John R. Fraser

John R. Fraser FRCOG (1890-1959) was a physician on the staff of the Obstetric and Gynaecological Department at McGill and in 1929, professor, chairman and head of department at McGill and Royal Victoria Hospital.
During the First World War he served with the Canadian Army reaching the rank of major before he was decommissioned in 1919. He was a founding fellow of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists.
In 1936, whilst head of Obstetrics and gynaecology at McGill, Fraser met W. A. Scott, head of Obstetrics and gynaecology at the University of Toronto. This meeting gave opportunity for their juniors to meet. This younger generation of surgeon had grievances with the medical system that excluded younger surgeons from taking on major surgical cases, and in a "rebellious" decision conspired and established the Canadian Gynaecological Society (CGS), also known as the Canadian Gynaecological Travel Club and the senior Travel Club. With the objective of uniting Toronto and McGill, the aim was to promote education and to exert influence on departmental activities. Fraser became an honorary member. Remote from the aspirations of the juniors, Fraser, along with other seniors, dominated the early meetings and as a consequence, the juniors decided to exclude department heads from membership.


Mark Hamilton (doctor)

Mark Hamilton (born 30 October 1970) is a physician and broadcaster. He is presenter of "How Long Will You Live?" on RTÉ One and former presenter of "The Sunday Surgery" on BBC Radio 1.
Education and medical training.
Hamilton graduated from medical school with an MB ChB (Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery). He then went on to specialize in several fields such as Orthopedic surgery, Geriatric medicine and Anaesthetics, and lectured Anatomy and Biomedical Sciences at the University of Manchester. In 2007, Hamilton worked in an A&E in Withington as a registrar. He is currently training as a general practitioner at Lockside Medical Centre in Stalybridge.
Media career.
Hamilton joined Radio 1 in 1999, jointly hosting the Surgery with Sara Cox. Since then Hamilton has co-presented with Emma B, Letitia, Annie Mac and Kelly Osbourne. He appeared on a Channel 4 series helping teenagers relieve stress entitled Chill Out.


Association for the Behavioral Sciences and Medical Education

The Association for the Behavioral Sciences and Medical Education (ABSAME) was founded in 1975 as an interdisciplinary professional society dedicated to strengthening behavioral science teaching in medical schools, residency programs, and in continuing medical education. ABSAME traces its origins to four invitational conferences sponsored by the National Institutes of Health in 1969 and 1970. This group concluded their operations in 2017.
The group of physicians and behavioral scientists who made up this association were originally assembled through a program initiated and funded by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Dr. Richard Olmsted (then Chairman of Pediatrics at the University of Oregon) was instrumental in planning and organizing the first conference on behavioral sciences and medical education held in the Allenberry Inn, Boiling Springs, PA. Approximately 20 physicians and 30 behavioral scientists from various disciplines attended. The need to continue was obvious to all. Between May 1969 and November 1970, four conferences were held, three of which were supported by the NICHD. The third conference was supported by the Division of Physician manpower at NIH. On December 9, 1975, ABSAME became legally incorporated in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.
The ABSAME mission statement was to:
The core of ABSAME's membership consisted of physicians and non-physician behavioral scientists whose primary interest lies in enhancing behavioral science teaching at all levels. ABSAME also welcomed membership from faculty members and students in schools of dentistry, public health, nursing, and allied health, as well as medical students, house staff, and graduate students in the behavioral sciences. The organization placed an emphasis on interdisciplinary teaching and colleagueship in the education of health professional.


Rhombencephalosynapsis

Rhombencephalosynapsis is a rare genetic brain abnormality of malformation of the cerebellum. The cerebellar vermis is either absent or only partially formed, and fusion is seen in varying degree between the cerebellar hemispheres, fusion of the middle cerebellar peduncles, and fusion of the dentate nuclei. Findings range from mild truncal ataxia, to severe cerebral palsy.
Rhombencephalosynapsis is a constantly found feature of Gomez-Lopez-Hernandez syndrome. One case of which has shown a co-occurrence with autism-spectrum disorder.
Presentation.
Clinical indications range from mild truncal ataxia with unaffected cognitive abilities, to severe cerebral palsy and mental retardation.
Genetics.
An association with mutations in the MN1 gene has been reported in cases of atypical rhomboencephalosynapsis.
Pathology.
Rhombencephalosynapsis is a rare brain disorder of malformation of the cerebellum that may be detected on ultrasound of the fetus. The vermis is either absent or partially formed. There is dorsal fusion of the cerebellar hemispheres, fusion of the dentate nuclei, and fusion of the middle cerebellar peduncles. The degree of severity of this disorder is associated with the degree of maldevelopment of the cerebellar vermis.
Aqueductal stenosis commonly exists with the disorder, as does its often resulting hydrocephalus. In some cases additional abnormalities may be present, such as ventriculomegaly (enlarged ventricles), and supratentorial abnormalities.
Diagnosis.
Rhombencephalosynapsis can be detected on imaging of the fetus. It is one of the triad of features characteristic of Gomez-Lopez-Hernandez syndrome. When detected, signs of GLHS ought to be looked for on post-natal review. Signs include partial alopecia and some facial peculiarities. It is thought that due to the co-occurrence of these two disorders they may have a common etiology.
As a feature of GLHS one case study has shown GLHS to co-occur with autism spectrum disorder.
Epidemiology.
As of 2018 only 36 cases have been reported.
History.
The first case was reported by Heinrich Obersteiner in 1914.


Dactylus

The dactylus is the tip region of the tentacular club of cephalopods and of the leg of some crustaceans (see arthropod leg). In cephalopods, the dactylus is narrow and often characterized by the asymmetrical placement of suckers (i.e., the ventral expansion of the club) and the absence of a dorsal protective membrane. In crustaceans, the dactylus is the seventh and terminal segment of their thoracic appendages. In certain instances the dactylus, together with the propodus, form the claw.
The term "dactylus" means "finger" in Greek.


Ingrid Leodolter

Ingrid Maria Margarete Leodolter (14 August 1919 – 17 November 1986) was a physician and Austria's first Minister of Public Health and Environmental Protection.
Ingrid Zechner was born on 14 August 1919 in Vienna. She attended the Medical School of the University of Vienna and earned her medical degree in 1943. She completed training in internal medicine in 1951. She was the medical director of the Sophia Hospital in Vienna from 1961 to 1971. Following the establishment of the Ministry of Public Health and Environmental Protection, Leodolter was selected as the first minister in 1972. She served in that role until 1979. During her tenure, the mother-child-pass examination programme was passed in 1974, resulting in a reduction in infant mortality from 23.5 per thousand in 1974 to 7.4 per thousand in 1992.
She married Josef Leodolter in 1938. She died on 17 November 1986 in Vienna.


George Henry Fox

George Henry Fox (8 October 1846 – 1 August 1937) was an American dermatologist. He was a medical school professor and Civil War veteran.
Biography.
He was born on 8 October 1846 in Ballston Spa, New York.
He received his medical degree in 1869 from the University of Pennsylvania, and studied in Berlin, London, Paris and Vienna. He was professor of dermatology at the New York Medical College for Women, Starling Medical College in Columbus, Ohio, Columbia University and the New York Post-Graduate Medical School and Hospital.
He died on 1 August 1937 of a heart attack at his home, 145 East Fifty-fourth Street in Manhattan, New York City. His funeral was held at Universal Chapel on May 6, 1937.


American Contact Dermatitis Society


Alfred Bennison Atherton

Alfred Bennison Atherton (January 22, 1843  – March 7, 1921) was an eminent Canadian surgeon, gynaecologist and obstetrician who made historical contributions to the pathology and surgery of hernia.
Early life.
Atherton was born in Queensbury Parish, New Brunswick, the son of John Atherton (1800-1881) and Charlotte Bennison (1811-1900).
His early education was received at public schools. He chose medicine and pursued his studies under the direction of Hiram Dow of Fredericton. He graduated with a B.A. from the University of New Brunswick in 1862, and subsequently studied in the United States, where he earned his MD from Harvard Medical School, graduating in 1866.
He travelled to the United Kingdom for further studies Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh in Edinburgh. He received a diploma of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh in May 1867, also visiting hospitals in London.
He returned to Canada and became a member of the senate of the University of New Brunswick from 1867 to 1884, and a member of the Medical Council of New Brunswick from 1881 to 1884.
Career.
He was a medical practitioner in Canada and the United States, initially at Victoria Cottage Hospital in New Brunswick, followed by Ontario in 1887. He became a lecturer on the principles of surgery at the Women's College Hospital, Toronto, and surgeon to St. John's Hospital for Women, Toronto.
He also held the positions of vice president of the Canadian Medical Association and president of the Toronto Medical Society.
He attended the Medical Faculty of Trinity College, Toronto in 1891.
At the age of 73, he travelled to California, accompanied by his wife in 1916. He settled permanently and received his Californian medical practitioner licence in 1918.
Atherton is listed in the Directory of Deceased American Physicians (1804-1929).
Medical publications and other writing.
In 1903, whilst surgeon at Victoria Public Hospital, Fredericton, he published a report on Retroperitoneal Hernia and acute strangulation of a knuckle of ileum in a pericael pouch.
Atherton was a contributor to American Medical Biographies. Articles on notable and eminent physicians included Le Baron Botsford (1812  – 1888) and William Bayard (1814 – 1907).
Canadian Politics.
He was also a political figure in Fredericton. He was an unsuccessful candidate in the 1911 Canadian Federal Election, running against Oswald Smith Crockett in the York electoral district.
Personal.
He was born into a Methodist family. His mother was recorded as Native American in the census of 1851 and 1861.
He married Sarah Wiley (1845  – 1934) in Fredericton on May 20, 1868. In the 1891 census they were both living at St James Ward, Toronto. They had no children.
He continued working into his senior years and is mentioned in the New York Medical Journal having attended a function one month before he died.
He died on March 7, 1921 at the age of 78, in San Diego, California. He was buried at Greenwood Memorial Park in San Diego. His wife, Sarah continued to reside in San Diego until her death on December 18, 1934.
Ancestry.
He is a direct descendant of James Atherton, one of the First Settlers of New England; who arrived in Dorchester, Massachusetts in the 1630s. His direct ancestor, Benjamin Atherton (1736-1816) was from Colonial Massachusetts and settled in Maugerville, New Brunswick in 1765. His notable relatives include:


Royal Madrilenian Academy of Medicine

The Royal Madrilenian Academy of Medicine, formally established in 1734, was an academic society dedicated to the study of natural history, natural philosophy, and medicine based in Madrid under the auspices of King Philip V of Spain.
History.
The Royal Madrilenian Academy of Medicine began in 1733 under the name of the Madrilenian Society of Medical Literature as a group that met at the house of physician José Arcadio de Ortega to discuss medicine and medical education. However, on August 12, 1734, the society changed its name to the Madrilenian Academy of Medicine and was soon after granted approval by Philip V. Under the king's auspices, the society expanded to encompass scientific discovery of a variety of disciplines, as opposed to solely medicine. However, in 1824, the Academy was forced to close by the Spanish government due to a lack of interest in scientific advancement following events such as the Napoleonic Wars.
Publications.
From 1734 until 1747, the Academy published a journal known as "Ephemerides Barometrico-Medicas Matritenses", which contained criticism of medical and scientific literature. The journal also involved the cataloguing of weather and atmospheric conditions in an attempt to explain the effects of such weather on individuals' health. "Ephemerides Barometrico-Medicas Matritenses" has been described as pseudoscientific by modern scholars.
Notable members.
José Arcadio de Ortega.
José Arcadio de Ortega, otherwise known as José Arcadio de Hortega, was a preeminent pharmacist of Eighteenth-century Spain. Ortega owned the house at 9 Montera Street where the Madrilenian Soceity of Medical Literature was formed and initially met. Following the society's expansion into the academy and endorsement by Philip V, Ortega served as the academy's secretary. In addition to this post, Ortega's responsibilities within the academy involved the teaching of Botany and the cataloguing of medical history. Outside of the academy, Ortega served as the chief of Spain's military pharmacists from 1738 onward and helped to found the Royal Botanical Garden of Madrid.
José Cervi.
José Cervi was an Italian physician and professor of medicine at the University of Parma. Cervi served as the president of the Royal Academy following its sponsorship by Philip V. Prior to his appointment as president, Cervi had previously worked for the royal family as the King's primary physician. Cervi additionally filled the role of president of other scientific societies across Spain, such as the Royal Society of Seville. Due to his preeminent status in medicine, Cervi was admired by many members of the academy.
Influence.
Despite not lasting longer than a century, The Royal Madrilenian Academy of Medicine heavily influenced and prompted the founding of several of Spain's later academies, such as the Royal Academy of Sciences. A successor to the academy, incorporated in the mid-nineteenth century, would go on to become Spain's National Academy of Medicine.


Co-stimulation

Co-stimulation is a secondary signal which immune cells rely on to activate an immune response in the presence of an antigen-presenting cell. In the case of T cells, two stimuli are required to fully activate their immune response. During the activation of lymphocytes, co-stimulation is often crucial to the development of an effective immune response. Co-stimulation is required in addition to the antigen-specific signal from their antigen receptors.
T Cell Co-stimulation.
T cells require two signals to become fully activated. A first signal, which is antigen-specific, is provided through the T cell receptor (TCR) which interacts with peptide-MHC molecules on the membrane of antigen presenting cells (APC). A second signal, the co-stimulatory signal, is antigen nonspecific and is provided by the interaction between co-stimulatory molecules expressed on the membrane of APC and the T cell.
One of the best characterized co-stimulatory molecules expressed by T cells is CD28, which interacts with CD80 (B7.1) and CD86 (B7.2) on the membrane of APC. Another costimulatory receptor expressed by T cells is ICOS ( Inducible Costimulator), which interacts with ICOS-L.
T cell co-stimulation is necessary for T cell proliferation, differentiation and survival.
Activation of T cells without co-stimulation may lead to T cell anergy, T cell deletion or the development of immune tolerance.
B Cell Co-stimulation.
B cell binds antigens with its BCR (a membrane-bound antibody), which transfers intracellular signals to the B cell as well as inducing the B cell to engulf the antigen, process it, and present it on the MHC II molecules. The latter case induces recognition by antigen-specific Th2 cells or Tfh cells, leading to activation of the B cell through binding of TCR to the MHC-antigen complex. It is followed by synthesis and presentation of CD40L (CD154) on the Th2 cell, which binds to CD40 on the B cell, thus the Th2 cell can co-stimulate the B cell. Without this co-stimulation the B cell cannot proliferate further.
Co-stimulation for B cells is provided alternatively by complement receptors. Microbes may activate the complement system directly and complement component C3b bind to microbes. After C3b is degraded into a fragment iC3b (inactive derivative of C3b), then cleaved to C3dg, and finally to C3d, which continue to bind to microbial surface, B cells express complement receptor CR2 (CD21) to bind to iC3b, C3dg, or C3d. This additional binding makes the B cells 100- to 10,000-fold more sensitive to antigen. CR2 on mature B cells forms a complex with CD19 and CD81. This complex is called the B cell coreceptor complex for such sensitivity enhancement to the antigen.
Applications.
Abatacept (Orencia) is a T cell co-stimulation modulator approved for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. The cytokines secreted by activated T cells are thought to both initiate and propagate the immunologically driven inflammation associated with rheumatoid arthritis. Orencia, a soluble fusion protein, works by altering the co-stimulatory signal required for full T-cell activation. Belatacept is another novel molecule which is being tested as an anti-rejection medication for use in renal transplantation.
A new co-stimulatory superagonistic drug, TGN1412, was the subject of a clinical trial at Northwick Park Hospital, London. The trial became surrounded in controversy as the six volunteers became seriously ill within minutes of being given the drug.
In essence, the co-stimulatory molecules function as "flashing red lights" that interact with the T cell, communicating that the material being presented by the dendritic cell material indicates danger. Dendritic cells displaying co-stimulatory molecules while presenting antigen are able to activate T cells. In contrast, T cells that recognize antigen presented by a dendritic cell not displaying co-stimulatory molecules are generally driven to apoptosis, or may become unresponsive to future encounters with the antigen.


Otto Bollinger

Otto Bollinger (2 April 1843 – 13 August 1909) was a German pathologist born in Altenkirchen, Kusel, Rhineland-Palatinate.
In 1868 he obtained his doctorate in Berlin and two years later received his habilitation. He taught classes at the "Tierärtzliche Hochschule" in Zürich, and in 1874 became an associate professor at the "Tierarzneischule" in Munich. In 1880 he succeeded Ludwig von Buhl (1816-1880) as professor of general pathology and pathological anatomy at the University of Munich.
Bollinger had an extensive background in veterinary medicine, and was known for his studies of rabies in the days before the discovery of an anti-rabies vaccine.
In 1877 he described the etiologic agent of bovine actinomycosis ("lumpy jaw"), an organism that is now referred to as "Actinomyces bovis". He is credited with describing the inclusion bodies found in tissue cells in fowlpox. These bodies contain the fowlpox virus, and are now referred to as "Bollinger bodies". His name is also associated with "Bollinger granules", defined as small yellowish-white granules that cluster, contain micrococci, and are seen in the granulation tissue of botryomycosis.
In 1891, Bollinger provided an early description of a delayed traumatic apoplexy he called "traumatische Spät-Apoplexie". Today this condition is called "delayed traumatic intracerebral hematoma" or (DTICH). His research was based on four patients who suffered a head injury, in which death occurred days to weeks later from an apoplectic event.


Microvascular occlusion

Microvascular occlusion refers to conditions that can present with retiform purpura.
It has been suggested that phenylephrine may be a cause.


August von Froriep

August von Froriep (10 September 1849 – 11 October 1917) was a German anatomist born in Weimar.
He studied medicine in Leipzig, and after earning his doctorate in 1874, he became an assistant to Christian Wilhelm Braune (1831–1892). Later he was a prosector and eventually a professor at the University of Tübingen. Following his death in 1917, he was succeeded by Martin Heidenhain (1864–1949) as professor of anatomy at Tübingen. He was the son of anatomist and publisher Robert Friedrich Froriep (1804–1861).
Froriep specialized in studies involving the development and biological morphology of the head and vertebra. His name is lent to "Froriep's ganglion", which is a temporary group of nerve cells associated with the hypoglossal nerve of an embryo.
In 1911, Froriep claimed to have identified the "famous skull" of poet Friedrich von Schiller from a mass gravesite, of which he published an article titled "Die Schädel Friedrich von Schillers und des Dichters Begräbnisstätte". However, there are detractors to Froriep's claim, and as of late 2007 the authenticity of the skull remains unproven.


Lateroventral thalamic vein

The paired (right and left) lateroventral thalamic veins () originate each from the lateral ventral part of the corresponding half of the thalamus. Benno Shlesinger in 1976 classified these veins as belonging to the lateral group of thalamic veins ("").


Joel Langelott

Joel Langelott (also Langellott or Langelot; born Thuringia, Germany, 1617 – 1680) was a German physician and alchemical writer who became court physician to Frederick IV, Duke of Holstein-Gottorp.
Langelott was a traveler to England, and contributed to the Philosophical Transactions for 1672. His best-known chemical work is the "Epistula ad praecellentissimos naturae curiosos" of 1672.


One Nurse at a Time

One Nurse At A Time (ONAAT) is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization created by nurses who are passionate about giving back to their local and global community through volunteer and humanitarian medical pursuits. One Nurse At A Time is dedicated to supporting and encouraging nurses as they seek opportunities to serve locally, nationally, or internationally.
Based in Seattle, Washington, One Nurse was created in 2007 by two local nurses, Sue Averill and Staci Kelley. ONAAT is a private, volunteer staffed, nonsectarian, nonpolitical organization.
Activities.
One Nurse At A Time helps nurses volunteer their skills to those in need in several ways. They offer scholarships up to $1,000 to offset the cost of medical missions, a program that has allowed dozens of volunteers to serve all over the world since the organization was founded. ONAAT also maintains a searchable directory of organizations offering volunteer opportunities for nurses in the US and abroad. Their website offers education modules to help nurses understand unfamiliar global disease processes, and they share humanitarian nursing stories on their blog.
One Nurse At A Time also actively supports first-mission nurses via the Jo's Nurses program. Named for Marilyn Jo Schuyler, an early supported of ONAAT, Jo's Nurses is a medical mission program for nurses who have never volunteered abroad but want to begin to incorporate volunteering into their careers. Small groups of first-mission nurses travel with a mentor from One Nurse At A Time through selected organizations from the One Nurse directory. ONAAT provides these nurses with pre-trip orientation and training, financial support, and hands-on supervision. Jo's Nurses participants commit to at least one additional volunteer mission the year following their Jo’s Nurses experience.
Public education about the depth and breadth of humanitarian nursing is another major focus of the organization’s work. ONAAT nurses speak at public forums, maintain an active presence on internet social networks, and write articles and stories about their experiences.
In 2016 One Nurse At A Time published the first in a series of books about humanitarian nurses: One Nurse At A Time: Beyond Borders
Leadership.
Founder Sue Averill, RN, serves as an unpaid officer for the organization as President and Treasurer. Both Averill and co-founder Staci Kelley are emergency room nurses in the Seattle area, and have volunteered part-time, locally and abroad, with organizations such as Doctors Without Borders, Public Health Reserve Corps, and many others. Averill received NurseWeek's Nursing Excellence award in 2012 for Volunteerism and Service, and was nominated for Nurse of the Year 2010 by the March of Dimes. 2010 - 2012 ONAAT added Nancy Leigh Harless, BSN, WCHNP, as Communications Director to increase public awareness of ONAAT through the media.
The unpaid Board of Directors are members in and outside the medical community, and guide the organization in activities and future programs.
References.
9. One Nurse At A Time: Beyond Borders edited by Sue Averill. Humanitarian Nursing at the Edge of the World


Graham Teasdale (physician)

Sir Graham Michael Teasdale (born 23 September 1940) is an English neurosurgeon and the co-developer of the neurologic assessment tool known as the Glasgow Coma Scale. He is an Honorary Professor in Mental Health and Wellbeing in the Institute of Health and Wellbeing at the University of Glasgow Medical School.
Biography.
Born in Spennymoor, County Durham, Teasdale attended medical school at the University of Durham, graduating MB, BS in 1963. He has been associated with the University of Glasgow Medical School since the 1960s.
In 1974, Teasdale co-created the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) with Bryan Jennett. The GCS is a method of assessing a patient's level of consciousness.
After serving as president of the Society of British Neurological Surgeons from 2000 to 2002, he was president of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow from 2003 to 2006. He was made a Knight Bachelor in 2006. He received the 2014 Distinguished Service Award from the American Association of Neurological Surgeons.


List of target antigens in pemphigus

Circulating auto-antibodies in the human body can target normal parts of the skin leading to disease. This is a list of antigens in the skin that may become targets of circulating auto-antibodies leading to the various types of pemphigus.


Buffett Foundation

The Buffett Foundation is a charitable organization formed 1964 in Omaha, Nebraska, by investor and industrialist Warren Buffett as a vehicle to manage his charitable giving. It was renamed the Susan Thompson Buffett Foundation in honor of his wife, Susan Buffett, who died in 2004.
As of 2014, the Buffet Foundation ranked fourth among family foundations by grants paid. It invests heavily in reproductive health and family planning grants across the world, including substantial investments in abortion and contraceptives. According to "Mother Jones", the Buffett Foundation is known for its focus on abortion access and for its "secrecy...often appearing under grant acknowledgements only as 'an anonymous donor.'"
Management.
Allen Greenberg, the executive director of the foundation, was married from 1983 to 1995 to the Buffetts' daughter, Susie, who is chair. The Buffett Foundation was set up in 1964 but had no director until Greenberg took the job in 1987.
History.
Susan Buffett's will bestowed about $2.5 billion on the foundation, to which her husband's further gifts of $315 million have been added.
Giving.
The Buffett Foundation does not accept unsolicited requests, preferring instead to seek out worthy recipients on its own.
Of the $17.6 million that the Buffett Foundation donated in the fiscal year ended June 30, 1999, nearly $3.8 million went to Planned Parenthood, among its top contributors. It also involves itself directly at the clinic level.
International Projects Assistance Services (IPAS), based in Carrboro, North Carolina, manufactures a handheld suction pump used in developing countries to initiate abortions. The Buffett Foundation has backed IPAS for years. Its 1999 contribution of $2.5 million was part of a five-year, $20 million commitment that will enable IPAS to double its capacity.
The foundation provides grants to a large range of U.S. and a few international organizations, including the Willows Foundation in Turkey (€2.3 million), the World Food Programme in Italy (€800,000), Marie Stopes International in the UK (€571,000); and Grupo de Informacion en Reproduccion Elegida in Mexico (€196,000).
By 2008, the Foundation had nearly $4 billion in assets. In 2007, Omaha's Building Bright Futures initiative promised financial support to low-income students in the area who wanted to attend college.
Abortion funding.
In the 1990s, the Buffett Foundation helped finance the development of the abortion drug RU-486. Between 2001 and 2014, the foundation contributed over $1.5 billion to abortion related causes, including at least $427 million to Planned Parenthood and $168 million to the National Abortion Federation. It has also funded the Guttmacher Institute, which tracks demographic and legislative trends, and Gynuity Health Projects, which focuses on medication abortion.
Gates Foundation.
Warren Buffett's intention was originally to leave 99% of his estate to the Buffett Foundation, but in June 2006 he announced that he would give 85% of his wealth to the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation instead. Buffett stated that he changed his mind because he has grown to admire Gates's foundation over the years; he believed that the Gates Foundation would be able to use his money effectively because it was already scaled-up.
"Susan's Foundation" is to receive a bequest of about $3 billion over a span of many years.
Source of wealth.
The vast bulk of Buffett's wealth consists of his personal holdings in Berkshire Hathaway, a conglomerate of which he controls almost 40% directly, and which he has managed personally since the mid-1960s.
Giving away such a large part of his company holding could prove problematic in that much of the business of Berkshire Hathaway consists of stock-issuing insurance companies, such as GEICO and General Re. In the past, many state insurance regulators have had serious concerns about allowing for-profit insurance companies – as opposed to mutual insurance companies – to be ultimately controlled by non-profit entities. In a famous case regarding this, the MacArthur Foundation was forced to divest itself of Bankers Life and Accident.


Jess Ghannam

Jess Ghannam is an accomplished Palestinian-American psychologist and professor who is active in numerous non-governmental organizations and in carrying out humanitarian work, particularly in the Gaza Strip. He is a clinical professor and the Chief of Medical Psychology at the University of California, San Francisco, and also practices at the UCSF Helen Diller Comprehensive Cancer Center.
Ghannam received his A.B. in Psychology from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor in 1979, before going on to earn an M.A. in Psychology, an M.S. in Medical Sciences and a Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of California, Berkeley. In addition, he was a post-doctoral fellow in Psychology at Stanford University in California.
Since the early 1990s, Ghannam has worked extensively in the field of medical development in the occupied Palestinian Territories of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. He is a board member of the Gaza Community Health Clinic, and has established medical clinics in towns and cities across the Gaza Strip, including Gaza City, Khan Younis, Jabalia and Deir el-Balah.
Ghannam is also the former president of the San Francisco chapter of the American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Committee, and a member of the international executive committee of Al-Awda, the Palestinian Right to Return Coalition. He is also the co-host of "Arab Talk with Jess and Jamal", a San Francisco Bay Area radio talk-show about Middle Eastern Affairs with fellow Palestinian-American commentator Jamal Dajani.


Anterior hypothalamic nucleus

The anterior hypothalamic nucleus is a nucleus of the hypothalamus.
Its function is thermoregulation (cooling) of the body. Damage or destruction of this nucleus causes hyperthermia.
The anterior hypothalamus plays a role in regulating sleep.
The anterior hypothalamic region is sometimes grouped with the preoptic area.


Chief ambulance officer

Chief Ambulance Officer (CAO) is a senior manager in some ambulance services. In the United Kingdom, it is the traditional title held by the chief of an NHS ambulance service or a private ambulance service. In Ireland's HSE National Ambulance Service, it refers to one of several senior management roles.
In the UK, the role is comparable to that of a Chief Constable within police forces or Chief Fire Officer within fire services. CAOs are the operational and administrative heads of the ambulance service and take command of all ambulance personnel at large operational incidents. They also set policy and targets (along with a board of directors) and are responsible for the day-to-day running of the service.
The title of CAO is normally only used by medically qualified paramedics who have previously served on the frontline and have risen through the ranks. In recent times, several ambulance services have employed non-medically qualified managers in their most senior role. They hold the title of Chief Executive, rather than Chief Ambulance Officer. Some ambulance services now only use the title of Chief Executive for their chief, regardless as to whether they have a frontline background. In this case, CEs with a medical background will still wear a uniform, whereas non-medical CEs do not.


Malherbe calcifying epithelioma


Royal College of General Practitioners

The Royal College of General Practitioners (RCGP) is the professional body for general (medical) practitioners (GPs/Family Physicians/Primary Care Physicians) in the United Kingdom. The RCGP represents and supports GPs on key issues including licensing, education, training, research and clinical standards. It is the largest of the medical royal colleges, with over 50,000 members. The RCGP was founded in 1952 in London, England and is a registered charity. Its motto is "Cum Scientia Caritas" – "Compassion [empowered] with Knowledge."
Organisation.
The RCGP is unique amongst the medical royal colleges in having both a President and a Chairman. The President takes a mainly ceremonial function while the Chairman sets the college's policy direction, and leads the RCGP decision making body – the council. In 2012 the establishment of a new Trustee Board meant that members of the council were relieved of having to act in a statutory capacity relating to the college's charity status.
The council of the RCGP encompasses 32 groups ('Faculties') located across the UK, the Republic of Ireland and overseas. These are semi-autonomous units that provide local support and services for doctors, including educational events, training and personal development services. The college also incorporates devolved councils in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland that liaise with their own national health and primary care organisations.
The current President is Professor Amanda Howe and Chair of Council is Professor Martin Marshall. The current Joint Honorary Secretaries are Dr Jonathan Leach and Dr Victoria Tzortziou Brown. The current Honorary Treasurer is Dr Steve Mowle, Vice Chair Professional Development is Dr Michael Mulholland and Vice Chair External Affairs is Dr Gary Howsam .
Membership.
Paid membership of the RCGP is split into three main groups:
RCGP membership is also extended to Associates in Training (doctors in specialty training for general practice) and Life Members. the membership total stands at over 50,000. Members of the RCGP are required to abide by the RCGP constitution.
The college gained over 7,000 Associates in Training (AiTs) in 2008, when membership was made compulsory for GP trainees. The membership total has effectively doubled between 1998 and 2008.
MRCGP postgraduate qualification.
Membership of the Royal College of General Practitioners (MRCGP) is a postgraduate medical qualification in the UK. The MRCGP Qualification is an integrated training and assessment system run by the RCGP. It aims to demonstrate excellence in the provision of General Practice. While the MRCGP was originally an optional qualification, it has more recently become mandatory for newly qualifying GPs and is directly linked to the GP Curriculum which the RCGP published in 2007 and regularly updates as necessary.
The award of MRCGP in addition to meeting all the criteria of the GMC along with a payment of a fee (currently £500) may lead to the award of a Certificate of Completion of Training.
In 2007 a new system of assessment was introduced, delivered locally in conjunction with deaneries, with the qualification awarded on completion of a three-year specialty training programme. Doctors with a licence to practise who successfully complete the MRCGP are eligible for inclusion on the General Medical Council's (GMC) GP Register as well use of the post nominals that indicate membership of the RCGP (MRCGP). Immediately after the introduction of the 2007 changes the term "nMRCGP" had helped to differentiate between old and new assessment procedures (with n meaning new). After several years, once all trainees were being assessed using the new methods, the "n" was dropped.
Training and assessment comprises three components, which cover the general practice specialty training curriculum.
Membership by Assessment of Performance (MAP) is the alternative route to membership. It enables established GPs, who cannot take the college's MRCGP exam, to gain membership through submission of a portfolio of evidence and potentially an oral examination. This route to membership is open to all established GPs who are registered to practice in the UK and who never took College exams.
Racial discrimination in clinical skills assessment.
In 2013 the British Association of Physicians of Indian Origin launched a legal challenge to the regulator, the General Medical Council, and the college alleging that the clinical skills assessment component of the Membership exam was discriminatory and seeking a judicial review of the way the RCGP conducted the test, because there is a "significant difference in pass rates which cannot be explained by a lack of any knowledge, skill or competency on the part of the International Medical Graduates. 65.3% of international graduates failed their first attempt at the Clinical Skills Assessment (CSA) component of the MRCGP exam in 2011/12, compared with 9.9% of UK graduates. In 2010/11, 59.2% of the international graduates failed at the first attempt, compared with 8.2% of UK graduates, while in 2008, 43% of IMGs failed the CSA compared with 8.3% of UK graduates.
Aneez Esmail was asked to analyse data on more than 5,000 candidates who sat the CSA exam over a two-year period by the GMC. He found that ‘subjective bias due to racial discrimination may be a cause’ of the different pass rates for between white and non-white graduates.
The Judicial Review failed. Mr Justice John Mitting presiding over the case said that the Royal College of General Practitioners was neither racially discriminatory nor in breach of its public sector equality duty. He said the college had carried out numerous assessments that identified the disparity in performance between different groups and that it should now take action, including by selecting more representative examiners and role-players for the assessment.
Subsequently, the college, BAPIO announced that they would be working in close collaboration to address supporting international medical graduates and Black and Minority Ethnic doctors in relation to training and passing the MRCGP.
Professional development.
The RCGP runs a Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Credits scheme that offers GPs a flexible learning framework in which to produce a portfolio of work that supports the Revalidation process. Key elements of the college's work in this field include developing a quality assured appraisal system and an ePortfolio that logs evidence of GPs' learning.
The CPD scheme is supported by the Online Learning Environment and Essential Knowledge Updates (EKU), providing doctors with e-learning tools, publications and other written materials on the latest developments in clinical practice knowledge. The provision of educational support for members includes:
This has led to improved retention, which now exceeds 97%, and is 7% higher than the average retention rate for UK-based membership organisations charging a similar annual membership subscription fee. The RCGP has also developed Quality Programmes to support GPs and their teams. These are criteria and evidence based programmes which are designed to be voluntary, supportive and developmental in function.
Courses and events.
The RCGP runs an Annual Conference each autumn, often attracting political, national and international speakers. The RCGP also hold a variety of courses and conferences throughout the year on specific clinical topics (e.g. Certificate in the treatment of substance misuse; Minor Surgery; Commissioning of local care; and regular 'one-day essentials' such as obesity, respiratory care and dementia) – all aimed at GPs and other health professionals within primary care.
International work.
The RCGP builds partnerships with overseas health organisations, runs an International Development Programme and develops postgraduate assessment through an International Membership accreditation scheme called MRCGP[INT].
The college advises international doctors wishing to study or practise in the UK, and runs an International Travel Scholarship to support the study needs of members and non-members.
Publications, information services and archives.
The RCGP publishes
The college also produces several key documents, reports, position statements and occasionally guidance in a variety of areas each year. The college's Clinical Champions working out of its Clinical Innovation and Research Centre also produce a wide range of materials in response to identified clinical priorities, including:
The RCGP's library catalogue contains MD and PhD theses on general practice, an international selection of primary care journals and a loan collection of college publications. The library is open to all members, and to non-members by appointment.
RCGP's archives provide an important insight into the origins of the college and the foundation of modern general practice. Exhibits include a variety of personal papers, historic books, college institutional records, and a museum collection of medical instruments dating back to the 17th century.
Prizes and awards.
The RCGP provides over 20 academic and monetary awards for people at different stages of their career. The awards are administered by an Awards Committee chaired by the President, and are usually presented at the college's two general meetings. The college also offers a number of International Travel Scholarships, and some regional faculties run their own awards. The college's highest award is the Honorary Fellowship, awarded to doctors and non-doctors from the UK and overseas for outstanding work towards the objectives of the college.
College history and headquarters.
Co-founders of the college include Fraser Rose, John Hunt and George Abercrombie and others who joined the steering committee in 1951. The college began in November 1952 in response to growing physical, administrative and financial pressures that demoralised GPs and undermined standards of patient care. GPs now had to provide free primary care throughout the community and act as 'gatekeepers' with responsibility for referring patients to specialist consultants in NHS hospitals.
The formation of the college received widespread support throughout the medical press and individual GPs. In January 1953 'Foundation Membership' was made available to established GPs who satisfied defined criteria, and within six weeks 1,655 doctors had joined. One of the first presidents of the RCGP was William Pickles. He spoke out in favour of the foundation of the NHS and was held in high regard worldwide for his work in epidemiology.
The college's coat of arms and inscription "Cum Scientia Caritas" was designed by Perry Harrison, a founder member of the college. The college received the letters patent for its Arms in 1961. The elements represent historical context and themes relevant to general medical practice:
From 1962 the headquarters of the college were at 14 Princes Gate, Kensington, London. By 1970 the college had 7,500 members.
In late October 2012 the college moved into new headquarters at 30 Euston Square, Camden, London. The building includes a Clinical Skills Assessment Centre (CSA) which means that the college has the capacity to assess several hundred candidates during sittings that are held throughout the year. Concern has been expressed about the effect on the headquarters when re-development of Euston Station takes place to accommodate the new High Speed Two development.
Criticism.
The RCGP has been criticised for its support of the fossil fuel industry by hosting the 2020 Oil and Gas UK Exploration Conference at its London headquarters. This was cancelled after a petition by members raised concerns.


Daphne Bavelier

Daphné Bavelier is a French cognitive neuroscientist specialized in brain plasticity and learning. She is full Professor at the University of Geneva in the Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences. She heads the Brain and Learning lab at Campus Biotech in Geneva, Switzerland.
Education and Career.
Bavelier received her undergraduate education at the École normale supérieure in biology, before moving to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1988 to pursue a PhD in Brain and Cognitive sciences in Professor Molly Potter's laboratory.
She received a postdoctoral fellowship from the James S. McDonnell Foundation to carry research in brain plasticity and learning at the Salk Institute under Professor Helen Neville.
In 1996, she became assistant professor at the Georgetown Institute for Cognitive and Computational Sciences at Georgetown University. She then joined the Brain and Cognitive Science department at the University of Rochester in 1999, before moving to the department of Psychology within the Faculty of Psychology and Education Science at the University of Geneva in 2011.
Research Interest.
Bavelier’s interest lies in how the brain adapts to changes in experience. Early in her career, she investigated how being born deaf and using sign language alters brain organization for attentional functions and language processing. In 2000, Bavelier and her student (and now colleague) C. Shawn Green made an unexpected discovery that video games could be powerful tools to induce brain plasticity. In particular, action video games were shown to enhance attention. Since then, Bavelier has been interested in understanding how to leverage video games, and more generally digital technologies, to facilitate brain plasticity and learning. The Brain and Learning Lab now focuses on clarifying the factors that promote learning and brain plasticity using a multidisciplinary approach (behavior, brain imaging, eye tracking and vital statistics).
With an additional interest in translational work, Bavelier is one of the co-founders of Akili Interactive, a company dedicated to leverage video games for therapeutic interventions.


Rajavithi Hospital

Rajavithi Hospital () is large public hospital located in Ratchathewi District, Bangkok, Thailand. It was founded in 1951 as the Women's Hospital, and is operated by the Ministry of Public Health's Department of Medical Services. With an inpatient capacity of 1,200 beds, it is one of the largest hospitals in Thailand. It serves as a teaching hospital for the College of Medicine, Rangsit University.
History.
Rajavithi Hospital was founded as the Women's Hospital under the premiership of Plaek Phibunsongkhram, as part of his policy to establish large medical centres in Bangkok. Construction began in 1947, undertaken by the Department of Civil Engineering. The original buildings, designed in modified International Style, included an administration and outpatient building, a surgery and labour building, two patient wards, and staff residences. The hospital was officially opened on 16 April 1951, becoming the country's first specialized hospital for women's health.
One of the hospital's pioneers was Dr Sem Pringpuangkeo, who was director from 1951 to 1963 and oversaw the successful separation of conjoined twins Wandee and Sriwan, the country's first such case, in 1956. He also founded the next-door Children's Hospital, in 1954. The hospital gradually diversified its patient services, adding surgery, internal medicine, and otolaryngology departments. But obstetrics for a long time remained the hospital's core service, seeing as many as 30,000 births yearly during 1960–1964.
In 1976, the hospital changed its policies to provide general healthcare as well and was renamed Rajavithi Hospital, a name conferred upon by King Bhumibol Adulyadej. In 1988, the hospital opened its heart centre and was the first in Asia to successfully operate a heart transplant using the 'Domino' procedure.
Rajavithi Hospital started providing medical education for students of the College of Medicine, Rangsit University since 1 June 1992. Students in this group also study at the Queen Sirikit National Institute of Child Health as a teaching hospital.
Services.
Rajavithi Hospital serves as the Department of Medical Services' largest tertiary referral centre, and is a major organ transplant facility. It also operates a large trauma unit, and its Narenthorn EMS Center, established in 1995, was the country's first emergency medical service provider. The hospital has about 250 medical doctors on staff, has 1,200 inpatient beds, and treats up to 1 million outpatients annually.


Souths Cares

The Souths Cares program is an initiative of the South Sydney Rabbitohs which was started with the aim of to give children and young people from Redfern and the surrounding areas the opportunity to take part in a series of health and education workshops to aid social and physical development and creating a network of committed individuals working together to bring about social change. It is based in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
Directors.
Current Directors are:
Financial Record.
The last four years have produced the following revenue and delivery to charitable programs:


Medical school in the United States

Medical school in the United States is a graduate program with the purpose of educating physicians in the field of medicine. Such schools provide a major part of the medical education in the United States. Most medical schools in the US confer upon graduates a Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree, although some confer a Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO) degree, and a few offer combined programs where graduates earn both a bachelor's degree and an MD or DO. Most schools follow a similar pattern of education, with two years of classroom and laboratory based education, followed by two years of clinical rotations in a teaching hospital where students see patients in a variety of specialties. After completion, graduates must complete a residency before becoming licensed to practice medicine.
Admissions to medical school in the United States is generally considered highly competitive, although there is a wide range of competitiveness among different types of schools. Admissions criteria include grade point averages, Medical College Admission Test scores, letters of recommendation, and interviews. Most students have at least a bachelor's degree, usually in a biologic science, and some students have advanced degrees, such as a master's degree. Medical School in the United States does not require a degree in biological sciences, but rather a set of undergraduate courses in scientific disciplines thought to adequately prepare students.
The Flexner Report, published in 1910, had a significant impact on reforming medical education in the United States. The report led to the implementation of more structured standards and regulations in medical education. Currently, all medical schools in the United States must be accredited by a certain body, depending on whether it is a D.O. granting medical school or an M.D. granting medical school. The Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME) is an accrediting body for educational programs at schools of medicine in the United States and Canada. The LCME accredits only the schools that grant an M.D. degree; osteopathic medical schools that grant the D.O. degree are accredited by the Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation of the American Osteopathic Association. The LCME is sponsored by the Association of American Medical Colleges and the American Medical Association.
History.
The first medical school in the United States opened in 1765 at the College of Philadelphia by John Morgan and William Shippen Jr.; this school developed over time into the University of Pennsylvania's Perelman School of Medicine. In 1767, Dr. Samuel Bard, an alumnus of then-King's College opened a medical school that developed into what is today Columbia University's Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons. Harvard Medical School opened in 1782. Dartmouth opened its medical school as the fourth established in the United States in 1797.
The American Medical Association was formed in 1847. In 1876, the Association of American Medical Colleges was formed. Standards for the education provided at medical schools were developed.
In 1910, the Flexner Report reported on the state of medical education in the United States and Canada. Written by Abraham Flexner and published in 1910 under the aegis of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, the report set standards and reformed American medical education. This report led to the demise of many non-university based medical schools.
After World War I, the standard practice of completing an internship after medical school became a commonplace requirement to practice medicine, and a list of approved hospitals for the training of interns was complied. In 1928, the AMA published a set of guidelines for residencies.
In 1940, the Report of the Commission on Graduate Medical Education was published, which first described the overworking of interns and residents. The Liaison Committee on Medical Education was established in 1942.
Combination programs granting a bachelor's degree and medical degree are relatively rare in the US. Baccalaureate-MD programs opened for the first time in 1961 at Northwestern University Medical School and Boston University School of Medicine. By the 1990s, 34 programs had opened, and in 2011, these programs were offered at 57 medical schools. Several of these schools offer programs in combination with more than one undergraduate institution, for a total of 81 programs. In all current combination programs admitting graduating high school students to receive both a bachelors and a medical degree, the medical education portion is four years in length. 80% of the programs are 8 years in length, giving no time advantage to students over the standard process, but 21% offer a compressed 6- or 7-year program. This is different to the programs of the 1990s, where 42% of programs were 8 years, 32% were 7 years, and 23% were 6 years.
For years following the Flexner report, medical education in the United States has followed a standardized pattern, with two years of classroom education, followed by two years of clinical experience. Since the early 2010s, the idea of shortening medical school to three years once again has been raised as a solution to the massive debt facing medical graduates and the growing shortage of physicians in primary care specialties. A small number of universities are experimenting with three-year programs. New York University offers a 3-year program with an early acceptance into a residency program for students that wish to apply for a specific specialty before beginning their medical education. A handful of universities, including the Penn State College of Medicine, University of California Davis School of Medicine, and Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center School of Medicine, offer these programs for students that commit to entering a family medicine residency.
Admissions.
In general, admission into a US medical school is considered highly competitive and typically requires completion of a four-year Bachelor's degree or at least 90 credit hours from an accredited college or university. Many applicants obtain further education before medical school in the form of Master's degrees or other non science-related degrees. Admissions criteria may include overall performance in the undergraduate years and performance in a group of courses specifically required by U.S. medical schools (pre-health sciences), the score on the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), application essays, letters of recommendation (most schools require either one letter from the undergraduate institution's premedical advising committee or a combination of letters from at least one science faculty and one non-science faculty), and interviews.
Beyond objective admissions criteria, many programs look for candidates who have had unique experiences in community service, volunteer work, international studies, research, or other advanced degrees. The application essay is the primary opportunity for the candidate to describe their reasons for entering a medical career. The essay requirements are usually open-ended to allow creativity and flexibility for the candidate to draw upon their personal experiences/challenges to make him/her stand out amongst other applicants. If granted, an interview serves as an additional way to express these subjective strengths that a candidate may possess.
Since 2005, the Association of American Medical Colleges has recommended that all medical schools conduct background checks on applicants in order to prevent individuals with convictions for serious crimes from being matriculated.
Most commonly, the bachelor's degree is in one of the biological sciences, but not always; in 2020, nearly 40% of medical school matriculates had received bachelor's degrees in fields other than biology or specialized health sciences. All medical school applicants must, however, complete undergraduate courses with labs in biology, general chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics; some medical schools have additional requirements such as biochemistry, calculus, genetics, psychology and English. Many of these courses have prerequisites, so there are other "hidden" course requirements (basic science courses) that are often taken first. Concerns have been raised that these stringent science requirements constrict the applicant pool and deter many potentially talented future physicians, including those from groups historically underrepresented in medicine, from applying.
A student with a bachelor's degree who has not taken the pre-medical coursework may complete a post-baccalaureate (postbacc) program. Such programs allow rapid fulfillment of prerequisite course work as well as grade point average improvement. Some postbacc programs are specifically linked to individual medical schools to allow matriculation without a gap year, while most require 1–2 years to complete.Post-bacc programs have become popular among applicants to medical school. The New York Times reported, that in 2011, more than 15 percent of the new medical students had gone through one of such a programs. Studies have shown that graduates of post-baccalaureate programs were more likely to be providing care in federally designated underserved areas and/or providing care to vulnerable populations.
Several universities across the U.S. admit college students to their medical schools during college; students attend a single six-year to eight-year integrated program consisting of two to four years of an undergraduate curriculum and four years of medical school curriculum, culminating in both a bachelor's and M.D. degree or a bachelor's and D.O. degree. Some of these programs admit high school students to college and medical school.
While not necessary for admission, several private organizations have capitalized on this complex and involved process by offering services ranging from single-component preparation (MCAT, essay, etc.) to entire application review/consultation.
In 2020, the average MCAT and GPA for students entering U.S.-based M.D. programs were 511.5 and 3.73 respectively, and (as of 2018) 504 and 3.54 for D.O. matriculants.
In 2020-2021, 53,030 people applied to allopathic medical schools in the United States through the American Medical College Application Service. Of these 45,266 students, 22,239 of them matriculated into a medical school for a success rate of 42 percent. However, this figure does not account for the attrition rate of pre-med students in various stages of the pre-application process (those who ultimately do not decide to apply due to weeding out by low GPA, low MCAT, lack of clinical and research experience, and numerous other factors).
Curriculum.
Medical school typically consists of four years of education and training, although a few programs offer three-year tracks. Traditionally, the first two years consist of basic science and clinical medicine courses, such as anatomy, biochemistry, histology, microbiology, pharmacology, physiology, cardiology, pulmonology, gastroenterology, endocrinology, psychiatry, and neurology. DO students also study Osteopathic Manipulative Medicine. USMLE Step 1/COMLEX Level 1 of the medical licensing boards are taken at the completion of the preclinical phase of study.
Traditionally medical schools have divided the first year into the basic science courses and the second year into clinical science courses, but it has been increasingly common since the mid-2000s for schools to follow a "systems-based" curriculum, where students take shorter courses that focus on one organ or functional system at a time, and relevant topics such as pharmacology are integrated.
The third and fourth years consist of clinical rotations, sometimes called clerkships, where students see patients in hospitals and clinics. These rotations are usually at teaching hospitals but are occasionally at community hospitals or with private physicians. Mandatory rotations in third year are often obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, psychiatry, family medicine, internal medicine, and surgery. During the third year, medical students take Step 2/Level 2 of the medical licensing boards. Fourth year rotations typically allow students to choose several electives and finish required rotations. It is also used as a period of auditioning for residency programs.
Dual degree programs.
Many medical schools also offer joint degree programs in which some medical students may simultaneously enroll in master's or doctoral-level programs in related fields such as a Masters in Business Administration, Masters in Healthcare Administration, Masters in Public Health, JD, Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy, and Masters in Health Communication. Some schools, such as the Wayne State University School of Medicine and the Medical College of South Carolina, both offer an integrated basic radiology curriculum during their respective MD programs led by investigators of the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study.
Upon completion of medical school, the student gains the title of doctor and the degree of M.D. or D.O. but cannot practice independently until completing at least an internship and also Step 3 of the USMLE (for M.D.) or COMLEX (for D.O.). Doctors of Medicine and Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine have an equal scope of practice in the United States, with some osteopathic physicians supplementing their practice with principles of osteopathic medicine.
Grading.
Medical schools use a variety of different grading methods. Even within one school, the grading of the basic sciences and clinical clerkships may vary. Most medical schools use the pass/fail schema, rather than letter grades; however the range of grading intervals varies. In addition, sometimes it is important to evaluate the overall sense of how collaborative a student body is instead of basing judgment solely on grading intervals (i.e. a school with honors can still be very collaborative while some schools with pass/fail grading can be very competitive and individualistic). The following are examples of grades used with different intervals:
At some schools, a Medical Student Performance Evaluation, also called Dean's letter, more specifically describes the performance of a student during medical school.
Social and personal effects of medical school.
With the many demands being placed on medical students, maintaining a healthy lifestyle can often be difficult.
Physician suicide has risen in the public's awareness recently, and studies show that even as medical students, trainees have depression rates that are over 15% higher than the general population. For those who have developed good exercise habits, continuing to do so may not be difficult. However, for students who have not yet developed the habit, they may find their physical well-being exacerbated by their new stressful lifestyle. Maintaining long-term relationships is also often a challenge.
Accreditation.
All medical schools within the United States must be accredited by one of two organizations. The Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME), jointly administered by the Association of American Medical Colleges and the American Medical Association, accredits M.D. schools, while the Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation of the American Osteopathic Association accredits osteopathic (D.O.) medical schools. There are presently 154 M.D. programs and 38 D.O. programs in the United States.
Accreditation is required for a school's students to receive federal loans. Additionally, schools must be accredited to receive federal funding for medical education. The M.D. and D.O. are the only medical degrees offered in the United States which are listed in the WHO/IMED list of medical schools.
Finances.
The normal cost to attend medical school can range from over $100,000 a year. However, with average debt of graduates rising, it is important to medical students to be aware of their financial situation when starting out in and during medical school, as well as when planning for their future.
The median four-year cost of medical school (including expenses and books) was $278,455 for private schools, and $207,866 for public schools in 2013 according to the Association of American Medical Colleges. This doesn't include the opportunity cost ("lost opportunity") of attending school.
Indebtedness of medical graduates.
The rising cost of medical education has caused concern. In 1986, the mean debt accumulated in medical school was $32,000, which is approximately $70,000 in 2017 dollars. In 2016, the mean medical school debt was $190,000. However, in 2016, 27% of medical students graduated with no debt. This is a large increase from 2010, when 16% of students had no debt upon graduation. According to the Journal of the American Medical Association, scholarship funds among those graduating without debt dropped by more than half, from $135,186 in 2010 to $52,718 in 2016. This suggests that the increase in students graduating without debt is due to personal wealth rather than decreased cost of attending medical school. Additionally, with an increase in total debt and a decrease in the number of students carrying debt, the debt accumulated by medical students is increasingly being concentrated in fewer students with larger debt loads.
A current economic theory suggests that increasing borrowing limits may have been the cause of the increased tuition. As medical students are allowed to borrow more, medical schools raise tuition prices to maximally increase revenue. A study by the Cato Institute shows that schools raise prices 97 cents for each one dollar increase in borrowing capacity.
There is no consensus on whether the level of debt carried by medical students has a strong effect on their choice of medical specialty. Dr. Herbert Pardes and others have suggested that medical school debt has been a direct cause of the US primary care shortage. However, the amount of debt carried by medical graduates suggests the opposite. Students in more competitive specialties had significantly less debt on graduation, meaning that they weren't reliant on higher future compensation to repay loans. In 2016, 80% of family medicine residents graduated with debt, while only 74% of anesthesiology residents and 60% of ophthalmology residents graduated with any debt. The mean debt of students that did have debt entering family medicine residencies was $181,000, while the mean debt of those entering dermatology residencies was $153,000.
In February 2010, "The Wall Street Journal" published a story of Dr Michelle Bisutti's $555,000 medical school debt. The huge amount of debt is a direct result of Bisutti deferring her student debt payment during her residency.
Indebtedness Relief Programs.
Income-based repayment (IBR) and Pay as You Earn (PAYE) give options to lower monthly repayment based on adjusted gross income (AGI) for all Federal student loans. Physicians in public service are also eligible for student loan forgiveness after ten years of loan payment while in a public service job.
Repayment options that lower monthly payments and student loan forgiveness (PSLF) in public service are advised to medical residents slated to earn much higher salaries after residency. Among 2019 graduates, 34% reported planning to pursue PSLF and 56% reported no plans to enter a loan forgiveness program.
Academic health centers.
Most MD schools are programs within multi-purpose institutions known as academic health centers. Academic health centers aim to educate medical students and residents, provide top-quality patient care, and perform research to advance the field of medicine. Since medical students are educated inside academic health centers, it is impossible to separate the finances from other operations inside the center. Funding for medical students—and higher graduate medical education—comes from several sources above and beyond personal debt financing.


Viroid

Viroids are small infectious pathogens. They are composed solely of a short strand of circular, single-stranded RNA. Unlike viruses, they have no protein coating. All known viroids are inhabitants of angiosperms, and most cause diseases, whose respective economic importance on humans varies widely.
The first discoveries of viroids in the 1970s triggered the historically third major extension of the biosphere—to include smaller lifelike entities —after the discoveries, in 1675 by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (of the "subvisible" microorganisms) and in 1892 by Dmitri Iosifovich Ivanovsky (of the "submicroscopic" viruses).
The unique properties of viroids have been recognized by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses, in creating a new order of subviral agents.
The first recognized viroid, the pathogenic agent of the potato spindle tuber disease, was discovered, initially molecularly characterized, and named by Theodor Otto Diener, plant pathologist at the U.S Department of Agriculture's Research Center in Beltsville, Maryland, in 1971. This viroid is now called Potato spindle tuber viroid, abbreviated PSTVd.
Although viroids are composed of nucleic acid, they do not code for any protein. The viroid's replication mechanism uses RNA polymerase II, a host cell enzyme normally associated with synthesis of messenger RNA from DNA, which instead catalyzes "rolling circle" synthesis of new RNA using the viroid's RNA as a template. Some viroids are ribozymes, having catalytic properties that allow self-cleavage and ligation of unit-size genomes from larger replication intermediates.
With Diener's 1989 hypothesis that viroids may represent "living relics" from the widely assumed, ancient, and non-cellular RNA world—extant before the evolution of DNA or proteins—viroids have assumed significance beyond plant pathology to evolutionary science, by representing the most plausible RNAs capable of performing crucial steps in abiogenesis, the evolution of life from inanimate matter.
The human pathogen hepatitis D virus is a subviral agent similar to a viroid.
Transmission.
Viroid infections can be transmitted by aphids, by cross contamination following mechanical damage to plants as a result of horticultural or agricultural practices, or from plant to plant by leaf contact.
Replication.
Viroids replicate in the nucleus ("Pospiviroidae") or chloroplasts ("Avsunviroidae") of plant cells in three steps through an RNA-based mechanism. They require RNA polymerase II, a host cell enzyme normally associated with synthesis of messenger RNA from DNA, which instead catalyzes "rolling circle" synthesis of new RNA using the viroid as template.
Intrahost motility.
Unlike viruses - which produce movement proteins - viroids are entirely passive, relying entirely on the host. This also is useful in the study of RNA kinetics in plants in general, pathogenic or not.
RNA silencing.
There has long been uncertainty over how viroids induce symptoms in plants without encoding any protein products within their sequences. Evidence suggests that RNA silencing is involved in the process. First, changes to the viroid genome can dramatically alter its virulence. This reflects the fact that any siRNAs produced would have less complementary base pairing with target messenger RNA. Secondly, siRNAs corresponding to sequences from viroid genomes have been isolated from infected plants. Finally, transgenic expression of the noninfectious hpRNA of potato spindle tuber viroid develops all the corresponding viroid-like symptoms. This indicates that when viroids replicate via a double stranded intermediate RNA, they are targeted by a dicer enzyme and cleaved into siRNAs that are then loaded onto the RNA-induced silencing complex. The viroid siRNAs contain sequences capable of complementary base pairing with the plant's own messenger RNAs, and induction of degradation or inhibition of translation causes the classic viroid symptoms.
RNA world hypothesis.
Diener's 1989 hypothesis had proposed that the unique properties of viroids make them more plausible macromolecules than introns, or other RNAs considered in the past as possible "living relics" of a hypothetical, pre-cellular RNA world. If so, viroids have assumed significance beyond plant virology for evolutionary theory, because their properties make them more plausible candidates than other RNAs to perform crucial steps in the evolution of life from inanimate matter (abiogenesis). Diener's hypothesis was mostly forgotten until 2014, when it was resurrected in a review article by Flores et al., in which the authors summarized Diener's evidence supporting his hypothesis as:
The presence, in extant cells, of RNAs with molecular properties predicted for RNAs of the RNA World constitutes another powerful argument supporting the RNA World hypothesis.
History.
In the 1920s, symptoms of a previously unknown potato disease were noticed in New York and New Jersey fields. Because tubers on affected plants become elongated and misshapen, they named it the potato spindle tuber disease.
The symptoms appeared on plants onto which pieces from affected plants had been budded—indicating that the disease was caused by a transmissible pathogenic agent. A fungus or bacterium could not be found consistently associated with symptom-bearing plants, however, and therefore, it was assumed the disease was caused by a virus. Despite numerous attempts over the years to isolate and purify the assumed virus, using increasingly sophisticated methods, these were unsuccessful when applied to extracts from potato spindle tuber disease-afflicted plants.
In 1971 Theodor O. Diener showed that the agent was not a virus, but a totally unexpected novel type of pathogen, 1/80th the size of typical viruses, for which he proposed the term "viroid". Parallel to agriculture-directed studies, more basic scientific research elucidated many of viroids' physical, chemical, and macromolecular properties. Viroids were shown to consist of short stretches (a few hundred nucleobases) of single-stranded RNA and, unlike viruses, did not have a protein coat. Compared with other infectious plant pathogens, viroids are extremely small in size, ranging from 246 to 467 nucleobases; they thus consist of fewer than 10,000 atoms. In comparison, the genomes of the smallest known viruses capable of causing an infection by themselves are around 2,000 nucleobases long.
In 1976, Sänger et al. presented evidence that potato spindle tuber viroid is a "single-stranded, covalently closed, circular RNA molecule, existing as a highly base-paired rod-like structure"—believed to be the first such molecule described. Circular RNA, unlike linear RNA, forms a covalently closed continuous loop, in which the 3' and 5' ends present in linear RNA molecules have been joined together. Sänger et al. also provided evidence for the true circularity of viroids by finding that the RNA could not be phosphorylated at the 5' terminus. Then, in other tests, they failed to find even one free 3' end, which ruled out the possibility of the molecule having two 3' ends. Viroids thus are true circular RNAs.
The single-strandedness and circularity of viroids was confirmed by electron microscopy, and Gross et al. determined the complete nucleotide sequence of potato spindle tuber viroid in 1978. PSTVd was the first pathogen of a eukaryotic organism for which the complete molecular structure has been established. Over thirty plant diseases have since been identified as viroid-, not virus-caused, as had been assumed.
Four additional viroids or viroid-like RNA particles were discovered between 2009 and 2015.
Discovery of new viroids has been difficult without next generation sequencing, but these new techniques are producing significantly better results.
In 2014, "New York Times" science writer Carl Zimmer published a popularized piece that mistakenly credited Flores et al. with the hypothesis' original conception.
Inspection and quarantine.
The development of tests based on ELISA, PCR, and nucleic acid hybridization has allowed for rapid and inexpensive detection of known viroids in biosecurity inspections, phytosanitary inspections, and quarantine. However, the ongoing discovery and evolution of new viroids makes such assays always incomplete.


Albert Warren Ferris

Albert Warren Ferris (December 3, 1856-4 October 1937) was an American psychiatrist, born in Brooklyn, New York.
Ferris received his A.B from the University of the City of New York, now New York University, in 1878, his A.M. in 1885 from the same institution and his M.D. from the College of Physicians and Surgeons (Columbia University) in 1882. He married Miss Juliet A. Gavette in New York City in 1897.
His occupations were in the State of New York. In 1892 he set up practice in New York City. He was a consulting physician to the Italian Hospital, New York, and to the Binghamton State Hospital. From September 23, 1907 - December 27, 1911 he was president of the New York State Commission in Lunacy. He was also president of the Schuyler County Medical Society, and an associate editor of the New York State Journal of Medicine. He was also the Director of the Saratoga Springs (New York) State Reservation Commission from 1913 - 1916.
His biography in The Home Medical Library states that he was a, "Former Assistant in Neurology, Columbia University; Former Chairman, Section on Neurology and Psychiatry, New York Academy of Medicine; Assistant in Medicine, University and Bellvue Hospital Medical College; Medical Editor, New International Encyclopedia."


Hermann Friedberg

Hermann Friedberg (5 July 1817 – 2 March 1884) was a German physician from Rosenberg (Olesno), Silesia.
He studied at the universities of Berlin, Vienna, Prague, Paris, and Breslau, receiving from the last-named the degree of doctor of medicine in 1840. From 1849 to 1852 he was assistant at the surgical hospital of the University of Berlin, and in 1852 was admitted as "privatdozent" in surgery and pharmacology to the medical faculty of the Berlin University, at the same time conducting a private hospital for the treatment of surgical and ophthalmological diseases. In 1866 he was appointed professor of pharmacology at the University of Breslau, where he later died.
It is believed that Friedberg wrote the first description of CLOVES syndrome.
Literary works.
Friedberg wrote many essays on surgical and pharmacological topics, but latterly devoted himself especially to medical jurisprudence. He was a collaborator on:
He is also the author of:


Leon Goldensohn

Leon N. Goldensohn (October 19, 1911 – October 24, 1961) was an American psychiatrist who monitored the mental health of the twenty-one Nazi defendants awaiting trial at Nuremberg in 1946.
Born on October 19, 1911, in New York City, Goldensohn was the son of Jews who had emigrated from Lithuania. He joined the United States Army in 1943 and was posted to France and Germany, where he served as a psychiatrist for the 63rd Division. He replaced another psychiatrist, Douglas Kelley, in January 1946, about six weeks into the trials, and spent more than six months visiting the prisoners nearly every day. He interviewed most of the defendants, including Hermann Göring and Joachim von Ribbentrop, the Foreign Minister of Germany from 1938 until 1945. Goldensohn conducted most of his interviews in English with the aid of a translator to have the defendants and witnesses express themselves fully in their own language. Some of his subjects, notably foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop and Großadmiral Karl Dönitz, were partially or fully fluent in English, and conducted their interviews in that language.
Goldensohn served as prison psychiatrist until July 26, 1946. He had resolved to write a book about the experience but later contracted tuberculosis and died from a coronary heart attack in 1961. The detailed notes he took were later researched and collated by his brother Eli, a retired neurologist. Robert Gellately, a World War II scholar, edited and annotated the interviews in the book "The Nuremberg Interviews: An American Psychiatrist's Conversations with the Defendants and Witnesses".
After the war, Goldensohn kept his papers at his New York City apartment and his home in Tenafly, New Jersey.
References.
[[Category:American psychiatrists]]
[[Category:American people of Lithuanian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:Nuremberg trials]]
[[Category:1911 births]]
[[Category:1961 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American physicians]]
[[Category:People from Tenafly, New Jersey]]


Veronica Carstens

Veronica Carstens (born Prior; 18 June 1923 – 25 January 2012) was the wife of the German President Karl Carstens.
She began medical studies in 1941, which she interrupted during the war to work as a nurse. In 1944 she married at Berlin-Tegel Karl Carstens, whom she had met the year before. Temporarily she was a housewife. In 1956 she continued her medical studies, graduating in 1960.
From 1960 to 1968 she worked as a medical assistant and in 1968 she opened her medical practice in Meckenheim near Bonn.
Carstens was by profession a doctor of medicine, and she maintained her practice throughout her husband's tenure as president. She was a strong advocate of naturopathy and homeopathy, and in 1982 the Carstens established the Carstens-Foundation (Carstens-Stiftung) – a major funder of alternative medicine research in Europe. She was an honorary member of the Order of Saint John (Bailiwick of Brandenburg).
She was widowed in 1992. After she had retired from public life in 2009, she lived in a sanitarium in Bonn.


Karl von Bardeleben

Karl von Bardeleben (7 March 1849 – 19 December 1919) was a German anatomist born in Giessen. He was the son of surgeon Heinrich Adolf von Bardeleben (1819–1895).
He received his education at the Universities of Greifswald, Heidelberg, Berlin and Leipzig. In 1874 he became a Privatdozent at the University of Jena, where he later served as an associate professor (from 1878) and full professor (from 1898). Bardeleben specialized in the fields of topographic and comparative anatomy.
In 1886 Bardeleben was founder of the "Anatomischer Anzeiger" (Annals of Anatomy), a journal that is considered to be one of the better publications on anatomical morphology. The journal contains many original treatises on topographic and clinical anatomy, embryology, cell and tissue research, as well as microscopic and "submicroscopic" biology.
In 1892 he published the collected anatomical writings of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, titled "Goethe als Anatom". Other significant writings by Bardeleben are:


Henry N. Ginsberg

Henry N. Ginsberg is an American physician, focusing in preventive medicine, internal medicine, endocrinology, diabetes and metabolism, currently the Irving Professor of Medicine at Columbia University.
Education.
Ginsberg graduated from State University of New York Downstate Medical Center.


United Kingdom Home Care Association

The United Kingdom Home Care Association is the trade organization for providers of home care in the United Kingdom. It was established in 1989.
It provides various services to its members, such as technical advice, a Homecare Workers' Handbook, insurance and criminal record checks and advice about legislation, such as the Care Act 2014.
It acts as a lobbying organization for the industry. A survey of members in October 2015 found 11% of all providers thought that they would "definitely" or "probably" have ceased trading within the next year. Freedom of Information requests to all 211 councils – or health and care trusts in Northern Ireland – responsible for funding home care found that only 28 paid a "minimum price" of £15.74 an hour which was sufficient to fund staff at the National Minimum Wage.
Bridget Warr, the chief executive of the association, was involved in drawing up the guidelines for staffing and home visits by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence in September 2015, though she expressed doubts whether members could afford to meet them. The association was particularly concerned about the impact of the National Living Wage. It predicted a £750 million shortfall in funding for homecare services in 2016–17.


Nurse Practitioner Associates for Continuing Education

The Nurse Practitioner Associates for Continuing Education (NPACE) is a non-profit organization based in the United States that provides continuing education to Nurse Practitioners and Advanced Practice Clinicians.
History.
NPACE was formed in 1980 by a small group of New England Nurse Practitioners. At the time, there was a lack of conferences that addressed the specific educational requirements of Nurse Practitioners (NP). Up to this point, nurse practitioners attended educational conferences designed for physicians. Noticing this void, the NPACE founders’ vision was to develop continuing education programs “For Nurse Practitioners, by Nurse Practitioners.” It was the first formal organization to focus on the continuing education needs of nurse practitioners.
The first NPACE conferences were held in the Greater Boston area. Over a twelve-year time span, NPACE continually expanded its reach. NPACE held its first national conference in Boston in 1992, with one thousand Nurse Practitioners from all over the country in attendance. NPACE began to expand its offerings to other geographic locations. Orlando, Florida became a regular venue for an annual National Primary Care Conference, followed by the Midwest, typically Chicago. In response to the ever-evolving role of nurse practitioners, NPACE soon added specialty conferences to its calendar; including women’s health, older adult health, alternative/complementary health and pharmacology.
From 1997 - 2005 the NPACE peer-reviewed professional journal, Clinical Excellence for Nurse Practitioners, was published first by Churchill Livingstone and then by Springer Publishing Company.
NPACE celebrated the beginning of its 25th year at the Boston primary care conference in November 2007. All founding members returned and were honored at this event.
Accreditation.
NPACE is an approved provider of continuing education by the Massachusetts Association of Registered Nurses (MARN), an accredited approver of the American Nurses Credentialing Center's Commission on Accreditation.


Camille-Melchior Gibert

Camille-Melchior Gibert (18 September 1797 – 30 July 1866) was a French dermatologist who was a native of Paris.
He studied medicine in Paris, where in 1818–19 he served as an interne to Laurent-Théodore Biett at the Hôpital Saint-Louis. In 1822 he received his medical doctorate and in 1826 he obtained his agrégation. From 1836 he was a physician at the Hôpital Lourcine, and from 1840 to 1863, was associated with the Hôpital Saint-Louis. In 1847 he became a member of the Académie de médecine. He died during the 1866 Paris cholera epidemic.
Gibert contributed to the Medical section of the Encyclopédie Méthodique.
Gibert is remembered for providing the first accurate description of a papulosquamous skin disorder that he named pityriasis rosea. Historically, this condition was also referred to as "Gibert disease". His best written work on skin diseases was a book called "Traité pratique des maladies spéciales de la peau" (second edition, 1840).
In 1859, with Dr. Joseph-Alexandre Auzias-Turenne (1812–1870), Gibert took part in controversial experiments in which three volunteers were inoculated with secondary syphilis.


John A. Burns School of Medicine


Order of the Red Lion and the Sun

Order of the Red Lion and the Sun was established during the reign of Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi by the Iranian Red Lion and the Sun Society. This order is bestowed in order to give recognition for humanitarian services rendered in the interests of the Iranian people and for the saving of life.
The order consists of a white disc with the emblem of the Iranian Red Lion and the Sun society surrounded with golden arrays and a red cross behind it, representing the Red Cross Society.
This order was in use until the revolution of 1979.


George Stouffer

George (Rick) Stouffer M.D. is Chief of the Division of Cardiology at the University of North Carolina Medical Center., where he is a practicing interventional cardiologist. Stouffer was awarded the Ernest and Hazel Craige Distinguished Professorship of Medicine in 2018; prior to that he was the Henry A. Foscue Distinguished Professor of Medicine. Stouffer is also co-director of the McAllister Heart Institute. He is known for his research regarding inpatient ST elevation myocardial infarctions.
Education and Training.
Stouffer attended Bucknell University and graduated magna cum laude in 1980. During his time at Bucknell, Stouffer was inducted into both the Phi Beta Kappa and Tau Beta Pi honor societies. Stouffer attended the University of Maryland School of Medicine and was inducted into the Alpha Omega Alpha honor society. He completed his postgraduate medical training at the University of Virginia between 1987 and 1995. Throughout these eight years he completed his internal medicine residency, his cardiovascular research fellowship, his clinical cardiology fellowship, and his interventional cardiology fellowship.
Professional career.
Stouffer was on the faculty at the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston, Texas from 1995-2000. In 2000, Stouffer moved to UNC and was awarded the Henry A. Foscue Distinguished Professor of Medicine in 2005, and later awarded the Ernest and Hazel Craige Distinguished Professor of Medicine in 2018. From 2001-2016 he was the Director of the Cardiac Catheterization Laboratories and the Director of Interventional Cardiology. He was appointed Chief of the Division of Cardiology in 2013.
Research and Publications.
Stouffer has published in journals such as the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), Journal of the American College of Cardiology (JACC), Circulation, Nature Reviews, JAMA-Cardiology, the Journal of the American Heart Association (JAHA), Journal of Investigative Medicine (JIM), American Heart Journal, American Journal of the Medical Sciences, Journal of Vascular Medicine and Biology and Transactions of the American Clinical and Climatological Association. He serves on the Editorial Boards of JACC-Cardiovascular Interventions and the American Journal of Cardiology. One focus of Stouffer’s recent clinical research is on patients who have a ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) while hospitalized for a non-cardiac condition. Stouffer’s group has published the largest study on "inpatient" STEMIs and also developed a quality improvement program to expedite treatment of these patients. Stouffer was the senior author on a study that was featured in the Wall Street Journal in 2015.
Another focus of Stouffer's clinical research is on using CYP2C19 genotyping to identify the best anti-platelet agent for patients with acute coronary syndromes and/or undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention. Stouffer’s laboratory has a long-standing interest in understanding the direct effects of thrombin on smooth muscle cells (SMC). Stouffer’s laboratory is also interested in the role that β3 integrins play in mediating SMC responses to thrombin. His studies have focused on identifying mechanisms whereby β3 integrins mediate responses to thrombin and other SMC agonists.
Stouffer’s early studies examined the mechanisms by which soluble growth factors stimulate smooth muscle cell proliferation.
Textbooks.
Stouffer has published three textbooks: Cardiology Board Review: ECG, Hemodynamic and Angiographic Unknowns (2019); Practical ECG Interpretation: Clues to Heart Disease in Young Adults (2009); and Cardiovascular Hemodynamics for the Clinician (2008; second edition in 2017). He was an editor for the second (2010) and third (2019) editions of Netter’s Cardiology along with Marschall S. Runge M.D., Cam Patterson M.D. and Joseph S. Rossi M.D. This book utilizes artwork from the famous medical illustrator, the late Frank H. Netter, to provide an overview of cardiovascular anatomy, pathophysiology, diagnosis and management.
Personal life.
Stouffer lives in Chapel Hill. He and his wife, Meg, have four adult children and a corgi


Hassan Akkad

Hassan Akkad () is a Syrian refugee, photographer, filmmaker and refugee rights activist in the United Kingdom.
Life.
Syria.
He is originally from Damascus, and worked as an English teacher and photographer. In 2011, as protests in Syria against the government of Bashar al-Assad grew, he joined in and filmed the demonstrations. In response to his taking part, the authorities arrested and beat him twice. After his first period of incarceration, al-Assad invited him to have a conversation, where Akkad told him "about the systemic torture of his [Assad's] regime".
Moving to the UK.
In September 2015, he fled Syria and arrived in the UK, a journey which took 87 days. He travelled via Turkey and the Calais Jungle, before using a fake passport to fly to Heathrow, where he claimed asylum. He first lived in Hitchin for two months, before moving into a spare room in Brixton.
Since arriving in the UK, he has worked in TV and film production, and has also worked doing marketing for a refugee charity.
Akkad filmed his journey to the UK, and this footage was used in the BBC documentary, which won the BAFTA award for Best Factual Series or Strand in 2017. Akkad raised the issue of how many refugees had died trying to enter Europe when invited to join director James Bluemel at his acceptance speech.
In July 2020, he worked with Marc Quinn in creating and installing the statue "A Surge of Power (Jen Reid) 2020" to replace the one of Edward Colston in Bristol.
Coronavirus.
Following the start of the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK, he started working as a cleaner for the NHS at Whipps Cross Hospital in East London. While working in the hospital, he took photos of his colleagues, which were published on the "Politico" website.
Akkad stated that "everyone [he worked with] felt completely betrayed, [and] stabbed in the back" in response to the government announcing that NHS cleaners and porters wouldn't be included in an NHS bereavement scheme if they die due to coronavirus, and that immigrant NHS workers would still have to pay a £400 immigration health surcharge. In response, he filmed a message to UK Prime Minister Boris Johnson, which he published on Twitter, explaining that he was "shocked to find out that your Government decided to exclude myself and my colleagues who work as cleaners and porters and social care workers [from the scheme] ... so if I die from coronavirus my partner isn’t allowed indefinite leave to remain". Following this video, the government made a U-turn, and included these workers in the bereavement scheme. "The Observer" argued that this video was "directly instrumental in another of the prime minister’s mumbled U-turns the following day", and British "Vogue" described how he then appeared on "Good Morning Britain", and on newspaper front pages, due to this video.
Akkad stated that although he appreciates the Clap for Our Carers events, as they have made communities closer, he "cringe[s]" when he sees government members clapping, due to their handling of the pandemic.
In an interview in August 2020, he explained that having experienced authoritarianism in Syria, he was becoming worried about "the creeping authoritarianism [which] is quite vivid here now", pointing out the "contracts going to government cronies; politicians breaking the rules and not facing consequences; this delusional democracy where people are lied to, and vote for the liars".
He has started writing a memoir, which will be published in 2021 by Pan Macmillan.
Personal life.
He is engaged to a Syrian woman he met in the UK, who was here as a student and whose home in Damascus was bombed. They were meant to get married in July 2020 in Leytonstone. His family also left Syria: his parents now live in the UAE, and his brother works for the World Food Programme in Yemen.