9th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)

The 9th Panzer Division was a panzer division of the Wehrmacht Army during World War II. It came into existence after 4th Light Division was reorganized in January 1940. The division was headquartered in Vienna, in the German military district Wehrkreis XVII.
Originally raised from Austrian forces annexed into Germany before the war, the 9th Panzer Division was part of most of the German Army's early Blitzkrieg attacks into western Europe. Sweeping east, the division was then a component of Operation Barbarossa, the German attack on the Soviet Union; it was badly mauled at the Battle of Kursk.
Returning to France to rebuild in 1944, the division was rushed to counter Operation Overlord. It was destroyed several successive times by British and American forces as the German Army was pushed back across Europe. The division suffered massive casualties in armor and personnel until it finally collapsed in March 1945. The division's few survivors were pushed into the Ruhr Pocket where they surrendered to the Allies at the end of the war.
Organization.
In 1942, the division was organized around three regiments. Its tanks were organized into the 33rd Panzer Regiment, which was supported by two regiments of panzergrenadiers, or mechanized infantry. These were the 10th Panzer Grenadier Regiment and the 11th Panzer Grenadier Regiment. Also assigned to the division were the 102nd Panzer Artillery Regiment, the 9th Motorcycle Battalion, the 9th Panzer Reconnaissance Battalion, the 50th Panzer Jager Battalion, the 86th Panzer Pionier Battalion, the 81st Panzer Signal Battalion, the 287th Army Anti-Aircraft Battalion, and the 60th Panzer Divisional Supply Troops.
History.
Following the Anschluss annexation of Austria in 1938, the 4th Light Division was formed in Vienna after converting a mobile division of the "Bundesheer" (the Austrian Army) in April of that year. It initially consisted of the 33rd Panzer Battalion, the 102nd Motorized Artillery Regiment, and the 10th and 11th Motorized Cavalry Regiments. In 1939, it fought in the Invasion of Poland, on the right flank of Army Group South, attacking out of Slovakia, pushing over the San River on 10 September and capturing Krakowiec on 12 September. It then moved to establish a bridgehead over the Bug River at Krylow on 14 September. The division then turned west, blocking the escape of several units of the Polish Army. In the process the division took tens of thousands of prisoners. On 24 October, the division departed Salzberg, returning to Vienna by train. That winter, it was converted to the 9th Panzer Division and formally redesignated on 3 January 1940. It consisted of the 9th Rifle Brigade, the 33rd Panzer Battalion, the 102nd Panzer Artillery Regiment, and several other divisional units.
Early campaigns.
Following a further reorganization increasing its strength to two tank battalions and three motorised infantry regiments, the division was sent to the Western Front to participate in the Battle of the Netherlands starting on 10 May 1940. Part of the 18th Army, which defeated The Netherlands in a grueling five days, 9th Panzer Division played an essential role in the German strategy. The division was the only German mechanized force allocated to 18th Army and was intended primarily to link up with airborne forces landed near Rotterdam and The Hague. On 12 May, the division was launched in the south of The Netherlands to exploit a breakthrough by German infantry divisions, quickly advancing to the Moerdijk bridges, which had been captured by Student's paratroopers. Before that, near Breda, the division split up, sending one battalion north over the Moerdijk bridges to try and enter the Dutch National Redoubt, Fortress Holland. On 13 May, however, during its first actual fighting of the campaign, the battalion suffered considerable losses in a failed assault on the centre of Dordrecht. On 14 May, the battalion stood ready to assault Rotterdam, but the Dutch surrendered the same day after a carpet bombing of that city's civilian centre by the Luftwaffe.
The other part of the division went south, after the retreating French 7th Army and the Belgian Army, towards Antwerp and Dunkirk. Following the evacuation of Dunkirk, 9th Panzer Division was assigned to Panzer Group Guderian and participated in the Battle of France. During this stage it was under the command of XXXIX Motorized Corps. It pushed through the Weygand Line towards Paris, crossing the Oise River, Aisne River, Marne River and Loire River, taking thousands of prisoners in the process. By the time of the French surrender, the 9th Panzer Division was in Lyon.
During the Western campaign, the division was credited with covering more ground than any other German division.
The division returned to Vienna in July 1940. There, it continued to reorganize and grow, adopting the organization that it kept for most of the war with one tank regiment, two panzergrenadier regiments and one artillery regiment. In September, it was sent to Poland with the XL Panzer Corps.
In the spring of 1941, 9th Panzer Division participated in the Balkans Campaign. It was shipped to Romania and was made the armored spearhead of the 12th Army. It managed some blitzkrieg tactics through the Balkans, separating the Greek Army from the Royal Yugoslav Army, then attacking into Yugoslavia itself. As part of the 12th Army, the 9th Panzer Division pushed back the main British Army, Greek and Australian Army forces Once these armies were in retreat, the division was sent to Romania in preparation for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union.
Operation Barbarossa.
Once Operation Barbarossa was launched, the 9th Panzer Division, part of XIV Panzer Corps (Germany) of the Army Group South, pushed through Ukraine on 28 June, heading to Kiev after the Battle of Brody (1941). The division broke through the Stalin Line on 7 July, took part in the encirclement of Uman, and captured Krivoy Rog and Nikopol on 17 August. The 9th Panzer Division then captured the Dnieper River Dam at Zaporizhia on 25 August. From there, it was made the spearhead of Panzer Group Kleist, driving to Kiev from the south while Panzer Group Guderian drove behind the city from the north. The two groups linked up on 15 September, encircling five field armies of the Soviet Army. The division was part of the force that captured 667,000 Soviet prisoners and 900 tanks in the city.
Following the capture of Kiev, the 9th Panzer Division was made a part of Panzer Group Guderian for the advance on Moscow. The division then took part in the encirclement of Bryansk and, despite delays due to terrain, weather and Red Army resistance, captured Kursk on 2 November. It was halted near the Kursk Oblast settlement of Tim. From there, the division held a sector near Shchigry on the southern sector, facing the Soviet winter offensives of 1941 and 1942. The division remained on this sector until Soviet attacks abated in March 1942.
During a lull in hostilities in early 1943, the division was again reorganized and reequipped, sent to Orel and transferred to Army Group Center, where it participated in Operation Citadel and the Battle of Kursk in the summer of that year as a part of XLVII Panzer Corps, 9th Army. Fighting alongside the 2nd, 4th and 20th Panzer divisions and the 6th Infantry Division, it tried unsuccessfully to break through the Soviet defensive belt. The division fought on the front for an extended period of time, suffering heavy casualties. In one engagement, the division lost 70 tanks to Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 aircraft in just 20 minutes. After an advance of only 15 km and suffering heavy casualties, it abandoned its attempt to reach Kursk.
Following the German defeat at Kursk, the 9th Panzer Division was heavily engaged in the German retreat to the Mius-Front, a line of German fortifications along the Mius River. It covered the retreat of the 2nd Panzer Army and the 9th Army, north of Orel and Kirov, then fought in a series of battles east of Bryansk at the end of August. The division participated in fights at Stalino, Zaporozhye, Odessa, and Dnieper. During these fights it suffered mounting losses, and by January 1944 it was reduced to 13 tanks and substantially under-strength infantry and artillery formations. It continued a slow retreat across the Ingulez and the Ingul, until it was pulled out of the fighting in April.
Western Front.
The division was subsequently sent to Nimes, France to rebuild, as many divisions mauled on the Eastern Front were. On 1 May 1944, it absorbed men and tanks of the 155th Reserve Panzer Division to return to its full strength. During this absorption it received 31 Panzer IIIs, 74 Panzer IVs, 20 assault guns, 15 Panther tanks and 200 other vehicles. The division then conducted training exercises up until June of that year. It was reassigned to an area on the Rhone River for a time. It was in better shape than many of the other divisions in the area, which were refitting, forming, or lacked transportation to move effectively.
Following the D-Day landings conducted by the Allies, the division was rushed to northern France to participate in the Battle of Normandy. At this time, its strength was up to 150 tanks and assault guns and 12,768 men. The division was sent to Avignon, before being sent to support the collapsing 7th Army in Normandy. The division arrived just as the army was encircled by American, French, British, and Canadian forces at Falaise. In the subsequent furious battle, the division was almost completely destroyed escaping the Falaise Pocket. By late August, its strength was at around 1,500 organized in one infantry battalion, one artillery battalion, and 5 tanks. However, it continued to cover the escape of Army Group G from Normandy.
Following its near-destruction at Falaise, the division remained in the German Siegfried Line where it fought several engagements, most notably the Battle of Aachen. Over the next month, it lost over 1,000 men, two-thirds of its combat strength. At the end of September 1944, the 9th Panzer Division was sent into Army Group B's reserve and rehabilitated. It was given 11,000 more replacements and 178 armored vehicles, including 50 Panther tanks. It was to reinforce German units countering Operation Market Garden, but by the time it arrived at Arnhem, the Allied forces had been pushed back. The 9th Panzer Division was returned to the line around Geilenkirchen and Aachen, where it launched a spoiling attack against US forces in the Peel Marshes in November, but only succeeded in losing 30 tanks in the process. It then reassembled west of the Rur River with a strength of 10,000 men, 28 Panther tanks and 14 Panzer IV tanks. Along with elements of the 15th Panzer Grenadier Division, 9th Panzer fought a bitter six-day battle with the U.S. 2nd Armored Division in the Puffendorf-Immendorf sector, knocking out 76 tanks and inflicting 1,300 casualties while suffering 1,100 men and 86 tanks lost. Following this, the division was sent into the OKW reserve. It continued fighting to slow the progress of the U.S. First Army pushing from the west, destroying its 2,325th enemy tank near Geilenkirchen.
In December 1944, 9th Panzer was assigned to XLVII Panzer Corps again as part of the 5th Panzer Army, Army Group B and was one of the units participating in the Battle of the Bulge. At this time sPzAbt 301 (equipped with Tiger I tanks) was attached to the division. The Corps was part of the central attack, pushing back the U.S. Ninth Army. The division initially advanced quickly, but once the tide of the campaign turned in the Allies' favor, the division took extreme losses once again as Adolf Hitler refused to allow the German forces in the campaign to retreat in a timely manner. It was eventually pulled back to the German lines.
In early 1945, the division engaged the Allied in fighting around the Eifel mountain range. It also participated in fighting around the Erft River in February, where its armored force was reduced to 29 tanks and 16 assault guns. Late in the month, it launched an attack on the Allied Remagen Bridgehead over the Rhine River, which failed to reach the Remagen Bridge. By the end of this fight, the division consisted of only 600 men and 15 tanks.
Destruction.
The 9th Panzer Division's final combat assignment came in a battle near Cologne on 6 March, as a part of the battered LXXXI Corps, alongside the 363rd Volksgrenadier Division and the 3rd Panzergrenadier Division which were in equally poor shape, and the entire corps was barely the strength of one division. Facing them was the US 3rd Armored Division. The division attempted to defend the town from attack, but was unable to make progress against American forces.
After its unsuccessful attack, the shattered 9th Panzer Division was counterattacked by strong Allied forces. The division engaged the Americans in the city center of Cologne, but were quickly pushed back, and the divisional commander was killed. Remnants of the division attempted to flee across the Rhine River. In the fighting that followed, the weak formation finally collapsed. Most of the remains of the division were forced into the Ruhr Pocket, continuing to suffer staggering losses while holding lines on the south flank of Army Group B until they surrendered to American forces in April 1945. By this time, the demoralized soldiers of the division were entirely out of ammunition and gasoline, and remaining troops surrendering without a fight. The division continued to exist briefly afterward; Major Halle, the division's adjutant, escaped the Ruhr encirclement with a small battle group, and joined the 11th Army in the Harz Mountains. There, on 26 April 1945, German commanders of OB West disbanded the 9th Panzer Division, absorbing its survivors into other units.
Commanding officers.
The division was commanded by 11 people during its total history. This included General Friedrich Wilhelm von Mellenthin, who was acting division commander from December 1944 to February 1945 because General Harald Freiherr von Elverfeldt had been wounded in an Allied air attack.


Komandarm

Komandarm is the abbreviation to Commanding of the Army (; literal: Commander of the Army / Army commander), and was a military rank in the Soviet Armed Forces of the USSR in the period from 1935 to 1940. It was also the designation to military personnel appointed to command an army group or front sized formation (XXXXX).
There were two ranks of "Komandarm", approximately corresponding to "General" / "General of the Army", or NATO ranks OF-9.


Move America Forward

Move America Forward is a nonprofit military charity based in Sacramento, California. Howard Kaloogian, Melanie Morgan and Sal Russo established the organization in 2004. The organization supports front-line United States Armed Forces troops serving in Iraq and Afghanistan.
History.
Sal Russo, Melanie Morgan and Howard Kaloogian formed Move America Forward in 2004.
In 2005, the organization took its first trip to Iraq called "Voices of Soldiers" tour. Soldiers were interviewed to share their stories in the success in the fight against terrorism during the trip. That August, Move America Forward sponsored a "You don't speak for me, Cindy!" tour to counter Cindy Sheehan's protest at President Bush's Crawford, Texas, ranch and the vigils held in her support. The following year, Move America Forward sponsored "Trip Gold Star", the organization’s second trip to Iraq. The trip to Kurdistan, including Gold Star Moms, was for the parents of fallen American soldiers to see where their sons and daughters made the ultimate sacrifice. That year, the organization introduced its "Care package for the troops" program. The program sends care packages including coffee, cookies, beef jerky, Gatorade, and other requested items to troops year around.
Move America Forward held its first "Honoring our Heroes at the Holidays" national bus tour in 2007. The tour traveled to over 40 cities in the United States and collected over 200,000 Christmas, Hanukkah and holiday cards for American troops. That year, a third trip to Iraq was led by spokeswoman Debbie Lee. The Move America Forward delegation visited troops in Ramadi, at Camp Marc Lee named after Debbie Lee's son, the first Navy SEAL to be killed in the war in Iraq. In 2008, Move America Forward sent a delegation to Guantanamo Bay to thank troops for their service. The trip was organized by Kylie Williams, the official ambassador for veterans' advocacy for the State of Florida. The second "Honoring our Heroes at the Holidays" national bus tour collected over 200,000 cards that year. That year, Move America Forward hosted the first Troopathon, an online fundraiser, to raise money to send care packages to troops.
"K9 Care Packages", a program to support military working dogs and their handlers, was launched by the organization in October 2011. Move America Forward was named "Top-rated Nonprofit" by Great Nonprofits in 2014 and 2015. That March, the Rogers Family Company donated coffee and tea to Move America Forward for troops. Stag Arms partnered with the organization for the 2014 Troopathon in July.
In June 2015, Move America Forward hosted its 8th annual Troopathon fundraiser to help send care packages to American troops deployed in war zones overseas. The organization raised over $280,000. State Assemblyman Devon Mathis, Hulk Hogan, Rush Limbaugh, Sean Hannity, Mark Levin, Geraldo Rivera, Brian Kilmeade, Dennis Miller, Adam Corolla, Herman Cain, Ted Nugent, Jerry Bruckheimer, Joe Theismann, Tony Orlando, and Nancy Grace made appearances on the broadcast that year. Prior to the 2015 Chattanooga shootings on July 16, 2015, Move America Forward advocated for more security at military recruiting centers. After the shooting, the organization released a statement in support of lawmakers that wants to allow military recruiters to carry firearms.
In 2016, Move America Forward partnered with the Wounded Warrior Project to send care packages to troops overseas to show support for those away from their families during the holiday season.
Move America Forward received a 2 out of 4 star rating from Charity Navigator. Guidestar rated the organization as a Platinum Participant.
Policies and programs.
The organization annually hosts "Troopathon," an 8-hour live online broadcast that it says it uses to help send packages to American troops. The fundraiser hosts movie stars, TV personalities, elected officials, professional athletes, musicians, talk radio hosts and many other supporters.
In a partnership with the Jelly Belly Company, Move America Forward introduced a program where soldiers would receive specially wrapped 2 oz. bags of jelly bellies to use as gift to the native people they were in contact on a daily basis with. Each specially marked package displays these words in English, Arabic, and Pashto language: "A gift from the America People in hope that your country will one day enjoy the freedom and opportunities that we have in the United States."
Controversy.
In 2014, ProPublica released a report accusing Move America Forward of giving a percentage of its donations to for-profit companies run by people affiliated with Tea Party Express. Move America Forward responded to each allegation in the piece and dismissed them as false.


Order of Battle for the Siege of Charleston


4th Corps (Syria)


Clarkson Sherman Fisher

Clarkson Sherman Fisher (July 8, 1921 – July 27, 1997) was a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey.
Education and career.
Born in Long Branch, New Jersey, Fisher was a sergeant in the United States Army during World War II, from 1942 to 1945, and was a reserve sergeant from 1946 to 1949. He received a Bachelor of Laws from the Notre Dame Law School in 1950. He entered private practice in Long Branch from 1951 to 1964. He was a councilman in West Long Branch, New Jersey from 1959 to 1964, serving as a member of the New Jersey General Assembly in 1964. He was a judge of the Monmouth County Court in New Jersey from 1964 to 1966, and of the Superior Court of New Jersey from 1966 to 1970.
Federal judicial service.
On October 7, 1970, Fisher was nominated by President Richard Nixon to a seat on the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey vacated by Judge Reynier Jacob Wortendyke Jr. Fisher was confirmed by the United States Senate on October 13, 1970, and received his commission on October 16, 1970. He served as Chief Judge from 1979 to 1987, assuming senior status on October 1, 1987. He served in that capacity until his death on July 27, 1997, in Princeton, New Jersey.
Family.
Fisher's son, Clarkson S. Fisher, Jr., also is a judge, having served on the Superior Court of New Jersey since 1993, and on that court's Appellate Division since 2003.
Honor.
The Clarkson S. Fisher Federal Building and United States Courthouse in Trenton, New Jersey is named in his honor.


SoldierSanta

SoldierSanta is a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization that supports United States soldiers deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan by shipping holiday gifts during the Christmas and holiday season.
History.
In 2009, Financial Services Executive Chris Meek formed the non-profit organization Soldiersocks in response to a July 2009 letter from Sergeant Major Like Converse who requested help in obtaining socks and baby wipes for his Marines serving in Afghanistan. Upon receipt of this letter, Chris soon formed a 501(c)(3) to help raise funds and gather basic supplies for the troops. As SoldierSocks grew, it expanded its reach in the fall of 2010 to include a new initiative with a similar objective. The group created SoldierSanta in an effort to send gifts to the troops for them to open during the holiday season. Corporate sponsors such as Sports Illustrated Magazine, Cablevision, Conair Corporation, Borders Group Books and Connecticut-based Newman’s Own all joined to lend a hand in this new program. The number of corporate and business sponsors continues to grow and so too does the organizations reach. Relying on contributions and gift donations, SoldierSanta sends gifts such as an iPod or DVD to American troops in an effort to make the holiday season special.


Fort Stevens Union order of battle

The following Union Army units and commanders fought in the Battle of Fort Stevens of the American Civil War on July 11–12, 1864. The Confederate order of battle is listed separately.
Defenses of the Potomac River & Washington.
MG Alexander McDowell McCook
VI Corps.
MG Horatio G. Wright
XIX Corps (Detachment).
MG Quincy A. Gillmore
XXII Corps and Department of Washington.
MG Christopher C. Augur
Front Line Commanders.
In addition to their own commands these officers supervised a section of Washington's fortifications during the battle.


Scharnhorst-class battleship

The Scharnhorst" class was a class of German battleships (or battlecruisers) built immediately prior to World War II. The first capital ships of Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine", it comprised two vessels: and . "Scharnhorst" was launched first, and is considered to be the lead ship by some sources; they are also referred to as the Gneisenau" class in some other sources, as "Gneisenau" was the first to be laid down and commissioned. They marked the beginning of German naval rearmament after the Treaty of Versailles. The ships were armed with nine 28 cm (11 in) SK C/34 guns in three triple turrets; plans to replace these with six 38 cm (15 in) SK C/34 guns in twin turrets were never realized.
The two ships were laid down in 1935, launched in late 1936, and commissioned into the German fleet by early 1939. "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" operated together for the early years of World War II, including sorties into the Atlantic to raid British merchant shipping. The two ships participated in Operation Weserübung, the German invasion of Norway. During operations off Norway, the two ships engaged the battlecruiser and sank the aircraft carrier on 8 June 1940. In the engagement with "Glorious", "Scharnhorst" achieved one of the longest-range naval gunfire hits in history. In early 1942, the two ships made a daylight dash up the English Channel from occupied France to Germany.
In late 1942, "Gneisenau" was heavily damaged in an Allied air raid against Kiel. In early 1943, "Scharnhorst" joined the in Norway to interdict Allied convoys to the Soviet Union. "Scharnhorst" and several destroyers sortied from Norway to attack a convoy; the Germans were instead intercepted by British naval patrols. During the battle of North Cape, a force led by the Royal Navy battleship sank "Scharnhorst". In the meantime, repair work on "Gneisenau" had begun, and the ship was in the process of being rearmed. When "Scharnhorst" was sunk, work on her sister was abandoned. Instead, she was sunk as a blockship in Gotenhafen in 1945; the wreck was broken up for scrap in the 1950s.
Classification.
They were the first class of German ships to be officially classified by the Kriegsmarine as "Schlachtschiff" (battleship). Previous German battleships were classified as "Linienschiffe" (ships of the line), and "Panzerschiffe" (armored ship).
Their adversary, the Royal Navy, rated them as battlecruisers but after the war reclassified them as battleships. "Jane's Fighting Ships 1940" lists both the "Scharnhorst" and es as "Battleships ("Schlachtschiffe")" Another adversary, the United States Navy, rated them as battleships. In English language reference works they are sometimes referred to as battleships and sometimes as battlecruisers.
Design.
Development.
The Treaty of Versailles, which established the terms concluding World War I, restricted German naval shipbuilding to warships displacing no more than . Debates in Germany over the role and size of its navy continued through the 1920s, when increased naval shipbuilding in France and the Soviet Union prompted the Germans to begin drawing up designs for large capital ships. The first design, completed in 1928, called for a battlecruiser armed with eight 30.5 cm (12 in) guns in four twin gun turrets, based on the design for the s that had not been completed during the war. In 1933, Adolf Hitler came to power in Germany; he made clear to the naval command that he had no intention of building a large fleet to challenge British supremacy at sea. He was primarily concerned with the possibility of a limited war with France, which would require the protection of German sea lanes. To this end, he authorized two more ships—the —to augment the three "Panzerschiffe" (armored ships). These ships would displace 19,000 tons and have the same armament and speed as the "Panzerschiffe"; the extra tonnage would be taken up by increased protection. Hitler wanted to follow this course so he would not be seen as overtly flouting the Treaty of Versailles. He did not realize that such "unsinkable" commerce raiders would provoke Great Britain more severely than 26,000-ton battlecruisers armed with 28.3 cm (11.1 inch) guns, which would be regarded as inferior to all the Royal Navy battleships and battlecruisers then in commission.
To combat the German "Panzerschiffe", the French built two small s in the early 1930s. This in turn prompted the German navy to begin plans for a more powerful battlecruiser design. Since 1933, Erich Raeder, the head of the German Navy, had argued to increase the defensive qualities of the "Panzerschiffe", and to increase the offensive power of the main battery with the addition of a third triple turret. This was also the view of the "Kriegsmarine", which saw the 19,000-ton design as being unbalanced. Hitler agreed to increased armor protection and internal subdivision, but refused to permit an increase in armament. Finally, by February 1934, Hitler acquiesced over the addition of the third turret. The new ship would displace and be armed with nine 28.3 cm guns in three triple turrets. To secure political freedom to build the new ships, Hitler concluded the 1935 Anglo-German Naval Agreement, which guaranteed Great Britain a 3 to 1 superiority in capital ships, and, more importantly, removed the limitations of the Treaty of Versailles for the German navy.
The construction of new D-class cruisers were canceled to make way for "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau". The provisional names of the planned D-class cruisers, "Ersatz Elsass" and "Ersatz Hessen", were reallocated to the new ships, the contracts for which were awarded to the Kriegsmarinewerft Wilhelmshaven and the Deutsche Werke in Kiel. Construction was held up by 14 months, partly because Hitler wanted to secure the treaty with Britain before work began, and partly due to numerous design changes after the ships had been ordered.
Because the maximum caliber of naval gun allowed under the Anglo-German Naval Agreement was 40.6 cm (16 inch), Hitler soon had second thoughts about the guns to be used for the new ships and ordered that they be armed with 38 cm (15 inch) weapons. The 28.3 cm turrets were readily available; 38 cm turrets would take years to develop, and Hitler wanted capital ships as soon as possible to fulfill his political ideals. He was also reminded that, despite the allowances of the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, the British had historically been sensitive about increases in main gun calibers aboard German capital ships. He therefore acquiesced to the ships' being armed with 28.3 cm guns, with the provision that they be upgunned to 38 cm at the earliest opportunity. The 38 cm turret was eventually used in the "Bismarck"-class battleships.
General characteristics.
"Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" were long at the waterline; "Scharnhorst" was long overall, while "Gneisenau" had a slightly shorter overall length, at . The ships both had a beam of . They were designed to displace , which would have given the ships a draft of . At standard displacement of , which reduced draft to , while at a full combat load of , draft increased to . The ships' hulls were constructed from longitudinal steel frames, over which the outer hull plates were welded. Their hulls contained 21 watertight compartments and had a double bottom for 79% of their length.
The German navy considered the ships to be poor sea boats; they were bow-heavy when fully equipped and very "wet" as high as the bridge. This problem was mitigated to some extent by replacement of the straight stem with an "Atlantic bow" to both "Gneisenau" and "Scharnhorst" in January and August 1939 respectively; use of the "A" turret remained restricted in heavy seas. The ships' stern was also frequently "wet", they were very slow entering a turn, and always required assistance from tugboats in shallow waters. With the rudder hard over, the ships lost over 50% speed and heeled over more than 10°. During trials, the ships heeled as much as 13° at hard rudder.
"Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" had a crew of between 56 and 60 officers and 1,613 to 1,780 enlisted men. The crew was augmented by another 10 officers and 61 men when serving as a squadron flagship. They carried a number of smaller watercraft, including two picket boats, two launches, two barges, two pinnaces, two cutters, two yawls, and two dinghies.
Propulsion.
Initially, diesel propulsion was planned for these ships, as had been used for the three "Panzerschiffe". It was decided to use superheated steam propulsion, as the required total output for the desired speed was three times that of the "Panzerschiffe". In the case of triple-screw ships, this would have meant more than twice the horsepower per shaft of the "Panzerschiffe", and in the case of a quadruple-screw ship, this would have amounted to more than 40,000 horsepower per shaft. This requirement was beyond the diesel technology then available, and devising engines that could meet this demand would take an unforeseeable amount of time. Since high-pressure superheated steam had already proved successful, it was considered the most suitable choice for high power machinery.
"Scharnhorst" was powered by three Brown, Boveri, & Co geared steam turbines, while "Gneisenau" was equipped with three Germania geared turbines. The turbines drove three-bladed screws that were in diameter. Steam was provided to the turbines by 12 Wagner ultra-high-pressure oil-fired water-tube boilers, which produced pressures up to and temperatures up to . The engines were rated at at 265 revolutions per minute (rpm), and on trials produced up to at 280 rpm. When steaming in reverse, the engines were rated for . The ships had a designed speed of ; on trials both vessels beat their designed speeds—"Scharnhorst" hit and "Gneisenau" made . The ships carried of fuel oil as designed; additional storage areas, including hull spaces between the belt and torpedo bulkhead, increased capacity to . At maximum fuel load, the ships were expected to steam for at a cruising speed of ; "Scharnhorst" reached only at 19 knots, while "Gneisenau" managed only at that speed.
Electrical power was supplied to the ships by five electricity plants. Each plant consisted of four diesel generators and eight turbo-generators. The four diesel generators were divided into pairs: two provided 150 kilowatts each and two supplied 300 kW each. The eight turbo-generators were also of mixed capacity; six ran supplied 460 kW each and the remaining two provided 230 kW each. Total power output was 4,120 kW at 220 volts.
Armament.
The "Scharnhorst"-class ships were built with a main battery of nine 28.3 cm (11.1 inch) SK C/34 54.5 caliber quick-firing guns in three triple turrets, two forward and one aft. These guns were an improvement over the earlier 28.3 cm SK C/28 guns mounted on the "Deutschland"-class cruisers. While the 28.3 cm guns were of a smaller caliber than main guns of other navies, they were still preferred by a number of gunnery officers in the "Kriegsmarine" due to their higher rate of fire. The guns were equipped with three different types of shells, an armor-piercing (AP) L/4,4 shell that weighed 330 kg (727.5 lb) and two high explosive (HE) shells that both weighed 315 kg (694.4 lb)—an L/4,4 type with a base fuse and an L/4,5 version with a nose fuse. All three types of shells used the same propellant charges: an RPC/38 42.5 kg (93.7 lb) fore charge and an RPC/38 76.5 kg (168.6 lb) main charge. They fired these shells at a rate of fire of 3.5 rounds per minute. Muzzle velocity for the AP shells was 890 meters per second (2,920 feet per second); the guns were expected to fire 300 rounds before enough wear had been incurred to warrant replacement. "Scharnhorst"s and "Gneisenau"s guns were mounted in three Drh LC/34 turrets. The turrets were named, in alphabetical order from the bow of the ship: "Anton", "Bruno" and "Cäsar". Similarly to most other German installations, those turrets had an electric system of rotation, but all other operations were hydraulic systems. The rotating mass of the turret was 750 tons (internal barbette diameter 10.2 m), and traversing speed was 7.2 deg/sec. The turrets allowed depression of the guns to −8° and elevation to 40° for "A" and "C" turrets; "B" turret was capable of depressing to −9°. At maximum elevation, the guns could hit targets out to 40,930 m (44,760 yards).
The ships carried a secondary battery of twelve 15 cm SK C/28 L/55 quick-firing guns. The guns were mounted in four Drh L. C/34 twin turrets and four MPL/35 pedestal mounts. Both the turrets and pedestal mounts enabled barrel depression to −10°; the turrets allowed elevation to 40° while the pedestals limited it to 35°. These guns fired 45.3 kg (99.87 lb) shells at a rate of 6–8 per minute. They were expected to fire 1,100 rounds before barrel wear made repair or replacement necessary. The guns in pedestals had a range of 22,000 m (24,060 yd), while those in the turrets, capable of 5 more degrees of elevation, had a slightly longer range, at 23,000 m (25,153 yd). They were supplied with between 1,600 and 1,800 shells, or 133–150 shells per gun.
Their anti-aircraft battery consisted of fourteen 10.5 cm C/33 L/65 guns, sixteen 3.7 cm L/83 guns, and between ten and twenty 2 cm guns. The 10.5 cm guns fired at a rate of 15–18 rounds per minute, and had an effective ceiling of 12,500 m (41,010 feet). They were mounted in six Dop. L. C/31 twin mounts amidships, and one such mount superfiring over "C" turret, which allowed depression to −8° and elevation to 80°. When used to engage surface targets, the guns had a maximum range of 17,700 m (19,357 yd) at an elevation of 45°. The 3.7 cm guns were placed in eight manually operated Dopp LC/30 twin mounts. At 85°, they had an effective ceiling of 6,800 m (22,310 ft), though tracers were limited to 4,800 m (15,750 ft). They had a rate of fire of 30 rounds per minute.
After 1942, six 53.3 cm deck-mounted torpedo tubes were taken from the light cruisers and and installed on the ships, with storage for 18 G7a torpedoes.
Both "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" were equipped with two sets of "Seetakt" radar. One was mounted on the forward gun director, which was located on top of the bridge. The second radar set was emplaced on the rear main battery gun director. The "Seetakt" sets operated at 368 megacycles (MHz.), initially at 14 kW. The sets were later upgraded to operate at 100 kW, on the 80 cm wavelength (375 MHz.).
Armor.
The "Scharnhorst"-class ships were equipped with Krupp armor. Their upper armored deck was thick, and backed by the main armor deck. This deck was thick aft, increased to 50 mm in the central portion of the ship that contained the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces, and decreased down to 20 mm in the bow. It was supported by thick slopes on either longitudinal side. The slopes connected to the lower edge of the main belt, an arrangement referred to as the "turtle deck." The slopes significantly increased armor protection in the critical areas of the ship. The ships' vitals were well armored against any caliber shell fired by battleships at the time at ranges where the shell would have to penetrate both the main belt and the sloping deck. At very long ranges, the deck armor could be easily penetrated by heavy-caliber shells. All of these sections were composed of "Wotan Hart" (Wotan Hard) steel. The armored belt was thick in the central portion of the ship, where the critical areas of the ship were located. Forward of the "A" turret the belt was reduced to , which tapered down to zero at the bow of the ship. Aft of the rear gun turret the belt decreased to , and eventually tapered down to nothing at the stern. The central portion of the belt was backed by thick shields. The belt armor was composed of Krupp Cemented steel (KC). The side protection system could not be penetrated by a 16 in (406 mm) shell at any range over .
The forward conning tower had 350 mm-thick sides and a roof that was 200 mm-thick. The rear conning tower was less well armored, with sides and a roof that were only and 50 mm thick, respectively. The gun turrets for the main battery had thick faces, 200 mm thick sides, and 150 mm thick roofs. The barbettes that held the 28 cm gun turrets were also heavily armored; the sides were 350 mm thick and tapered down to 200 mm on the centerline, where they were shielded by the gun turrets above. The faces of the 15 cm turrets were thick, with thick sides and 50 mm thick roofs. The 10.5 cm gun mounts were equipped with gun shields. All of this armor was KC steel.
The underwater protection system was designed to withstand a direct hit from a explosive warhead; British aerial torpedoes had smaller warheads than this, but their ship-launched weapons were more powerful. The navy conducted several full-scale underwater explosion tests with sections of armor cut from the old pre-dreadnought . The tests revealed that welded steel construction better withstood the impact of the 250 kg warhead than did riveted steel plates. The torpedo bulkhead, composed of "Wotan Weich" (Wotan, soft) steel, placed behind the armored belt was riveted; this was done because plate joints that had been incorrectly welded would not sufficiently withstand explosive shocks. The underwater protection system was constructed out of several layers: the outer layer that was between 12 and 66 mm (.47–2.6 in) thick, directly underneath the main armored belt, was designed to detonate the torpedo warhead. Behind the outer plate was a large void which would allow gases from the explosion to expand and dissipate. Beyond this was a fuel bunker with an thick outer wall; this would absorb any remaining explosive force. The bunker was supported by longitudinal stiffeners and transverse bulkheads.
The underwater side protection had numerous faults. It was extremely strong amidships, but weakened on either end of the citadel. The underwater protection could stop only a warhead in these areas. Another significant weakness in the design was the arrangement of the torpedo bulkhead. It was connected to the lower portion of the sloped deck, at an angle of 10°; two riveted angled bars held it in place. The bars were constantly under a great deal of stress, due to normal bending forces in the hull. When combined with the explosive force of a torpedo warhead, the bars could not sustain the increased pressure and could fail. Also, the beam of 30 m meant that the protection system had to be weaker around the main battery turrets, as a significant amount of the hull space was taken up by the magazines and barbettes.
Service history.
Construction and early actions.
"Gneisenau" was laid down on 3 May 1935 at the "Deutsche Werke" in Kiel. She was launched on 8 December 1936, and completed on 21 May 1938. During her launch, the ship sustained minor damage to her stern; the chains slowing her slide down the slipway broke, and the ship drifted too far and became beached on the opposite shore. After her commissioning, "Gneisenau" spent the first year of her career conducting trials and training cruises in the Baltic Sea. The cruises revealed the wetness of the bow and bridge; in January 1939 her "Atlantic bow" was installed. "Scharnhorst" was laid down at the "Kriegsmarinewerft" in Wilhelmshaven, on 16 May 1935. She was launched on 30 June 1936 and completed on 7 January 1939. In mid 1939, the ship conducted trials in the Baltic Sea; as with "Gneisenau", the ship's low freeboard necessitated the installation of the "Atlantic bow", which was completed in August 1939. During that refit, a large hangar for the ship's aircraft was added amidships. The ship emerged from the dockyard in October.
On 21 November, "Scharnhorst", "Gneisenau", the light cruisers and "Leipzig", and several destroyers conducted a sweep between Iceland and the Faroe Islands; during the operation, the German ships encountered the British armed merchant cruiser ; "Scharnhorst" sank the ship, but in the process sustained a hit from one of "Rawalpindi"s 152 mm guns. "Scharnhorst" stopped to pick up survivors, but the arrival of the cruiser prompted the German ships to withdraw.
Operation Weserübung.
On 7 April 1940, "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" formed the primary covering force for the invasions of Narvik and Trondheim in Norway during Operation Weserübung. At 04:30 on 9 April, the "Seetakt" radar on "Gneisenau" picked up a contact, beginning the action off Lofoten; both ships went to battle stations. Half an hour later, muzzle flashes were observed, from what turned out to be the old battlecruiser which had been part of the cover for a British minelaying operation. The British battlecruiser initially targeted "Gneisenau", at a range of . In the span of five minutes, "Gneisenau" hit "Renown" twice, but sustained one 15" and two 4.5" hits in return. One of the two 4.5" hits disabled "Gneisenau"s A turret, The 15" hit destroyed the main armament fire control station, and knocked out her "Seetakt" radar. "Scharnhorst"s gunnery radar suffered technical problems, which prevented her from effectively engaging "Renown". The British ship engaged "Scharnhorst" for a brief period starting at 05:18, but effective maneuvering by "Scharnhorst" allowed her to escape unscathed. Fears that the destroyers escorting "Renown" might make a torpedo attack prompted the German commander to break off the engagement. By 07:15, the German ships had escaped from the slower "Renown". In the course of their escape "Scharnhorst" suffered from damage to her A turret caused by the heavy seas coming over her bows. "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" rendezvoused with the heavy cruiser before proceeding to Wilhelmshaven.
"Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau", with "Admiral Hipper" and four destroyers, departed again on 4 June. After operations in the North Sea that resulted in the sinking of several British transports, "Admiral Hipper" and the destroyers were detached to refuel in occupied Norway. At 16:45 on 8 June, "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" spotted the British aircraft carrier , which was escorted by the destroyers and , at a range of around . The destroyers laid a smoke screen in an attempt to hide the carrier, but the Germans quickly closed the distance. At 17:26, the range had decreased by half, to around , and both German ships opened fire. "Scharnhorst" struck "Glorious" at a range of approximately , one of the longest recorded hits in the history of naval gunfire. "Glorious" was hit by at least three shells and reduced to a burning hulk, and at 19:00 the carrier capsized and sank. "Scharnhorst" shifted fire to "Ardent" while "Gneisenau" engaged "Acasta"; both ships sank their targets. Before she sank, "Acasta" launched four torpedoes at "Scharnhorst"; the ship evaded three, but the fourth struck the starboard side near the rear gun turret. During the engagement, "Scharnhorst" fired 212 main battery shells. The torpedo hit caused significant damage to "Scharnhorst"; several watertight compartments, including parts of the starboard engine room, were flooded, she took on a list of 3°, and she was down by the stern.
The two ships withdrew to Trondheim, though "Scharnhorst" was limited to a speed of —they arrived in the afternoon of 9 June. On 11 June, 12 Hudson bombers from the RAF attempted to bomb "Scharnhorst"; they all missed their target. Another air raid, this time 15 Blackburn Skuas launched by the Royal Navy's , followed on 13 June. The "Luftwaffe" intercepted the raid and shot down eight of the aircraft; seven made it through to the ship. Only one bomb found its mark, but it failed to explode. On 20 June, enough repair work had been done to permit the ship to sail down to Kiel. Two air attacks followed, but anti-aircraft fire from "Scharnhorst" and her escorts drove them both back. Reports of British ships in the area forced the ship to seek refuge in Stavanger for two days, before she resumed the journey to Kiel. Repairs were effected over the following six months.
Operation Berlin.
Under the command of Admiral Günther Lütjens, "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" broke into the Atlantic in late January 1941 to raid convoys between North America and Great Britain. On 8 February, they spotted a convoy, HX 106, but it was escorted by the battleship , armed with eight 38 cm (15 in) guns. The German ships therefore broke off the attack. A second convoy was encountered on 22 February; "Scharnhorst" sank the tanker "Lustrous", while "Gneisenau" accounted for four cargo ships. On 8 March, "Scharnhorst" spotted another convoy, but it too had battleship protection, in the form of . A week later, on the 15th, another convoy was intercepted; "Scharnhorst" sank two vessels while "Gneisenau" captured three and sank one. Following the engagement, "Scharnhorst" and "Gneisenau" headed for Brest in occupied France; they arrived on 22 March. "Scharnhorst" had suffered repeated problems with defective superheater tubes in her boilers and this needed the repair facilities that existed in the French naval dockyard.
Air raid damage.
Brest was comfortably within range for air attack from Britain. A series of raids started on 30 March. On 6 April, four Beaufort torpedo-bombers attacked "Gneisenau" after she had been moved to a buoy from dry dock. One of the attacking aircraft was successful; the hit did significant damage to the ship. "Gneisenau" shipped some of water, which caused her to list 2° and settle lower in the water. The shock force of the explosion also did a great deal of internal damage; fuel tanks were ruptured and electrical systems were damaged. A salvage tugboat was brought alongside to assist in flood control. "Gneisenau" was put into dry dock for repairs, which were prolonged by further British air raids. On the night of 9–10 April, British high-level bombers attacked both "Gneisenau" and "Scharnhorst". The latter escaped unscathed, but the former was struck four times; 72 men were killed and another 90 were wounded.
"Scharnhorst" completed engine repairs and the retubing of the defective superheaters in July, and after engine trials, was dispersed to La Pallice on 23 July to avoid a concentration of heavy units in Brest. While moored there on 24 July, "Scharnhorst" was attacked by 15 Halifax bombers from 2 squadrons; five bombs—two high explosive and three semi-AP —found their mark. The two 454 kg bombs penetrated both armored decks, all the way down through the double bottom, before coming to rest on the sea floor; they failed to explode. The third also failed to detonate. One of the 227 kg bombs penetrated the upper deck just forward of the rear gun turret, and exploded on the main armored deck. The last bomb fell on the starboard side and also detonated on the main armor deck. The ship listed at 8°, after having taken in between and of water; the list was reduced to 2° by counter-flooding. Casualties amounted to two men killed and 15 wounded. The following day "Scharnhorst" arrived in Brest for repairs, which lasted for four months.
Operation Cerberus.
In early 1942, the crews of "Scharnhorst", "Gneisenau", and the heavy cruiser made preparations for Operation Cerberus, a daylight dash up the English Channel. The ships were to be redeployed to Norway, to assist in the disruption of convoys to the Soviet Union, as well as the defense of occupied Norway. The risk of further damage from air raids, and the loss of the "Bismarck" and most of the supply ships had forced a change of thinking by the naval staff on the use of these ships for Atlantic sorties. If they could not be evacuated, Hitler ordered that they were to be decommissioned in Brest.
The ships left Brest late on 11 February, and remained undetected for the majority of the operation. East of Dover, a flight of six Swordfish torpedo bombers attacked the ships without result. At 15:31, "Scharnhorst" detonated a magnetic mine, which damaged the ship's circuit breakers enough to shut down the entire electrical system. The ship was immobilized briefly—between 15:49 and 16:01, all three turbines were restarted and the ship resumed a speed of . A series of air attacks ensued; through evasive maneuvers, anti-aircraft fire, and "Luftwaffe" fighters, they were all repulsed. By noon on 13 February, "Scharnhorst" had reached Wilhelmshaven. After two days she was transferred to Kiel for repairs, which lasted until July 1942.
"Gneisenau" and "Prinz Eugen" had continued their journey to Norway while "Scharnhorst" was immobilized. At 14:45, the ships were attacked by five Whirlwind fighter-bombers—German fighters beat them back. Several more air attacks followed over the next two hours, without success for the British. At 16:17, five British destroyers attempted to torpedo the German ships, but heavy fire from "Gneisenau" and "Prinz Eugen" mauled one and forced the others to turn away. Near Terschelling, "Gneisenau" struck a mine that did minor damage to the hull, and the explosive shock damaged one of her three turbines. Her captain ordered the ship to stop while temporary repairs were conducted, which lasted for about 30 minutes. By 03:50 on 13 February, the ship had reached Helgoland.
"Scharnhorst"s deployment to Norway.
In January 1943, it was decided to deploy "Scharnhorst" to Norway, along with "Prinz Eugen" and several destroyers. Attempts to sail on 7 and 23 January were aborted after the navy received reports of heavy activity at British air bases in Britain. A third try on 10 February terminated when "Scharnhorst" ran aground while trying to avoid collision with a U-boat. Repairs lasted until 26 February. On 8 March, "Scharnhorst" and four destroyers departed Gotenhafen; she arrived off Narvik on 14 March. For 6 months, fuel shortages curtailed any major operations by "Scharnhorst" or the other ships in Norway, which included the battleship and the heavy cruiser . On 25 November 1943 "Scharnhorst" carried out a two-hour full-power trial, achieving , and it was noted that her draught had increased by over from her 1940 trials, where she had attained .
Battle of North Cape.
On 20 December 1943, "Scharnhorst" was ordered to intercept the next convoy to the Soviet Union, Convoy JW 55B. The ship was to operate only with five destroyers; "Tirpitz" had been damaged in a British raid in September, and "Lützow" was away for periodic repairs. On 25 December, the location of the convoy was ascertained, and at 19:00 the ship left port, under the command of Rear-Admiral Erich Bey. The British fleet had a significant advantage: they were able to decrypt German naval codes, and were aware of Bey's intentions. The cruisers , , and were positioned to block "Scharnhorst". Admiral Bruce Fraser, aboard the battleship , was some 270 miles away, and steaming to cut off "Scharnhorst" after she was engaged by the three cruisers. "Belfast" picked up "Scharnhorst" on radar at 08:40; forty minutes later lookouts on "Sheffield" spotted the ship, at a distance of . Shortly thereafter, "Belfast" fired star shells to illuminate the target, and "Norfolk" opened fire with her 20.3 cm (8 in) guns; in the span of 20 minutes, she hit "Scharnhorst" twice. The second hit destroyed "Scharnhorst"'s forward Seetakt radar.
By 10:00, "Scharnhorst", using her 4–6 knot speed advantage, broke off the engagement and resumed searching for the convoy. At 12:00, "Belfast" again picked up "Scharnhorst", and in 20 minutes were again in range. This time, "Scharnhorst" had better luck with her gunnery; at 12:23, "Norfolk" was hit twice by 28.3 cm shells. One hit disabled a gun turret, and the second tore a hole in the hull and disabled her radar. Near-misses rained shell splinters down on "Sheffield". At 12:41, "Scharnhorst" again increased speed and broke off the engagement. The British shadowed her, and relayed position reports to Admiral Fraser in "Duke of York". At 13:15, Admiral Bey decided to call off the search and return to port. Shortly before 17:00, the British ships closed it: "Belfast" again illuminated the ship with star shells, while "Duke of York" fired salvos from her main battery. A hit from "Duke of York" disabled "A" turret, and at 18:00, another hit penetrated the upper portion of the belt and caused significant damage to the engine room. This hit temporarily reduced her speed to , but repairs quickly allowed her to steam at .
Shells from "Scharnhorst's" main guns struck "Duke of York"s mast and disabled her surface radars. The lack of radar forced "Duke of York" to cease fire at 18:24, after having hit "Scharnhorst" at least 13 times. The hits from "Duke of York" disabled most of "Scharnhorst"s armament in the process. Admiral Fraser ordered his destroyers to approach the ship and torpedo her. "Scharnhorst" was hit at least four times by torpedoes fired by and . The hits caused extensive flooding and slowed the ship to . "Duke of York" then closed to to hammer away at the ship. At the time, only "C" turret on "Scharnhorst" remained operational; surviving gun crews transferred ammunition from the disabled "A" and "B" turrets to "C" turret. As more water entered "Scharnhorst", her speed continued to fall to . At 19:25, the light cruiser fired three torpedoes, followed by six from "Belfast". Several destroyers closed in and fired torpedoes as well, though in the smoke and haze, it was unknown how many hit the crippled ship. "Scharnhorst" was listing severely and very low in the water. At 19:45, the ship capsized to starboard and sank, with her propellers still spinning. She sank at the position . Of the crew of 1,968 officers and men, only 36 survived. Rear-Admiral Erich Bey was lost with his ship.
"Gneisenau"s reconstruction.
"Gneisenau" was also scheduled to deploy to Norway, but she suffered heavy damage during a bombing raid on the night of 26–27 February 1942. A 1000 lb bomb penetrated the armored deck just ahead of the forward turret; shell splinters detonated the ammunition magazine, which did tremendous damage to the bow of the ship and burnt out "A" turret; 112 men were killed and another 21 were injured. It was estimated that it would take two years to make the ship ready for service. Since this was such a long period, it was determined that it would be more efficient if during the repair work, the ship was reconstructed to mount six 38 cm (15 in) guns in place of her 28.3 cm weapons. To accomplish this, the hull would need to be lengthened by to provide additional buoyancy and the electrical system would have to be overhauled. Turrets "B" and "C" were to be removed and transferred to Norway to serve as coastal defense guns.
On 4 April, "Gneisenau", along with the icebreaker "Castor" and the old pre-dreadnought departed Kiel for Gotenhafen. Once there, conversion work began: the wrecked bow was removed and her "B" and "C" turrets were removed and disassembled for transport. Krupp would build the new 38 cm turrets, which required strengthening of the barbette structures to support their weight. By early 1943, repair work was largely completed and the ship was ready to receive the improved bow and 38 cm turrets, but this was not to be. The failure of surface units to intercept and destroy a convoy in the Arctic on 31 December 1942 prompted Hitler to order all major surface units to be scrapped. Work on "Gneisenau" ceased, and materials that had been allocated for her repair were diverted to other projects.
The ship was then disarmed and all but abandoned in the harbor. Her 15 cm guns were placed as coastal batteries in Denmark. When the Soviet army approached in early 1945, the ship was towed out into the outer harbor and sunk as a block ship, on 23 March 1945. A Polish salvage firm raised the wreck on 12 September 1951 and subsequently broke the ship up for scrap metal. "C" Turret remains in Trondheim, Norway at Austrått Fort; the Norwegian government offered without success to return the turret to Germany for display in a museum. The 15 cm guns in Denmark were taken over by the Danish military; two of the turrets were moved to Stevnsfort in 1952. The guns were put into reserve in 1984, but continued to be fired during annual training. They fired their last shot in 2000, after which the fortress was turned into a museum.
References.
Online sources


Boer foreign volunteers

Boer foreign volunteers were participants who volunteered their military services to the Boers in the Second Boer War.
Origin.
Although there was much sympathy for the Boer cause outside of the British Empire, there was little official support as governments proved mostly unwilling to upset the United Kingdom. As a result, no other government actively supported the Boer cause. There were, however, individuals from several countries who volunteered and formed Foreign Volunteer Units. These volunteers primarily came from Europe, particularly the Netherlands, Germany and Sweden-Norway. Other countries such as France, Italy, Ireland (then part of the United Kingdom), and restive areas of the Russian Empire, including Poland and Georgia, also formed smaller volunteer corps. Finns fought in the Scandinavian Corps.
Recruitment.
The influx of foreigners into the country began simultaneously with the war, and it continued thereafter at the rate of about four hundred men a month. These volunteers would have come for a number of reasons, not necessarily because of any sympathy with the Boer cause, including soldiers-of-fortune, professional soldiers and adventurers. Some of the more famous volunteers were:
Ernest Douwes Dekker, Camillo Ricchiardi, Yevgeny Maximov, Niko the Boer (Niko Bagrationi), Yevgeny Avgustus, , Alexander Guchkov, Leo Pokrowsky, Major Baron von Reitzenstein, Viscount Villebois-Mareuil and the men of the two Irish commandos, the Irish Transvaal Brigade of John MacBride and John Blake, and the Second Irish Brigade of Arthur Alfred Lynch.
None of the foreigners who served in the armies of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State received any compensation. They were supplied with horses, equipment, and food from the Transvaal government, but no wages. Before a foreign volunteer was allowed to join a commando, and before he received his equipment, he was obliged to take an oath of allegiance to the Transvaal Republic. A translation of it reads:
Second Boer War.
At the time of the outbreak of war, the Boers did not have the resources to record statistics about their forces. The statistics available were mainly collected by foreigners and by the testimony of the commanders. Table of foreign volunteers in the Second Anglo-Boer War
In the early stages of the war the majority of the foreign volunteers were obliged to join a Boer commando. Later they formed their own foreign legions with a high degree of independence, including the: Scandinavian Corps (Skandinaviens Korps), Italian Volunteer Legion, two Irish Brigades, German Corps (Deutsches Korps), Dutch Corps, Legion of France, American Scouts and Russian Scouts.
Foreign volunteer units.
Hollander Corps.
Dutch volunteers established the Hollander Corps in the South African Republic. A number of Belgians, under the chairmanship of Dr G.M.A. Heymans, also joined the unit in September 1899. Volunteers included Herman Coster, who became a celebrated figure in the Netherlands after his death in the war; Cornelis Vincent 'Cor' van Gogh, the brother of the artist Vincent van Gogh; and Willem Frederik Mondriaan, the brother of the artist Piet Mondrian. The Hollander Corps was involved at the Battle of Elandslaagte in October 1899. After that defeat, the Hollander Corps was disbanded and merged into other Boer units. A group calling themselves the Second Hollander Corps was founded in 1900 and joined the forces of the Orange Free State. The Dutch Corps Monument was erected by the citizens of the Netherlands in memory of their countrymen who died in the Battle of Elandslaagte.
Scandinavian Corps.
The Scandinavian Corps was founded by railway engineer Christer Uggla at the outbreak of the Second Boer War in 1899, and was part of the Army of the Transvaal Boer Republic. The Corps consisted of 114 men, including officers, of which 46 from Sweden, 13 from Norway, 24 from Denmark, 18 from Finland, 7 from Germany, 4 from The Netherlands, 1 from Russia, and 1 from Italy. Of the soldiers, none were professionals, but many were seamen. An ambulance unit was attached to the Corps consisting of 4 men and 4 women, led by the physician Wilhelm Biedenkap from Oslo.
The Corps was commanded by Captain Johannes Flygare (a Swede from Natal) and lieutenants Erik Stålberg (from Delsbo in Sweden) and William Baerentsen (from Copenhagen). Of these only Stålberg had any military background.
The Corps partook in the siege of Mafeking in October and November as well as in the Battle of Magersfontein 10–11 December 1899, where it suffered heavy losses, as it faced several Scottish elite regiments from the Highland Brigade, and was immensely outnumbered. The Boer soldiers were entrenched and inflicted a severe defeat upon the advancing British force; the Scandinavians however were positioned around 1500 meters in front of the main line. The fallen were buried on site, and several monuments were erected there. One reads "De kunde icke vika, blott falla kunde de. (They could not fold, they could only fall)". Those Scandinavians who were taken prisoner were brought through the naval base Simonstown to Ceylon or to the prison island Saint Helena. After the battle the Corps was supplied with 20 men, and the Dane Jens Friis was appointed Captain and commander. The Corps was part of the Boer forces under General Piet Cronje who surrendered at Paardeberg in February 1900.
General Cronje reported after the victory in the battle at Magersfontein: "Next to God the (Boer) Republics have the Scandinavian Corps to thank for the victory".
German Corps.
Adolf Schiel led the German Corps and was one of the Boer leaders at the Battle of Elandslaagte. Schiel was wounded at the battle and taken as a prisoner of war.
Legion of France.
However, the free rein given to the foreign legions was eventually curtailed after George Henri Anne-Marie Victor de Villebois-Mareuil and his small band of Frenchmen met with disaster at Boshof, and thereafter all the foreigners were placed under the direct command of General De la Rey.
American Scouts.
The American Scouts were led by John Hassell.
Italian Volunteer Legion.
The Italian Volunteer Legion of Camillo Ricchiardi carried out the capture of an armoured train near Chieveley, Natal. Among the passengers who were taken prisoner was the young journalist Winston Churchill, whose life Ricchiardi spared by pretending not to see him dumping his pistol and dum-dum ammunition which had been declared unlawful on pain of death.
Irish Transvaal Brigade.
Irish support for the Boers went back to 1877, when several Irish MPs, including reformer Charles Stuart Parnell expressed their opposition to laws which would annex the South African Republic to the British Empire. Although their efforts ultimately were unsuccessful, support remained high for the South African Republic in Ireland during the First Boer War; especially in 1881 following the decisive British defeat at the Battle of Majuba Hill where an Irishman, Alfred Aylward, served as an adviser to the victorious Boer General Piet Joubert during the battle. When rumours of a second war with the Boers began to surface, protesters led by James Connolly took to the streets in Dublin in August 1899 and public meetings were held across Ireland in support of the Boers. Several weeks later in Dublin a crowd of nearly 20,000 marched in protest against the planned invasion of the South African Republic.
The Irish Transvaal Brigade was established days before the outbreak of the Second Boer War and initially consisted of Irishmen who worked in the Witwatersrand. These volunteers were given full citizenship and became Burghers of the Boer republics. Under the leadership of John Macbride, the brigade was strengthened by volunteers travelling from Ireland via Delagoa Bay into South Africa.
Second Irish Brigade.
The Second Irish Brigade was formed in January 1900 by former members of the Irish Transvaal Brigade. Former "Le Journal" correspondent Arthur Lynch was appointed as the unit's commander. The brigade consisted of 150 commandos from a variety of ethnic backgrounds. Including among others Irish, Australian, Greek, German, Boer and Italian members.
Polish volunteers.
It is difficult to find out what was the number of Polish volunteers during the Second Boer War because Poles were treated in official censuses as Austrians, Germans and Russians, They were also limited by a considerable distance, and hence long and high travel costs. The Polish public sympathized with the situation of the Boers, and numerous Poles expressed a desire to aid their cause; in Poland, pro-Boer Poles collected donations to support Boers who were wounded in action and widows and orphans of those who were killed in action. Polish newspapers frequently published stories about Boer accomplishments in battles and stressed their peaceful attitudes, diligence and deep religiosity. All sectors of Polish society expressed hopes for a Boer victory, and carnival costumes of the uniforms of Boer generals proved immensely popular at carnivals. Numerous shop windows in Poland featured portraits of Boer leaders, with demand for these lithographs being so high that merchants who imported these portraits from the outbreak of the war supposedly gained immense profits from selling them. Because of the pro-Boer mood of the Polish public, one of the hotels in Warsaw at 17 Zielna St. was given the name "Pretoria".
Germany and Russia supported the Boers, supplying them with weapons, as well as sending military missions and medical assistance to the Boers republics. Among this crowd of people there were Poles.
Many came individually to defend a nation that found itself in a similar position to Poland. One can also include to this, immigrants who came to South Africa just before the start of the war, while others appeared as part of projects organized by Germany and Russia.
Polish names appear in the lists of German volunteers fighting in the unit they formed (deutsch-burischen Freikorps). Among about 800 known German volunteers about 30 had Polish-sounding surnames.
More is known about two of them. Robert Jutrzenka and Ludwik Zalewski arrived in the South African Republic a few years before the start of the Second Boer War and took an active part in the armed clash in 1895 during Jameson Raid.
Other volunteers came as subjects of the Russian Tsar. Among them were two lieutenants Leo Pokrowsky and Eugeniusz Augustus.
Both for the time of their stay in South Africa they were transferred to the reserve in December 1899. So they were not there as soldiers on duty. However, they were sent by their superiors to be together with other Russian officers to study the combat methods used by Boers and the British. Leo Pokrowsky remained in Africa, joining the guerilla "Bittereinder". His last reportage is dated April 1, 1900. Later he devoted himself to fighting for the Boers' cause, which caused the dissatisfaction of his superiors.
He was so impressed by the Boers' courage that he made their cause his own. His comrades stated that "he had the goodness and progress of the Boers closer to the heart than many Boers."
Russian volunteers.
One of the countries where enthusiasm for the Boer cause was the greatest was Russia, where the war was extensively covered by the Russian media and numerous books, articles, plays, pamphlets and poems were published about the war, usually with a pronounced pro-Boer slant. One Russian writer complained: "Wherever you go these days you hear the same story – the Boers, the Boers and only the Boers". The national anthem of the Transvaal "Transvaal, Transvaal, My Country" was frequently played by Russian orchestras, numerous committees were founded to collect money for the Transvaal, and church services offered up prayers for a Boer victory. In countless newspaper serials and novels, the men of the "kommandos" were portrayed as heroes battling the "arrogant" British. Such was the popular enthusiasm that inns, restaurants, and cafés were given Afrikaans names and redecorated in the "Boer style" to improve business. The works of the novelist Olive Schreiner were frequently translated into Russian as her books become very popular after she condemned the British government. The novelist Leo Tolstoy wrote in his diary: "You know what point I’ve reached? Opening a paper every morning I passionately wish to read that the Boers have beaten the British...I should not rejoice at the victories of the Boers or grieve about their defeats, after all they kill the English soldiers too...I am glad when I read about the defeats of the British, it cheers my soul." The Emperor Nicholas II wrote to his sister: "I am wholly preoccupied with the war between England and the Transvaal. Every day I read the news in the British newspapers from the first to the last line...I cannot conceal my joy at...yesterday’s news that during General White’s sally two full British battalions and a mountain battery were captured by the Boers!" As Britain was Russia's principle antagonist in the 19th century, many Russians naturally sympathised with the Boers."
The British historian R.W. Johnson wrote: "Russian conservatives were pro-Boer not only for the usual nationalist, anti-British reasons but because they thought the Boers were like the best sort of Russians – conservative, rural, Christian folk resisting the invasion of their land by foreign (especially Jewish) capitalists." One conservative Moscow newspaper in an editorial stated: "The deep historical meaning of this war is that faith, patriotism . . . the patriarchal family, primordial tribal unity, iron discipline and the complete lack of so-called modern civilisation have . . . become such an invincible force that even the seemingly invincible British have begun to tremble." The Georgian Prince Niko Bagration was in Paris when the war began in October 1899 and despite never having heard of the Transvaal before, recalled thinking "but it felt very much like my motherland and I felt I must protect it." Prince Bagration was greeted in Pretoria by President Paul Kruger of the Transvaal. Yevgeny Maximov, a former officer in the Imperial Russian Army whose career had ended in disgrace after he attempted suicide, volunteered to fight for the Transvaal, in an attempt to extirpate his disgrace. Johnson called Maximov a tragic figure as his dishonorable discharge from the Russian Army owing to his suicide attempt marked him out as a man whose honor could never be redeemed, leading Maximov to volunteer in successive wars in attempts to prove his courage to the world and restore his lost honor. Maximov had previously fought with the Serbs against the Ottomans in 1876-78 and with the Ethiopians against the Italians in 1895–96. Maximov, an excellent horseman and marksman became renowned with the Boers due to his bravery under fire, and was thanked by Kruger in a telegram after the war for showing outstanding courage in combat. Kruger believed that Maximov was representing Nicholas and took him into his confidence, believing that Maximov had the power to make Russia intervene in the war. Some of the Russian volunteers were men of the left like Prince Mikhail Yengalychev, Ivan Zabolotny and Alexander Essen with the latter becoming a Bolshevik who ended his career as the deputy chairman of the Russian State Planning Committee in the 1920s. Left-wing Russians volunteered to join the Boer cause due to their anti-imperialist beliefs.
However, through several hundred Russians who did make their way to fight for the Transvaal, upon arriving they were often shocked by the corruption of the Transvaal government, its state of disorganization, and the casual brutality of the Afrikaners towards blacks. One Russian volunteer, Yevgeny Augustus, wrote that the Transvaal had become "a paradise for adventurers and rogues of all kinds" as thousands of men from all over the world, many of them disreputable, arrived in the Transvaal to fight in the war. The majority of the Russians who fought for the Transvaal were Russian Jews who come before the war to take advantage of the booming economic conditions caused by the Witwatersrand Gold Rush. The largest Jewish population in the Russian Empire was in the "Pale of Settlement" which consisted of what is now modern central and eastern Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Belarus, western and central Ukraine and Moldova, so most of the "Russian" Jews in the Transvaal did not come from what is now modern Russia. Many of the Russian volunteers who arrived after the war started were antisemitic and refused to serve alongside the Jews already living in the Transvaal who volunteered to fight for their adopted country, leading to the two groups being segregated. Benzion Aaron, a Russian Jewish financier living in Johannesburg who was a friend of President Kruger founded the Jewish Ambulance Corps to take care of the wounded. Two Russian Jewish volunteers, Josef Segal and Wolf Jacobson were renowned for their skills as scouts.
Greek volunteers.
Quite a few Greeks have joined as foreign volunteers to the Boers.
Australian volunteers.
While the vast majority of people from Commonwealth nations fought with the British , a few Australians fought on the Boer side. The most famous of these was Colonel Arthur Lynch, formerly of Ballarat, who raised the Second Irish Brigade. Lynch, charged with treason was sentenced to death by the British government, for his service with the Boers. After mass petitioning and intervention by King Edward VII, he was released a year later and pardoned in 1907.


Strafbataillon

Strafbataillon (English: "penal battalion") is the generic term for penal units that were created from prisoners during the Second World War in all branches of the "Wehrmacht". Soldiers, criminals and civilians sentenced to those units were generally poorly armed and required to undertake dangerous high-casualty missions. The "Strafbataillon" were operated and administered by the "Feldgendarmerie", the German military police.
By 1943, the course of the war had turned against Nazi Germany. Military losses and the need to maintain discipline by example made the German High Command order that further punishment units should be formed from the thousands of "Wehrmacht" military prisoners that were held in its military prisons. The "Strafbataillon", which were under the control of the "Feldgendarmerie", were then used to conduct dangerous operations (sometimes akin to suicide missions) for the "Heer", such as clearing minefields, assaulting difficult objectives and defending positions against overwhelming attacking forces. They were also made to do hard manual labor in frontline locations, building and repairing military infrastructure and defenses.
Prisoners who survived their missions would be deemed "fit to fight" and returned to the field with the "rights" of a combat soldier. Although most "Strafbataillon" personnel were used on the Eastern Front, some were sent to the Ardennes, on the Western Front during the last major German offensive, in December 1944.
Formation.
The "Strafbataillon" were developed from the "Sonderabteilungen" () that existed in pre-war Nazi Germany. Initially, Nazi policy was to rebuild the armed forces by keeping "potential troublemakers" away from the troops and removing any "destructive elements" from military service. But on 21 May 1935, Adolf Hitler decreed that under the new Nazi Defence Act, any conscript who was deemed "unfit for military service because of subversive activity" would be arrested. However, soldiers who were deemed disruptive to military discipline, but were otherwise "worthy of service", would be sent to military "Sonderabteilungen".
Those units were designed to change attitudes toward state and national policy while instilling a sense of duty, honor and purpose. Those goals were to be achieved through harsh discipline and punishments, extensive indoctrination programs, and restrictions on home leave. Troops who conformed were eventually transferred to regular units. However, those who continued to show indiscipline or opposed the military were transferred to Sachsenhausen concentration camp. Before World War II, there were nine "Sonderabteilungen" within the "Wehrmacht" in Nazi Germany. According to estimates, between 3000 and 6000 "Wehrmacht" personnel passed through those special departments. A total of 320 "incorrigible pests" were transported to concentration camps.
However, with the outbreak of war in 1939, the "Sonderabteilungen" were disbanded. They were replaced with the "Feld-Sonder Battalion" () under the control of the "Feldgendarmerie". However, as the war continued, the need for more military personnel grew accordingly. Military tribunals were directed by the OKW to send incarcerated members of the "Wehrmacht", as well as "subversives", to "Bewährungsbataillone" () at the front.
Bewährungsbataillon 500.
The 500th Probation Battalion was created by a secret Führer directive in December 1940. The order stated that any first-time convicted soldier could return to his unit after he had served a portion of his sentence in "a special probation corps before the enemy". However, recidivist criminals and hardcore elements in the German prison system were not allowed to join those units. Beginning in April 1941, convicted soldiers - even those sentenced to death - who had shown exceptional bravery or meritorious service, were allowed to rejoin their original units. However, those in probation units were expected to undertake dangerous operations at the front. Refusal entailed execution of the original sentence. Those who did refuse were labeled "criminal entities" and sent to the harsh moorland labor camps in Emsland in Lower Saxony. There was a strong incentive to join Bewährungsbataillon because convicted soldiers lost both their honor and citizen rights. The only way to get those rights back was probation in Bewährungsbataillon 500.
During World War II, more than 27,000 soldiers served a probation period in a "Bewährungsbataillon" unit. They were monitored and commanded by selected officers, NCOs, and assigned enlisted men, who made up a quarter of the total strength. Although battle losses were high, the desire to win the right to leave probation meant combat morale was high. Major operations conducted by "Bewährungsbataillone" on the Eastern Front included Kamianka, Ukraine, as well as at Gruzino and Sinyavino, near Leningrad.
Bewährungstruppe 999.
In October 1942, the 999th Light Afrika Division was formed from civilian criminals and prison inmates who had been deemed "unfit for military service". They were encouraged to volunteer on the promise that all past crimes would be wiped out by exemplary bravery in combat. However, anyone who refused to join the "Bewährungstruppe" () would stay in prison without rights to parole, or be sent to a concentration camp.
A third of the 28,000 troops who joined the division were political prisoners from Baumholder and Heuberg. The 999th Light Afrika Division initially fought in North Africa and later in the Soviet Union. Some units were also used as garrison troops in Greece and in the fight against partisans in the Balkans. Several hundred soldiers from the division deserted to the Allies. In September 1944, some troops from the 999th, including Falk Harnack and Gerhard Reinhardt, took active part in armed resistance with the Greek Liberation Army (ELAS).
Final years.
In the final years of the war, order within all branches of the "Wehrmacht" was upheld by a specially-formed military police, the "Feldjägerkorps". These military police units, which had seniority over all other "Feldgendarmerie", were formed from combat-decorated officers and NCOs. Possessing the direct authority from the OKW, they had the power to maintain control and discipline throughout all the German armed forces including the SS. The "Feldjägerkorps" had the authority in the field to summarily execute officers or enlisted men for any breach of military discipline, order or duty. By September 1944, all soldiers and recruits who received a sentence of deferred execution in a drumhead court-martial were sent directly to "Strafbatallions". Numbers rapidly increased as the war drew to a close in May 1945.
In popular culture.
Danish writer, Sven Hassel, uses the "Strafbataillon" in many of his novels about the "Wehrmacht" on the Eastern Front.
The fictional unit of disgraced German paratroopers, who are sent to kill British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in "The Eagle Has Landed", by Jack Higgins, are also recruited from a "Wehrmacht" penal unit.
In the German TV miniseries "Generation War," Wilhelm, who deserts from the Wehrmacht, is sentenced to serve in "Bewährungsbataillon" 500.


Howard Meeks

Howard Samuel Meeks (November 29, 1932 – May 13, 2016) was the sixth bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of Western Michigan between 1984 and 1988.
Early life.
Meeks was born on November 29, 1932 in Upland, Pennsylvania, the son of Howard Samuel Meeks and Edith May Flounders. He was educated in Chester High School, graduating in 1951. He then studied at the Goldey–Beacom College from where he earned an Associate’s Degree in Accounting and Business Administration, after which he worked for General Chemical in Claymont, Delaware. He also joined the United States Navy Reserve and was engaged in active duty between 1954 and 1956, serving on the USS Daly. After being discharged, Meeks worked for Sun Oil Company in Marcus Hook, Pennsylvania, whilst perusing his studies for the Bachelor’s degree at Pennsylvania Military College. After a while, he enrolled at the Master of Divinity from the Episcopal Divinity School in Philadelphia, graduating with a Master of Divinity in 1962.
Ordained Ministry.
Meeks was ordained as a priest in December 1964. He served as assistant rector at St Paul’s Church in Chester, Pennsylvania, the Church of the Holy Trinity in West Chester, Pennsylvania, and St Thomas' Church in Terrace Park, Ohio. He then became rector of the Church of the Nativity in New Castle, Delaware and in 1973, becmae rector of St Andrew’s Church in Fort Pierce, Florida.
Bishop & Resignation.
Meeks was elected as the Bishop Coadjutor to the Diocese of Western Michigan in 1984, and was consecrated on October 6, 1984. He then succeeded as diocesan on December 1, 1984. He only served four years as bishop, resigning in January 1988, becoming effective on February 1, 1988. After his resignation, he worked as a representative of Food for the Poor.
Meeks resigned his Holy Orders in the Episcopal Church on December 20, 2007, becoming effective in February 2008. He died in Winter Garden, Florida on May 13, 2016.


Midway order of battle

This is the order of battle for the World War II Battle of Midway, which took place 4–7 June 1942.
Overview.
Ships involved in the Midway operation
Japan.
The Japanese forces (the "Combined Fleet") actually consisted of two different fleets detailed to two separate operations, namely Operation AL (for the Aleutians) and Operation MI (for Midway). The list below shows all ships assigned to Operation MI, however only Nagumo's First Carrier Striking Force and Kurita's Midway Support Force were actually involved in the Battle of Midway.
United States.
The US Pacific Fleet and Pacific Ocean Areas were under the overall command of Admiral Chester Nimitz.
Carrier Strike Force.
Task Force 17 (Rear Adm. Frank J. Fletcher in "Yorktown")
Task Force 16 (Rear Adm. Raymond A. Spruance in "Enterprise")
Submarines
Operational command under Rear Admiral Robert H. English (Commander, Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet) at Pearl Harbor.
Midway Refueling Unit.
The military forces at the immediate point of tactical contact (i.e. not including support formations) are described below.
Aircraft.
American Forces.
Naval Air Station (NAS) Midway operated:
United States Navy
United States Army Air Forces
United States Marine Corps
Task Force 17:
Task Force 16:
Japanese Forces.
The Japanese carriers of the Striking Force operated:


Order of battle at Tacna

The Battle at Tacna was an engagement during the War of the Pacific (1879–1883) between Chile and the Allied Forces of Peru and Bolivia. It was fought on May 20, 1880, with the forces aligned as follows:
Chilean North Operations Army.
Commanding General: Manuel Baquedano González
Chief of Staff: Col. Velasquez
Infantry.
I Division
Col. Santiago Amengual
"Strength: 2,547 men"
II Division
Lt. Col. Francisco Barcelo
"Strength: 2,130 men"
III Division
Col. Jose Domingo Amunategui
"Strength: 1,858 men"
IV Division
Col. Orozimbo Barbosa
"Strength: 2,285 men"
Reserve
Col. Mauricio Muñoz
"Strength: 2,335 men"
Allies.
Commanding General: Narciso Campero, Bolivian Army
"Strength: 13,650 men"
I Southern Peruvian Army.
I Division
Col. Justo Pastor Davila
II Division
Col. Andrés Avelino Cáceres
III Division
Col. Belisario Suarez
IV Division
Col. Jacinto Mendoza
V Division
Col. Alejandro Herrera
VI Division
César Canevaro
Nacionales Division
Col. del Solar
Cavalry
Artillery
Bolivian Army.
I Division
Col. Severino Zapata
II Division
Col. Claudio Acosta
III Division
Col. Idelfonso Murgia
IV Division
Col. Alfonso Gonzalez
Cavalry
Artillery


Operation Cobra order of battle

This is the order of battle for Operation Cobra, a World War II American offensive against German forces in Normandy, France.
German order of battle.
Seventh Army.
SS-Obergruppenführer Paul Hausser


Vic Snyder

Victor Frederick "Vic" Snyder (born September 27, 1947) is an American physician, lawyer, and politician who was the U.S. Representative for from 1997 to 2011. He is a member of the Democratic Party. He served in the United States Marine Corps during the Vietnam War at the rank of corporal.
Early life, education and career.
Vic Snyder was born in Medford, Oregon. He is a graduate of Medford High School (1965) and attended college at Willamette University in Salem, Oregon, where he was a member of Kappa Sigma. In 1967, after two years of college, Snyder volunteered for the United States Marine Corps. He served in South Vietnam with Headquarters Company of the US 1st Marine Division during the Vietnam War. He served for two years and attained the rank of corporal. Snyder earned a degree in Chemistry in 1975 from Willamette and earned his M.D. degree from the University of Oregon Health Sciences Center (now Oregon Health & Science University) in Portland, Oregon in 1979.
Snyder moved to Little Rock, Arkansas and served his residency at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences. In 1982 after completing his residency he worked as a family practice physician for 15 years. During this time he travelled overseas to volunteer his medical services at Cambodian refugee camps in Thailand, Salvadoran refugee camps in Honduras, and Ethiopian refugee camps in Sudan. From 1985 to 1988 Snyder attended the University of Arkansas at Little Rock School of Law to obtain his J.D. degree while still maintaining his medical practice.
Arkansas Legislature.
In 1990, Snyder successfully ran for a seat in the Arkansas legislature and served in that body until 1996. In the Arkansas legislature, Snyder stepped into one of his earliest legislative controversies when he attempted to repeal the state's aged "Sodomy Laws". Ultimately, however, his efforts failed, and the sodomy laws stayed in effect until the state Supreme Court struck it down in "Jegley v. Picado" in March 2001.
U.S. House of Representatives.
Committee assignments.
Snyder focuses on many traditionally liberal issues, including a particular interest in support for veteran's and military families. He has a fairly liberal voting record for being an elected politician from the South and otherwise conservative-leaning Arkansas. Snyder voted against the Federal Marriage Amendment, the ban on partial-birth abortions, banning lawsuits against gun manufacturers and distributors, bankruptcy reform, drilling in ANWR, and on October 10, 2002, he was among the 133 members of the House who voted against authorizing the invasion of Iraq. In addition, Snyder was one of only two Congressmen to vote against prosecuting Saddam Hussein.
On issues of free and expanded trade, Snyder differs with his party, especially his Southern populist colleagues. He has also opposed legislation cracking down on Wal-Mart, which is headquartered in Bentonville, Arkansas.
Political campaigns.
Snyder was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1996 and was reelected in 1998, 2000, 2002, 2004, 2006 and 2008.
Snyder announced on January 15, 2010 that he would retire at the conclusion of his term which ends in 2010. A SurveyUSA poll released January 15, 2010 showed him trailing his Republican challenger, Tim Griffin, by 17 points.
During the 2008 presidential campaign, like most Arkansas Democrats, Snyder endorsed former U.S. Senator and former First Lady of Arkansas Hillary Clinton (D-New York) for President.
Personal life.
Snyder, in 2003 married The Reverend Betsy Singleton, then a United Methodist minister at Little Rock's Quapaw Quarter United Methodist Church. They have four children, all boys, named Penn, Aubrey, Wyatt, and Sullivan. The latter three are triplets.


Dallas Union order of battle

The following Union Army units and commanders fought in the Battle of Dallas on May 28, 1864 during the American Civil War.
Military Division of the Mississippi.
MG William T. Sherman
Army of the Tennessee.
MG James B. McPherson
XV Corps.
MG John A. Logan
XVI Corps.
MG Grenville M. Dodge


4th Parachute Division (Germany)

The 4th Parachute Division, (), was a divisional-sized elite formation in the Luftwaffe during World War II.
History.
It was formed in Venice, Italy, in November 1943, from elements of "2 Fallschirmjäger Division" and volunteers from the Italian 184 and 185 Airborne Division Folgore parachute divisions. Its first combat action was against the Allied landings at Anzio (Operation Shingle) as part of the "I. Fallschirm Korps" in January 1944.
After Anzio, the division fought a rear guard action in front of Rome, and was the last German unit to leave the city on 4 June; it withdrew towards Viterbo Siena Firenze and then managed to halt the Allies at the Futa pass.
In the winter of 1944/1945 it was positioned on the Gothic Line. In March 1945, the division had to send the II Battalion, "12 Fallschirmjäger Regiment" and the 2nd Company from the "Pionier Battalion" to the new "10 Fallschirmjager Division", which was being formed in Austria. It then fought at Rimini and Bologna and surrendered to the Allies on May 2nd 1945.
War crimes.
The division has been implicated in Pedescala massacre (Veneto), between 30 April and 2 May 1945, when 63 civilians were executed.
Order of battle.
Structure of the division: