Battle of Paoli

The Battle of Paoli (also known as the Battle of Paoli Tavern or the Paoli Massacre) was a battle in the Philadelphia campaign of the American Revolutionary War fought on September 20, 1777, in the area surrounding present-day Malvern, Pennsylvania. Following the American retreats at the Battle of Brandywine and the Battle of the Clouds, George Washington left a force under Brigadier General Anthony Wayne behind to monitor and harass the British as they prepared to move on the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. On the evening of September 20, British forces under Major General Charles Grey led a surprise attack on Wayne's encampment near the Paoli Tavern. Although there were relatively few American casualties, claims were made that the British took no prisoners and granted no quarter, and the engagement became known as the "Paoli Massacre."
Background.
After the American defeat at the Battle of Brandywine, American Major General George Washington was intent on accomplishing two tasks. He wanted to protect Philadelphia from British forces under the command of Lieutenant General William Howe, and he needed to replenish the rapidly dwindling supplies and munitions stored at Samuel Van Leer's furnace in Reading, Pennsylvania. Washington withdrew across the Schuylkill River, marched through Philadelphia, and headed northwest. Since the Schuylkill was fordable only far upstream starting at Matson's Ford (present-day Conshohocken), Washington could protect both the capital and the vital supply areas to the west from behind the river barrier. Washington reconsidered and recrossed the river to face the British, who had moved little since Brandywine, because of a shortage of wagons to carry their wounded and their baggage. After the Battle of the Clouds was aborted by bad weather on September 16, Washington again withdrew across the Schuylkill, leaving Brigadier General "Mad" Anthony Wayne's Pennsylvania Division at Chester, Pennsylvania. When the British columns passed by, Wayne followed, under orders from Washington to harass the British and attempt to capture all or part of their baggage train.
Wayne assumed that his presence was undetected and camped close to the British lines in Paoli, Pennsylvania. His division consisted of the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th, 10th and 11th Pennsylvania Regiments, Hartley's Regiment, an attached artillery company and a small force of dragoons. All told, it was about 1,500 strong. Camped about away was William Smallwood's Maryland militia, about 2,100 relatively inexperienced troops.
The British heard rumors that Wayne was in the area, and General Howe sent out scouts who reported his location near the Paoli Tavern on September 19. Since his position was just from the British camp at Tredyffrin, Pennsylvania, Howe immediately planned an attack on Wayne's relatively exposed camp.
Battle.
At 10 p.m. on September 20, British commander Major General Charles Grey marched from the British camp and launched a surprise attack on Wayne's camp, near the General Paoli Tavern, from which the battle takes its name, located near present-day Malvern. Grey's troops consisted of the 2nd Light Infantry, a composite battalion formed from the light companies of 13 regiments, plus the 42nd and 44th Foot. Altogether, his brigade comprised some 1,200 men.
To ensure that the Americans were not alerted, General Grey ordered that troops should advance with muskets unloaded and attack with the bayonet alone. In the case that loads could not be drawn from weapons, he ordered that flints should be removed instead, giving rise to the tradition this was a general order and earning the General the epithet "No Flints" Grey. In fact, Major Maitland, commanding officer 2nd Light Infantry battalion, was given permission to advance with muskets loaded, giving his personal assurance that his men could be relied on.
The British forces, led by a local blacksmith forced to act as guide, approached the camp from a wood and were able to achieve complete surprise. They stormed the camp in three waves—the 2nd Light Infantry in the lead followed by the 44th and the 42nd. Completely unprepared, Wayne's troops fled from the camp and were pursued. Near the White Horse Tavern the British encountered Smallwood's force and routed it as well.
With casualties of only 4 killed and 7 wounded, the British had routed an entire American division. Historian Thomas J. McGuire says that 53 Americans were buried on the battlefield but "whether these were all of the American dead or only those found on the campsite-battlefield is uncertain". Local tradition says that 8 more Americans killed in the battle were buried at the nearby Anglican church of St. Peter-in-the-Great Valley. 71 prisoners were taken by the British, 40 of whom were so badly wounded that they had to be left behind in nearby houses. A total of 272 men were killed, wounded or missing from Wayne's division after the battle.
McGuire reports that the day after the battle, 52 dead Americans were buried (and another who was found later), 39 of the buried are un-named. The highest ranking American officer killed was Major Mareen Lamar (sometimes misspelled Marien).
Aftermath.
An official inquiry found that Wayne was not guilty of misconduct but that he had made a tactical error. Wayne was enraged and demanded a full court-martial. On November 1, a board of 13 officers declared that Wayne had acted with honor.
The incident gained notoriety partly because of accounts by eyewitnesses, who claimed that the British had bayoneted or mutilated Americans who tried to surrender. Among them were the following:
I with my own Eyes, see them, cut & hack some of our poor Men to pieces after they had fallen in their hands and scarcely shew the least Mercy to any...
...more than a dozen soldiers had with fixed bayonets formed a cordon round him, and that everyone of them in sport had indulged their brutal ferocity by stabbing him in different parts of his body and limbs ... a physician ... examining him there was found ... 46 distinct bayonet wounds...
The Enemy last Night at twelve o'clock attacked ... Our Men just raised from Sleep, moved disorderly — Confusion followed ... The Carnage was very great ... this is a bloody Month.
The Annals of the Age Cannot Produce such another Scene of Butchery...
The military historian Mark M. Boatner III refuted these allegations, writing:
American propagandists succeeded in whipping up anti-British sentiment with false accusations that Grey's men had refused quarter and massacred defenseless patriots who tried to surrender ... The "no quarter" charge is refuted by the fact that the British took 71 prisoners. The "mangled dead" is explained by the fact that the bayonet is a messy weapon.
In any case, Wayne's troops swore revenge and "Remember Paoli!" was used by them as a battle cry at Germantown and at Stony Point.
There is a tradition that, to show their defiance, the men of the 2nd Light Infantry dyed their hat feathers red so the Americans would be able to identify them. In 1833, the Light Company of the 46th Regiment of Foot were authorized to wear red cap distinctions instead of the regulation Light Infantry green, apparently in commemoration of this gesture, and in 1934, the Royal Berkshire Regiment, which carried on the traditions of the 49th Foot, were authorized to wear a red distinction in their head dress although, misleadingly, this was granted "to commemorate the role of the Light Company at the battle of Brandywine Creek". In the second half of the 20th century, the descendants of both regiments wore red backing to their cap badges and did so until 2006 when The Light Infantry and the Royal Gloucestershire, Berkshire and Wiltshire Regiment were absorbed by The Rifles.
Monument.
In 1877, a granite monument was erected at the site of the battle to replace an 1817 monument that was in poor condition; the Paoli monument inscription replicates the words of the 1817 monument on one side. It stands tall and is inscribed on all four sides. It is located in a local park in Malvern that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1997 as the Paoli Battlefield Site and Parade Grounds. There are two contributing buildings, two contributing sites, and five contributing objects included on the listing. They are the Paoli Battlefield Site, Paoli Parade Grounds, Paoli Massacre Monument (1817), Paoli Massacre obelisk (1877), World War I monument (1928), World War II urn (c. 1946), and caretaker's house and garage (1922).


Knights of Egypt Party

The Knights of Egypt Party () is a political party in Egypt founded by former members of the Egyptian military. The party is running in the 2015 Egyptian parliamentary election.


Free Democratic Party (GDR)

The Free Democratic Party (GDR) (, DDR) was an opposition political party in East Germany. The appeal for its formation was made on 25 November 1989 in Berlin by those East German liberals who doubted the ability of the former block party Liberal Democratic Party of Germany to reform itself. It was formally founded 4 February 1990, and 12 February 1990 it joined the Association of Free Democrats for the Volkskammer elections.


Adam Smith House

Several buildings in Scotland are referred to as the Adam Smith House, being named after the Scottish economist Adam Smith.
Kirkcaldy.
Adam Smith lived with his mother, in her house, in Kirkcaldy, Scotland, from 1767–1776. That house, on the High Street, is where he wrote "The Wealth of Nations". The house was torn down in 1834. The successor building, at Nos 218–222 High Street, pictured, was built in 1834 and is itself a historic building, holding Category B Listed building status.
Edinburgh.
Panmure House (unrelated to the country house of the same name) was Smith's home in Edinburgh, Scotland from 1788 to 1790. In 2008, the house was purchased by the Edinburgh Business School. Work began on its restoration into a centre for economic and social debate and the latest academic thinking in July 2016 and is scheduled to be completed in the autumn of 2018.
Aberdeen.
While it was only built in the 1960s, "Adam Smith House" is also the name of a purpose-built student accommodation building in the Hillhead Student Village, operated by the University of Aberdeen.


Party of Free Democrats

The Party of Free Democrats () is a political party in Ukraine led by Mykhaylo Brodskyy. It was registered in November 1999 as Yabluko (; "Apple"). The party has about 1,000 members.
History.
Mykhaylo Brodskyy (a member of the Hromada faction) formed a 14-member "Yabluko" faction in the Ukrainian Parliament mid-September 2000.
At the parliamentary elections on 30 March 2002, the party won 1.2% of the popular vote and no seats (as "Yabluko").
In March 2005, the party was self-liquidated and merged into Fatherland Party ("Batkivschuna") led by Yulia Tymoshenko. But in March 2007 Mykhaylo Brodskyy announced the renewal of the party; renaming it "Party of Free Democrats".
On 30 September 2007, elections, the party failed again to win parliamentary representation.
The party nominated Brodskyy as its candidate for President of Ukraine in the 2010 Ukrainian presidential elections late October 2009.
During the 2010 Ukrainian local elections, the party won representatives in municipalities and did particularly well in Cherkasy.
In the 2010 local elections, the party won 1 representative in the regional parliaments of the Cherkasy Oblast and 14 seats in the city council of Cherkasy.
In the 2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election the party competed in/for 1 constituency (seat); but it lost in it and thus missed parliamentary representation.
The party did not participate in the 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election.
In the 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election the party had 2 candidates in constituencies, but both lost.


Armand Croizette

Armand Croizette (1766, Lyon - 21 January 1841, Versailles city) was a French librettiste and playwright.
Biography.
A dramaturge at the Théâtre du Vaudeville then at the Théâtre de l'Ambigu, his plays were performed on the most important Parisian stages of the 19th century, including the Théâtre des Variétés, and the Théâtre de la Gaité.


Mary Byrne (mayor)

Mary Byrne (1917–2004) was the Mayor of Galway from 1975 to 1976 and again from 1984 to 1985.
One of two children of Michael Byrne of Newry, County Down, and Brigid Kelly of Garafine, Ballymacward, County Galway, she trained as a nurse in the city's old Central Hospital and later worked as a staff-nurse at Galway Regional Hospital. She eventually became a Sister and worked in the Casualty Department for twenty-two years. She was a member of the Western Health Board from 1970 to 1988 representing General Nurses. She served as Chairperson of the Galway Branch of the Irish Nurses Organisation as well as being a member of its National Executive for many years.
Politically active due to her father's influence, Byrne was an active member of Fianna Fáil from the 1940s, and successfully ran for election to Galway Corporation in 1967, serving eighteen years as a Councillor. She was the first woman ever to run for Fianna Fáil in the West Galway Constituency in a General Election when she was selected as the running mate for Johnny Geoghegan and Bobby Molloy in the 1969 General Election. She created history on 30 June 1975 when she became the first woman to be elected Mayor of the City of Galway. Her first term of office coincided with International Women's Year.
She was re-elected for the term 1984–1985, the Quincentennial year of the Mayoralty. In commemoration of this, Galway's Quincentennial Bridge, spanning the River Corrib from Terryland to Newcastle, was begun. The foundation stone was laid by the Tánaiste, Dick Spring, on 15 December 1984. The following May, Byrne laid the foundation stone of the new City Hall at College Road, which was in use by 1991. During a long career in public life she served on several Boards including Comhairle na n-Ospideal and the City of Galway VEC. She was Chairman of the Board of Galway Technical Institute up to the time of her death.
She died 16 January 2004.


Dermide Leclerc

Dermide Louis Napoléon Leclerc (20 April 1798 – 14 August 1804) was the only child of Pauline Bonaparte (later "suo jure" Duchess of Guastalla) and her husband, French Army general Charles Leclerc. Through his mother, Dermide was a nephew of the future Emperor Napoleon I.
In 1802, during the Haitian Revolution, Dermide arrived on the island-colony of Saint-Domingue with his parents, as part of the Saint-Domingue expedition. After his father's death of yellow fever later during the year, Dermide and Pauline were brought back to France. In 1803, Pauline remarried, this time to Italian nobleman Camillo Borghese, and she took up residence, along with her husband and son, in Rome. Always a frail child, Dermide died of a fever at the age of six, three months after his uncle became Emperor and two years before his mother's proclamation as Duchess of Guastalla.
Biography.
Early life.
Dermide was born on 20 April 1798, in Milan, which was then part of the Cisalpine Republic, a puppet state of the First French Republic. He was the first and only child of his parents, Maria Paola di Buonaparte (known as Pauline) and Charles Victoire Emmanuel Leclerc, a general in the French Army. Dermide's birth was a difficult one, and its effects would be visible in Pauline's health for many years. He was christened "Dermide Louis Napoléon", after a character in the (in fact spurious) epic Gaelic poems of Ossian, at the request of his uncle, general Napoleon Bonaparte, who greatly admired Ossian's works.
He was the eldest surviving son born to one of the Bonaparte siblings (Joseph, Napoleon, Lucien, Elisa, Louis, Pauline, Caroline and Jérôme, most of which would later receive ruling positions in their brother's client states). Six weeks after his birth, on 29 May 1798, Dermide was baptised "with imperial ceremony" at a Capuchin church in Milan. Charles Louis Huguet, marquis de Sémonville stood as witness and Napoleon served as godfather. The baptism was welcomed by the Milanese people with gun salutes, ringing of church bells, music and shouting, just as had been done at the births of Austrian archdukes during the Austrian Rule. Following a quarrel with officials of the Cisalpine Republic, Leclerc took his wife and son to Paris, where they established themselves at No. 1, Rue de la Victoire. Napoleon resided on the same street, albeit at No. 6. Meanwhile, after a "coup d'état" in 1799, the French Consulate was established and Napoleon installed himself as First Consul.
In 1791, the Haitian Revolution had begun in Saint-Domingue (present-day Haiti), which had been a French colony since 1697. Wanting to restore French authority on the island, Napoleon organised the Saint-Domingue expedition, placing Leclerc in charge and bestowing upon him the title of Governor-General of Saint-Domingue. Consequently, on 14 December 1801, Leclerc embarked on the flagship "L'Océan" at Brest with his wife and son, and sailed for Saint-Domingue, which they eventually reached on 28 January 1802. While Leclerc quickly left the ship, Pauline and Dermide remained on board. Although Dermide was initially healthy and Leclerc had assured Napoleon that his son had "survived the crossing from France better than anyone", both mother and son suffered episodes of yellow fever while they were at Le Cap, nonetheless recovering quickly. Dermide was apportioned to a grenadier at Port-au-Prince and spent much of his time playing. On 2 November, Leclerc, who had been ill with yellow fever, died at Tortuga. Preparations for Pauline and Dermide's departure from Saint-Domingue were completed quickly, and they left the colony aboard , arriving at Toulon on New Year's Day 1803.
Later life.
Pauline found a temporary place to live for her and Dermide at her brother Joseph's hotel in the Rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré. Eventually, they settled in the Château de Montgobert, her husband's former estate, which was Dermide's inheritance from his father. Napoleon did not wish for Pauline to remain without a husband and, as such, Roman nobleman Camillo Borghese, 6th Prince of Sulmona was selected with the help of Pope Pius VII. Thus, on 14 November 1803, Pauline, Camillo and Dermide set out on a journey towards Rome. Dermide had his own carriage, drawn by six horses, which he shared with his governess, Madame Ducluzel, and with his mother's "lectrice" (reader), Jenny Saint-Maur. In one of the cities through which they passed, a gendarme asked the family who they were, upon which Dermide replied, "Messieurs, it is the son of General Leclerc traveling with his suite." Saint-Maur swiftly corrected him, albeit "admiring his spirit". The family took up residence at the Palazzo Borghese in Rome.
Pauline, being "family minded", welcomed her brother Lucien, who had been living in exile at the Villa Rufinella in Frascati, during his visits in Rome and valued his children, Charlotte (b. 1795), Christine (b. 1798) and Charles Lucien (b. 1803), as Dermide's playmates. Dermide captivated Lucien and his wife, Alexandrine de Bleschamp, and the couple observed that Borghese was not very affectionate towards Pauline's son. Lucien even considered Dermide as a possible future husband for his daughter Christine. In hopes of restoring her health, Pauline and Borghese agreed that they should travel to Florence in the summer of 1804, and from there to the thermal baths of Pisa, which were hoped to have better effect than the ones at Frascati. Pauline wanted to take Dermide with them, but Borghese advised against it, instead proposing to leave Dermide with his brother Francesco in Frascati, near Lucien's Villa Rufinella. Thus, Dermide, Madame Ducluzel and his tutor, Monsieur de la Ronde, were moved to Francesco's Villa Mondragone.
Death.
By August, Lucien, his children and Dermide had all suffered from bouts of fever. Doctors saw no cause for alarm and Lucien quickly recovered, as did his children. Despite the doctors' best efforts, Dermide died on 14 August, at the age of six. Pauline later came to believe her son's blood had been thinned by the recurrent spells of yellow fever they had suffered in Saint-Domingue. Borghese decided to conceal Dermide's death from his wife until her health improved. Thus, Francesco returned to Frascati and wrote three letters addressed to Pauline: one which announced the onset of Dermide's illness, the second announcing that the illness worsened and the third announcing Dermide's demise. Immediately after receiving the first letter, Pauline began making preparations for her departure from Pisa, in order to reach her son at Frascati. Before this was possible, she became aware of the truth and her suspicions were confirmed by de la Ronde.
Pauline was grief-stricken and later said "My poor little boy. If only I had been with him...I would have nursed him as I nursed his father". She came to blame Borghese for his decision to send Dermide to Frascati and called him "the butcher of my son", believing that, had it not been for her husband, her son "would still be alive". Leclerc's parents accused Pauline of having neglected Dermide, leaving him to die under the care of servants, when she could have left him in France, to live with them. Nonetheless, Pauline had her son buried at the Château de Montgobert, next to General Leclerc. Dermide's inheritance reverted to his father's family and, in spite of her wishes to be buried beside her son and first husband at Montgobert, Pauline was buried at the Saint Mary Major Basilica in Rome upon her death in 1825.


The Guardian

The Guardian is a British daily newspaper. It was founded in 1821 as "The Manchester Guardian", and changed its name in 1959. Along with its sister papers "The Observer" and "The Guardian Weekly", "The Guardian" is part of the Guardian Media Group, owned by the Scott Trust. The trust was created in 1936 to "secure the financial and editorial independence of "The Guardian" in perpetuity and to safeguard the journalistic freedom and liberal values of "The Guardian" free from commercial or political interference". The trust was converted into a limited company in 2008, with a constitution written so as to maintain for "The Guardian" the same protections as were built into the structure of the Scott Trust by its creators. Profits are reinvested in journalism rather than distributed to owners or shareholders.
The editor-in-chief Katharine Viner succeeded Alan Rusbridger in 2015. Since 2018, the paper's main newsprint sections have been published in tabloid format. As of February 2020, its print edition had a daily circulation of 126,879. The newspaper has an online edition, TheGuardian.com, as well as two international websites, "Guardian Australia" (founded in 2013) and "Guardian US" (founded in 2011). The paper's readership is generally on the mainstream left of British political opinion, and its reputation as a platform for social liberal and left-wing editorial has led to the use of the ""Guardian" reader" and "Guardianista" as often-pejorative epithets for those of left-leaning or "politically correct" tendencies. Frequent typographical errors during the age of manual typesetting led "Private Eye" magazine to dub the paper the "" in the 1960s, a nickname still used occasionally by the editors for self-mockery.
In an Ipsos MORI research poll in September 2018 designed to interrogate the public's trust of specific titles online, "The Guardian" scored highest for digital-content news, with 84% of readers agreeing that they "trust what [they] see in it". A December 2018 report of a poll by the Publishers Audience Measurement Company (PAMCo) stated that the paper's print edition was found to be the most trusted in the UK in the period from October 2017 to September 2018. It was also reported to be the most-read of the UK's "quality newsbrands", including digital editions; other "quality" brands included "The Times", "The Daily Telegraph", "The Independent", and the "i". While "The Guardian"s print circulation is in decline, the report indicated that news from "The Guardian", including that reported online, reaches more than 23 million UK adults each month.
Chief among the notable "scoops" obtained by the paper was the 2011 News International phone-hacking scandal—and in particular the hacking of the murdered English teenager Milly Dowler's phone. The investigation led to the closure of the "News of the World", the UK's best-selling Sunday newspaper and one of the highest-circulation newspapers in history. In June 2013, "The Guardian" broke news of the secret collection by the Obama administration of Verizon telephone records, and subsequently revealed the existence of the surveillance program PRISM after knowledge of it was leaked to the paper by the whistleblower and former NSA contractor Edward Snowden. In 2016, "The Guardian" led an investigation into the Panama Papers, exposing then–Prime Minister David Cameron's links to offshore bank accounts. It has been named "newspaper of the year" four times at the annual British Press Awards: most recently in 2014, for its reporting on government surveillance.
History.
1821 to 1972.
Early years.
"The Manchester Guardian" was founded in Manchester in 1821 by cotton merchant John Edward Taylor with backing from the Little Circle, a group of non-conformist businessmen. They launched the paper, on 5 May 1821 (by chance the very day of Napoleon's death) after the police closure of the more radical "Manchester Observer", a paper that had championed the cause of the Peterloo Massacre protesters. Taylor had been hostile to the radical reformers, writing: "They have appealed not to the reason but the passions and the suffering of their abused and credulous fellow-countrymen, from whose ill-requited industry they extort for themselves the means of a plentiful and comfortable existence. They do not toil, neither do they spin, but they live better than those that do." When the government closed down the "Manchester Observer", the mill-owners' champions had the upper hand.
The influential journalist Jeremiah Garnett joined Taylor during the establishment of the paper, and all of the Little Circle wrote articles for the new paper. The prospectus announcing the new publication proclaimed that it would "zealously enforce the principles of civil and religious Liberty [...] warmly advocate the cause of Reform [...] endeavour to assist in the diffusion of just principles of Political Economy and [...] support, without reference to the party from which they emanate, all serviceable measures". In 1825, the paper merged with the "British Volunteer" and was known as "The Manchester Guardian and British Volunteer" until 1828.
The working-class "Manchester and Salford Advertiser" called "The Manchester Guardian" "the foul prostitute and dirty parasite of the worst portion of the mill-owners". "The Manchester Guardian" was generally hostile to labour's claims. Of the 1832 Ten Hours Bill, the paper doubted whether in view of the foreign competition "the passing of a law positively enacting a gradual destruction of the cotton manufacture in this kingdom would be a much less rational procedure." "The Manchester Guardian" dismissed strikes as the work of outside agitators: "[…] if an accommodation can be effected, the occupation of the agents of the Union is gone. They live on strife [...]."
Slavery and the American Civil War.
The newspaper opposed slavery and supported free trade. An 1823 leading article on the continuing "cruelty and injustice" to slaves in the West Indies long after the abolition of the slave trade with the Slave Trade Act 1807 wanted fairness to the interests and claims both of the planters and of their oppressed slaves. It welcomed the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 and accepted the "increased compensation" to the planters as the "guilt of slavery attaches far more to the nation" rather than individuals. Success of the Act would encourage emancipation in other slave-owning nations to avoid "imminent risk of a violent and bloody termination." However, the newspaper argued against restricting trade with countries which had not yet abolished slavery.
Complex tensions developed in the United States. When the abolitionist George Thompson toured, the newspaper said that "[s]lavery is a monstrous evil, but civil war is not a less one; and we would not seek the abolition even of the former through the imminent hazard of the latter". It suggested that the United States should compensate slave-owners for freeing slaves and called on President Franklin Pierce to resolve the 1856 "civil war", the Sacking of Lawrence due to pro-slavery laws imposed by Congress.
In 1860, "The Observer" quoted a report that the newly elected president Abraham Lincoln was opposed to abolition of slavery. On 13 May 1861, shortly after the start of the American Civil War, the "Manchester Guardian" portrayed the Northern states as primarily imposing a burdensome trade monopoly on the Confederate States, arguing that if the South was freed to have direct trade with Europe, "the day would not be distant when slavery itself would cease". Therefore, the newspaper asked "Why should the South be prevented from freeing itself from slavery?" This hopeful view was also held by the Liberal leader William Ewart Gladstone.
There was division in Britain over the Civil War, even within political parties. The "Manchester Guardian" had also been conflicted. It had supported other independence movements and felt it should also support the rights of the Confederacy to self-determination. It criticised Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation for not freeing all American slaves. On 10 October 1862, it wrote: "It is impossible to cast any reflections upon a man so evidently sincere and well-intentioned as Mr Lincoln but it is also impossible not to feel that it was an evil day both for America and the world, when he was chosen President of the United States". By then, the Union blockade was causing suffering in British towns. Some including Liverpool supported the Confederacy as did "current opinion in all classes" in London. On 31 December 1862, cotton workers held a meeting at the Free Trade Hall in Manchester which resolved "its detestation of negro slavery in America, and of the attempt of the rebellious Southern slave-holders to organise on the great American continent a nation having slavery as its basis". There was a comment that "an effort had been made in a leading article of the "Manchester Guardian" to deter the working men from assembling together for such a purpose". The newspaper reported all this and published their letter to President Lincoln while complaining that "the chief occupation, if not the chief object of the meeting, seems to have been to abuse the "Manchester Guardian"". Lincoln replied to the letter thanking the workers for their "sublime Christian heroism" and American ships delivered relief supplies to Britain.
The newspaper reported the shock to the community of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln in 1865, concluding that "[t]he parting of his family with the dying President is too sad for description", but in what from today's perspective looks an ill-judged editorial wrote that "[o]f his rule we can never speak except as a series of acts abhorrent to every true notion of constitutional right and human liberty", adding "it is doubtless to be regretted that he had not the opportunity of vindicating his good intentions".
According to Martin Kettle, writing for "The Guardian" in February 2011, ""The Guardian" had always hated slavery. But it doubted the Union hated slavery to the same degree. It argued that the Union had always tacitly condoned slavery by shielding the southern slave states from the condemnation they deserved. It was critical of Lincoln's emancipation proclamation for stopping short of a full repudiation of slavery throughout the US. And it chastised the president for being so willing to negotiate with the south, with slavery one of the issues still on the table".
C. P. Scott.
C. P. Scott made the newspaper nationally recognised. He was editor for 57 years from 1872, and became its owner when he bought the paper from the estate of Taylor's son in 1907. Under Scott, the paper's moderate editorial line became more radical, supporting William Gladstone when the Liberals split in 1886, and opposing the Second Boer War against popular opinion. Scott supported the movement for women's suffrage, but was critical of any tactics by the Suffragettes that involved direct action: "The really ludicrous position is that Mr Lloyd George is fighting to enfranchise seven million women and the militants are smashing unoffending people's windows and breaking up benevolent societies' meetings in a desperate effort to prevent him." Scott thought the Suffragettes' "courage and devotion" was "worthy of a better cause and saner leadership". It has been argued that Scott's criticism reflected a widespread disdain, at the time, for those women who "transgressed the gender expectations of Edwardian society".
Scott commissioned J. M. Synge and his friend Jack Yeats to produce articles and drawings documenting the social conditions of the west of Ireland; these pieces were published in 1911 in the collection "Travels in Wicklow, West Kerry and Connemara".
Scott's friendship with Chaim Weizmann played a role in the Balfour Declaration of 1917. In 1948 "The Manchester Guardian" was a supporter of the new State of Israel.
In 1919, the paper's special correspondent W. T. Goode travelled to Moscow and secured interviews with Vladimir Lenin and other Soviet leaders.
Ownership of the paper passed in June 1936 to the Scott Trust (named after the last owner, John Russell Scott, who was the first chairman of the Trust). This move ensured the paper's independence.
Sylvia Sprigge served as correspondent for "The Manchester Guardian" in Italy 1943–1953.
From 1930 to 1967, a special archival copy of all the daily newspapers was preserved in 700 zinc cases. These were found in 1988 whilst the newspaper's archives were deposited at the University of Manchester's John Rylands University Library, on the Oxford Road campus. The first case was opened and found to contain the newspapers issued in August 1930 in pristine condition. The zinc cases had been made each month by the newspaper's plumber and stored for posterity. The other 699 cases were not opened and were all returned to storage at "The Guardian"s garage, owing to shortage of space at the library.
Spanish Civil War.
Traditionally affiliated with the centrist to centre-left Liberal Party, and with a northern, non-conformist circulation base, the paper earned a national reputation and the respect of the left during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). George Orwell writes in "Homage to Catalonia" (1938): "Of our larger papers, the "Manchester Guardian" is the only one that leaves me with an increased respect for its honesty". With the pro-Liberal "News Chronicle", the Labour-supporting "Daily Herald", the Communist Party's "Daily Worker" and several Sunday and weekly papers, it supported the Republican government against General Francisco Franco's insurgent nationalists.
Post-war.
The paper's then editor, A. P. Wadsworth, so loathed Labour's left-wing champion Aneurin Bevan, who had made a reference to getting rid of "Tory Vermin" in a speech "and the hate-gospellers of his entourage" that it encouraged readers to vote Conservative in the 1951 general election and remove Attlee's post-war Labour government. The newspaper opposed the creation of the National Health Service as it feared the state provision of healthcare would "eliminate selective elimination" and lead to an increase of congenitally deformed and feckless people.
"The Manchester Guardian" strongly opposed military intervention during the 1956 Suez Crisis: "The Anglo-French ultimatum to Egypt is an act of folly, without justification in any terms but brief expediency. It pours petrol on a growing fire. There is no knowing what kind of explosion will follow."
On 24 August 1959, "The Manchester Guardian" changed its name to "The Guardian". This change reflected the growing prominence of national and international affairs in the newspaper. In September 1961, "The Guardian", which had previously only been published in Manchester, began to be printed in London.
1972 to 2000.
Northern Ireland conflict.
When 13 civil rights demonstrators in Northern Ireland were killed by British soldiers on 30 January 1972 (known as Bloody Sunday), "The Guardian" said that "Neither side can escape condemnation." Of the protesters, they wrote, "The organizers of the demonstration, Miss Bernadette Devlin among them, deliberately challenged the ban on marches. They knew that stone throwing and sniping could not be prevented, and that the IRA might use the crowd as a shield." Of the army, they wrote, "there seems little doubt that random shots were fired into the crowd, that aim was taken at individuals who were neither bombers nor weapons carriers and that excessive force was used".
Many Irish people believed that the Widgery Tribunal's ruling on the killings was a whitewash, a view that was later supported with the publication of the Saville inquiry in 2010, but in 1972 "The Guardian" declared that "Widgery's report is not one-sided" (20 April 1972). At the time the paper also supported internment without trial in Northern Ireland: "Internment without trial is hateful, repressive and undemocratic. In the existing Irish situation, most regrettably, it is also inevitable... .To remove the ringleaders, in the hope that the atmosphere might calm down, is a step to which there is no obvious alternative." Before then, "The Guardian" had called for British troops to be sent to the region: British soldiers could "present a more disinterested face of law and order," but only on condition that "Britain takes charge."
Sarah Tisdall.
In 1983 the paper was at the centre of a controversy surrounding documents regarding the stationing of cruise missiles in Britain that were leaked to "The Guardian" by civil servant Sarah Tisdall. The paper eventually complied with a court order to hand over the documents to the authorities, which resulted in a six-month prison sentence for Tisdall, though she served only four. "I still blame myself," said Peter Preston, who was the editor of "The Guardian" at the time, but he went on to argue that the paper had no choice because it "believed in the rule of law". In an article discussing Julian Assange and the protection of sources by journalists, John Pilger criticised The Guardian's editor for betraying Tisdall by choosing not to go to prison "on a fundamental principle of protecting a source".
Alleged penetration by Russian intelligence.
In 1994, KGB defector Oleg Gordievsky identified "Guardian" literary editor Richard Gott as "an agent of influence". While Gott denied that he received cash, he admitted he had had lunch at the Soviet Embassy and had taken benefits from the KGB on overseas visits. Gott resigned from his post.
Gordievsky commented on the newspaper: "The KGB loved "The Guardian". It was deemed highly susceptible to penetration."
Jonathan Aitken.
In 1995, both the Granada Television programme "World in Action" and "The Guardian" were sued for libel by the then cabinet minister Jonathan Aitken, for their allegation that Harrods owner Mohamed Al Fayed had paid for Aitken and his wife to stay at the Hôtel Ritz in Paris, which would have amounted to accepting a bribe on Aitken's part. Aitken publicly stated that he would fight with "the simple sword of truth and the trusty shield of British fair play". The court case proceeded, and in 1997 "The Guardian" produced evidence that Aitken's claim of his wife paying for the hotel stay was untrue. In 1999, Aitken was jailed for perjury and perverting the course of justice.
"Connection".
In May 1998, a series of "Guardian" investigations exposed the wholesale fabrication of a much-garlanded ITV documentary "The Connection", produced by Carlton Television.
The documentary purported to film an undiscovered route by which heroin was smuggled into the United Kingdom from Colombia. An internal inquiry at Carlton found that "The Guardian"'s allegations were in large part correct and the then industry regulator, the ITC, punished Carlton with a record £2-million fine for multiple breaches of the UK's broadcasting codes. The scandal led to an impassioned debate about the accuracy of documentary production.
Later in June 1998, "The Guardian" revealed further fabrications in another Carlton documentary from the same director.
Kosovo War.
The paper supported NATO's military intervention in the Kosovo War in 1998–1999. "The Guardian" stated that "the only honourable course for Europe and America is to use military force". Mary Kaldor's piece was headlined "Bombs away! But to save civilians, we must get in some soldiers too."
Since 2000.
In the early 2000s, "The Guardian" challenged the Act of Settlement 1701 and the Treason Felony Act 1848. In October 2004, "The Guardian" published a humorous column by Charlie Brooker in its entertainment guide, the final sentence of which was viewed by some as a call for violence against U.S. President George W. Bush; after a controversy, Brooker and the paper issued an apology, saying the "closing comments were intended as an ironic joke, not as a call to action." Following the 7 July 2005 London bombings, "The Guardian" published an article on its comment pages by Dilpazier Aslam, a 27-year-old British Muslim and journalism trainee from Yorkshire. Aslam was a member of Hizb ut-Tahrir, an Islamist group, and had published a number of articles on their website. According to the paper, it did not know that Aslam was a member of Hizb ut-Tahrir when he applied to become a trainee, though several staff members were informed of this once he started at the paper. The Home Office has claimed the group's "ultimate aim is the establishment of an Islamic state (Caliphate), according to Hizb ut-Tahrir via non-violent means". "The Guardian" asked Aslam to resign his membership of the group and, when he did not do so, terminated his employment. In early 2009, the paper started a tax investigation into a number of major UK companies, including publishing a database of the tax paid by the FTSE 100 companies. Internal documents relating to Barclays Bank's tax avoidance were removed from "The Guardian" website after Barclays obtained a gagging order. The paper played a pivotal role in exposing the depth of the "News of the World" phone hacking affair. "The Economist" "Intelligent Life" magazine opined that...
Israeli-Palestinian conflict coverage.
In recent decades "The Guardian" has been accused of biased criticism of Israeli government policy and of bias against the Palestinians. In December 2003, columnist Julie Burchill cited "striking bias against the state of Israel" as one of the reasons she left the paper for "The Times".
Responding to these accusations, a "Guardian" editorial in 2002 condemned antisemitism and defended the paper's right to criticise the policies and actions of the Israeli government, arguing that those who view such criticism as inherently anti-Jewish are mistaken. Harriet Sherwood, then "The Guardian" foreign editor, later its Jerusalem correspondent, has also denied that "The Guardian" has an anti-Israel bias, saying that the paper aims to cover all viewpoints in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.
On 6 November 2011, Chris Elliott, "The Guardian"s readers' editor, wrote that ""Guardian" reporters, writers and editors must be more vigilant about the language they use when writing about Jews or Israel," citing recent cases where "The Guardian" received complaints regarding language chosen to describe Jews or Israel. Elliott noted that, over nine months, he upheld complaints regarding language in certain articles that were seen as anti-Semitic, revising the language and footnoting this change.
"The Guardian"s style guide section referred to Tel Aviv as the capital of Israel in 2012. "The Guardian" later clarified: "In 1980, the Israeli Knesset enacted a law designating the city of Jerusalem, including East Jerusalem, as the country's capital. In response, the UN security council issued resolution 478, censuring the "change in character and status of the Holy City of Jerusalem" and calling on all member states with diplomatic missions in the city to withdraw. The UN has reaffirmed this position on several occasions, and almost every country now has its embassy in Tel Aviv. While it was therefore right to issue a correction to make clear Israel's designation of Jerusalem as its capital is not recognised by the international community, we accept that it is wrong to state that Tel Aviv – the country's financial and diplomatic centre – is the capital. The style guide has been amended accordingly."
On 11 August 2014 the print edition of "The Guardian" published a pro-Israeli advocacy advert during the 2014 Israel–Gaza conflict featuring Elie Wiesel, headed by the words "Jews rejected child sacrifice 3,500 years ago. Now it's Hamas' turn." "The Times" had decided against running the ad, although it had already appeared in major American newspapers. One week later, Chris Elliott expressed the opinion that the newspaper should have rejected the language used in the advert and should have negotiated with the advertiser on this matter.
Clark County.
In August 2004, for the US presidential election, the daily "G2" supplement launched an experimental letter-writing campaign in Clark County, Ohio, an average-sized county in a swing state. Editor Ian Katz bought a voter list from the county for $25 and asked readers to write to people listed as undecided in the election, giving them an impression of the international view and the importance of voting against President George W. Bush. Katz admitted later that he did not believe Democrats who warned that the campaign would benefit Bush and not opponent John Kerry. The newspaper scrapped "Operation Clark County" on 21 October 2004 after first publishing a column of responses—nearly all of them outraged—to the campaign under the headline "Dear Limey assholes". Some commentators suggested that the public's dislike of the campaign contributed to Bush's victory in Clark County.
"Guardian America" and "Guardian US".
In 2007, the paper launched "Guardian America", an attempt to capitalise on its large online readership in the United States, which at the time stood at more than 5.9 million. The company hired former "American Prospect" editor, "New York" magazine columnist and "New York Review of Books" writer Michael Tomasky to head the project and hire a staff of American reporters and web editors. The site featured news from "The Guardian" that was relevant to an American audience: coverage of US news and the Middle East, for example.
Tomasky stepped down from his position as editor of "Guardian America" in February 2009, ceding editing and planning duties to other US and London staff. He retained his position as a columnist and blogger, taking the title editor-at-large.
In October 2009, the company abandoned the "Guardian America" homepage, instead directing users to a US news index page on the main "Guardian" website. The following month, the company laid off six American employees, including a reporter, a multimedia producer and four web editors. The move came as "Guardian News and Media" opted to reconsider its US strategy amid a huge effort to cut costs across the company. In subsequent years, however, "The Guardian" has hired various commentators on US affairs including Ana Marie Cox, Michael Wolff, Naomi Wolf, Glenn Greenwald and George W. Bush's former speechwriter Josh Treviño. Treviño's first blog post was an apology for a controversial tweet posted in June 2011 over the second Gaza flotilla, the controversy which had been revived by the appointment.
"Guardian US" launched in September 2011, led by editor-in-chief Janine Gibson, which replaced the previous "Guardian America" service. After a period during which Katharine Viner served as the US editor-in-chief before taking charge of "Guardian News and Media" as a whole, Viner's former deputy, Lee Glendinning, was appointed to succeed her as head of the American operation at the beginning of June 2015.
Gagged from reporting Parliament.
In October 2009, "The Guardian" reported that it was forbidden to report on a parliamentary matter – a question recorded in a Commons order paper, to be answered by a minister later that week. The paper noted that it was being "forbidden from telling its readers why the paper is prevented—for the first time in memory—from reporting parliament. Legal obstacles, which cannot be identified, involve proceedings, which cannot be mentioned, on behalf of a client who must remain secret. The only fact "The Guardian" can report is that the case involves the London solicitors Carter-Ruck." The paper further claimed that this case appears "to call into question privileges guaranteeing free speech established under the 1689 Bill of Rights". The only parliamentary question mentioning Carter-Ruck in the relevant period was by Paul Farrelly MP, in reference to legal action by Barclays and Trafigura. The part of the question referencing Carter-Ruck relates to the latter company's September 2009 gagging order on the publication of a 2006 internal report into the 2006 Côte d'Ivoire toxic waste dump scandal, which involved a class action case that the company only settled in September 2009 after "The Guardian" published some of the commodity trader's internal emails. The reporting injunction was lifted the next day, for Carter-Ruck withdrew it before "The Guardian" could challenge it in the High Court. Alan Rusbridger attributed the rapid back-down by Carter-Ruck to postings on Twitter, as did a BBC article.
Edward Snowden leaks and intervention by the UK government.
In June 2013, the newspaper broke news of the secret collection of Verizon telephone records held by Barack Obama's administration and subsequently revealed the existence of the PRISM surveillance program after it was leaked to the paper by former NSA contractor Edward Snowden. The newspaper was subsequently contacted by the British government's Cabinet Secretary, Sir Jeremy Heywood, under instruction from Prime Minister David Cameron and Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg, who ordered that the hard drives containing the information be destroyed. "The Guardian" offices were then visited in July by agents from the UK's GCHQ, who supervised the destruction of the hard drives containing information acquired from Snowden. In June 2014, "The Register" reported that the information the government sought to suppress by destroying the hard drives related to the location of a "beyond top secret" internet monitoring base in Seeb, Oman, and the close involvement of BT and Cable & Wireless in intercepting internet communications. Julian Assange criticised the newspaper for not publishing the entirety of the content when it had the chance. Rusbridger had initially proceeded without the government's supervision, but subsequently sought it, and established an ongoing relationship with the Defence Ministry. "The Guardian" enquiry later continued because the information had already been copied outside the United Kingdom, earning the newspaper a Pulitzer Prize. Rusbridger and subsequent chief editors would sit on the government's DSMA-notice board.
Manafort–Assange secret meetings.
In a November 2018 "Guardian" article, Luke Harding and Dan Collyns cited anonymous sources which stated that Donald Trump's former campaign manager Paul Manafort held secret meetings with WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange inside the Ecuadorian embassy in London in 2013, 2015, and 2016. One reporter characterized the story, "If it's right, it might be the biggest get this year. If it's wrong, it might be the biggest gaffe." Manafort and Assange both denied ever having met with the latter threatening legal action against "The Guardian". Ecuador's London consul Fidel Narváez, who had worked at Ecuador's embassy in London from 2010 to July 2018, denied that Manafort's visits had happened.
Priti Patel cartoon.
The Guardian was accused of being "racist and misogynistic" after it published a cartoon depicting Home Secretary, Priti Patel as a cow with a ring in its nose in an alleged reference to her Hindu faith, since cows are considered sacred in Hinduism.
WikiLeaks coverage.
Journalist Glenn Greenwald of "The Intercept", a former contributor to "The Guardian", has accused "The Guardian" of falsifying the words of WikiLeaks founder Julian Assange in a report about the interview he gave to Italian newspaper "La Repubblica." Greenwald wrote: "This article is about how those ["Guardian"] false claims—fabrications, really—were spread all over the internet by journalists, causing hundreds of thousands of people (if not millions) to consume false news." "The Guardian" later amended its article about Assange.
After publishing a story on 13 January 2017 claiming that WhatsApp had a "backdoor [that] allows snooping on messages", more than 70 professional cryptographers signed on to an open letter calling for "The Guardian" to retract the article. On 13 June 2017, editor Paul Chadwick released an article detailing the flawed reporting in the original January article, which was amended to remove references to a backdoor.
Ownership and finances.
"The Guardian" is part of the Guardian Media Group (GMG) of newspapers, radio stations and print media. GMG components include "The Observer", "The Guardian Weekly" and "TheGuardian.com". All the aforementioned were owned by The Scott Trust, a charitable foundation existing between 1936 and 2008, which aimed to ensure the paper's editorial independence in perpetuity, maintaining its financial health in order to ensure it did not become vulnerable to takeovers by for-profit media groups. At the beginning of October 2008, the Scott Trusts assets were transferred to a new limited company, The Scott Trust Limited, with the intention being that the original trust would be wound up. Dame Liz Forgan, chair of the Scott Trust, reassured staff that the purposes of the new company remained the same as under the previous arrangements.
"The Guardian" ownership by the Scott Trust is probably a factor in its being the only British national daily to conduct (since 2003) an annual social, ethical and environmental audit in which it examines, under the scrutiny of an independent external auditor, its own behaviour as a company. It is also the only British national daily newspaper to employ an internal ombudsman (called the "readers' editor") to handle complaints and corrections.
"The Guardian" and its parent groups participate in Project Syndicate and intervened in 1995 to save the "Mail & Guardian" in South Africa. However, GMG sold the majority of its shares of the "Mail & Guardian" in 2002.
"The Guardian" was consistently loss-making until 2019. The National Newspaper division of GMG, which also includes "The Observer", reported operating losses of £49.9 million in 2006, up from £18.6 million in 2005. The paper was therefore heavily dependent on cross-subsidisation from profitable companies within the group.
The continual losses made by the National Newspaper division of the "Guardian Media Group" caused it to dispose of its Regional Media division by selling titles to competitor "Trinity Mirror" in March 2010. This included the flagship "Manchester Evening News", and severed the historic link between that paper and "The Guardian". The sale was in order to safeguard the future of "The Guardian" newspaper as is the intended purpose of the "Scott Trust".
In June 2011 "Guardian News and Media" revealed increased annual losses of £33 million and announced that it was looking to focus on its online edition for news coverage, leaving the print edition to contain more comments and features. It was also speculated that "The Guardian" might become the first British national daily paper to be fully online.
For the three years up to June 2012, the paper lost £100,000 a day, which prompted "Intelligent Life" to question whether "The Guardian" could survive.
Between 2007 and 2014 "The Guardian Media Group" sold all their side businesses, of regional papers and online portals for classifieds and consolidated, into "The Guardian" as sole product. The sales let them acquire a capital stock of £838.3 million as of July 2014, supposed to guarantee the independence of the "Guardian" in perpetuity. In the first year, the paper made more losses than predicted, and in January 2016 the publishers announced, that "The Guardian" will cut 20 per cent of staff and costs within the next three years. The newspaper is rare in calling for direct contributions "to deliver the independent journalism the world needs."
The Guardian Media Group's 2018 annual report (year ending 1 April 2018) indicated some significant changes occurring. Its digital (online) editions accounted for over 50% of group revenues by that time; the loss from news and media operations was £18.6 million, 52% lower than during the prior year (2017: £38.9 million). The Group had cut costs by £19.1 million, partly by switching its print edition to the tabloid format. The Guardian Media Group's owner, the Scott Trust Endowment Fund, reported that its value at the time was £1.01 billion (2017: £1.03 billion). In the following financial report (for the year 2018/2019), the group reported a profit (EBITDA) of £0.8 million before exceptional items, thus breaking even in 2019.
"Membership" subscription scheme.
In 2014, "The Guardian" launched a membership scheme. The scheme aims to reduce the financial losses incurred by "The Guardian" without introducing a paywall, thus maintaining open access to the website. Website readers can pay a monthly subscription, with three tiers available. As of 2018 this approach was considered successful, having brought more than 1 million subscriptions or donations, with the paper hoping to break even by April 2019.
Foundation funding.
In 2016, the company established a U.S.-based philanthropic arm to raise money from individuals and organizations including think tanks and corporate foundations. The grants are focused by the donors on particular issues. By the following year, the organization had raised $1 million from the likes of Pierre Omidyar's Humanity United, the Skoll Foundation, and the Conrad N. Hilton Foundation to finance reporting on topics including modern-day slavery and climate change. "The Guardian" has stated that it has secured $6 million "in multi-year funding commitments" thus far.
The new project developed from funding relationships which the paper already had with the Ford, Rockefeller, and Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Gates had given the organization $5 million for its Global Development webpage.
As of March 2020, the journal claims to be "the first major global news organisation to institute an outright ban on taking money from companies that extract fossil fuels."
Political stance and editorial opinion.
Founded by textile traders and merchants, in its early years "The Guardian" had a reputation as "an organ of the middle class", or in the words of C. P. Scott's son Ted, "a paper that will remain bourgeois to the last". Associated at first with the Little Circle and hence with classical liberalism as expressed by the Whigs and later by the Liberal Party, its political orientation underwent a decisive change after World War II, leading to a gradual alignment with Labour and the political left in general.
The "Scott Trust" describes one of its "core purposes" to be "to secure the financial and editorial independence of the "Guardian" in perpetuity: as a quality national newspaper without party affiliation; remaining faithful to its liberal tradition". The paper's readership is generally on the mainstream left of British political opinion: a MORI poll taken between April and June 2000 showed that 80 per cent of "Guardian" readers were Labour Party voters; according to another MORI poll taken in 2005, 48 per cent of "Guardian" readers were Labour voters and 34 per cent Liberal Democrat voters. The newspaper's reputation as a platform for liberal opinions has led to the use of the epithets ""Guardian" reader" and "Guardianista" for people holding such views, or as a stereotype of such people as middle class, earnest and politically correct.
Although the paper is often considered to be "linked inextricably" to the Labour Party, three of "The Guardian" four leader writers joined the more centrist Social Democratic Party on its foundation in 1981. The paper was enthusiastic in its support for Tony Blair in his successful bid to lead the Labour Party, and to be elected Prime Minister. On 19 January 2003, two months before the 2003 invasion of Iraq, an "Observer" Editorial said: "Military intervention in the Middle East holds many dangers. But if we want a lasting peace it may be the only option. […] War with Iraq may yet not come, but, conscious of the potentially terrifying responsibility resting with the British Government, we find ourselves supporting the current commitment to a possible use of force." But "The Guardian" opposed the war, along with the "Daily Mirror" and "The Independent".
Then "Guardian" features editor Ian Katz asserted in 2004 that "it is no secret we are a centre-left newspaper". In 2008, "Guardian" columnist Jackie Ashley said that editorial contributors were a mix of "right-of-centre libertarians, greens, Blairites, Brownites, Labourite but less enthusiastic Brownites, etc," and that the newspaper was "clearly left of centre and vaguely progressive". She also said that "you can be absolutely certain that come the next general election, "The Guardian" stance will not be dictated by the editor, still less any foreign proprietor (it helps that there isn't one) but will be the result of vigorous debate within the paper". The paper's comment and opinion pages, though often written by centre-left contributors such as Polly Toynbee, have allowed some space for right-of-centre voices such as Sir Max Hastings and Michael Gove. Since an editorial in 2000, "The Guardian" has favoured abolition of the British monarchy. "I write for the "Guardian"," said Max Hastings in 2005, "because it is read by the new establishment," reflecting the paper's then-growing influence.
In the run-up to the 2010 general election, following a meeting of the editorial staff, the paper declared its support for the Liberal Democrats, due in particular, to the party's stance on electoral reform. The paper suggested tactical voting to prevent a Conservative victory, given Britain's first-past-the-post electoral system. At the 2015 election, the paper switched its support to the Labour Party. The paper argued that Britain needed a new direction and Labour "speaks with more urgency than its rivals on social justice, standing up to predatory capitalism, on investment for growth, on reforming and strengthening the public realm, Britain's place in Europe and international development".
Assistant Editor Michael White, in discussing media self-censorship in March 2011, says: "I have always sensed liberal, middle class ill-ease in going after stories about immigration, legal or otherwise, about welfare fraud or the less attractive tribal habits of the working class, which is more easily ignored altogether. Toffs, including royal ones, Christians, especially popes, governments of Israel, and US Republicans are more straightforward targets."
In a 2013 interview for NPR, "The Guardian's" Latin America correspondent Rory Carroll stated that many editors at "The Guardian" believed and continue to believe that they should support Hugo Chávez "because he was a standard-bearer for the left".
In the 2015 Labour Party leadership election, "The Guardian" supported Yvette Cooper and was critical of left-winger Jeremy Corbyn, the successful candidate. These positions were criticised by the "Morning Star", which accused "The Guardian" of being conservative. Although the majority of political columnists in "The Guardian" were against Corbyn winning, Owen Jones, Seumas Milne, and George Monbiot wrote supportive articles about him.
Despite this critical position, in the 2017 election "The Guardian" endorsed the Labour Party. In the 2019 European election "The Guardian" invited its readers to vote for pro-EU candidates, without endorsing specific parties.
Circulation and format.
"The Guardian" had a certified average daily circulation of 204,222 copies in December 2012 — a drop of 11.25 per cent in January 2012 — as compared to sales of 547,465 for "The Daily Telegraph", 396,041 for "The Times", and 78,082 for "The Independent". In March 2013, its average daily circulation had fallen to 193,586, according to the Audit Bureau of Circulations. Circulation has continued to decline and stood at 161,091 in December 2016, a decline of 2.98 per cent year-on-year.
Publication history.
The first edition was published on 5 May 1821, at which time "The Guardian" was a weekly, published on Saturdays and costing 7d; the stamp duty on newspapers (4d per sheet) forced the price up so high that it was uneconomic to publish more frequently. When the stamp duty was cut in 1836, "The Guardian" added a Wednesday edition and with the abolition of the tax in 1855 it became a daily paper costing 2d.
In October 1952, the paper took the step of printing news on the front page, replacing the adverts that had hitherto filled that space. Then-editor A. P. Wadsworth wrote: "It is not a thing I like myself, but it seems to be accepted by all the newspaper pundits that it is preferable to be in fashion."
Following the closure of the Anglican Church Newspaper, "The Guardian", in 1951, the paper dropped "Manchester" from its title in 1959, becoming simply "The Guardian." In 1964 it moved to London, losing some of its regional agenda but continuing to be heavily subsidised by sales of the more downmarket but more profitable "Manchester Evening News". The financial position remained extremely poor into the 1970s; at one time it was in merger talks with "The Times". The paper consolidated its centre-left stance during the 1970s and 1980s.
On 12 February 1988, "The Guardian" had a significant redesign; as well as improving the quality of its printers' ink, it also changed its masthead to a juxtaposition of an italic Garamond "The", with a bold Helvetica "Guardian", that remained in use until the 2005 redesign.
In 1992, "The Guardian" relaunched its features section as "G2", a tabloid-format supplement. This innovation was widely copied by the other "quality" broadsheets and ultimately led to the rise of "compact" papers and "The Guardian" move to the Berliner format. In 1993 the paper declined to participate in the broadsheet price war started by Rupert Murdoch's "The Times". In June 1993, "The Guardian" bought "The Observer" from Lonrho, thus gaining a serious Sunday sister newspaper with similar political views.
Its international weekly edition is now titled "The Guardian Weekly", though it retained the title "Manchester Guardian Weekly" for some years after the home edition had moved to London. It includes sections from a number of other internationally significant newspapers of a somewhat left-of-centre inclination, including "Le Monde" and "The Washington Post". "The Guardian Weekly" was also linked to a website for expatriates, "Guardian Abroad", which was launched in 2007 but had been taken offline by 2012.
Moving to the Berliner paper format.
"The Guardian" is printed in full colour, and was the first newspaper in the UK to use the Berliner format for its main section, while producing sections and supplements in a range of page sizes including tabloid, approximately A4, and pocket-size (approximately A5).
In 2004, "The Guardian" announced plans to change to a Berliner or "midi" format, similar to that used by "Die Tageszeitung" in Germany, "Le Monde" in France and many other European papers. At 470×315 mm, this is slightly larger than a traditional tabloid. Planned for the autumn of 2005, this change followed moves by "The Independent" and "The Times" to start publishing in tabloid (or compact) format. On Thursday, 1 September 2005, "The Guardian" announced that it would launch the new format on Monday 12 September 2005. Sister Sunday newspaper "The Observer" also changed to this new format on 8 January 2006.
The format switch was accompanied by a comprehensive redesign of the paper's look. On Friday, 9 September 2005, the newspaper unveiled its newly designed front page, which débuted on Monday 12 September 2005. Designed by Mark Porter, the new look includes a new masthead for the newspaper, its first since 1988. A typeface family designed by Paul Barnes and Christian Schwartz was created for the new design. With just over 200 fonts, it was described as "one of the most ambitious custom type programs ever commissioned by a newspaper". Among the fonts is Guardian Egyptian, a slab serif that is used in various weights for both text and headlines, and is central to the redesign.
The switch cost "Guardian Newspapers" £80 million and involved setting up new printing presses in east London and Manchester. This switch was necessary because, before "The Guardian" move, no printing presses in Britain could produce newspapers in the Berliner format. There were additional complications, as one of the paper's presses was part-owned by "Telegraph Newspapers" and "Express Newspapers", contracted to use the plant until 2009. Another press was shared with the "Guardian Media Group's" north-western tabloid local papers, which did not wish to switch to the Berliner format.
Reception.
The new format was generally well received by "Guardian" readers, who were encouraged to provide feedback on the changes. The only controversy was over the dropping of the "Doonesbury" cartoon strip. The paper reported thousands of calls and emails complaining about its loss; within 24 hours the decision was reversed and the strip was reinstated the following week. "G2" supplement editor Ian Katz, who was responsible for dropping it, apologised in the editors' blog saying, "I'm sorry, once again, that I made you—and the hundreds of fellow fans who have called our helpline or mailed our comments' address—so cross." However, some readers were dissatisfied as the earlier deadline needed for the all-colour sports section meant coverage of late-finishing evening football matches became less satisfactory in the editions supplied to some parts of the country.
The investment was rewarded with a circulation rise. In December 2005, the average daily sale stood at 380,693, nearly 6 per cent higher than the figure for December 2004. (However, as of December 2012, circulation had dropped to 204,222.) In 2006, the US-based Society for News Design chose "The Guardian" and Polish daily "Rzeczpospolita" as the world's best-designed newspapers—from among 389 entries from 44 countries.
Tabloid format since 2018.
In June 2017, Guardian Media Group (GMG) announced that "The Guardian" and "The Observer" would relaunch in tabloid format from early 2018. "The Guardian" confirmed the launch date for the new format to be 15 January 2018. GMG also signed a contract with "Trinity Mirror" – the publisher of the "Daily Mirror", "Sunday Mirror", and "Sunday People" – to outsource printing of "The Guardian" and "The Observer".
The format change is intended to help cut costs as it allows the paper to be printed by a wider array of presses, and outsourcing the printing to presses owned by Trinity Mirror is expected to save millions of pounds annually. The move is part of a three-year plan that includes cutting 300 jobs in an attempt to reduce losses and break even by 2019. The paper and ink are the same as previously and the font size is fractionally larger.
An assessment of the response from readers in late April 2018 indicated that the new format had led to an increased number of subscriptions. The editors were working on changing aspects that had caused complaints from readers.
In July 2018, the masthead of the new tabloid format was adjusted to a dark blue.
Online media.
"The Guardian" and its Sunday sibling "The Observer" publish all their news online, with free access both to current news and an archive of three million stories. A third of the site's hits are for items over a month old. As of May 2013, it was the most popular UK newspaper website with 8.2 million unique visitors per month, just ahead of "Mail Online" with 7.6 million unique monthly visitors. In April 2011, MediaWeek reported that "The Guardian" was the fifth most popular newspaper site in the world. Journalists use an analytics tool called Ophan, built entire in-house, to measure website data around stories and audience.
"The Guardian" launched an iOS mobile application for its content in 2009. An Android app followed in 2011. In 2018, the newspaper announced its apps and mobile website would be redesigned to coincide with its relaunch as a tabloid.
The Comment is Free section features columns by the paper's journalists and regular commentators, as well as articles from guest writers, including readers' comments and responses below. The section includes all the opinion pieces published in the paper itself, as well as many others that only appear online. Censorship is exercised by Moderators who can ban posts – with no right of appeal – by those who they feel have overstepped the mark. "The Guardian" has taken what they call a very "open" stance in delivering news, and have launched an open platform for their content. This allows external developers to easily use "Guardian" content in external applications, and even to feed third-party content back into the "Guardian" network. "The Guardian" also had a number of talkboards that were noted for their mix of political discussion and whimsy until they were closed on Friday, 25 February 2011 after they had settled a libel action brought after months of harassment of a conservative party activist. They were spoofed in "The Guardian" own regular humorous Chatroom column in "G2". The spoof column purported to be excerpts from a chatroom on permachat.co.uk, a real URL that pointed to "The Guardian" talkboards.
In August 2013, a webshow titled "Thinkfluencer" was launched by Guardian Multimedia in association with Arte.
In 2004 the paper also launched a dating website, Guardian Soulmates; this is to close at the end of June 2020.
Podcasts.
The paper entered podcasting in 2005 with a twelve-part weekly podcast series by Ricky Gervais. In January 2006, Gervais' show topped the iTunes podcast chart having been downloaded by two million listeners worldwide, and was scheduled to be listed in the 2007 "Guinness Book of Records" as the most downloaded podcast.
"The Guardian" now offers several regular podcasts made by its journalists. One of the most prominent is "Today in Focus", a daily news podcast hosted by Anushka Asthana and launched on 1 November 2018. It was an immediate success and became one of the UK's most-downloaded podcasts.
GuardianFilms.
In 2003, "The Guardian" started the film production company GuardianFilms, headed by journalist Maggie O'Kane. Much of the company's output is documentary made for television– and it has included Salam Pax's "Baghdad Blogger" for BBC Two's daily flagship "Newsnight", some of which have been shown in compilations by "CNN International", "Sex on the Streets" and "Spiked", both made for the UK's Channel 4 television.
GuardianFilms has received several broadcasting awards. In addition to two Amnesty International Media Awards in 2004 and 2005, "The Baghdad Blogger: Salam Pax" won a Royal Television Society Award in 2005. "Baghdad: A Doctor's Story" won an Emmy Award for Best International Current Affairs film in 2007. In 2008, photojournalist Sean Smith's "Inside the Surge" won the Royal Television Society award for best international news film – the first time a newspaper has won such an award. The same year, "The Guardian" Katine website was awarded for its outstanding new media output at the One World Media awards. Again in 2008, GuardianFilms' undercover video report revealing vote rigging by Robert Mugabe's ZANU–PF party during the 2007 Zimbabwe election won best news programme of the year at the Broadcast Awards.
References in popular culture.
The paper's nickname "" (sometimes abbreviated as "Graun") originated with the satirical magazine "Private Eye". This anagram played on "The Guardian"s early reputation for frequent typographical errors, including misspelling its own name as "The ".
The first issue of the newspaper contained a number of errors, including a notification that there would soon be some goods sold at "" instead of "auction". Fewer typographical errors are seen in the paper since the end of hot-metal typesetting. One "Guardian" writer, Keith Devlin, suggested that the high number of observed misprints was due more to the quality of the readership than the misprints' greater frequency. The fact that the newspaper was printed in Manchester until 1961 and the early, more error-prone, prints were sent to London by train may have contributed to this image as well. When John Cole was appointed news editor by Alastair Hetherington in 1963, he sharpened the paper's comparatively "amateurish" setup.
Employees of The Guardian and sister paper The Observer have been depicted in the films "The Fifth Estate" (2013), "Snowden" (2016) and "Official Secrets" (2019), while Paddy Considine played a fictional Guardian journalist in the film "The Bourne Ultimatum" (2007).
Awards.
Received.
"The Guardian" has been awarded the National Newspaper of the Year in 1998, 2005, 2010 and 2013 by the British Press Awards, and Front Page of the Year in 2002 ("A declaration of war", 12 September 2001). It was also co-winner of the World's Best-designed Newspaper as awarded by the Society for News Design (2005, 2007, 2013, 2014).
"Guardian" journalists have won a range of British Press Awards, including:
Other awards include:
The "Guardian, Observer" and its journalists have also won numerous accolades at the British Sports Journalism Awards:
The "guardian.co.uk" website won the Best Newspaper category three years running in 2005, 2006 and 2007 Webby Awards, beating (in 2005) "The New York Times", "The Washington Post", "The Wall Street Journal" and "Variety". It has been the winner for six years in a row of the British Press Awards for Best Electronic Daily Newspaper. The site won an "Eppy" award from the US-based magazine "Editor & Publisher" in 2000 for the best-designed newspaper online service.
In 2007, the newspaper was ranked first in a study on transparency that analysed 25 mainstream English-language media vehicles, which was conducted by the International Center for Media and the Public Agenda of the University of Maryland. It scored 3.8 out of a possible 4.0.
"The Guardian" and "The Washington Post" shared the 2014 Pulitzer Prize for public service reporting for their coverage of the NSA's and GCHQ's worldwide electronic surveillance program and the document leaks by whistleblower Edward Snowden.
Given.
"The Guardian" is the sponsor of two major literary awards: The "Guardian First Book Award", established in 1999 as a successor to the "Guardian Fiction Award", which had run since 1965, and the "Guardian Children's Fiction Prize", founded in 1967. In recent years the newspaper has also sponsored the Hay Festival in Hay-on-Wye.
The annual Guardian Student Media Awards, founded in 1999, recognise excellence in journalism and design of British university and college student newspapers, magazines and websites.
In memory of Paul Foot, who died in 2004, "The Guardian" and "Private Eye" jointly set up the Paul Foot Award, with an annual £10,000 prize fund, for investigative or campaigning journalism.
The newspaper produces "The Guardian" 100 Best Footballers In The World. Since 2018 it has also co-produced the female equivalent, The 100 Best Female Footballers In The World.
In 2016, "The Guardian" began awarding an annual Footballer of the Year award, given to a footballer regardless of gender "who has done something truly remarkable, whether by overcoming adversity, helping others or setting a sporting example by acting with exceptional honesty."
Notable regular contributors (past and present).
Columnists and journalists:
Cartoonists:
Satirists:
Experts:
Photographers and picture editors:
Guardian News & Media archive.
"The Guardian" and its sister newspaper "The Observer" opened The Newsroom, an archive and visitor centre in London, in 2002. The centre preserved and promoted the histories and values of the newspapers through its archive, educational programmes and exhibitions. The Newsroom's activities were all transferred to Kings Place in 2008. Now known as the Guardian News & Media archive, the archive preserves and promotes the histories and values of "The Guardian" and "The Observer" newspapers by collecting and making accessible material that provides an accurate and comprehensive history of the papers. The archive holds official records of "The Guardian" and "The Observer", and also seeks to acquire material from individuals who have been associated with the papers. As well as corporate records, the archive holds correspondence, diaries, notebooks, original cartoons and photographs belonging to staff of the papers. This material may be consulted by members of the public by prior appointment. An extensive "Manchester Guardian" archive also exists at the University of Manchester's John Rylands University Library, and there is a collaboration programme between the two archives. Additionally, the British Library has a large archive of "The Manchester Guardian" available in its British Library Newspapers collection, in online, hard copy, microform, and CD-ROM formats.
In November 2007, "The Guardian" and "The Observer" made their archives available over the internet via DigitalArchive. The current extent of the archives available are 1821 to 2000 for "The Guardian" and 1791 to 2000 for "The Observer": these archives will eventually run up to 2003.
The Newsroom's other components were also transferred to Kings Place in 2008. "The Guardian" Education Centre provides a range of educational programmes for students and adults. "The Guardian" exhibition space was also moved to Kings Place, and has a rolling programme of exhibitions that investigate and reflect upon aspects of news and newspapers and the role of journalism. This programme often draws on the archive collections held in the GNM Archive.


Gabrielle-Suzanne de Villeneuve

Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve (28 November 1685 – 29 December 1755) was a French author influenced by Madame d'Aulnoy, Charles Perrault, and various précieuse writers. Villeneuve is particularly noted for her 1740 original story of "La Belle et la Bête", which is the oldest known variant of the fairy tale "Beauty and the Beast".
Biography.
Gabrielle-Suzanne de Villeneuve was born and died in Paris, but belonged to a powerful Protestant family from La Rochelle. She was the descendant of the notable Amos Barbot who was a Peer of France and a Deputy of the Estates General in 1614. His brother, Jean Amos, became mayor of La Rochelle in 1610. Another relation, Jean Barbot (1655-1712) was an early explorer of West Africa and the Caribbean, who worked as an agent on slave ships. He published his travel journals in French and English when he migrated to England to escape the prosecution of Protestants after Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes in 1685.
In 1706, Gabrielle-Suzanne de Villeneuve married Jean-Baptiste Gaalon de Villeneuve, a member of an aristocratic family from Poitou. Within six months of her marriage, she requested a separation of belongings from her husband who had already squandered much of their substantial joint family inheritance. A daughter was born from the marriage but no records indicate if she survived. In 1711, Gabrielle-Suzanne became a widow at the age of 26. She progressively lost her family fortune and was forced to seek a means of employment to support herself. Eventually, she made her way to Paris where she met Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon, or Crébillon père, the most famous playwright of tragedies of the period. It is likely she began co-habitating with Crébillon père in the early 1730s (although the earliest documented date is 1748), and remained with him until her death in 1755. Gabrielle-Suzanne assisted Crébillon père with his duties as the royal literary censor, and thus became knowledgeable about the literary tastes of the Parisian reading public.
Major works.
Gabrielle-Suzanne de Villeneuve published both fairy tales and novels. Her publications include a novella "Le Phénix conjugal" (1734) ("The Conjugal Phoenix"), two collections of fairy tales, "La Jeune Américaine ou les Contes marins" (1740), and "Les Belles Solitaires" (1745), and four novels, "Le Beau-frère supposé" (1752), "La Jardinière de Vincennes" (1753) ("The Gardener of Vincennes"), "Le juge prévenu" (1754) "(The Biased Judge"), and the "Mémoires de Mesdemoiselles de Marsange" (1757) ("Memoirs of Mlles de Marsange"). "La Jardinière de Vincennes" was considered her masterpiece and greatest commercial success. The "Bibliographie du genre romanesque français 1751-1800" lists 15 editions of her novel.
"Beauty and the Beast".
Gabrielle-Suzanne de Villeneuve is particularly noted for her original 1740 story of "La Belle et la Bête", which is the oldest known modern variant of the fairy tale "Beauty and the Beast" found in her "La jeune américaine, et les contes marins." The tale is novel length, and influenced by the style of seventeenth-century novels, as it contains many subplots or intercalated stories, most notably the histories of Beauty and the Beast. The Beast is "bête" in both senses of the French word: a beast and lacking intelligence (i.e. stupid). After her death, Villeneuve's tale was abridged, rewritten, and published by Jeanne-Marie Leprince de Beaumont in 1756 in her "Magasin des enfants" to teach young English girls a moral lesson. In her widely popular publication, she gave no credit to Villeneuve as the author of "La Belle" "et la Bête" and thus Leprince de Beaumont is often referred to as the author of this famous fairytale. Her shortened version is the one most commonly known today.
The Beast, a prince, lost his father at a young age. His mother had to wage war to defend his kingdom, and left him in the care of a rather evil fairy. This fairy attempted to seduce him as the prince became an adult. When he refused, she transformed him into the beast until someone would agree to marry him without knowing his past or that he was intelligent. In a neighboring kingdom, Beauty is the daughter of a king and a different fairy. Beauty's mother broke the laws of fairy society by falling in love with a human, so she was sentenced to remain in the fairy land and Beauty was sentenced to marry a hideous beast when she grew up. After Beauty's mother disappeared from earth, the evil fairy unsuccessfully attempted to take Beauty's life and marry her father. Beauty's aunt, another good fairy, intervened and changed Beauty's place with the dead daughter of a merchant for Beauty's protection, then placed the Beast in a magically hidden castle until Beauty grew old enough.


Gunnar Berg (politician)

Gunnar Berg (13 September 1923 – 23 December 2007) was a Norwegian politician for the Liberal Party.
He served as a deputy representative to the Norwegian Parliament from Nordland during the term 1965–1969.
References.
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Military General Service Medal

The Military General Service Medal (MGSM) was a campaign medal approved in 1847 and issued to officers and men of the British Army in 1848.
The MGSM was approved on 1 June 1847 as a retrospective award for various military actions from 1793–1814; a period encompassing the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars, and the Anglo-American War of 1812. Each battle or campaign covered by the medal was represented by a clasp on the ribbon; twenty-nine were sanctioned and the maximum awarded to one man was fifteen.
The Duke of Richmond, who had fought at Waterloo, was chiefly responsible for the belated institution of the Military General Service Medal for all survivors of the campaigns between 1793 and 1814. He campaigned in Parliament and also enlisted the interest of Queen Victoria, who persuaded a reluctant Duke of Wellington that junior and non-commissioned officers and private soldiers deserved this recognition. Hitherto, only the Waterloo Medal had been awarded to all ranks, while senior officers could receive the Army Gold Medal for service in the Napoleonic Wars.
The MGSM was only awarded to surviving claimants. A combination of factors, including general illiteracy and limited publicity for the new medal, meant that many did not apply for it, with only about 10 per cent of those who served receiving the medal. While next of kin could not apply for a medal on behalf of a deceased relative, they did receive the medal in cases where the claimant had died between their application and actual award.
A total of 26,089 medals were awarded.
This medal and its naval counterpart, the Naval General Service Medal, were among the first real British campaign medals, issued to all ranks present at a battle or campaign. The earlier Army Gold Medal had been awarded to field and general officers for their successful commands; they were not eligible to claim clasps for the same battle on the MGSM. To distinguish between the two medals, the MGSM was referred to as the "silver medal".
Appearance.
The medal, designed by William Wyon, is of silver and in diameter.
Clasps.
The following clasps were awarded. Although the medal bears the dates 1793 to 1814, no clasp was authorised for service before 1801, or between 1802 and 1805. A total of 21 clasps relate to the Peninsular War and three to the War of 1812. The medal was never issued without a clasp. The most awarded to a single recipient was 15.


Mathias Larsen Blilie

Mathias Larsen Blilie (2 October 1854 – ??) was a Norwegian politician for the Liberal Party and the Liberal Left Party.
He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament in 1907, representing the Liberal Party and the constituency of Toten. He was re-elected in 1910, but this time representing the Liberal Left Party.
Born in Vestre Toten, his father Lars Kristian Blilie was a member of Parliament too. Mathias Blilie worked as a farmer, and was also director of the local savings bank and insurance company for some time.
He was a member of Vestre Toten municipal council for twenty-eight years. He served as mayor of Vestre Toten from 1902 to 1907, and when the municipality Eina was created in 1908, he served as its first mayor. He stepped down after the year 1910.


Jeff Fillion

Jean-François Fillion, better known as Jeff Fillion, is a radio host and businessman in Quebec, Canada. He is often associated with Trash Radio, a political incorrect radio style that is often associated with right-wing radio hosts from the Quebec City area.
Media – radio career.
Fillion began his career in his home town of Chicoutimi in the late 1980s working for CFIX-FM. Most of his reputation comes from his stint, from 1997 to 2005, as morning man with radio station CHOI-FM in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. He developed over time a strong following, and at his peak, had more than twice as many listeners as his nearest competitor. However, his very controversial and politically incorrect comments, combined with those of André Arthur, resulted in the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) refusing to renew the station's licence in July 2004. The station and license were bought by RNC Media in June 2007 without interruption to its broadcasting.
He was fired on March 17, 2005, in the fallout of the trial from Sophie Chiasson against him and his then-employer. The judgement was particularly severe, with the judge noting that the comments made by Jeff Fillion regarding Miss Chiasson were "sexist, mean, incited hatred, were without cause, wounding and injurious. These comments are a threat to the dignity and honour of human kind in general and particularly to Miss Chiasson.". The participants in the radio show (Fillion and gang) referred to the plaintiff as "a consummate liar," "a cat in heat," as well as "a leech on (hockey player) Alexandre Daigle," "an airhead" and repeatedly suggested Chiasson used sex to get jobs.
Miss Chiasson was awarded $340,000 CAD in punitive damages. .
After numerous rumours to the effect that he would be hired by other radio stations in the Quebec City market (which turned out to be unfounded) or by a satellite radio group, he announced his intention of launching a subscription-only Internet radio service. RadioPirate.com was launched on March 17, 2006, exactly a year after he was fired by CHOI-FM. His radio show was also broadcast on XM Satellite Radio, channel 156 until his contract was nullified on August 11, 2011 by the newly merged Sirius XM Canada. His internet station still lives today and a free light version is also available. Fillion was hired by Bell Media and was back on the air beginning March 3, 2014 with his show:"Jeff Fillion" on NRJ 98.9, a Quebec city radio station.
On April 19, 2016, Fillion was suspended indefinitely by Bell Media for a tweet that he posted about an interview that Alexandre Taillefer had given to Guy A. Lepage on the French Canadian show "Tout le monde en parle (Quebec)". The tweet linked to an article which summarized the interview. The only other content of the tweet was two identical emoji faces which Fillion included, seemingly because they resemble Taillefer. Fillion's tweet was interpreted by his opponents as trying to ridicule Taillefer who was blaming the company Amazon.com for the suicide of his son. Although he rapidly deleted his tweet, Fillion was suspended by Bell Media after Taillefer, while being interviewed by Paul Arcand, publicly questioned the fact that Bell Media was still employing him.
On April 20, 2016, Bell Media announced that Fillion was not an employee anymore.
Political and social views.
His politics are a mix of conservatism and libertarianism.
He rejects separatism not for any real attachment to Canada but more because of his perception that sovereignty would only help to increase socialism in Quebec. His father, Gilbert Fillion, was a one-term Member of Parliament for the Bloc Québécois, in the riding of Chicoutimi from 1993 to 1997.
He is an avid critic of the way media treat global warming. He recognizes the presence of global warming but suggests that human action has little to do with it.
Fillion is an amateur of popular economics, wishing to improve the basic level of economics knowledge of Quebecers.
He was an avid critic of the mayor Andrée Boucher who, he believes, kept the city in a state of dust. He believes that NHL hockey should come back to Quebec City, notably by an ownership effort from Red Bull. He proposes that a new arena should be built in a public-private partnership, a project similar to what led Winnipeg to build the new MTS Centre.
Jeff Fillion claims that a new breed of Quebec politicians should regroup, notably identifying leaders such as ex cabinet member Joseph Facal, economist Nathalie Elgrably, radiologist Gaetan Barrette and political reporter Michel Hébert.
2009 Mayoral bid.
In October 2009, Fillion announced he would run against current Quebec City mayor, Regis Labaume. His program consists of getting new infrastructures for the city and better spending ethics. He placed second against incumbent mayor, Regis Labeaume, with 8.6% of the votes cast.