Indore gharana

Indore gharana is one of the vocal gharanas of Indian classical music. It was founded by Amir Khan, who studied the styles of Abdul Wahid Khan, Aman Ali Khan, Rajab Ali Khan and Abdul Karim Khan and amalgamated their style.
Amir Khan grew up in Indore, India but he did not like the factionalism inherent in the gharana tradition. In an interview to Akashvani, Indore, he said:
Performances in the Indore gharana are noted by the vilambit tempo in the style of Abdul Wahid Khan, and the taans reminiscent of Rajab Ali Khan. The merukhand structure is similar to that practiced by Aman Ali Khan of the Bhendibazaar gharana. The khayal gayaki in the 'Indore gharana' retains the slow development and restraint from frills as in the dhrupad. Mohan Nadkarni says of Amir Khan's music that whereas Bade Ghulam Ali Khan's music was extroverted and exuberant, Amir Khan's music was an introverted, dignified 'darbar' style
Amir Khan's conviction about the importance of poetry in khyal compositions (he used to compose under the pen name, Sur Rang), has also marked the singing of the 'Indore gharana'.
Characteristics of the Indore gharana include:
After Amir Khan's death in a car accident in Kolkata in 1974, the "Indore gharana" has become a powerful stream in modern Hindustani music. Direct disciples of Amir Khan included Pandith Amarnath, Shankar Lal Mishra, Kankana Banerjee, Purvi Mukherjee, and others. However, a number of influential musicians including Sultan Khan (sarangi player) have developed their music under 'Indore gharana' influence.


Congressional Record

The Congressional Record is the official record of the proceedings and debates of the United States Congress, published by the United States Government Publishing Office and issued when Congress is in session. Indexes are issued approximately every two weeks. At the end of a session of Congress, the daily editions are compiled in bound volumes constituting the permanent edition. Chapter 9 of Title 44 of the United States Code authorizes publication of the "Congressional Record".
Overview.
The "Congressional Record" consists of four sections: the House section, the Senate section, the Extensions of Remarks, and, since the 1940s, the Daily Digest. At the back of each daily issue is the Daily Digest, which summarizes the day's floor and committee activities and serves as a table of contents for each issue. The House and Senate sections contain proceedings for the separate chambers of Congress.
A section of the "Congressional Record" titled "Extensions of Remarks" contains speeches, tributes and other extraneous words that were not uttered during open proceedings of the full Senate or of the full House of Representatives. Witnesses in committee hearings are often asked to submit their complete testimony "for the record" and only deliver a summary of it in person. The full statement will then appear in a printed volume of the hearing identified as "Statements for the Record". In years past, this particular section of the "Congressional Record" was called the "Appendix". While members of either body may insert material into Extensions of Remarks, Senators rarely do so. The overwhelming majority of what is found there is entered at the request of Members of the House of Representatives. From a legal standpoint, most materials in the "Congressional Record" are classified as secondary authority, as part of a statute's legislative history.
By custom and rules of each house, members also frequently "revise and extend" their remarks made on the floor before the debates are published in the "Congressional Record". Therefore, for many years, speeches that were not delivered in Congress appeared in the "Congressional Record", including in the sections purporting to be verbatim reports of debates. In recent years, however, these revised remarks have been preceded by a "bullet" symbol or, more recently and currently, printed in a typeface discernibly different from that used to report words spoken by members.
The "Congressional Record" is publicly available for records before 1875 via the Library of Congress' American Memory Century of Lawmaking website, and since 1989 via Congress.gov (which replaced the THOMAS database in 2016). Thanks to a partnership between GPO and the Library of Congress, digital versions of the bound editions are available on govinfo.gov for 1873 to 2001 (Volumes 1-147) and 2005 to 2015 (Volumes 151-161). Govinfo.gov also provides access to digital versions of the daily edition from 1994 (Volume 140) to the present.
History.
The Constitution, in Article I, Section 5, requires Congress to keep a journal of its proceedings, although the House and Senate Journals are separate publications from the "Congressional Record", and include only a bare record of actions and votes, rather than verbatim texts of the debates.
The "Congressional Record" was first published in 1873. Prior to this, proceedings, roll calls, debates, and other records were recorded in "The Annals of Congress" (formerly known as "The Debates and Proceedings in the Congress of the United States"; 1789–1824), the "Register of Debates in Congress" (1824–1837), or the "Congressional Globe" (1833–1873). A digital collection of these historical volumes is now available online via the Library of Congress.


David Smith (historian)

David L. Smith (born 3 December 1963 in London) is a noted historian at Selwyn College, Cambridge. He specializes in Early Modern British history, particularly political, constitutional, legal and religious history within the Stuart period. He is the author or co-author of eight books, and the editor or co-editor of six others, and he has also published more than seventy articles (see list of chief publications below).
Early life.
Smith was educated at Eastbourne College (1972–81) and then went up to Selwyn College, Cambridge, as a Scholar in October 1982. At Selwyn he took Firsts in both Parts of the Historical Tripos, with Distinction in Part I, and graduated in 1985. He then gained his PGCE with Distinction in 1986, and was awarded the Charles Fox Prize for the best performance in the Cambridge PGCE that year. He went on to take his MA in 1989 and his PhD in 1990.
Career.
In 1991 he won the Royal Historical Society's Alexander Prize, and Cambridge University's Thirlwall Prize for historical research.
He has been a Fellow of Selwyn College since 1988. He has served as a Director of Studies in History since 1992 and a Graduate Tutor since 2004. He has also held several other offices within the College, including Admissions Tutor (1992-2003), Praelector (1994-2006), and Secretary to the College Council and Governing Body (2018-20).
He has been an Affiliated Lecturer in the Faculty of History at Cambridge since 1995, and he served as Convenor of the Directors of Studies in History from 2006 to 2010. He also teaches regular weekend, day-school and summer school courses for Cambridge's Institute of Continuing Education. He has taught on the Institute's annual History Summer Programme every year since 1993, and he has been Programme Director since 2005. He was a member of the Institute's Management Board from 2005 to 2008, and he was an Affiliated Lecturer of the Institute from 2012 to 2019.
He was an Associate Editor and Research Associate for the "Oxford Dictionary of National Biography" (Oxford University Press, 2004), to which he also contributed twenty-three articles. From 1993 to 2003 he was co-editor of the Cambridge University Press A-level History series "Cambridge Perspectives in History", in which thirty books were published. More recently, he was co-editor of the Cambridge University Press series aimed at the AQA specifications for A-level History, in which eighteen books were published in 2015-16. He was an Associate Editor of the "Journal of British Studies" from 2014 to 2017.
He was a Visiting Professor at the University of Chicago in 1991, and at Kyungpook National University, Daegu, South Korea, in 2004. He served as an External Examiner for the University of Leicester (2007–10), and for the University of Hull (2012-17). He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society in 1992, and he has been President of the Cambridge History Forum since 1997.
He has taught in schools as well as universities. During his gap year in 1982, he spent two terms teaching at Framlingham College Prep School, and was Acting Head of History for the second term. In 1986, he taught at Hinchingbrooke School, Huntingdon, for his Cambridge PGCE teaching practice term. He was an A-level History Examiner for the Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board from 1986 to 1990, and since 1988 he has given lectures in over a hundred schools and sixth-form colleges.
He served as a Governor of Eastbourne College (1993-2015) and also as a Trustee of Oakham School (2000-12). He was a member of the Cambridgeshire Records Society Committee from 1998 to 2009. He served on the Management Committee of the Cromwell Museum in Huntingdon from 2009 to 2015, and he was a Trustee of the Cromwell Association from 2012 to 2015.


Max D. Adams

Max D. Adams is an American screenwriter and author. The winner of a Nicholl Fellowship in Screenwriting and an Austin Film Festival screenwriting award, Adams went on to be dubbed “Red Hot Adams” by Daily Variety.
Career.
Adams has worked with Columbia Pictures, Hollywood Pictures, Touchstone Pictures, Universal Pictures, Walt Disney Studios, and TriStar Pictures, among several others. Her produced feature films include "Excess Baggage", "The Ladykillers", "One For the Money" and she appeared in Tony Tarantino’s "Underbelly Blues".
Adams is also the founder of two international online screenwriting workshops, The Left Door and 5150, and is the author of "The New Screenwriter’s Survival Guide". She is also a University of Utah adjunct professor, is a former WGA online mentor, and is the founder of The Academy of Film Writing.


Ronnie Ronalde

Ronald Charles Waldron (29 June 1923 – 13 January 2015), known professionally as Ronnie Ronalde, was a British music hall singer and siffleur. Ronalde was famous for his voice, whistling, yodelling, imitations of bird song and stage personality. His crystal clear yodelling gained him acceptance with connoisseurs of Alpine and Western music around the world.
Biography.
Early life: the Silver Songsters.
Ronalde grew up in a poor but supportive Islington home, and found a talent for singing, whistling and bird impressions from early childhood. In these formative years, he entertained informally for pocket money, or with church and school choirs, developing his talents for stage performance.
During a time in which he was training for accountancy, Ronalde was invited to become one of Arturo Steffani's Silver Songsters, aged 15. This 21-piece boys' choir was known for its complex vocal and visual arrangements of popular songs, with each boy usually going into other trades when older. Steffani was so taken with Ronalde's voice and whistling (he referred to him as "the Pink of Perfection"), that he disbanded the Silver Songsters (in 1947) and became his personal manager, mentor and chaperone. They later toured all over the world together.
After wartime service, Steffani encouraged Ronalde to study singing in London and yodelling in Switzerland, and for nearly a decade he began working his way up the bill, not only as a solo Variety performer, but also under his new name: Ronnie Ronalde.
1950s: the halcyon years.
After early struggles, Ronalde's first successful UK tour (in the late 1940s) met him with a wave of interest. Ronalde’s first recordings were with Decca Records (these were only to be whistling performances), but his first major label contract came from EMI. Ronalde would also join Pye, Major Minor and Columbia records, becoming a million-selling artiste.
"If I Were a Blackbird" (1950) is among Ronalde's most famous songs from this period. This rendering of Delia Murphy's Irish folk song had him in the British top 20 for 6 months. She would later jovially express her thanks for boosting her income. Other songs include "Tritsch Tratsch Polka" (a showcase of Ronalde's high speed delivery whistling) and "Bells Across the Meadow" (by Albert Ketèlbey). His best known recording is "In a Monastery Garden" (by Albert Ketèlbey). Ronalde played it as his show finale for decades, and over a million copies of it have been sold in their varying formats.
Across this decade Ronalde was a headliner, and broke box office records all over the world: he was a big name in the UK, US, Australasia, Scandinavia, Africa, South America and Europe. Such was his success in the US in the 1950s, he was seen as serious competition to Frank Sinatra and Bing Crosby, and others such as Richard Tauber and Josef Locke.
Ronalde had his own BBC Radio Show from 1949 called "The Voice of Variety". During this series, the volume of Ronalde's fan mail caused a problem for the BBC. The "Voice of Variety News" fan publication had a print of 55,000 copies twice yearly, and fan clubs during this era existed all across the UK. Thames TV also presented a weekly show titled "Meet Ronnie Ronalde".
In 1949 Ronalde filled Radio City Music Hall in New York City (with capacity of over six thousand) every night for ten weeks. He was at that time the most frequent UK artiste to ever perform there (over a thousand times). During the same period he filled a 25,000 capacity venue in Toronto, Canada, for a fortnight. In February 1956, the British music magazine "NME" reported that Billy Cotton and Ronalde had released versions of "Happy Trails", the theme music to ATV's weekly "Roy Rogers" series.
Ronalde also performed for Queen Elizabeth II and Prince Philip at the Royal Command Performance at the London Coliseum. A Daily Express reporter commented on the Prince's attempts to demonstrate whistling to the Queen after this performance. He appeared before Prince Philip again.
Later life.
At the height of his popularity Ronalde foresaw a decline in variety performing and took a step away from the limelight. Nonetheless, Ronalde did not abandon the entertainment industry: he maintained an engagement diary and summer seasons into his 80s, as well as TV appearances and radio broadcasts. He settled on the island of Guernsey in the 1960s, being attracted to it after a performance there. He purchased a hotel (St Martin's, which would come to be known as Ronnie Ronalde's Hotel), and met Austrian wife Rosemarie who would become his business manager following Steffani's death. After bringing up three children, both he and Rosemarie moved to the Isle of Man in the late 1980s, then to Whistler's Lodge in New Zealand in the 1990s, to the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia, and returned to the UK in the last years of his life. In New Zealand in 1990, Ronalde filled the 2,500-capacity Aotea Theatre, and was invited to stay for another concert. He was also asked to return for repeat performances in both Auckland and Christchurch town halls.
Ronalde was awarded America's North Carolina Louisburg Hall of Fame Award in 1995, their highest acclaim, given only to artists of outstanding international distinction.
His recording "Bird Song at Eventide" was featured in the hit TV series, and subsequent best-selling soundtrack, "The Singing Detective" in 1986.
His 1998 autobiography entitled "Around the World on a Whistle" drew extensively on memorabilia, theatre bills, photographs and clippings, and is a document of the published history of variety circuits. He quipped that his next book would have been "an Encyclopaedia of Whistling".
EMI Australia released a CD with the same title "Around the World on a Whistle" in the 1990s. In testament to the longevity of his popularity, this gained him another Gold Disc and a small upsurge in his career. EMI subsequently released a number of albums of Ronalde's early works that had not been available since their original gramophone releases.
In 2002, he was inducted into the exclusive entertainment charitable fraternity, the Grand Order of Water Rats.
Ronalde appeared in the 2007 Australian feature film "Clubland".
Ronalde made an appearance at the Hackney Empire for a charity evening, The Golden Years of Variety, on Sunday 9 September 2012, when he received a standing ovation. His final public appearance was at Beccles Public Hall & Theatre on Sunday 19 May 2013.
He suffered a stroke shortly after his 90th birthday in 2013, and subsequently moved into Brinsworth House, the retired entertainers' home in Twickenham, where he died.
The comedians Bob Hope, Jimmy Edwards, Morecambe and Wise, Bob Monkhouse, Peter Cook, Max Wall and Max Bygraves have all made references to 'Whistling Ronnie' in their routines. Terry-Thomas joked that he was sick of hearing Ronalde's whistling, and attempted impersonations.


William Colepaugh

William Curtis Colepaugh (March 25, 1918 – March 16, 2005) was an American who, following his 1943 discharge from the U.S. Naval Reserve ("for the good of the service", according to official reports), defected to Nazi Germany in 1944. While a crewman on a repatriation ship that stopped off in Lisbon, Colepaugh defected at the German consulate. Colepaugh had attended Admiral Farragut Academy in Pine Beach, New Jersey.
Secret agent.
Colepaugh was given extensive firearms and espionage training at a spy-school in the German-occupied The Hague. He spoke virtually no German. With the German agent Erich Gimpel, he was transported back to the United States by the , landing at Hancock Point in the Gulf of Maine on 29 November 1944. Their mission, Operation Elster ("Magpie"), was to gather technical information on the Allied war effort and transmit it back to Germany using a radio they were expected to build.
Together Colepaugh and Gimpel made their way to Boston and then by train to New York. Soon, Colepaugh abandoned the mission, taking US$48,000 ($ today) of the currency they had brought and spending a month partying and carousing with local women. After spending $1,500 ($ today) in less than a month, Colepaugh visited an old schoolfriend and asked for help to turn himself in to the FBI, hoping for immunity. The FBI was already searching for the two German agents following the sinking of a Canadian ship a few miles from the Maine coastline (indicating a U-boat had been nearby) and reports of suspicious sightings by local residents. The FBI interrogated Colepaugh, which then enabled them to track down Gimpel.
After their capture, the pair were handed over to U.S. military authorities on the instructions of the Attorney General. In February 1945, they stood trial before a Military Commission, accused of conspiracy and violating the 82nd Article of War. They were found guilty and sentenced to be hanged, although this was subsequently commuted to life imprisonment by President Harry Truman. Gimpel was paroled in 1955; Colepaugh was paroled in 1960.
Last years.
After his release, Colepaugh moved to King of Prussia, Pennsylvania, near Philadelphia, where he worked in a print shop. He subsequently owned and operated a retail business that sold lockers, desks and other metal office products he had learned to build in prison. He married and participated in community activities, volunteered with the Boy Scouts and became a member of Rotary. He died of complications from Alzheimer's disease in 2005.
Gimpel and Colepaugh are believed to have been the last German spies in World War II who reached the United States.


Besme language

Besme is an Adamawa language of Chad. It is one of the three members of the Kim languages group, together with Kim and Goundo.


Wifredo A. Ferrer

Wifredo A. "Willy" Ferrer (born 1966) is the former United States Attorney for the Southern District of Florida. He was nominated on February 24, 2010 by President Barack Obama and confirmed by the Senate on April 22, 2010. He was sworn in on July 16, 2010 in Miami, Florida. As United States Attorney, he was the chief federal law enforcement officer for the District. Ferrer is currently the Chair of Holland & Knight's Global Compliance and Investigations Team.
Education.
Ferrer earned a B.A. in Economics from the University of Miami in 1987. He then continued his education in law at the University of Pennsylvania, graduating cum laude in 1990.
Early life and career.
Ferrer was born in Hialeah, Florida in 1966, and attended Hialeah-Miami Lakes High School. After graduating law school in 1990, he clerked for then District Judge Stanley Marcus. Upon completing his clerkship in Fall 1991, he joined the Miami law firm of Steel, Hector & Davis where he remained for three years. Ferrer then returned to public service, first as a White House Fellow and Special Assistant to the Secretary of the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and later as Deputy Chief of Staff and Counsel to then Attorney General Janet Reno.
After five years at the Department of Justice, Ferrer returned to Miami in 2000 to become an Assistant United States Attorney. While at the United States Attorney's Office, he served in the Public Integrity and National Security Section, the Economic Crimes Section, the Major Crimes Section and the Appellate Division of the Office. As an Assistant United States Attorney, he handled and tried numerous high-profile matters, including international money laundering, health care fraud, narcotics, international human rights abuses, immigration and firearms offenses.
In 2006, Ferrer joined the Miami-Dade County Attorney's office, where he was an Assistant County Attorney and chief of the Federal Litigation Section.
In March 2017, Ferrer stepped down from his position as U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of Florida and joined the law firm of Holland & Knight in its Miami office as a partner and head of the firm's Global Compliance and Investigations Team.
During his career, Ferrer has been recognized as one of the Top Government Attorneys by both South Florida Legal Guide and Florida Legal Elite. In addition, he received the Attorney General's Medal in 2000, and Superior Performance and Special Merit Awards for his work as an Assistant U.S. Attorney.


Alastair Hetherington

Hector Alastair Hetherington (31 October 1919 – 3 October 1999) was a British journalist, newspaper editor and academic. For nearly twenty years he was the editor of "The Guardian", and is regarded as one of the leading editors of the second half of the twentieth century.
Early life and career.
Hetherington was the son of Sir Hector Hetherington, professor of logic and philosophy at University College, Cardiff and later Principal of the University of Glasgow. His mother was Mary Ethel Alison Reid (1886-1966). He was educated at Gresham's School in Holt, Norfolk, from 1933 to 1937 and then at Corpus Christi College, Oxford from 1938 to 1940, but his time at Oxford was interrupted by the Second World War. Though his myopia initially kept him from duty in a combat regiment, eventually he joined the Royal Armoured Corps and subsequently transferred to the Northamptonshire Yeomanry. Shortly after the Normandy landings he was a tank captain advancing towards Vire when his tank was destroyed. He later took part in the relief of Antwerp and ended his army career as a major in the Intelligence Corps, during which time he wrote a "Military Geography of Schleswig-Holstein".
Based on three months as a trainee sub-editor for the "Glasgow Herald", Hetherington was offered a posting after his demobilisation as managing editor of "Die Welt", the first German national newspaper to be produced in the British zone after the war. The experience confirmed his decision to pursue a career in journalism rather than academia, and he rejoined the "Glasgow Herald" a year later as a sub-editor and writer of articles on defence matters.
Editor of "The Guardian".
In 1950, Hetherington moved to "Manchester Guardian". There he caught the eye of the paper's editor, A. P. Wadsworth, who helped him win a Commonwealth Fund Fellowship and named him as foreign editor in 1953. When Wadsworth fell terminally ill three years later, the chairman of the paper, Laurence Scott, named Hetherington as Wadsworth's successor. Though there were three more senior journalists on staff, Scott wanted to transform "The Guardian" into a national newspaper, and wanted a younger man capable of overseeing the effort.
Within weeks of taking over as editor, Hetherington faced the question of how to respond to the Suez Crisis. His denunciation of Britain's involvement as an "act of folly, without justification in any terms but brief expediency" precipitated enormous criticism from thousands of readers, but an increase in circulation and Britain's subsequent withdrawal vindicated the young editor. Suez soon proved to be only the first of many causes Hetherington took up, as he used as his position to campaign for social justice, alleviating the poverty gap between northern and southern England, and nuclear disarmament. He was present at the founding of the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, attending preliminary meetings at the house of Lord Simon of Wythenshawe, with Sir Bernard Lovell and Bertrand Russell, but he did not join or support CND. He also gave evidence for the defence at the "Lady Chatterley" trial and became the first British editor to allow the word "fuck" to be used in his newspaper.
Becoming a national newspaper.
During this time, Hetherington also was busy overseeing the evolution of the "Manchester Guardian" into a national newspaper. After dropping the word "Manchester" from the masthead in 1959, the paper opened a London headquarters two years later. The transition proved difficult, however, as sales dropped and advertising revenue failed to fill the gap. Hetherington himself was commuting by train between London and Manchester twice or three times weekly. Twice Scott sought to alleviate the problem by selling the paper to "The Times", but was rebuffed the first time and stopped by Hetherington's unyielding opposition to the proposal in the second. Ultimately, thanks to the profits from "The Guardian"'s sister publication, the "Manchester Evening News", the paper weathered the move.
As "The Guardian"'s immediate prospects slowly improved, Hetherington focused on the task on turning paper into one capable of competing on a national level. He pushed for expanded features, including special supplements and the first op-ed page in a British daily. Such was his success by this point that Hetherington won Journalist of the Year at the National Press Awards in 1971. Politically the paper benefited from careful cultivation by Harold Wilson, though Hetherington's closest political friend was Jo Grimond. For more than twenty years Hetherington wrote leading articles which sought to promote Liberal-Labour co-operation to defeat the Conservatives. Though initially against America's involvement in Vietnam, after meeting with American military commanders on a trip to Saigon he changed the paper's stance opposing the conflict, a move that generated much internal staff dissent.
Departure.
By the early 1970s "The Guardian" enjoyed a healthy circulation approaching 350,000; nevertheless the paper continued to face financial challenges that exhausted Hetherington. As he approached the end of his second decade as editor, he considered the possibility of moving on to a less-demanding field such as academia. In 1975, however, he accepted an offer from his friend Michael Swann, the chairman of the BBC, to assume the vacant position of Controller of BBC Scotland.
Later career.
Hetherington's time as Controller of BBC Scotland was not a happy one. He did much to invigorate programme output and appointed a number of specialist News correspondents including Helen Liddell and Chris Baur to try to increase Scotland's presence on the BBC networks . He also sought increased financial freedom from the BBC in London. Encountering a more bureaucratic organisation than the one he knew at "The Guardian", he clashed with the director general of the BBC, Charles Curran. In 1978 he was sacked from the position by Curran's successor, Ian Trethowan and named as Manager of BBC Radio Highland. In 1982 he became research professor in media studies at Stirling University and in 1984 he succeeded Richard Scott as chairman of the Scott Trust. In 1989 he retired to the Isle of Arran, where he wrote and worked on projects before he was forced to give up such activities due to the onset of Alzheimer's disease in the mid-1990s.
Personal life.
Hetherington was married twice. His first marriage was in 1957 to Miranda Oliver, a librarian who worked in the cuttings library at the "Manchester Guardian". Together they had four children. After their divorce in 1978, Hetherington met Sheila Janet Cameron, a political consultant, in 1979 and married her later that year.
Death and memorials.
Hetherington died on 3 October 1999 and is buried next to his parents in the cemetery in Tillicoultry, just south-east of the war memorial.
The Institute of Contemporary Scotland's Academy of Merit makes an annual Alastair Hetherington Award for Humanitarian Service. In 1999, Stirling University instituted an annual Hetherington Memorial Lecture in his memory.


Customer-premises equipment

In telecommunications, a customer-premises equipment or customer-provided equipment (CPE) is any terminal and associated equipment located at a subscriber's premises and connected with a carrier's telecommunication circuit at the demarcation point ("demarc"). The demarc is a point established in a building or complex to separate customer equipment from the equipment located in either the distribution infrastructure or central office of the communications service provider.
CPE generally refers to devices such as telephones, routers, network switches, residential gateways (RG), set-top boxes, fixed mobile convergence products, home networking adapters and Internet access gateways that enable consumers to access providers' communication services and distribute them in a residence or enterprise with a local area network (LAN).
A CPE can be an active equipment, as the ones mentioned above, or passive equipment such as analogue telephone adapters (ATA) or xDSL-splitters. This includes key telephone systems and most private branch exchanges. Excluded from the CPE category are overvoltage protection equipment and pay telephones. Other types of materials that are necessary for the delivery of the telecommunication service, but are not defined as equipment, such as manuals and cable packages, and cable adapters are instead referred to as CPE-peripherals.
CPE can refer to devices purchased by the subscriber, or to those provided by the operator or service provider.
History.
The two phrases, "customer-"premises" equipment" and "customer-"provided" equipment", reflect the history of this equipment.
Under the Bell System monopoly in the United States (post Communications Act of 1934), the Bell System owned the telephones, and one could not attach privately owned or supplied devices to the network, or to the station apparatus. Telephones were located on customers' premises, hence, customer-"premises" equipment. In the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) proceeding the Second Computer Inquiry, the FCC ruled that telecommunications carriers could no longer bundle CPE with telecommunications service, uncoupling the market power of the telecommunications service monopoly from the CPE market, and creating a competitive CPE market.
With the gradual breakup of the Bell monopoly, starting with Hush-A-Phone v. United States [1956], which allowed some non-Bell owned equipment to be connected to the network (a process called interconnection), equipment on customers' premises became increasingly owned by customers. Indeed, subscribers were eventually permitted to purchase telephones – hence, customer-"provided" equipment.
In the pay-TV industry many operators and service providers offer subscribers a set-top box with which to receive video services, in return for a monthly fee. As offerings have evolved to include multiple services [voice and data] operators have increasingly given consumers the opportunity to rent or buy additional devices like access modems, internet gateways and video extenders that enable them to access multiple services, and distribute them to a range of consumer electronics devices in the home.
Technology evolution.
Hybrid devices.
The growth of multiple-service operators, offering triple or quad-play services, required the development of hybrid CPE to make it easy for subscribers to access voice, video and data services. The development of this technology was led by Pay TV operators looking for a way to deliver video services via both traditional broadcast and broadband IP networks. Spain's Telefonica was the first operator to launch a hybrid broadcast and broadband TV service in 2003 with its Movistar TV DTT/IPTV offering, while Polish satellite operator 'n' was the first to offer its subscribers a Three-way hybrid (or Tri-brid) broadcast and broadband TV service, which launched in 2009
Set-back box.
The term set-back box is used in the digital TV industry to describe a piece of consumer hardware that enables them to access both linear broadcast and internet-based video content, plus a range of interactive services like Electronic Programme Guides (EPG), Pay Per View (PPV) and video on demand (VOD) as well as internet browsing, and view them on a large screen television set. Unlike standard set-top boxes, which sit on top of or below the TV, a set-back box has a smaller form factor to enable it to be mounted to the rear of the display panel flat panel TV, hiding it from view.
Residential gateway.
A residential gateway is a networking device used to connect devices in the home to the Internet or other wide area network (WAN).
It is an umbrella term, used to cover multi-function networking appliances used in homes, which may combine a DSL modem or cable modem, a network switch, a consumer-grade router, and a wireless access point. In the past, such functions were provided by separate devices, but in recent years technological convergence has enabled multiple functions to be merged into a single device.
One of the first home gateway devices to be launched was selected by Telecom Italia to enable the operator to offer triple play services in 2002 . Along with a SIP VoIP handset for making voice calls, it enabled subscribers to access voice, video and data services over a 10MB symmetrical ADSL fiber connection.
Virtual gateway.
The virtual gateway concept enables consumers to access video and data services and distribute them around their homes using software rather than hardware. The first virtual gateway was introduced in 2010 by Advanced Digital Broadcast at the IBC exhibition in Amsterdam. The ADB Virtual Gateway uses software that resides within the middleware and is based on open standards, including DLNA home networking and the DTCP-IP standard, to ensure that all content, including paid-for encrypted content like Pay TV services, can only be accessed by secure CE devices.
Broadband.
A subscriber unit, or SU is a broadband radio that is installed at a business or residential location to connect to an access point to send/receive high speed data wired or wirelessly. Devices commonly referred to as a subscriber unit include cable modems, access gateways, home networking adapters and mobile phones.
WAN.
CPE may also refer to any devices that terminate a WAN circuit, such as an ISDN, E-carrier/T-carrier, DSL, or metro Ethernet. This includes any customer-owned hardware at the customer's site: routers, firewalls, network switches, PBXs, VoIP gateways, sometimes CSU/DSU and modems.
Application areas


Marty Kaplan

Martin Kaplan (born August 21, 1950) is an American lawyer and professor. He teaches at the USC Annenberg School for Communication & Journalism and is the founding director of the Norman Lear Center for the study of the impact of entertainment on society. His career has also spanned government and politics, the entertainment industry and journalism.
Early life and education.
Kaplan was born in Newark, New Jersey. The family moved to nearby Union Township, also in New Jersey, at about the time he was to begin his schooling. Kaplan graduated from Union High School, finishing first in his class and was accepted at Harvard where he pursued a double major in both English Literature and Molecular Biology.
Kaplan graduated from Harvard College "summa cum laude" in molecular biology and won the Le Baron Russell Briggs prize for delivering the English Oration at commencement. He was president of the "Harvard Lampoon" and of the Signet Society; at both, his tenure included a change in by-laws leading to the first admission of women members after 95 years (the Lampoon) and 100 years (the Signet). Kaplan was also elected to the editorial boards of the "Harvard Crimson" and the "Harvard Advocate" and was the first Harvard undergraduate to serve on all three of its oldest publications. The recipient of a Marshall Scholarship from the British government, he received a master's degree in English with First Class Honours from Cambridge University in England. As a Danforth Foundation Fellow, he received a Ph.D. in Modern Thought and Literature from Stanford University.
Career.
Kaplan served in the administration of President Jimmy Carter as chief speechwriter to Vice President Walter F. Mondale, and also as executive assistant to the U.S. Commissioner of Education, Ernest L. Boyer. As deputy campaign manager of Mondale's presidential campaign, he directed the campaign's speechwriting and research operations. He also worked with Boyer on education policy while a program officer at the Aspen Institute, a guest scholar at the Brookings Institution, and a senior advisor at the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
Kaplan worked at the Walt Disney Studios for 12 years, as vice president of production for live-action feature films and as a writer-producer under exclusive contract. He has credits on "The Distinguished Gentleman", starring Eddie Murphy, an award-winning political comedy which he wrote and executive produced; "Noises Off", a farce directed by Peter Bogdanovich, which he adapted for the screen from Michael Frayn's play; and the action-adventure MAX Q, produced for TV by Jerry Bruckheimer.
Kaplan created and hosted "So What Else Is News?", the nationally syndicated Air America Radio program examining media politics and pop culture. On public radio, he was a featured commentator on NPR's "All Things Considered" (for which he also was the first guest co-host), and on "Marketplace," where his beat was the business of entertainment. Today he is a Senior Columnist at The Forward. From its inception through 2017 he has been a blogger on the home page of "The Huffington Post". For 10 years, he was also a columnist for the "Jewish Journal." His columns have won six First Place prizes from the Los Angeles Press Club. He was also deputy op-ed editor and a columnist for the "Washington Star" and a commentator on the "CBS Morning News".
Kaplan was associate dean of the USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism for 10 years and is the founding director of the School's Norman Lear Center, a center of research and innovation whose mission is to study and shape the impact of media and entertainment on society. His Lear Center research includes the political coverage on U.S. local TV news broadcasts, the effects on audiences of public health messages in entertainment storylines; the impact of new technology and intellectual property law on the creative industries, best practices in and barriers to interdisciplinary collaboration, and the depiction of law and justice in popular culture.
Personal life.
In 1986, Kaplan married Susan Estrich, a lawyer, professor, author, political operative, feminist advocate, and future political commentator for Fox News. They have two children, a daughter Isabel and a son James. Isabel is a published author and worked as an intern in the office of Massachusetts Democratic Congressman and later Senator Ed Markey. Marty and Susan later divorced.


Bronx High School of Science

The Bronx High School of Science (commonly called Bronx Science or Science, and formerly Science High) is a public magnet, specialized high school in the Bronx, New York, United States. It is operated by the New York City Department of Education.
Admission to Bronx Science involves passing the Specialized High Schools Admissions Test. Each November, about 30,000 eighth and ninth graders take the three-hour test for admittance to eight of the nine specialized high schools. The test is extremely competitive, with only 800 of the 30,000 applicants being accepted to Bronx Science each year.
Founded in 1938 in the Bronx, New York City, Bronx Science is now situated in an educational area known as the Educational Mile in Bedford Park, a neighborhood in the northwest portion of the Bronx. The exam administered to students in the 8th grade was reportedly taken by more than 20,000 students every year . Although known for its focus on mathematics and science, Bronx Science also emphasizes the humanities and social sciences and continually attracts students with a wide variety of interests beyond math and science. With eight Nobel Prize-winning alumni, seven in Physics and one in Chemistry, it is the secondary school that has produced the most Nobel laureates in science worldwide. Lycée Louis-le-Grand in France has also produced eight Nobel Prize winners but only four are in science or economics, with the rest receiving the Nobel Prize in Literature or the Nobel Peace Prize. Bronx Science alumni have also won two Turing Awards, sometimes unofficially referred to as the Nobel Prize in computer science, six National Medals of Science, the nation's highest scientific honor, and eight Pulitzer Prizes.
Name.
The Bronx High School of Science is often called Bronx Science, Bronx Sci, BX Sci, and sometimes just Science. It was formerly called Science High and its founder, Morris Meister, is said to have frequently called the school "The High School of Science."
History.
Founding.
Bronx Science was founded in 1938 as a specialized science and math high school for boys, by resolution of the Board of Education of the City of New York, with Morris Meister as the first principal of the school. They were given use of an antiquated Gothic-gargoyled edifice located at Creston Avenue and 184th Street, in the Fordham Road-Grand Concourse area of the Bronx. The building, built in 1918 for Evander Childs High School, had been successively occupied by Walton High School (1930) and by an annex of DeWitt Clinton High School (1935). The initial faculty were composed in part by a contingent from Stuyvesant High School.
Principal Meister put his imprint on the school from its formation, for example selecting as school colors "green to represent chlorophyll and gold the sun, both of which are essential to the chain of life."
Expansion to co-education.
Bronx Science started with about 150 ninth year students and 250 tenth year students, the remaining facilities of the building being used by DeWitt Clinton. As more boys began to attend Science, the Clinton contingent was gradually returned to its own main building. During their joint occupation, which lasted for 2 years until 1940, the two schools had separate teaching staff and classes, but the same supervision and administration.
In 1946, as a result of the efforts of Meister, the faculty, and the Parents Association, the school became co-ed, giving girls of New York equal opportunity to pursue a quality education in a specialized high school, previously denied to them. This expansion to co-education preceded its rivals Stuyvesant (1969) and Brooklyn Tech (1972) by more than two decades.
In 1958, after 20 years as principal of the school, Morris Meister resigned to become the first president of the newly organized Bronx Community College. Mr. Meister personally selected a teacher, Alexander Taffel, to succeed him as principal.
Move to modern facilities.
From the beginning, the Parents Association and Principal Morris Meister campaigned for a new building. The number of students exceeded the capacity of the building on 184th Street, so the top floor of Public School 85 on Marion Avenue and 187th Street was used as the "Annex." After twenty years, but under Principal Taffel, plans were finally completed for a new $8 million building, designed by the architectural firm of Emery Roth and Sons. The new building was on 205th Street near Bedford Park Boulevard, in a predominantly institutional area, between DeWitt Clinton High School and its large football field on one side, and Harris Field and Hunter College (now Lehman College) on the other. On March 3, 1959, students and faculty occupied the new building for the first time, solving the problem of how to move the books from the old library to the new in typical Bronx Science manner: on Friday afternoon each student took home five library books from the old building, and on Monday returned them to the new one.
They entered a school equipped with more modern classrooms, laboratories, and technical studio areas. The main lobby entrance featured a , Venetian glass mosaic mural overhead, depicting major figures from the history of science such as Marie Curie and Charles Darwin under the protective hands of a God-like figure representing knowledge, with this quote from John Dewey: "Every great advance in science has issued from a new audacity of imagination." The mural is an original work by Frank J. Reilly entitled "Humanities Protecting Biology, Physics, Chemistry". Legions of students over the years, bemoaning the lack of swimming facilities, have sarcastically referred to the mural as "the Science swimming pool", perpetuating the idea – perhaps apocryphal – that a choice was made to fund a mural rather than a pool in the new building.
The move was not without incident. In the first spring of the move, rumors swept the school that various Bronx youth street gangs were coming to the school, and that the Fordham Baldies would shave the hair of Science students. This never happened. Another incident did happen that spring: The first time Science girls appeared on the outdoor physical education field in gym clothes, some students from the neighboring, all-male DeWitt Clinton High School charged the separation fence between their field and the Science field. The fence held, but the female students exercised indoors for the remainder of that year.
When Bronx Science celebrated its silver anniversary in June 1963, President John F. Kennedy hailed it as "a significant and pathfinding example of a special program devoted to the development of the student gifted in science and mathematics." The President had recently selected one of its graduates, Harold Brown, of the class of 1943, for the position of Director of Defense Research and Engineering; he would later serve as Secretary of Defense under President Jimmy Carter.
Academics.
Bronx Science students take a college preparatory curriculum that includes four years of lab science, math, English, social studies, two or three years of foreign language and a year of fine arts, with required courses and a wide selection of electives, including honors and advanced placement (AP) classes, which allow students to place out of introductory college science courses. Over 160 unique courses are offered. Students have an opportunity to do independent research, and many compete in the annual Intel Science Talent Search (formerly sponsored by Westinghouse).
In the biological sciences, the students have the additional option of taking a special "honors" biology course, which features extra laboratory exposure. Science electives include microbiology, physiology, forensic science, human genetics, evolution, astronomy/astrophysics, organic chemistry, electronics, epidemiology, neuroscience, and others. The mathematics department offers the standard AP courses in AB/BC calculus and statistics, courses in multivariable calculus and computer science, including multivariable calculus & partial differential equations and AP Computer Science A. A course in linear algebra and differential equations was offered for the first time in fall 2007. Students are required to take four years of English, with electives including honors speech, honors creative writing, exploring science fiction, journalism workshop, and AP English. Four years of social studies or history classes are required, and include US and world history, economics – with electives in psychology, law, finance, and global studies, among others. A minimum of 2 years of languages are required, if students had previously taken a year of language prior to high school. Bronx Science offers French, Spanish, Latin, Italian, Chinese, and Japanese. At one time Hebrew, Russian, Korean, and German were also offered.
Students in their sophomore year are required to take either Applied Science or a class to satisfy the Sophomore Research Requirement. Classes that satisfy the Sophomore Research Requirement include Introduction to Engineering, Coding for All, Social Science Research, Biology/Physical Science Research, and Math Research. Students have the option of continuing their research in their junior and senior years, which gives them the opportunity to work with mentors and submit their final research paper to prestigious competitions such as the Intel Science Talent Search. Students must also obtain credits from two terms of a class in the fine arts or the equivalent. The fine arts requirement is usually satisfied during Bronx Science's Summer Program which offers Drama, Music, and Art. Students usually "double up" on two of these courses to satisfy the fine arts requirement for once and all during the time period of one summer. However, it is still possible to satisfy the fine arts requirement by taking a music elective such as Jazz Band or an arts elective such as AP Studio Art during the regular school year.
Health and Physical Education courses are also required, with activities including step aerobics, spin cycling, weight training, basketball, hockey, badminton, volleyball, team handball, fitness, and yoga. The Health requirement may also be fulfilled during the Bronx Science Summer Program in addition to the two fine arts courses.
Advanced Placement courses.
Bronx Science offers all of the AP courses, except for AP German Language and Culture. The courses include:
School publications.
There are several school publications, some produced by students, others produced by individual departments.
"The Science Survey" is Bronx Science's entirely student-run newspaper. Students manage everything: reporting, layout, design, editing, and final production, under the supervision of the journalism advisor. The paper is printed using funds from its advertisers, with no fiscal school support. The paper is distributed on average five times per year at no charge. "The Science Survey" has been the name of the Bronx Science student newspaper since the founding of the school in 1938.
"Dynamo" is the literary magazine sponsored by the English Department, consisting of original poems and stories submitted by students from all grades. "The Observatory" is Bronx Science's prize-winning yearbook. The yearbook office has a custom-built web server to manage its production, powered by MediaWiki and Coppermine software.
The Biology Department sponsors two publications. "BioNIC" (the "Biology News and Information Center") is an annual web publication featuring biology-related events at Bronx Science, student-written articles, opportunities, and links to helpful and interactive pages. "Biology Journal", a joint venture between students and faculty, documents advances in the field within the school and in the outside world. Each themed issue contains interviews, commentaries, artwork, featured student research papers, and abstracts from every student biology research project that year.
Other department-produced publications include the annual "Math Bulletin", consisting of student term papers, original student mathematics research, and topics in mathematics; "Exposition", an annual production of the Social Studies Department; and "Reactions", written by physical science students.
Reputation.
Bronx Science has received international recognition. In 2020, Newsweek's rankings of the top 5,000 STEM High Schools in the United States (public AND private), listed Bronx Science as the 4th best STEM school in the nation. Bronx Science regularly ranks in the top 100 in "U.S. News and World Report"s lists of America's "Gold-Medal" high schools. In 2014, they ranked 34th out of all high schools nationwide and 2nd in New York State; nationwide, Bronx Science ranked 33rd in 2008 and 58th in 2009. It attracts an intellectually gifted blend of culturally, ethnically, and economically diverse students from New York City. , Bronx Science is ranked as one of the "22 top-performing schools" in America on The Washington Post as well as number 50 out of a list of the best 1,000 high schools in the country on The Daily Beast's "America's Best High Schools" list. In 2014 it was ranked second highest on "Cities Journal"s list of the "15 Best High Schools in New York", along with Stuyvesant (ranked third) and Brooklyn Tech (ranked eighth).
The average SAT score in 2012 was 2,010 out of 2,400. Almost all Bronx Science graduates continue on to four-year colleges, and it is a "feeder school" with many graduates going on to attend schools in the Ivy League and other institutions each year. Bronx Science has counted 132 finalists in the Regeneron (formerly Intel) Science Talent Search, the largest number of any high school. Eight graduates have won Nobel Prizes—more than any other secondary education institution in the United States—and seven have won Pulitzer Prizes. Of the eight Nobel Prizes earned by Bronx Science graduates, seven of them are in physics, which earned Bronx Science a designation by the American Physical Society as an "Historic Physics Site" in 2010.
Bronx Science is a member of the National Consortium of Secondary STEM Schools (NCSSS). Together with Stuyvesant High School and Brooklyn Technical High School, it is one of three original specialized science high schools operated by the New York City Department of Education.
Transportation.
The New York City Subway's Bedford Park Boulevard () and Bedford Park Boulevard–Lehman College () stations are located nearby. Additionally, New York City Bus's and routes stop near Bronx Science.
Notable alumni.
Many people who attended the Bronx High School of Science have achieved distinction in their respective fields, including winning the Nobel and Pulitzer Prices, the Academy, Emmy and Turing Awards, the U.S. National Medal of Science, political office and numerous professional society honors.
In popular culture.
Joel Fleischman, the protagonist of "Northern Exposure", attended Bronx Science.
Bronx Science formed the basis for the Midtown School of Science and Technology in "", part of the Marvel Cinematic Universe.
The 2019 Spike Lee film, "See You Yesterday" takes place primarily at Bronx Science.


Microcom Networking Protocol

The Microcom Networking Protocols, almost always shortened to MNP, is a family of error-correcting protocols commonly used on early high-speed (2400 bit/s and higher) modems. Originally developed for use on Microcom's own family of modems, the protocol was later openly licensed and used by most of the modem industry, notably the "big three", Telebit, USRobotics and Hayes. MNP was later supplanted by v.42bis, which was used almost universally starting with the first v.32bis modems in the early 1990s.
Overview.
Although Xmodem was introduced 1977, as late as 1985 "The New York Times" described XMODEM first, then discussed "MNP" as a leading contender, and that 9600 baud modems "are beginning to make their appearance."
By 1988, the "Times" was talking about 9600 and 19.2K, and that "At least 100 other brands of modems follow" MNP (compared to Hayes' use of LAP-B).
Error correction basics.
Modems are, by their nature, error-prone devices. Noise on the telephone line, a common occurrence, can easily mimic the sounds used by the modems to transmit data, thereby introducing errors that are difficult to notice. For some tasks, like reading or writing simple text, a small number of errors can be accepted without causing too many problems. For other tasks, like transferring computer programs in machine format, even one error can render the received data useless. As modems increase in speed by using up more of the available bandwidth, the chance that random noise would introduce errors also increases; above 2400 bit/s these errors are quite common.
To deal with this problem, a number of file transfer protocols were introduced and implemented in various programs. In general, these protocols break down a file into a series of "frames" or "packets" containing a number of bytes from the original file. Some sort of additional data, normally a checksum or CRC, is added to each packet to indicate whether the packet encountered an error while being received . The packet is then sent to the remote system, which recomputes the checksum or CRC of the data and compares it to the received checksum or CRC to determine if it was received properly. If it was, the receiver sends back an ACK ("acknowledgement") message, prompting the sender to send the next packet. If there was any problem, it instead sends a NAK ("not-acknowledged") message, and the sender resends the damaged packet.
This process introduces "overhead" into the transfer. For one, the additional checksum or CRC uses up time in the channel that could otherwise be used to send additional data. This is a minor concern, however, unless the packets are very small (which they are in UUCP for instance). A more serious concern is the time needed for the receiver to examine the packet, compare it to the CRC, and then send the ACK back to the sender. This delay grows in relative terms as the speed of the modem increases; the latency of the phone line is a constant, but the amount of data that "could" be sent in that fixed amount of time grows as the speed increases. To address this problem, newer protocols use a system known as "sliding windows", allowing the sender to begin transmitting the next packet without receiving an ACK message; only if the ACK does not arrive for some time will it resend the packet.
MNP handshaking.
MNP connections were set up after the modems had successfully connected. The originating system (the modem that placed the call, or sometimes the computer it was connected to) would send a short series of 8-bit characters known as the "Originator Detection Pattern" (ODP). The string consisted of codice_1 with even parity (codice_2) at the start, one or two codice_3 (codice_4), codice_1 with odd parity (codice_6) and the same number of codice_3 again.
Once the ODP had been sent, the sender begins the "Detection Phase Timer", or T400. The answering system had to properly respond to the ODP within this time, or the originating system would assume that MNP was not supported.
If the answering modem did support MNP, or the later V.42 standards that superseded it, it responded with one of the "Answerer Detection Patterns" (ADP). If the modem supported compression, it responded with the 8-bit version of the string codice_8codice_3[codice_3]codice_11codice_3[codice_3], indicating "EC", or "Error correction and Compression". If error correction was supported, but compression was not, the ADP was codice_8codice_3[codice_3]codice_17codice_3[codice_3], indicating "E", or "Error correction". The standard allowed any value of the last four bits in the second character to indicate difference standards, but this was never implemented. The ADP had to be sent at least ten times.
If the ADP is successfully received within the T400 time, the system has successfully determined that the two systems support some sort of error correction and/or compression. At that point, the systems enter the "Protocol Establishment Phase" where the details of these standards are determined and selected. This starts with the originating system sending the L-ESTABLISH string, indicating the mode is switching to the error correcting mode, and the answering system responds with the same L-ESTABLISH. The answering system can reject the attempt by sending L- RELEASE. This phase is timed by T401.
The final step in the handshaking process is to send an MNP packet containing the "SABME" command, short for "set asynchronous balanced mode extended". This is sent by the originator, containing a number of data fields indicating the exact protocols it can support. The answering system responds with a modified version of the same packet, switching bits in the data to indicate it is successful. From that point on, the two systems exchange data using the error correcting packet protocol. If this last step does not complete during timer T401, the originator sends L-RELEASE and returns to a non-MNP link.
MNP "classes".
Microcom's idea was to move the file-transfer protocol out of the host computer and place it in the modem instead. In doing so, "all" data being transferred would be error corrected, not just file transfers. This also meant that devices with no processor, like dumb terminals, could enjoy an error-free link.
The original protocol was extremely simple and rather inefficient, leading to a variety of improved protocols referred to as "classes". Each class generally improved performance over earlier versions, which were retained only for backward-compatibility reasons.
MNP 1 and 2.
The first MNP standard, retroactively known as MNP Class 1, or simply MNP 1, was a simple half-duplex protocol similar to XModem in nature. Lacking sliding window support, throughput efficiency was fairly low, at about 70%. That meant that on a 2400 bit/s modem, like the ones Microcom sold, throughput would be limited to about 1690 bit/s when MNP 1 was in use. This system was created primarily to be as easy as possible to implement in limited hardware, which explains its simplicity.
With low-cost processing power improving, Microcom introduced MNP 2, a full-duplex version of MNP 1 that allowed the ACK messages to be returned while the next outbound packet was already starting. This eliminated the pause while the modem waited for the ACK to be returned, adding the requirement that the system needed some memory to track whether or not an ACK was received within a given amount of time. Since the inter-packet delay was reduced, only the overhead of the CRC remained, improving throughput to about 84%.
MNP 3.
In normal use, a modem can send or receive data at any point in time, a mode of operation known as "asynchronous". The modem can determine the speed of the sender's data by listening to the bits being sent to it, and "locking" its clock to the speed of bits being received. Since the data can arrive at any time, there is no precise timing; the clock may have to be re-adjusted for pauses as the user stops typing (for instance).
Unfortunately this sort of clock decoding does not work unless there are at least some transitions between 1 and 0 in the data; a long stream of 0s or 1s has no transitions in it, making it impossible to know where the data for any particular byte starts. In order to avoid this problem, additional "framing" bits are added to either end of every byte, typically one bit on either side known as the "start and stop bits". This guarantees at least one 1-to-0 transition for every byte, more than enough to keep the clocks locked. However, these bits also expand every 8 bits of data (one byte) to 10 bits, an overhead of 20%.
When using a file transfer protocol, the packets themselves offer their own framing. The packets will always send a continuous stream of data, so the clock cannot "drift" in the same way that it could for data being sent by a user typing on a keyboard. By turning off these framing bits when operating on an error-corrected link, that 20% overhead can be eliminated.
This is precisely what MNP 3 did. After negotiating and determining that both modems supported MNP 3, the framing bits were turned off, improving overall efficiency by about 20%. This almost perfectly offset the overhead of the protocol, meaning that when using MNP 3, a user can expect to get very close to the ideal 2400 bit/s throughput (versus 1900 bit/s).
MNP 4.
MNP 4 was a further improvement on MNP 3, adding a variable packet size system they referred to as Adaptive Packet Assembly.
In the case of MNP the overhead of the packet system was relatively small, but even the multi-byte CRC was taking up space better used for data. Generally using a larger packet would address this, because the CRC remains the same fixed size and thus its relative overhead is reduced compared to the amount of data. However, when an error does occur, using larger packets also means that more data has to be re-sent. On noisy lines, this can slow overall throughput.
With MNP 4 the two modems constantly monitor the line for dropped packets, and if a certain threshold is crossed (selected by the user), the modem drops back to a smaller packet size. This means that when a packet is dropped, the amount of data that has to be re-sent is smaller, leading to better throughput. On good quality lines, using larger packets means that the overhead of the CRC is reduced. Packets could be between 64 and 256 bytes, and allowed the user to force it to a particular size if they wished.
MNP 4 also introduced Data Phase Optimization, a simple change to the protocol that allowed some of the packet-framing information to be dropped after the link was set up, further reducing protocol overhead. The combination of these features, along with MNP 3's lack of byte-framing, allowed for a further increase in throughput efficiency.
MNP 5.
An even more radical change was made for MNP 5, introducing on-the-fly data compression in the modem. With MNP 5, the data received from the computer are first compressed with a simple algorithm, and then passed into the MNP 4 packetizing system for transmission. On best-case data the system offered about 2:1 compression, but in general terms about 1.6:1 was typical, at least on text. As a result, a 2400 bit/s modem would appear to transfer text at ~4000 bit/s.
This dramatic increase in throughput allowed Microcom modems to remain somewhat competitive with models from other companies that were otherwise nominally much faster. For instance, Microcom generally produced 1200 and 2400 bit/s modems using commodity parts, while companies like USRobotics and Telebit offered models with speeds up to 19200 bit/s.
However, this improvement in performance was only available if modems on both ends supported MNP. That made the system only really attractive for sites installing the modems at both ends of the links; for dial-up services like bulletin board systems (BBS) there was no compelling reason to use a Microcom device when the end-user was unlikely to have one. Even in the cases where the user was in control of both ends of the link, Microcom's "proprietary" modems were less interesting than models from other companies that offered much higher "real world" throughputs.
In order to create a market for Microcom modems, starting with MNP 5 they took the radical step of licensing the entire MNP suite for free. The idea was that this would dramatically increase the number of modems with MNP installed, making "real" Microcom modems more attractive. Moreover, newer standards with improved performance would offer even better performance when there was a Microcom modem at both ends of the link.
Unfortunately the plan backfired. The introduction of the greatly improved LAPM compression system in the v.42bis standard outpaced Microcom's own advancements, diluting the value of a "real" Microcom model almost to zero. Using v.42bis and commodity parts, a huge number of low-cost modems with even better performance that Microcom's were soon available. Although Microcom continued to introduce newer standards, they were largely ignored and Microcom stopped being a force in the market.
MNP 6.
The introduction of the v.32 led to a number of standard 9600 bit/s modems, almost all of which offered MNP 5. To further differentiate themselves from what was becoming a commodity market (although not truly so until the introduction of the v.32bis SupraFAXModem 14400 in 1991), Microcom created MNP 6.
MNP 6's main feature was Statistical Duplexing, which could dedicate more or less of the bandwidth to one side or the other of the modem link. For instance, if one machine was sending a large file, the other end would only send back a small amount of information, the ACK and NAK messages. In this case the modems would give as much of the channel as possible to the sender, offering one-way bandwidth up to 19,200 bit/s. This did not actually require any changes to the modulation system: normally a 9600 bit/s modem had a full 9600 bit/s channel in both directions, for a total of 19200 bit/s; MNP 6 simply allowed more or less of that bandwidth to be given to one side or the other, instead of leaving it fixed at 9600 both ways.
This basic concept was already widely used in the industry, having formed the basis for Hayes's Express 96 protocol, USRobotics' HST Telebit's PEP, and (briefly) the CompuCom SpeedModem. All of these standards found it very difficult to survive in the v.32bis dominated market, and, like them, MNP 6 was largely ignored.
A less notable addition to MNP 6 was Universal Link Negotiation. With the introduction of additional modulation modes, notably v.32 and later additions, the modems on either end of the link had to spend an increasing amount of time negotiating a common standard. For instance, a v.32bis modem would first send tones into the line to try to get a 14.4 link; if that failed after a time, it would try 9600, 2400 and finally 1200 bit/s. Since each of these standards defined a minimum period of time to "try" for a link, the delay grew over 10 seconds.
ULN avoided this delay by always negotiating the link at 2400 bit/s with no error-correction turned on. Although this eliminated compatibility with older 1200 bit/s modems, by this point in time they were extremely rare. Once the connection was made, which occurred quickly, both modems sent a small identification string to the remote modem. Both modems then examined the string and selected the fastest common mode. The caller then re-negotiated once at that higher speed.
MNP 7.
MNP 7 introduced new compression algorithms with a claimed improvement to 3:1 compression on text files. However, by the time MNP 7 was introduced, the v.42bis standard was offering 4:1 compression.
MNP 9.
MNP 9 (there was apparently no 8 released) improved the Universal Link Detection to add newer high-speed modes, but was otherwise identical to MNP 7.
MNP 10.
MNP 10 introduced a new error-correction protocol designed specifically to work well on the noisy phone lines widely used in eastern Europe. Unlike earlier versions like MNP 4, MNP 10 constantly monitored line quality and adjusted packet size back up if conditions improved.
In 1991 Microcom licensed MNP 10 to Rockwell International for use in their extremely popular modem chip sets. Since almost all modems with the exception of USR's models used the Rockwell chipset from about 1995, MNP 10 became fairly widely deployed (if not used). USR eventually added MNP 10 to their V.everything series modems, effectively making it universal.
MNP 10 was later expanded to MNP 10EC, the "EC" standing for "Extended Cellular". This was a series of modifications that allowed MNP 10 to deal with the transmission pauses when a cell phone moves from one cell to another, which would normally be interpreted as errors in the line. Using MNP 10EC, these pauses are correctly identified as "not errors", and the link speed remains higher. Its success led to the AT&T Paradyne-created competitor, ETC.
MNP 10EC was particularly attractive in the cellular role due to the inclusion of the ULN link-negotiation method originally introduced in MNP 6 (and improved in MNP 9). On a cellular network where all air-time is billed, the faster setup saved money. MNP 10EC had a limited life span, as the cell networks turned to a variety of all-digital systems that no longer required a modem to connect to a computer.


Emil Ermatinger

Emil Ermatinger (21 May 1873 in Schaffhausen, Switzerland – 17 September 1953 in Zurich) was a Swiss professor for Germanic philology.
Ermatinger studied classical philology in Zurich and Berlin. 1897 he wrote his Ph.D. thesis at the University of Zurich. His doctoral advisor was the classical archaeologist and philologist Hugo Blümner. 1909 Ermatinger became a professor for Germanic philology at ETH Zurich. 1912 till 1943 he was professor at the University of Zurich. 1939 he was visiting professor at the Columbia University in New York City.


Sakpu language

Sakpu is an Mbum language of southern Chad.


Tofig Huseynzade

 Tofig Muhammad oglu Huseynzade (; 20 September 1946 – 13 November 2006) also spelled as Tofiq Huseynzade was a philologist, folklorist, journalist and poet of Azerbaijan. He was a member of the Union of Journalists of the USSR (1987).
Biography.
Huseynzade was born on 20 September 1946 in Sariyagub (former Zargarli, present-day in Armenian SSR), a village of Basargechar town (since 1969 it is called Vardenis) located in Goycha district.
He was admitted into the Faculty of Philology at Azerbaijan State Pedagogical University (1965–1971). Afterwards, he continued his high level of education at İnstitute of Folklore of ANAS. During the period of the Soviet Union, he had held different positions in Armenia. In 1988, during the mass deportation of Azerbaijanis from Armenia, he moved to Baku with his family and continued his activity here.
He had a close and friendly relationship with Khalil Rza Uluturk, a People's Poet of Azerbaijan SSR.
He was the father of Rafig Huseynzade who is a member of the European Association of Urology, urologist, and Doctor of Medicine; and was the brother of Rafig Huseynzade, a doctor-oncologist and poet.
Tofig Huseynzade died on 13 November 2006.
Career.
From 1970, Huseynzade started to work as a teacher at a school in Barkhudarly, Qazakh District, then continued to pedagogical activity in Sariyagub, Basargechar. From November 1979 he worked as a literary worker in Basargechar district newspaper ("Vardenis"), and since November 1986 head of the agricultural department. Since 1987, he had been admitted to the membership of the Union of Journalists of the USSR. Later he worked at ANAS on philology.
Scientific activity.
He has been well-known in the Azerbaijani press, TV, and radio, with various articles and poems published about the folklore of Goycha and other historical subjects, acting as a journalist in "New Azerbaijan", "Nation", "Right Way" and other newspapers.
He made researches about Miskin Abdal, a thinker in the Safavid period, and at the same time his great grandfather and in 2005 he published a book called "Safavids' Great Auliya – Miskin Abdal". In 2003, he was a PhD student at the Folklore Institute of the National Academy of Sciences. He completed his dissertation on "Poetics of Ashiq's words" in 2005, and his death did not allow him to defend his work.
In his three-dimensional book, named as "Dream Lane", Tofiq Huseynzade's poetic world, stories and scientific researching work ("Miskin Abdal – Geyb Arani, Tasawwuf Piri") which are the first scientifically substantiated findings in Azerbaijani literary regarding with the interpretation of "Miskin" and "Abdal", that describe the high divine-spiritual consciousness and rankings of the great and rich creativity, have been added.


List of Japanese cash coins by inscription

Cash coins were introduced to Japan in the century inspired by the Chinese Kaigen Tsūhō (開元通寳) cash coins from the Tang dynasty. Chinese cash coins also circulated in other countries and inspired similar currencies such as the Korean mun, Ryukyuan mon, Vietnamese văn, while they also circulated as far south as Indonesia. Because these currencies were so similar cash coins around the Far East were interchangeable and Japanese cash coins circulated in other countries while foreign cash coins also circulated in Japan.
The first Japanese cash coins were the Wadōkaichin (和同開珎) which were produced from 29 August 708. In 760 Japanese currency was reformed and gold and silver cash coins were introduced, however by the end of the 10th century the value of Japanese coinage had severely fallen combined with a weak central government lead the Japanese to return to barter. From the 12th century onwards the Japanese started importing Chinese currency again even while the Southern Song dynasty banned the export of its coinage, while the import of Chinese cash coins surged again during the Ming dynasty era when large amounts of Ming Chinese cash coins were imported.
The Japanese started locally imitating Chinese cash coins, which were known as "Shichūsen" (私鋳銭). But the quality of these cash coins varied severely depending on the mint. As many cash coins circulated in the market for a long time their quality diminished over time becoming known as "Bitasen" (鐚銭, "bad metal money"). After the Tokugawa shogunate banned "Bitasen" in 1608 they started producing their own coinage and after 1859 provincial authorities were allowed to mint their own coinages. Japanese cash coins were officially demonetised in 1891 after officially circulating as a division of the Japanese yen with an exchange rate of 10.000 mon for 1 yen.
"Fuhonsen".
The first Japanese embassy to China is recorded to have been sent in 630, following with Japan, who adopted numerous Chinese cultural practices. The importance of metallic currency appeared to Japanese nobles, probably leading to some coin minting at the end of the 7th century, such as the "" coinage (富本銭), discovered in 1998 through archaeological research in the area of Nara. An entry of the Nihon Shoki dated April 15, 683 mentions: "From now on, copper coins should be used, but silver coins should not be used", which is thought to order the adoption of the "Fuhonsen" copper coins. The first "official" cash coinage was struck in 708.
"Kōchōsen".
Early "Kōchōsen".
Japan's first formal currency system was the "Kōchōsen" (Japanese: 皇朝銭, "Imperial currency"). It was exemplified by the adoption of Japan's first official coin type, the "Wadōkaichin". It was first minted in 708 CE on order of Empress Genmei, Japan's 43rd Imperial ruler. "Wadōkaichin" is the reading of the four characters printed on the coin, and is thought to be composed of the era name Wadō (和銅, "Japanese copper"), which could alternatively mean "happiness", and "Kaichin", thought to be related to "Currency".
Last "Kōchōsen".
The "Kōchōsen" Japanese system of coinage became strongly debased, with its metallic content and value decreasing. By the middle of the 9th century, the value of a coin in rice had fallen to 1/150th of its value of the early 8th century. By the end of the 10th century, compounded with weaknesses in the political system, this led to the abandonment of the national currency, with the return to rice as a currency medium. The last official Japanese coin emission occurred in 958, with very low quality coins called "Kangen Daihō" (乾元大寶), which soon fell into disuse.
The last "Kōchōsen" coins produced after the Wadōkaichin was debased include:
"Toraisen, Shichūsen, and Bitasen".
List of "Toraisen, Shichūsen, and Bitasen" cash coins:
Edo period.
List of cash coins issued by the Tokugawa shogunate.
During the history of the Japanese mon under the Tokugawa shogunate, many different cash coins with different obverse inscriptions were cast, the main cash coins cast by the central government were:
List of Nagasaki trade coins.
The following coins were minted in the city of Nagasaki for export to other countries:
Nagasaki trade coins notably bear the inscription of many Song dynasty coins because those coins were already widespread in circulation on the Southeast Asian market making the Nagasaki trade coins more familiar for its target demographic.
List of local cash coins cast during the Bakumatsu.
Many Japanese domains produced their own currency which happened chaotically, so that the nation’s money supply expanded by 2.5 times between 1859 and 1869, leading to crumbling money values and soaring prices.
These coins were often produced with the name of the domain or province on them, the mon coins produced by domains are:


Bernhard Blume (writer)

Bernhard Blume (7 April 1901 in Stuttgart – 22 July 1978 in La Jolla) was an emigre from Nazi Germany who became a professor of German literature at Mills College, Ohio State University, Harvard University, and the University of California, San Diego. In addition to scholarly works, he authored several plays, a novel, and an autobiography.
Early years in Germany.
Blume was born in Swabia to north German parents, Hedwig (née Grabowsky) and Paul Blume. He was five when the family moved to Silesia, where his father (1873–1931) worked at the , noted for the construction of railroad cars. Five years later, when his father lost his position due to excessive drinking, the family relocated for a time from Görlitz to Bremerhaven and Hanover before finally settling in Esslingen am Neckar, where his father was employed until his death as a section chief at the Maschinenfabrik Esslingen. His widowed mother (1876–1949) remained in Esslingen until the family home was bombed out in World War II.
Blume attended the humanities-focused Realgymnasium in Esslingen and during these years saw performances of Friedrich Schiller’s "The Robbers", Gotthold Ephraim Lessing’s "Nathan the Wise", and Heinrich von Kleist’s "Prince Friedrich von Homburg" at the Hoftheater in Stuttgart which he reenacted at home with a puppet theater for his younger brother. He participated in the Wandervogel movement and continued hiking with friends after passing the "Reifeprüfung" and taking up university studies. From 1919 to 1923, he matriculated at the universities of Munich, Berlin, and Tübingen, attending lectures by such academics including Ernst Troeltsch, Eduard Spranger, and Heinrich Wölfflin. His coursework focused on Germanic and modern Romance languages and literatures, and among his Romance philology professors were Karl Vossler and the linguist Josef Haas, in whose house he lived for a time and whose approach to scholarship was a profound influence.
Blume passed the "Dienstprüfung" required to embark upon a career in secondary education and also completed the probationary period of teaching in Stuttgart, but he was drawn to the theater and at age 22 made a career change. His first play, "Tamango", based on a Prosper Mérimée novella about the 18th-century slave trade, was written while he was still a student and staged in Stuttgart. In 1923-24 he worked in Beuthen as dramaturge for the Upper Silesian Tri-City Theater (Beuthen - Gleiwitz - Hindenburg) and then was appointed dramaturge of the Stuttgart State Theater.
Residing in Degerloch, an outer district of Stuttgart, he authored "Fahrt nach der Südsee" (1924), which premiered simultaneously at the National Theatre Mannheim and Staatstheater Berlin in 1925. His play "Bonaparte "(1926) was an even greater success and premiered simultaneously in Munich, Stuttgart, Wiesbaden, and Hanover. In the following years, his most widely produced plays were "Treibjagd" (1927), the comedy "Feurio!" (1928), and the comedy "Gelegenheit macht Diebe" (1930). He also authored a documentary drama about the trial of Sacco and Vanzetti, "Im Namen des Volkes" (1930), which premiered in Leipzig. He was hailed as one of Germany's most promising young playwrights, one of the "five B's" (Brecht, Bruckner, Bronnen, Barlach, and Blume). His plays were strongly influenced by the works of Georg Büchner, Frank Wedekind, and Arthur Schnitzler. During these years Blume authored short newspaper and journal articles about Kleist, Klabund, Bruckner, Franz Grillparzer, Gerhart Hauptmann, and Anna Seghers.
In 1927 Blume married Carola Rosenberg (1899–1987), who came from a Neudenau Jewish family with deep roots in Swabia and with whom he had two sons, Michael Wolfgang (1929–1994) and Frank Reinhart (1932–1998). In 1931, Blume enrolled at the Technische Hochschule Stuttgart and attended courses on German literature taught by Hermann Pongs and on psychology taught by Fritz Giese.
On 1 April 1933, two months after the Nazi party’s accession to power, Carola Rosenberg-Blume was dismissed from her position as head of the women’s division of the Stuttgart Volkshochschule on grounds both of race and her leftist political stance. For a few years Blume was able to continue as a playwright, but Nazi racial laws were tightened and he was finally subject to an official boycott of his plays because he was “related by marriage to a non-Aryan”. In 1934 "Schatzgräber und Matrosen" (1933), based on Robert Louis Stevenson’s "Treasure Island", premiered in Berlin. His "Die Schwertbrüder" (1934), based on Schiller’s "Die Malteser", was staged in Karlsruhe in 1935. In 1936 he published a historical novel, "Das Wirtshaus zum roten Husaren", set in the Austria of the Turkish Wars. He also published articles on Schiller and Arthur Rimbaud.
Continuing to live in Germany became increasingly untenable, and in order to prepare for emigration and a career change, Blume completed a doctorate with a dissertation on the nihilistic world view of Arthur Schnitzler, defended in June 1935. Blume’s thesis director was the strongly pro-Nazi , and Blume hewed to the Nazi line by characterizing nihilism in Nietzschean terms as a psychological manifestation of bourgeois decay.
At the end of November 1935, Carola Rosenberg-Blume traveled to the United States, and she returned to Germany two months later with a one-year job contract for Bernhard Blume at Mills College, a one-year research contract for herself, and visa application affidavits for the family. The very next day the family went to the American consulate, and on 30 April 1936 they disembarked from the SS "George Washington" in New York.
Later years in the United States.
Filling the faculty position at Mills College formerly held by Theodore Brohm, Blume not only headed the German program but would eventually reorganize the general curriculum in modern European literature. His wife also taught adult education courses from time to time, without a full-time appointment. In 1936 he sent a letter to the Reichsschrifttumskammer, the Nazi agency that controlled writers and publications in Germany, to protest his expulsion. Blume’s political outlook gradually shifted from the Nietzschean nihilism of his early years to a democratic liberalism informed by Thomas Mann’s simultaneous transformation. In addition to teaching, Blume delivered public lectures on Hitler’s "Mein Kampf" and Hermann Rauschning’s nihilism; he also authored articles on Thomas Mann, Goethe, Kleist, and Rainer Maria Rilke. In 1942 he was naturalized as a U.S. citizen. Carola Rosenberg-Blume's father and other relatives were killed in Nazi extermination camps.
In 1945, Blume was tapped to chair the German Department at Ohio State University. The faculty position he vacated at Mills was filled by Olga Schnitzler, who had been married to Arthur Schnitzler from 1903 to 1922. At Ohio State Blume faced the administrative challenge of a temporary enrollment bulge caused by the G.I. Bill, necessitating the recruitment of additional teaching staff. Oskar Seidlin would prove to be his most consequential new hire. Blume continued to publish on Lessing, Goethe, Kleist, Mann, Rimbaud, Rilke, Elisabeth Langgässer, Hugo von Hofmannsthal, and Hermann Hesse. Carola Rosenberg-Blume completed a Ph.D. in clinical psychology in 1949 and was employed as a psychologist at the Bureau of Juvenile Research in Columbus, where she worked on rehabilitating underage offenders.
In 1955, he accepted an appointment at Harvard University, where he held the prestigious Kuno Francke Professorship of German Art and Culture until retiring with emeritus status in 1966. During these years he published articles on Mann, Schnitzler, Rilke, Brecht, Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, Charles Baudelaire, and Wilhelm Busch.
At age 65, Blume accepted a final academic appointment as the first professor of German in the Department of Literature at the newly founded University of California, San Diego. He survived two heart attacks at age 68. He taught at San Diego for five years until fully retiring in 1971. During these years he published articles on Kleist, Goethe, and Mann.
Following retirement he remained active up to the time of his death at age 77, coediting with Henry J. Schmidt of Ohio State University a textbook for undergraduate students, "German Literature: Texts and Contexts" (1974), as well as a volume of Rilke’s correspondence with Sidonie Nádherná von Borutín (1973) and working on an autobiography, which was published posthumously under the title "Narziß mit Brille" (1985; English translation 1992). A posthumous collection of his essays, "Existenz und Dichtung" (1980), assembles seven articles on the motific cluster of ship – water – island – shipwreck as well as six essays on Rilke.
Awards and honors.
Blume was a Guggenheim Fellow twice, in 1954-55 and 1963-64. In 1957, he was named a member of the Deutsche Akademie für Sprache und Dichtung. The Goethe-Gesellschaft in Weimar awarded him the Goethe Medal in Gold in 1964, and in 1970 he was named a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was the recipient of two honorary doctorates, an LLD from Mills College in 1965 and a Litt.D. from Washington University in 1972, as well as an honorary A.M. degree from Harvard in 1956. His colleagues honored him with a "Festschrift" in 1967, and colleagues and former students established the Bernhard Blume Awards for Excellence in German Studies for undergraduate and graduate students at Harvard, with an endowment by the Grubb Foundation.


Waka language

Waka is an Adamawa language of Nigeria.