Operation Blackcock

Operation Blackcock was an operation to clear German troops from the Roer Triangle, formed by the towns of Roermond and Sittard in the Netherlands and Heinsberg in Germany during the fighting on the Western Front in the Second World War. It was conducted by the British Second Army between 13 and 26 January 1945. The objective was to drive the German 15th Army back across the rivers Roer and Wurm and move the frontline further into Germany. The operation was carried out by Lieutenant-General Neil Ritchie's XII Corps by three divisions: the 7th Armoured Division (Major-General Lewis Lyne), the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division (Major-General Ivor Thomas) and the 52nd (Lowland) Infantry Division (Major-General Edmund Hakewill-Smith). The operation, named after the Scottish black male grouse, is relatively unknown despite the sometimes fierce battles that were fought for each and every village and hamlet within the Roer Triangle.
Dispositions along the Roer Front.
By the end of 1944, the frontline in Dutch Limburg had stabilized along several natural barriers. By far the most difficult barrier to cross was the River Maas running along the Dutch - Belgian border. The next barrier was the River Roer, running from the German Eifel area through Heinsberg towards Roermond, where it joins the Maas. From Heinsberg, southwards the famous Siegfried Line or 'West Wall' was formed along the banks of the Rur. Dutch South-Limburg was already liberated in September by the First United States Army, but the area above the Sittard - Geilenkirchen line was still in German hands. Here the front had settled along the "Saefeller Beek", a small creek forming another seemingly immense obstacle. These obstacles formed a triangular area, indeed; it was referred to as the Roermond Triangle, which protruded like a small bulge into the frontline. As a result of the German offensive - Operation Herbstnebel - in the Ardennes (also known as the Battle of the Bulge), the Allies had to withdraw resources to stop the German advance in the American First Army's sector. Therefore, the British Second Army's XII Corps, had taken over the task of guarding the frontline north of Sittard for the US Army. The Maas front was guarded by the British VIII Corps.
The British XII Corps was facing the German XII SS Corps, commanded by Günther Blumentritt, which had two infantry divisions present along the frontline between Geilenkirchen and Roermond. In the Roermond area these divisions were strengthened by the "Fallschirmjäger-Regiment Hübner".
"Blackcock".
The clearing of the Roer Triangle was planned along three axes. The left axis, formed by the 7th Armoured Division, was aimed at capturing the bridge across the Roer in Sint Odiliënberg (). For the 7th Armoured Division, the operation would start with bridging the creeks south of Susteren. The centre axis, formed by the 52nd Infantry Division, was aimed at the capture of Heinsberg. In order to do this, a break-through at the German defence line was to be undertaken near Hongen in order to open the road between Sittard and Heinsberg for moving troops. The right axis, formed by the 43rd Infantry Division, was aimed at clearing the area south-east of Dremmen. This axis would use the break in the German defence line that was to be created by the Lowland Division.
VC Actions.
The Victoria Cross was awarded twice, both posthumously, for actions during Operation Blackcock.
Hübner's defeat at Sint Joost.
The Battle for the Dutch village of Sint Joost was a turning point in Operation Blackcock. After four days of fighting, the Germans were well aware that the armoured division that was facing them relied heavily on the roads to manoeuvre their vehicles, especially due to poor winter conditions. The small village of Sint Joost was on the route of the 7th Armoured Division's drive north towards Montfort.
On 20 January, in cold and misty weather, infantry and cavalry units of the Desert Rats launched a first attack on the (assumed) two German companies of the 2nd Battalion "Fallschirmjäger Regiment Hübner" in Sint Joost. It would take four attacks to clear the village, the final assault taking place on Sunday, the 21 January.
In total, sixty "Fallschirmjäger" were taken prisoner. The 9th Durham Light Infantry and 1st Rifle Brigade had suffered heavy losses in Sint Joost. The DLI suffered 33 casualties, of which eight were killed in action. The Rifle Brigade counted 34 casualties, of which three men from I Company were killed in action. More than one hundred German soldiers died, most of them lying in the houses. Those paratroopers who were not killed only dared to leave the cellars under safe cover of the civilians, afraid that they would be shot by the victors. Hübner had lost one company and a second had been nearly destroyed.
The Bombing Raids on Montfort.
Between Friday evening the 19 January and Tuesday the 23 January the Dutch village of Montfort was shelled or bombed on seven occasions, and was hit by more than 100 bombs. Most of these fell in the centre of the village. Nearly all of the 250 houses were damaged. Some houses were no more than ruins, and entire families were killed. During these raids the Germans took shelter in the cellars among the civilians, and in the wooded areas just outside the village. The bombing raids that struck Montfort on the 21st and 22nd were carried out by the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) 2nd Tactical Air Force - No. 83 Group - 143 Wing. This Wing consisted of 438, 439 and 440 Squadron, based at Eindhoven. The squadrons were equipped with the Hawker Typhoon 1B fighter bomber. 143 Wing lost six aircraft during Operation Blackcock, two of which crashed in Montfort. When Montfort was finally liberated by the "Desert Rats" on 24 January, the civilians were in a deep state of shock. The air raids on Montfort had cost the lives of 186 civilians, most of them buried under their destroyed homes.
Aftermath.
Operation Blackcock was a success for the Allies since all the objectives of the operation were met. The German divisions were thrown out of the Roer Triangle with the exception of the area immediately south of Roermond. Here Hübner's paratroopers stayed in control for the time being. The British Division that fought the toughest battles during the operation was without doubt the 52nd Lowland which counted 752 casualties. Of these 101 were killed. 258 soldiers were transported from the front because of sickness, mostly as a direct result of the adverse weather conditions and the extreme cold. The 7th Armoured Division counted just over 400 casualties. The Desert Rats losses in vehicles was rather light, with only 20 tanks knocked out by the enemy and a further 23 broken down due to mechanical problems. Of the knocked-out tanks 10 were damaged beyond repair. The number of German casualties is unknown, it can be estimated to be approximately 2,000. During the operation 490 prisoners were taken by the Desert Rats, amongst them were six officers. The Lowland Division took more than 1,200 prisoners, the Wessex Division took some 400 soldiers captive.
Once Operation Blackcock was completed, the plans for the capture of the Rhineland could commence. Operation Veritable, by the First Canadian Army, was launched on the 8 February and was aimed at breaking through the German defences in the Klever Reichswald, some north of the Roer Triangle. Operation "Grenade", the southern part of the pincer movement, by the US Ninth Army was launched on 23 February. General William Hood Simpson's US Ninth Army crossed the river Roer south of Heinsberg in the early hours of 23 February 1945. Twelve hours later Simpson had 16 battalions on the east bank, together with seven heavy bridges, and a number of light assault bridges. American losses were light on the first day; 700 prisoners were taken. A task force was formed by Ninth Army's XVI Corps which rushed towards Venlo to meet-up with the British in the north. On 1 March Roermond was captured by the reconnaissance troop of the US 35th Infantry Division (the "Santa Fe" Division) without a single shot being fired.


Battle of Kolombangara

The Battle of Kolombangara (Japanese: コロンバンガラ島沖海戦) (also known as the Second Battle of Kula Gulf) was a naval battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought on the night of 12/13 July 1943, off the northeastern coast of Kolombangara in the Solomon Islands. The battle took place during the early stages of the New Georgia campaign when an Imperial Japanese Navy force, carrying reinforcements south to Vila, Solomon Islands, was intercepted by a task force of U.S. and New Zealand light cruisers and destroyers. In the ensuing action, the Japanese sunk one Allied destroyer and damaged three cruisers. They were also able to successfully land 1,200 ground troops on the western coast of Kolombangara but lost one light cruiser sunk with all hands in the process.
Background.
The Allied campaign in New Georgia had begun on 30 June as part of their advance through the central Solomon Islands towards Rabaul under the guise of Operation Cartwheel. In the initial phase of the operation, Rendova had been captured to provide a staging point for U.S. forces assigned to capture the Japanese airfield at Munda Point, which was one of the campaign's key objectives. On 2 July, troops of the U.S. 43rd Infantry Division landed on New Georgia to attack Munda, while three days later a battalion Marine Raiders and two U.S. Army battalions were landed at Rice Anchorage on New Georgia's northern shore to seize Bairoko.
In response to the Allied landings, the Japanese sought to reinforce New Georgia to shore up the southern flank to their base around Rabaul. On the night of 12 July 1943, a Japanese "Tokyo Express" naval reinforcement force made a run down "The Slot" from the Rabaul to land troops at Vila on Kolombangara by way of the Kula Gulf. This force was commanded by Rear Admiral (少将 "shōshō") Shunji Isaki and consisted of the light cruiser , the destroyers , , , and , as well as the destroyer transports , , , and . These four ships carried 1,200 ground troops which were to be landed on Kolombangara as part of efforts to reinforce area in response to the Allied landings in New Georgia. The Japanese ships of Isaki's force had been drawn from a number of different numbered elements, but the core was formed by Destroyer Squadron 2.
The movement of Japanese ships was detected by Allied coastwatchers and reported. In response Admiral William Halsey ordered a naval task force to intercept the Japanese ships. The Allied naval force, designated Task Force 18, was commanded by Rear Admiral Walden L. Ainsworth. It consisted of two United States Navy light cruisers, and and the Royal New Zealand Navy light cruiser , and the destroyers , , , , , , , , , and .
In battle these Allied vessels deployed in a single column with five destroyers in the van followed by the light cruisers and then by five destroyers in the rear. Each group of five destroyers formed a squadron. The first of these, designated Destroyer Squadron 21, was commanded by Captain Francis X. McInerney. The second destroyer squadron was Captain Thomas J. Ryan's Destroyer Squadron 12; it had only recently been assigned to Ainworth's task force, as had the New Zealand cruiser which had been assigned to Ainsworth's force following the loss of during the Battle of Kula Gulf on 6 July. Together, the three cruisers were grouped together as Cruiser Division 9. Ainsworth's mission was to prevent Japanese troops and supplies from landing as part of efforts to stem the flow of reinforcements towards Munda.
Battle.
The U.S. task force sailed from its base around Tulagi at 17:00 on 12 July, amidst clear skies and calm seas. Passing Savo Island, Ainsworth steered a course along the west coast of Santa Isabel Island, hoping to use it to hide his force from Japanese reconnaissance aircraft. His plan for the attack was to use the first squadron of five destroyers that formed his vanguard to fire torpedoes while his cruisers maneuvered into a position to use their main guns. After laying down a heavy barrage the cruisers would maneuver again to avoid return torpedoes from the Japanese destroyers. Having gone to general quarters due to concerns about being spotted in the bright moonlight of the clear night sky, around midnight the U.S task force altered course towards Visu Visu. They then increased their speed following reports from Allied reconnaissance aircraft that had spotted Isaki's force about away. Hamstrung by their slowest ship, "Leander", Ainsworth's task group was only able to make while Isaki's force was estimated to cruising at .
As the skies began to grow overcast, at 01:00 on 13 July, the Allied ships established radar contact about east of the northern tip of Kolombangara at . Ainsworth assumed he had a complete surprise as the Japanese lacked radar, but in reality, the Japanese had been aware of the Allied force for almost two hours. Despite not possessing radar, the Japanese ships had the ability to detect the electric impulses of the Allied radar systems, and from this, the Japanese crews were able to gain an accurate plot of Ainsworth's dispositions. After sighting the Japanese force at 01:03, the U.S. destroyers of McInerney's squadron increased speed to engage the Japanese force with their torpedoes while the cruisers turned to deploy their main batteries and engage to starboard. Unknown to Ainsworth, the Japanese destroyers had already launched Long Lance torpedoes, which had a longer range than the Allied torpedoes. After firing their salvoes between 01:08 and 01:14, the Japanese destroyers turned away to regroup.
The first U.S. torpedoes hit the water about a minute after their Japanese counterparts, with "Nicholas" engaging "Jintsū" at a range of just under . "Jintsū" turned on her searchlight and engaged the Allied ships, but was subjected to concentrated Allied fire from a range of around , with 2,630 rounds being fired under the direction of spotting aircraft overhead. After minor corrections to their fall of shot, the Japanese cruiser was heavily damaged. After losing steerage around 01:17, "Jintsū" came to a dead stop. It was eventually reduced to a wreck, broken in two by several torpedo hits, and sank at about 01:45, with the loss of nearly her entire crew, including Isaki. On the Allied side, "Leander" was hit by a shell from "Jintsū". The damage was light, but severed radio communications. Several Japanese torpedoes were spotted, and the Allied ships began evasive action. These counter maneuvers were hampered by faulty communications and thick gunsmoke that reduced visibility. Consequently, several ships turned wide to avoid collisions, including "Leander", which was struck by one of the Japanese torpedoes. Severely damaged, the New Zealand cruiser retired from the battle escorted by "Radford" and "Jenkins".
Amidst the confusion of the initial battle, Ryan's destroyer squadron began its torpedo run from a distance of , firing his first salvo around 01:12. McInerney's destroyers, except "Radford" and "Jenkins", were detached from the task force by Ainsworth at 01:31 to pursue contacts to the west following a reconnaissance report from the supporting aircraft that indicated several destroyers were withdrawing in that direction. Meanwhile, the four Japanese destroyer-transports began to withdraw along the coast, while the four Japanese escort destroyers temporarily retired north under the command of Captain Yoshima Shimai to use the cover of a rain squall to reload their torpedo tubes, doing so in only 18 minutes. Ainsworth then pursued the Japanese destroyers with Ryan's destroyers and his own three cruisers, altering course to the northwest.
Radar contact was reestablished by the U.S. ships at 01:56, but there was uncertainty about the identity of the ships among Ainsworth's advisers. Believing that they may have been McInerney's destroyers, the U.S. ships initially held their fire while they sought to confirm the location of three detached destroyers. At 02:03, starshells were fired to illuminate the contacts that had begun to withdraw. Shortly afterward, Ainsworth deployed his ships to begin firing with their main batteries, maneuvering to starboard. In the process, they moved into the path of a number of torpedoes that had been fired by the Japanese destroyers before they had turned about. In the process, "St. Louis" and "Honolulu" were both struck by torpedoes and damaged, although this was not mortal. The destroyer "Ralph Talbot" managed to reply with a salvo of four torpedoes, but these failed to hit anything. A minute later the destroyer "Gwin" was also struck by a torpedo amidships, inflicting heavy damage. Despite efforts to save the ship by its crew, "Gwin" was scuttled at 09:30. A total of 61 men were killed on "Gwin" as a result of the torpedo attack. Its surviving crew were subsequently evacuated on "Ralph Talbot".
Aftermath.
Following the battle, Ainsworth's force withdrew back to Tulagi. Sailing through The Slot in daylight risked air attack from the Japanese. As a result, Ainsworth requested air support and a strong fighter force was provided from bases in the Russell Islands to cover the withdrawal. Early on 13 July, a force of 18 Japanese dive bombers, escorted by 20 fighters, was dispatched to attack the Allied ships, but they were turned back after clashing off Visu Visu.
Except for "Jintsū", which went down with 482 men, the Japanese force escaped damage. After withdrawing along the coast, the four destroyer transports had diverted through the Vella Gulf and successfully landed 1,200 men at Sandfly Harbor, on the western coast of Kolombangara. They completed unloading at 03:40 after which the Japanese ships searched for survivors from "Jintsū" and then returned to Buin. A total of 21 survivors from "Jintsū" were subsequently rescued by ; a few others were rescued by American ships. Allied losses amounted to one destroyer sunk, and three light cruisers damaged, one heavily. A total of 89 Allied sailors were killed, including 28 New Zealanders from "Leander". "Honolulu" and "St. Louis" were out of action for several months, while "Leander" was under repair for a year and never returned to action during World War II.
The Japanese had won a tactical victory, and had demonstrated that they possessed superior night-fighting techniques, but of the action the naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison wrote: "A string of such victories add[ed] up to defeat." Paul Dull further describes the battle as one in a "series of Pyrrhic victories for the Japanese" as they were unable to match the capacity of US industry to replace their losses. Ainsworth's force was unable to prevent the flow of Japanese reinforcements south as the lines between Bairoko and the Diamond Narrows remained open. Nevertheless, strategically, the battle forced a change in Japanese tactics. Combined with the earlier Battle of Kula Gulf, the engagement eventually deterred the Japanese from future use of the Kula Gulf to reinforce Munda. The Allied naval commander, Admiral Chester Nimitz, also changed tactics, deciding that the use of cruisers in the confined waters around the Solomon Islands was too dangerous and ineffective. Meanwhile, for the Japanese destroyer losses necessitated the use of "Daihatsu" barges to move reinforcements between the Shortland Islands and the Kula Gulf. Consequently, the U.S. Navy concentrated responsibility for its interdiction efforts on its destroyer force and PT boats.
Throughout July and into early August, a series of nightly actions took place involving by U.S. destroyers, PT boats and aircraft against the Japanese reinforcement efforts. The most significant action during this time came on the night of 19/20 July, when a force of 11 ships, consisting of cruisers and destroyers under Rear Admiral Shoji Nishimura, was detected by US aircraft in The Slot. At least one destroyer, "Yugure", was sunk, and the cruiser "Kumano" was damaged, while four US aircraft were lost. After this, the Japanese chose to use the Vella Gulf and the Blackett Strait along the western coast of Kolombangara rather than the direct route through the Kula Gulf. This resulted in the Battle of Vella Gulf and Battle off Horaniu in early August. In late September and early October, the Japanese began evacuating their ground troops from Kolombangara. A series of interdiction actions took place during which the U.S. Navy claimed to have sunk 46 barges, killing thousands of Japanese troops. Another action was fought between Japanese and U.S. destroyers off Kolombangara on the night of 2–3 October during which both sides ineffectively exchanged torpedoes and gunfire.


No. 83 Expeditionary Air Group

No. 83 Expeditionary Air Group is a group within the Royal Air Force, currently based at Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar.
Originally formed in 1943, during the Second World War it formed part of the 2nd Tactical Air Force (2TAF) and was known as No. 83 (Composite) Group. It provided support to Allied forces during the liberation of Europe. After being disbanded in 1946 it was re-established as No. 83 Group in 1952 to lead the 2TAF's units in Germany, until it disbanded again in 1958.
On 1 April 2006 it was reformed as No. 83 Expeditionary Air Group Headquarters, to lead UK air operations in the Middle East. Activities include Operations Kipion (the UK's maritime presence in the Middle East) and Operation Shader (the UK's part of the military intervention against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)).
History.
No. 83 (Composite) Group.
No. 83 (Composite) Group was formed on 1 April 1943 within the Second Tactical Air Force of the Royal Air Force. By the eve of the D-Day landings in June 1944 , No. 83 Group had grown to a strength of twenty-nine fighter, ground-attack and reconnaissance squadrons and four artillery observation squadrons, grouped into ten wings. At the time of Operation Market Garden in September 1944, the group consisted of the Royal Canadian Air Force's (RCAF) 39 Reconnaissance Wing, 121, 122, 123 and 143 Wings flying Hawker Typhoon fighter-bombers, 125 Wing with Supermarine Spitfire fighters, and the RCAF 126, 127 and 144 Wings also flying Spitfires. No. 401 (Ram) Squadron with Spitfires was part of the group from 1943. The Group headquarters was at RAF Eindhoven from 1 October 1944 to 10 April 1945. The group was absorbed into No. 84 Group RAF on 21 April 1946.
No. 83 Group.
No. 83 Group was re-formed on 9 July 1952 within the Second Tactical Air Force in Germany to control its southern area. By 1956, the group controlled five wings with a total of fourteen squadrons equipped with Hawker Hunter day fighters, de Havilland Venom fighter-bombers, Supermarine Swift fighter-reconnaissance aircraft, Gloster Meteor night-fighters and English Electric Canberra interdiction and reconnaissance aircraft. It was disbanded again on 16 June 1958.
Current operations.
No. 83 Group was re-formed on 1 April 2006 from the UK Air Component Headquarters in the Middle East. It comprised No. 901 Expeditionary Air Wing in the Middle East and Bahrain and No. 902 Expeditionary Air Wing at Seeb in Oman. Since that time it has controlled a varying number of Expeditionary Air Wings. No. 83 Group is based at Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar.
The Air Officer Commanding No. 83 Group is the Air Component Commander in the Middle East. He is responsible to the Permanent Joint Headquarters for the command and control of all RAF units engaged in Operations Kipion and Shader.
It is currently in charge of:
901 Expeditionary Air Wing
902 Expeditionary Air Wing
903 Expeditionary Air Wing
906 Expeditionary Air Wing


Battle of Khunan

The Battle of Khunan was fought in September 1222 between the Kingdom of Georgia, led by King George IV, and the Mongol army led by Subutai and Jebe. The result was a Mongol victory. For further details, see the Mongol Invasions of Georgia.
Subutai's reconnaissance.
The Mongols made their first appearance in the Georgian possessions when this latter kingdom was still in its zenith, dominating most of the Caucasus. First contact occurred early in the fall of 1220, when approximately 20,000 Mongols led by Subutai and Jebe pursued the ousted Shah Muhammad II of the Khwarazmian dynasty to the Caspian Sea. With the consent of Genghis Khan, the two Mongol generals proceeded west on a reconnaissance mission. The Mongols invaded from Nakhichevan, driving Atabeg Uzbek (leader of the Georgian vassal kingdom of Shirvan, modern-day Azerbaijan) from Ganja in Azerbaijan to Tabriz. King Georgi IV "Lasha" of Georgia hastily assembled an army of about 10,000 men including many Georgian crusaders commanded by him and his atabeg (tutor) Ivane Mkhargrdzeli, and managed to drive the invaders back but were consequently defeated in Armenia by successive Mongol counter-attacks. The Mongols then returned to Arran as they had not intended this as a war of conquest.
Lead-up to the battle.
Thinking that the Mongols would stay in Arran until the Spring, the Georgians began gathering an army, asking for help from Malik Ashraf of Akhlat and Uzbek, the Atabag of Azerbaijan. Conquering the Caucasus was not Subatai's remit, but Mongol intelligence intercepted war plans by Georgia and their vassals, and the Mongols attacked when least expected, in the freezing cold and snowbound passes of January 1221. Subotai and Jebe received reinforcements from Genghis Khan and recruited local Turkish and Kurdish forces under the command of Akush, a disloyal underling of Atabag Uzbek. Subutai and Jebe then marched into Georgia towards Tibilisi, the Georgian Capital. Close to Tibilisi the Mongols attacked a Georgian force. The Georgians managed to defeat Akush's Turkmen but were slaughtered by the Mongol rearguard.
In spring, after ravaging Southeast Georgia, the Mongols withdrew to Karabakh, According to Kirakos Gandzaketsi, after this battle, Jebe and Subutai dwelt in a very safe place, which was between the cities of Barda and Beylagan. This they used as a base from which to launch attacks. Then they invaded Tabriz, whose governor Shams Tabrizi paid a fortune to buy the city exemption. In August 1221 the Mongols slaughtered the population of Hamadan, then turned north, depopulating Nakhichevan, Ardabil and Ganja, from where they went again to Eastern Georgia.
Battle.
This time King George IV and atabeg Mkhargrdzeli had assembled a larger force of 30,000 consisting of Georgians and Armenians, while Jebe had received reinforcements from Genghis. The two armies met on the plain of Khunan in September. Jebe set up an ambush with 5,000 cavalrymen while Subutai went forward with the rest of the army. The Mongol tactic was to attack with its main body and then feign a retreat, after which a second Mongol army descended from the rear to encircle and destroy the enemy. Unprepared for this tactic, the Georgians managed to disperse the initial Mongol charge with their heavy cavalry and chased them up to the river Kotman but Jebe's sudden advance from the ambush decided the battle in the Mongol's favour. The king and Ivane fled, leaving Prince Vahram Gageli to fight on the right flank, who survived and would later serve under Queen Rusudan.
Aftermath.
George IV was badly wounded in the chest; on 18 January 1223 he would die of his injuries. However subsequent invasions were cancelled when Mongol scouts discovered that the Georgians and Armenians were prepared to denie further incursions. Subutai instead continued to march his army north, with orders to conquer the Polovtian Khanate.


Yasuyo Yamasaki

Colonel was a Japanese Army officer who commanded the Japanese forces on Attu during the Battle of Attu in World War II.
Yamasaki was a native of what is now part of Tsuru, Yamanashi, where his father was a Buddhist priest. He graduated from the 25th class of the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1913, and served in the Siberian Intervention from April 1918 to December 1920. In May 1928, he was part of the Japanese expeditionary force to mainland China during the Jinan Incident.
Yamasaki was promoted to colonel in March 1940. Later that year, he assumed command of the 130th Infantry Regiment.
In February 1943, Yamasaki became commanding officer of the 2nd District Force of the North Sea Defense Force, the capacity in which he went to the Aleutians. He arrived on Attu in April 1943 by submarine. His orders were to hold the island without outside help.
The 2,650 defenders under Yamasaki did not contest the American landings on Attu, but rather dug in on high ground away from the shore. The battle produced some of the bloodiest fighting in the American Theater and the Pacific Theater, similar to the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa.
On May 29, the last of the Japanese forces suddenly attacked near Massacre Bay in the first and only instance of a banzai charge on American soil. The charge was led by Yamasaki himself, who was killed later that day, sword in hand and assaulting Engineer Hill. His attack penetrated American lines far enough to encounter shocked rear-echelon units of the American force. After furious, brutal, close-quarter, and often hand-to-hand combat, the entire Japanese force was killed almost to the last man: only 29 prisoners were taken, with none of them officers. American burial teams counted 2,351 Japanese dead, but it was presumed that hundreds more had been buried by bombardments over the course of the battle.


German attacks on Nauru

The German attacks on Nauru refers to the two attacks on Nauru in December 1940. Nauru is an island country in Micronesia, a subregion of Oceania, in the Central Pacific. These attacks were conducted by auxiliary cruisers between 6 and 8 December and on 27 December. The raiders sank five Allied merchant ships and inflicted serious damage on Nauru's economically important phosphate-loading facilities. Despite the significance of the island to the Australian and New Zealand economies, Nauru was not defended and the German force did not suffer any losses.
The two attacks were the most effective operations conducted by German raiders in the Pacific Ocean during World War II. They disrupted supplies of phosphate to Australia, New Zealand and Japan, which reduced agricultural production in these countries. In response, Allied naval vessels were deployed to protect Nauru and nearby Ocean Island and escort shipping in the South Pacific. Small garrisons were also established to protect the two islands.
Background.
Nauru and nearby Ocean Island were important sources of phosphate for Australian and New Zealand fertilizer production and played an important role on both countries agriculture industries at the time of World War II. The Melbourne-based British Phosphate Commission (BPC) managed the extraction and export of phosphate from the islands and dominated all aspects of Nauruan life. During the year ending 30 June 1940, the BPC shipped almost a million tons of phosphate from Nauru and about half that amount from Ocean Island using its fleet of four vessels ("Triadic", "Triaster", "Triona" and "Trienza") and chartered merchant ships.
As the islands have no harbours or anchorages, the phosphate ships were loaded by securing to deep moorings and embarking their cargo via cantilever jetties. During south-westerly wind periods—which are common from November to March—the ships had to stop loading and sail away from the island until conditions improved. It was common for these ships to be allowed to drift to save fuel, and there were often several vessels lying off Nauru.
Despite their importance to the Australian and New Zealand economies, Nauru and Ocean islands had been allocated a low priority for the limited military assets which were available to protect the Australia Station and both islands were undefended in December 1940. Strategic stockpiles of phosphate had been built up in Australia, however, to lessen the impact of an attack on the islands.
In late October 1940, the German raider , which was commanded by Captain Kurt Weyher met , which came under the command of Captain Robert Eyssen, and the supply ship "Kulmerland" at Lamotrek in the Caroline Islands. Eyssen was the more senior of the two captains, and assumed overall command of the force. The three ships operated off New Zealand's east coast for 18 days during November and sank the small coaster "Holmwood" and large ocean liner with gunfire without being detected by the weak New Zealand defences on 25 and 27 November respectively. Following these attacks, the raiders proceeded to the Kermadec Islands where they transferred their women and children prisoners to "Kulmerland" on 29 November. The three ships then proceeded to Nauru to attack the island's phosphate industry and the concentration of shipping which the German captains knew was usually present.
Attacks on Nauru.
The German force encountered its first BPC ship while "en route" to Nauru. On 6 December, "Triona" () was attacked north-east of the Solomon Islands and was sunk with torpedoes after a chase in which three of her crew were killed by the raiders' guns. All 68 survivors were captured.
The raider captains intended to land a shore party and bombard Nauru's shore installations at dawn on 8 December, but bad weather forced them to concentrate on the ships which were off the island. On the evening of 7 December, "Komet"—which had gone ahead to reconnoitre and was disguised as the Japanese merchant ship "Manyo Maru"—sank the Norwegian merchant ship "Vinni" () approximately south of Nauru. While the raider was spotted from the shore, her disguise was successful and she was assumed to be a merchant ship bound for Japan.
"Orion" joined "Komet" off Nauru in the early hours of 8 December, and attacked and damaged "Triadic" () and sank "Triaster" (). "Komet" then tried to sink "Triadic" with scuttling charges, but this was unsuccessful and "Orion" sank the merchant ship with gunfire. "Komet" later sank the British steamer "Komata" (). Following these attacks, the two raiders and "Kulmerland" withdrew and assembled east of Nauru. As the weather precluded a landing on the island, it was decided that "Komet" and "Kulmerland" would go to Ailinglaplap in the Marshall Islands, where "Komet" would refuel while "Orion" operated north-west of Nauru. Following this, the ships would meet off the island and make another attempt to land a raiding party.
When the German force reassembled off Nauru on 15 December, the weather continued to be too bad to permit a landing and the attack on Nauru was broken off. Further attacks on shipping were judged impractical, as the raiders had intercepted radio messages ordering vessels bound for Nauru and Ocean Island to disperse. Instead, the three German ships proceeded to the Australian-administered island of Emirau to disembark the 675 prisoners they were carrying. While Weyher refused to release any of the European ethnic prisoners on board "Orion", as he believed that "trained officers and crews are as much a problem for Britain as shipping itself", the ships landed 343 Europeans and 171 Chinese and South Pacific-ethnic people.
Fortunately for the Germans, Emirau was one of the few islands in the region to not have a Royal Australian Navy-supplied radio to contact the Australian authorities. The two European families on the island provided the released prisoners with supplies, and sent a canoe to Kavieng in New Ireland to notify the Australian colonial government. A schooner was dispatched to bring additional supplies to Emirau, and arrived there on 24 December. The colonial administrator of New Britain and further supplies was also flown to Emirau on board a flying boat. The released prisoners were embarked onto the steamer "Nellore" on 29 December to be transported to Townsville in Queensland, where they arrived on 1 January 1941. They provided useful intelligence on the German raiders' operations, and the German Naval Staff issued a directive on 19 February 1941 prohibiting raiders from releasing further prisoners.
The three German ships parted company after leaving Emirau on 21 December. "Orion" proceeded to Lamutrik and then Maug in the Mariana Islands to overhaul her engines, "Kulmerland" went to Japan, and only "Komet" continued operations in the South Pacific. She attempted to lay mines off Rabaul on 24 December using her motor boat, but this project was abandoned when the boat's engines failed.
"Komet" returned to Nauru following the unsuccessful attempt to mine Rabaul, and arrived off the island at 05:45 on the morning of 27 December. After issuing a warning for those on shore to not use radio and signalling her intent to destroy the phosphate loading plant, she opened fire at 06:40. The bombardment lasted for about an hour, during which time the raider wrecked the loading plant, oil tanks, boats, buildings and mooring buoys. Following this attack, she sailed to the south-east and Nauru broadcast news of the attack to Australia. This was the last visit of German ships to Nauru during the war, and "Komet" transferred her activities to the Indian Ocean.
Aftermath.
The German raids on Nauru affected the Australian and New Zealand economies and were the greatest success achieved by German raiders in the Pacific Ocean during World War II. It took ten weeks to resume phosphate shipments from Nauru, and the loss of ships and damaged infrastructure led to a significant decline in output. The resulting phosphate shortages forced the introduction of fertilizer rationing in New Zealand from July 1941. "Komet"s bombardment of the island also interfered with phosphate consignments to Japan, which caused the Japanese government to threaten to reduce the aid it was providing to Germany. The success of the attacks on Nauru led to rumours in Australia and New Zealand that the raiders had been aided by treachery in the islands. Several investigations were conducted into the rumours and proved them to be unfounded.
Following the raids, the Commonwealth military forces in the Pacific took steps to prevent further attacks by raiders. The Royal Australian Air Force and Royal New Zealand Air Force flew an increased number of patrols in search of raiders operating near major ports. In addition, the Australian Naval Board requested that the British Admiralty authorise the redeployment of Australian naval units to meet the threat posed by raiders. This was agreed to, and the light cruiser and armed merchant cruiser returned to Australia from other stations. This allowed naval protection to be provided to Nauru and Ocean islands, and the armed merchant cruiser arrived off Ocean Island on 4 January 1941 escorting "Trienza". Several Australian and New Zealand warships maintained a continual presence off the islands during subsequent months, and two field guns were deployed to each island. The attacks also led to the introduction of convoys between Australia and New Zealand. The naval authorities were able to use the intelligence they gained from the prisoners landed at Emirau to re-route merchant ships away from the areas in which the German raiders were operating; this greatly reduced the effectiveness of the raiders, and "Komet" and "Orion" only sank three ships in the period between the attack on Nauru and their return to Europe in late 1941.


Convoy SC 48

SC 48 was a North Atlantic convoy of the SC series which ran during the battle of the Atlantic in World War II.
It was notable for being the occasion of the "Kearny" incident, which brought the United States one step closer to war with Germany.
Prelude.
SC 48 was an east-bound convoy of 52 ships, carrying war materials and sailed from Sydney, Cape Breton on 5 October 1941 bound for Liverpool. It was under the command of Commodore HM Sanders in the MV "Castalia".
It was escorted by a Canadian escort group consisting of the (Lt Cdr SW Davis as Senior Officer Escort), and seven s; , , , , , and the Free French Naval Forces' "Mimosa".
Opposing this force was the patrol line "Mordbrenner", which was to have comprised eight U-boats and was in the process of forming south of Iceland near the Mid-Ocean Meeting Point. This was the point at which North Atlantic convoys were handed over between the Ocean and the Western Approaches escorts at this stage of the Atlantic campaign.
Allied intelligence became aware of the presence of "Mordbrenner", and started to divert the convoys then at sea, but a loss of Ultra intelligence on 12/13 October left SC 48 in the dark; and on the night of 14/15 October it was sighted by "U-553" (K/L Karl Thurmann).
At this point in time SC 48 was in some disarray; 11 of its ships, including "Castalia", were straggling following heavy weather on the night of 9/10 October. "Columbia" and two of the corvettes, "Camrose" and "Rosthern", were detached looking for them. A third corvette, "Shediac" was also separated by the storm and out of radio contact.
On 14 October SC 48's escort comprised just four corvettes; "Wetaskiwin" (as Acting SOE), "Baddeck", "Gladiolus" and "Mimosa".
Action.
15 October 1941.
In the early hours of 15 October Thurmann of "U-553" reported his contact to U-boat Command (BdU) and was ordered to shadow, whilst other U-boats were gathered for the attack. However Thurmann chose to attack that night, and succeeded in sinking two ships, "Silvercedar", which lost 21 crew, and "Ila", most of whose crew were saved. "U-553" was sighted by "Silverhelm", the next ship in the column, which attempted to ram, but failed; "U-553" was also sighted by "WC Teagle", but she was unable to bring her gun to bear before "U-553" escaped.
On 15 October Enigma was re-acquired and Western Approaches Command realized a major attack was building; a number of escorts from nearby convoys were diverted to reinforce SC 48.
First a force of US destroyers (DesRon 13), detached from ON 24; two Royal Navy destroyers ( and HMS "Broadwater") from TC 14; two Royal Navy corvettes ( and ) from ON 25; and a RCN corvette () from Iceland.
Later on 15 October "Columbia" rejoined, while "U-553" was joined by two more boats; (Günther Krech) and (Joachim Preuss). As "U-553" continued to shadow, she was sighted by "Columbia", who attacked her, driving her away, but with no damage; "U-553" fired a torpedo at "Columbia", which missed.
During the day "U-558" joined, having encountered the ship "Vancouver Island" sailing independently ; she was sunk with the loss of all 73 crew and 32 passengers. Before nightfall "U-568" also arrived, and the three boats prepared to attack.
As darkness fell on the night of 15/16 October the U-boats attacked again. "U-568" attacked and sank "Empire Heron", "Gladiolus" counter-attacked, and "U-568" was driven off. "Gladiolus" then detached to pick up survivors, but never rejoined the convoy; she was lost with all hands, reportedly sunk by "U-568" on the 17th, but more probably on the 16th by "U-432".
16 October 1941.
After midnight on 15/16 October, SC 48 made an emergency turn to port, followed before dawn by a turn to starboard, in an attempt to shake off pursuit. This was initially successful, but the pack regained contact in the afternoon of 16 October and again closed in.
Also in the afternoon of 16 October, the first reinforcements arrived, in the form of DesRon 13. This comprised the destroyers , , and , led by (Capt L Thebaud). These were joined later by Thebaud's fifth destroyer, , accompanied by HMCS "Pictou". As senior officer present, Thebaud assumed command of the escorts. Though he had seniority, Thebaud had little experience in escort work, and a number of mistakes were made allowing the U-boats to mount a successful attack that night.
By nightfall on 16 October BdU had gathered ten U-boats for the attack: the three "Mordbrenner" boats plus seven newcomers, , , , , , , and .
During the night of 16/17 October the pack attacked, closing in with little interference from the escorts. "U-553" sank "Bold Venture" at about 8 PM. "U-558" sank "WC Teagle" about an hour later. "Erviken" was attacked and sunk as she stopped to pick up survivors and "Rym" was also sunk as she slowed to do the same. "U-432" sank "Evros" and "Barfonn" just before midnight.
Just after midnight, USS "Kearny" stopped to avoid a collision with a corvette, and was torpedoed by "U-568". "Kearny" was severely damaged, with 11 killed and 22 wounded, but was saved by effort of the crew. She was detached to Iceland, escorted by "Decatur" and "Greer".
In the early hours of 17 October more warships arrived: HMS "Highlander" and "Broadwater" from TC 14, and HMS "Abelia" and "Veronica" from ON 25. With this reinforcement further attacks were warded off, but the pack remained in contact, awaiting a further opportunity.
17 October 1941.
At dawn on 17 October the convoy was joined by Western Approaches escort. This was EG 3, comprising four destroyers (, , and HMS "Georgetown") and one corvette (), with two trawlers and a rescue ship. The RCN group departed at this point, being low on fuel; also DesRon 13 left to follow "Kearny" to Iceland.
The pack was still in contact, but all further attacks were frustrated by the escort. "Veronica" made a determined attack on a contact and claimed a kill, but no U-boat loss was confirmed. A Catalina flying air cover also bombed "U-558" which was damaged, but continued to shadow until the attack was called off.
18 October 1941.
On the night of 17/18 October the pack tried again; all attacks were repelled but U-101 fired on "Broadwater", causing her mortal damage; she remained afloat for another 12 hours, but had to be abandoned and sunk.
On 18 October BdU ordered the attack discontinued. "Mordbrenner", which had never completely formed, was dissolved, the remaining boats being sent west to form a new patrol line off the coast of Canada. The remaining boats were moved east to form a new patrol line, "Reisswolf", south-east of Greenland.
22 October 1941.
SC 48 continued without further loss, the 31 ships arriving at Liverpool on 22 October 1941. The 11 stragglers which had become separated in the storm on 10 October had been gathered up by "Camrose" and "Rosthern". Led by Commodore Sanders in "Castalia" and with just two corvettes as escort this group was able to make the crossing without interference, arriving in Britain 10 days after the main body.
Conclusion.
This was undoubtedly a victory for the U-boat arm; SC 48 lost nine ships of 51,093 tons, while the escort lost two ships sunk and or damaged; no U-boats were lost. Some of the losses, in the face of a large and powerful escort force, can be attributed to Captain Thebaud's inexperience in convoy escort duty. This, and other cases, led to the practice of leaving the escort group commander of the convoy in charge of its defence, regardless of seniority; a major break with tradition. The attack on "Kearny" and the loss of American lives was seen as an affront to the United States, and was another step out of her isolation in World War II.
Tables.
Allied ships sunk
Allied warships hit
U-boats hit


United States Army Air Forces in the South Pacific Area

During World War II, the United States Army Air Forces engaged in combat against the Empire of Japan in the South Pacific Area. As defined by the War Department, this consisted of the Pacific Ocean areas which lay south of the Equator between longitude 159° East and 110° West. It included New Zealand, New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Fiji, and most of the Solomon Islands.
In early 1942, the area was under the Seventh Air Force. By November, the Thirteenth Air Force,was formed to command and control AAF organizations in the southern areas of the widely separated Seventh Air Force and independent units scattered in the South Pacific Area during the Solomon Islands campaign. As the war progressed, Thirteenth Air Force units moved into the South West Pacific theatre and coordinated their activities with Fifth as part of the Far East Air Forces, a new Command.
Airfields and unit assignments.
COOK ISLANDS
ELLICE ISLANDS
FIJI ISLANDS
NEW CALEDONIA

NEW HEBRIDES ISLANDS
NEW ZEALAND
NORFOLK ISLAND
SOCIETY ISLANDS
SOLOMON ISLANDS
Bougainville Island
Buka Island
Guadalcanal Island
New Georgia Islands
Russell Islands
TONGA ISLANDS