Oderteich

The Oderteich is an historic reservoir about seven kilometres northeast of Sankt Andreasberg in the Upper Harz in central Germany. It was built by miners from St. Andreasberg in the years 1715 to 1722 and, today, is an important component of the water supply network known as the Upper Harz Water Regale ("Oberharzer Wasserregal"). Moreover, for 170 years, from the time it was completed to the end of the 19th century, the Oderteich had the largest dam in Germany. The dam lies at a height of by the B 242 federal highway, about a kilometre west of its intersection with the B 4.
Purpose.
The Oderteich was built in order to be able to deliver a reliable supply of water to the water wheels of the St. Andreasberg mine via the Rehberg Ditch, even during times of drought. Its capacity of 1.7 million cubic metres was, far and away, the largest of all the Upper Harz reservoirs at that time and was enough to cope with periods of low precipitation of up to three months.
Today the water of the Oderteich still drives several hydropower stations within its own valley, at the Samson Pit and in the Sperrlutter valley.
The dam also serves to prevent the regular flooding that happened each year in spring before the dam was built.
History.
In 1703 the new Rehberg Ditch was completed, diverting water from the river Oder and bringing it to St. Andreasberg. This was initially a great improvement in the supply of water power for the mines there, but the Oder could still not deliver enough water during a period of extended drought. So the call for a water reservoir quickly became shrill.
A glance at the Upper Harz 'ponds' ("Teiche") near Clausthal-Zellerfeld and Hahnenklee suggested a solution. At that time there must have been 50 to 60 small reservoirs in operation. Their design, however, could not simply be copied, because there was nowhere in the vicinity of the Oderteich to cut grass sods like those used to seal the dams of the Upper Harz reservoirs.
In the meantime, the Rehberg Ditch, which had initially only been made of wooden channels ("Holzgefludern"), was being 'walled'; in other words the wooden conduits were being replaced by a considerably more durable artificial ditch made of earth embankments and dry stone walls. In doing so it was realised that the sand resulting from the weathering of granite, so-called "granitgrus", if it was thoroughly tramped down, produced a very good seal.
In 1712, the deputy chief miner ("Vizebergmeister"), Caspar Dannenberger, wrote two letters to the Clausthal Mining Office, in which he proposed the construction of the Oderteich dam, sealed with granitic sand, as well as two embankments made of granite blocks. This proposal was duly taken up, but Caspar Dannenberger, the father of the Oderteich dams, did not survive to see it completed. He died on 23 April 1713.
Planning was carried out in 1714 and, on 14 September, King George Louis authorised the construction of the Oderteich dam in a "most gracious special decree" and made the available the sum estimated for the project: a total of 3048 thalers and 27 gl.
The construction phase actually started in early 1715. Initially a core trench was excavated into which the dam was embedded. The building material for this was excavated from the land earmarked for the future reservoir. Granite blocks needed for the up- and downstream sides of the dam were cut from small quarries; this also provided a supply of granitic sand. The mining of material for the dam enabled the future reservoir capacity to be further enlarged.
The work took until 1722. Because excess water could neither be drained through the relatively small bottom outlet during the construction period nor be impounded, a spillway had to be continuously available whilst the dam was being built. This spillway had to be laid higher and higher as the dam grew in size.
Shortly after work on the dam had started there were discussions about raising it even higher than originally planned. In 1717 it was agreed to increase its height from the initial seven "Lachter" to nine "Lachter" (roughly equating to just under 18 metres). This resulted in an increase in the dam volume of around 55 percent and a doubling of the reservoir capacity to 1.67 million cubic metres.
The cost of construction rose considerably during the build phase, not just as a result of the increase in dam height, but also other factors: in the end the Oderteich dam cost around 11,700 Reichstalers, almost four times the originally estimated and approved cost. Because the structure was so convincing, however, subsequent requests and approvals for the additional extra funding were not a problem. The three chief miners ("Bergmeister") and excavation engineers ("Grabensteiger") were rewarded in 1724 with bonuses ranging from 12 to 100 Talers.
The Sankt Andreasberg mine ground to a standstill in 1913. From then on the water of the Oderteich was used to generate electricity instead. It was now routed to Sankt Andreasberg itself, where it was used in several power stations and especially the Samson Pit. The water is still used for this purpose today and guarantees the economic operation and maintenance of the Oderteich and Rehberg Ditch.
In the late 1920s the Harzwasserwerke planned a further significant increase in the height of the Oderteich Dam. The dam and the geology of the surrounding area were thoroughly examined. Digging exposed the seal of "granitgrus" and it was confirmed that this could not easily be worked with clay picks. These plans were later shelved for reasons that are not clear, although it is likely that the project was not seen as economical.
Design.
The dam on the Oderteich differs considerably from the other dams in the Upper Harz Water Regale. The structure is clearly higher and the reservoir capacity just under three times the volume of the largest ponds around Clausthal-Zellerfeld and Hahnenklee. In addition completely different construction materials were employed.
Dam structure.
In the middle of the dam is a core, up to 11.5 metres thick, made of firmly tamped down, granitic sand. Left and right of that apparently 'normal' dam fill material was used. The up- and downstream sides were given cyclopean stonework walls made of large blocks of granite with a slope of 1:0.5. On the downstream side the dam measures about 19 m from its base.
The dam wall has proved to be a very durable structure and, like the entire reservoir, is still virtually in its original condition.
Fundamentally it is not quite clear whether the Oderteich dam structure is an earth-fill dam or a masonry dam. It is probably a combination of the two.
Outlet.
The tendency for the Oderteich to use particularly long-lasting materials is best demonstrated in the design of the bottom outlet. At the lowest point in the valley, a shaft was let into the dam, that had a cross-section of about 1.10 × 1.20 m. This shaft is edged with large, hewn granite blocks and descends to the natural floor of the valley. From the bottom of the shaft runs a tunnel, 0.75 metres wide and 0.90 metres high into the reservoir. This tunnel enables the water in the reservoir to equalise with the water level in the shaft. From the bottom of the shaft, two wooden chutes ("Holzgerenne") lead to the downstream side of the dam base. These chutes, made of oak, have a right-angled cross-section of about 25 × 25 cm and feature a valve on the bottom of the shaft that operates in a similar way to the type of bathplug that is closed from below. This valve can be pushed up or pulled shut using a rod operated from the control hut or "Striegelhaus" positioned above the shaft. The oak chute is designed in such a way that, even when the valve is shut, it remains submerged in water and so does not rot. This explains why the oak chutes fitted in 1715 are still being used. The entire bottom outlet design is known in the Upper Harz as a "Striegel".
Spillway.
Every reservoir needs a spillway which ensures that even under conditions of exceptionally high water, the water does not rise to an uncontrollably high level, possibly even pouring over the dam crest. On the Oderteich the spillway is located at the left hand (eastern) end of the dam.
In the reservoir in front of the outlet are several stone columns, like standing stones in appearance, about 2.50 metres high and made of granite. They serve to keep ice floes away from the spillway, because these could jam the channel. The "old" outlet is clearly identifiable by a weir, which was built in 1895 by the Royal Central Smithy in Clausthal "Königlichen Centralschmiede Clausthal". This weir enables the maximum storage level to be raised by a metre or so.
Originally the spillway ran for almost a 100 metres in a straight line southwards before the water dropped into the valley. This course is still visible in the terrain to the experienced eye. But when towards the end of the construction phase in there were still not enough stones to complete the dam wall, a steep, 80-metre-long "Große Ausflut" ("large spillway") was blasted out of the rock roughly 60 metres below the weir at right angles to the original spillway. Perhaps it was hoped that this would increase the hydraulic capacity of the outlet. The channel carved out of the rock is very impressive especially on the spillway.
To begin with the spillway was not large enough: in December 1760 water overspilled the dam during a period of exceptional high water. Damage was limited, which said something, especially about the stable design of the dam. In response to this incident the dam was raised by about a metre, which has probably merely compensated for the subsidence of the dam since that time.
In 1886/87, however it appears that the conclusion was reached that the capacity of the spillway needed to be increased. To achieve this another spillway was built a few metres east of the existing one. It had an inlet breadth of 12 metres and its crest was about a metre higher than that of the old, main spillway. This outlet crosses under the B 242 parallel to the main one and merges with the main spillway shortly before the high-water marker and its adjoining chute ("Schussrinne"). This additional spillway enables the discharge capacity during times of flood to be increased by about 50%.
Coffer dam in the reservoir.
When the Oderteich is fully emptied the remains of coffer dam can be seen about 200 metres above the main dam. This was built in 1898 when the Oderteich Reservoir was empty in order to reduce the water flow whilst repairs were carried out to the bottom outlet. The coffer dam must have been demolished immediately after this repair had been completed.
Operation.
Capacity.
As a result of the use of water for electricity generation the Rehberg Ditch drew 200 to 300 litres of water per second continuously from the Oderteich. When the inflow of water is less than its outflow, the water level in the reservoir drops. If there are several months of drought in succession, the reservoir can become empty. This happens about every five to ten years, the last occasions being in 1991, 1999 and 2003.
The surcharge capacity of the Oderteich is very small. Its reservoir can only store 14% of its annual discharge. This results in unusually high fluctuations in the water level of the reservoir, which can even change from being largely empty to overflowing within a few hours. This explains why the Oderteich overflows several times a year.
Water quality.
There is no fishway at the Oderteich. The relatively acidic condition of the water is probably not a good habitat for fish. Most of the water comes from areas of raised bog and is rich in humic acid. Humic acid also causes its brown coloration. In addition, it reduces surface tension, something which causes conspicuous white horses such as occur in the turbulence at the intakes and outlets of the reservoir.
Largest dam in Germany.
The Oderteich is frequently reported as the "oldest dam and reservoir in Germany". This accolade is disputed, however, because in the early 18th century in the area of Clausthal-Zellerfeld, Buntenbock and Hahnenklee there was already a large number of 'reservoirs' ("Talsperren") as defined by the German industrial norm, DIN 19700-11. What is true is that from its completion in 1722 to the end of the 19th century, a period of 170 years, it had the largest dam in Germany. Not until the Eschbach Dam in the Bergisches Land was finished in 1891 with a height of 23 m was there a higher dam than the Oderteich.
Recreation.
Waterside footpath.
In the middle of the 1990s, the operators of the Oderteich, the Harzwasserwerke, laid out a waterside footpath (the "WasserWanderWeg") as an educational trail. This runs along the dam crest to the two spillways, past the two additional basins and via the overspill marker then downhill alongside the "Großer Ausflut" and its chute to the downstream foot of the dam, from where there is an impressive view of the stonework on this side of the dam and where the bottom outlet and start of the Rehberg Ditch can be seen. Information boards along the path explain the various structures.
Other recreational uses.
The Oderteich lies in the centre of the Harz National Park. Swimming is allowed in the southern third of the reservoir and in the vicinity of the dam. The northern area is barred to swimmers in the summer by a chain and is meant to be exclusively reserved as a biotope. There is a roughly 4.5 km long circular walk around the reservoir, for which good walking boots are recommended. This path is routed along board walks in places because of the terrain which resembles that of a raised bog.
Winter sports, such as skating, on the reservoir in winter are not recommended, because the large variations in the water level make the formation of a stable ice surface difficult, especially near the shores.
Dam keeper's building.
Until the 1960s there was a dam keeper's house at the western end of the dam, which was used latterly as a restaurant. It was demolished when it was deemed unnecessary to have a dam keeper permanently presence on the site. The foundations of the old building can be made out behind the present day National Park bus shelter. In addition there is the former MTV Goslar ski lodge, built at the end of the 1940s and now partly hidden and which can also be booked today as accommodation for self-catering groups.


Kargaly

Kargaly is a copper mining-metallurgical district in the southern Urals of Russia. Prehistoric sites in Kargaly form a large and unique complex, especially when compared to neighboring metal production centers or the more distant ancient centers that emerged on the vast territory of the northern half of the Eurasian continent or supercontinent during the 5th to 2nd millennia BCE[1-8].
Location.
“Kargaly” is derived from the name of a small river known as Kargalka in the Ural "big" river basin [fig. 2]. The Kargaly district is situated in the southern Ural Mountains, within the borders of the Orenburg Administrative Region of the Russian Federation. Kargaly is located in the northern zone of the Great Eurasian steppe (the Eurasian Steppe Belt)[9, 10]. The Kargaly deposits are surrounded by typical steppe land cover, consisting of grasslands containing only an occasional small forest consisting of willow, alder, birch, and aspen trees near springs and deep ravines. More substantial forests occur 200–250 km northeast of Kargaly, where they form part of the mountainous-taiga zone of the southern Urals.
The Kargaly ore deposits cover a large, oval territory about 50 by 10 km in area. This group of deposits is oriented northwest to southeast. The two main outlying groups of mines in Kargaly both occur in the southeast corner of the ore field, at N 52' 16,186 / E 54' 36, 980 and N 52' 11, 114 / E 55' 14,848 .
General information.
Kargaly embraces an extremely vast territory (nearly 500 km sq) characterized by copper mineralization. In terms of geology, the center belongs to the category of extensive ore fields. The discovery and subsequent frequent extractions of ores at Kargaly occurred either near the end of the fourth millennium ВСЕ or at the turn of the third millennium ВСЕ (Early Bronze Age). By the second millennium ВСЕ (Late Bronze Age) this production center had reached its peak in productivity. There are an extremely large number of working mines at Kargaly, with a wide chronological range including from ancient times all the way up to the 18th to 19th centuries. The grounds contain up to 35,000 superficial manifestations, such as shafts, drifts, open casts, etc. [fig. 3]
The total length of underground headings was likely to have been several hundreds of kilometers [fig. 4, 5].
During the Bronze Age, the sinkings and headings of mines were a maximum of 40–42 m deep. By the New Age (18–19 cent.) they had reached as much as 80–90 m deep. The total amount of sandstone, crag and marl, and other wastes extracted from the surface measured nearly 100–120 million cubic meters, equivalent to a weight up to 250 million tons.
Kargaly is exceptionally rich in archaeological remains from ancient mines and metal production. So far, more than twenty settlements dated to the second millennium ВСЕ and three grave cemeteries with Early and Late Bronze Age burials have been discovered. In addition, traces of the beginnings of the copper production industry in 18th-century Russia are widespread in Kargaly.
The volume of extracted copper ores (malachite and azurite) from the Bronze Age is amazingly large and can be quantified by a wide approximation ranging from two to five million tons.
Within Kargaly alone, a large amount of copper ore was smelted during the Bronze Age, its total weight estimated at between 55,000 and 120,000 tons.
Copper of Kargaly origin was distributed during Bronze Age over a vast territory within the steppe and forest-steppe of Eastern Europe. The maximum territory of its distribution was nearly one million km2. During the New Age, the Kargaly complex had a significant impact on the industrial development of Russia. Approximately one quarter of all Russian Empire copper was smelted in the middle of the 18th century from Kargaly ores. Before the Crimean War (1853–1856) Kargaly copper was also exported as far west as England and France.
Mineral Ore Characteristics.
Kargaly belongs to the class of deposits situated in sandstone and slate. These large deposits and insignificant ore locations form a long and wide north-south strip of approximately two thousand km. in width, stretching alongside the western outlying regions of the Ural Mountains. Kargaly is located in the southern part of this vast territory. The ore-bearing strata, consisting mainly of crag and sandstone, very often contain the remains of trees of the Perm geological period. Kargaly's giant pocket is the richest load of copper minerals in the vast Ural zone adjacent to copper-bearing sandstone. The ores occur at different depths, beginning with outcroppings of surface deposits, easily noticeable on the sides of ravines, and ending with those situated 80–90 m deep. The ore-bearing streams are scattered among the sandstone and clue rocks, sometimes appearing as short and broken veins. The size of the ore pockets and pods differs, from several centimeters to ten or more meters in length. Disordered and random distribution of these ore seats must have caused chaotic searches for these deposits by miners in the ancient Bronze Age, as it did for much later miners in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Main Types of Mining.
The first type of mining utilizes shafts or sinkings, spaces that stretch, either vertically or sloping (from 90 to 60 degree of declivity), into the sandstone and crag rock, which is covered by a layer of argillaceous soil [fig. 6]. These shafts lead directly to the ore and ventilate the underground shafts and facilitate the delivery of minerals and rocks to the surface. At present the majority of them are filled with collapsed clue rock and detritus, others have been destroyed by the dump from later excavations.
The second type occurs as galleries, or drifts (headings). This form of mining utilizes horizontal or nearly horizontal (slightly declined) shafts for ore extraction from sandstone or crag. Drifts and galleries are the most widespread type of mining form in Kargaly. The form and size of the galleries is not fixed, but flexible depending on the composition of the ore layers and the different characteristics of the deposit. These criteria are assessed by the miners during underground and surface gophering for copper minerals. This variability explains the changes in form and size of galleries, which often have no regular geometric profile and no strict direction. The predominance of the so-called nest, or lens accumulations of copper minerals in Kargaly led to the appearance of huge underground halls derived from galleries. Their ceilings are twenty meters high and are connected to other galleries and drifts. In some cases they were blind underground headings (strecks). Prospecting or trial pits are laid into the loam surface layer for the clearing of subsoil and are created in order to search for traces of copper minerals. The copper deposits are usually surrounded by residue of argillaceous soil and sandy loam.
Other Traces Accompanying Mine-workings.
Collapses are landslides of rocky or loamy roof which occur either under shallow (5–15 m) mountainous workings of the horizontal or declined galleries type, or beneath large underground workings in the form of huge halls. Collapses should be treated as traces of previous underground work and may serve as markers of mining on the surface. The size of collapses differs greatly, from 2 to 70 m in diameter, and from 1 to 30 m deep. For this type of trace there is an absence of residue, though gaps in the latest residues can be seen. Because of this, verification of true collapses is rather difficult.
Rock disposals or dumps are the most common and characteristic traces of mining. They are usually situated near the mouth of galleries or mines, but can also be found further away, stretching onto the sides of ravines for hundreds of meters, sometimes even a kilometer or more. During the general assessment of traces, dumps are not treated independently because they are usually parts of the shafts, galleries, quarries, or other mining works. Having occurred in different periods, these dumps were often superimposed not only on top of each other, but also upon the openings of ancient vertical and horizontal shafts. As a result, a chaotic distribution of residue is left on the surface of the earth.
Certain characteristics of the form and content of the dumps can provide evidence for a chronological dating from as early as the Bronze Age and to as late as the 18th to 19th centuries. The most ancient dump consisted of crushed ore-bearing rock mixed with crushed rich malachite and azurite rock. These Bronze Age rock disposals, so-called dry ore concentrations, are similar to those of ancient times. In the 18th century Russian industrialists used ancient dumps, rich in copper minerals, as a source of malachite and azurite.
The later rock disposals, large mounds of wasted sandstone slabs and blocks, are noticeably different from their predecessors. In comparison to the ancient dumps, they are poor in copper minerals and are located near the deeper excavations from the modern era. During the later exploitations of Kargaly, the miners often combined empty headings and sinkings of ancient or previously created shafts and drifts, sometimes filling them completely.
Stages in Exploitation and Discovery.
Kargaly was discovered as history-archaeological complex in 1989-1990. The late discovery of the complex by archaeologists is odd, considering early knowledge of its existence. Ancient mines in Kargaly were the first of their kind mentioned in scientific literature in Russia. In 1762, just after the beginning of its exploitation by Russian industrialists, the Russian scholar of local history, P. I. Rychkov from Orenburg, published the book “ Topography of Orenburg Province”, which included a chapter on the ancient mines of Kargaly. During the more than two hundred years since the book's publication, no archaeologists have visited or even conducted a cursory investigation of this unique complex. What is even more amazing about this neglect is that this complex is situated in the southern Urals near a large administrative center.
The first theory on the beginnings of mining at Kargaly during the Early Bronze Age was developed more than thirty-five years ago. The ideas presented were based on the results from a series of spectral analyses of metal objects from burials of the Pit-grave and Poltavka (Yamno-Poltavka) community of the southern Urals and Volga regions. In terms of chemical composition, analysis of pure copper belonging to group of copper-bearing sandstone, indicates Kargaly as a possible source. It was only after the systematic field research of the Kargaly archaeological expedition from 1990 to 1999 that the latest developments in the history of the exploitations of Kargaly were revealed.
Three rather disparate chronological periods are evident. The earliest evidence for mining metallurgical production at Kargaly was connected with representatives of s.c. Yamno-Poltavka archaeological community and dates back to the second half of the IVth mill.BCE. Production of their manufacturing focuses corresponded completely to the morphological and technological standards of the Circumpontic metallurgical province. In Kargaly’s operation was the long interruption in six centuries (2500-1900). The second and much more active period begins and extended up to 15/14 cent. BCE. This period was close connected with the standards of the Eurasian metallurgical province. Next very long interruption prolonged during the three thousand years – up to the New Age. In the 1740s, Russian merchants and manufacturers bought vast territories from the local Bashkir population, including that of Kargaly, at an incredibly low price. Bashkirs, the nominal owners of these territories, were not aware of the value of this land, upon which they tended their herds.
The Early Bronze Age Discoveries at Kargaly.
Judging from the materials available, Kargaly mines were discovered by the Yamno-Poltavka community, a nomadic population of the stockbreeders. Numerous tribes of this community occupied vast territories in Eastern Europe, from the southern Urals to the Carpathian foothills, adjacent to the middle Danube steppe in Pannonia. The nomadic lifestyle of many cultures in the northern zone of this extensive territory, formerly of the Circumpontic Metallurgical Province, is evidenced in the thousands of burial kurgans and complete absence of settlement remains. Excavations of the big open cast on one of the lots of the Kargaly complex (the hill of the ancient settlement Gorny) exhibited connections to the early groups of pastoral tribes who inhabited the southern Urals region of Kargaly. Radiocarbon calibrated dates showed that the miners could have begun their quest for this place no later than the fourth to third millennium ВСЕ. Much was yielded from excavation of the burial of a youth [fig. 7] in the very center of the Kargaly mining field, a site occupied by the kurgan cemetery of Pershin. Included in the finds were a casting mould of an early type shaft-hole axe and a copper flat axe dated to the Early Bronze Age. Radiocarbon calibrated dates place the burial between 2900-2700 ВСЕ Finally, the wide distribution of copper products made from Kargaly ores of the Early and Middle Bronze Ages found in the area between the Volga and the Urals shows the significant impact of Kargaly on the development of cultures inhabiting this region. Copper ores from Kargaly were also found among the artifact inventories of rich contemporaneous kurgan burials of the tribal chiefs in Volga basin.
Archaeological Evidence from the Late Bronze Age.
Although extraction of copper ores began at Kargaly in the Early Bronze Age, it was not until the Late Bronze Age or the second phase of Late Bronze Age that metallurgical activity reached its peak. The main deposits of the upper horizon in the Kargaly ore field had already been discovered in the first half and middle of the second millennium ВСЕ (Late Bronze Age), which is supported by 18th-century archival materials. The most significant archaeological remains uncovered by our expedition were in the Late Bronze Age Gorny settlement of the pastoral Srubnaya archaeological community. Gorny is a settlement of ancient miners and metallurgists, situated on the top of the promontory hill and surrounded by thousands of traces of mine production [fig. 8]. Simultaneously, the life of the local population and different stages in the mining-metallurgical cycle seem to have been compressed in time and space. What is more, everyday life, including mining, ore concentrating, casting, molding, and forging of tools, was combined with sacred rituals. Exceptionally uncomfortable living and working conditions prompt questions, as the dwellings were situated on top of a hill, a place characterized by intense cold in winter and heat in summer, as well as by an absence of water. This irrational phenomenon must be considered in light of the sacred beliefs of the population.
Isolated groups of miners and metallurgists whose professional skills were highly developed, lived and worked in Gorny for a long period of time. Their occupation alone dictated a kind of social and professional isolation unknown to other groups within the Srubnaya community. Remaining evidence leaves no doubt that alongside ore extraction, the large amount of copper was melted here for the casting of tools [fig. 9]. These processes were profoundly influenced by the ecological situation in Kargaly. Pyrometallurgical operations were limited by poor wood resources, which explains the fact that most of the copper in Kargaly was used for the production of heavy mining tools. In addition, extracted ores became important in wide commercial and exchange operations. All ore exchanges, and sometimes copper trade, were directed predominantly towards the west. Evidence for copper casting from ores mined at Kargaly was found in many settlements of the Srubnaya community, reaching as far as the Volga basin.
Staggering giant zooarchaeological materials from Gorny [fig. 10] substantiates material for independent research. Extermination of the stock herd there was so profound that some zooarchaeologists reject the possibility that local ancient miners owned and regularly bred them. Considering this evidence, it can be concluded that the livestock was used as an exchange product for the ore and metal produced in Kargaly. It should not be assumed that all stock herds were used for consumption. Ethnographic materials provide evidence for the unbelievable mass slaughtering of animals during rituals accompanying mining and metallurgical processes. It appears that the majority of animals were slaughtered according to the beliefs of Kargaly masters. Many complexes were found in Gorny which contained multiple large sacrificial pits. These pits were filled with specially chosen and arranged bones, particularly those of the lower jaws and ribs of animals.
All aspects of the everyday life and work of the Kargaly professionals were saturated in ritual. Gorny, in particular, exhibits various and consistent manifestations of these rituals. Numerous oracle bones were discovered, most likely those of the miners, representative of their difficult and dangerous work.
Exceptionally peculiar magical rituals accompanied the activity of Kargaly metallurgists. As evident from ethnographic parallels, archaic masters related the process of molding and casting metal to the act of giving birth. The existence of this new object was possible only through the process of copulation between feminine and masculine essences. For this reason, masculine and feminine symbols were created before the construction of foundation ditches for casting yards as well as for the pits of the large central hearths.
Kargaly in the New Age.
Kargaly have been again opened in the third time in 1740th years, thanks to uncountable traces of workings out of the Bronze Age. All copper ore mining was conducted up to the end of 19th centuries in the area of ancient ore developments. The extracted minerals went on the north, to mountain areas of Southern Urals Mountains rich with the different forests. The nearest metallurgical works where Kargaly copper ore melted, have defended from this mining complex approximately on 180–200 km; the most remote – to 500 km. During third period tens of million tons of extracted Kargaly’s ore delivered to these distant metallurgical plants by the horse cartage. According to archival documents, for all time of operation Kargaly for a late (third) phase it has been melted not less than 126,000 tons of high-quality copper. By the turn of the 20th century, mining of ores in Kargaly complex has definitively finished.


Yuzhno Khingan mine

The Yuzhno Khingan mine is a large iron mine located in eastern Russia in the Sakha Republic. Yuzhno Khingan represents one of the largest iron ore reserves in Russia and in the world having estimated reserves of 3 billion tonnes of ore grading 38% iron metal.


Kamensk-Uralsky Metallurgical Works

Kamensk-Uralsky Metallurgical Works J.S.Co. (KUMZ) is one of the town-forming enterprises of Kamensk-Uralsky, Sverdlovsk Oblast, Russia. KUMZ was founded especially for supplying of aerospace industry with semi-finished products in aluminium and magnesium alloys. Currently, the plant produces aluminium alloy billets, forged and rolled plates, roll bond heat exchangers, extruded rods, bars, tubes, drill pipes, profiles, die-forgings.
History.
The History of KUMZ starts with Decision of Government of the Soviet Union No. 513-99C dated June 3 of year 1939 regarding building of the Works No. 268 for magnesium alloy products. The construction started in May 1940. During World War II the plant has received casting and rolling production equipment of Stupino metallurgical works evacuated from Moscow region. First aluminium alloy slabs were produced in February 1942.
First forged and extruded products were produced in the autumn of 1943. On May 5, 1944 in Pravda newspaper the report about the launch of the plant was published. This date is considered as birthday of the KUMZ. In 1945 new equipment for rolling production was installed. In 1949 KUMZ began the production of aluminium cookware.
In the 1950s the plant increased its production capacity and products range. New workshops were built: forging-extrusion (1951), casting (1958), extrusion (1959). In 1958 KUMZ has made first export delivery which included 2952 metric tons of aluminium alloy rolled products. In the same year for the first time magnesium rolled products were produced.
While initial production of aluminium alloy light weight drill pipes started at KUMZ in the 1950s. In 1972 KUMZ has built a new specially meant workshop.
In March 1966 the first mechanized line for roll bond heat exchangers production was launched at the plant. From that moment KUMZ supports high quality household refrigerators production.
On 8 July 1978 the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union awarded to the plant the Order of the Red Banner of Labour for successful development of production and realization of new technologies.
On November 30 of 1992 the plant was reorganized in Joint stock company.
In December 2007 green-field project for heat treatment of plates was launched.
In December 2011 KUMZ has entered in contracts for construction of new rolling mill complex comprising cold rolling mill, hot rolling mill and heat treatment of sheets. The total investments are estimated as 550 million euro.
In May 2012 unique vertical 300 MN forging press was launched after modernization.
Space programmes.
KUMZ takes part in all Russian (Vostok spacecraft, Voskhod spacecraft, Salyut program, Mir, Proton) and International space programs (International Space Station, Sea Launch).
Production.
KUMZ main facilities are
Casting production.
The raw material for the shop are pure aluminium purchased from smelters, alloying components and aluminium scrap. KUMZ has a number of furnaces: electric, gas, coreless-type induction, electric vacuum holding; and equipment for cutting and scalping. This allows KUMZ to supply its own workshops with high quality wrought aluminium alloy billets, ingots, slabs produced in situ. About 70 aluminium alloys per Russian standards, more than 20 per international standards EN, DIN, ASTM and own Al-Li alloys are mastered.
Rolling production.
KUMZ has one hot-rolling mill and two cold-rolling mills “Quarto”. Hot-rolling mill was recently modernized in several steps.
The plant is one among few world producers of aluminium-lithium alloy sheets and plates.
Beside the flat surface products tread plates and sheets are produced with diamond pattern by means of special rollers. Such product is used for floors of bus, trucks, rail cars, drill towers.
In 2012 KUMZ installed water jet cutter. It allows pattern cutting of rectangular plates to blanks with desired complex shape.
KUMZ Rolling production serves needs of aerospace industry. Specially treated aluminium plates and sheets are used by Boeing and Bombardier companies in their production of airplanes.
The plant has a production line for aluminium roll bond heat exchangers which are used in household refrigerators and flat plate solar thermal collectors.
Extrusion production.
KUMZ has 39 horizontal hydraulic extrusion presses with power from 500 to 12000 tons. They are situated in four buildings. With help of tools shop KUMZ produces more than 20000 kinds of aluminium profiles, 550 different sizes of bars and rods, 850 kinds of tubes.
Forging production.
Forging production of KUMZ serves the needs of leading Russian design bureaus for passenger aircraft Tupolev, Ilyushin, Sukhoi, Yakovlev, Antonov.
Equipment includes hydraulic vertical die-forging presses from 1250 to 30000 ton-force, hydraulic forging press with capacity of 6000 ton-force, radial ring forging press.
1500 items of die-forged products, 1200 items of forged products and 1600 types of rolled rings from 0.1 kg to 3000 kg are already available.
Special production.
KUMZ produces closed-cell aluminium foam plates which are used as energy and sound absorbing material for automobile industry, building and interior design, aerospace, shipbuilding, railroad transport.
On-site laboratory.
KUMZ has its own laboratory on-site which can perform different testing of aluminium alloy semifinished products in order to evaluate strength, ductility, chemical composition, uniformity of material:
World export.
Nowadays main part of products produced by KUMZ is meant for export. Aluminium semi-fabricated products are delivered to 46 countries of the World – in Europe, North and South Americas, Asia, Africa, Oceania.
According to requirements of leading consumers of aluminium semis KUMZ received following certificates: and AS9100 (by SGS from 2006 till 2009, by TÜV from 2009), ISO 14001, OSHAS18001, Lloyd’s Register, Interstate Aviation Committee, Det Norske Veritas, Nadcap (NDT, Heat treating), IRIS (International Railway Industry Standard).
KUMZ products for export ex Russia are exclusively marketed by:
Company social policy.
Big number of large industrial enterprises in Kamensk-Uralsky resulted in lack of personnel and struggle for both workers and qualified engineers from the beginning of the 1950s. Solving the problem of housing was the main argument. Near the KUMZ site a new micro district has grown. It was named after Valery Chkalov. Ordinal habitation building pace in the 1980s was about 11000 m² per year. Company looks after of kindergartens, medical care and leisure of the staff:
Two times a year competitions in football, volleyball, basketball, chess, checkers, track-and-field athletics between workshops teams take place.
Every year on the eve of New Year on the square in front of Palace of culture «Metallurgist» KUMZ builds "Chkalovsky town" of ice and snow. Ice-hills, snow and ice figures of famous fairy tales characters and Ded Moroz with Snegurochka, New Year's trees with colored garlands are opened for all townsmen.
Ecology.
KUMZ as well as any of metallurgical enterprises harms the environment. In 2014 the contribution in atmosphere pollution of the plant was not marked as considerable in comparison to other enterprises of the region. KUMZ share in the discharge of sewage into the Iset River was 11.6% (3rd place in the town).


List of mines in Indonesia

This list of mines in Indonesia is subsidiary to the list of mines article and lists working, defunct and future mines in the country and is organised by the primary mineral output. For practical purposes stone, marble and other quarries may be included in this list.


Afon Cegin

The Afon Cegin ("River Cegin" in English) is a small river draining parts of North Wales and discharging to the Menai Strait at Porth Penrhyn. Its name means "Kitchen River" in English.
Course.
The headwaters include two sites near Pentir. From here the Cegin flows to the east, before turning towards the north and passing through the village of Glasinfryn. Just north of here it is crossed by the A55 Expressway. Immediately after this, the Lôn Las Ogwen joins the line of the river, and the two run close together until the mouth of the river.
The river is forded by a minor road near Llandygai, and is crossed by the Cegin Viaduct, which carries the main Chester to Holyhead trainline. The river then passes between Maesgeirchen housing estate to the west, and Llandygai Industrial Estate to the east. The river is also crossed by the A5 closer to Bangor.
The most northerly stretch is crossed by a further two bridges, which carried the former L. & N.W.R. branchline. The river passes through the arches of the Penrhyn viaduct, before entering the Cegin pool, an area of tidal saltmarsh.
The final crossings are: Pont Penrhyn, carrying a road way accessing the west gatehouse of Penrhyn Castle, and a lower bridge now carrying road traffic to Porth Penrhyn. North of these bridges stone walls leading the river to its entry into Bae Hirael.
History.
The Cegin valley was heavily industrialised in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries with two the Penrhyn Quarry Railway and the Bethesda branch line conveying slate from quarries in the hills down to Porth Penrhyn to be shipped out to destinations across the world. Much evidence of this still remains with one of the old railway beds now used as the Lôn Las Ogwen cycle-way and footpath. Just above Port Penrhyn a series of closely connected old bridges cross the Cegin. This complex is a listed building.


Consolidation Coal Company


List of gold mines in Japan

This list of mines in Japan is subsidiary to the list of mines article and lists working, defunct and future mines in the country and is organised by the primary mineral output.


Ian Lavery

Ian Lavery (born 6 January 1963) is a British Labour Party politician who has served as the Member of Parliament (MP) for Wansbeck since 2010. He served as the Chair of the Labour Party under Jeremy Corbyn from 2017 to 2020 and was President of the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) from 2002 to 2010.
Early life and education.
Ian Lavery was born on 6 January 1963 in Newcastle upon Tyne to parents John Robert Lavery and Patricia Lavery. After leaving East School, Lavery began a Youth Training Scheme before working in the construction industry. Following a recruitment campaign by the National Coal Board, he started work at Lynemouth Colliery in January 1980. In July 1980, Lavery started a mining craft apprenticeship, transferring to Ellington Colliery in 1981 and attended New College Durham, receiving an Higher National Certificate in mining engineering.
Union and early political career.
In 1986, Lavery was elected onto the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) committee at Ellington Colliery as compensation secretary. Later, he was voted on to the Northumberland Executive Committee, and then on to the North East Area Executive Committee. He has said that because of his union activity, he was barred by management from completing his Higher National Diploma qualification:
I was the only one in the whole of the North East Area who had completed the HNC who wasn't given that opportunity. I went to see the manager, not that I would have gone by the way, and he said that they didn't think I would be interested. I asked him if he had thought to ask me, and he said no, not really, and he was smiling as he said it.
Lavery became more active in the Labour Party and trade union movement. After serving as first cabinet chair of Wansbeck District Council, Lavery was appointed general secretary of the Northumberland area through the NUM. In 1992, Lavery stood for the national executive committee of the NUM. In the subsequent ballot, he was elected in the first round having gained more than 50% of the vote. When Arthur Scargill stood down as NUM president in August 2002, Lavery was elected unopposed to replace him.
Parliamentary career.
First term (2010–2015).
In February 2010 Lavery became the prospective parliamentary candidate for the Labour Party for Wansbeck. He was elected Member of Parliament (MP) on 6 May 2010 with a majority of 7,031.
He was appointed as Parliamentary Private Secretary to Labour's then deputy leader Harriet Harman, but resigned in 2012 after breaking the party whip by levelling an amendment to exempt prison staff and psychiatric workers from a general public sector increase in the pension age to 68. In December 2012, he said that miners with criminal charges related to the Battle of Orgreave should have them struck. In the same month, he said in Parliament that he had been given a copy of a suicide note written by a constituent who had died by suicide after being told he was no longer eligible for state support.
In March 2014, Lavery posed with one of his sons who had blackened his face to look like Michael Jackson. According to the "Daily Mail", some of Lavery's constituents said they found it offensive.
Second term (2015–2017).
On 8 May 2015, Lavery was re-elected as the MP for Wansbeck with a majority of 10,881. After Ed Miliband resigned as leader of the Labour Party, Lavery was considered a potential candidate from the left wing of the party to run for the leadership. He declined, and supported Andy Burnham in the subsequent leadership election which was won by Jeremy Corbyn. In September 2015, Corbyn appointed him shadow minister for trade unions and civil society.
When Corbyn was challenged by Owen Smith in the 2016 Labour Party leadership election, Lavery supported Corbyn.
In 2016, it was reported that Lavery had received £165,387 from the NUM, the union he had run. A union fund provided him a loan of £72,500 to buy a house in 1994, which was written off in 2003 when Lavery was NUM president. He kept £18,000 returned by an endowment fund he had paid into to repay the cost of the house, and received £89,887.83 in termination payments from the union. He paid back £15,000 of the redundancy payment. Allegations of impropriety were examined by the Trades Union Certification Officer, who in 2017 found that there were no documents detailing the process or decision about Lavery's redundancy, so no investigation followed.
Lavery was appointed as Labour's national campaign co-ordinator, serving jointly with Andrew Gwynne in February 2017.
Third and fourth terms (2017–present).
In June 2017, Lavery was appointed to the role of chair of the Labour Party. In July 2017, he was criticised for saying that Labour was "too broad a church". In December 2018, Lavery raised in parliament the high insurance premiums of his constituents living near the River Wansbeck in the wake of the 2015–16 Great Britain and Ireland floods. In the same month, he reportedly said that if Labour supported a second referendum on the UK's membership of the European Union, the party would lose the next general election.
On 12 December 2019, Lavery held out against a swing to the Conservatives in the North East and was re-elected as the MP for Wansbeck with 17,124 votes and a reduced majority of 814 (2.0%) over Jack Gebhard of the Conservative Party.
In January 2021, Lavery was criticised after he questioned why anyone would have faith in the COVID-19 vaccine and expressed concern about the time it took to approve the vaccine. In a statement, Lavery claimed that his words had been taken out of context.
Personal life.
Lavery married Hilary Baird in 1986, aged 23, at the Holy Sepulchre Church in Ashington (known locally as the Miners' Church). The couple have two sons, Ian Junior, born 1988 and Liam, born 1993. Liam is a town councillor for the college ward of Ashington and has been an activist in the Labour Party since his early teens.
Lavery is a trustee of CISWO in the North East area, Northumberland Aged Mineworkers' Homes Association, Woodhorn Colliery Museum and Buzz Learning Disability; he is a patron of Headway for South East Northumberland and Wansbeck Disability Forum. He is also chair and trustee of Pitman Painters, which reached international acclaim following the release of the West End play of the same name, and which follows a story about the formation of the Northumberland-based organisation.
Lavery is a self-described "life-long fan" of Newcastle United FC. In an interview during 2018, he talked about his early years watching the club play and about his personal boycott of attending the club's games since Mike Ashley bought the football club in 2007. Lavery has been a critic of Ashley and was described in an interview as "disliking the man with a great passion", stating that "the way he treats his workforce is frankly despicable" as one of his primary factors.


Tahoe Resources

 Tahoe Resources Inc. was a mining company and intermediate precious metals producer with silver and gold mines in Canada, Guatemala and Peru. It was founded in Vancouver, British Columbia by Kevin McArthur, former CEO of Glamis Gold and Goldcorp. Incorporated in British Columbia, Canada, the company's U.S. headquarters is located in Reno, Nevada.
In 2016, the company acquired Lake Shore Gold in Ontario, valued at $945 million CAD, making it a wholly owned subsidiary of Tahoe Resources and effectively adding Lake Shore's Timmins West and Bell Creek gold mines in Ontario to Tahoe Resources' assets, which include mines in Guatemala and Peru. The company employs more than 2,000 people worldwide. Tahoe Resources is a publicly traded company in the Industrial Metals and Minerals industry, listed on the New York Stock Exchange and the Toronto Stock Exchange.
In 2017, Tahoe Resources was accused of using the "Guatemalan police and army violence to force its mining operation on the local communities." Tahoe is facing a criminal trial in Guatemala and a civil lawsuit in Canada for previous cases of alleged repression.
On 14 November 2018, it was announced that Pan American Silver would be acquiring Tahoe Resources for $1.1 billion.
Operations.
Tahoe Resources has five operating mines: Escobal mine in southeast Guatemala, La Arena gold mine in northern Peru, Shahuindo gold mine in northern Peru, and the Timmins West and Bell Creek mines in Ontario, Canada.
In 2016 Tahoe achieved record silver production by producing 21.3 million ounces at all-in sustaining costs of $8.06 per ounce. The company also produced 385,100 ounces of gold at all-in sustaining costs of $943 per ounce.
In Q1 2017 Tahoe produced 5.7 million ounces of silver and 119,000 ounces of gold. The company generated record earnings and cash flow from higher sales revenue and lower operating costs.
Escobal Silver Mine.
The Escobal project is a high-grade silver discovery located in southeast Guatemala approximately 40 km. east-southeast of Guatemala City. In addition to silver, the mine contains sizable reserves of gold, lead, and zinc. Tahoe Resources acquired the project in mid-2010 from Goldcorp for $505 million (USD) in stock and cash. In November 2010, Tahoe Resources released a Preliminary Assessment of the project completed by M3 Engineering. In 2015, the Escobal mine produced a record 20.4 million ounces of silver in concentrate. As of January 2016, it was estimated that the Escobal mine contained indicated resources of 389 million silver ounces at an average grade of 332 grams per tonne (g/t), along with significant quantities of lead, zinc, and gold. Proven and Probable reserves are 29.1 million tonnes at an average grade of 332 g/t silver, containing 310.4 million ounces of silver. Figures such as these have caused mining experts to suggest that the Escobal mine could become one of the largest silver producers in the world.
Underground development on the mine began in May 2011, and the exploitation license was granted in April 2013. Roughly 500 construction jobs were created with the mine's development. Mining operations began in September 2013, and the first precious metal concentrate shipment was sent on October 15, 2013. For the year ending December 31, 2013, Tahoe Resources announced that its net earnings for the year were $65.6 million ($0.45/share). During 2013, the company incurred $36.4 million in expenses for the Escobal mine project. Commercial operations began in January 2014.
Regional exploration in Guatemala was suspended in 2013 following the government's proposed moratorium on new exploration licenses. Exploration since that date has focused only on the 79.9 km2 granted concessions surrounding the Escobal mine. Dialogue continues with the Ministry of Energy and Mines to grant additional exploration licenses while community work continues in areas of exploration interest.
In July 2017 Tahoe announced that the Supreme Court of Guatemala had issued a decision to temporarily suspend its Escobal mining license in response to action brought by an anti-mining organization that claimed Guatemala's Ministry of Energy and Mines had violated the Xinca Indigenous people's right of consultation in advance of granting the permit.
La Arena Gold Mine.
On February 9, 2015, Tahoe Resources announced a merger with Rio Alto Mining, owner of the La Arena gold mine in northern Peru, for $1.12 billion. The merger was completed on April 1, 2015.
La Arena produced a company record 222,255 ounces of gold in 2014, beating estimates, which was followed in 2015 with production of 230,436 ounces of gold, exceeding that previous record.
La Arena is located 480 km. north-northwest of Lima, in the eastern slope of the Western Cordillera, close to the Continental Divide, at approximately 3,400 meters above sea level. It contains two types of deposits: oxide gold in brecciated sandstone as well as copper-gold sulfide mineralization.
In January 2016, Measured and Indicated oxide resources totaled 120.8 million tonnes with an average gold grade of .32 g/t and Proven and Probable oxide reserves of 80.3 million tonnes, with an average gold grade of .36 g/t containing 919,000 ounces of gold. Meanwhile, Measured and Indicated sulfide resources for the La Arena deposit totaled 274 million tonnes with average gold and copper grades of .24 g/t and .33 percent, respectively. Proven and Probable sulfide reserves are 63.1 million tonnes with average gold and copper grades of .31 g/t and .43 percent, respectively.
Shahuindo Gold Mine.
In the merger between Tahoe Resources and Rio Alto Mining, Tahoe Resources took ownership of Shahuindo gold project, which Rio Alto had acquired from Sulliden Gold in August 2014. Construction began on the project in mid-2015, with commercial production anticipated to begin in the second quarter of 2016.
Shahuindo is located in a prolific gold-producing area in northern Peru, 30 km. north of the La Arena mine, on the west side of the Condebamba River Valley. With topography varying from rolling hills to steep ravines, its elevation ranges from 2,400-3,600 meters above sea level. The World Wildlife Fund has designated this area as neo-tropical Peruvian "Yungas."
The mine's technical report dated January 2016 reflects Measured and Indicated oxide resources of 143.1 million tonnes with an average gold grade of .50 g/t, containing 2.28 million ounces of gold. Proven and Probable oxide reserves total 111.9 million tonnes with an average grade of .53 g/t, containing 1.91 million ounces of gold. Mineral reserves increased 87 percent over the previous technical report.
Timmins West Gold Mine.
In the 2016 merger between Tahoe Resources and Lake Shore Gold, Tahoe Resources acquired the Timmins West mine, located 18 km. west of Timmins, Ontario, Canada, which in 2013 was ranked the 8th largest gold-producing region in the world. The mine contains three deposits: the Timmins deposit, which has been in commercial production since January 2011; the Thunder Creek deposit, which achieved commercial production in January 2012; and the 144 Gap deposit, approximately 600 meters from the Thunder Creek deposit, which is under development as of this writing, with commercial production expected in 2017. All three deposits are connected by underground drifts.
The mine is located on one of the world's most prolific gold camps, and the mine property comprises an area of about 14.5 square km. Ore from the mine is accessed using mobile equipment via internal ramps both from the surface and the main shaft. The mine currently produces 2,700 tonnes per day of ore, which is trucked to the Bell Creek mill, 42 km. away, for processing.
In 2015, the mine produced 139,000 ounces of gold from 1,011,000 tonnes processed at an average gold grade of 4.4 g/t. In January 2016, Probable mineral reserves came to 2.9 million tonnes with an average gold grade of 4.2 g/t, containing 392,000 ounces of gold.
In January 2017 Tahoe reported it had discovered significant extensions of mineralization in the 144 Trend, deep Timmins West, Bell Creek, Vogel, Whitney and Gold River zones in the Timmins district of Canada.
Bell Creek Complex.
The Bell Creek Complex was acquired by Tahoe Resources, Inc. in the merger with Lake Shore Gold in 2016. It is located approximately 20 km. northeast of Timmins, Ontario, and consists of an underground gold mine and a processing facility.
In January 2015, the mine produced 39,700 ounces of gold from processing 296,200 tonnes at an average grade of 4.4 g/t. As of January 1, 2016, Measured and Indicated Mineral Resources for the Bell Creek deposit totaled 4.8 million tonnes with an average gold grade of 4.4 g/t containing 680,000 ounces of gold. Proven and Probable Mineral Reserves (inclusive of Mineral Resources) are 2.1 million tonnes with an average gold grade of 4.5 g/t containing 309,000 ounces of gold. A large resource at depth indicates a near-term opportunity to expand production and extend the mine's life.
The mill features a conventional gold mill circuit, with crushing and grinding followed by carbon-in-leach and carbon-in-pulp processes for gold recovery. A portion of gold is recovered by gravity before the leaching process.
Awards.
Tahoe Resources has received the following awards:
Alleged Role in Violence Related to Escobal Mine in 2013.
Local residents' resistance to the Escobal silver mine project led to violent clashes in Spring 2013. Fears about pollution and water contamination, and about potentially damaging effects to the way of life in the area, which is primarily agricultural, caused many local residents to protest the mine's development. The surrounding communities voted against the project in 2011, but the vote was non-binding, and development proceeded.
In April 2013, a series of protests began among residents of San Rafael on the public road near the mine. On April 27, seven people were shot when security guards working at the Escobal mine opened fire on 20 protesters. In a release issued on May 1, 2013, Tahoe Resources stated that the protesters were armed with machetes. The media reported that Alberto Rotondo, Tahoe Resources' Security Chief for the Escobal project, was caught in a wiretap giving direct orders to murder local opponents of Tahoe's mining project. On April 30, Rotondo was arrested at La Aurora Airport in Guatemala City, apparently trying to flee. Rotondo was criminally charged in Guatemala with obstruction of justice, causing minor and serious injuries, and mistreatment of a minor.
Rotondo no longer works for Tahoe Resources.
The seven men who were shot filed a civil lawsuit (Garcia v. Tahoe Resources Inc.) against Tahoe Resources in June 2014, alleging that Rotondo ordered the shooting and that Tahoe Resources was legally responsible for the shooting. The suit alleged assault, aggravated assault, and obstruction of justice, and that the shooting was premeditated. On November 9, 2015, the Supreme Court of British Columbia stayed a judgment in favor of Tahoe Resources.
The coverage of the human rights violations caused a crash in stock value for the company.


Likely, British Columbia

Likely is a community in British Columbia, Canada. It is located in the Cariboo region of the province, and is situated where the west arm of Quesnel Lake empties into the Quesnel River. Roads from Likely lead southwest to Williams Lake, northwest to Quesnel, south to Horsefly, and north to Barkerville. Likely is in the Quesnel Highland, a transition zone between the Cariboo Plateau and the Cariboo Mountains.
History.
Likely is one of the few remaining Cariboo Gold Rush settlements. Likely was originally called Quesnel Dam. The name was changed to honour prospector John A. Likely (1842-1929) of the Bullion Pit Mine, who was affectionately called "Plato" for his tendency to philosophize. He lies in an unmarked grave in Kamloops Cemetery.
The Quesnel River was dammed near Likely in 1898 to enable downriver areas to be explored for gold. One such site became the Bullion Pit mine, which operated from 1892 to 1942. In 1935, this mine became the site of the largest hydraulic monitors ever installed in North America. (Hydraulic monitors are high-pressure and high-volume water nozzles used to wash down large volumes of gold bearing gravel during Placer Mining.
Over 64 kilometres of canals were constructed to draw water from nearby lakes and creeks to feed the hydraulic nozzles, which used more water each day than the entire city of Vancouver did at the time. Today, the Bullion Pit stands as an astonishing man-made canyon measuring 3 kilometres long by deep. It displaced of gravel.
Bactrian camels were used as pack animals during the Cariboo Gold Rush. One was shot at Beaver Valley, near Likely, by a prospector named Morris, when he mistook it for a giant grizzly bear.
Environmental issues.
On 4 August 2014, the tailings pond of the Mount Polley gold mine burst, spilling water and tailing sediment/ silt into Polley Lake and Quesnel Lake. Subsequent water quality analysis has shown no changes to water quality. A drinking water ban was lifted for all areas except a small area adjacent to the tailing pond at Polley Lake.
Recreation.
Quesnel Lake is the largest lake in the Cariboo, with the North Arm extending 77 kilometres and the East Arm reaching out 100 kilometres. Ten to 16 pound rainbow trout, lake trout up to 30 or 40 pounds, as well as kokanee can all be caught by fishermen and fisherwomen.
A highlight of a visit to Likely in late summer includes watching thousands of salmon migrate up the Quesnel River to their spawning grounds in the Horsefly and Mitchell Rivers. Visitors can also explore the historic ghost town of Quesnel Forks, only 11 km to the northwest.
Cedar Point Park, an impressive stand of Red cedar on the shores of Quesnel Lake, is a nice spot to visit, now a park and campground. One of the Twin Giants (huge Vulcan steam shovels purchased in 1906 to dig a canal from Spanish Lake to the Bullion Mines) lies there. The shovels weighed approximately 22,000 pounds each, and were shipped in pieces from Toledo, Ohio. Transported first by rail then by wagon to a site below the dam on Spanish Lake, they were assembled and placed on railway tracks to begin digging the ditch. It was reported that $20,000 were spent before the operations were suspended, leaving the shovels where they stopped work in the year 1907.
(The other Twin Giant is now in Quesnel).
Climate.
Likely has a humid continental climate (Köppen "Dfb") with mild summers with quite high diurnal temperature variations along with cold winters with high snowfall.


Atlantic Cable Quartz Lode

The Atlantic Cable Quartz Lode is a gold mine in Deer Lodge County, Montana. The mine is located in the southwestern area of Montana, between Drummond and Anaconda along the Pintler Scenic Route on Montana Highway 1, east of Georgetown Lake.
The gold mine was named on June 15, 1867, with the name commemorating the completion of the laying of the second transatlantic cable. The mine's founders were Alexander Aiken, John B. Pearson and Jonas Stough. They were camped on Flint Creek and their horses had drifted off. In tracking them to this location, the men were led to the discovery of the mine. Machinery for the first mill was imported from Swansea, Wales, and moved by wagon team from Corinne, Utah, the nearest railroad terminal.
In the 19th century, mining was irregular. The town which grew up around the mine, Cable, Montana, boomed and busted four distinct times: 1867-1869, 1873–1878, 1883–1891 and 1902-1940. The Atlantic Cable Quartz Lode mine was operated with varying success until about 1880, when extremely rich ore was located. A 500-foot piece of ground produced $6,500,000 in gold. W. A. Clark paid $19,000 for one chunk of ore taken from this mine in 1889 and claimed it was the largest gold nugget ever found.
In 1902, two brothers cleaned up the mine and obtained $18,000 from the first cleanup. By 1906, three shifts a day were running in the mill. By 1940, the mine was inactive and has remained that way.


Yangjiazhangzi mine

The Yangjiazhangzi mine is one of the largest molybdenum mines in China. The mine is located in north-east China in Liaoning. The Metrekskoye mine has reserves amounting to 22.8 million tonnes of molybdenum ore grading 0.15% molybdenum thus resulting 32,145 tonnes of molybdenum.


Eurasian Bank

Eurasian Bank JSC is the ninth largest lender in Kazakhstan, headquartered in Almaty. It was founded in 1994 as a closed joint-stock company, and reregistered in 2003 as a joint stock company due to joint stock company law changes.
The Bank is owned 100% by Eurasian Financial Company JSCwhich is 100% owned by three equal shareholders: Alexander Mashkevich, Alijan Ibragimov, Patokh Shodiyev (aka Patokh Chodiev)
Management.
On December 5, 2016, Pavel Loginov was elected as the Chief Executive Officer of Eurasian Bank JSC (Kazakhstan). Michael Eggleton stepped down as a Chief Executive Officer of Eurasian Bank JSC (Kazakhstan). He took up this position at the end of 2009 and, together with his experienced management team, has transformed the bank from a small troubled bank into a strong mid-tier bank with a leading consumer lending position. Prior to joining Eurasian Bank, Michael Eggleton was a board member of Eurasian Natural Resources Corporation from the date of its flotation on the London Stock Exchange, and he was also CEO of National Bank Trust in Russia. Prior to this he was a Managing Director at Merrill Lynch and Credit Suisse, working with companies in the CIS, Eastern Europe, Turkey and North Africa. He started his career as a CPA, and has an MBA from San Diego State University in California. In 2013 he received the 2013 Executive of the Year Award from the American Chamber of Commerce in Kazakhstan.
Ratings.
Eurasian Bank has a B+ Long-term Counterparty Credit Rating with Positive outlook and a kzBBB+ local scale rating from Standard & Poor's, it has had these ratings since the December 2011 upgrade. The bank also has a B1 Long-term foreign currency deposit rating with Negative outlook from Moody's Investors Service, it has had this rating since 2003, and the negative outlook has been in place since 2009.
History.
History section based on press releases and chronology found on company website.


Open-pit coal mining in the United Kingdom

Open-pit coal mining in the United Kingdom is in decline. Output has fallen every year since 2010. In 2010, the United Kingdom was forecast to produce about of coal a year from open-pit mines. Most came from Scotland, with the largest operator there being the Scottish Coal subsidiary of Scottish Resources Group. Actual production in 2010 was over 13 million tonnes but this has declined to less than 8 million tonnes in 2014. Deep coal mining stopped completely at the end of 2015 and the UK is planning to phase out the use of coal to produce electricity by 2024.
Until 2014, statistics on open-pit coal mining were compiled by the British Geological Survey from information provided by local planning authorities. Open-pit coal mines usually last four or five years at extraction rates of up to a quarter-million tons a year.
Current sites.
In September 2017, there were 9 sites operating in the UK with a total manpower of 590. Production has declined to around 3 million tonnes in 2017.
The Ffos-y-fran Land Reclamation Scheme is now (as of September, 2020) the only major open pit operating in the UK with a handful of small to very small other sites (employee count much less than 50 per mine for all sites other Ffos-y-fran) still in operation. Also, no major applications are pending to open new mines as of the end of 2020.
Wales.
Miller Argent run the Ffos-y-fran Land Reclamation Scheme in eastern Merthyr Tydfil, which involves mining the coal from under 367 hectares of land made derelict by earlier coal-mining operations; the coal will be provided to the Aberthaw Power Station on the Glamorgan coast. The project started in 2007 and is expected to last 17.5 years. Aberpergwm was also reopened in 2018. Note, that according to this source, this mine is an underground drift mine, and not an open-pit mine.
Celtic Energy only operated the expanded East Pit, until Nant Helen was reopened in 2019 to replace the soon to be closed East Pit. The site's licence was revoked in June 2020; thus mining is to stop.
Scotland.
Hargreaves plc operated one site in Scotland, House of Water in Ayrshire;
the site stopped operating in 2020.
England.
Banks Mining started working on its Bradley site in May 2018 amid protesters camping on the site. Banks had three additional operation sites in Shotton, and Brenkley Lane both in Northumberland, and Rusha in Scotland.
All of these sites are closed (or under restoration) as of August, 2020 but Banks were awaiting decisions on two proposed sites to open (Druridge Bay and Newcastle). The application for Druridge Bay was rejected on 8 September, 2020 for a second time, and Banks company decided not to appeal this time, making the decision final. The application for opening a mine in Newcastle (Dewley Hill) was rejected on 18 December, 2020.
A mine in Hartington, Derbyshire was still operating in August, 2020 but was planning on closing by the end of 2020. It closed in September, 2020.
Recent history.
The following information relates to 2016 and earlier.
Production.
In November 2015, the UK Government announced that all the remaining coal-fired power stations would be closed by 2025. In February 2020 the UK government said that it would consult on bringing the closure date forward to 2024.
Scotland.
Hargreaves plc announced in 2016 the closure of the following operations:
Wales.
The deep mine at Tower Colliery closed in 2008, but there is a plan to build an 80-hectare 165-metre open-pit mine to extract a remaining 6Mton reserve of anthracite, for which a planning application was registered in July 2010. The opencast operation stopped production in March 2017 after it was unable to sell the coal to Aberthaw Power Station due to stricter environmental controls.
Energybuild Ltd operated an opencast site here; it was estimated to have 450 kton of recoverable coal in 2006, which has mostly been excavated between 2006 and 2009. The overburden was sold as road stone.
The site was approved in 1995 but operation was delayed until 1997. Celtic Energy operated a mine at Selar in the Neath Valley. Planning permission was granted to extend the extraction by 800,000 tonnes in 2013 which will keep the mine operational until 2020. The site was mothballed in 2015 due to low coal prices. Celtic Energy now only operates only the expanded East Pit.
Miller Argent planned to extract 6m tonnes of coal at Nant Llesg, near Rhymney. Their application was rejected by Caerphilly county borough council on 7 August 2015. The company is considering an appeal.
England.
Banks Mining applied in October 2015 for planning permission to extract about three million tonnes of coal and other minerals from the Highthorn site in Northumberland. The application was rejected in March 2018.
UK Coal (company, England and Scotland).
In 2010, UK Coal had the following prospective sites in England and Scotland.
Site restoration.
The Sunday Herald reported on 13 July 2014 that "Mines in Ayrshire, Lanarkshire and Fife, abandoned by Scottish Coal when it went bust in April 2013, are threatened by rising water levels, contaminated lagoons and erosion".
On 9 July 2015 an Opencast Coal Summit was held to "explore what the planning system can do to ensure all opencast coal sites are fully and sustainably restored for the benefit of communities and the environment". After the summit a report was published by Carl Sargeant AM, the Welsh Minister for Natural Resources.
Opposition.
Open-pit coal mining is opposed by the Loose Anti-Opencast Network (LAON) and by Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth.


Peter Miscovich

Peter Miscovich (Petar Mišković/Pero Mišković) (1885-1950) was a Croatian-born American inventor. He was born in the village of Imotica in the Austro-Hungarian Kingdom of Dalmatia in 1885 and died in Alaska in 1950.
His most well-known inventions were a steam-powered washing machine and improvement of steam bath. He had seven children with his wife Stane. His son John Miscovich invented the Intelligiant pump used on boats, fire vehicles and more. Peter was also involved with creating hydraulics machines.
Biography.
Miscovich went to America in 1903, leaving from Le Havre, France and arriving in New York City at age eighteen on 25 May. He and his relatives had no formal education, but he was apprenticed in Montana and California. After some time he decided to move from metal mines to coal mines for his health. He went to Wilkensen where other Croats worked. Unfortunately, he found coal mines to be even less healthy. When he heard about the stampede in the Iditarod 1910. he went to Seattle and then to the mouth of the Yukon River, St. Michael.


Alexander Mashkevitch

Alexander Antonovich Mashkevich (; also transliterated Alexandr Mashkevic; ; born 23 February 1954) is a businessman and investor. He has major holdings and close political relationships in Kazakhstan. He holds both Kazakh and Israeli citizenship; according to the Jewish Telegraphic Agency, he usually travels on his Israeli passport and "rarely spends more than a week each month in Kazakhstan."
Biography.
Mashkevich was born in Frunze, Kyrgyz SSR, Soviet Union, in 1954. His father Anton, a doctor born in Lithuania, and his mother, Rakhel Yoffe, a lawyer born in Vitebsk, were evacuated to Kyrgyzstan in 1941. His family background is Lithuanian Jewish. He is a graduate of Kyrgyz State University where he studied philology. Mashkevich started out an academic career but became a businessman during perestroika. Mashkevich, Patokh Chodiev, and Alijan Ibragimov form "the Trio," a group of Kazakh businessmen who became billionaires. The Trio gained control of the recently privatized chromium, alumina, and gas operations in Kazakhstan (some of the largest ones in the world).
With his partners Chodiev and Ibragimov, Mashkevich helped to develop these assets, and is a major shareholder in Eurasian National Resources Corporation (ENRC), now one of the world's leading natural resources groups. ENRC, based in London, operates a number of metals assets in Kazakhstan and Africa, having acquired numerous mining operations in Eastern Europe and Africa. In 2009, ENRC generated a $1,462 million profit on sales of $3.8 billion.
ENRC was floated on the London Stock Exchange in December 2007, with a market capitalisation on Admission of approximately £6.8 billion.
In 2013, ENRC was privatized to form Eurasian Resources Group.
Mashkevich served as president of the Euro-Asian Jewish Congress (EAJC) until 2011. The EAJC is one of the five regional branches of World Jewish Congress (WJC). In this capacity, he has visited a number of synagogues around the world and met with many prominent individuals. In 2002, Mashkevich had a private meeting with then-Foreign Minister Shimon Peres. In apparent consultation with Israeli Defense Minister Binyamin Ben-Eliezer, he asked his personal friend Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev to intervene with Iran concerning Israeli soldiers captured by Hizbullah. Also, while in Israel, Mashkevich "several times rather closely cooperated" with Kazakh Ambassador, now Deputy Foreign Minister, Kairat Abdurakhmanov.
Mashkevich is one of the owners of Alferon Management. Based in London, Alferon Management has acquired mining operations in different places: Zambia, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Indonesia, Kosovo, Russia, and other countries.
In 2010 he was on the "Forbes" list of billionaires at #287. In 2017, he was on the list at #1098, with a worth of $1.9 billion.
On April 6, 2011, Mashkevitch announced his intention to found a Jewish version of "Al-Jazeera" that would "represent Israel on an international level, with real information.


Teregova mine

The Teregova mine is a large open pit mine in the western Romania in Caraş-Severin County, 85 km south-east of Reşiţa and 571 km north-west of the capital, Bucharest. Teregova represents one of the largest feldspar reserves in Romania having estimated reserves of 2,200,000 tonnes of ore.


Glenmavis

Glenmavis is a village in the North Lanarkshire area of Scotland. It is situated about 2 miles north-west of Airdrie on the B802 road. A mid-2012 estimate recorded a population of about 2290.
Etymology.
The etymology of the name is ‘glen of the song-thrush’.
History.
Strictly speaking the village now known as Glenmavis consists of what was once two separate communities. These built up close to the earlier Rochsoles House which is found on Timothy Pont's map. To the east of the church was the village of New Monkland, whereas the newer community to the West was Glenmavis. However, the two effectively merged after World War II. The issue is further confused by the fact that the wider community (including what was once a small hamlet called Arderyth which became Airdrie) was also known as New Monkland. It is for this reason that the school is New Monkland Primary. The school was founded by the Kirk Session of New Monkland (then East Monkland) Church in 1691. New Monkland Cemetery had for many years two distinct parts. That nearest Condorrat Road was for those from Airdrie while the more eastern part (known as the Landward Cemetery) was for those from the rural area. An oddity of the cemetery is that within it there is another cemetery which was originally in Chapel Street, Airdre. The remains were disinterred and reburied along with the headstones many years ago and there was a heavy chain round that area. From the church gate the island of Arran is sometimes visible on a fine day. There was a castle at Rochsoles Park, followed by a mansion, now demolished, apart from the stables. Formerly a pit village, there are no longer any active coal mines in the area. A blacksmith, a vintner and a wright worked in the village in 1837. There is a major liquefied natural gas (LNG) storage depot to the north of the village.
In 1992 the gas plant was modified by the installation of a Solexol treatment plant. The main contractor for the mechanical installation was Motherwell Bridge Projects Limited and the electrical contractor was Balfour Kilpatrick. The skyline was changed
In 1992 with the installation of the main process column "D121". The modifications also included upgrade of the "cold box" plants that are required for the liquification process. These plants are fabricated from aluminium piping and the welding on these plants proved challenging in the early stage of pipe fabrication. All shop piping was fabricated by MB Services in their facility on Ladywell road Motherwell. All pipe fabrication was managed by Jimmy Gaffney.


Yuanyang colliery outburst

The Yuanyang colliery outburst occurred at the privately run Yuanyang colliery in Puding County, Anshun, Guizhou, People's Republic of China, at 9:40 p.m. on 13 May 2010. At least 21 people were killed and at least five were wounded.
Thirty-one miners were inside the shaft at the time of the outburst, and ten of them walked out alive. Rescuers searched in vain for others. There were genuine fears that an unknown quantity of unregistered miners may have been underground at the time. Half of the fleeing ten were still hospitalised and receiving treatment for carbon monoxide poisoning the following day. 24 miners were initially reported as being trapped, with seven escaping the mine.
An early investigation revealed explosives were responsible for the burst. The explosives were used for illegal mining which had been underway in the colliery. According to deputy director of the State Administration of Coal Mine Safety Wang Shuhe, "local authorities did not fully perform their duties, and occasionally even abetted or sheltered illegal activities". He visited the scene as part of the investigation. Work at all of Puding's collieries was suspended. Guizhou surveyed its coal mines for safety reasons on 15 May 2010. Guizhou's vice-governor Sun Guoqiang said authorities should have checked the mine and asked officials after the burst: "Did anyone of you visit the mine after approving the shaft maintenance project"?
The incident had severe consequences for county-level and township officials: five were suspended or fired altogether when the full extent of what had occurred was realised. Vice head of Puding, Wu Guohong: county director of work safety supervision administration, Xu Dongfeng: county director of coal mining administration, Hu Yingze, were among these. The mine's owner, Li Renjie, vanished without a trace as authorities attempted to find him.


Duenuge Disan Pedris

Duenuge Disan Pedris was a Ceylonese, entrepreneur and mine owner. He was a successful graphite mine owner and trader. Making his fortune in mining and expanded into other ventures, D. D. Pedris became one of the wealthiest men in the island at the time. The execution of his only son Captain Henry Pedris by the British colonial government under martial law during the 1915 riots, initiated the movement toward independence and providing motivation and a martyr for those who pioneered the movement.
Born in Galle, he started his business ventures in 1872 by venturing into graphite mining and later open several mines in Galle, Kaluthara and Aluthgama areas. He later expanded into agriculture, real-estate and trading. A Buddhist, D. D. Pedris was a member of the Theosophical Society. In 1882, he married Mallino Fernando Pedris, daughter of Peace Officer Margris Fernando of Karandeniya, they had four daughters and one son. His brother-in-law was N. S. Fernando Wijesekara were leading businessmen of the time. Following the death of his son, Pedris built the Isipathanaramaya Temple in Havelock Town in his memory.


Tevshiin Govi coal mine

The Tevshiin Govi Coal Mine () is a coal mine located in the Saintsagaan sum of Dundgovi aimag in southern central Mongolia.
The mine has coal reserves amounting to 923.2 million tonnes of Brown coal. The mine has an annual production capacity of 0.05 million tonnes of coal.


Maevatanana

Maevatanana is a city and commune urbaine () in Madagascar. The city is in the central-north part of the island, at the Ikopa River, and is connected by the national road RN 4 to Antananarivo and Mahajanga. The altitude is low and as it is located far from the coast, temperatures tend to be high. The city belongs to the district of Maevatanana, which is a part of Betsiboka Region. Maevatanana is the capital of the Betsiboka region, and the population of the commune was estimated to be approximately 24,000 in 2001 commune census.
In addition to primary schooling the town offers secondary education at both junior and senior levels. Maevatanana hosts the annex of the University Institute of Management and Administration (IUGM) of the University of Mahajanga. A regional centre for distance education (CRTE) of the Centre National de Télé-Enseignement de Madagascar (CNETMAD) is also located in Maevatanana.
The town has a permanent court and hospital. The majority 60% of the population of the commune are farmers, while an additional 7% receive their livelihood from raising livestock. The most important crops are rice and tobacco; also sweet potatoes are an important agricultural product. Industry and services provide employment for 5% and 15% of the population, respectively. Additionally fishing employs 13% of the population.
Mining.
The are important gold mining operations near the town where 20 kgs of gold are extracted weekly.