Taittiriya Upanishad

The Taittirīya Upanishad (Devanagari: तैत्तिरीय उपनिषद्) is a Vedic era Sanskrit text, embedded as three chapters ("adhyāya") of the Yajurveda. It is a "mukhya" (primary, principal) Upanishad, and likely composed about 6th century BC.
The Taittirīya Upanishad is associated with the Taittirīya school of the Yajurveda, attributed to the pupils of sage Vaishampayana. It lists as number 7 in the Muktika canon of 108 Upanishads.
The Taittirīya Upanishad is the seventh, eighth and ninth chapters of "Taittirīya Āraṇyaka", which are also called, respectively, the "Śikṣāvallī", the "Ānandavallī" and the "Bhṛguvallī". This Upanishad is classified as part of the "black" Yajurveda, with the term "black" implying "the un-arranged, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" (well arranged) Yajurveda where "Brihadaranyaka Upanishad" and "Isha Upanishad" are embedded.
The Upanishad includes verses that are partly prayers and benedictions, partly instruction on phonetics and praxis, partly advice on ethics and morals given to graduating students from ancient Vedic "gurukula"-s (schools), partly a treatise on allegory, and partly philosophical instruction.
Etymology.
"Taittiriya" is a Sanskrit word that means "from Tittiri". The root of this name has been interpreted in two ways: "from Vedic sage Tittiri", who was the student of Yāska; or alternatively, it being a collection of verses from mythical students who became "partridges" (birds) in order to gain knowledge. The later root of the title comes from the nature of Taittriya Upanishad which, like the rest of "dark or black Yajur Veda", is a motley, confusing collection of unrelated but individually meaningful verses.
Each chapter of the Taittiriya Upanishad is called a "Valli" (वल्ली), which literally means a medicinal vine-like climbing plant that grows independently yet is attached to a main tree. Paul Deussen states that this symbolic terminology is apt and likely reflects the root and nature of the Taittiriya Upanishad, which too is largely independent of the liturgical Yajur Veda, and is attached to the main text.
Chronology.
The chronology of Taittiriya Upanishad, along with other Vedic era literature, is unclear. All opinions rest on scanty evidence, assumptions about likely evolution of ideas, and on presumptions about which philosophy might have influenced which other Indian philosophies.
Stephen Phillips suggests that Taittiriya Upanishad was likely one of the early Upanishads, composed in the 1st half of 1st millennium BCE, after Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, and Isha, but before Aitareya, Kaushitaki, Kena, Katha, Manduka, Prasna, Svetasvatara and Maitri Upanishads, as well as before the earliest Buddhist Pali and Jaina canons.
Ranade shares the view of Phillips in chronologically sequencing Taittiriya Upanishad with respect to other Upanishads. Paul Deussen and Winternitz, hold a similar view as that of Phillips, but place Taittiriya before Isha Upanishad, but after Brihadaranyaka Upanishad and Chandogya Upanishad.
According to a 1998 review by Patrick Olivelle, the Taittiriya Upanishad was composed in a pre-Buddhist period, possibly 6th to 5th century BCE.
Structure.
The Taittiriya Upanishad has three chapters: the "Siksha Valli", the "Ananda Valli" and the "Bhrigu Valli". The first chapter Siksha Valli includes twelve "Anuvaka" (lessons). The second chapter "Ananda Valli", sometimes called "Brahmananda Valli" includes nine verses. The third chapter "Bhrigu Valli" consists of ten verses.
Some ancient and medieval Hindu scholars have classified the Taittiriya Upanishad differently, based on its structure. For example, Sâyana in his "Bhasya" (review and commentary) calls the Shiksha Valli (seventh chapter of the Aranyaka) as Sâmhitî-upanishad, and he prefers to treat the Ananda Valli and Bhrigu Vallu (eighth and ninth Prapâthakas) as a separate Upanishad and calls it the Vāruny Upanishad.
The Upanishad is one of the earliest known texts where an index was included at the end of each section, along with the main text, as a structural layout of the book. At the end of each Vallĩ in Taittiriya Upanishad manuscripts, there is an index of the Anuvakas which it contains. The index includes the initial words and final words of each "Anuvaka", as well as the number of sections in that "Anuvaka". For example, the first and second Anuvakas of "Shiksha Valli" state in their indices that there are five sections each in them, the fourth Anuvaka asserts there are three sections and one paragraph in it, while the twelfth Anuvaka states it has one section and five paragraphs. The "Ananda Valli", according to the embedded index, state each chapter to be much larger than currently surviving texts. For example, the 1st Anuvaka lists "pratika" words in its index as "brahmavid", "idam", "ayam", and states the number of sections to be twenty one. The 2nd Anuvaka asserts it has twenty six sections, the 3rd claims twenty two, the 4th has eighteen, the 5th has twenty two, the 6th Anuvaka asserts in its index that it has twenty eight sections, 7th claims sixteen, 8th states it includes fifty one sections, while the 9th asserts it has eleven. Similarly, the third Valli lists the "pratika" and "anukramani" in the index for each of the ten "Anuvakas".
Content.
Shiksha Valli.
The Siksha Valli chapter of Taittiriya Upanishad derives its name from Shiksha (Sanskrit: शिक्षा), which literally means "instruction, education". The various lessons of this first chapter are related to education of students in ancient Vedic era of India, their initiation into a school and their responsibilities after graduation. It mentions lifelong "pursuit of knowledge", includes hints of "Self-knowledge", but is largely independent of the second and third chapter of the Upanishad which discuss Atman and Self-knowledge. Paul Deussen states that the "Shiksha Valli" was likely the earliest chapter composed of this Upanishad, and the text grew over time with additional chapters.
The Siksha Valli includes promises by students entering the Vedic school, an outline of basic course content, the nature of advanced courses and creative work from human relationships, ethical and social responsibilities of the teacher and the students, the role of breathing and proper pronunciation of Vedic literature, the duties and ethical precepts that the graduate must live up to post-graduation.
A student's promise - First Anuvāka.
The first "anuvaka" (lesson) of Taittiriya Upanishad starts with benedictions, wherein states Adi Shankara, major Vedic deities are proclaimed to be manifestations of Brahman (Cosmic Soul, the constant Universal Principle, Unchanging Reality). Along with the benedictions, the first anuvaka includes a prayer and promise that a student in Vedic age of India was supposed to recite. Along with benedictions to Vedic deities, the recitation stated,
Adi Shankara comments that the "Peace" phrase is repeated thrice, because there are three potential obstacles to the gain of Self-knowledge by a student: one's own behavior, other people's behavior, and the devas; these sources are exhorted to peace.
Phonetics and the theory of connecting links - Second and Third Anuvāka.
The second anuvaka highlights phonetics as an element of the Vedic instruction. The verse asserts that the student must master the principles of sound as it is created and as perceived, in terms of the structure of linguistics, vowels, consonants, balancing, accentuation (stress, meter), speaking correctly, and the connection of sounds in a word from articulatory and auditory perspectives. Taittirĩya Upanishad's emphasizes, in its later anuvakas, "", a practice that served as the principal tool for the oral preservation of the Vedas in their original form for over two millennia. Svādhyāya as a part of student's instruction, involved understanding the linguistic principles coupled with recitation practice of Indian scriptures, which enabled the mastering of entire chapters and books with accurate pronunciation. The ancient Indian studies of linguistics and recitation tradition, as mentioned in the second anuvaka of Taittiriya Upanishad, helped transmit and preserve the extensive Vedic literature from 2nd millennium BCE onwards, long before the methods of mass printing and book preservation were developed. Michael Witzel explains it as follows,
The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalized early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is, in fact, something like a "tape-recording"... Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present.
The third anuvaka of "Shiksha Valli" asserts that everything in the universe is connected. In its theory of "connecting links", it states that letters are joined to form words and words are joined to express ideas, just like earth and heavens are forms causally joined by space through the medium of "Vayu" (air), and just like the fire and the sun are forms causally connected through lightning with the medium of clouds. It asserts that it is knowledge that connects the teacher and the student through the medium of exposition, while the child is the connecting link between the father and the mother through the medium of procreation. Speech (expression) is the joining link between upper and lower jaw, and it is speech which connects people.
A teacher's prayer - Fourth Anuvāka.
The fourth anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is a prayer of the teacher,
The structure of the fourth anuvaka is unusual because it starts as a metered verse but slowly metamorphoses into a rhythmic Sanskrit prose. Additionally, the construction of the verse has creative elements that permits multiple translations. The fourth anuvaka is also structured as a liturgical text, with many parts rhythmically ending in Svāhā, a term used when oblations are offered during yajna rituals.
A theory of Oneness and holy exclamations - Fifth and Sixth Anuvāka.
The fifth anuvaka declares that "Bhūr! Bhuvaḥ! Svar!" are three holy exclamations, then adds that "Bhur" is the breathing out, "Bhuvah" is the breathing in, while "Svar" is the intermediate step between those two. It also states that "Brahman is Atman (Self), and all deities and divinities are its limbs", that "Self-knowledge is the Eternal Principle", and the human beings who have this Oneness and Self-knowledge are served by the gods.
The second part of the sixth anuvaka of "Shiksha Valli" asserts that the "Atman (Soul, Self) exists" and when an individual Self attains certain characteristics, it becomes one with Brahman (Cosmic Soul, Eternal Reality). These characteristics are listed as follows in verse 1.6.2,
The sixth anuvaka ends with exhortation to meditate on this Oneness principle, during "Pracina yogya" (प्राचीन योग्य, ancient yoga), making it one of the earliest mentions of the practice of meditative Yoga as existent in ancient India.
Parallelism in knowledge and what is Om - Seventh and Eighth Anuvāka.
The seventh anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is an unconnected lesson asserting that "everything in this whole world is fivefold" - sensory organs, human anatomy (skin, flesh, sinews, bones, marrow), breathing, energy (fire, wind, sun, moon, stars), space (earth, aerial space, heavens, poles, intermediate poles). This section does not contextually fit with the sixth or eighth lesson. It is the concluding words of the seventh anuvaka that makes it relevant to the Taittiriya Upanishad, by asserting the idea of fractal nature of existence where the same hidden principles of nature and reality are present in macro and micro forms, there is parallelism in all knowledge. Paul Deussen states that these concluding words of the seventh lesson of Shiksha Valli assert, "there is parallelism between man and the world, microcosm and macrocosm, and he who understands this idea of parallelism becomes there through the macrocosm itself".
What is ?
The eighth anuvaka, similarly, is another seemingly unconnected lesson. It includes an exposition of the syllable word Om (ॐ, sometimes spelled "Aum"), stating that this word is inner part of the word Brahman, it signifies the Brahman, it is this whole world states the eight lesson in the first section of the Taittiriya Upanishad. The verse asserts that this syllable word is used often and for diverse purposes, to remind and celebrate that Brahman. It lists the diverse uses of "Om" in ancient India, at invocations, at "Agnidhra", in songs of the "Samans", in prayers, in "Sastras", during sacrifices, during rituals, during meditation, and during recitation of the Vedas.
Ethical duties of human beings - Ninth Anuvāka.
The ninth anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is a rhythmic recitation of ethical duties of all human beings, where "svādhyāya" is the "perusal of oneself" (study yourself), and the "pravacana" (प्रवचन, exposition and discussion of Vedas) is emphasized.
Tenth Anuvāka.
The tenth anuvaka is obscure, unrelated lesson, likely a corrupted or incomplete surviving version of the original, according to Paul Deussen. It is rhythmic with "Mahabrihati Yavamadhya" meter, a mathematical "8+8+12+8+8" structure.
Max Muller translates it as an affirmation of one's Self as a capable, empowered blissful being. The tenth anuvaka asserts, "I am he who shakes the tree. I am glorious like the top of a mountain. I, whose pure light (of knowledge) has risen, am that which is truly immortal, as it resides in the sun. I (Soul, Self) am the treasure, wise, immortal, imperishable. This is the teaching of the Veda, by sage Trisanku." Shankara states that the tree is a metaphor for the empirical world, which is shaken by knowledge and realization of Atman-Brahman (Self, eternal reality and hidden invisible principles).
Convocation address to graduating students, living ethically - Eleventh Anuvāka.
The eleventh anuvaka of Shiksha Valli is a list of golden rules which the Vedic era teacher imparted to the graduating students as the ethical way of life. The verses ask the graduate to take care of themselves and pursue Dharma, Artha and Kama to the best of their abilities. Parts of the verses in section 1.11.1, for example, state
The eleventh anuvaka of "Shiksha Valli" list behavioral guidelines for the graduating students from a "gurukul",
The third section of the eleventh anuvaka lists charity and giving, with faith, sympathy, modesty and cheerfulness, as ethical precept for the graduating students.
Scholars have debated whether the guidelines to morality in this Taittiriya Upanishad anuvaka are consistent with the "Know yourself" spirit of the Upanishads. Adi Shankara states that they are, because there is a difference between theory and practice, learning the need for Self-knowledge and the ethics that results from such Self-knowledge is not same as living practice of the same. Ethical living accelerates Self-knowledge in the graduate.
Graduating student's acknowledgment - Twelfth Anuvāka.
The last "anuvaka" (lesson) of Taittiriya Upanishad, just like the first anuvaka, starts with benedictions, wherein Vedic deities are once again proclaimed to be manifestations of Brahman (Cosmic Soul, Unchanging Reality). Along with the benedictions, the last anuvaka includes an acknowledgment that mirrors the promise in first anuvaka,
Ananda Valli.
The second chapter of Taittiriya Upanishad, namely Ananda Valli and sometimes called "Brahmananda Valli", focuses like other ancient Upanishads on the theme of Atman (Self, Soul). It asserts that "Atman exists", it is Brahman, and realizing it is the highest, empowering, liberating knowledge. The Ananda Valli asserts that knowing one's Self is the path to freedom from all concerns, fears and to a positive state of blissful living.
The Ananda Valli is remarkable for its "Kosha" (Sanskrit: कोष) theory (or "Layered Maya" theory), expressing that man reaches his highest potential and understands the deepest knowledge by a process of learning the right and unlearning the wrong. Real deeper knowledge is hidden in layers of superficial knowledge, but superficial knowledge is easier and simplistic. The Ananda Valli classifies these as concentric layers (sheaths) of knowledge-seeking. The outermost layer it calls "Annamaya" which envelops and hides "Pranamaya", which in turn envelops "Manomaya", inside which is "Vijnanamaya", and finally the "Anandamaya" which the Upanishad states is the innermost, deepest layer.
The Ananda Valli asserts that Self-knowledge is "not" attainable by cultic worship of God or gods motivated by egoistic cravings and desires ("Manomaya"). "Vijnanamaya" or one with segregated knowledge experiences the deeper state of existence but it too is insufficient. The complete, unified and blissful state of Self-knowledge is, states Ananda Valli, that where one becomes one with all reality, there is no separation between object and subject, I and we, Atman and Brahman. Realization of Atman is a deep state of absorption, oneness, communion.
The Ananda valli is one of the earliest known theories in history on the nature of man and knowledge, and resembles but pre-dates the Hellenistic Hermetic and Neoplatonic theories recorded in different forms about a millennium later, such as those expressed in the Corpus Hermetica.
Annamaya - First and Second Anuvāka.
The first anuvaka commences by stating the premise and a summary of the entire Ananda Valli.
Paul Deussen notes that the word "Ananta" in verse 1 may be vulgate, and a related term "Ananda", similarly pronounced, is more consistent with the teachings of other Upanishads of Hinduism, particularly one of its central premise of Atman being "sat-chit-ananda". In Deussen's review and translation, instead of "Brahman is infinite", an alternate expression would read "Brahman is bliss".
The second anuvaka of Ananda Valli then proceeds to explain the first layer of man's nature and knowledge-seeking to be about "material man and material nature", with the metaphor of food. The Taittiriya Upanishad asserts that both "material man and material nature" are caused by Brahman, are manifestations of Brahman, are Brahman, but only the outermost shell or sheath of existence. The verse offers relational connection between natural elements, asserting that everything is food to something else in universe at the empirical level of existence, either at a given time, or over time. All creatures are born out of this "food provided by nature and food provided by life with time". All creatures grow due to food, and thus are interdependent. All creatures, upon their death, become food in this food-chain, states Ananda Valli's second verse. Learning, knowing and understanding this "food chain" material nature of existence and the interdependence is the first essential, yet outermost incomplete knowledge.
Pranamaya - Third Anuvāka.
The second inner level of nature and knowledge-seeking is about life-force, asserts Ananda Valli's third anuvaka. This life-force is identified by and dependent on breathing. Gods breathe, human beings breathe, animals breathe, as do all beings that exist. Life-force is more than material universe, it includes animating processes inside the being, particularly breathing, and this layer of nature and knowledge is "Pranamaya kosha".
Manomaya - Fourth Anuvāka.
The next inner, deeper layer of nature and knowledge-seeking relates to "Manas" (mind, thought, will, wish), or "Manomaya kosha". "Manas", asserts the fourth anuvaka of Ananda Valli, exists only in individual forms of beings. It is characterized by the power to will, the ability to wish, and the striving for prosperity through actions on the empirical nature, knowledge and beings. The verse of fourth anuvaka add that this knowledge is essential yet incomplete, that it the knowledge of Brahman that truly liberates, and one who knows Atman-Brahman "dreads nothing, now and never" and "lives contently, in bliss".
Vijñãnamaya - Fifth Anuvāka.
The fifth anuvaka of Ananda Valli states that the "manomaya kosha" (thought, will, wish) envelops a deeper more profound layer of existence, which is the "vijnana-maya kosha" (knowledge, ethics, reason). This is the realm of knowledge observed in all human beings. The vijnana-maya is characterized by faith, justice, truth, yoga and "mahas" (power to perceive and reason). The individual who is aware of vijnana-maya, asserts the verses of Ananda Valli, offers knowledge as the work to others.
Anandamaya - Sixth, Seventh, Eighth and Ninth Anuvāka.
The sixth, seventh and eighth anuvaka of Ananda Valli states that the "vijnanamaya kosha" (knowledge, ethics, reason) envelops the deepest, hidden layer of existence, which is the "ananda-maya kosha" (bliss, tranquility, contentness). This is the inner most is the realm of Atman-Brahman (Soul, Self, spirituality). The ananda-maya is characterized by love, joy, cheerfulness, bliss and Brahman. The individuals who are aware of ananda-maya, assert the sixth to eighth verses of Ananda Valli, are those who simultaneously realize the empirical and the spiritual, the conscious and unconscious, the changing and the eternal, the time and the timeless.
These last anuvakas of the second Valli of Tattiriya Upanishad assert that he who has Self-knowledge is well constituted, he realizes the essence, he is full of bliss. He exists in peace within and without, his is a state of calm joy irrespective of circumstances, he is One with everything and everyone. He fears nothing, he fears no one, he lives his true nature, he is free from pride, he is free from guilt, he is beyond good and evil, he is free from craving desires and thus all the universe is in him and is his. His blissful being is Atman-Brahman, and Atman-Brahman is the bliss that is he.
Bhṛgu Vallī.
The third Valli of Tattiriya Upanishad repeats the ideas of Ananda Valli, through a story about sage Bhrigu. The chapter is also similar in its themes and focus to those found in chapter 3 of Kausitaki Upanishad and chapter 8 of Chandogya Upanishad. The Bhrigu Valli's theme is the exposition of the concept of Atman-Brahman (self, soul) and what it means to be a self-realized, free, liberated human being.
The first six anuvakas of Bhrigu Valli are called "Bhargavi Varuni Vidya", which means "the knowledge Bhrigu got from (his father) Varuni". It is in these anuvakas that sage Varuni advises Bhrigu with one of the oft-cited definition of Brahman, as "that from which beings originate, through which they live, and in which they re-enter after death, explore that because that is Brahman". This thematic, all encompassing, eternal nature of reality and existence develops as the basis for Bhrigu's emphasis on introspection and inwardization, to help peel off the outer husks of knowledge, in order to reach and realize the innermost kernel of spiritual Self-knowledge.
The last four of the ten anuvakas of Bhrigu Valli build on this foundation, but once again like Ananda Valli, use the metaphor of "food" as in Ananda Valli. As with Ananda Valli, in Bhrigu Valli, everything and everyone is asserted to be connected and deeply inter-related to everything and everyone else, by being food (of energy, of material, of knowledge). "Food is founded on food", asserts verse 3.9 of Taittiriya Upanishad, which then illustrates the idea with the specific example "earth is founded on (food for) space, and space is founded on (food for) earth".
After discussing the nature of Brahman, the Bhrigu Valli chapter of Taittiriya Upanishad recommends the following maxims and vows:
The Taittiriya Upanishad closes with the following declaration,
Translations.
A number of commentaries were published on the Taittiriya Upanishad in Sanskrit and Indian languages through the years, including popular ones by Shankara, Sayanana and Ramanuja. Though, the first European translations of the work began to appear in 1805, up to the early 1900s some information on vedas were known to Europeans before. They began to appear in English, German and French, primarily by Max Muller, Griffith, Muir, and Wilson, all of whom were either western academics based in Europe or in colonial India. The Taittiriya Upanishad was first translated in Non Indian languages Jacqueline Hirst, in her analysis of Adi Shankara's works, states that Taittiriya Upanishad Bhasya provides one of his key exegesis. Shankara presents Knowledge and Truth as different, non-superimposable but interrelated. Knowledge can be right or wrong, correct or incorrect, a distinction that principles of Truth and Truthfulness help distinguish. Truth cleanses knowledge, helping man understand the nature of empirical truths and hidden truths (invisible laws and principles, spirit/soul/self). Together states Shankara in his Taittiriya Upanishad Bhasya, Knowledge and Truth point to Oneness of all, Brahman as nothing other than Self, Soul in every human being.
Paul Horsch, in his review of the historical development of Dharma concept and ethics in Indian philosophies, includes Taittiriya Upanishad as among the ancient influential texts. Kirkwood makes a similar observation.
Bhatta states that Taittiriya Upanishad is one of earliest expositions of education system in ancient Indian culture.
Paul Deussen, in his preface to Taittiriya Upanishad's translation, states that Ananda Valli chapter of Taittiriya Upanishad is "one of the most beautiful evidences of the ancient Indian's deep absorption in the mystery of nature and of the inmost part of the human being".
The Taittiriya Upanishad has been translated into a number of Indian languages as well, by a large number of scholars including Dayanand Saraswati, Bhandarkar, and in more recent years, by organisations such as the Chinmayananda mission.


Shastrartha

Shastrartha (Sanskrit शास्त्रार्थ) is an "intellectual debate". This was a kind of philosophical and religious debates in which scholars participated to reveal the inner meaning (Artha - अर्थ) of scriptures (shastra - शास्त्र). There were three types of Shastrartha prevalent in India, namely, the Vadakatha (healthy discussions which targeted the truth), the Jalpakatha (where two contradictory interpretations contested with each other) and the Vitandakatha (which attacked the other views without establishing their own view). The Vada katha was done among the Guru and Shishya or among the people belonging to the same philosophical school. While the latter two were done among the people of different schools or with the antagonistic sects. People vied with each other for winning the contest by showing their language of the ancient scriptures


Francis Dvornik

Francis Dvornik (Chomýž, 14 August 1893 – Chomýž, 4 November 1975), in Czech František Dvorník, was a Catholic priest and academic. He is considered one of the leading twentieth-century experts on Slavic and Byzantine history, and on relations between the churches of Rome and Constantinople.
Career.
Dvornik taught at Charles University in Prague, the Collège de France, and Harvard University.
He contributed to research that helped rehabilitate, from a Catholic standpoint, the Byzantine patriarch and writer, Photius. He was re-established as significant to the life of the church..
In 1956 Harvard University Press published a "festschrift", a collection of "Essays Dedicated to F. Dvornik on the Occasion of his 60th Birthday" (Harvard Slavic studies no. 2).
Bibliography.
Books.
In Italian : "Gli Slavi nella storia e nella civiltà europea", 2v., Bari,edizioni Dedalo, 1968.


Mercy (given name)

Mercy is a feminine given name or nickname which may refer to:


Kathleen Hughes (historian)

Kathleen Winifred Hughes (8 September 1926 in Middlesbrough – 20 April 1977) was an English historian, her specialisation was Irish ecclesiastical history, particularly the early Christian Church in Ireland.
Hughes remains a highly regarded historian over thirty years after her early death. A mark of this respect was demonstrated with the inclusion of two of her articles in volume one of "A New History of Ireland", published in 2006. Despite both having been written in 1974, they were included because
"she was one of the most distinguished early Irish church historian(s) of her generation", and as they had "been heralded as forthcoming since her death. The editors therefore felt that it was only right to print the chapters as she wrote; Dr. Ann Hamlin, a friend of Kathleen Hughes, kindly undertook to complete the footnote reference and to update them where necessary."
Hughes obtained her Ph.D in London, and became a fellow at Newnham College, Cambridge. She was the Nora Chadwick Reader in Celtic Studies, Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse and Celtic, University of Cambridge. Among her best-known works was "The Modern Traveller to the Early Irish Church", which was co-written with Dr. Hamlin.
In 1973 she delivered the British Academy's Sir John Rhŷs Memorial Lecture.
"Ireland in Early Mediaeval Europe: Studies in Memory of Kathleen Hughes" was published in 1981 and edited by Dorothy Whitelock, Rosamond McKitterick and David Dumville. Hughes is also commemorated by the Kathleen Hughes Fund. In 2000, Hughes Hall, Cambridge instituted the annual Kathleen Hughes Memorial Lecture, a pamphlet is produced for each lecture by the Department of Anglo-Saxon, Norse & Celtic.


Fair Em

Fair Em, the Miller's Daughter of Manchester, is an Elizabethan-era stage play, a comedy written c. 1590. It was bound together with "Mucedorus" and "The Merry Devil of Edmonton" in a volume labelled "Shakespeare. Vol. I" in the library of Charles II. Though scholarly opinion generally does not accept the attribution to William Shakespeare, there are a few who believe they see Shakespeare's hand in this play.
Publication history.
"Fair Em" was published in quarto twice before the closing of the theatres in 1642:
Authorship.
Edward Phillips, in his "Theatrum Poetarum" (1675), states that "Fair Em" was written by Robert Greene; but since Greene ridicules the play's author and parodies two lines from the closing scene in his 1591 pamphlet "Farewell to Folly", this attribution also seems unsound. "Fair Em" has a clear relationship with one of Greene's plays, "Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay;" it seems most likely that the author of "Fair Em" borrowed from Greene. Since Greene's play is thought to date to c. 1589, "Fair Em" would have to have originated between that date and the publication of "Farewell to Folly" in 1591. This span of 1589–91 conforms to the dating based on the Lord Strange connection, noted above.
In modern scholarship, the attributions of authorship that have attracted the most support are to Robert Wilson and to Anthony Munday. The attribution to Munday relies on similarities between "Fair Em" and "John a Kent and John a Cumber." A later play, John Day's "The Blind Beggar of Bednal Green" (1600), bears noteworthy resemblances to "Fair Em". Brian Vickers attributes the play to Thomas Kyd, an ascription endorsed by Darren Freebury-Jones.
The plot derives from traditional sources; a ballad titled "The Miller's Daughter of Manchester" was entered into the Stationers' Register on 2 March 1581.
Synopsis.
In the main plot, William the Conqueror falls in love with the image on the shield that the Marquess of Lubeck carries in a tournament. In disguise, William travels to the court of King Zweno of Denmark to see the original of the portrait; once there, he falls in love with Marianna, a Swedish princess held hostage at the Danish court. Marianna, however, is faithful to her suitor, Lubeck, and has no interest in William; but the king's daughter Blanche becomes infatuated with the newcomer. The ladies stage a plot, in which William absconds with the woman he thinks is Marianne; in doing so he gets in trouble with Zweno, who is under the same mistaken impression. When the woman's true identity is revealed – she is of course Blanche – William accepts her as his wife. Lubeck and Marianne are left, happily, to each other.
In the subplot, Em, the beautiful daughter of the miller of Manchester, is wooed by three suitors, Valingford, Mountney, and Manvile. Preferring Manvile, she pretends blindness to evade Valingford, and deafness to avoid Mountney. But Manvile proves unfaithful to Em. In the end, Manvile loses both of the women he pursues, and Em marries Valingford, the one of the three who has remained true to her; and it is revealed that Em is actually of the gentry – her father is Sir Thomas Goddard, and the miller of Manchester was his disguise. The two plots meet at the end, as William recognizes Goddard's banishment was unjust and revokes it. Em makes William realize that the world does contain virtuous women, which helps to reconcile him to his marriage with Blanche.
Interpretations.
A few nineteenth-century commentators (notably F. G. Fleay) read hidden significance into the play, interpreting it as an allegory on the theatrical conditions of its day. Modern scholarship rejects these views as fanciful, and regards the work as a light entertainment, successful on its own level. Speculations that Shakespeare may have played either William the Conqueror or Valingford have also not been judged favorably. Brian Vickers believes the play to be by Thomas Kyd.
Performance.
The first modern-day revival production of "Fair Em" opened in 2013 at the Union Theatre, Southwark, London. Directed by Phil Willmott, this performance ran from January 8 to February 9.


Datagram

A datagram is a basic transfer unit associated with a packet-switched network. Datagrams are typically structured in header and payload sections. Datagrams provide a connectionless communication service across a packet-switched network. The delivery, arrival time, and order of arrival of datagrams need not be guaranteed by the network.
History.
In the early 1970s, the term "datagram" was created by combining the words "data" and "telegram" by the CCITT rapporteur on packet switching, Halvor Bothner-By.
While the word was new, the concept had already a long history.
In 1962, Paul Baran described, in a RAND Corporation report, an hypothetical military network having to resist a nuclear attack. Small standardized "message blocks", bearing source and destination addresses, were stored and forwarded in computer nodes of a highly redundant meshed computer network. "The network user who has called up a "virtual connection" to an end station and has transmitted messages ... might also view the system as a black box providing an apparent circuit connection".
In 1967, Donald Davies published a seminal article in which he introduced the now largely used words "packet" and "packet switching".
His core network is similar to that of Paul Baran although it has been independently designed. To deal with datagram permutations (due to dynamically updated routing preferences) and to datagram losses (unavoidable when fast sources send to a slow destinations), he assumes that "all users of the network will provide themselves with some kind of error control" (what will be called later on a "pure datagram" service). His target is, for the first time in packet switching, a "common-carrier communication network". To support remote access to computer services by user terminals, which at that time transmitted in general character by character, he included at the network periphery interface computers that convert character flows into packet flows and conversely.
In 1970, Lawrence Roberts and Barry D. Wessler published an article about Arpanet, the first multi-node packet-switching network. An accompanying paper described its switching nodes (the IMPs) and its packet formats. The network core performed datagram switching as in Baran's and Davies' model, but provision was added within the network, at its periphery, to deal with datagram losses and permutations. A reliable message transfer service was thus offered to user computers, thus greatly simplifying their own work, and keeping it less dependent on further research.
In 1973, Louis Pouzin presented his design for Cyclades, the first real size network implementing the pure datagram model of Donald Davies.
The Cyclades team has thus been first to tackle the highly complex problem of providing to user applications a reliable virtual circuit service (the equivalent of an Internet TCP connection) while using an end to end network service known to possibly produce non negligible datagram losses and permutations.
Although Pouzin's concern "in a first stage is not to make breakthrough in packet switching technology, but to build a reliable communications tool for Cyclades", two members of his team, Hubert Zimmerman and Gérard Le Lann, made significant contributions to the design of Internet's TCP that Vint Cerf, its main designer, acknowledged.
In 1981, the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) issued the first specification the Internet protocol (IP). It introduced a major evolution of the datagram concept: "fragmentation."
With fragmentation, some parts of the global network may use large packet size (typically local area networks for processing power minimization), while some others may impose smaller packet sizes (typically wide area networks for response time minimization). Network nodes may split a packet of a datagram into several smaller packets of the same datagram.
In 1999, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) officialised the use of the already largely deployed "Network address translation" (NAT)
whereby each public address can be shared by several private devices. With it, the forthcoming Internet Address exhaustion was delayed, leaving enough time to introduce IPv6, the new generation of Internet packets supporting longer addresses. The initial principle of full end to end network transparency to datagrams was for this relaxed: NAT nodes had to manage per-connection states, making them in part connection oriented.
In 2015, the IETF upgraded its weak "informational" recommendation of 1998, that datagram switching nodes perform active queue management (AQM), to make it a stronger and more detailed "best current practice" recommendation.
While the initial datagram queueing model was simple to implement and needed no more tuning than queue lengths, support of more sophisticated and parametrized mechanisms were found necessary "to improve and preserve Internet performance" (RED, ECN etc.). Further research on the subject was also called for, with a list of identified items.
Definition.
RFC 1594 defines the term Datagram as follows:
A datagram needs to be self-contained without reliance on earlier exchanges because there is no connection of fixed duration between the two communicating points as there is, for example, in most voice telephone conversations.
Datagram service is often compared to a mail delivery service; the user only provides the destination address, but receives no guarantee of delivery, and no confirmation upon successful delivery. Datagram service is therefore considered unreliable. Datagram service routes datagrams without first creating a predetermined path. Datagram service is therefore considered connectionless. There is also no consideration given to the order in which it and other datagrams are sent or received. In fact, many datagrams in the same group can travel along different paths before reaching the same destination.
Structure.
Each datagram has two components, a header and a data payload. The header contains all the information sufficient for routing from the originating equipment to the destination without relying on prior exchanges between the equipment and the network. Headers may include source and destination addresses as well as a type field. The payload is the data to be transported. This process of nesting data payloads in a tagged header is called encapsulation.
Examples.
Internet Protocol.
The Internet Protocol (IP) defines standards for several types of datagrams. The internet layer is a datagram service provided by an IP. For example, UDP is run by a datagram service on the internet layer. IP is an entirely connectionless, best effort, unreliable, message delivery service. TCP is a higher level protocol running on top of IP that provides a reliable connection-oriented service.


L. C. R. Duncombe-Jewell

Louis Charles Richard Duncombe-Jewell (10 September 1866 – 1947), born Louis Charles Richard Jewell, was a soldier, special war correspondent of "The Times" and "The Morning Post", sportsman and sometimes poet. He was a champion of the Cornish language, having been born at Liskeard in Cornwall. He assumed the additional surname Duncombe in accordance with his grandmother's will in 1895. His parents were members of the Plymouth Brethren, which when they moved to South London brought him into contact with Aleister Crowley. The two remained lifelong associates. Duncombe-Jewell lived at Crowley's Scottish residence 'Boleskine' for several years from 1903. He later converted to Catholicism.
Military service.
Formerly a Lieutenant in the 3rd Volunteer Battalion of the Royal Fusiliers, he represented "The Times" in Spain during the rumours of an impending Carlist rising in 1898–99, and served as a Special War Correspondent for the "Morning Post" newspaper in South Africa, the same paper that also employed Winston Churchill, with the 3rd Division South African Field Force.
Writing career.
Duncombe-Jewell was a noted historian, novelist and verse-writer, and made numerous contributions to the "Pall Mall Gazette", and many other publications of the period. He was editor of "Armorial Cornwall", founder and Hon. Sec. Celtic-Cornish Society, and leader of the Cornish Language Movement. He was also an expert in the works of occultist, Aleister Crowley who spent some time in Cornwall.
Interest in Cornish Nationalism.
During the 1890s, Duncombe-Jewell flirted with the Neo-Jacobite Revival. He wrote a piece on the movement for "The Albermarle", which was critical of the more political Legitimist Jacobite League of Great Britain and Ireland, but favourable towards the more artistic Order of White Rose.
In 1901 he founded the Cornish Celtic Society (), and at the Pan Celtic Congress of 1901 made a spirited plea for recognition of Cornwall as a Celtic nation.
He was a flamboyant individual who appeared at the 1902 Bangor Eisteddfod as the Cornish delegate sporting a traditional Cornish costume of his own design. He was made a bard by the Welsh Gorsedd in 1904 and took the bardic name of "Bardd Glas" (the Blue Bard) because he was clad from his tights to his cap in this colour. Also involved with Cowethas Kelto Kernuak was Henry Jenner who later retired to Cornwall following a distinguished career as librarian at the British Museum. Together with Jenner, he was jointly responsible for Cornwall gaining its acceptance as a Celtic nation by the Pan Celtic Congress of 1904. Later Jenner helped found the Cornish Gorseth.
The Cowethas Kelto Kernuak organisation petered out, when in 1903, Duncombe Jewell left Cornwall to live at Boleskine near Loch Ness and the colourful and enigmatic Bardd Glas progressively turned his attention away from Cornish Celtic culture to Welsh.


Encoding (memory)

Memory has the ability to encode, store and recall information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Encoding allows a perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from long-term memory. Working memory stores information for immediate use or manipulation which is aided through hooking onto previously archived items already present in the long-term memory of an individual.
History.
Encoding is still relatively new and unexplored but origins of encoding date back to age old philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato. A major figure in the history of encoding is Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909). Ebbinghaus was a pioneer in the field of memory research. Using himself as a subject he studied how we learn and forget information by repeating a list of nonsense syllables to the rhythm of a metronome until they were committed to his memory. These experiments lead him to suggest the learning curve. He used these relatively meaningless words so that prior associations between meaningful words would not influence learning. He found that lists that allowed associations to be made and semantic meaning was apparent were easier to recall. Ebbinghaus' results paved the way for experimental psychology in memory and other mental processes.
During the 1900s, further progress in memory research was made. Ivan Pavlov began research pertaining to classical conditioning. His research demonstrated the ability to create a semantic relationship between two unrelated items.
In 1932, Frederic Bartlett proposed the idea of mental schemas. This model proposed that whether new information would be encoded was dependent on its consistency with prior knowledge (mental schemas). This model also suggested that information not present at the time of encoding would be added to memory if it was based on schematic knowledge of the world. In this way, encoding was found to be influenced by prior knowledge.
With the advance of Gestalt theory came the realization that memory for encoded information was often perceived as different from the stimuli that triggered it. It was also influenced by the context that the stimuli were embedded in.
With advances in technology, the field of neuropsychology emerged and with it a biological basis for theories of encoding. In 1949, Donald Hebb looked at the neuroscience aspect of encoding and stated that "neurons that fire together wire together," implying that encoding occurred as connections between neurons were established through repeated use.
The 1950s and 60's saw a shift to the information processing approach to memory based on the invention of computers, followed by the initial suggestion that encoding was the process by which information is entered into memory. In 1956, George Armitage Miller wrote his paper on how short-term memory is limited to seven items, plus-or-minus two, called The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two. This number was appended when studies done on chunking revealed that seven, plus or minus two could also refer to seven "packets of information".
In 1974, Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch proposed their model of working memory, which consists of the central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, and phonological loop as a method of encoding. In 2000, Baddeley added the episodic buffer. Simultaneously Endel Tulving (1983) proposed the idea of encoding specificity whereby context was again noted as an influence on encoding.
Types.
There are two main approaches to coding information: the physiological approach, and the mental approach. The physiological approach looks at how a stimulus is represented by neurons firing in the brain, while the mental approach looks at how the stimulus is represented in the mind.
There are many types of mental encoding that are used, such as visual, elaborative, organizational, acoustic, and semantic. However, this is not an extensive list
Visual encoding.
Visual encoding is the process of converting images and visual sensory information to memory stored in the brain. This means that people can convert the new information that they stored into mental pictures (Harrison, C., Semin, A.,(2009). Psychology. New York p. 222) Visual sensory information is temporarily stored within our iconic memory and working memory before being encoded into permanent long-term storage. Baddeley's model of working memory suggests that visual information is stored in the visuo-spatial sketchpad.
The visuo-spatial sketchpad is connected to the central executive, which is a key area of working memory. The amygdala is another complex structure that has an important role in visual encoding. It accepts visual input in addition to input, from other systems, and encodes the positive or negative values of conditioned stimuli.
Elaborative encoding.
Elaborative encoding is the process of actively relating new information to knowledge that is already in memory. Memories are a combination of old and new information, so the nature of any particular memory depends as much on the old information already in our memories as it does on the new information coming in through our senses. In other words, how we remember something depends on how we think about it at the time. Many studies have shown that long-term retention is greatly enhanced by elaborative encoding.
Semantic encoding.
Semantic encoding is the processing and encoding of sensory input that has particular meaning or can be applied to a context. Various strategies can be applied such as chunking and mnemonics to aid in encoding, and in some cases, allow deep processing, and optimizing retrieval.
Words studied in semantic or deep encoding conditions are better recalled as compared to both easy and hard groupings of nonsemantic or shallow encoding conditions with response time being the deciding variable. Brodmann's areas 45, 46, and 47 (the left inferior prefrontal cortex or LIPC) showed significantly more activation during semantic encoding conditions compared to nonsemantic encoding conditions regardless of the difficulty of the nonsemantic encoding task presented. The same area showing increased activation during initial semantic encoding will also display decreasing activation with repetitive semantic encoding of the same words. This suggests the decrease in activation with repetition is process specific occurring when words are semantically reprocessed but not when they are nonsemantically reprocessed. Lesion and neuroimaging studies suggest that the orbitofrontal cortex is responsible for initial encoding and that activity in the left lateral prefrontal cortex correlates with the semantic organization of encoded information.
Acoustic encoding.
Acoustic encoding is the encoding of auditory impulses. According to Baddeley, processing of auditory information is aided by the concept of the phonological loop, which allows input within our echoic memory to be sub vocally rehearsed in order to facilitate remembering.
When we hear any word, we do so by hearing individual sounds, one at a time. Hence the memory of the beginning of a new word is stored in our echoic memory until the whole sound has been perceived and recognized as a word.
Studies indicate that lexical, semantic and phonological factors interact in verbal working memory. The phonological similarity effect (PSE), is modified by word concreteness. This emphasizes that verbal working memory performance cannot exclusively be attributed to phonological or acoustic representation but also includes an interaction of linguistic representation. What remains to be seen is whether linguistic representation is expressed at the time of recall or whether the representational methods used (such as recordings, videos, symbols, etc.) participate in a more fundamental role in encoding and preservation of information in memory. The brain relies primarily on acoustic (aka phonological) encoding for use in short-term storage and primarily semantic encoding for use in long-term storage.
Other senses.
Tactile encoding is the processing and encoding of how something feels, normally through touch. Neurons in the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) react to vibrotactile stimuli by activating in synchronization with each series of vibrations. Odors and tastes may also lead to encode.
Organizational encoding is the course of classifying information permitting to the associations amid a sequence of terms.
Long-Term Potentiation.
Encoding is a biological event that begins with perception. All perceived and striking sensations travel to the brain's thalamus where all these sensations are combined into one single experience. The hippocampus is responsible for analyzing these inputs and ultimately deciding if they will be committed to long-term memory; these various threads of information are stored in various parts of the brain. However, the exact way in which these pieces are identified and recalled later remains unknown.
Encoding is achieved using a combination of chemicals and electricity. Neurotransmitters are released when an electrical pulse crosses the synapse which serves as a connection from nerve cells to other cells. The dendrites receive these impulses with their feathery extensions. A phenomenon called long-term potentiation allows a synapse to increase strength with increasing numbers of transmitted signals between the two neurons. For that to happen, NMDA receptor, which influences the flow of information between neurons by controlling the initiation of long-term potentiation in most hippocampal pathways, need to come to the play. For these NMDA receptors to be activated, there must be two conditions. Firstly, glutamate has to be released and bound to the NMDA receptor site on postsynaptic neurons. Secondly, excitation has to take place in postsynaptic neurons. These cells also organize themselves into groups specializing in different kinds of information processing. Thus, with new experiences the brain creates more connections and may 'rewire'. The brain organizes and reorganizes itself in response to one's experiences, creating new memories prompted by experience, education, or training. Therefore, the use of a brain reflects how it is organised. This ability to re-organize is especially important if ever a part of the brain becomes damaged. Scientists are unsure of whether the stimuli of what we do not recall are filtered out at the sensory phase or if they are filtered out after the brain examines their significance.
Mapping Activity.
Positron emission tomography (PET) demonstrates a consistent functional anatomical blueprint of hippocampal activation during episodic encoding and retrieval. Activation in the hippocampal region associated with episodic memory encoding has been shown to occur in the rostral portion of the region whereas activation associated with episodic memory retrieval occurs in the caudal portions. This is referred to as the Hippocampal memory encoding and retrieval model or HIPER model.
One study used PET to measure cerebral blood flow during encoding and recognition of faces in both young and older participants. Young people displayed increased cerebral blood flow in the right hippocampus and the left prefrontal and temporal cortices during encoding and in the right prefrontal and parietal cortex during recognition. Elderly people showed no significant activation in areas activated in young people during encoding, however they did show right prefrontal activation during recognition. Thus it may be concluded that as we grow old, failing memories may be the consequence of a failure to adequately encode stimuli as demonstrated in the lack of cortical and hippocampal activation during the encoding process.
Recent findings in studies focusing on patients with post traumatic stress disorder demonstrate that amino acid transmitters, glutamate and GABA, are intimately implicated in the process of factual memory registration, and suggest that amine neurotransmitters, norepinephrine-epinephrine and serotonin, are involved in encoding emotional memory.
Molecular Perspective.
The process of encoding is not yet well understood, however key advances have shed light on the nature of these mechanisms. Encoding begins with any novel situation, as the brain will interact and draw conclusions from the results of this interaction. These learning experiences have been known to trigger a cascade of molecular events leading to the formation of memories. These changes include the modification of neural synapses, modification of proteins, creation of new synapses, activation of gene expression and new protein synthesis. One study found that high central nervous system levels of acetylcholine during wakefulness aided in new memory encoding, while low levels of acetylcholine during slow-wave sleep aided in consolidation of memories. However, encoding can occur on different levels. The first step is short-term memory formation, followed by the conversion to a long-term memory, and then a long-term memory consolidation process.
Synaptic Plasticity.
Synaptic plasticity is the ability of the brain to strengthen, weaken, destroy and create neural synapses and is the basis for learning. These molecular distinctions will identify and indicate the strength of each neural connection. The effect of a learning experience depends on the content of such an experience. Reactions that are favored will be reinforced and those that are deemed unfavorable will be weakened. This shows that the synaptic modifications that occur can operate either way, in order to be able to make changes over time depending on the current situation of the organism. In the short term, synaptic changes may include the strengthening or weakening of a connection by modifying the preexisting proteins leading to a modification in synapse connection strength. In the long term, entirely new connections may form or the number of synapses at a connection may be increased, or reduced.
The Encoding Process.
A significant short-term biochemical change is the covalent modification of pre-existing proteins in order to modify synaptic connections that are already active. This allows data to be conveyed in the short term, without consolidating anything for permanent storage. From here a memory or an association may be chosen to become a long-term memory, or forgotten as the synaptic connections eventually weaken. The switch from short to long-term is the same concerning both implicit memory and explicit memory. This process is regulated by a number of inhibitory constraints, primarily the balance between protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. Finally, long term changes occur that allow consolidation of the target memory. These changes include new protein synthesis, the formation of new synaptic connections, and finally the activation of gene expression in accordance with the new neural configuration.
The encoding process has been found to be partially mediated by serotonergic interneurons, specifically in regard to sensitization as blocking these interneurons prevented sensitization entirely. However, the ultimate consequences of these discoveries have yet to be identified.
Furthermore, the learning process has been known to recruit a variety of modulatory transmitters in order to create and consolidate memories. These transmitters cause the nucleus to initiate processes required for neuronal growth and long-term memory, mark specific synapses for the capture of long-term processes, regulate local protein synthesis, and even appear to mediate attentional processes required for the formation and recall of memories.
Encoding and Genetics.
Human memory, including the process of encoding, is known to be a heritable trait that is controlled by more than one gene. In fact, twin studies suggest that genetic differences are responsible for as much as 50% of the variance seen in memory tasks.
Proteins identified in animal studies have been linked directly to a molecular cascade of reactions leading to memory formation, and a sizable number of these proteins are encoded by genes that are expressed in humans as well. In fact, variations within these genes appear to be associated with memory capacity and have been identified in recent human genetic studies.
Complementary Processes.
The idea that the brain is separated into two complementary processing networks (task positive and task negative) has recently become an area of increasing interest. The task positive network deals with externally oriented processing whereas the task negative network deals with internally oriented processing. Research indicates that these networks are not exclusive and some tasks overlap in their activation. A study done in 2009 shows encoding success and novelty detection activity within the task-positive network have significant overlap and have thus been concluded to reflect common association of externally oriented processing. It also demonstrates how encoding failure and retrieval success share significant overlap within the task negative network indicating common association of internally oriented processing. Finally, a low level of overlap between encoding success and retrieval success activity and between encoding failure and novelty detection activity respectively indicate opposing modes or processing. In sum task positive and task negative networks can have common associations during the performance of different tasks.
Depth of Processing.
Different levels of processing influence how well information is remembered. This idea was first introduced by Craik and Lockhart (1972). They claimed that the level of processing information was dependent upon the depth at which the information was being processed; mainly, shallow processing and deep processing. According to Craik and Lockhart, the encoding of sensory information would be considered shallow processing, as it is highly automatic and requires very little focus. Deeper level processing requires more attention being given to the stimulus and engages more cognitive systems to encode the information. An exception to deep processing is if the individual has been exposed to the stimulus frequently and it has become common in the individual’s life, such as the person’s name. These levels of processing can be illustrated by maintenance and elaborate rehearsal.
Maintenance and Elaborative Rehearsal.
"Maintenance rehearsal" is a shallow form of processing information which involves focusing on an object without thought to its meaning or its association with other objects. For example, the repetition of a series of numbers is a form of maintenance rehearsal. In contrast, "elaborative or relational rehearsal" is a process in which you relate new material to information already stored in Long-term memory. It's a deep form of processing information and involves thought of the object's meaning as well as making connections between the object, past experiences and the other objects of focus. Using the example of numbers, one might associate them with dates that are personally significant such as your parents' birthdays (past experiences) or perhaps you might see a pattern in the numbers that helps you to remember them.
Due to the deeper level of processing that occurs with elaborative rehearsal it is more effective than maintenance rehearsal in creating new memories. This has been demonstrated in people's lack of knowledge of the details in everyday objects. For example, in one study where Americans were asked about the orientation of the face on their country's penny few recalled this with any degree of certainty. Despite the fact that it is a detail that is often seen, it is not remembered as there is no need to because the color discriminates the penny from other coins. The ineffectiveness of maintenance rehearsal, simply being repeatedly exposed to an item, in creating memories has also been found in people's lack of memory for the layout of the digits 0-9 on calculators and telephones.
Maintenance rehearsal has been demonstrated to be important in learning but its effects can only be demonstrated using indirect methods such as lexical decision tasks, and word stem completion which are used to assess implicit learning. In general, however previous learning by maintenance rehearsal is not apparent when memory is being tested directly or explicitly with questions like " Is this the word you were shown earlier?"
Intention to Learn.
Studies have shown that the intention to learn has no direct effect on memory encoding. Instead, memory encoding is dependent on how deeply each item is encoded, which could be affected by intention to learn, but not exclusively. That is, intention to learn can lead to more effective learning strategies, and consequently, better memory encoding, but if you learn something incidentally (i.e. without intention to learn) but still process and learn the information effectively, it will get encoded just as well as something learnt with intention.
The effects of elaborative rehearsal or deep processing can be attributed to the number of connections made while encoding that increase the number of pathways available for retrieval.
Optimal Encoding.
Organization.
Organization is key to memory encoding. Researchers have discovered that our minds naturally organize information if the information received is not organized. One natural way information can be organized is through hierarchies. For example, the grouping mammals, reptiles, and amphibians is a hierarchy of the animal kingdom.
Depth of processing is also related to the organization of information. For example, the connections that are made between the to-be-remembered item, other to-be-remembered items, previous experiences, and context generate retrieval paths for the to-be-remembered item and can act as retrieval cues. These connections create organization on the to-be-remembered item, making it more memorable.
Visual Images.
Another method used to enhance encoding is to associate images with words. Gordon Bower and David Winzenz (1970) demonstrated the use of imagery and encoding in their research while using paired-associate learning. Researchers gave participants a list of 15-word-pairs, showing each participant the word pair for 5 seconds for each pair. One group was told to create a mental image of the two words in each pair in which the two items were interacting. The other group was told to use maintenance rehearsal to remember the information. When participants were later tested and asked to recall the second word in each word pairing, researchers found that those who had created visual images of the items interacting remembered over twice as many of the word pairings than those who used maintenance rehearsal.
Mnemonics.
When memorizing simple material such as lists of words, mnemonics may be the best strategy, while "material already in long-term store [will be] unaffected". Mnemonic Strategies are an example of how finding organization within a set of items helps these items to be remembered. In the absence of any apparent organization within a group organization can be imposed with the same memory enhancing results. An example of a mnemonic strategy that imposes organization is the "peg-word system" which associates the to-be-remembered items with a list of easily remembered items. Another example of a mnemonic device commonly used is the first letter of every word system or acronyms. When learning the colours in a rainbow most students learn the first letter of every color and impose their own meaning by associating it with a name such as Roy. G. Biv which stands for red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. In this way mnemonic devices not only help the encoding of specific items but also their sequence. For more complex concepts, understanding is the key to remembering. In a study done by Wiseman and Neisser in 1974 they presented participants with a picture (the picture was of a Dalmatian in the style of pointillism making it difficult to see the image). They found that memory for the picture was better if the participants understood what was depicted.
Chunking.
Chunking is a memory strategy used to maximize the amount of information stored in short term memory in order to combine it into small, meaningful sections.  By organizing objects into meaningful sections, these sections are then remembered as a unit rather than separate objects. As larger sections are analyzed and connections are made, information is weaved into meaningful associations and combined into fewer, but larger and more significant pieces of information. By doing so, the ability to hold more information in short-term memory increases. To be more specific, the use of chunking would increase recall from 5 to 8 items to 20 items or more as associations are made between these items.
Words are an example of chunking, where instead of simply perceiving letters we perceive and remember their meaningful wholes: words. The use of chunking increases the number of items we are able to remember by creating meaningful "packets" in which many related items are stored as one. The use of chunking is also seen in numbers. One of the most common forms of chunking seen on a daily basis is that of phone numbers. Generally speaking, phone numbers are separated into sections. An example of this would be 909 200 5890, in which numbers are grouped together to make up one whole. Grouping numbers in this manner, allows them to be recalled with more facility because of their comprehensible acquaintanceship.
State-Dependent Learning.
For optimal encoding, connections are not only formed between the items themselves and past experiences, but also between the internal state or mood of the encoder and the situation they are in. The connections that are formed between the encoders internal state or the situation and the items to be remembered are State-dependent. In a 1975 study by Godden and Baddeley the effects of State-dependent learning were shown. They asked deep sea divers to learn various materials while either under water or on the side of the pool. They found that those who were tested in the same condition that they had learned the information in were better able to recall that information, i.e. those who learned the material under water did better when tested on that material under water than when tested on land. Context had become associated with the material they were trying to recall and therefore was serving as a retrieval cue. Results similar to these have also been found when certain smells are present at encoding.
However, although the external environment is important at the time of encoding in creating multiple pathways for retrieval, other studies have shown that simply creating the same internal state that was present at the time of encoding is sufficient to serve as a retrieval cue. Therefore, being in the same mindset as in at the time of encoding will help with recalling in the same way that being in the same situation helps recall. This effect called context reinstatement was demonstrated by Fisher and Craik 1977 when they matched retrieval cues with the way information was memorized.
Transfer-Appropriate Processing.
Transfer-appropriate processing is a strategy for encoding that leads to successful retrieval. An experiment conducted by Morris and coworkers in 1977 proved that successful retrieval was a result of matching the type of processing used during encoding. During their experiment, their main findings were that an individual's ability to retrieve information was heavily influenced on whether the task at encoding matched the task during retrieval. In the first task, which consisted of the rhyming group, subjects were given a target word and then asked to review a different set of words. During this process, they were asked whether the new words rhymed with the target word. They were solely focusing on the rhyming rather than the actual meaning of the words. In the second task, individuals were also given a target word, followed by a series of new words. Rather than identify the ones that rhymed, the individual was to focus more on the meaning. As it turns out, the rhyming group, who identified the words that rhymed, was able to recall more words than those in the meaning group, who focused solely on their meaning. This study suggests that those who were focusing on rhyming in the first part of the task and on the second, were able to encode more efficiently. In transfer-appropriate processing, encoding occurs in two different stages. This helps demonstrate how stimuli were processed. In the first phase, the exposure to stimuli is manipulated in a way that matches the stimuli. The second phase then pulls heavily from what occurred in the first phase and how the stimuli was presented; it will match the task during encoding.
Encoding Specificity.
The context of learning shapes how information is encoded. For instance, Kanizsa in 1979 showed a picture that could be interpreted as either a white vase on a black background or 2 faces facing each other on a white background. The participants were primed to see the vase. Later they were shown the picture again but this time they were primed to see the black faces on the white background. Although this was the same picture as they had seen before, when asked if they had seen this picture before, they said no. The reason for this was that they had been primed to see the vase the first time the picture was presented, and it was therefore unrecognizable the second time as two faces. This demonstrates that the stimulus is understood within the context it is learned in as well the general rule that what really constitutes good learning are tests that test what has been learned in the same way that it was learned. Therefore, to truly be efficient at remembering information, one must consider the demands that future recall will place on this information and study in a way that will match those demands.
Generation Effect.
Another principle that may have the potential to aid encoding is the generation effect. The generation effect implies that learning is enhanced when individuals generate information or items themselves rather than reading the content. The key to properly apply the generation effect is to generate information, rather than passively selecting from information already available like in selecting an answer from a multiple-choice question In 1978, researchers Slameka and Graf conducted an experiment to better understand this effect. In this experiment, the participants were assigned to one of two groups, the "read group" or the "generate group". The participants assigned to the "read" "group" were asked to simply read a list of paired words that were related, for example, horse-saddle. The participants assigned to the "generate" "group" were asked to fill in the blank letters of one of the related words in the pair. In other words, if the participant was given the word "horse," they would need to fill in the last four letters of the word "saddle".The researchers discovered that the group that was asked to fill in the blanks had better recall for these word pairs than the group that was asked to simply remember the word pairs.
Self-Reference Effect.
Research illustrates that the self-reference effect aids encoding. The self-reference effect is the idea that individuals will encode information more effectively if they can personally relate to the information. For example, some people may claim that some birth dates of family members and friends are easier to remember than others. Some researchers claim this may be due to the self-reference effect. For example, some birth dates are easier for individuals to recall if the date is close to their own birth date or any other dates they deem important, such as anniversary dates.
Research has shown that after being encoded, self-reference effect is more effective when it comes to recalling memory than semantic encoding. Researchers have found that the self-reference effect goes more hand and hand with elaborative rehearsal. Elaborative rehearsal is more often than not, found to have a positive correlation with the improvement of retrieving information from memories. Self-reference effect has shown to be more effective when retrieving information after it has been encoded when being compared to other methods such as semantic encoding. Also, it is important to know that studies have concluded that self-reference effect can be used to encode information among all ages. However, they have determined that older adults are more limited in their use of the self-reference effect when being tested with younger adults.
Salience.
When an item or idea is considered "salient", it means the item or idea appears to noticeably stand out. When information is salient, it may be encoded in memory more efficiently than if the information did not stand out to the learner. In reference to encoding, any event involving survival may be considered salient. Research has shown that survival may be related to the self-reference effect due to evolutionary mechanisms. Researchers have discovered that even words that are high in survival value are encoded better than words that are ranked lower in survival value. Some research supports evolution, claiming that the human species remembers content associated with survival. Some researchers wanted to see for themselves whether or not the findings of other research was accurate. The researchers decided to replicate an experiment with results that supported the idea that survival content is encoded better than other content. The findings of the experiment further suggested that survival content has a higher advantage of being encoded than other content.
Retrieval Practice.
Studies have shown that an effective tool to increase encoding during the process of learning is to create and take practice tests. Using retrieval in order to enhance performance is called the testing effect, as it actively involves creating and recreating the material that one is intending to learn and increases one’s exposure to it. It is also a useful tool in connecting new information to information already stored in memory, as there is a close association between encoding and retrieval. Thus, creating practice tests allows the individual to process the information at a deeper level than simply reading over the material again or using a pre-made test. The benefits of using retrieval practice have been demonstrated in a study done where college students were asked to read a passage for seven minutes and were then given a two-minute break, during which they completed math problems. One group of participants was given seven minutes to write down as much of the passage as they could remember while the other group was given another seven minutes to reread the material. Later all participants were given a recall test at various increments (five minutes, 2 days, and one week) after the initial learning had taken place. The results of these tests showed that those who had been assigned to the group that had been given a recall test during their first day of the experiment were more likely to retain more information than those that had simply reread the text. This demonstrates that retrieval practice is a useful tool in encoding information into long term memory.
Computational Models of Memory Encoding.
Computational models of memory encoding have been developed in order to better understand and simulate the mostly expected, yet sometimes wildly unpredictable, behaviors of human memory. Different models have been developed for different memory tasks, which include item recognition, cued recall, free recall, and sequence memory, in an attempt to accurately explain experimentally observed behaviors.
Item recognition.
In item recognition, one is asked whether or not a given probe item has been seen before. It is important to note that the recognition of an item can include context. That is, one can be asked whether an item has been seen in a study list. So even though one may have seen the word "apple" sometime during their life, if it was not on the study list, it should not be recalled.
Item recognition can be modeled using Multiple trace theory and the attribute-similarity model. In brief, every item that one sees can be represented as a vector of the item's attributes, which is extended by a vector representing the context at the time of encoding, and is stored in a memory matrix of all items ever seen. When a probe item is presented, the sum of the similarities to each item in the matrix (which is inversely proportional to the sum of the distances between the probe vector and each item in the memory matrix) is computed. If the similarity is above a threshold value, one would respond, "Yes, I recognize that item." Given that context continually drifts by nature of a random walk, more recently seen items, which each share a similar context vector to the context vector at the time of the recognition task, are more likely to be recognized than items seen longer ago.
Cued Recall.
In cued recall, an individual is presented with a stimulus, such as a list of words and then asked to remember as many of those words as possible. They are then given cues, such as categories, to help them remember what the stimuli were. An example of this would be to give a subject words such as meteor, star, space ship, and alien to memorize. Then providing them with the cue of "outer space" to remind them of the list of words given. Giving the subject cues, even when never originally mentioned, helped them recall the stimulus much better. These cues help guide the subjects to recall the stimuli they could not remember for themselves prior to being given a cue. Cues can essentially be anything that will help a memory that is deemed forgotten to resurface. An experiment conducted by Tulvig suggests that when subjects were given cues, they were able to recall the previously presented stimuli.
Cued recall can be explained by extending the attribute-similarity model used for item recognition. Because in cued recall, a wrong response can be given for a probe item, the model has to be extended accordingly to account for that. This can be achieved by adding noise to the item vectors when they are stored in the memory matrix. Furthermore, cued recall can be modeled in a probabilistic manner such that for every item stored in the memory matrix, the more similar it is to the probe item, the more likely it is to be recalled. Because the items in the memory matrix contain noise in their values, this model can account for incorrect recalls, such as mistakenly calling a person by the wrong name.
Free Recall.
In free recall, one is allowed to recall items that were learned in any order. For example, you could be asked to name as many countries in Europe as you can. Free recall can be modeled using SAM (Search of Associative Memory) which is based on the dual-store model, first proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin in 1968. SAM consists of two main components: short-term store (STS) and long-term store (LTS). In brief, when an item is seen, it is pushed into STS where it resides with other items also in STS, until it displaced and put into LTS. The longer the item has been in STS, the more likely it is to be displaced by a new item. When items co-reside in STS, the links between those items are strengthened. Furthermore, SAM assumes that items in STS are always available for immediate recall.
SAM explains both primacy and recency effects. Probabilistically, items at the beginning of the list are more likely to remain in STS, and thus have more opportunities to strengthen their links to other items. As a result, items at the beginning of the list are made more likely to be recalled in a free-recall task (primacy effect). Because of the assumption that items in STS are always available for immediate recall, given that there were no significant distractors between learning and recall, items at the end of the list can be recalled excellently (recency effect).
Studies have shown that free recall is one of the most effective methods of studying and transferring information from short term memory to long term memory compared to item recognition and cued recall as greater relational processing is involved.
Incidentally, the idea of STS and LTS was motivated by the architecture of computers, which contain short-term and long-term storage.
Sequence Memory.
Sequence memory is responsible for how we remember lists of things, in which ordering matters. For example, telephone numbers are an ordered list of one digit numbers. There are currently two main computational memory models that can be applied to sequence encoding: associative chaining and positional coding.
Associative chaining theory states that every item in a list is linked to its forward and backward neighbors, with forward links being stronger than backward links, and links to closer neighbors being stronger than links to farther neighbors. For example, associative chaining predicts the tendencies of transposition errors, which occur most often with items in nearby positions. An example of a transposition error would be recalling the sequence "apple, orange, banana" instead of "apple, banana, orange."
Positional coding theory suggests that every item in a list is associated to its position in the list. For example, if the list is "apple, banana, orange, mango" apple will be associated to list position 1, banana to 2, orange to 3, and mango to 4. Furthermore, each item is also, albeit more weakly, associated to its index +/- 1, even more weakly to +/- 2, and so forth. So banana is associated not only to its actual index 2, but also to 1, 3, and 4, with varying degrees of strength. For example, positional coding can be used to explain the effects of recency and primacy. Because items at the beginning and end of a list have fewer close neighbors compared to items in the middle of the list, they have less competition for correct recall.
Although the models of associative chaining and positional coding are able to explain a great amount of behavior seen for sequence memory, they are far from perfect. For example, neither chaining nor positional coding is able to properly illustrate the details of the Ranschburg effect, which reports that sequences of items that contain repeated items are harder to reproduce than sequences of unrepeated items. Associative chaining predicts that recall of lists containing repeated items is impaired because recall of any repeated item would cue not only its true successor but also the successors of all other instances of the item. However, experimental data have shown that spaced repetition of items resulted in impaired recall of the second occurrence of the repeated item. Furthermore, it had no measurable effect on the recall of the items that followed the repeated items, contradicting the prediction of associative chaining. Positional coding predicts that repeated items will have no effect on recall, since the positions for each item in the list act as independent cues for the items, including the repeated items. That is, there is no difference between the similarity between any two items and repeated items. This, again, is not consistent with the data.
Because no comprehensive model has been defined for sequence memory to this day, it makes for an interesting area of research.


The Leopard Hunts in Darkness

The Leopard Hunts in Darkness is a novel by Wilbur Smith set in the early days of Zimbabwe's independence and is the fourth in Wilbur Smith's series about the Ballantyne family of Rhodesia.
Plot.
The Leopard Hunts in Darkness by Wilbur Smith is a novel of politics, betrayal, love and friendship. In this continuing saga involving two families and their ongoing connections to each other, Wilbur Smith weaves a story where celebrated author Craig Mellow with the help of World Bank connections, returns to his beloved Africa as an agent of the bank, asked only to report on the state of affairs in Zimbabwe. When he arrives, he visits the ranch that was a part of his family for generations and begins an obsession to rebuild it to its former glory.
When he seeks the help of his old friend Samson Kumalo from the tribe of the Matabele, who is now a cabinet minister in the constantly evolving government, Craig is met with a terse and unfriendly attitude coupled with an unmistakable invitation to leave the country for good. Stubbornly, Craig finds other avenues in his quest to restore Rholands Ranching Company to its former glory.
With the support of Peter Fungabera, a Mashona tribe member who is also a cabinet minister, Craig gets the financing he needs and begins the project of restoration on the three properties that make up his family's heritage. When poaching is discovered on the more remote property that Craig plans to turn into a tourist destination, he and wildlife federation photographer Sally-Anne Jay seek the culprit and all evidence points to Craig's old friend Samson, now known as Tungata Zebiwe. With Peter's help, and government forces, Tungata is arrested and sent to prison.
With mixed feelings, Craig continues to work and his relationship with Sally-Anne progresses to a proposal. Rholands main ranches, King and Queen's Lynn are restocked with prime cattle and the houses restored when tribal fighting breaks out again. Mashona and Matabele in their ongoing battle for supremacy, are armed and the killing reaches Rholand's. Craig and Sally-Anne are poised to flee when they recognize Peter and his army. Relieved, they wait but Peter is anything but friendly. Accused of being traitors to the country, Craig is forced to forfeit his land to save their lives. Peter isn't finished with his treachery. His order is to kill them before they reach the border.
In an unexpected twist, one of Peter's own men turns on him, and drives Craig and Sally-Anne to freedom. They soon discover that Samson was also a victim of Peter's dishonesty and Craig is appalled to realize they helped to jail an innocent man. In the struggle to free him, Peter and Sally-Anne risk their lives but manage to enlist the help of others to liberate the Matabele leader. In their run for freedom they are shot out of the sky, entombed in an underground series of caverns, and must fight their way through enemy Mashona forces, during which they uncover a plot that includes the Russians to overthrow and enslave the population.
Full of surprises, the story is one where good wins over evil, and Craig and Sally-Anne are able to return with Samson to Africa and the lives they were building there.
Adaptation.
Film rights were bought in the 1980s by Sylvester Stallone to develop a vehicle for Stallone but no film eventuated. An adventure story of Masud Rana series named "Andhokarey Chita" was based on the Leopard Hunt in Darkness.


David Willis (linguist)

David Willis is a linguist and Celticist. In 2020 he took up the post of Jesus Professor of Celtic at the University of Oxford. He had previously held posts in historical linguistics at the University of Manchester and at the University of Cambridge, where he was a Fellow of Selwyn College.
Research.
His research is in the areas of language change and syntax, with particular reference to the Celtic and Slavic languages as well as to English. The synchronic and diachronic syntax of Welsh has been a particular focus: his first book was on the loss of verb-second in the history of Welsh, and he has co-authored a textbook on the syntax of the present-day language. He is also an expert in the syntax of negation and on Jespersen's cycle cross-linguistically.


Buckriders

The Buckriders (, ) are a part of Belgian and Dutch folklore. They are ghosts or demons, who rode through the sky on the back of flying goats provided to them by a demon. During the 18th century, groups of thieves and other criminals co-opted the belief to frighten the inhabitants of southern Limburg, a province in the southern part of the Netherlands and eastern Belgium. Using the name "Bokkenrijders", these criminal bands launched raids across a region that includes southern Limburg, and parts of Germany and the Netherlands (parts of which were a part of the Southern Netherlands, nowadays Belgium). Commonly, the "Bokkenrijders" raided peaceful communities and farms. Several confessed "Bokkenrijders" were convicted and sentenced to death. Because of the link to the occult, authorities accused a large number of potentially innocent men of being "Bokkenrijders" and a number were tortured and subsequently convicted of crimes they denied having committed.
Etymology.
Formally, the name "Bokkenrijders" was first publicly used in 1774, during the 'trial of Wellen', a town in the Belgian province of Limburg. Johan van Muysen slid a letter underneath the door of a farmer called Wouters. The letter contained a threat that Wouters's house would be burned down if Johan did not receive some money. Van Muyses claimed to be member of the buckriders and used the word Satan up to three times. In the trial of Wellen, the term “buckriders” is openly used against Philip Mertens, somebody who wrote a letter that resembled the letter of Johan.
History.
Earliest records mentioning the buckriders originate from a tome called "Oorzaeke, bewys en ondekkinge van een goddelooze, bezwoorne bende nagtdieven en knevelaers binnen de landen van Overmaeze en aenpalende landstreeken", which approximately translates to "Causes, proof and discovery of a godless, averted gang of night thieves and gaggers within the lands of 'Overmaas' and adjacent regions." This book was written in 1779 by S.J.P. Sleinada (real name Pastor A. Daniels). This pastor, who lived in Landgraaf, knew several buckriders personally. The author tells us that these robbers made a pact with the Devil and rode their bucks at night. The common people told stories about them flying through the sky, pronouncing the following spell: 'Over huis, over tuin, over staak, en dat tot Keulen in de wijnkelder!' (across houses, across gardens, across stakes, even across Cologne into the wine cellar!). Once a year, they would visit their master, the Devil, on the 'Mookerheide'.
Later on, the buckriders held a reputation that resembles Robin Hood and his gang. The present interpretation is that a number of criminal gangs robbed houses and committed other crimes, using the myth to their advantage. Also, many of the buckriders that were arrested are thought to be innocent, as confessions were obtained through torture.
Raids and raiders.
In Limburg, the buckriders nowadays embrace their cultural heritage.
Trials against buckriders differed from 'common trials against common criminals' if the suspect had performed a godless oath: 'I forswear God ... etc.' This so-called oath of heresy is a stereotypical aspect of the buckriders myth. Since the convicts were accused of their oath and pact with the devil, we can define this as a late form of witch-hunt. Prosecution of buckriders was as ruthless as the buckriders were themselves, even by those day's standards. 90% of the convicts received capital punishment. Confessions were given by means of torture, or by fear for it.
There are 7 periods of different buckrider raids. The first took place during 1743 - 1745, and the last during 1793 - 1794.
Buckriders and witch-hunts.
The fact that the buckriders were tried and prosecuted for their pact with the devil, resembles the witch-hunts during the Early Modern Period. Historians place these buckrider-hunts alongside other prosecuted 'godless' people: heretics and witches. These kinds of ruthless and fullscale trials last took place in Limburg.
Most of the crimes they were accused of, buckrider gangmembers never performed (such as the pact with the devil). There never was an organized central buckriders gang, but small separate groups.


Goya Award for Best Editing

The Goya Award for Best Editing () is one of the Goya Awards, the principal national film award of Spain. It has been awarded since the first edition in 1986.
Film editors that have won multiple times are José Salcedo, Pablo González del Amo and Pablo Blanco, with three wins each.