattoo which identifies its owner as the Prince of Hell.


Lmctfy

lmctfy ("Let Me Contain That For You", pronounced "l-m-c-t-fi") is an implementation of an operating system–level virtualization, which is based on the Linux kernel's cgroups functionality.
It provides similar functionality to other container-related Linux tools such as Docker and LXC. Lmctfy is the release of Google's container tools and is free and open-source software subject to the terms of Apache License version 2.0.
The maintainers in May 2015 stated their effort to merge their concepts and abstractions into Docker's underlying library libcontainer and thus stopped active development of lmctfy.
External links.
[[Category:Linux-only software]]
[[Category:Virtualization-related software for Linux]]


Jean-Michel Frodon

Jean-Michel Frodon (born 20 September 1953 in Paris) is a journalist, critic and historian of cinema.
Biography.
Born Jean-Michel Billard, he writes with a pseudonym borrowed from Frodo of "The Lord of the Rings". He has a master's degree and a DEA in history. He worked as an educator from 1971 to 1981. Next, he was a photographer from 1981 to 1985. In 1983, he became a journalist and film critic for the weekly periodical "Le Point", of which his father, Pierre Billard, also a journalist and a film critic, was one of the founders and chief editors. He held this post until 1990.
He took over the same functions at the daily newspaper "Le Monde" in 1990 and in 1995, he became responsible for the daily film column. In 2003 he became head editor of "Cahiers du cinémas" four years after its purchase by "Le Monde". After leaving in 2009, he writes the blog "Projection publique" on website "slate.fr".
He has written, at times, for numerous other journals of cinema. In 2001 he founded L'Exception, the think tank about cinema. Has been teaching at Pantheon-Sorbonne University and École Normale Supérieure, currently teaches at Sciences Po Paris.


FingerWorks

FingerWorks was a gesture recognition company based in the United States, known mainly for its TouchStream multi-touch keyboard. Founded by John Elias and Wayne Westerman of the University of Delaware in 1998, it produced a line of multi-touch products including the iGesture Pad and the TouchStream keyboard, which were particularly helpful for people suffering from RSI and other medical conditions. The keyboards were immediately discontinued when the company's assets were acquired by Apple Inc. in early 2005.
History.
Westerman was working on a dissertation on chord-based manipulation with a multi-touch surface while a doctoral student at the University of Delaware. He and Elias, a professor in his department, started FingerWorks while he was finishing his dissertation, which formed the basis for some of the company's products. Westerman developed repetitive stress problems while finishing his dissertation, which inspired active focus on low-impact inputs.
The company's products remained a high-end niche, and something of a curiosity, despite good press and industry awards. In early 2005, FingerWorks went through a rocky period, and stopped shipping new products or responding actively to support requests. While they updated their support forums between April and June with new information, outside reports indicated that they had been acquired by a major technology company. This company turned out to be Apple, which acquired the company's patents and other intellectual property along with Elias and Westerman. The technology was used to create the Apple iPhone which launched in 2007.
In June 2005, FingerWorks officially announced they were no longer in business. The founders continued to file and process patents for their work through late 2007. As of August 2008 they still filed patents for Apple, Inc.


Patrick Gyger

Patrick J. Gyger (born 1971 in São Paulo, Brazil) is a Swiss historian and writer. In the 1990s he specialised in medieval studies and in 1998 published the book, "L'Épée Et La Corde: Criminalité Et Justice À Fribourg (1475-1505)" on the topic of crime and justice. One of Gyger's publications is the history of the flying car, with "Les voitures volantes, Souvenirs d'un futur rêvé" (2005, rev. 2019), published in English as "Flying Cars: The Extraordinary History of Cars Designed for Tomorrow's World". From 1999 to 2010, he was the director of Maison d'Ailleurs, museum of utopia in Switzerland. In late 2010, Gyger was appointed as the director of Le Lieu unique, French national cultural center in Nantes. In 2014, the Swiss Federal Council appointed him Honorary Consul of Switzerland in Nantes.
In September 2020, Patrick Gyger is appointed by the Council of State of Vaud (Switzerland) general director of Plateforme 10, in Lausanne. It is a museum quarter currently under construction, bringing together the Cantonal Museum of Fine Arts, the Museum of Contemporary Design and Applied Arts, and the Musée de l'Elysée.
Maison d’Ailleurs.
From 1999 to 2010, he was the director of Maison d'Ailleurs (translated as "House of Elsewhere"), a museum housing one of the world's largest collections of literature relating to science fiction, utopia, and extraordinary journeys. Maison d’Ailleurs is located in Yverdon-les-Bains, Switzerland. It was founded by the French encyclopedist Pierre Versins in 1976 and now owns over 90,000 books and thousands of pulp magazines, as well as many other items related to science fiction and its imagery. It is also a gallery showing temporary exhibitions exploring the main themes of the field.
In 2008, Gyger opened the "Espace Jules Verne", a wing of Maison d'Ailleurs dedicated to Jules Verne and extraordinary journeys. This extension also houses a science fiction pulps collection.
In 2009, Patrick Gyger was a keynote speaker at the Lift Conference in Geneva.
Space.
In the early part of the 21st Century, Gyger was one of the co-managers (along with Arthur Woods) of the European Space Agency's Innovative Technologies from Science Fiction for Space Applications study (ITSF), a research and educational project looking into science fiction to find ideas for space engineers.
Utopiales.
Patrick Gyger was artistic director of the Utopiales International Science Fiction Festival International in Nantes, France from 2001 to 2005. Utopiales is the largest European event for science fiction. Held yearly, it reaches a wide public with a program that has involved the participation of writers such as Samuel R. Delany, Brian Aldiss, James Morrow, K.W. Jeter, David Brin, Robert Holdstock, Christopher Priest, Terry Bisson, Norman Spinrad. Jeffrey Ford, Lucius Shepard. It also has art exhibitions and a lively film screening programme.
Le lieu unique.
In January 2011, Gyger became the director of le lieu unique, the National Center for Arts in Nantes (France), a venue dedicated to contemporary and performing arts. It houses several exhibition and performance spaces, a restaurant, a boostore, a hammam, a bar/club, a kindergarten, etc. Gyger stated that the concept of utopia was a guideline in his programme.
Into the Unknown.
In 2017, Gyger curated "Into the Unknown: a Journey through Science Fiction" a major travelling exhibition about science fiction, produced by the Barbican Centre in London.


Binary choice


Isaac Hays

Isaac Hays (1796 – 1879) was an American ophthalmologist, medical ethicist, and naturalist. A founding member of the American Medical Association, and the first president of the Philadelphia Ophthalmological Society, Hays published the first study of non-congential colorblindness and the first case of astigmatism in America. He was editor or co-editor of "The American Journal of the Medical Sciences" for over 50 years.
Early life and education.
Isaac Hays was born on July 5, 1796, the second child and eldest son of Samuel and Richea (Gratz) Hays, and a nephew of educator and philanthropist Rebecca Gratz. Hays's wealthy Philadelphia family was involved in the East India trade. After earning his bachelor's degree from the University of Pennsylvania in 1816, Hays briefly joined the family business, then opted to enter the Medical School of the University of Pennsylvania. Nathaniel Chapman mentored Hays during his training, beginning a decades-long friendship and professional collaboration.
Ophthalmologist.
Hays practiced ophthalmology for three and a half decades. Soon after graduating from the Medical School in 1820, Hays was appointed to the staff of McClellan's Institution for Diseases of the Eye and Ear. He later moved to the Pennsylvania Infirmary for Diseases of the Eye and Ear, and upon its opening in 1834 joined the staff of the Wills Hospital for the Relief of the Indigent Blind and Lame. He remained at Wills until 1854, when he resigned due to "the pressure of literary work".
During his stint at the Pennsylvania Infirmary, Hays wrote medical articles and contributed a chapter to William Potts Dewees's textbook "Practice of Medicine" (1833). At Wills, Hays published the first study of noncongenital color blindness, reported the first case of astigmatism in America, and devised a needle-knife for cataract surgery.
Editor.
Hubbell deemed Hays "fitted by Nature and by training for literary work" and Hays's output would seem to confirm that judgment. More significant than his articles on medical and scientific topics, however, was his work as an editor.
He spent fifty-two years as editor or co-editor of "The American Journal of the Medical Sciences". He joined Nathaniel Chapman's staff in 1820 (then called the "Philadelphia Journal of Medical and Physical Sciences"), became the sole editor in 1841, and upon his retirement passed the editorial duties to his son, I. Minis Hays. Hays took particular care to include ophthalmology articles (the specialty did not have its own journal until 1862) and "Hays' journal" was very well regarded.
Hays edited American editions of various books, including Sir William Lawrence's "A Treatise on Diseases of the Eye" (1843) and T. Wharton Jones's "Principles and Practice of Ophthalmic Medicine and Surgery" (1849), and supplemented the original material with his own.
Natural scientist.
Hays was among those Philadelphians who stubbornly advocated for an incremental theory of evolution, describing fossil vertebrates in the 1830s and '40s as supporting the theory of natural selection that eventually was elaborated by Charles Darwin in "Origin of Species" (1859).
Hays argued that his name ("Saurodon") for a New Jersey specimen should replace Richard Harlan's "Saurocephalus" on the grounds that Harlan's 1824 description of a specimen from Iowa was inaccurate. Today, "Saurodon" and "Saurocephalus" are both genera belonging to the subfamily Saurodontinae.
In 1830, John D. Godman described a fossil specimen from Orange County, NY, as a new type of elephant, dubbing it "Tetracaulodon". Harlan (whom Godman disliked and had accused of plagiarism) argued it was a juvenile mastodon. Hays took Godman's part, publishing a paper on the subject, "Descriptions of the inferior maxillary bones of mastodons" (1833). Across the Atlantic, Richard Owen initially joined Godman's camp and English transplant George Featherstonhaugh lectured in support of the juvenile mastodon theory that eventually prevailed worldwide.
Hays was friends with Isaac Lea, who named the snail species "Epioblasma haysiana" (originally "Unio haysianus") and "Elimia haysiana" (originally "Melania haysiana") after Hays.
Organizations.
Hays was among the founders of the American Medical Association, serving as its first treasurer and chairman of the Committee on Publications. He is also credited with the authorship of the AMA's first Code of Ethics.
Hays was an honorary member of the American Ophthalmological Society (founded in 1864) and the first president of the Philadelphia Ophthalmological Society (1870). He took an active role in non-medical organizations, including the Academy of Natural Sciences, the Boston Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and the Franklin Institute.
Family.
Hays married Sarah Ann Minis in Savannah on May 7, 1834. Sarah (affectionately called Sally) was the daughter of Isaac and Divinah (Cohen) Minis. An old Savannah family, the Minises were among forty-one Jewish settlers who departed England in 1733 and Philip Minis (Sarah's paternal grandfather) had the distinction of being the first white child born in Georgia.
Isaac and Sarah Hays had seven children: Joseph Gratz, William Dewees, Henrietta Minis, Theodore Minis, Frank, Isaac Minis, and Robert Griffin. All but Theodore and Robert survived to adulthood. Isaac Minis Hays followed in his father's footsteps, training as an ophthalmologist, writing on medical subjects, joining learned societies, and editing "The American Journal of the Medical Sciences".
Isaac Hays died in 1879 during an influenza epidemic in Philadelphia. He left his first and only book, "American Cyclopedia of Practical Medicine and Surgery", unfinished.


Methods used to study memory

The study of memory incorporates research methodologies from neuropsychology, human development and animal testing using a wide range of species. The complex phenomenon of memory is explored by combining evidence from many areas of research. New technologies, experimental methods and animal experimentation have led to an increased understanding of the workings of memory.
Human subjects.
It is usually desirable to study memory in humans because we have the ability to subjectively describe experiences, and have the intellect to perform complex and indirect tests of memory. Lesion studies allow us to reduce the neural mechanisms of memory, and results from finely constructed psychological tests can help us make inferences about how memory works. Neuropsychologists attempt to show that specific behavioural deficits are associated with specific sites of brain damage. The famous case of HM, a man who had both his medial temporal lobes removed resulting in profound amnesia, illustrates how brain damage can tell us a lot about the inner workings of memory. One of the fundamental problems with studying human patients who have already acquired brain damage is the lack of experimental control. Comparisons usually have to be made between individuals; exact lesion location and individual differences cannot be controlled for.
Item list memory tasks.
Ebbinghaus.
Hermann Ebbinghaus began the scientific study of human memory with this treatise "On Memory" is 1885. Ebbinghaus experimented on himself by testing his own ability to memorize lists of randomly arranged syllables presented at regular pace of 2.5 syllables per second. He would record how long it took him to memorize a list of syllables and also how quickly he would lose the memorization. With this data, he traced learning and forgetting curves. Ebbinghaus also collected data on his ability to memorize at different times of the day and under different conditions. His work later influenced G.E. Müller who continued the tradition of lists of items to conduct memory experiments on human subjects and using behavioral data to develop models of memory. The two most common types of memory studied using these methods are recognition and recall.
Recognition.
Recognition memory is the ability to judge whether or not the cued item was previously presented on the list usually with a yes or no response. This memory is akin to the type of memory used for police line-ups. The particular task described used to be called "item recognition". Scientists study the rates of hits (correct "yes" responses) related to the rates of false alarms (incorrect "yes" responses) with statistical analysis to develop theories on how the recognition judgement is stored and retrieved. These theories are then developed into memory models.
Recall.
Recall memory is the ability to retrieve stored information either by being cued by a particular associated item or without an associated cue. The first is called cued recall and the second is called free recall. In cued recall the participant studies a list of paired items and then is presented one half of those pairs and must recall the associated other half. A common additional task is to have the participant learn a new set of associations with the cued items and study the amount of interference from prior association occurs. These experiments help to develop theories on how we learn associations and what conditions affect that learning.
Free recall does not use item pairs. Instead participants study a list of items and then recall that list in the order that they retrieve the items from memory. In these experiments the data is drawn from the order in which items are recalled and the inter-response times. This data is used to develop models of memory storage and retrieval.
Children.
Humans are extremely dependent on memory for survival as we are dependent on our ability to identify and remember a wide range of material in order to learn and function, which is why the capability for memory is developed at a very young age. Memory in children is displayed in simpler ways than in adults due to lack of verbal communication and mental capabilities, and therefore the testing methods are similar but are modified to suit age specific abilities.
Observational and experimental methods are used to test children's memory by documenting either their physical actions, emotional (facial) response or attention/ focus, depending on the age (ability) of the child and the type of task provided. An older child can provide answers to both verbal and non-verbal tests to more complex tasks in a more detailed and accurate way and therefore produce more direct data. The change of methods according to age is necessary for several reasons particularly because memory ability expands at certain stages of childhood and can be influenced by biological advances and environmental experience.
From birth, children use observational (imitation) and auditory learning styles with increasing ability to remember complex sequences and concepts. The rapid growth in ability to retain information is partly due to the increase of myelin, which increases the speed of impulses between neurons, especially in the visual and auditory cortexes which become myelinated very early in the development processes. The amount of myelination has a direct effect on the speed of information-processing and in turn the speed and strength at which we are able to remember things. Understanding of contexts and relationships as well as memory strategies such as chunking and learning of schemas can also influence the strength of memories and therefore must be considered when choosing a method of testing.
Action oriented memory.
A well known study used to show early signs of recall memory, examines 3 month old infants behavior with mobiles. The experiment entailed tying a string on a colourful mobile to the infant's foot, so that kicking would cause the mobile to move, pleasing the baby. After the initial training, it was shown that a week later the infants kicked in order to produce movement. Two weeks later the infant resumed the kicking behavior after a short reminder session where they watched the mobile moving (unattached to their foot). This experiment showed a recognition of the mobile, as well as recall (after one week), and cued recall (after 2 weeks). Recognition and recall are two essential aspects of memory; these are particularly useful in children since verbal reporting of memory may not be available yet or as reliable when testing very young participants. At the age of approximately 9 months some infants are able to reproduce some simple actions they observe up to 24 hours after witnessing them. The reproduction of behaviors such as choosing one object over another or repeatedly placing an object in a certain spot is a type of situational memory test used to identify the child's level of memory capability. Deferred imitation, the ability to reproduce behaviour without cuing, can be seen and tested near the age of 18– 24 months. Children become able to replicate more complex events with greater detail, from memory.
Jean Piaget, a child development psychologist, conducted a study testing the cognitive and memory abilities of children around 2 years of age. These tests were conducted using objects presented to the child followed by their removal from sight. This causes very young infants to believe the object no longer exists. At approximately 8–12 months, children will look for the missing object and this display shows memory, as well as a comprehension that it still exists when it is not directly seen. This led to the theory of object permanence which demonstrates the stage at which memory and cognitive development have reached the level of mental representation.
Facial recognition.
A child as early as 7 days old can shows signs of facial expression imitation such as tongue or lip protrusion and opening of their mouth. There is some debate as to whether this is a voluntary or reflexive action though the ability to imitate demonstrates the infants ability to encode the image and imitate it. Evidence of facial memory over longer delays can be seen in children as early as 2–3 weeks old. Changes in behavior such as crying less and smiling more shows evidence for recognition of a familiar face.
Recognition can also be shown with habituation, the process of attending a familiar stimuli less in preference for a new one. This can be seen as early as 5 months of age in several forms including auditory and visual identification. In a study of 8-10 month infants, both familiar objects/faces and newly presented ones were introduced at different intervals and time delays. Looking time and first looks were recorded, and the results indicated habituation and memory recall.
False memories.
Accuracy of memory is an important factor when studying memory in children as it has been demonstrated that children's memory more susceptible to suggesting and implanting of false memories than adults. In a study on preschoolers, using a questionnaire method in a yes/no and multiple choice format, the result of forcing an answer in response to a controlled situation differed according to question style. The children showed a preference to saying ‘yes’ to ‘no’ and showed an equal preference for the multiple choice (when neither were correct), neither are an ideal test for memory accuracy in children. The Criterion-Based Content Analysis (CBCA) is designed to decipher truthful from false memories in children and is a part of the Statement Validity Analysis (SVA) which consists of structured interviews, systematic analysis of verbal statements and statement validity checklist. This is a comprehensive protocol that tests the reliability of a child witness's memory of an event or situation which relies on the assumption that false memories are of weaker quality then truthful and accurate memories.
Recognition memory in a legal setting is also different in children than in adults. In a meta-analysis study a line-up style test was used for a child witness to identify a culprit among other suspects. The results show that children over the age of 5 were able to identify a culprit (when the culprit was present) at a comparable rate to adults but children up to age 14 produced far greater number of false identifications when the culprit was not present. It was speculated by Pozzulo & Lindsay that false positives were caused by an inability to produce correct absolute judgments (recall) while relative judgments (recognition) are more successful.
Technologies.
Cognitive neuroscience aims to reduce cognition to its neural basis using new technologies such as fMRI, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and Magnetoencephalography (MEG) as well as older methods such as Positron emission tomography (PET) and Electroencephalography (EEG) studies. Due to the correlational designs used in fMRI, many scientists have coined this up and coming field as the new phrenology in the sense that techniques such as fMRI rely heavily on complex statistics. Type 1 errors can lead scientists to draw premature and incorrect causal relationships if improper designs are used.
Ethics.
Human subject research must be carefully designed as to not have any adverse effects on the subject, and not impose on their rights as a human being. Neurological procedures that intentionally lesion the brain are illegal, and therefore those who have already obtained brain damage must be studied. The study of brain damaged patients has its drawbacks, however case studies of brain injured patients has greatly improved our understanding of the neural basis of memory.
All subjects (or their legal representative) must have a clear understanding of the experimental procedure, including any potential dangers to themself, and be in a right state of mind to express consent to the researcher before any tests can be started.
The American Psychological Association uses a strict ethical code concerning research in psychology.
Experimental designs.
A major complication that is raised in memory research is its fallible nature in humans. Having the ability to recall memories does not necessarily mean they are accurate. Our ability to store and process what is going on around us relies on memory being a constructive, fallible process. The technologies explained above may show areas of activation associated with certain behaviors, but without any idea of lesion location, it is difficult to pinpoint exactly what part of the brain relates to which behavioral deficits observed. Neuropsychologists have created various tasks designed to assess specific types of memory so that inferences about lesion location can be drawn from poor performances on these tests. Neuropsychological tests can aid us in understanding specific types of memory associated with specific sites of brain damage.
Corsi block tapping.
An assessment of visual-spatial memory involves mimicking a researcher as he/she taps nine identical spatially separated blocks. The sequence starts out simple, usually using two blocks, but becomes more complex until the subject's performance suffers. This number is known as the Corsi Span, and averages about 5 for normal human subjects. An fMRI study involving subjects undergoing this test revealed that while the sequence length increases, general brain activity remains the same. So while humans may show encoding difficulty, this is not related to overall brain activation. Whether able to perform the task well or not the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex is highly involved. Corsi blocks tasks with a normal forward order requires support from the visuospatial sketch pad, but not from the phonological loop. When the sequence to be recalled becomes longer than three or four items, central executive resources are used
Animal subjects.
The study of memory has greatly benefited from experimentation with animals. Current ethical guidelines state that using animals for scientific purposes is only acceptable when the harm (physical or psychological) done to animals is outweighed by the benefits of the research. Keeping this in mind, we can use research techniques on animals that would not necessarily be performed on humans.
Basic research.
Our understanding of memory has benefited greatly from animal research. Animals brains can be selectively lesioned using surgical, or neurotoxic methods and be assessed before and after the experimental manipulation. Groundbreaking new technology has allowed for genetic manipulation and the creation of knockout mice. Scientists genetically engineer these mice to lack functionally or behaviourally important alleles or have missing or altered gene sequences. Careful observation of behaviors and phenotypes may help uncover the neural substrates of memory and prove to be an essential tool for the study of gene-behaviour interactions.
Genetics.
Animals can be selectively bred for certain behavioural characteristics, such as having strong maze-solving skills. Although the genetic underpinnings of observable phenotypes are extremely difficult to show, behavioural characteristics can be selectively bred. The difficulty lies in the subjective determination of the phenotype. How can one show that an animal has a good memory? There are many confounds when breeding for behaviours, however if animals can be selected for memory and learning ability, maybe we can learn something about how genes contribute to memory systems.
Technologies.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has intriguing implications for the study of memory in humans, however it can also be used in animal models. fMRI can be used to assess brain functionality in monkeys in the context of a variety of behavioral tasks. Structural MRI can be used to examine the extent and location of brain lesions, so that behavioral abnormalities observed can be directly linked to specific brain structures. High-resolution fMRI can help locate and assess the functionality of large neural networks so that these regions can be further studied using more traditional electrophysiological recording devices.
Single-unit recording directly measures action potentials and can be used in a variety of animals. This technique employed in the macaque monkey led to the discovery of the mirror neuron which has major implications for learning, memory and the perception of self. Single cell recordings can be used to record the activity of single neurons while animals perform tasks related to memory.
Cortical cooling is a relatively new technique that allows for a temporary disruption of function in a chosen area of the brain. Due to the use of large, surgically implanted devices this technique is generally used on primates, however the use of small cryotip implants has implications for use in rats. This exciting new technology allows for reversible lesions, which removes variations between animals so that better causal relationships can be shown. Animals can act as their own controls and this is ideal for any neuroscientific research.
The neurotoxic lesion technique has proven to be essential for studying the neural basis of behavior and memory in animals. Neurotoxins can be used to selectively damage very specific nerve tracts in the brain. Pertaining to the study of memory, areas of interest include the hippocampus, the rhinal cortex, the pre-frontal cortex, and the frontal cortex. The neurotoxic lesion technique uses neurotoxins such as ibotenic acid to selectively disrupt or kill specific neural tracts in any of the areas described above. The animal is anaesthetized and immobilized so that stereotaxic instruments can be used to drill holes in specific locations of the skull. Scientists can then carefully administer microinjections of neurotoxins to damage only the neurons in specific brain areas. This technique allows for the selective lesioning of areas of interest and leaves surrounding supportive tissue unaffected.
Advantages.
Research animals are a good substitute for humans because similar principles are assumed to underlie basic mechanisms of brain function. In order to fully understand human memory, cross-species comparisons in neuropsychology are used so that multiple variables can be manipulated. The more experimental control we have, the easier it is to eliminate confounding variables, and better causal conclusions can be made.
Although there is no single "ideal" animal model of a human, for each problem of interest there is an animal upon which it can be most conveniently studied. For example, the study of spatial memory has benefitted greatly from experimentation and observation of food caching birds. To study auditory learning and memory, songbirds can be used. To study more complex systems such as motor learning, object recognition, short term memory and working memory, often primates such as the macaque monkey are used because of their large brains and more sophisticated intelligence. Small rodents can be used to study aversive conditioning and emotional memory, and contextual/spatial memory. To reduce memory and learning to its genetic basis, mice can be genetically modified and studied. Generally animal studies depend on the principles of positive reinforcement, aversion techniques and Pavlovian conditioning. This type of research is extremely useful and has shed much light on learning and memory in humans.
Experimental designs.
Scientific reductionism has pushed our understanding of memory closer to the neural level. In order to broaden our understanding, we need to draw conclusions from converging evidence. Studying memory in animals such as birds, rodents, and primates is difficult because scientists can only study and quantify observable behaviors. Animal research relies on carefully constructed methodologies, and these are species specific.
A major obstacle to research on the innateness of memory is the scarcity of subjects with apparent superior memory quality to make up a sample from which statistically significant conclusions can be drawn. One solution to this was the brainchild of memory researcher and methodologist, Dr Peter Marshall.The Great Memory Show was a series of events where memory performers were invited to show off their memory abilities to a live audience, in front of TV cameras, but the real motive was to attract a pool of people who may have naturally superior memory quality, to take part in memory research at Royal Holloway, University of London.
Primates.
The textbook "Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology" by Kolb and Whishaw describes some designs used to study memory in the macaque monkey. Elizabeth Murray and her colleagues trained monkeys to reach through the bars of their cage after a brief delay in order to displace objects under which a reward may be located. During the brief delay the monkey had to use either object recognition memory, or contextual memory to remember where the reward was located. Object recognition is tested with a matching-to-sample task where the monkey had to remember visual characteristics of the object in order to obtain the reward. Alternatively, in the non-matching-to-sample design the monkey must remember the location of the previously seen object. The monkey must then use context and spatial memory in order to correctly displace an object in the same location as previous, in order to obtain the food reward. These two tasks can be used to differentiate between object recognition memory and contextual memory. Murray and her colleagues were able to show that hippocampal lesions impaired contextual memory whereas rhinal cortex lesions impaired object recognition memory. This experimental design allowed for the dissociation of two mutually exclusive brain regions devoted to specific types of memory.
In experiments with the macaque monkey, Earl Miller and his colleagues used the delayed matching to sample (DMS) task to assess working memory in monkeys. The monkey was required to fixate on a computer screen while coloured images were displayed serially for 0.5 seconds, and separated by a one-second delay. The first image shown was the sample, and the monkey was trained to pull a lever when the sample object was shown a second time. In this experiment single-cell recordings were taken from the prefrontal cortex, an area thought to be involved with working memory. In order to verify the location of the recording device, MRI and stereotaxic instruments were used. The ability to use single cell recordings solely for experimental purposes is exclusive to animal testing and has greatly increased our understanding of memory systems.
Caching birds.
Comparisons of the neuroanatomy of caching and non-caching birds has shed light on the neural basis of spatial memory. David Sherry and his colleagues devised experiments using the displacement of landmarks, to show that caching birds rely on spatial memory and landmark cues to find their caches, and local changes in cache appearance had no effect on food retrieval. They were able to show that changes in neurogenesis are directly related to food storing behavior. Food caching behavior reaches a maximum in August, continues through the winter and declines in the spring. They showed that the amount of neurons added to the hippocampus was also at a max during August and winter, and declined into the spring. Using selective hippocampal lesions, cause-effect relationships were shown. Lesions disrupted cache retrieval and other spatial behavior, however had no effect on actual food caching. The hippocampus has been implicated as a key structure for spatial memory in humans, and studying behavior in food caching birds and other animals has been extremely influential on this view. Sherry and his colleagues were also able to show that food-caching birds have much larger hippocampus’ than non food-caching birds. Without techniques such as cell labeling, neuronal staining and careful post mortem analysis, these comparison studies would be impossible.
Songbirds.
Songbirds are excellent animal models for studying learning and auditory memory. These birds have highly developed vocal organs, which give them the ability to create diverse and elaborate birdsongs. Neurotoxic lesions can be used to study how specific brain structures are key for this type of learning and scientists can also manipulate the environment in which these birds are raised. In addition, with functional MRI the response to different auditory stimuli has been studied in vivo. In experiments with songbirds, using these two methodologies has led to very interesting discoveries about auditory learning and memory. Much like humans, birds have a critical period when they must be exposed to adult birdsong. The cognitive systems of vocal production and auditory recognition parallel those in humans, and experiments have shown that there are critical brain structures for these processes.
Rodents.
Rodents are small mammals capable of learning, displaying complex behaviors, and are relatively inexpensive to raise. They are an ideal animal to use for the study of memory. The assessment of learning and memory in rodents has been employed in scientific research for a long time, and there are many experimental methods used. Generally tests of spatial memory employ maze designs where the rodent must run a maze in order to receive a food reward. Learning can be shown when the rodent reduces its average number of errors or wrong turns. Aversive techniques such as the Morris Water Maze can also be used to study spatial memory. The rat is placed in murky water surrounded by sheer walls containing spatial cues. Learning is shown when the rat swims a more direct route to the obscured platform. Small rodents can also be easily conditioned using taste aversion or odor aversion techniques. Performing neurotoxic lesions in these conditioned rodents is an excellent way to study the neural basis of aversion learning and memory.
Converging evidence.
Psychologists who work with animals assume that the things they learn can be applied to the human brain. Memory is a complex system that relies on interactions between many distinct parts of the brain. In order to fully understand memory, researchers must cumulate evidence from human, animal, and developmental research in order to make broad theories about how memory works. Intraspecies comparisons are key. Rats for example display extremely complex behaviours and most of the structures in their brain parallel those in humans. Due to their relatively simple organization, slugs can be useful for studying how neurons interconnect to produce observable behaviour. Fruit flies are useful for studying gene-behaviour interactions because many generations with genetic alterations can be quickly bred in the laboratory.


David Thomson (film critic)

David Thomson (born 18 February 1941) is a British film critic and historian based in the United States, and the author of more than 20 books. His reference works in particular — "Have You Seen...?: A Personal Introduction to 1,000 Films" (2008) and "The New Biographical Dictionary of Film" (6th edition, 2014) — have been praised as works of high literary merit and eccentricity. Benjamin Schwarz, writing in "The Atlantic Monthly", called him "probably the greatest living film critic and historian" who "writes the most fun and enthralling prose about the movies since Pauline Kael". John Banville called him "the greatest living writer on the movies".
Biography.
Thomson was born in London. He taught film studies at Dartmouth College, and has been a regular contributor to "The New York Times", "Film Comment", "Movieline", "The New Republic", and "Salon". Thomson has served on the selection committee for the New York Film Festival, and scripted an award-winning documentary, "".
Thomson has written several biographies (see below), novels ("Suspects", "Silver Light"), and unproduced screenplays, including "Fierce Heat", which was to be produced by Martin Scorsese and directed by Stephen Frears.
He has confessed that he prefers writing books to film writing.
Thomson lives in San Francisco with his wife and their two sons. On 1 April 2014, the San Francisco International Film Festival announced that Thomson would receive the Mel Novikoff Award at the 57th annual SFIFF.
Personal top-10 films.
In the 2012 "Sight & Sound" poll, Thomson revealed his 10 favourite films of all time:


Zebibit

The zebibit is a multiple of the bit, a unit of digital information storage, prefixed by the standards-based multiplier zebi (symbol Zi), a binary prefix meaning 270. The unit symbol of the zebibit is Zibit.
The prefix "zebi" was originally not a part of the system of binary prefixes, but was added together with the prefix "yobi" by the International Electrotechnical Commission in August 2005.


Kink (film)

Kink is a 2013 American documentary film produced by James Franco about the BDSM website Kink.com. The film was originally released in January 2013 and had a staggered release worldwide in 2013 and 2015.
Early production.
While filming scenes of "About Cherry" at the Kink.com San Francisco Armory, Franco noticed the dynamic between actors and the production crew. He stated that this interested him, as in some respects, it was a similar dynamic to that of the production at "Saturday Night Live". It was this that led to Franco developing an interest in this aspect of the BDSM culture. After coaxing director Christina Voros to an interview at the Armory, she agreed to do the film. The other reported influence for Franco's decision to make this documentary was an unsuccessful sex tape with his girlfriend.
Reception.
On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an 88% rating based on 8 reviews.
On Metacritic the documentary has a score of 67 out of 100 based on reviews from 8 critics.
A review by Slant Magazine Drew Hunt said "More than just a thorough examination of hardcore pornography, Christina Voros’s doc is also a sort of chronicle of the filmmaking process." and also "This intriguing paradox contributes to the familiar but no less truthful idea that appearances are often deceiving; rarely is that more exhilaratingly evident than in Kink."
In a 2014 article by the New York Times called the documentary a "well done in-depth look into the industry."


Janet Frame

Janet Paterson Frame (28 August 1924 – 29 January 2004) was a New Zealand author. She was internationally renowned for her work, which included novels, short stories, poetry, juvenile fiction, and an autobiography, and received numerous awards including being appointed to the Order of New Zealand, New Zealand's highest civil honour.
Frame's celebrity derived from her dramatic personal history as well as her literary career. Following years of psychiatric hospitalisation, Frame was scheduled for a lobotomy that was cancelled when, just days before the procedure, her debut publication of short stories was unexpectedly awarded a national literary prize. Many of her novels and short stories explore her childhood and psychiatric hospitalisation from a fictional perspective, and her award-winning three-volume autobiography was adapted into the film "An Angel at My Table" (1990), directed by Jane Campion.
Biography.
Early years: 1924–1956.
Janet Frame was born Janet Paterson Frame in Dunedin in the south-east of New Zealand's South Island as the third of five children of Scottish New Zealand parents. She grew up in a working-class family. Her father, George Frame, worked for the New Zealand Government Railways, and her mother Lottie (née Godfrey), served as a housemaid to the family of writer Katherine Mansfield. New Zealand's first female medical graduate, Dr Emily Hancock Siedeberg, delivered Frame at St. Helens Hospital in 1924.
Frame spent her early childhood years in various small towns in New Zealand's South Island provinces of Otago and Southland, including Outram and Wyndham, before the family eventually settled in the coastal town of Oamaru (recognisable as the "Waimaru" of her début novel and subsequent fiction). As recounted in the first volume of her autobiographies, Frame's childhood was marred by the deaths of two of her adolescent sisters, Myrtle and Isabel, who drowned in separate incidents, and the epileptic seizures suffered by her brother George (referred to as "Geordie" and "Bruddie").
In 1943, Frame began training as a teacher at the Dunedin College of Education, auditing courses in English, French and psychology at the adjacent University of Otago. After completing two years of theoretical studies with mixed results, Frame started a year of practical placement at the Arthur Street School in Dunedin, which, according to her biographer, initially went quite well. Things started to unravel later that year when she attempted suicide by ingesting a packet of aspirin. As a result, Frame began regular therapy sessions with junior lecturer John Money, to whom she developed a strong attraction, and whose later work as a sexologist specialising in gender reassignment controversial.
In September 1945, Frame abandoned her teacher-training classroom at Dunedin's Arthur Street School during a visit from an inspector. She was then briefly admitted to the psychiatric ward of the local Dunedin hospital for observation. Frame was unwilling to return home to her family, where tensions between her father and brother frequently manifested in outbursts of anger and violence. As a result, Frame was transferred from the local hospital's psychiatric ward to Seacliff Lunatic Asylum, a fabled and feared mental institution located 20 miles north of Dunedin. During the next eight years, Frame was repeatedly readmitted, usually voluntarily, to psychiatric hospitals in New Zealand. In addition to Seacliff, these included Avondale Lunatic Asylum, in Auckland, and Sunnyside Hospital in Christchurch. During this period, Frame was first diagnosed as suffering from schizophrenia, which was treated with electroconvulsive therapy and insulin.
In 1951, while Frame was still a patient at Seacliff, New Zealand's Caxton Press published her first book, a critically acclaimed collection of short stories titled "The Lagoon and Other Stories". The volume was awarded the Hubert Church Memorial Award, at that time one of New Zealand's most prestigious literary prizes. This resulted in the cancellation of Frame's scheduled lobotomy. Four years later, after her final discharge from Seacliff Frame met writer Frank Sargeson. She lived and worked at his home in Takapuna, an Auckland suburb, from April 1955 to July 1956, producing her first full-length novel, "Owls Do Cry" (Pegasus, 1957).
Literary career.
1957–1989.
Frame left New Zealand in late 1956, and the next seven years were most prolific in terms of publication. She lived and worked in Europe, primarily based in London, with brief sojourns to Ibiza and Andorra. In May 1958 she legally changed her name to Nene Janet Paterson Clutha, in part to make herself more difficult to locate and in part to recognise Māori leader Tamati Waka Nene, whom she admired, and the Clutha River, which was a source of creative inspiration. Frame still struggled with anxiety and depression, and in September 1958 admitted herself to the Maudsley in London. American-trained psychiatrist Alan Miller, who studied under John Money at Johns Hopkins University, proposed that she had never suffered from schizophrenia. In an effort to alleviate the ill effects of her years spent in and out of psychiatric hospitals, Frame then began regular therapy sessions with psychiatrist Robert Hugh Cawley, who encouraged her to pursue her writing. Frame dedicated seven of her novels to Cawley.
Frame returned to New Zealand in 1963. She accepted the Burns Fellowship at the University of Otago in 1965. She later lived in several parts of New Zealand's North Island, including Auckland, Taranaki, Wanganui, the Horowhenua, Palmerston North, Waiheke, Stratford, Browns Bay and Levin.
During this period Frame traveled extensively, occasionally to Europe, but principally to the United States, where she accepted residencies at the MacDowell and Yaddo artists' colonies. Partly as a result of these extended stays in the U.S., Frame developed close relationships with several Americans. These included the painter Theophilus Brown (whom she later referred to as "the chief experience of my life") and his long-time partner Paul John Wonner, the poet May Sarton, John Phillips Marquand and Alan Lelchuck. Frame's one-time university tutor/counsellor and longtime friend John Money worked in North America from 1947 onwards, and Frame frequently based herself at his home in Baltimore.
In the 1980s Frame authored three volumes of autobiography ("To the Is-land", "An Angel at my Table" and "The Envoy from Mirror City") which collectively traced the course of her life to her return to New Zealand in 1963. The Australian novelist Patrick White described the first two volumes as "amongst the wonders of the world". Director Jane Campion and screenwriter Laura Jones adapted the trilogy for television broadcast. It was eventually released as an award-winning feature film, "An Angel at My Table". Actresses Kerry Fox, Alexia Keogh and Karen Fergusson portrayed the author at various ages. Frame's autobiographies sold better than any of her previous publications, and Campion's successful film adaptation of the texts introduced a new generation of readers to her work. These successes increasingly pushed Frame into the public eye.
In the 1983 Queen's Birthday Honours, Frame was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire, for services to literature. That year, "To the Is-land" also received the Goodman Fielder Wattie Book of the Year Award, the top literary prize in New Zealand.
Frame intended the autobiographies to "set the record straight" regarding her past and in particular her mental status. However, critical and public speculation has continued to focus on her mental health. In 2007, after Frame's death, The New Zealand Medical Journal published an article by a medical specialist who proposed that Frame may be on the autism spectrum, a suggestion that was disputed by the author's literary executor.
During her lifetime, Frame's work was principally published by American firm George Braziller, garnering numerous literary prizes in her native New Zealand, and the Commonwealth Writers' Prize in 1989 for her final novel, "The Carpathians".
1990–2000.
On 6 February 1990, Frame was the sixteenth appointee to the Order of New Zealand, the nation's highest civil honour. Frame also held foreign membership of the American Academy of Arts and Letters and, in her native New Zealand, received two honorary doctorates as well as the status of cultural icon. Rumours occasionally circulated portraying Frame as a contender for the Nobel Prize in literature, most notably in 1998, after a journalist spotted her name at the top of a list later revealed to have been in alphabetical order, and again five years later, in 2003, when Åsa Beckman, the influential chief literary critic at the Swedish daily "Dagens Nyheter", wrongly predicted that Frame would win the prestigious prize.
Frame's writing became the focus of academic criticism from the late 1970s, with approaches ranging from Marxist and social realist, to feminist and poststructuralist. In later years, book-length monographs on Frame were published. These included Patrick Evans’s bio-critical contribution for the "Twayne's World Authors Series," "Janet Frame" (1977), Gina Mercer's feminist reading of the novels and autobiographies, "Janet Frame: Subversive Fictions" (1994), and Judith Dell Panny's allegorical approach to the works, "I have what I gave: The fiction of Janet Frame" (1992). A collection of essays edited by Jeanne Delbaere was first published in 1978, with a revised edition released under the title "The Ring of Fire: Essays on Janet Frame" in 1992. That same year, Dunedin's University of Otago hosted a conference dedicated to a discussion of Frame's work. Many of the papers were published in a special issue of "The Journal of New Zealand Literature".
In 2000, New Zealand historian Michael King published his authorised biography of Frame, "Wrestling with the Angel". The book was simultaneously released in New Zealand and North America, with British and Australian editions appearing in later years. King's award-winning and exhaustive work attracted both praise and criticism. Some questioned the extent to which Frame guided the hand of her biographer, while others argued that he had failed to come to terms with the complexity and subtlety of his subject. Adding to the controversy, King openly admitted that he withheld information "that would have been a source of embarrassment and distress to her," and that he adopted publisher Christine Cole Catley's notion of "compassionate truth." This advocates "a presentation of evidence and conclusions that fulfil the major objectives of biography, but without the revelation of information that would involve the living subject in unwarranted embarrassment, loss of face, emotional or physical pain, or a nervous or psychiatric collapse." King defended his project and maintained that future biographies on Frame would eventually fill in the gaps left by his own work.
Death and posthumous publications.
Frame died in Dunedin in January 2004, aged 79, from acute myeloid leukaemia, shortly after becoming one of the first recipients of the Arts Foundation of New Zealand Icon Awards, established to celebrate and acknowledge New Zealand artists who have achieved the highest standards of artistic expression. A number of posthumous works have been published since her death, including a volume of poetry titled "The Goose Bath", which was awarded New Zealand's top poetry prize in 2007. This generated a minor controversy among critics who felt the posthumous prize "set an awkward precedent". A novella, "Towards Another Summer," was also published posthumously, a work inspired by a weekend Frame spent with British journalist Geoffrey Moorhouse and his family. In 2008, two previously unpublished short stories set in mental hospitals appeared in "The New Yorker." Another previously unpublished short story was carried in "The New Yorker" in 2010. In March 2011, the New Zealand branch of Penguin Books acquired the rights to publish three new editions of Frame's work. These were: "Janet Frame in Her Own Words" (2011), a collection of interviews and nonfiction, "Gorse is Not People: New and Uncollected Stories" (2012) (Published in the US as "Between My Father and the King: New and Uncollected Stories"), and the novel "In the Memorial Room" (2013).
In 2010, "Gifted," a novel by New Zealand academic and former Frame biographer Patrick Evans, was published and subsequently shortlisted for the Commonwealth Writers' Prize. The story is a fictionalised account of the relationship between Janet Frame and Frank Sargeson during her time living as a guest on his Takapuna property in 1955–56 – an era recounted in a number of works by Frame and her contemporaries and dramatised in Campion's film, "An Angel at My Table" (1990). In 2013, Evans' novel was adapted for the stage, premiering at the Christchurch Arts Festival on 22 August 2013, followed by extended tour of New Zealand's north and south islands. While garnering positive critical reviews, the promotion and staging of the production drew fierce criticism from Frame's literary executor and niece, Pamela Gordon, who maintained it "was designed to demean Frame." Gordon, who has also criticised Campion's film for inaccuracies in its portrayal of Frame, asserted that Evans' theatrical adaptation presented an unfaithful view of her famous relative. Festival organiser Philip Tremewan, defended the play, while director Conrad Newport maintained that Gordon was "overprotective of [Frame's] legacy." Evans generally avoided the controversy, stating, "I have publicised her work and popularised it for two to three generations of students. In "Gifted", the play and novel, you only have to look at the title to see what my attitude is. I really don't think I have anything to apologise for."


Edwin Locke

Edwin A. Locke (born May 15, 1938) is an American psychologist and a pioneer in goal-setting theory. He is a retired Dean's Professor of Motivation and Leadership at the Robert H. Smith School of Business at the University of Maryland, College Park. He was also affiliated with the Department of Psychology. As stated by the Association for Psychological Science, "Locke is the most published organizational psychologist in the history of the field. His pioneering research has advanced and enriched our understanding of work motivation and job satisfaction. The theory that is synonymous with his name—goal-setting theory—is perhaps the most widely-respected theory in industrial-organizational psychology. His 1976 chapter on job satisfaction continues to be one of the most highly-cited pieces of work in the field."
Locke is a proponent of global capitalism, was personally acquainted with the philosopher Ayn Rand, and is affiliated with the Ayn Rand Institute.
He is also a critic of the concept of emotional intelligence. In recent years, he has become an outspoken opponent of the animal rights movement, especially the organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. In a winter 2010 interview with "Imagineer" magazine, he stated, "I don’t think PETA want all beings equal at all; I think they want man to suffer and die."
Academia.
Locke graduated high school from Phillips Exeter Academy. He obtained his Bachelors in Psychology from Harvard in 1960. Two years later, at Cornell, he earned his master's degree in Industrial Psychology and Experimental Psychology, followed by his PhD in Industrial and Organizational Psychology in 1964. Locke's dissertation was on the relationship of intentions to motivation and affect.
In 1964, he took a position as an associate research scientist with the American Institutes for Research (AIR), where he remained as a research scientist from 1966 - 1970.
In 1967, he became an assistant professor of Psychology in the University of Maryland. In 1970, he became associate professor of Business Administration in the University of Maryland. Between 1972 and 2001, he held a number of posts at the University of Maryland: 1972-2001, Professor of Business and Management, and of Psychology; 1984-1996; Chair, Management and Organization Faculty; 1998-2001, Dean's Professor of Leadership and Motivation. Since 2001, Locke has been Professor Emeritus at the University of Maryland.
Theories.
The Goal Setting Theory.
Goal Setting Theory was developed by Locke in 1968 to explain human behavior in specific work situations. The theory argues that goals and intentions are cognitive and willful.
The two key findings of this theory are that setting specific goals (e.g., I want to earn $500 more a month) leads to higher performance than setting nonspecific, "do best" goals (e.g., I want to earn more money), and that goal difficulty is linearly and positively related to performance, such that, the harder the goal, the greater the effort, focus, and persistence, which results in higher performance. Goals are proposed to mediate the influence of incentives and feedback on performance. The model has spawned a large body of research, most of which has supported these predictions.
Goals have two characteristics: content, and intensity. Content refers to the chosen achievement (e.g., I want to form a loving relationship). Intensity refers to the quantity of physical and mental resources needed to create or achieve the content. The original model proposed by Locke consisted of five steps: Environmental Stimuli → Cognition → Evaluation → Intentions/ Goal Setting → Performance.
Sub-principles of Goal-setting.
1) Set challenging specific goals
2) Provide feedback in relation to goals
3) Gain goal commitment
4) Provide resources needed to attain the goal
5) Learning vs performance goals
6) Environmental uncertainty
7) Stretch Goals
Prime Mover Theory.
Professor Locke also developed a model of successful business people. This model is based on observations of success, such as of Walt Disney, Sam Walton, and Mary Kay. In successful people, seven traits were observed at high levels:
Attainments.
Locke is a fellow of the American Psychological Association, the Association for Psychological Science,
the Academy of Management, the Society for Industrial & Organizational Psychology, and the Society for Organizational Behavior.


Michael Josephson

Michael Josephson (born December 10, 1942) is a former law professor and attorney who founded the nonprofit Joseph and Edna Josephson Institute of Ethics located in Los Angeles, California, out of which he operates as a speaker and lecturer on the subject of ethics. The institute is named after his parents.
Josephson's daily commentary is carried on Armed Forces Radio, and was formerly carried on Los Angeles radio station KNX 1070. He is also the president of the national CHARACTER COUNTS! Coalition, a part of the Josephson Institute of Ethics.
A graduate of the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), Josephson was named its 2009 alumnus of the year. Josephson currently resides in southern California with wife Anne and his 5 children.
Works.
Josephson has written various books on the subjects of character and ethics, including: