Laura Schwendinger

Laura Elise Schwendinger (born January 26, 1962) was the first composer to win the American Academy in Berlin's Berlin Prize.
Biography.
Schwendinger was the first composer to win the American Academy in Berlin Prize. She is a Professor of Composition at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where she is also the Artistic Director of the Contemporary Chamber Ensemble and Head of Composition. She received her Ph.D. from the University of California Berkeley, where she studied with Andrew Imbrie and Olly Wilson. Schwendinger has been invited to present her music to seminars at Harvard University, Northwestern University, the University of Chicago, Yale University, the Juilliard School, the University of California at Berkeley Davis, University of California Los Angeles, the San Francisco Conservatory of Music, and the Royal Irish Academy of Music in Dublin. She has also been on faculty at summer programs and festivals like the Bennington Conference, Talis Festival, New Music on the Point, St. Mary's Summer Composition Intensive and was a Master Artist at the Atlantic center for the Arts in 2018, as well as the Guest Director of the Irish Composition Summer School in 2016.
Schwendinger was born in Mexico City D.F. Mexico. Before her position in Madison, she was a Professor at the University of Illinois at Chicago, and taught at the Music Department of the University of California, Santa Cruz, Smith College and the San Francisco Conservatory of Music’s Preparatory Division, where she started a program for young composers in 1985.
Career.
Her setting of "in Just- spring" was performed on tour by Dawn Upshaw and Gilbert Kalish from 1997 to 2013 at venues including Carnegie Hall, Wigmore Hall in London, the Théâtre Châtelet in Paris, Morgan Library, the National Arts Center in Canada and at the Tanglewood and Ojai Music Festivals. It is available on a Naxos TDK/DVD, "Voices of Our Time", with Upshaw and Kalish and was recorded at The Theatre Chatalet.
Performances of her music include a "Pocket Concerto" commission by Miller Theatre in New York, "Chiaroscuro Azzurro", premiered by violinist Jennifer Koh and the International Contemporary Ensemble, and her cello concerto "Esprimere", written for and premiered by Matt Haimovitz and the University of Wisconsin–Madison Symphony Orchestra.
A Harvard Musical Association Commission, her "String Quartet" #1, was premiered by the Arditti Quartet, a Koussevitzky Foundation commission. "Celestial City", which featured the dynamic young recording artist Janine Jansen with Spectrum Concerts Berlin at the Berlin Philharmoniker Kammermusiksaal, "Fable" and more recently High Wire Act, performed by Collage New Music at Harvard University, and a Fromm Foundation Commission, "Nonet" for the Chicago Chamber Musicians, which was premiered on "Live from WFMT" radio in Chicago. The Theater Chamber Players commissioned two works by Schwendinger, "Songs of Heaven and Earth", and "Magic Carpet Music", which were both premiered at the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington D.C.For her second Koussevitzky Foundation Commission, from the Foundation she wrote for the Chameleon Arts Ensemble in Boston, 2017.The review in the Boston Musical Intelligencer, May 21, 2017, Chameleon Paints With Music by Leon Golub read, "Schwendinger’s delightful piece effectively transformed my own gaze on the Artist’s Muse by introducing a competing muse of flesh and bone, hardship and failure, grievance and glory, behind the painter’s still-life effigy."
In more recent years, her "Creature Quartet" was premiered by the JACK Quartet on the Union Concert series in Madison WI, her "Arc of Fire", a Chamber Music America Commission, was performed on WFMT radio in Chicago and twice at Bryant Park in New York City as part if the Chamber Music America's Classical Commissioning Program. As part of Schwendinger's League of American Orchestras New Music Alive residency with the Richmond Symphony Orchestra in 2016, her "Waking Dream" was performed by Mary Boodell, the principal flute of the orchestra on their Altria Masterworks series.
Her work has also been performed at Alice Tully Hall at Lincoln-Center, Times Center, Symphony Space, BargeMusic, Corcoran Gallery of Art, Institute of Advanced Study at Princeton University, Corcoran Gallery, Poisson Rouge, and the Tanglewood, Bennington, Aspen, Ravinia, and Ojai Festivals, the KOFOMI Festival in Austria, and the Talis Festival in Switzerland. Schwendinger's UnSafe Commission "Shadings", for the American Composers Orchestra, was premiered at Zankel Hall in 2012, and her "Seven Choral Settings" were performed there as well in 2013, by Trinity Wall Street Chorus and Matt Haimovitz, conducted by Julian Wachner. In 2012, she was commissioned to write a work for Sounding Beckett at the Classic Stage Company in New York City. "Jenna Scherer wrote in her" "Time Out" review of the work, "Laura Schwendinger’s piece for "Footfalls" is particularly effective, featuring stretches in which the musicians play their instruments so lightly, it could just be the autumn wind blowing through their strings. Beckett’s works demand postviewing brooding, and these haunting soundscapes offer an appropriately moody place to drift."
Among her many works, in 2017 Schwendinger was commissioned by the National Flute Association to compose a work for their Young Artist Competition, for their National Conference in Minnesota. Her opera "Artemisia", written with librettist Ginger Strand, was work-shopped on January 7, 2017 as part of the Time's Arrow Festival of Music at Trinity Wall Street, and conducted by Julian Wachner and supported by a National Opera Center and Opera America Discovery Grant. The Center for Contemporary Opera produced a partial performance at Symphony Space in November 2019 with Sara Tarana Jobin, conductor. The opera was then fully produced in two different world premieres (an orchestral and chamber version) in 2019.
The world premiere of the orchestral version, by Trinity NOVUS with Christopher Alden, director and Lidiya Yankovskaya, conductor, featuring Augusta Caso, Heather Buck and Richard Troxell. The chamber world premiere of a chamber version was performed by the Left Coast Chamber Ensemble with Matilda Hofman, conducting and supported by the National Endowment for the Arts at Z Space in San Francisco. Corinna da Fonesca da-Wollheim, in the "New York Times", praised the opera's treatment of "big themes...idea and form, image and projection, sight and gaze..with music of quivering intensity". Rebecca Wishnia, in the "San Francisco Classical Voice", described the opera as "sumptuous on every level," with a "striking" score","..a breathtaking piece of worry and longing...Most memorably, the music underscores Artemisia’s deteriorating vision. Tender, high-pitched glimmers shift so as to be out of reach. The shadows are flat-sounding chords: impressionistic, but with a distinctly contemporary sensibility.” In OperaWire “Schwendinger’s score and Ginger Strand’s story not only casts its spell but awakens us again to the continuing conflict of men, women and art that has pervaded western history...The music challenges. The texture is rich.. excellent transmitter of the story. Both reveal the complexity and do not hold back from riveting us to it.”
Upcoming projects include a new work for the new music ensemble Musiqa, inspired by Paris after dark, with her cousin, lighting artist Leni Schwendinger and librettist Ginger Strand. Her work is published by Keiser Southern Music.
Other Reviews.
Allan Kozinn of the "New York Times" wrote of her "Chiaroscurro Azzurro" as played by Jennifer Koh: Ms. Schwendinger's work also lives in (at least) two worlds. The violin writing, played with equal measures of energy and velvety richness by Jennifer Koh, is sometimes assertive and rhythmically sharp-edged, but those moments virtually always resolve into a sweetly singing line. The grittier orchestral writing offsets that sweetness without overwhelming it. This is a work that seems likely to blossom with repeated listening.
Colin Clarke wrote of her Creature Quartet on Albany Records CD QUARTETS, featuring the JACK Quartet, in the May/June 2018 issue of Fanfare Magazine
Gestural and yet powerfully organized, Schwendinger’s voice is highly individual. The performance by the JACK Quartet is impeccable, and as a studio recording it is technically more secure than the live Vimeo video. The sheer intensity of both music and performance thereof is spellbinding, as if the passion of the composer for her subject shines through like a light.
Richard Buell of the "Boston Globe" wrote in his review of her chamber work "Fable", This was shrewd composing, the genuine article. Onto the season's best list it goes" and of her String Quartet "an unmistakable lyric intensity...a fine piece...worthy of the Arditti's attention, and later of her "Magic Carpet Music" as played by Collage New Music: "Schwendinger's "Magic Carpet Music" like the composer's other music, rejoices in edge and has a force that has its way...Here is a composer with distinct voice." Mark Kanny of the Pittsburgh Tribune wrote, The absence of any visual entertainment for Schwendinger's "Buenos Aires" focused attention on the musical excellence of her hard-driving quartet for flute, bass clarinet, violin and cello. She creates fresh and compelling lines that are brought together to a powerful climax.In her New York Times Playlist review of Schwendinger's "Centaur CD High Wire Acts, Corinna da Fonseca-Wollheim wrote" “in the works grouped together on this captivating disc… she sketches musical short stories of somnambulant fragility and purpose.”
Awards.
Beyond those already mentioned, Schwendinger has received honors from the Guggenheim Foundation, the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Study, the American Academy of Arts and Letters, a Rockefeller Foundation Fellowship at Bellagio, Yaddo Corporation fellowships (9), MacDowell Colony fellowships (11), and the Bogliasco Liguria Conference Center, and artistic residencies at the Tyrone Guthrie Center, American Academy in Rome, as well as awards from the American League of Orchestras / New Music Alive, and awarded commissions from the Harvard Music Association, Fromm Foundation and an Opera America Discovery Grant; And was the first prize winner of the 1995 ALEA III International Composition Competition. She is one of a small number of composers to receive two Koussevitzky Foundation commissions.


Grade skipping

Grade skipping is a form of academic acceleration, often used for academically talented students, that enable the student to skip entirely the curriculum of one or more years of school. This is done when a student is sufficiently advanced in all school subjects, so that they can move forward in all subjects or graduate, rather than in only one or two areas.
Timing and other factors.
Grade acceleration is easiest to implement through skipping pre-kindergarten into kindergarten or skipping kindergarten into first grade directly. By starting the child ahead, many of the problems associated with grade skipping, such as leaving friends behind or knowledge gaps, are avoided.
Other key factors to a successful grade skip include the desire of the student, the receptivity of the receiving teacher, and whether a sibling is in the old or new grade. All these factors have been studied and organized into a survey called "The Iowa Acceleration Scale" (IAS)"," which when completed yields a recommendation on whether or not to accelerate. The IAS also cited four critical situations where grade skipping is not recommended. These conditions are:
Cost-effectiveness.
Grade skipping is one of the most cost-effective ways of addressing the needs of a profoundly gifted student, as it requires no extra resources and very little more than assigning the child to a different classroom, without the expense of special materials, tutoring or separate programs. The cost of educating the gifted child in a regular classroom with typical same-age peers is the same as the cost of educating that child in a regular classroom with typical somewhat older students, so using grade skipping is essentially cost-free. Students may benefit financially from grade skipping, as recent research shows that children who skipped a grade earn higher incomes in adulthood than similar non-skipping students.
Potential problems.
Many academic administrators and the general public carry misconceptions about grade skipping, believing that children are often harmed by being placed in an environment for which they are academically ready but emotionally or socially not.
Knowledge gaps.
The time that the student skips may create a knowledge gap if the child has not self-studied the material already taught to the students in the grade being entered. While the student is bridging this gap they will likely find the new material challenging. It may be demoralizing to leave a situation in which they are top performers into a situation where they are struggling with the material. Knowledge gaps are smaller in earlier school years. Students almost always successfully catch up to match their peers.
Friendships.
Students entering a new grade after being in school are taken out of their existing peer group and put into a new group, essentially leaving friends behind and being forced to make new friends. Although this is perceived as a problem, and certainly being displaced is a trial for the student, it is often the case with gifted children that they are more easily able to relate to older children than children their age. Regardless, there will likely be a period of stress while the student integrates into the new class.
Other social concerns.
Students in the new class may view the skipping student as different. This may result in additional social problems such as teasing or perceived preferential treatment. There is also the perception that the learner could be ostracized for being accelerated. For boys, skipping students who are large in stature and athletically oriented are at an advantage in that they have a smaller likelihood of being teased or picked on. In the adolescent years when most students are "discovering" sexual feelings, the young skipping student may have problems. The skipping adolescent's hormone development might not yet have created sexual interest in their peers, while most of the classmates can be preoccupied with socializing.
Holding back.
By the beginning of the 21st century, many American parents were using a strategy of holding children back, starting school later and/or not advancing a grade. The reason is that with the extra year or so of physical and social maturity, the child will more likely become a leader and have more peer approval. Skipping a student is just the opposite. A skipped child may enter a class that includes a few children who have been held back and are two years older and more mature.
Advanced classes.
Advancing in a class is not necessarily grade skipping. Rather, it is more for people who show a much higher level of intelligence, while the other students are left in the grade-level class. For example, an eighth-grade student who is doing very well in his advanced algebra classes, but finds them too easy for him, may be given an option to take a test, and if he passes the test, he may be moved up to geometry or whatever the next level up mathematically may be while still in eighth grade. His schedule does change, but usually only one class is substituted.
Resistance.
Grade skipping allows students to learn at a level appropriate for their cognitive abilities. For the majority of gifted students, grade skipping is beneficial both academically "and" socially.
American schools may oppose grade skipping, or limit it to one or at the most two grades, regardless of the student's academic and social situation. There is no research that supports these limits, and the decision to limit grade skipping is mostly based on the intuition of school personnel or the administration's lack of knowledge regarding possible academic and social benefits. Refusing to promote the student to an appropriate level can result in social isolation and educational underachievement.


Joseph Curtin

Joseph Curtin is an American contemporary violinmaker who lives in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
He was a 2005 recipient of a MacArthur Fellows Program "genius grant".
He has also directed workshops on violin design through the Violin Society of America, a group of builders.
Curtin is known for using technology such as MRIs, Lasers, and other scanning devices to measure the acoustics of violins, to aid in his designs. Curtin uses the information gathered to create replicas of famous antique violins, as well as research for more avante-garde designs including instruments made out of carbon fibre.
Early luthiery.
Joseph first learned violin making from Otto Erdesz, who was married to his viola teacher. Erdesz gave Curtin material for his first twenty violins.
Curtin & Alf.
Curtin was co-founder with Gregg Alf of the firm Curtin & Alf.
In 1993, a Curtin and Alf violin made for Elmar Oliveira set a record at a Sotheby's auction for the highest price paid for a violin by a living maker. Alf and Curtin dissolved their partnership after twelve years, but occasionally collaborate on a project together.
Player preferences among new and old violins.
In 2010, Caudia Fritz and Curtin organized a double-blind study which was published in the "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences" in which 21 professional violinists tried to identify which violins were old (including 2 Stradivarius and a Guarneri), and which were new, and which they preferred. 13 of the 21 violinists preferred the new violins. One of the Stradivarius violins was the least preferred. The violinists could not reliably identify which instruments were old, and which were new.
Earl Carlyss, a member of the Juilliard String Quartet, was critical of the study saying "It’s a totally inappropriate way of finding out the quality of these instruments", and that what makes the older violins better is how they sound to an audience in a concert hall, not if the violinist likes it, in a hotel room.
John Soloninka, who was one of the violinists who played in the study, said "It was fascinating. I too, expected to be able to tell the difference, but could not" and that "If, after this, you cling to picayune critiques and dismiss the study, then I think you are in denial. If 21 of us could not tell in controlled circumstances and 1500 people could not tell any differences in a hall, and this is consistent with past studies...then it is time to put the myths out to pasture."
In a similar 1977 experiment, Isaac Stern and Pinchas Zukerman and a classical violin dealer Charles Beare listened to a Stradivarius, a Guarneri, and a (then modern) 1976 British violin. They were also unable to identify which instrument was which, and two of them mistakenly identified the 1976 violin as the Stradivarius.
Digital recreation of violin sound.
Curtin worked with Gabi Weinreich, John Bell and Alex Sobolev to capture the sound characteristics of many classic violins. They used this data to create a signal processor, that could convert the sound produced by a standard digital violin, and make it sound like a Stradivarius or other classic violin. Neuroscientist Daniel Levitin and author of "This is your brain on music" was presented with recordings of an actual Stradivarius and a recording of a processed violin, and guessed incorrectly as to which was the classic violin.
Notable players.
The following are notable violinists who use or have used violins made by Joseph Curtin.


Axel von Harnack

Friedrich Hermann Julius Axel von Harnack (September 12, 1895 – June 17, 1974) was a German librarian, historian and philologist. He was the cousin of Arvid and Falk Harnack and worked to get Arvid and his wife, Mildred Harnack released from Nazi detention after they were arrested in connection with the Red Orchestra. He was the first in the family to be told of Arvid and Mildred's arrest, which had been kept secret by the Nazis. In 1947, he published a memoir of the trial that convicted Arvid and Mildred Harnack of high treason and sentenced them to death.


Cambridge Center for Adult Education

The Cambridge Center for Adult Education (CCAE), a non-profit corporation in Cambridge, Massachusetts, has been teaching adult education courses at 42 Brattle Street since taking over the building from the Cambridge Social Union in 1938.
The CCAE is housed in two historic buildings, the William Brattle House (1727) at 42 Brattle Street and the Dexter Pratt House (1808) at 54 Brattle Street.
History.
The Cambridge Social Union (CSU), founded in 1871 and formally incorporated in 1876, taught classes for adults in the former Brattle house which it had moved into in 1889 after purchasing it. The courses included literacy classes and general classes taught by Harvard College and Radcliffe College students and faculty.
CSU withstood the financial troubles of the First World War and the Great Depression. However, a 1937 feasibility study showed that the organization was in trouble. In 1938, in conjunction with the Boston Center for Adult Education, the Cambridge Social Union became the Cambridge Center for Adult Education. It offered evening courses to local residents and in 1941 became an independently run organization.
Course offerings.
In the spring semester of 2011, the CCAE offered courses in the following areas:


Nino Luraghi

Nino Luraghi (born 30 November 1964) is an Italian historian of ancient Greece, who holds the Wykeham Professorship of Ancient History at Oxford University.
Life.
Luraghi is the son of Raimondo Luraghi (1921–2012), an Italian resistance fighter and historian. He studied at the universities of Venice and Rome, where he received his doctorate in 1992 with a thesis on archaic tyrannies. abdmnsx
From 1995 to 1997 he was an Alexander von Humboldt Fellow at the University of Freiburg, and continued until 1999 as a research assistant. Concurrently he was assistant professor of ancient history at the University of Parma from 1997 to 1999. From 1999 to 2003 Luraghi was assistant professor of the classics at Harvard University; from 2003 to 2004 he was associate professor of ancient history at the University of Toronto; and in 2005 he returned to Harvard as professor of the classics, having declined a professorship at the University of Konstanz. In 2008 he moved to Princeton University where in 2009 he became David Magie '97 Class of 1897 Professor of Classics. In 2018 Oxford University appointed him to the Wykeham Professorship of Ancient History.


Hitoshi Murayama

 is a Japanese-born physicist with notable contributions in the fields of particle physics and cosmology. He is currently a professor at the Center for Theoretical Physics at the University of California, Berkeley, and Director of the Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe at the University of Tokyo.
Biography.
Born in Japan in 1964, Murayama obtained his B.Sc. in Physics from the University of Tokyo in 1986. He completed his Ph.D. in Tokyo in 1991. In 1993, he emigrated to the US to join the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory as a post-doctoral research fellow. In 1995, he was appointed as an associate professor in University of California, Berkeley, where he became a full professor of physics in 2000. He is the founding director of the Kavli Institute for the Physics and Mathematics of the Universe (Kavli IPMU) at the University of Tokyo since 2007. In addition, he has been a visiting scientist at CERN since 2016.
In 2013, he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and was chosen as a fellow of the American Physical Society. In October 2014, he delivered an invited lecture titled "Science for Peace and Development" at the Headquarters of the United Nations in an event honoring the 60th anniversary of CERN.
Scientific Work.
Professor Murayama is involved in the KamLAND neutrino experiment at the Kamioka Observatory, an underground neutrino detection facility near Toyama, Japan. The KamLAND collaboration won the Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics in 2016.
In 1998, Murayama, Gian Giudice, Markus Luty and Riccardo Rattazzi discovered "anomaly mediated supersymmetry breaking, a subtle quantum mechanical mechanism which contributes to the gaugino masses in supergravity".


Shuchi Chawla

Shuchi Chawla is an Indian computer scientist who works in the design and analysis of algorithms, and is known for her research on correlation clustering, information privacy, mechanism design, approximation algorithms, hardness of approximation, and algorithmic bias. She works as a professor of computer science at the University of Texas at Austin.
Education and career.
Chawla earned a bachelor's degree from the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi in 2000, and received her Ph.D. from Carnegie Mellon University in 2005. Her dissertation, "Graph Algorithms for Planning and Partitioning", was supervised by Avrim Blum. After postdoctoral studies at Stanford University under the mentorship of Tim Roughgarden, and at Microsoft Research, Silicon Valley, she joined the Wisconsin faculty in 2006.. She joined the UT-Austin faculty in 2021.
She won a Sloan Research Fellowship in 2009, and was named a Kavli Fellow in 2012.


Lorenza Colzato

Lorenza S. Colzato (born 20 September 1974) is an Italian cognitive psychologist whose research "aims to understand the neural and neuromodular underpinnings of cognitive control in humans."
Life.
Colzato was born in Bolzano, Italy. She studied cognitive and clinical psychology at the University of Padova, Italy, in 1999. She then moved to Leiden University where she obtained her PhD degree (2005) under the supervision of Lex van der Heijden. In 2006, she began work as an assistant professor at the Cognitive Psychology Unit of Leiden University (Cognitieve Psychologie). Since 2017, she is professor by special appointment at the Ruhr-University of Bochum and since 2019, she works as researcher at the Faculty of Medicine of the TU Dresden. She is also a psychotherapist.
Research.
Colzato's research is focused on how thinking and creativity are shaped. Her research often touches on popular topics and the resulting papers are discussed in popular media: examples include studies on exercise and creativity, the effect of odors on trust, and the effect of meditation on creative thinking.
Investigation.
As of December 2019, Colzato's work at Leiden University is being investigated for various alleged breaches of academic integrity, including data manipulation, misattribution of authorship, and collection of blood samples without permission from the Medical Ethical board. The latter would be a criminal offense. Colzato has resigned from her position at Leiden University, and has requested a second opinion from the university's academic integrity committee. She also has pointed out that one of the accusers, a PhD candidate at that time, was the person who actually performed the study (which the medical ethics review board declined to approve), took the blood samples and is the lead and corresponding (hence, responsible) author of one of the two articles in question. She has further argued that Leiden University has violated various rules and regulations throughout the investigation. However, both the University Scientific Integrity Committee (CWI) and the Netherlands Board on Research Integrity (LOWI) concluded that, whatever the wrong-doings of her accuser may have been, such would not be sufficient to exculpate Colzato (being the supervisor or principal investigator) for the confirmed integrity violations, including performing an unapproved medical study. On September 21, 2020, the Dutch newspaper "NRC Handelsblad" reported that Leiden University had, in August, made Colzato's provisional dismissal a definitive one.


Kurti language

Kurti is an Austronesian language spoken on the north coast of Manus Island in Papua New Guinea.


Call transfer

A call transfer is a telecommunications mechanism that enables a user to relocate an existing telephone call to another phone or attendant console, using a transfer button or a switchhook flash and dialing the required location. The transferred call is either announced or unannounced.
If the transferred call is announced, the desired party/extension is notified of the impending transfer. This is typically done by putting the caller on hold and dialing the desired party/extension; they are then notified and, if they choose to accept the call, it is transferred over to them. Other terms commonly used for an announced transfer include "attended", "consult", "full-consult", "supervised" and "conference" transfer.
On the other hand, an unannounced transfer is self-explanatory: it is transferred without notifying the desired party/extension of the impending call. It is simply transferred to their line by way of a "transfer" key on the operator's phone or by keying in a string of digits which achieves the same function. Other terms commonly used for an unannounced transfer include "unsupervised" and "blind". Unsupervised call transfer can be either warm or cold - depending on moment when B-leg is disconnected. "See also Call forwarding"
In the Call Center space, the following type of call transfers can be undertaken and take on a slightly different meaning:


August Sauer

August Sauer (12 October 1855, in Wiener Neustadt – 17 September 1926, in Prague) was an Austrian Germanist and literary historian. He is known for his publication of collected works by Franz Grillparzer, Ferdinand Raimund, Adalbert Stifter, et al.
He studied philology and history at the University of Vienna as a pupil of Franz Brentano, Ottokar Lorenz and Richard Heinzel. In 1877 he received his doctorate under the direction of Karl Tomaschek, then furthered his education in Berlin as a student of Karl Müllenhoff and Wilhelm Scherer. From 1879 he worked as an instructor and director of the seminar for German philology at the University of Lemberg, and in 1883 became an associate professor of German language and literature at the University of Graz. In 1886, he succeeded Jakob Minor at the University of Prague, where in 1892 he became a full professor of German language and literature. At Prague, he served as dean (1897/98) and university rector (1907/08).
In 1894 he founded the literary history journal "Euphorion".


Terry Barr

Terry Albert Barr (August 8, 1935 – May 28, 2009) was an American football player. He played professional football for nine seasons in the National Football League (NFL) for the Detroit Lions from 1957 to 1965. He began his NFL career as a defensive back and return specialist and later became one of the best pass receivers in the NFL. He played in the Pro Bowl in both 1963 and 1964, led the NFL with 13 touchdown receptions in 1963, and was among the NFL leaders with 1,086 receiving yards in 1963 and 1,030 receiving yards in 1964. Over his nine-year NFL career, Barr appeared in 102 games and caught 227 passes for 3,810 yards and 35 touchdowns.
Barr also played college football as a halfback for the University of Michigan from 1954 to 1956. He was selected as the Most Valuable Player on the 1955 Michigan Wolverines football team and was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1994.
Early years.
Barr was born in 1935 in Grand Rapids, Michigan. He grew up on the east side of Grand Rapids in a family of eight children. He attended Central High School in Grand Rapids. He played football and basketball and ran track at Central High School and was the Michigan state champion in the 440-yard dash in both 1952 and 1953.
University of Michigan.
Barr enrolled at the University of Michigan in 1953 and played at the halfback position for Bennie Oosterbaan's Michigan Wolverines football teams from 1954 to 1956. Barr first gained acclaim after leading Michigan to a victory over Army early in the 1955 season; he rushed for a touchdown in the first quarter and then returned a punt 82 yards for a touchdown in the second quarter. At the end of the season, Barr was selected as the Most Valuable Player on the 1955 Michigan Wolverines football team that compiled a 7-2 record and was ranked #12 and #13 in the final AP and UPI polls.
During his junior and senior years from 1955 to 1956, Barr contributed over 1,600 yards to the Wolverines, including 611 rushing yards, 466 punt and kickoff return yards, 306 passing yards, and 140 receiving yards. He was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1994.
Professional football.
Barr was selected by the Detroit Lions in the third round (36th overall pick) of the 1957 NFL Draft. In his rookie season, he played in the NFL Championship Game. In Detroit's 59–14 win over Cleveland, Barr intercepted a pass and returned it 19 yards for a score. Barr spent nine seasons with the Lions from 1957 to 1965. In his first three seasons, he was used principally as a defensive back and return specialist. He returned 26 kickoffs for 655 yards and 50 punts for 262 yards from 1957 to 1960.
The Lions began using him increasingly on offense in 1960, but he missed a portion of the 1962 season with a knee injury that required surgery.
Barr became one of the best pass receivers in the NFL from 1963 to 1964. In 1963, he led the NFL with 13 touchdown receptions and was invited to play in his first Pro Bowl. He also ranked among the NFL's leaders in 1963 with 13 touchdowns (2nd), 66 receptions (3rd), 1,086 receiving yards (4th), 77.6 receiving yards per game (5th), 78 points scored (7th), and 1,095 yards from scrimmage (7th). In 1964, Barr was again selected to play in the Pro Bowl and again ranked among the NFL leaders with 1,030 receiving yards (2nd), 73.6 receiving yards per game (3rd), 9 receiving touchdowns (4th), 18.1 yards per reception (5th), 57 receptions (7th), and 1,061 yards from scrimmage (7th).
Barr's career ended after the 1965 season due to a knee injury. Over his nine-year NFL career, Barr appeared in 102 games and caught 227 passes for 3,810 yards and 35 touchdowns.
Later year and family.
After retiring from football, Barr was involved in several businesses in suburban Detroit. He operated an insurance agency in partnership with Joe Schmidt and Nick Pietrosante for several years. In 1971, he bought a Southfield, Michigan-based company that became Terry Barr Sales L.L.C., which provided sales, marketing, engineering and other services to the automotive industry. He was also the chairman of Libralter Plastics, an automotive industry supplier. His business interests also included a restaurant and manufacturing operation. Barr was a past president of the Bloomfield Hills Country Club.
Barr was married, and he and his wife, Shelley, had three sons. He was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor and the Michigan Sports Hall of Fame.
Barr died in 2009 at age 73 after a long battle with Alzheimer's disease.


Gaven Martin

Gaven John Martin (born 8 October 1958) is a New Zealand mathematician. He is a Distinguished Professor of Mathematics at Massey University, the head of the New Zealand Institute for Advanced Study, the former president of the New Zealand Mathematical Society (from 2005 to 2007), and former editor-in-chief of the "New Zealand Journal of Mathematics". He is Vice-President of the Royal Society of New Zealand [Mathematical, Physical Sciences Engineering and Technology. His research concerns quasiconformal mappings, regularity theory for partial differential equations, and connections between the theory of discrete groups and low-dimensional topology.
Education and career.
Martin is originally from Rotorua, New Zealand. His family moved to Henderson when he was 11 years old, and he attended Henderson High School and the University of Auckland (as the first of his extended family to go to university), earning a BSc with first-class honours in 1980 and an MSc with distinction in 1981. He then went to the University of Michigan on a Fulbright scholarship, completing his doctorate in 1985 under the supervision of Frederick Gehring and earning the Sumner Byron Myers Prize for the best mathematics dissertation in his year and an A.P. Sloan Foundation Fellowship spent in T.U.B. Berlin and The University of Helsinki.
After short-term positions at the Mathematical Sciences Research Institute of the University of California, Berkeley and as a Gibbs Instructor at Yale University, Martin became a lecturer at the University of Auckland in 1989, but left after a year to research at the Mittag-Leffler Institute in Sweden and the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques in France.
Soon after his return, he was given a personal chair at Auckland; when he took it, he became (at age 32) the youngest full professor in New Zealand.
For the next several years, he split his time between Auckland and Australian National University, but by 1996, he gave up the Australian appointment and remained solely at Auckland. He moved to Massey as a distinguished professor in 2005, and in 2016 was elected as the academic staff representative on the Massey University Council, the University's topmost governing body.
Awards and honours.
Martin became a fellow of the Royal Society of New Zealand in 1997. In 2001, he won the James Cook Fellowship of the RSNZ; he also won the Hector Memorial Medal of the RSNZ in 2008. He was an invited speaker at the 2010 International Congress of Mathematicians.
In 2012, he became one of the inaugural fellows of the American Mathematical Society. He was made a Foreign Member of the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters in 2016.


Geoff Mulgan

Sir Geoff Mulgan CBE (born 1961) is Professor of Collective Intelligence, Public Policy and Social Innovation at University College London (UCL). From 2011 to 2019 he was Chief Executive of the National Endowment for Science Technology and the Arts (NESTA) and Visiting Professor at University College London, the London School of Economics, and the University of Melbourne. In 2020, he joined the Nordic think tank Demos Helsinki as a Fellow.
Previously he was:
Mulgan obtained a first-class degree from Balliol College, Oxford and a PhD in telecommunications from the University of Westminster. He was also a Fellow at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, trained as a Buddhist monk in Sri Lanka, and worked for a spell during the 1980s as a van driver for the "Labour-supporting collective of musicians and comedians known as Red Wedge", opting ultimately for a career in local government and academia in the UK and going on to become an influential writer on social and political issues in various newspapers and magazines in the 1990s, including "The Independent", the "Financial Times", "The Guardian", and the "New Statesman". He worked as a reporter for BBC television and radio, and was made a CBE in 2005.
He has written a number of books, including "Communication and Control: Networks and the New Economies of Communication" (1991), "Politics in an Anti-Political Age" (1994), "Connexity" (1997), "Good and Bad Power: the Ideals and Betrayals of Government" (Penguin, 2006), "The Art of Public Strategy" (2009), "The Locust and the Bee" (Princeton, 2013), "Big Mind: how collective intelligence can change our world" (Princeton, 2017); and "Social innovation: how societies find the power to change" (Policy Press, 2019). His books have been translated into many languages including Chinese, Russian, Malay, German, Turkish, Punjabi, Italian, Korean, Hungarian and Arabic.
He has written numerous reports and pamphlets for Demos, the Young Foundation, Nesta, and Demos Helsinki. He has lectured and advised governments around the world on policy and strategy – including China, Australia, the United States, Japan, and Russia – and is seen as one of the pioneers of various fields including the creative economy, social and public innovation. He is profiled in two books: "The New Alchemists" (1999, by Charles Handy), and "Visionaries" (2001, by Jay Walljasper).
He has founded or co-founded many organisations including: Demos, the Young Foundation, the Social Innovation Exchange (SIX), Uprising, Studio Schools Trust, Action for Happiness, the Alliance for Useful Evidence, States of Change, The Australian Centre for Social Innovation, Maslaha and Nesta Italia.
He has been chair of various organisations including the Social Innovation Exchange; Involve; Nesta Italia and the Studio Schools Trust. He was co-chair of the London LEP Digital, Science, Technology and Arts group under then London Mayor Boris Johnson. He has been a board member of Big Society Capital and a trustee of charities including Action for Happiness; the Photographers Gallery; Reimagine Europa; Luton Culture Trust; the Design Council, the Work Foundation, Crime Concern, and Political Quarterly, and a member of various committees for bodies including the European Commission, World Economic Forum, OECD, SITRA and the Academy of Medical Science. He has given TED talks on the global economy, education, and happiness.
In 2007-2008 Mulgan was an Adelaide Thinker in Residence, advising South Australian Premier Mike Rann on social innovation and social inclusion policies. As a result of Mulgan's recommendations, the Rann Government established The Australian Centre for Social Innovation. From 2016 to 2019, Mulgan was a senior visiting scholar at the Ash Center in the Kennedy School at Harvard University. From 2019 to 2022 he is a World Economic Forum Schwab Fellow. On 19 July 2010, he was awarded an honorary degree of Doctor of Social Science (DSoc Sci) by Nottingham Trent University.
Mulgan was knighted in the 2020 Birthday Honours for services to the creative economy.


Richard Davies (Welsh actor)

Dennis Wilfred "Richard" Davies (25 January 1926 – 8 October 2015) was a Welsh character actor. He was probably best known for his performance as the exasperated schoolmaster Mr. Price in the popular LWT situation comedy "Please Sir!". He used a broad Welsh accent for much of his work, but had used other accents to play a wide range of characters, in addition to several Welsh stereotypes.
Biography.
Davies was born in Dowlais, Merthyr Tydfil, Glamorgan, the son of a railway guard. He played Idris Hopkins in "Coronation Street" between 1974 and 1975, and appeared in several science-fiction series, among them "Robert's Robots", "Out of the Unknown", and a well-received performance as Burton in the 1987 "Doctor Who" story "Delta and the Bannermen". He played Mr. White in the "Fawlty Towers" episode "The Kipper and the Corpse" and also appeared in "Yes Minister", "Wyatt's Watchdogs", "May to December", "Whoops Apocalypse", "2point4 Children" and "One Foot in the Grave". In 1970, he appeared in an episode of "Two in Clover" as Victor Spinetti's character's brother when Spinetti was unavailable. His other main role was in the comedy series "Oh No, It's Selwyn Froggitt!" where he played Clive.
Davies had a recurring role as Jim Sloan in "Z-Cars" between 1962 and 1965, returning to the series playing different characters in 1968 and in its spin-off "Softly, Softly". He also appeared in "Dixon of Dock Green", "The Sweeney" and "Van der Valk". He impersonated Clive Jenkins in a spoof edition of "Question Time" in a sketch on "Not the Nine O'Clock News". He appeared in the "Please Sir!" spin-off series "The Fenn Street Gang". In 1951, he made an uncredited appearance in the Ealing Studios comedy "The Lavender Hill Mob". He had appeared in films such as "Zulu" (1964), the film adaptation of "Please Sir!" (1971), and "Under Milk Wood" (1972). In 1988, he played the schoolteacher in "Queen Sacrifice". He died on 8 October 2015 at the age of 89, survived by his wife and two children, and a son from his first marriage. He had Alzheimer's disease.


Li Xintian (psychologist)

Li Xintian (; February 1924 – 2 May 2019) was a Chinese psychologist. He was considered a founder of medical psychology and neuropsychology in China. He served as chair of medical psychology at the Institute of Psychology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and as an adjunct professor at Peking Union Medical College, China Medical University, and Peking University Health Science Center.
Early life.
Li was born in February 1924 in Jiaxing, Zhejiang, Republic of China, with his ancestral home in Lingling, Hunan. He was the only son of Li Da, a Marxist philosopher and co-founder of the Communist Party of China, and his wife Wang Huiwu. His parents moved frequently, and he spent his childhood in various cities including Changsha, Wuchang, Shanghai, and Beijing.
After the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1937, the Japanese occupied Beijing. Li's family became war refugees and fled across half of China to Guilin and later Guiyang, where his older sister fell ill and died in 1938. Li attended Tsinghua High School in Guiyang and graduated in February 1942.
Career.
Li graduated from Xiangya Medical College in June 1948, and stayed on as a physician at the college. In 1958, he entered the Institute of Psychology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, where he conducted research in medical psychology under the supervision of . He later served as professor and chair of medical psychology at the institute.
He was an adjunct professor at Peking Union Medical College from 1987 to 1990, at China Medical University from 1986 to 1991, and at Peking University Health Science Center (formerly Beijing Medical College) from 1985 to 2000.
His research on the coordination of cerebral hemispheres won multiple national and regional awards. His published works include the widely used reference book "Medical Psychology". He is considered a founder of medical psychology and neuropsychology in China.
Li died on 2 May 2019 at Anzhen Hospital in Beijing, at the age of 95.


Stan Bowles

Stanley Bowles (born 24 December 1948 in Collyhurst, Manchester, Lancashire) is an English former professional footballer who as a player in the 1970s was known for his skills as a forward, and also gained a reputation as one of the game's great non-conformists and mavericks.
Club career.
Bowles began his career as an apprentice at Manchester City, although his fiery temper resulted in his falling out with coach Malcolm Allison and being released after a series of off-field incidents. After a brief and unsuccessful stay at Bury, he was signed by Ernie Tagg, manager of Crewe Alexandra, then in the Fourth Division, where his skill caught the eye of a number of bigger clubs. In October 1971 he was signed by Carlisle United, at the time a Second Division club, scoring 13 goals in 36 appearances for the club. After a managerial change at the club, he was sold to Queens Park Rangers (QPR) for £110,000 in September 1972.
He replaced in the team a previous QPR folk-hero, Rodney Marsh, who had been transferred to Bowles' first club Manchester City only six months before. Bowles took over Marsh's number 10 shirt, which other players had been reluctant to wear in fear of being compared unfavourably to the mercurial Marsh. Bowles had no such qualms about taking the shirt, joking that, coming from the North, he had never really heard of Marsh.
Bowles was often regarded as something of a character both on and off the pitch. Bowles has been known to cite a notable incident in his playing days involving the famous FA Cup trophy. Having won the FA Cup competition four days prior, Sunderland were parading the trophy at Roker Park on 9 May 1973 when they met QPR in the old Division 2. The trophy had been placed on a table at the side of the pitch when Bowles tore straight across the park and claims to have kicked the ball at it full speed, sending the Cup flying through the air. According to Stan, the crowd predictably went ballistic, but he had the last laugh by scoring two goals in the match which ended in a pitch invasion. Some reports suggest that some of the QPR players had laid bets as to who could hit the trophy first. However this version of events has been disputed and, according to Gordon Jago (QPR's manager at the time), it was Bowles's teammate, defender Tony Hazell, who struck the cup with an accidental clearance.
Bowles spent just over seven years at QPR, playing a central role in arguably the club's greatest ever team, that which finished as league runners-up in 1975–76 under Dave Sexton. A 2004 fans poll saw him voted the club's all-time greatest player. In 1979, Bowles fell out with QPR's new manager, Tommy Docherty. Bowles responded to Docherty's plea of "You can trust me, Stan" with "I'd rather trust my chickens with Colonel Sanders". Docherty made Bowles train with the reserves for nearly six months, before selling Bowles to Nottingham Forest in December 1979. Despite the fallout between Docherty and Bowles, Docherty continued to play Bowles for QPR right up until he was sold to Nottingham Forest.
At Nottingham Forest, Bowles failed to settle under the management of Brian Clough and he ruled himself out of the 1980 European Cup Final after Clough refused to allow Bowles to play in John Robertson's testimonial. Bowles was essentially understudy to the world's first £1 million signing Trevor Francis during his one season at the City Ground, and before the season was out Clough was already targeting Coventry City's top scorer Ian Wallace as his replacement. Bowles was then sold to Leyton Orient for £100,000 after making only 23 appearances in all competitions. He joined Brentford the following year and remained at the club until retiring at the end of the 1982–83 season. Bowles came out of retirement to briefly rejoin the club on a non-contract basis during 1983–84 season, before retiring again in February 1984. He received a testimonial in 1987, earning £17,000. Post-retirement, he continued to play at non-league level for Epping Town.
His 1996 autobiography revealed the extent of his drinking, womanising and gambling during his playing days, and also helped to secure a role as a pundit on Sky Sports, where he again replaced Rodney Marsh. Bowles is also the life chairman of the Queens Park Rangers supporters group L.S.A (Loyal Supporters Association).
A cult icon, he had a single released bearing his name, Stan Bowles by The Others. Bowles has also written betting columns in the national press and a column in 'lads' mag' "Loaded" and also appeared on the after dinner speaker circuit. He was also the personal favourite player of John Barnes.
International career.
He made his international debut against Portugal in April 1974 in Sir Alf Ramsey's last match in charge. Despite his unquestionable ability and consistently high-level league performances, he won only five caps for England, all while playing for QPR (playing for three managers: Sir Alf Ramsey, Joe Mercer and Don Revie) and scored his only international goal in a 2–0 win over Wales at Ninian Park in 1974.
Personal life.
Bowles is a cousin of Paul Bowles. On 20 June 2015, Stan Bowles was reported to be a sufferer from Alzheimer's disease. On 22 August 2015, Queens Park Rangers honoured Bowles as he was presented to the crowd at Loftus Road before their game against Rotherham United.
Honours.
1979/1980 European Supercup winner, playing in the Final's 2nd leg Camp Nou, Barcelona 5 February 1980 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_European_Super_Cup
References.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_European_Super_Cup


Choral Arts Society of Philadelphia

Choral Arts Philadelphia (formerly Choral Arts Society of Philadelphia) is a 40-voice choir with an 8-voice professional core and semi-professional and amateur auditioned volunteer singers. The ensemble was founded in 1982 in Philadelphia as a symphonic chorus of 120+ voices. It is currently directed by Matthew Glandorf, who also serves on the faculty of the Curtis Institute of Music. The group has performed nearly 200 works by more than 100 composers.
In 2002, while under direction of Donald Nally, the Choral Arts Society of Philadelphia was awarded the Margaret Hillis Award for Choral Excellence, presented to a single chorus each year by Chorus America. That same year, the group was named "Best of Philly" by Philadelphia Magazine.
Throughout its history, the Choral Arts [Society of] Philadelphia has been dedicated to the commissioning and performance of new music. The choir has performed world premieres of works by Robert Convery, Edward Bilous, Jake Heggie, Robert Maggio, Neely Bruce, Thomas Jennefelt, Jonathan Harvey, among others. In 2007, as part of its 25th anniversary season, the group presented a world premiere by Roxanna Panufnik. In 2012, Choral Arts Philadelphia recorded an album of choral music by composer David Ludwig.
In addition to presenting a three- or four-concert season of its own each year, Choral Arts has been a frequent collaborator with other Philadelphia cultural groups including the Philadelphia Orchestra, the Chamber Orchestra of Philadelphia, Piffaro, The Pennsylvania Ballet, Tempesta di Mare.
In 2013, Choral Arts Philadelphia launched "Bach At Seven" Cantata Series, an hour-long mid-week programs featuring a Bach cantata along with theme-related choral, solo and orchestral works from all periods. The series take place at Saint Clement's Episcopal Church in Philadelphia and continue throughout the season, mostly on a monthly basis.


Alwyn Williams (geologist)

Sir Alwyn Williams (8 June 1921 – 4 April 2004) was a Welsh geologist, who was Principal of the University of Glasgow from 1976 to 1988, and President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh from 1985 to 1988.
Early life.
Williams was born in Aberdare, an industrial town in Rhondda Cynon Taf, South Wales, and attended Aberdare Boys' Grammar School. He was a keen sportsman in his youth, taking part in athletics and rugby, and had ambitions to join the Fleet Air Arm of the Royal Navy, although these were thwarted by a bout of tuberculosis in 1939, which confined him for a time to a sanitorium. He instead won a scholarship to study at University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, where he achieved a First in geology in 1939, and a PhD, studying Welsh Ordovician rocks and describing new species of brachiopods. Whilst at Aberystwyth he served both as President of the institution's Students' Representative Council, and as National Vice-President of the National Union of Students. In 1948, he was appointed Lecturer in Geology at the University of Glasgow, but postponed this position to complete a two-year Harkness Fellowship at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., working under leading brachiopod expert G Arthur Cooper.
Academic career.
Williams took up his post as Lecturer in Geology at the University of Glasgow in 1950, but remained only four years, moving in 1954 to the Chair in Geology at Queen's University Belfast. Whilst at Belfast, he served as Dean of Science and as Secretary to the Academic Council, and from 1967 as Pro-Vice-Principal. He left Belfast in 1974 to succeed Fred Shotton as Lapworth Professor of Geology and Head of Department at the University of Birmingham, and two years later returned to Glasgow as Principal of the University.
Research.
Whilst at Belfast, Williams began focussing his research on brachiopods, introducing new techniques to study of the species, particularly transmission and scanning electron microscopy. At this time he also began work on the brachiopod volumes of the Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, and at the 1990 International Brachiopod Congress, he agreed to co-ordinate a complete revision of these volumes. Whilst Principal at Glasgow, he began expanding his research into the interrelationships between the soft tissues and hard shells of brachiopods in the new Paeleobiology Unit.
University of Glasgow.
Williams was appointed Principal of the University of Glasgow in 1976, succeeding Sir Charles Wilson. He introduced new teaching practices to the University, using modern technology, and established what is now one of the leading departments of Computing Science in the UK, and is credited with improving the research rigour of the institution. Despite his heavy load of administrative duties as Principal, Williams continued his research, publishing twenty refereed papers and holding three NERC grants. He was knighted in 1983. Upon retiring as Principal in 1988, he created a Palaeobiology Unit to support his own continued research.
Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Sir Alwyn became President of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1985, serving until 1988. Although his tenure lasted only three years, it included the purchase of the Society's landmark premises in George Street and the fostering of links with the Royal Society in London and the Royal Irish Academy, Williams also holding membership of both organisations. His leadership helped the RSE to develop its position and role as one of the leading academies of the British Isles.
Sir Alwyn Williams Building.
The Sir Alwyn Williams Building at the University of Glasgow was opened on 22 June 2007 by Professor Anne Glover, Chief Scientific Adviser for Scotland, and Williams's widow, Joan. It was an extension to the facilities of the Department of Computing Science, located between the Department's pre-existing accommodation, in a row of interconnected Victorian townhouses on Lilybank Gardens, and the 1968-built Queen Margaret Union building. The Building contains offices and laboratories as well as informal 'break-out spaces'.
The architectural style is strikingly modern, and building work also included construction of a pedestrianised plaza between University Gardens and Lilybank Gardens, connecting to the North doors of the Boyd Orr Building. Construction lasted between 2005 and 2007, and cost £4m. The building was designed by Reiach and Hall Architects, who also built the University's Wolfson Medical School Building. In 2008, the building was briefly occupied by students protesting against violence in the Gaza Strip.
Personal life.
Williams married Joan Bevan in 1949, with whom he had a son and a daughter. The pair met while studying in Aberystwyth and married in Canada. The family lived in Pollokshields in the South of Glasgow. As well as his academic and administrative posts, Williams had a keen interest in the arts, and was chairman of the Committee on National Museums and Galleries in Scotland between 1979 and 1981. During this time he conducted a report on the National Museum of Antiquities, which led to the establishment of the Museum of Scotland.


Garbage can model

The garbage can model (also known as garbage can process, or garbage can theory) describes the chaotic reality of organizational decision making in an organized anarchy. The model originated in the 1972 seminal paper, "A Garbage Can Model of Organizational Choice", written by Michael D. Cohen, James G. March, and Johan P. Olsen.
Organized anarchies are organizations, or decision situations (also known as choice opportunities), characterized by problematic preferences, unclear technology, and fluid participation. While some organizations (such as public, educational, and illegitimate organizations) are more frequently characterized by these traits of organized anarchy, the traits can be partially descriptive of any organization, part of the time.
Within this context, of an organized anarchy view of organizational decision making, the garbage can model symbolizes the choice-opportunity/decision-situation (for example: a meeting where ideas are discussed and decided on) as a "garbage can" that participants are chaotically dumping problems and solutions into, as they are being generated. The "garbage can" term's significance is best understood by considering the manner in which items in a trash can are organized, which is a messy, chaotic mix. The model portrays problems, solutions, and participants/decision-makers as three independent "streams" that are each generated separately, and flow disconnected from each other. These three streams only meet when the fourth stream of choice opportunity arises, as a garbage can, for the streams to flow into. The mix of garbage (streams) in a single can (choice opportunity) depends on the mix of cans available, on the labels attached to each can, and on what garbage is currently being generated. The mix of garbage in a single can also depend on the speed at which the garbage is collected and removed from the scene, for example, how long before problems, solutions, and/or participants move on to other choice opportunities, or, depending on how long the current choice opportunity remains available. This anarchic view of decision making contrasts with traditional decision theory.
Organized anarchy.
Organized anarchies can be characterized by a sense of chaos and dynamism. Problems and solutions are loosely coupled. Proposed solutions change during bargaining. All participants involved do not get the chance to fully participate, and have limitations on their time and energy. Many things happen at once, all competing with each other for attention. Amongst the confusion, participants try to make sense of their role in the organization.
General properties.
The behavioral theory of organized anarchy views organizations, and/or decision-situations/choice-opportunities, as generally characterized by the three properties of problematic preferences, unclear technology, and fluid participation (detailed below). These properties of organized anarchy are characteristic of any organization in part, part of the time.
Problematic preferences.
The organization has no clear preference or guidelines. It operates on the basis of a variety of inconsistent and ill-defined preferences, goals, and identities. The organization can be described more accurately as a loose collection of ideas, rather than as a coherent structure. Organizations discover their preferences through actions, more than actions are taken on the basis of preferences. It is unclear which problems matter, and which do not.
Unclear technology.
The organization's processes are not understood by the organization's own members. The organization operates based on trial and error procedures, learning from accidents of past experiences, and pragmatic inventions of necessity. It is not clear what the consequences are for proposed solutions, or how to solve problems with solutions that lack evidence.
Fluid participation.
Participants vary in how much time and effort they commit to different domains. Participant involvement also varies, depending on the time. Consequently, the boundaries of the organization are continuously uncertain and changing. Audiences and decision makers for any type of choice change suddenly and unpredictably.
Meaning making.
Organizations can be viewed as vehicles for solving problems, or structures where conflict is resolved through bargaining. However, organizations also provide procedures through which participants gain an understanding of what they are doing and what they have done. Organizations, especially organized anarchies, may have difficulty creating their collective platform and identity. In situations of ambiguity, decision making moves away from ideas of reality, causality, and intentionality, to thoughts of meaning. Therefore, decisions become seen as vehicles for constructing meaningful interpretations of fundamentally confusing worlds, instead of outcomes produced by comprehensible environments. As the complexity of decision situations increase so that they more closely resemble reality, they become meaning generators instead of consequence generators.
Hence, we understand organized anarchies as meaning makers that we need within organizations so that we can feel like we have reasons and identities for which to be present at the organization and to address many types of concerns, such as in meetings, where the issues may or may not be relevant to the existing topic of discussion. Within this perspective, an organization is a collection of choices seeking problems, issues and feelings seeking decision situations where they can be raised, solutions seeking issues to which they may be able to solve, and decision makers seeking out work.
The Garbage Can Model.
Whereas the theory of organized anarchy provided a larger view to describe how organizations and decision situations function, the garbage can model focuses in on how decisions get made within these organized anarchies. The model details what elements are involved in the decision making process, how the outcomes are generated, and who/what is able to access this interaction.
Decision streams.
The garbage can model views decisions as outcomes of four independent streams (detailed below) within organizations. Prior to the garbage can model, the decision process was imagined very differently, as visually displayed, based on references from the foundational literature, in the figures below.
Problems.
Problems arise from people both inside and outside of the organization, and for many different reasons, all consuming attention. Examples may include family, career, distribution of status and money, or even current events in the media. These problems do not need to be real, or actually important, but only to be perceived as such by the decision makers.
Solutions.
Solutions are an individual's or a collective's product. Examples may include ideas, bills, programs, and operating procedures. None of the solutions need to pertain to an existing problem. Instead, participants use the solutions generated to actively seek out problems that the solutions may be able to solve.
Participants.
Participants have other demands on their time, and actively arrive to, and leave from, the decision making process. They may also have different preferences for different solutions.
Choice opportunities.
Choice opportunities give the organizations chances to act in ways that can be called decisions. These opportunities occur regularly, and organizations are able to determine moments for choice. Examples may include the signing of contracts, hiring and firing employees, spending money, and assigning tasks.
The first three streams of problems, solutions, and participants, flow into the fourth stream of choice opportunities, and mix based on chance, timing, and who happens to be present.
The decision arena.
While the first three streams of problems, solutions, and participants, meet in the stream of choice opportunity (for example, a choice to hire a new employee), the decision/choice arena is the larger domain where all four of these streams meet. This arena can be the type of organization (government, school, university) or the greater setting in which this interaction is occurring. For example, a board or committee may be a choice arena, while the committee's annual elections may be a choice opportunity. Choice opportunities may also move between different choice arenas, such as a decision being passed between committees, or departments.
Decision outcomes.
The outcomes of how the four streams mix in a choice arena can vary. Sometimes decisions are made. Other times no decisions are made. Still other times, decisions are made, but do not address the problem that they were meant to solve.
Resolution.
Resolution occurs when the choices taken resolve the problem that was being addressed. This success occurs when problems arise in choice opportunities, and the decision makers present have the energy/ability to properly address the problems' demands.
Oversight.
Oversight occurs when a decision is taken before the problem reaches it. This happens when choice opportunities arrive and no problems are attached to them. This may be due to problems being attached to other choice arenas at the moment. If there is sufficient energy available to make a choice quickly, participants will make the choice and move on before the relevant problem arrives.
Flight.
Flight occurs when a decision is taken after the problem goes away. This happens when problems are attached to choice opportunities for a period of time and exceed the energy of their respective decision makers to stay focused on the problem. The original problem may then move to another choice arena. Examples are tabling, or sending decisions to subcommittees, where the problems may not get attached to solutions.
Early implications.
The Fortran model simulations, used in the original paper, found that, most often, decisions are not made to resolve problems. Decision making processes were found to be very sensitive to variations in energy and time. Decision makers and problems were also found to seek each other out, and continue to find each other.
Three key aspects of the efficiency of the decision process are problem activity, problem latency, and decision time. Problem activity is the amount of time unresolved problems are actively attached to choice situations. This is a rough measure of the potential for decision conflict in an organization. Problem latency is the amount of time problems spend activated but not linked to choices. Decision time is the persistence of choices. Good organizational structures would be assumed to keep problem activity and problem latency low by quickly solving problems with choices. Notably, this result was not observed in the garbage can model.
The model's processes are very interactive, and some phenomena are dependent on specific combinations of other structures at play. Important problems were found more likely to be solved than unimportant ones, and important choices were less likely to solve problems than unimportant ones.
Model constraints.
Access structures and deadlines provide limitations on what can enter into the garbage can model's processes.
Access Structure.
Access structures are the social boundaries that influence which persons, problems, and solutions are allowed access to the choice arena.
Unrestricted/democratic access.
The loosest access structure, unrestricted/democratic access allows all problems, solutions, and people to enter. Any active problem has access to any active choice. This creates more energy, but also permits problems, solutions, and participants to interfere with each other. Conflict and time devoted to problems (anarchy) are increased. An example could be an open forum, town hall, or general body meeting.
Hierarchical access.
Hierarchical access gives priority entry to important actors, problems, and solutions. Both choices and problems are arranged in a hierarchy so that important problems (having low numbers) have access to many choices, and
important choices (also having low numbers) are accessible to only important
problems. An example could be making big decisions in an executive
meeting/committee, while small decisions are left for the general population.
Specialized access.
Specialized access happens when only special problems and solutions can gain entry to certain meetings. Specific specialists have access to specific choices that fit their expertise. Each problem has access to only one choice and each choice is accessible to only two problems. Hence, choices specialize in the types of problems that can be connected to them. An example could be computer specialists in a technology committee addressing technical issues.
Deadlines.
Deadlines characterize temporal boundaries, the timing of decision arenas and what flows access them. Constraints include arrival times of problems (seasonal or weather issues, such as a heat wave, or a blizzard), solutions (time delayed, for example by 1 or 5 year plans), participants (determined by the timing of business days, school semesters, etc.), and choice opportunities (for example, meetings based on budget cycles, or student admissions).
Decisions arise from the constraints of access structures and deadlines interacting with the time-dependent flows of problems, solutions, and participants.
Origins of the garbage can model.
While still a doctoral student at the University of Bergen in Norway, Johan P. Olsen came to the University of California, Irvine as a visiting scholar from 1968–1969. At that time, James G. March was both the Dean of the School of Social Sciences (1964–1969), and a professor of psychology and sociology at the University of California, Irvine (1964–1970). Coinciding with the time of Olsen's visit, and March's last year serving as a dean, Michael D. Cohen was a doctoral student at the University of California, Irvine, and was just beginning his work as a research assistant to March. All three scholars were present at the right time, to witness the university conduct a search process to hire a new dean. Ultimately, the search process ended with none of the potential candidates being chosen, and the head of the search committee taking the position of dean. During an interview, Olsen describes the chaotic decision-making process that he observed at the university throughout this search process, and how it served as a foundational experience for the three scholars to later collaborate and produce their model. Olsen explains in this interview how topics previously considered to be important to the decision making process, such as if the actors were reasonable or rational, actually proved to be less important, and were instead trumped by issues such as time constraints of the participants involved. An example provided was a professor being present in one meeting, only to be absent from the following meeting due to professional travel commitments, which can be common for university faculty. This prompted Olsen to consider a contextual model of decision making, one that examined the ability to make calculations and implement them, as opposed to models that focused on motivation. Olsen observed decision makers give each other head nods, and other non-verbal communication, in meetings, and noted the possible communication, or miscommunication this may have entailed. Olsen also highlighted how the search committee's decision-making process was affected by misinterpreting the silence of the current dean (March) regarding applicants as a sign for lack of support, when in fact this was not an accurate interpretation of the dean's preferences. Olsen, therefore, gained an interest to examine collective, as opposed to individual, decision making, and how routines and chance may affect the decision-making process. All of these factors would lead into the development of the garbage can model.
By 1972, March, Cohen, and Olsen had all found their way from the University of California, Irvine to Stanford University, in the positions of professor, post-doctoral fellow, and visiting professor, respectively. That year, they published the seminal paper "A Garbage Can Model of Organizational Choice." In this paper, the authors used version 5 of the programming language Fortran to translate their ideas into a computer simulation model of a garbage can decision making process.
Practical applications.
The model enables choices to be made and problems resolved, even when an organization may be plagued by conflict, goal ambiguity, poorly understood problems that come and go, variable environments, and distracted decision makers. There are many situations where the garbage can process of decision making cannot be eliminated, and in some of these instances, such as research, or family, the garbage can process should not be eliminated.
Knowing the characteristics of an organizational anarchy and a garbage can model can help people to properly identify when and where these phenomena exist, and approach them strategically. Understanding how these decision arenas operate provide tools to successfully manage what could otherwise be a problematic decision-making process.
Management styles.
Organized anarchies can be managed, to use the garbage can model to your advantage. Three different management styles can be used, as detailed below.
Reformer.
A reformer eliminates the chaotic garbage can elements from decisions. This creates greater order and control, which centralizes and rationalizes the organization.
Enthusiast.
In contrast to the reformer, the enthusiast tries to discover a new vision of the decision making within garbage can processes. The enthusiast realizes that the planning is in large part symbolic, and is an excuse for participants to interact and generate meaning. It allows participants to feel a sense of belonging, and to learn about identities and views. Once the enthusiast understands that the decision arena is more for sense-making and observations, than for making decisions, temporal sorting can be used as a way to organize attention. The temporal order of topics presented can suggest what is of more concern for collective discussion. Flows of problems and solutions are viewed as a matching market, where energies and connections are mobilized. Assessing who is present, and where time and energy are sufficient, allows the enthusiasts to advance their case most effectively. Characteristics of the garbage can model that were seen by others as disadvantages, such as flexible implementation, uncoordinated action, and confusion, are viewed as advantages by the enthusiast.
Pragmatist.
The pragmatist tries to exploit the anarchy inherent in the garbage can processes to further personal agendas. Timing can be manipulated to have solutions arrive when attention is low. The meeting can be arranged in an order that is personally favorable, where items that are desired to be discussed are placed at the top of the agenda, and items that need to be passed, in which discussion is not desired, are placed at the bottom of the agenda, so that the decision can be rushed through when there is not enough time for discussion. The pragmatist pays attention to fluctuations in interests and participant involvement, so that when certain individuals are not present, it can be easier to advance issues and solutions that may have otherwise been opposed by different participants. Initiatives that are entangled with other streams can be abandoned, and if an unfavorable topic arises, the system can be overloaded to protect the pragmatist's interests. This can be accomplished by bringing up different problems and solutions, which will slow the decision making process down and make it more complex. Other choice opportunities (meetings) can also be proposed to lure problems and participants away from choices that are of interest, in the process gaining time for the pragmatists to address the issues of their concern.
Multi-disciplinary impact.
The garbage can model can be especially helpful in explaining all types of meetings where problems and solutions are fluidly discussed. The model fits well with almost any decentralized social system attempting to address issues, and the model is continuously finding its way into new domains. For example, across a sample of firms involved in hydrocarbon megaprojects, researchers found that problems given the most attention are different from those responsible for budget overruns, and that the attribution of reasons for these overruns differ between project owners and supply chain firms. These inconsistencies are addressed by the garbage can model. Also, trade fairs have been found to be organizational forms that have permeable, fluid participation, and diversified and spontaneous in terms of individual goals and actions, once again displaying traits characteristic of the model.
Several fields such as higher education, the policy-government world, and academic research, are discussed further below.
Higher education.
The American college or university is, in a way, a prototypical organized anarchy. Students constantly enter and leave the institution, and the faculty and staff working there for longer periods of time may have many competing demands on their attention and resources, such as course instruction, research, and conference travel. Different academic departments may prioritize different, and even competing, goals for the university. University senates, in particular, provide an opportunity to see the characteristics of organized anarchy and the garbage can model in action. These senates largely serve symbolic meaning making functions for participants to express themselves through their membership, commitment to professional values, and maintaining relationships. Often, committees that report to the senate take so long to work on their issue, due to constraints on participant time, or difficulty matching problems with solutions, that by the time the committee produces anything, the issue has already passed on. Hence, this provides an example for how the decision was already made, by the garbage can model's decision outcome of flight, where decisions are taken after problems have already gone away. The university senate is known for this latency.
Public policy.
Government can be viewed as an organized anarchy. The actors (politicians) can consistently change with election cycles. There are multiple, often competing, preferences. Problems arise from current events, and can gain or lose focus based on media coverage. Policies may be proposed by think tanks or lobby groups, but these policies may not gain attention until the right situation arises that promotes their relevance. John W. Kingdon built on the ideas of organized anarchy to examine these dynamics in his "Multiple Streams Approach", adapted for the field of public policy Kingdon renamed some of the terms familiar in the garbage can model. Problems remain termed as problems, but solutions became renamed as policies, and participants were termed as politics. These streams converge, or, as Kingdon says, couple, in the policy window (choice opportunity). Ambiguity, competition, an imperfect selection process, actors having limited time, and decision-making processes being neither "comprehensively rational" nor linear, are several key elements of multiple streams approach that clearly reflect the general properties of organized anarchy.
Research in psychology.
The research process in the field of social sciences, particularly in psychology, can be interpreted as an organized anarchy. The academic field of psychology is much more a loose collection of ideas and theories, rather than a coherent structure with a shared intellectual paradigm. Technologies used to conduct research may not be fully understood. Methods for analyzing data, or conducting research, are taken from other fields when the need arises. Participation in the research process is fluid, with some research being done by students, other research being done by professors who may publish one or a few articles and then not continue as a researcher, and other research being done by people who make the research process their life-long profession. Joanne Martin recognized these characteristics of organized anarchy, and applied an adapted version of the garbage can model to the psychological research process. Martin's model restyled the original model's four streams. Problems took the parameters of theoretical problems. Solutions were seen as the results of the research process. Choice opportunities were understood as the selection of which methodology to use for the research. Finally, the stream for participants was re-termed resources, to reflect that, unlike in organizational decision making, not only were actors required to move the decision/research process forward, but specific intellects and skill-sets could also be required, as well as financing, study subjects, and access to certain environments for conducting the research in. The garbage can model of the psychological research process describes how and why some research topics may go unaddressed, certain theoretical problems may be linked with only a single methodological approach, researchers may continue to work on the same issues throughout their careers, some methods may be seldom applied, and how and why the field may appear to make little progress at times.
Current use and future growth of the model.
The garbage can model continues to appear in academic articles, textbooks, and the press, being applied across many diverse domains. Features of organized anarchy have increased in modern times, and many attempts have been made to contribute to the theoretical discourse of the garbage can model by extending it to include new components. For example, fluid participation, a key characteristic of organized anarchy, has greatly increased since the original model was formulated. Some recent research has sought to contribute to the theoretical discourse of the model, by finding leadership style to be a key predictor of decision structure in organized anarchy. Other recent research has found problems with the computer simulation model used in the original article by Cohen, March, and Olsen, suggesting that decision making styles have not been sufficiently analyzed.
In 2012, the volume "The Garbage Can Model of Organizational Choice: Looking Forward at Forty" was published, containing a collection of papers celebrating 40 years since the original article on the garbage can model was introduced. The papers collected in the volume present theories of organizational decision processes that build on the original garbage can model, at times adding new ideas to create a hybrid extension of the original, and at other times perhaps violating the original model's core assumptions, thereby proposing alternatives to the existing model. Some of these papers attempt to attach elements of economic reasoning based on rational action assumptions onto the model. Many of the volume's chapters address the problem of agency, to which the garbage can model offered a solution based on a temporal, instead of a consequential, ordering of organizational events. Some of the newer models that have been proposed make assumptions returning to a consequential view of decision making, as well as assuming that individual preferences may play a larger role in the process.
The volume's papers collectively suggest that the next logical stage of evolution for the garbage can model may be to directly model complex network dependencies linking participants, solutions, problems, and choice opportunities, or overall, social processes, within organizations. Taken as a whole, the volume contributes to defining an intellectual agenda that may well extend far beyond the next forty years of organizational research.


Fiat justitia

Fiat justitia is a Latin phrase, meaning "Let justice be done". Historically in England, a warrant for a writ of error in Parliament or later a petition of right in the courts could be brought only after the king, or on his behalf the Home Secretary, had endorsed "fiat justitia" on a petition for such a warrant. It was a means of granting leave to appeal by exercise of the royal prerogative.
Famous modern uses.
"Fiat Justitia" appears at the bottom of the 1835 portrait of Chief Justice of the United States John Marshall by Rembrandt Peale, which hangs in a conference room at the Supreme Court Building in Washington. It is also the motto of Richmond County, North Carolina; Jefferson County, New York; University of California, Hastings College of the Law; the Massachusetts Bar Association, University of Saskatchewan College of Law, and the Supreme Court of Nevada, and appears on the official seals of these institutions.
"Fiat Justitia" is the motto of Britain's Royal Air Force Police as well as the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court.
"Fiat Justitia" also appears as the motto of Nuffield College, Oxford, and the Sri Lanka law college, and is also found in the Holy Bible on the crest of St. Sylvester's College, Kandy, Sri Lanka.
"Fiat Justitia" is the motto on the town crest of South Molton in North Devon.


Jacob Alting

Jacob Alting (27 September 1618 – 20 August 1679) was a Dutch philologist and theologian. He was professor at the University of Groningen: in 1643 in oriental languages and in 1667 in theology. His publications were overseen in 1687 by Balthasar Bekker.
Alting was born in Heidelberg, where his father Hendrik Alting was a professor. The 1618/1619 Synod of Dort forced the family to move to Leiden in 1622 and to Groningen in 1627.


Eliza Marian Butler

Eliza Marian Butler (29 December 1885 – 13 November 1959), who published as E. M. Butler and Elizabeth M. Butler, was an English scholar of German, Schröder Professor of German at the University of Cambridge from 1945. Her most influential book was "The Tyranny of Greece over Germany" (1935), in which she wrote that Germany has had "too much exposure to Ancient Greek literature and art. The result was that the German mind had succumbed to 'the tyranny of an ideal'. The German worship of Ancient Greece had emboldened the Nazis to remake Europe in their image." It was controversial in Britain and its translation was banned in Germany.
Life.
Eliza Butler, known as "Elsie", was born in Bardsea, Lancashire in a family of Irish ancestry. She was educated by a Norwegian governess (from whom she learned German) and subsequently in Hannover from age 11, Paris from age 15, the school of domestic science at Reifenstein Abbey from age 18, and Newnham College, Cambridge from 21. As a teenager, she watched Kaiser Wilhelm II inspect his troops. In the First World War she worked as an interpreter and nurse in Scottish units on the Russian and Macedonian fronts (she had learned Russian from Jane Harrison) and treated the victims of the German assault. From 1926 to her death Butler lived and travelled with her companion Isaline Blew Horner. After working in hospitals, she taught at Cambridge and in 1936 became a professor at the University of Manchester. Her works include a trilogy on ritual magic and the occult, especially in the Faust legend (1948–1952).
Butler also wrote novels. Her autobiography, "Paper Boats", was published by William Collins, Sons in 1959, the year of her death. She died in London on 13 November 1959.
She may have inspired the scholar Suzanne L. Marchand to research German Orientalism, as Marchand emphasized the political overtones of "Orientalistik", in reaction to Edward Said's assumption that Germany has had a mostly "classical" interest in the Orient (Said overlooked Germany in his "Orientalism").


Model 302 telephone

The model 302 telephone is a desk set telephone that was manufactured in the United States by Western Electric from 1937 until 1955, and by Northern Electric in Canada until the late 1950s, until well after the introduction of the 500-type telephone in 1949. The sets were routinely refurbished into the 1960s. It was one of the most widely used American combined telephone sets to include the ringer and network circuitry in the same telephone housing.
Design and production.
The design of a new desk telephone for the Bell System began approximately in 1930, at the time of introduction of the 102 and 202-type desk telephones, which required two separate enclosures for the telephone circuitry and components. The existing Western Electric telephones used an external subscriber set ("subset"), containing the ringer and network circuitry, typically mounted on a wall or desk side. New concepts of design and economic efficiency emerged in Europe as well as in the independent market in the US in the 1920s, which combined all components of the telephone in one desk set unit. The model 302 was the first Western Electric telephone to include the ringer and network circuitry in the same desktop unit.
Designed by Bell Telephone Laboratories engineer George Lum starting in the early 1930s, the 302-type telephone included such design elements of contemporary technology by, for example, the Ericsson model DBH 1001 of 1931, conceived in 1929 by the Norwegian artist and designer Jean Heiberg, and the Automatic Electric type 34 desk telephone, introduced in 1934.
During the early part of the 1930s, the design evolved and awaited the completion of a newly designed handset, the "F1". After field trials in 1936, large-scale deployment commenced in 1937. The model was never completely retired from service in the Bell System, which ceased to exist in 1984.
The model 302 is built upon a rectangular steel base plate on which are mounted the ringer unit, the induction coil, a metal can containing two capacitors, and a connector terminal plate. The base was supported by four felt- or leather-covered triangular feet attached under each corner. The housing sat atop the base, secured with screws, and contained the rotary dial and the hook switch, which was activated with two plunger rods in the handset cradle by removing or replacing the handset.
The majority of 302 telephone sets were produced in black. Painted color sets were available by 1939; subscribers paid a surcharge for the option. The housing was originally cast from a zinc alloy until production sets were increasingly made from a thermoplastic material, Tenite, in 1941. The thermoplastic housings were available in five colors: ivory, Pekin red, green, blue, and rose until telephone production was suspended due to the military material requirements for WW-II by orders of the War Production Board. Post-war telephone production resumed with black plastic housings in 1945 and by 1949 color sets were reintroduced. Requests for custom colors were also fulfilled, including the traditional dark gold, statuary bronze, old brass, and oxidized silver hues.
All early telephone sets had dials with metal finger wheels, while starting in 1941 the colored thermoplastic units featured clear plastic finger wheels. Dial number plates were made from steel with a white vitreous enamel face. Black 302 telephone sets were equipped from the factory with straight brown textile-covered cords until 1952, when synthetic rubber (Neoprene) jacketed cords became standard equipment. Optional retractile coiled cords were available both in textile and rubber jackets since the early 1940s.
The 302 was a rugged and easily repaired desk telephone. Most US telephones were leased to subscribers from the Bell System as part of the monthly service fees. Western Electric also built 302 telephones for sale to independent telephone companies.
Beginning in August 1955 and extending into the 1960s, the Bell System remanufactured the 302 as the type 5302 in its distribution center work shops, with a newly designed housing, and eventually with the G-type handset of the 500-type telephone, which gave the set a similar appearance to the 500.
In addition to the model 302, the Western Electric 300-series included many variations and special purpose types with additional features. Conversion kits using a 302-style housing and F1 handset to replace older manual candlestick telephones with an external subset were available.
Similar phones by other manufacturers.
Other manufacturers produced sets of similar appearance. Among these were the Stromberg-Carlson Model 1243 telephone, distinguished by beveled corners and flanging on the handset, and the Federal Telephone & Radio (FTR) 803 (pictured).
After phase-out in the US, the model 302's exterior design was retained by European Bell branch companies for such models as the 1954 Bell Standard, widely used in the Netherlands and Belgium.


Alexandra Sokoloff

Alexandra Sokoloff is an American novelist and screenwriter, and the author of the Thriller award-nominated Huntress/FBI series, following a haunted FBI agent on the hunt for a female serial killer ("Huntress Moon", "Blood Moon", "Cold Moon", published by Thomas & Mercer in 2015).
Career.
Her first novel, "The Harrowing", was published by St. Martin's Press in 2006. Her second novel, "The Price," was published by St. Martin's in 2007, her third, "The Unseen", in 2009, her fourth, "Book of Shadows", in 2010. She is a Bram Stoker and Anthony award nominee and a Thriller award winner, and the co-author of the paranormal mystery romance series "The Keepers".
Her short story "The Edge of Seventeen" was the recipient of a 2009 International Thriller Writers Award.
She also co-wrote the screenplay for the psychological thriller "Cold Kisses", and two books on story structure, "Story Structure" and "Writing Love", based on her "Screenwriting Tricks for Authors" workshops and blog.
She lives in Los Angeles and in Scotland, with her husband, the Scottish crime author Craig Robertson.