86th Airlift Wing

The 86th Airlift Wing (86 AW) is a United States Air Force wing, currently assigned to the United States Air Forces in Europe. The 86th AW is stationed at Ramstein Air Base, Germany.
The wing's primary mission is to conduct airlift, airdrop and aeromedical evacuation operations flying the C-21A, C-20H, C-37A, C-40B and C-130J aircraft. The 86th Airlift Wing commander also serves as the Kaiserslautern Military Community (KMC) commander, leading the largest American community outside the United States.
Originally the 86th Fighter Wing was established and activated on 1 July 1948 at Neubiberg AB, Germany.
History.
The 86th Fighter Wing was established and activated on 1 July 1948 at Neubiberg AB, Germany. Its initial mission was to provide air defense, primarily in West Germany with its operational component, the 86th Fighter Group.
Equipped with P (later F-47) Thunderbolts, the 86th was one of two active USAF fighter units in Germany (the other being the 36th FG) during the immediate postwar years. Over the next several years, the 86th underwent several redesignations and several station assignments in occupied Germany. In June 1948, the 86th Fighter Wing was stationed at Neubiberg Air Base, near Munich when tensions with the Soviet Union culminated in the Berlin Blockade.
With the arrival of the jet age in Europe, USAFE wanted to move its units west of the Rhine River, as its bases in the Munich area were just a few minutes flying time from Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 bases in Czechoslovakia. In February 1951, the United States and France signed an agreement in which USAF bases in their German occupation zone would be built and made available to USAFE. In late 1952, enough construction was completed at Landstuhl and the 86th Fighter-Bomber Wing was reassigned to the new base.
The 86th Wing (under various designations) has been assigned to Ramstein for almost 60 years, with a brief period (1966–1973) being inactive or assigned to Zweibrücken Air Base.
In March 1958 the 86th Fighter-Bomber Group was inactivated and its operational squadrons were assigned to the Wing. In May, the 406th FIW at RAF Manston, England was inactivated. Its three F-86D squadrons, the 512th, 513th and 514th were reassigned to bases on the continent and were also assigned to the 86th. These squadrons were detached to the following bases:
86th Air Division (Defense).
In January 1959 the 525th Fighter Interceptor Squadron at Bitburg received its first Convair F-102 Delta Dagger, designed to upgrade the air defense capabilities of Western Europe. HQ USAFE decided to upgrade the 86th Fighter-Interceptor Wing and centralize command of all the European Air Defense squadrons in USAFE to it. With this change, the 86th Fighter-Interceptor Wing was redesignated the 86th Air Division (Defense) on 18 November 1960.
However at the time of their arrival in Europe, the F-102 was already being replaced by the McDonnell F-101B Voodoo and the Convair F-106 Delta Dart in the Aerospace Defense Command as an interceptor, and by much more versatile McDonnell F-4 Phantom II. On 14 November 1968 the 86th Air Division was inactivated.
86th Tactical Fighter Wing.
In 1968 the Canadian Armed Forces announced they were downsizing their forces in Europe, and Canada's three wings left Zweibrücken Air Base, leaving the base available for USAFE. On 1 November 1969, the Air Force reactivated the 86th Tactical Fighter Wing at Zweibrücken.
It received its first flying unit, the 17th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron, on 12 January 1970. The 17th TRS and its McDonnell Douglas RF-4C Phantom IIs was reassigned to the 86th TFW from the inactivating 66th Tactical Reconnaissance Wing at RAF Upper Heyford, England. Squadron tail code for the 17th TRS was initially "ZS", then was recoded to "ZR" in 1971.
For 18 months the 17th was the only operational squadron on the base. On 12 June 1971, the 81st Tactical Fighter Squadron with its Electronics Counter-Measures (ECM) equipped McDonnell EF-4C Phantom II "Wild Weasel" fighters was attached to the 86th TFW from the 50th TFW at Hahn AB when the 50th switched to a strike-attack role, with air defense as a secondary mission. (Note: The EF-4C designation was not official. The aircraft were officially F-4C models). The 81st TFS, however remained a part of the 50th TFW but was detached from the wing's operational control and attached to the 86th Tactical Fighter Wing for support. Squadron tail code for the 81st TFS was "ZS".
In 1972, tail codes for all 86th TFW aircraft at Zweibrücken were standardized as "ZR", per AFM 66-1, when squadron tail codes were eliminated.
However, with these reconnaissance aircraft at Zweibrücken the 86th Tactical Fighter Wing's designation did not coincide with the wing's mission. The name issue was resolved as part of a USAFE command-wide effort to realign functions and streamline operations called Creek Action.
On 15 January 1973, the 81st TFS was reassigned to Spangdahlem Air Base under operation "Battle Creek". The last of this variant of the Phantom returned to the US in 1979/1980 and was replaced by the F-4G Wild Weasel at Spangdahlem.
In addition, USAFE transferred the 26 TRW from Ramstein to Zweibrücken Air Base, Germany, and the 86th Tactical Fighter Wing (TFW) from Zweibrücken back to Ramstein on 31 January 1973. These moves were made without the transfer of personnel or equipment with the exception of the 38 TRS, 7 SOS and 81 TFS. The 38th remained under the control of the 26 TRW by moving to Zweibrücken with the wing and the 7th Special Operations Squadron was transferred to Rhein-Main Air Base. The 526th TFS remained at Ramstein AB, and it was reassigned to the 86th Tactical Fighter Wing, flying F-4Es. Its tail code was "RS".
On 22 September 1977 the newly activated 512th TFS was equipped with the 526 TFS aircraft and the 526 TFS received new planes from McDonnell Douglas St. Louis plant. The unit was designated the 86th Tactical Fighter Group and was under the 86th Tactical Fighter Wing.
With these changes, the operational squadrons of the 86th TFW in 1978 were:
As the wing approached its fortieth year of service in Germany, the first F-16C Fighting Falcon arrived on 20 September 1985 and the 512th TFS converted to the General Dynamics Block 25 F-16 Fighting Falcon, and the 526th retired their F-4Es in June 1986, also receiving Block 25 F-16s. The 86th TFW supported numerous military units located in the area and participated in numerous exercises that provided the wing with air combat tactics training essential to their mission.
With the rest of the world, the members of the 86th watched the Communist Bloc countries of Eastern Europe with fascination as the events of the late 1989 unfolded. When the Berlin Wall finally began to come down on 9 November 1989 and the celebrations began, many members of the Ramstein community and 86th TFW went to Berlin to see the events and take pieces of the Wall.
The 86th TFW and Ramstein had just begun to absorb the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War when, in August 1990, the Iraqis invaded Kuwait. Under Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm, much to the dismay of the 86th TFW personnel, their F-16s did not deploy to the Persian Gulf like so many of its USAFE counterparts. Instead, Ramstein became an intermediate support base for American forces deployed to the Persian Gulf and, on 10 August 1990, Ramstein began receiving MAC stage crews as the base became an overflow airfield for Rhein-Main AB, supporting strategic airlift traffic to the Persian Gulf.
In addition to serving as a central overflow hub for airlift traffic flying between the US and the Arabian Peninsula, Ramstein also established an intermediate engine repair facility for deployed F-16s, became a huge collection and distribution center for gulf-bound munitions, and on 15 January 1991, Ramstein AB's aeromedical staging facility activated a 150-bed hospital and blood transshipment center in Hangar 1. The hospital provided triage to its first patients from the Persian Gulf on the same day. Additionally, personnel from virtually every squadron augmented Air Force and Army units deployed to the gulf.
With the end of Operation Desert Storm, the 86th TFW deployed to Turkey and supported operations in Southwest Asia to ensure that Iraq complied with treaty terms. From 6 April 1991, when the operation began, until September 1993 when its commitment ended, the wing flew nearly 5,000 sorties over Iraq. 526th TFS aircraft twice attacked Iraqi surface-to-air missile (SAM) sites in northern Iraq. For its participation in Provide Comfort, the 86th TFW received credit in a Joint Meritorious Unit Award, though the award did little to placate the wing personnel who felt they had "missed" the war.
On 1 May 1991, the 86th TFW was redesigned the 86th Fighter Wing and underwent a complete change in its organizational structure as a test base for the USAFE Corona South wing reorganization program, an effort to "flatten" command lines and consolidate span of control. Ramstein's 316th Air Division and 377th Combat Support Wing were inactivated and all of their former functions placed under the operational control of the 86th Fighter Wing. The lessons learned at Ramstein applied to other units Air Force-wide as they converted to the new organizational structure.
Conversion to an airlift wing.
The end of the Cold War brought major force structure changes throughout the Air Force, and the 86th was no exception. On 1 June 1992, the 86th Fighter Wing, which had only been equipped with F-16s, began a slow move to airlift operations when the wing took over the 58th Airlift Squadron and its small executive fleet of C-12, C-20 Gulfstream, C-21 Lear Jet, CT-43 Bobcat, C-135, and UH-1 aircraft. After gaining this airlift mission, the wing changed its designation from the 86th Fighter Wing to the 86th Wing.
In 1994 the decision was made to change the 86th Wing from a composite wing to a wing devoted to intra-theater airlift, and the 86th Wing began to assume the airlift mission previously held by C-130 Hercules aircraft at the 435th Airlift Wing at Rhein Main Air Base, Germany, which was slated for inactivation. With the influx of C-130 personnel, On 1 July, the 526th FS inactivated and its aircraft and personnel moved to Aviano Air Base, Italy to form the 555th FS.
The 512th FS was inactivated on 1 October, with its aircraft and personnel also being moved to Aviano, being assigned to the 510th FS. On 21 July 1994 the 86th Wing held a "Fighter Farewell" ceremony for the departure of its last F 16s, most to the 31st FW at Aviano AB, and the 86th Wing became the 86th Airlift Wing.
The new wing operated C-130 Hercules aircraft. On 2 November 2009 the wing completed its transition from C-130E to C-130J models.
The new 86th Airlift Wing was responsible for United States Air Forces, Europe (USAFE) intra-theater airlift throughout Europe, Africa and the Middle East, as well as supporting operations and exercises throughout the European theater. The reoriented wing's successful transition from F-16s to C-130s and its airlift support of numerous European contingencies earned it the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award for the period of 1 July 1993 to 30 June 1995, bringing the wing's total Air Force Outstanding Unit Awards to six.
86th Contingency Response Group.
By 1999, the new security environment in the Balkans showed the USAF the need for a rapid-deployment "first-in" force to secure a contingency airfield, then establish and maintain the airfield, aerial port operations, and provide force protection. In response to this need, the Air Force activated its first contingency response group, the 86th Contingency Response Group on 26 February 1999, as part of the 86th AW.
The 86th CRG had two subordinate units—the 86th Air Mobility Squadron and 786th Security Forces Squadron – and incorporated more than 30 different jobs. This new, self-contained unit became the Air Force standard for such units, and proved its utility during the Kosovo conflict.
On 5 May 1999, US president William Clinton, accompanied by Secretary of State Madeleine Albright, Secretary of Defense William Cohen, and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Gen Henry Shelton and a large assortment of congressional delegates visited the 86th AW and Ramstein AB. During his visit, the president confirmed the 86th AW's informal motto, "The World's Greatest Airlift Wing."
Air Expeditionary Forces.
On 1 January 2000, the Air Force introduced the concept of Air Expeditionary Forces, quickly known as AEFs, to respond to the increasing number of contingencies that call for worldwide deployments and to balance the burdens (and opportunities) for such deployments. The AEF concept attempted to provide some measure of "predictability," by putting Airmen either on call for deployment or actually deployed for 90 days every 15 months. The concept was intended to let all personnel know the dates of their 90-day deployment period well in advance so they could be prepared. The remaining 12 months of the 15-month AEF cycle was to be spent performing routine activities: training, participating in exercises, working on civilian or military education and spending time with their families.
The Balkans and Africa were much of the operational focus of the 86th AW in 2000. From March through April 2000, the 86th AW sent seven 37th AS C-130s and crews to Hoedspruit Airfield, Limpopo, South Africa in support of Joint Task Force Atlas Response, a relief effort in southern Mozambique and South Africa following torrential rains and flooding. The 37th flew more than 170 sorties, transporting over 600,000 pounds of cargo and 1,096 passengers.
During Atlas Response, a new capability was provided by a 37th AS C-130E, serial number 68-0938, the first USAF C-130 to undergo Keen Sage camera system modification. The Keen Sage system was mounted in a metal-encased sphere, slightly larger than a basketball, housing three sophisticated video-capture lenses—a daylight television, a 955mm fixed focal length zoom and infrared in six fields—mounted on a pallet and strapped down in the cargo hold of the Hercules. Controlled by two operators in the aircraft, the lenses scan full circle and along 90 degrees of elevation and the airborne camera operators can beam live analog video and digitally-captured still images back to a ground station, where it could be recorded and sent to relief organizations and other users. Atlas Response was the first operational deployment of a C-130 with the Keen Sage camera system, and the 37th C-130 flew 39 sorties using this new capability to search for displaced refugees so they could be provided humanitarian assistance. Eventually the wing received eight Keen Sage configured aircraft.
At the same time, members of the 86th Medical Group deployed to the nation of Cameroon for exercise MEDFLAG/Brilliant Lion. 120 doctors and medical technicians administered 20,000 immunizations and performed more than 70 surgeries, as well as delivering and distributing over 50,000 pounds of medical supplies. In August 2001, the 86th Contingency Response Group deployed to Africa as part of Operation Focus Relief, the movement and support of UN-mandated peacekeeping operations in Sierra Leone.
Beginning on 17 August 2000, the 86th Wing moved a large contingent of American soldiers to a staging base in Skopje, Macedonia, then on to Kosovo as part of NATO's Immediate Ready Force. By 31 December 2000, the 86th AW, with support from deployed C-130 units, transported 5,000 tons of cargo and 30,604 personnel to support US forces in Kosovo.
In addition to the wing's "on call" status to support any European crisis, the wing positioned aircraft and medical personnel at emergency landing fields in Spain, Morocco and Banjul for every National Air and Space Administration (NASA) Space Shuttle launch, as well as flying missions for the On-Site Inspection Agency as part of the Conventional Forces in Europe Treaty.
May 2000 was a banner month for the 86th. Air Force Chief of Staff General Mike Ryan presented the 86th Airlift Wing with the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award Ribbon for its actions from 1 September 1997, to 31 August 1999. Additionally, the 86th's C-130 squadron, the 37th Airlift Squadron "Bluetail Flies," won the 2000 USAFE Best Airlift Tanker Squadron award.
Global War on Terrorism.
On 16 October 2002, President Bush signed the newly passed Congressional Resolution for "Authorization for the Use of Military Force Against Iraq," beginning Operation Iraqi Freedom. As soon as this occurred, the 86th Medical Group initiated planning for a 150-bed expansion of the Landstuhl Regional Medical Center and initiated steps to prepare building 2117 (Ramstein's South Side Fitness Center) for contingency use as an Aeromedical Staging Facility. Beginning the day after the president's announcement, the 86th Maintenance Group and the 86th Logistics Readiness Squadron Traffic Management Office configured 3.4 million pounds of supplies in just 120 hours, an operation that normally took 30 days, and began moving munitions for deployment. In November 2002, 29 members of the 86th Civil Engineering Group were deployed to Ganci Air Base, Kyrgyzstan, to prepare for possible operations in Iraq.
In December, the tempo increased further. A request was sent from the Southern European Task Force requesting the 86th CRG evaluate eight airfields in northern Iraq. On 27 December, members of the Youngstown, Ohio 757th Airlift Reserve Squadron, 910th Airlift Wing, arrived to join the Selfridge, Michigan Air National Guard's 165th Airlift Squadron, and 127th AW, as part of the 86th Airlift Wing's 38th Airlift Squadron (Provisional). With the new arrivals, the combined forces of the 38th (P) Squadron was 154 personnel and four C-130 aircraft, and the unit took primary responsibility for providing airlift for forces in Bosnia-Herzegovina supporting Operation Joint Forge.
On 3 January 2003, the 86th Materiel Maintenance Squadron (MMS) began moving War Readiness Materiel (WRM) for deployment. Over the next eight months, the 86th MMS shipped 8,340 tons of WRM to 13 locations in 9 countries. By August every USAFE location that supported Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation Enduring Freedom had received WRM from the 86th MMS. The 86th MMS also deployed seven members to various contingency locations to include Karshi-Khanabad, Uzbekistan, and Bagram, Afghanistan.
Beginning 14 February, the 37th Airlift Squadron began using its Keen Sage equipped C-130s to conduct observation missions over Iraq in preparation for possible action. The squadron flew a total of 14 missions, most at night, covering five to 15 targets per flight. To honor this rather "un-airlifty" operation, the crews gave themselves the name of the "37th Airlift Reconnaissance Squadron."
Operation Iraqi Freedom.
Beginning 11 March 2003, the 86th AW's 38th Airlift (Provisional) Squadron, flying from Constanta, Romania, flew its first Operation Iraqi Freedom mission. Initially 38th (P) Squadron flew missions with just 4 aircraft, but even as these missions began help was on the way. On 3 March, the 757th Airlift Reserve Squadron, 910th Airlift Wing, Youngstown, Ohio, and the 165th Airlift Squadron, 123rd Airlift Wing, Kentucky Air National Guard, Louisville, Kentucky, were called to active duty for one year to join 38th (P) Squadron. The units arrived from 21–27 March, and the personnel and equipment increased 38th (P) Squadron from four C-130s and 154 personnel to ten C-130s and 306 personnel.
On 17 March, President Bush delivered an ultimatum to Saddam Hussein that he and his sons must leave Iraq within 48 hours. Saddam refused. On 20 March, the 86th Contingency Response Group went through the 86th Airlift Wing Deployment Control Center, Personnel Deployment Function, and Vehicle Deployment Function in less than three hours—a record time.
On 20 March, the Coalition began its air assault on Baghdad. The 86th AW's effort began on 27 March 2003, when 20 members of the 86th Expeditionary Contingency Response Group departed from Aviano Air Base, Italy, and parachuted into Bashur airfield in northern Iraq, to prepare the field for airlift operations. The 86th ECRG team parachuted into Bashur with 1000 "sky soldiers" of the 173rd Airborne Brigade on the largest airborne combat insertion since 1989 Operation Just Cause in Panama. The initial cadre was followed by 200 more members from the 86th ECRG and the 86th Expeditionary Air Mobility Squadron.
The 37th Airlift Squadron with its C-130E Hercules was soon involved, flying the first Hercules landing into the airfield at 2 pm on 7 April 2003. Processing through as many as five mobility lines at once, 593 members of the 86th AW deployed to Operation Iraqi Freedom by 7 April. US casualties were evacuated to Ramstein, often by 86th AW units, the 75th Airlift Squadron and the 86th Aeromedical Evacuation Squadron. By August 2003, 86th AW units had flown more than 30 medical evacuation missions back to Ramstein where, once on the ground, critical care transport teams provided acute care and managed patient transfer to the Landstuhl Regional Medical Center.
Beginning 6 April, the 86th's 37th Airlift Squadron aircraft began deliveries to the forward base in Constanta, Romania, delivering 57 tons and 58 passengers to Constanta in just seven missions conducted over the course of a week. Over the subsequent weeks, the squadron's nineteen crews continued to fly round-the-clock operations averaging 4.5 missions per day. On 14 April, the 38th (P) began to fly stage operations from Souda Bay, Crete. Their first mission into Iraq brought US Marines into Erbil in an effort to seal off the Iraq-Syrian border.
A few days later, on 17 April at Bashur, the airfield the 86th CRG had secured and opened, and the first shipment of humanitarian aid arrived destined for residents near Kirkuk, Iraq. Over 27 days of operations, the 86th Expeditionary Air Mobility Squadron received more than 370 fixed wing arrivals and departures, 4,200 personnel, and 21,500,000 pounds of cargo. By 22 April the last aircraft transited Bashur Airfield and four days later, on 26 April, the 86th Contingency Response Group Commander, Col Steven Weart, notified higher headquarters that Bashur Field, Iraq was now closed for air traffic. This was a unique occurrence—normally the 86th CRG turned its bases over for further operations. The closing marked the first time the 86th CRG closed a base it had opened.
On 3 May 2003, the 37th Airlift Squadron and 38th AS (P) established stage operations in Constanta, Romania. Flying from Constanta to Kirkuk, Iraq, the 38th Airlift Squadron (P) flew its first mission on 3 May and its last mission on 24 May, the last time the unit would fly into Iraq in support of Iraqi Freedom. On 10 July 2003, the 38th AS (P) flew its last Operation Iraqi Freedom support mission.
2004 Reorganization.
At the beginning of 2004 the 86th Airlift Wing was the largest wing in the Air Force, but its sheer size raised various management issues.
On 15 January 2004, as part of an arrangement intended to increase organizational efficiency based on a pattern used by several units in the states, the 86th AW was split.
African Mission.
While supporting the Global War on Terrorism in the Middle East and East Asia, much of the 86th AW's focus was on Africa, which was in the US European Command (USEUCOM) area of responsibility. On 28 February 2004, C-130s from the 37th AS joined a humanitarian effort to bring supplies to Al Hoceima Province in northern Morocco. On 13 March 2005, in a "rush delivery," two C-130s from the 37th AS delivered more than 19 tons of humanitarian aid to Chad. The mission, which under normal circumstances would have taken several days to plan, was planned and the aircraft launched in less than an hour. On 6 June 2004, three 37th AS C-130s participated in a parachute drop with 13 other USAF airlifters to commemorate the 60th anniversary of D-Day.
In a two-week operation in March 2005, the 37th AS and the 86th Contingency Support Group moved 252 tons of cargo and 357 US Army soldiers into Tibuktu, Mali, in support of the Global War on Terrorism. In August 2004, the 86th AW increased it support of the Global War on Terrorism as wing personnel began to deploy as part of the Air Expeditionary Force "downrange," the euphuism for the Persian Gulf region or the areas in and around Afghanistan. Most of the Ramstein Airmen, especially aircrew, were deployed to Ali Al Salem Air Base, Kuwait, where they served as part of the 386th Air Expeditionary Wing. Many of their combat missions were flown into Bagdad International Airport and Balad Air Base, both in Iraq.
In October 2004, two C-130s from the 37th AS deployed to Kigali, Rwanda, near the Darfur region of Sudan, government organizations in the region. During the deployment the crews transported 380 African Union troops and 3,000 tons of supplies. to provide support and security to the United Nations agencies and non-government organizations in the region. During the deployment the crews transported 380 African Union troops and 3,000 tons of supplies.
In July 2005, the 86th AW deployed three C-130s from the 37th AS and about 40 personnel to Kigali, Rwanda, in support of NATO missions in Darfur, then in October returned many of the African Union troops to Rwanda. The deployment was similar to one undertaken in October 2004, and during the operation the C-130s carried the African Union troops on a thirteen-hour flight to Sudan where the African Union troops were to provide security for aid distribution operations in the area
The Gateway to Europe.
On 10 October 2005, Rhein-Main Air Base was officially closed and Ramstein Air Base now designated "The Gateway to Europe." Another bit of good news for Ramstein came on 9 December when, to the delight of about 3,000 soccer fans partying Kaiserslautern's Stiftsplatz, it was announced that the US national soccer team would play its first-round games in the FIFA World Cup in Kaiserslautern. It was quickly decided that the US team would be quartered at Ramstein Air Base
While the 86th AW participated in numerous events in 2007, one of the most touching was a flight by one of the 38th (P) Delta Squadron's C-130s to Tripoli, Libya, which had once been home to a major American air base, Wheelus. When the United States was forced to leave, it left behind in a cemetery the remains of 72 dependents, all stillborn babies or infants. With the improving atmosphere between the governments of Libya and the United States, the 86th AW was told to proceed to the Libyan capitol, Tripoli, and recover the remains. A team led by General Johnston flew to Libya on 1 March 2007, to recover the remains, and they were returned to their families at Ramstein.
During 2007, the wing added the 496th ABS, Moron AB, Spain to the 86th OG and the 38th Construction Squadron (CST) to the 86th CRG, where it became the 86th CST. The 496th ABS was to prove especially challenging, since it was on a Spanish Eurofighter base and had a relatively small (approximately 96 personnel) US contingent and relatively little in the way of support structure. The 86th CST mainly consisted of local nationals, but there was soon a move to add a larger American contingent so it could perform operations outside of Germany.
On 11 August 2008 Russia began an invasion of its neighboring country Georgia. The 86th AW had Airmen from both the CRG and ACOMG on the ground in Georgia, and soon the 37th AS C-130Es began to fly humanitarian aid into the country while many of the 86th AW Airmen remained in place and performed their duties.
Then, on 20 September, tragedy. Major Rodolfo "Rod" Rodriguez was killed by a truck bomb in Islamabad, Pakistan, outside the Marriott Hotel. Rodriquez, a 34-year-old Air Force Academy graduate and commander of the Contingency Training Flight, 86th Construction and Training Squadron, became the first Ramstein Airman to die in support of Operation Enduring Freedom and the first Ramstein Airman to die in combat since World War II.
In August 2010, the 86th Airlift Wing became a "sister wing" to Poland's 3rd Airlift Wing, the Poles having purchased some C-130Es aircraft from the United States.
Units in the late 2010s.
The 86th Airlift Wing is made up of:
The 779th Expeditionary Airlift Flight was activated in January 2008 to administer a rotational deployment of two C-17 Globemaster IIIs to be based at Ramstein AB. The exact reporting chain for the 779th EAF is not known.
Components.
Groups
Assigned Squadrons
Attached Squadrons


Battle of Rullion Green

The Battle of Rullion Green took place on 28 November 1666, near the Pentland Hills, in Midlothian, Scotland. It was the only significant battle of the Pentland Rising, a brief revolt by Covenanter dissidents against the Scottish government.
Sparked by opposition to the restoration of episcopalianism in the Church of Scotland, a Covenanter army under Colonel James Wallace was defeated by a government force led by Tam Dalyell of the Binns.
While casualties were relatively light, between 40 to 50 Covenanters were killed and up to 85 prisoners taken, many of whom were alleged to have been tortured. 36 were executed and others transported to Barbados, while unrest continued over the next two decades, culminating in the extended period of repression from 1679 to 1688 known as The Killing Time.
Background.
After the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660, the Rescissory Act 1661 restored bishops to the Church of Scotland, or kirk. Ministers were required to renounce the 1638 National Covenant; about a third, or around 270 in total, refused to do so and lost their positions as a result. Many were based in the south-west of Scotland, an area particularly strong in its Covenanting sympathies; they held informal services in open fields known as Conventicles, which often attracted thousands of worshippers.
The Covenanter role in the disputes that led to the 1638 to 1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms meant they were seen as a threat not only to the 1661 kirk settlement but the stability of the regime as a whole. In dealing with them, the government alternated between persecution and toleration; in 1663, dissenting ministers were declared 'seditious persons', with heavy fines for those who failed to attend the parish churches of the "King's curates". Close cultural, commercial and religious links between Scotland and the Dutch Republic meant these concerns heightened following the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Dutch War in 1665, while the war severely damaged the Scottish economy.
Troops under General James Turner were sent into the southwest to enforce these sanctions and the so-called Pentland Rising began on 12 November 1666 in St. John's Town of Dalry. This has traditionally been portrayed as a spontaneous action, allegedly triggered when local Covenanters came across soldiers threatening an elderly man for non-payment of a fine. Led by Robert McClellan of Barscobe Castle, they disarmed them, which was followed by a similar action in the nearly village of Balmaclellan.
Realising this would lead to reprisals, McClellan assembled what men he could and moved onto Dumfries, where they captured Turner. However, there is also evidence plans for co-ordinated action had been under discussion for several months; John Blackadder records meetings held by dissenting clergy in Edinburgh during the summer, including attendees from Nithsdale and Galloway. On learning of the rising, members of this group were sent to provide leadership and rally support, among them James Wallace of Auchens, an experienced soldier who served in Ulster and Scotland during the civil wars.
Many were wary of participation, while concerns over a Dutch-inspired revolt meant the government had already arrested prominent dissidents such as James Steuart of Coltness, former Provost of Edinburgh. However, the number of rebels quickly grew to around 700, sparked by a mixture of religious fervour and economic hardship, the majority of whom were unemployed artisans or workers. The leadership consisted of radical ministers like William Veitch and John Welsh, along with disgruntled minor gentry like McClellan and John Neilson of Corsock. On 21 November, they were joined by Wallace who assumed command, with Joseph Learmont as his deputy.
The original goal was Glasgow, a city generally sympathetic to their cause, but the road was blocked by a government army under Tam Dalyell of the Binns. Instead, they marched on Edinburgh, ostensibly to present a petition to the Privy Council of Scotland and hoping for reinforcements. By the time they reached Lanark on 26 November, their numbers had increased to 1,100; here they stopped to publicly subscribe to the Covenant, before moving onto Colinton the next day, just outside the city. However, they were unable to enter Edinburgh, while many of their men were exhausted by two weeks of marching around Scotland in the winter. With their route to the west blocked by Dalyell, Wallace moved east and then south along the line of the Pentland Hills, halting near Rullion Green to wait for stragglers. Here they were intercepted by a troop of cavalry led by Dalyell's deputy, William Drummond.
The battle.
Drummond's cavalry were driven off, but the main force was only four miles away, too close for the Covenanters to escape. Wallace formed up his troops on the high ground above Glencorse River and waited while Dalyell deployed his men into battle formation. The Covenanter left was attacked on three separate occasions, each of which was repulsed, with a fourth attempt taking place in the late afternoon. At this point, a small body of Covenanter cavalry moved across the battlefield to relieve the pressure on their left, exposing their right.
Seeing this opportunity, Drummond now attacked; outnumbered and under pressure all along their front, the Covenanter position collapsed and they fled into the night, leaving around 50 dead, many killed in the pursuit that followed. The casualties included John Cruickshank and Andrew McCormack, two Presbyterian ministers from Ulster, while estimates of prisoners taken varies from 80 to 140. Most of the leaders escaped, including Wallace, who made his way to the Netherlands where he died in 1678, and Learmont, who was hidden by sympathisers in Ulster and returned to Scotland to fight at Bothwell Bridge in 1679. Veitch and Welsh also avoided arrest and remained prominent in the Covenanter movement.
Aftermath.
Wallace and other leaders of the revolt had previously been implicated in conspiracies in both Scotland and Ireland, including the plot to seize Dublin Castle in 1662. The presence of Cruickshank and McCormack hinted at the possibility of a conspiracy uniting Ulster and southwest Scotland, which if combined with Dutch military support would pose a serious threat.
This may account for the severity of the government response. The few leaders to be captured included John Neilson and Hugh Mackail, a young preacher recently returned from the Netherlands; both were tortured for information before being executed on 14 and 22 December respectively. In all, 36 prisoners were executed in Edinburgh, Glasgow and Ayr, the remainder transported to Barbados.
While the rising had little impact, the Lauderdale administration initially pursued a more moderate policy towards Presbyterian dissidents. This was soon superseded by a renewed persecution, which continued over the next two decades, culminating in the extended period of repression from 1679 to 1688 known as The Killing Time. Those executed took their place in a tradition of Covenanter martyrs, which became particularly prominent in the 19th century, when their graves were marked with memorials.


334th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)

The 334th Infantry Division (German: "334. Infanterie-Division") was a German Army infantry division in World War II. Originally formed in November 1942, it surrendered to the Allies at the conclusion of the Tunisian Campaign in May 1943. The division was reconstituted on 3 June 1943 in France within the 1st Army, with the staff of the 80th Infantry Division (which had only just been formed a few days prior) as well as remnants of the old division and replacement units. It spent the remainder of the war serving on the Italian Front.
Operational history.
Tunisia.
The 334th Infantry Division was set up on 25 November 1942 as "Kriemhilde" unit of the military districts XIII, XVII and XVIII at the Grafenwoehr training area. It was unusual that their three regiments (754, 755, 756) were drawn up from three different military districts (754/XIII – Nurnburg, 755/XVII – Wien, 756/XVIII – Salzburg). It had two infantry regiments (754 and 755) and a mountain infantry regiment (756). The division was already destined for a deployment in Africa at this point in time. In January 1943 the division was transferred by ship from Naples to Africa and assigned to the 5th Panzer Army in Tunisia, in a time where the supply ports of the Axis, as well as its forces, where threatened to be encircled in the winter of 1942/43. Its lead elements of the 754. Infanterie-Regiment arrived in Bizerta in late December of 1942 under the command of "Oberst" Friedrich Weber (promoted to "Generalmajor" on Jan.1,1943), with the rest of the Division arriving by 15 January 1943.
Together with the 10th Panzer Division and the Division “von Manteuffel”, they successfully defended Tunis and northern Tunisia in the "Run for Tunis" in January 1943 as part of the "Company Eilbote" ("Unternehmen Eilbote"). Between February and March the division ("Kampfgruppe Krause") stayed in the northern Tunisian mountains and remained continually engaged, suffering heavy losses amid heavy fighting, in a series of fierce and costly engagements that cost the division dearly in casualties that it could not replace. The 334th was involved in the storming of Djebel Manson. In late April 1943, "Gruppe Audorff" of the division participated in an attack on the heights of Medjez el Bab. After a week of bloody fighting, the 756.Geb.Inf.Rgt. retired from the heights it had recently regained and moved back towards Tunis. The 334th Division was separated from the rest of the army with the volunteer organization "“Phalange africaine”" of the Vichy regime, which had been assigned to the Division's 754.Inf.Rgt.(mot.), and surrendered to the Allied troops in the Beja area on 8 May 1943, a few days before the fall of Tunis in the Bizerta bridgehead.
Reconstruction.
After its destruction, the division was reorganized in Bordeaux, southern France, in 3 June 1943. Contrary to the first list, this time all of their soldiers came from the military district of Nuremberg ("Wehrkries XIII"). On 20 October 1943, "Generalleutnant" Walter Scheller took over the Division that was brought to Italy, after some 3 months of intensive training. Used by Army Group C, it was part of the LXXVI Panzer Corps deployed in the sector of the 10th Army on the Ligurian coast in the Genoa area. In early 1944, the Division was part of the LI. Mountain Corps ("LI. Gebirgs-Armeekorps") relocated south of Pescara to the Gustav Line between Orsogna and Guardiagrele east of the Majella massif. In January the division was assigned the Ost-Btl. 555 as III./755; temporarily renamed Stab III and 9.-12. Kp. Grenadier-Rgt. 755 in early 1944 (the FpN change was not entered until 17 Apr 44). In January 1945 the Ost companies were removed from Gren.Rgt. 755, re-designated Russ. Btl. 555 and assigned to 14th Army in Italy as an independent unit. It remained in Italy to the end of the war in northern Italy.
Italy.
Parts of the division were used at Pontecorvo in the Battle of Monte Cassino on the course of the rivers Liri and Sacco. After the fall of the Gustav Line, the division withdrew to Umbria. On the Trasimeno Line (or Albert Line), the 334th was in positions southwest of Castiglione del Lago on Lake Trasimeno. After the collapse of the Trasimeno Line in the first days of July 1944, the division was involved in retreating battles in the Val di Chiana and on the Pratomagno south of Arezzo. Then the division was back in Genoa for rest and refitting.
From the end of July to the end of August, the 334th was deployed in the Reggello-Pelago area southeast of Florence to fight partisans. At the end of August, the division was moved to the area north of Prato. Understrength, the division was assigned to the XIV Panzer Corps in October 1944, and took part in the defensive battles in the Bologna area, with an effective strength of only some 2600 troops, where it was subordinate to the I Parachute Corps from time to time (August 1944 and February 1945). In April 1945 the remnants of the division surrendered to the Americans of the US 5th Army in the Dolomites.
The divisional stocks relocated to Liegnitz reached Thuringia in their entirety evacuated by train at the beginning of 1945, where they were captured by American troops in April 1945 and brought to the United States via Frankfurt am Main. There they were recorded again and - with the exception of the Ib documents - filmed. From 1962 they were returned to the Federal Republic of Germany. The documents first came to the document center of the Military History Research Office, from where they were handed over to the Federal Archives-Military Archives after they were closed at the beginning of 1968. This file material is supplemented by captured documents from the Western theater of war, by individual files from other groups of documents formed in the USA, in some cases with subject matter (e.g. "EAP") and by donations from private hands, including post-war elaborations by the study group of the US Historical Division.
War crimes.
Members of various units of the division were involved in several war crimes in Italy between February and September 1944, with up to thirty civilians executed in each incident. Most of the victims were recorded in an anti-partisan operation north of Prato, in Figline on 6 September 1944 by members of the 756th Grenadier Regiment, 30 people were shot or hanged on the orders of Major Karl Laqua.
According to the Atlante degli Stragi Naziste e Fasciste in Italia project, which was financed by the German Federal Government and led by a commission of historians, around 100 people were killed by members of the 334th Infantry Division.
Organization.
334. Infanterie-Division in 1942.
"Grenadier-Regiment 754" (754th Grenadier Regiment):
Set up on 25 November 1942 for use in Africa with the 334th Infantry Division. The regiment was destroyed in Africa in May 1943.
"Grenadier-Regiment 755" (755th Grenadier Regiment):
Set up on 25 November 1942 for use in Africa with the 334th Infantry Division. The regiment was destroyed in Africa in May 1943.
"Gebirgsjäger-Regiment 756" (756th Mountain Ranger Regiment):
The "Gebirgsjäger-Regiment 756" was set up on 9 November 1942 in military district XVIII. The regiment was created as a Kriemhilde unit. The staff was set up by the "Gebirgsjäger-Ersatz-Regiment 136" (Mountain Ranger Replacement Regiment 136). The "I. Bataillon" (Major Röhr) was set up by the "Gebirgsjäger-Ersatz-Regiment 137" (Mountain Ranger Replacement Regiment 137). The "II. Bataillon" was formed from the "Gebirgsjäger-Ausbildungs-Bataillon I./136" (Mountain Ranger Training Battalion I./136) and the "Gebirgsjäger-Ersatz-Bataillon III./136" (Mountain Ranger Replacement Battalion III./136). The battalions consisted of two mountain troops - one machine gun comapny and one heavy company. The 13th Company ("13. Kompanie") was a tank destroyer company ("Panzerjäger-Kompanie").
The regiment was subordinate to the establishment of the 334th Infantry Division. Initially, the regiment completed a four-week training phase on the Grafenwoehr military training area, in military district XIII. After that, 1,100 Lower Styrians ("Untersteiermärkers"/Slovenes) made themselves so intolerable for the regimental leadership through crimes, rebellious behavior and refusal to obey orders that they were not used as soldiers at the front; being, therefore, transferred to other units. In addition, 3 death sentences were carried out. This happened shortly before the relocation to Tunisia, in Africa, which began on 28 December 1942. The gaps had to be made up by vacationers in Africa and other soldiers who were somehow available. The regiment was destroyed in Tunis in 1943.
The "Gebirgsjäger-Ersatz-Bataillon I./138" (Mountain Ranger Replacement Battalion I./136) was responsible for the replacement of the regiment.
"Artillerie-Regiment 334" (334th Artillery Regiment):
The "Artillerie-Regiment 334" was set up on 25 November 1942 at the Grafenwoehr military training area, in military district XIII, under Colonel Hans-Joachim Ehlert. The regiment was created as a Kriemhilde regiment through levies from the military districts XIII and XVII. The regimental staff as well as the "I. (motorisierte) Abteilung" (1st (motorized) Battalion) were set up by the "Artillerie-Ersatz-Abteilung 103" (Artillery Replacement Battalion 103). The "II. (Gebirgs-) Abteilung" (2nd (Mountain) Battalion) was set up by the "Gebirgs-Artillerie-Ersatz-Regiment 112" (Mountain Artillery Replacement Regiment 112). The "III. (schwere) Abteilung" (3rd (heavy) Battalion) was formed by the "Artillerie-Ersatz-Abteilung 53" (Artillery Replacement Battalion 53). After the formation, the regiment was subordinated to the 334th Infantry Division. In February 1943 the regiment was reinforced to 10 batteries. In May 1943 the regiment was destroyed in the Tunis area.
"Pionier-Bataillon 334" (334th Engineer Battalion):
The battalion was set up on 25 November 1942 at the Grafenwöhr military training area, in military district XIII, as a Kriemhilde unit, subordinated to the 334th Infantry Division. The 3rd Company was a "Gebirgs-Pionier-Kompanie" (Mountain Pioneer Company). In May 1943 it was destroyed in Tunisia.
"Schnelle Abteilung 334" (334th Fast Battalion):
Set up on 25 November 1942 with two cycling squadrons and two tank destroyer companies. The unit was destroyed in Tunis in May 1943.
"Infanterie-Divisions-Nachrichten-Abteilung 334" (Infantry Division 334th News Battalion):
Raised on 25 November 1942 in Grafenwöhr. Destroyed in Tunis in May 1943. Restablished on 5 July 1943 in France.
Kommandeur der Infanterie-Divisions-Nachschubtruppen 334 (Commander of Infantry Division 334th Resupply Troops):
Raised on 25 November 1942 in Grafenwöhr. Destroyed in Tunis in May 1943. Relocated in June 1943 to France. On 1 September 1944, renamed "Divisions-Versorgungs-Regiment 334" (Divisional 334th Supply Regiment).
334. Infanterie-Division in 1943.
Divisional Staff:
Divisional staff taken from the skeleton 80th Infantry Division, designated "Divisions-Kommando 80 Infanterie-Division" (Divisional Command 80th Infantry Division). Set up on 5 May 1943 as a staff for a division to be set up by the end of July, it was renamed on 3 June 1943 to the staff of the 334th Infantry Division.
"Grenadier-Regiment 754" (754th Grenadier Regiment):
Repositioned on 5 June 1943 in France. The "III. Battalion" was transferred to the 7th Panzer Division on 12 September 1943. The "II. Battalion" was transferred to the "Grenadier Regiment 941" (of the 353rd Infantry Division, in Brittany) on 30 November 1943 and replaced.
"Grenadier-Regiment 755" (755th Grenadier Regiment):
Repositioned on 5 June 1943 in France. The "III. Battalion" was transferred to the 353rd Infantry Division on 12 September 1943. The Eastern Battalion 555 was incorporated as a replacement in 1944.
"Grenadier-Regiment 756" (756th Grenadier Regiment):
Established in France on 1 July 1943 for the 334th Infantry Division with two grenadier battalions. The regiment replaced the "Gebirgs-Jäger-Regiment 756", which was destroyed in Africa. In 1944, an Eastern battalion was incorporated as the 3rd battalion.
"Divisions-Füsilier-Bataillon 334" (Divisional 334th Fusilier Battalion):
Raised in France in June 1943 as "Aufklärungs-Abteilung 334" (334th Reconnaissance Battalion) with four companies. Renamed "Divisions-Fusilier-Bataillon 334" on 26 July 1943.
"Panzerjäger-Abteilung 334" (334th Tank Hunter Battalion):
Raised on 5 June 1943 from the personnel of the "Schnelle Abteilung 334" with a tank hunter company, an anti-aircraft company and an "Sturmgeschütz-Abteilung" (Assault Gun Battalion).
"Artillerie-Regiment 334" (334th Artillery Regiment):
The "Artillerie-Regiment 334" was reorganized on 20 June 1943 in France. The new regiment was set up with four battalions. The new regiment was again subordinated to the 334th Infantry Division. On 24 November 1943, the 3rd Battalion was handed over to the "Artillerie-Regiment" "353" and then replaced again. Various units were initially responsible for providing the regiment with replacements. In 1943, "Artillerie-Ersatz-Abteilung 10" (Artillery Replacement Battalion 10) took over the provision of replacements for the entire regiment. The regiment was commanded by Colonel Hans-Joachim Ehlert from 1 April 1942 to May 1944; succeeded by Colonel Doenning on 15 May 1944 onwards.
"Pionier-Bataillon 334" (334th Engineer Battalion):
The battalions re-formation began on 4 July 1943 in France with the 1st Army. In addition, the battalions 176, 194, 305, 371, 376 and 384 of the new 6th Army, which were in the process of being re-established, supplied levies. The new battalion was also subordinated to the 334th Infantry Division as "Divisions-Pionier-Bataillon 334" (Divisional Pioneer Battalion 334). In December 1943, the battalion contributed levies to the formation of the "Pioneer Battalion 353" (of the 353rd Infantry Division, in Brittany). The replacements came from the "Pionier-Ersatz-Bataillon 46" (Pioneer Replacement Battalion 46) in Regensburg, military district XIII.
"Feldersatz-Bataillon 334" (334th Field Replacement Battalion):
Formed in October 1943 for the 334th Infantry Division with five companies.
"Divisions-Nachrichten-Abteilung 334" (Divisional 334th News Department):
Recreated on 5 July 1943 in France.
Divisions-Nachschubführer 334 (Divisional 334th Supply Command):
Recreated in June 1943 in France. On 1 September 1944, renamed "Divisions-Versorgungs-Regiment 334" (Divisional 334th Supply Regiment).


Battle of Blackett Strait

The Battle of Blackett Strait (Japanese: ビラ・スタンモーア夜戦 (Battle of Vila–Stanmore)) was a naval battle of the Pacific campaign of World War II, fought on 6 March 1943 in the Blackett Strait, between Kolombangara and Arundel Island in the Solomon Islands. The battle was a chance encounter between two Japanese destroyers that had been undertaking a resupply run to Vila and a U.S. Navy force of three light cruisers and three destroyers that had been tasked with bombarding the Japanese shore facilities around Vila. The two forces clashed as the Japanese destroyers were withdrawing through the Kula Gulf. In the short battle that followed the two Japanese destroyers were sunk after which the U.S. ships completed their bombardment of Vila before returning to their base.
Background.
After the American victory in the Guadalcanal campaign in early 1943, operations in the Solomon Islands shifted to the west, where the Japanese maintained a substantial garrison on Kolombangara. Airbases had been established at Munda, on the western coast of New Georgia, and at Vila on the southern coast of Kolombangara. Allied efforts to reduce these airbases initially focused on air strikes, but later included naval bombardment in preparation for a ground campaign to capture New Georgia that would eventually commence in late June and early July 1943. Meanwhile, the Japanese continued to build up these bases as part of their efforts to reinforce the southern defenses to their main base around Rabaul.
On the night of 5 March 1943, the Japanese destroyers and took supplies to the Japanese base at Vila, on Kolombangara. Together, these ships formed part of the 2nd Fleet's Destroyer Squadron 4, which was under the command of Captain Masao Tachibana. Their passage to Vila was undertaken through the Vella Gulf and Blackett Strait, while they decided to return to the Shortland Islands via the shorter route through the Kula Gulf.
Battle.
As the Japanese ships withdrew through the Kula Gulf after landing their cargo, they encountered Task Force 68 (TF 68), consisting of three light cruisers (, , and ) and three destroyers (, , and ) commanded by Rear Admiral Aaron S. Merrill. This force was en route to commence bombarding Japanese positions at Vila. Two submarines, "Grayback" and "Grampus", had been assigned to support Merrill's force, and were stationed along likely Japanese withdrawal routes out of the Kula Gulf. Merrill's attack on Vila was timed to coincide with another attack on Munda by four destroyers under Captain Robert Briscoe.
In a short battle, both Japanese destroyers were sunk. The U.S. force was proceeding in a southwesterly direction about off the New Georgia coast, cruising at about . Meanwhile, the Japanese ships were sailing in the opposite direction along the east coast of Kolombangara, northeast from Sasamboki Island, roughly offshore from Stanmore. First contact was established by the U.S. radar operators around 00:57 on 6 March and firing commenced at 01:01. The U.S. cruisers engaged to starboard with their 6-inch guns at a range of around . Radar controlled gunnery was in its infancy as a technique and there was a tendency for the initial barrage to fall on the same, usually nearest, target. In earlier naval battles in the Pacific, this tactical deficiency had allowed the Japanese to successfully engage attacking U.S. ships with torpedoes and had resulted in several losses for U.S. forces previously.
In this case, the entire opening salvo straddled "Murasame". As "Minegumo"s captain began passing orders to his crew, "Murasame" was hit by the sixth salvo of American gunfire, which was followed shortly afterwards by a salvo of five torpedoes that had been fired by the destroyer "Waller". At around 01:15, one of these torpedoes hit "Murasame", which exploded, caught fire and eventually sank. The explosion was reportedly heard by Briscoe's force about away around Munda. The U.S. cruisers then rapidly shifted target, doing so before "Minegumo" could release any torpedoes.
Meanwhile, "Minegumo" attempted to return fire, aiming for the flashes of the U.S. gun batteries off their starboard bow. After a few minutes, though, the second Japanese destroyer was also hit and began sinking in short order. As the surviving Japanese crew abandoned ship, firing ceased at 01:14. After the engagement, the U.S. vessels completed a turn to starboard when they were roughly due east of the Blackett Strait and north of Tunguirili Point. At 01:24, they commenced a northerly bombardment run off the Kolombangara coast, having been delayed by only 16 minutes. Under the direction of a reconnaissance aircraft flying overhead, the U.S. gunners targeted "supply dumps, runways, bivouacs and dispersed aircraft", according to Samuel Morison. The bombardment was reportedly very destructive and accurate. Several Japanese shore batteries responded, firing on the bombarding ships, but were knocked out quickly with counter battery fire. After completing their task at 01:40, Merrill's force withdrew through the New Georgia Sound.
Aftermath.
A total of 174 Japanese sailors lost their lives during the battle on 6 March; 128 of these were from "Murasame", while the rest were from "Minegumo". The survivors swam to shore on Kolombangara. Fifty-three survivors from "Murasame" and 122 from "Minegumo" managed to reach Japanese lines. Two other survivors from "Minegumo" were later captured by U.S. forces. One of the U.S. submarines assigned to support the operation, "Grampus", went missing and did not return to base at the end of its patrol. The submarine's fate remains unknown and it is uncertain if it was lost as a result of actions during the Blackett Strait operation or before. It was officially listed a missing, presumed lost on or before 3 March although there is a possibility it was attacked by "Minegumo" during the evening of 5/6 March.
Mining operations.
On 20 March, the Allies began mining operations in the central Solomons using U.S. Navy and Marine Corps torpedo bombers to sow mines throughout the northern Solomons. After a month, these operations were briefly suspended as a result of Operation I-Go due to the need to free up AirSols aircraft to respond in the event of further attacks. In May, these operations resumed. On 7 May, the minelayers , , and , escorted by , laid mines across Blackett Strait in an attempt to interdict Japanese ships traveling through the strait. The next day, the Japanese destroyers , , and all hit mines in that area. "Kuroshio" sank immediately. "Kagero" and "Oyashio" sank later that day after being attacked and further damaged by U.S. aircraft from Henderson Field following a radio report from an Australian coastwatcher on Kolombangara.
"PT-109".
Later in the year, with the ground campaign around Munda reaching a climax, another engagement occurred in Blackett Strait when a force of 15 PT boats, including Lieutenant (Junior Grade) John F. Kennedy's "PT-109" were sent to intercept the "Tokyo Express" supply convoy on 2 August. In what National Geographic called a "poorly planned and badly coordinated" attack, 15 boats with 60 available torpedoes went into action. However, of the 30 torpedoes fired by PT boats from four sections, not a single hit was scored. In the battle, only four PT boats (the section leaders) had radar, and they were ordered to return to base after firing their torpedoes on radar bearings. When they left, the remaining boats were virtually blind.
Patrolling just after the section leader had departed for home, "PT-109" was run down on a dark moonless night by the Japanese destroyer , returning from the supply mission. The PT boat had her engines at idle to hide her wake from seaplanes. Conflicting statements have been made as to whether the destroyer captain spotted and steered towards the boat. Members of the destroyer crew believed the collision was not an accident, though other reports suggest "Amagiri"'s captain had not intentionally rammed "PT-109". Kennedy's crew was assumed lost by the U.S. Navy, but were found later by Solomon Islander scouts Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana.


Central China Expeditionary Army

Central China Expeditionary Army (, "Nakashina hakengun") was a field army of the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
On November 7, 1937 Japanese Central China Area Army (CCAA) was organized as a reinforcement expeditionary army by combining the Shanghai Expeditionary Army (SEF) and the IJA Tenth Army. General Iwane Matsui was appointed as its commander-in-chief, concurrent with his assignment as commander-in-chief of the SEF. Matsui reported directly to Imperial General Headquarters. After the Battle of Nanjing, the CCAA was disbanded on February 14, 1938 and its component units were reassigned to the Central China Expeditionary Army.
On September 12, 1939 by Army Order 362, the China Expeditionary Army was formed with the merger of the Central China Expeditionary Army with the Northern China Area Army.


378th Bombardment Group


Battle of Harlaw

The Battle of Harlaw () was a Scottish clan battle fought on 24 July 1411 just north of Inverurie in Aberdeenshire. It was one of a series of battles fought during the Middle Ages between the barons of northeast Scotland against those from the west coast.
The battle was fought to resolve competing claims to the Earldom of Ross, a large region of northern Scotland. Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany, Regent of Scotland, had taken control of the earldom as guardian of his niece Euphemia Leslie. This claim was contested by Donald, Lord of the Isles, who had married Euphemia's aunt Mariota. Donald invaded Ross with the intention of seizing the earldom by force.
First he defeated a large force of Mackays at the Battle of Dingwall. He captured Dingwall Castle and then advanced on Aberdeen with 10,000 clansmen. Near Inverurie he was met by 1,000–2,000 of the local gentry, many in armour, hastily assembled by the Earl of Mar. After a day of fierce fighting there was no clear victor; Donald had lost 900 men before retreating back to the Western Isles, and Mar had lost 600. The latter could claim a strategic victory in that Aberdeen was saved, and within a year Albany had recaptured Ross and forced Donald to surrender. However Mariota was later awarded the earldom of Ross in 1424 and the Lordship of the Isles would keep the title for much of the 15th century.
The ferocity of the battle gave it the nickname "Red Harlaw". It is commemorated by a 40-foot (12 m) high memorial on the battlefield near Inverurie, supposedly by the church at Chapel of Garioch, and by ballads and music.
Background.
During the Dark Ages, the territory of what later became Scotland was divided between the Gaelic kingdoms of Dál Riata on the western seaboard and Alba in the south-east, and Pictish kingdoms in the northeast of which Fortriu was the most important. In addition were the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Bernicia, later part of Northumbria, and the Brythonic Kingdom of Cumbria. Viking influence increased in the west, with the Norse-Gaels that became Lords of the Isles taking control of much of Dál Riata in 1156. The Gaels of Alba acquired Brythonic elements from the conquest of the Kingdom of Strathclyde in the 11th century and increasingly absorbed Norman-French and Anglo-Saxon culture, influences which also spread to the Pictish areas of the northeast. The lands of Fortriu became part of the great Mormaerdom (kingdom) of Moray, which was conquered by Alba in 1130 and fragmented into territories that were semi-independent of the king in Edinburgh.
There was a long history of conflicts between the Moray gentry and the clans of the West Coast, but some historians present Harlaw as a clash between the Scottish Highlands and Lowlands, or between Celt and Teuton. John Hill Burton (1809–1881) claimed that in Lowland Scotland Harlaw "was felt as a more memorable deliverance even than that of Bannockburn. What it was to be subject to England the country knew and disliked; to be subdued by their savage enemies of the mountains opened to them sources of terror of unknown character and extent". However Sir Robert Rait (1874–1936) detected no racial antipathy in the two contemporary accounts of the "Scotichronicon" and the Book of Pluscarden, and viewed Harlaw not as a conflict between races, but between two groups of Scots of which one spoke Scots and the other Gaelic. Rait mentions Buchanan's view that it was a raid for plunder.
Claims on the Earldom of Ross.
The Earldom of Ross was a vast territory reaching from Skye to Ross and Inverness-shire, with superiority over the outlying lands of Nairn and Aberdeenshire. In 1370 Uilleam (William), Earl of Ross received a charter from King David II, confirming his right to the title and directing that in the absence of male heirs, the entirety of the earldom, titles and lands would fall to "the elder daughter always" without division. Uilleam died in 1372 without a male heir, and the title passed to his daughter Euphemia. By her first husband Sir Walter Leslie, Euphemia had two children – Alexander Leslie and Mariota (anglicised as Margaret or Mary). After Walter's death, Euphemia married Alexander Stewart, Earl of Buchan (the "Wolf of Badenoch") in 1382, giving the Stewarts control of the earldom. In 1392 the marriage was annulled as Buchan had long been living with Mairead inghean Eachainn with whom he had a number of children, including Alexander Stewart, Earl of Mar. Euphemia died in 1394 and her son Alexander Leslie inherited the title.
Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany had taken effective control of mainland Scotland towards the end of the reign of his father Robert II; his power increased during the reign (1390–1406) of his ineffective elder brother Robert III. Albany's daughter Isabel Stewart married Alexander Leslie before 1398 and their only child was a sickly daughter, also called Euphemia. According to the Calendar of Fearn, Leslie died on 8 May 1402, whilst his daughter was still a minor. Albany gained wardship of Euphemia, which gave him control of Ross. After the capture by the English of Robert III's heir James and Robert's death soon afterwards in April 1406, Albany was confirmed as regent; Albany continued to govern Scotland until his death in September 1420.
Meanwhile, Donald (Domhnall), Lord of the Isles claimed the earldom of Ross through his marriage to Euphemia's aunt, Mariota, the oldest living female descendant of Uilleam. He also signed an alliance with Henry IV of England on 16 September 1405, which was renewed on 8 May 1408. Skene believed the treaty of 1408 to be the key to the Harlaw campaign and that the claim on Ross was no more than a pretext for coordinated hostilities by Donald and the English against the Lowlands of Scotland, a plan abandoned after Harlaw.
Invasion and the Battle of Dingwall.
It took Donald time to ready his assault, but in 1411 he assembled his forces at Ardtornish Castle on the Sound of Mull and invaded Ross. He met no opposition until "a severe conflict" at Dingwall, seat of the Earls of Ross, where, at the Battle of Dingwall, he fought a large body of men of the Clan Mackay from "Strathnaver". Their leader Angus-Dow (Angus Dubh, Angus Duff) Mackay was captured and his brother Rory-Gald was killed along with "the greater part of his men"; Donald later gave Angus his daughter in marriage. Donald then captured Dingwall Castle.
Donald assembled his army at Inverness, and summoned all the fighting men in Boyne and Enzie (northern Banffshire between the Rivers Deveron and Spey) to join his army. He then swept through Moray meeting little or no resistance. He then turned south-east, following roughly the route of the modern A96 road although the main road ran north of the River Urie, not south as it does today. Donald's men committed "great excesses" in Strathbogie and the Garioch, which belonged to Alexander Stewart, Earl of Mar. Finally the Highland horde came to Bennachie, the last hill of the Grampians before the coastal plain between Inverurie and Aberdeen. Donald had often promised to burn Aberdeen, and he was now within of the burgh. On 23 July 1411, he set up camp just north of Inverurie, on high ground 2 km northwest of the bridge over the River Urie.
The Earl of Mar had plenty of warning of their advance, and had assembled a force from among the gentry of Buchan, Angus and the Mearns (Kincardineshire). The Irvings, Maules, Moray, Straitons, Lesleys, Stirlings and Lovels were led by their respective clan chiefs. Mar gathered his troops at Inverurie, a strategic town on the Inverness-Aberdeen road, and on the morning of 24 July marched northwest to meet the invaders.
Battle.
According to the "Scotichronicon", the two armies joined battle on the eve of the feast of St James – 24 July 1411. The same source puts Donald's army at 10,000 islanders and men of Ross, although it was probably far less. They were armed with swords, bows and axes, short knives, and round targe shields.
It is likely that most ordinary highlanders would have worn for armour, if anything, a padded gambeson, known as a "cotun". Wealthier highlanders would have been equipped in a similar way to the gallowglasses of Ireland and the Isles, with long padded gambesons, mail hauberks, and sometimes partial plate.
Tradition has it that they faced a force numbering between 1,000 and 2,000 men; it was probably several thousand, with significant numbers of knights. Sir Gilbert de Greenlaw died at Harlaw and his tombstone at Kinkell Church gives an idea of how Mar's knights were equipped. Sir Gilbert carries a hand and a half sword and wears an open-faced bascinet helmet with a mail-reinforced arming doublet beneath plate armour. Mar's men also carried spears, maces, and battle axes. Tradition has it that the black armour in the entrance hall of Aberdeen's Town House belonged to Robert Davidson, Provost of Aberdeen, who died in the battle along with most of the burgesses.
On spotting the islanders, Mar organised his force into battle array, with the main army behind a small advance guard of men-at-arms under Sir James Scrymgeour (Constable of Dundee, the hereditary standard-bearer of Scotland) and Sir Alexander Ogilvie of Auchterhouse (Sheriff of Angus). He probably split the army into three, with the knights as a cavalry reserve and the infantry arranged in schiltrons, close-packed arrays of spearmen. There is no mention of significant numbers of archers. The islanders were arranged in the traditional cuneiform or wedge shape, with Hector MacLean commanding the right wing and the chief of Clan Mackintosh on the left. At first the clansmen launched themselves at Scrymgeour's men, but failed to make much impression on the armoured column and many were slain. However, every wave of islanders that was repulsed, was replaced by fresh men. Meanwhile, Mar led his knights into the main body of Donald's army with similar results. The islanders brought down the knights' horses and then used their dirks to finish off the riders.
By nightfall, the ballads claim that 600 of Mar's men were dead, including Ogilvie and his son, Scrymgeour, Sir Robert Maule, Sir Thomas Morrow, William Abernethy, Alexander Straiton of Lauriston, James Lovel, Alexander Stirling, and Sir Alexander Irvine of Drum; according to Maclean history the latter duelled with Hector Maclean until both were dead. Many families lost every male in their house; Lesley of Balquhain died with six of his sons. Donald lost 900 men, a much smaller proportion of his total force, but including his two seconds-in-command. In the history of the Mackintoshes, chiefs of Clan Chattan, it is recorded that "Mackintosh mourned the loss of so many of his friends and people, especially of Clan Vean" (Clan MacBean).
Too feeble to retreat, Mar and his surviving men camped on the battlefield, expecting combat to resume in the morning. At dawn they found that Donald had withdrawn during the night, retreating first to Ross and then back to the Isles. The casualties on both sides meant that neither side felt it had won the day, but Mar had kept Donald from Aberdeen and for the islanders, the absence of conclusive victory was as bad as defeat.
Aftermath.
Many of those who died were buried at Kinkell Church south of Inverurie. The heirs of the slain Scots were exempt from death duties in the same way as heirs of those who died fighting the English. Suspecting that Donald had merely fallen back to rest and reinforce his troops, Albany collected an army and marched on Dingwall, seizing the castle and regaining control of Ross. In mid-1412 he followed up with a three-pronged attack on Donald's possessions, forcing Donald to surrender his claim on Ross, become a vassal of the Scottish crown and give up hostages against his future good behaviour. The treaty was signed at Polgilbe/Polgillip (Loch Gilp), an inlet of Loch Fyne in Argyll.
It was proposed on 3 June 1415 that Euphemia should marry Thomas Dunbar, 3rd (6th) Earl of Moray but the papal commission would not have arrived before she surrendered her land and titles (possibly under compulsion) to Albany's son the Earl of Buchan on 12 June 1415, after which she appears to have entered a nunnery. Buchan was killed at the Battle of Verneuil in 1424, and the rest of Albany's heirs were executed or exiled by James I on his return to Scotland. Mariota claimed the earldom of Ross once more, and James I awarded it to her in 1424. Donald's son Alexander succeeded to the title on her death in 1429.
After Harlaw, the Earl of Mar "ruled with acceptance nearly all the north of the country beyond the Mounth" according to the "Scotichronicon". He entered into an "uneasy alliance" with his uncle Albany, but the ruin of Albany's heirs left Mar in control of the north. Alexander attempted an invasion of Ross in 1429 which led to his defeat and capture by Mar at the Battle of Lochaber. In turn Mar suffered a devastating defeat at the hands of Donald's nephew Donald Balloch, at the Battle of Inverlochy. The resulting power vacuum allowed Alexander to occupy Inverness and perhaps consider himself Earl of Ross by 1437; the title was officially confirmed by the new regent, the Earl of Douglas, after the death of James I that year.
Commemoration and archaeology.
The battle is remembered as "one of the hardest fought that ever took place on Scottish soil"; the fighting was so fierce that the battle went down in history as "Red (Reid) Harlaw". The battle is commemorated in a march, "The Battle of Harlaw", and in ballads such as Child ballad 163. Maidment has a different ballad which apparently shares the same tune, but he is sceptical of its antiquity. Sir Walter Scott mentions Harlaw in his 1816 novel "The Antiquary", particularly in Elspeth's ballad in Chapter 40.
Tradition has it that Mar founded Chapel of Garioch after the battle, to celebrate masses for the souls of the fallen. In 1911, Aberdeen Town Council erected the Harlaw Monument, located to the north of the town of Inverurie, to the memory of Provost Robert Davidson and the burgesses of Aberdeen who died in the battle. Designed by Dr. William Kelly and located to the south of Harlaw House, the granite monument is hexagonal and tall. There were once several cairns in the area that were traditionally associated with the battle, but little remains of them now – Drum's Cairn, Provost Davidson's Cairn, Donald's Tomb and the Liggars Stane. 12 human skeletons were uncovered northeast of Harlaw House in 1837. Although there have been several discoveries of prehistoric artefacts, such as stone axeheads and a flint core, no artefacts directly attributable to the battle have been recorded. The battlefield has been inventoried and protected by Historic Scotland under the Historic Environment (Amendment) Act 2011.


Military Assistance Command, Vietnam

U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam (MACV) was a joint-service command of the United States Department of Defense.
MACV was created on 8 February 1962, in response to the increase in United States military assistance to South Vietnam. MACV was first implemented to assist the Military Assistance Advisory Group (MAAG) Vietnam, controlling every advisory and assistance effort in Vietnam, but was reorganized on 15 May 1964 and absorbed MAAG Vietnam to its command when combat unit deployment became too large for advisory group control. MACV was disestablished on 29 March 1973 and replaced by the Defense Attaché Office (DAO), Saigon . The DAO performed many of the same roles of MACV within the restrictions imposed by the Paris Peace Accords until the Fall of Saigon.
The first commanding general of MACV (COMUSMACV), General Paul D. Harkins, was also the commander of MAAG Vietnam, and after reorganization was succeeded by General William C. Westmoreland in June 1964, followed by General Creighton W. Abrams (July 1968) and General Frederick C. Weyand (June 1972).
Establishment and growth.
Admiral Harry D. Felt, Commander-in-Chief, Pacific, established the U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, on 8 February 1962, as a subordinate unified command under his control. Lieutenant General Paul D. Harkins, the Deputy Commander in Chief, U.S. Army, Pacific, who, as the commander-designate for the task force headquarters (HQ) in the event of operations in Southeast Asia, had participated in the planning for such operations, was appointed commander, and promoted to general. General Harkins became the senior U.S. military commander in Vietnam and, responsible for U.S. military policy, operations, and assistance there. General Harkins had the task of advising the Vietnamese government on security, organization, and employment of their military and paramilitary forces. As provided for in the organization of the task force headquarters in the contingency plans, MACV's commander was also his own Army component commander. With an initial authorized strength of 216 men (113 Army), MACV was envisaged as a temporary HQ that would be withdrawn once the Viet Cong insurgency was brought under control. In that event, the Military Assistance Advisory Group would be restored to its former position as the principal U.S. headquarters in South Vietnam. For this reason, the MAAG was retained as a separate headquarters.
In March 1962 Headquarters, U.S. Army, Pacific, removed the "provisional" designation from the U.S. Army Support Group, Vietnam, attached it to U.S. Army, Ryukyu Islands, for administrative and logistical support, and made its commanding officer the deputy Army component commander under MACV. In turn, all U.S. Army units in Vietnam (excluding advisory attachments) were assigned to the Army Support Group for administrative and logistical needs. Over the course of 1962 U.S. military strength in Vietnam rose from about 1,000 to over 11,000 personnel, though each service continued to provide its own logistical support.
Throughout 1963 the duties of the U.S. Army Support Group steadily increased, particularly regarding to combat support activities and logistics. During the year, the U.S. buildup continued, especially in aviation, communications, intelligence, special warfare, and logistic units, reaching a total or 17,068 man, or which 10,916 were Army. Because of this expansion, General Stilwell late in 1963 proposed that the name of the support group be changed to U.S. Army Support Command, Vietnam. General Harkins concurred and General Collins and Admiral Fell approved the redesignation. The new designation went into effect on 1 March 1964.
MACV was reorganized on 15 May 1964, and absorbed MAAG Vietnam within it, when combat unit deployment became too large for advisory group control. A Naval Advisory Group was established, and the Commanding General, 2nd Air Division, became MACV's Air Force component commander. That year the U.S. strength in Vietnam grew from about 16,000 men (10,716 Army) to about 23,300 (16,000 Army) in 1964 though logistic support operations were highly fragmented. As a result, the 1st Logistics Command was established.
Large scale combat deployments began when the 9th Marine Expeditionary Brigade was deployed in the Da Nang area from March 1965. When the III Marine Amphibious Force moved to Da Nang on 6 May 1965, its commanding general, Major General William R. Collins, USMC, was designated MACV's naval component commander. In May 1965, the Army's 173d Airborne Brigade from Okinawa arrived. In July 1965, in response to the growing size of U.S. Army forces in the country, United States Army Vietnam was established, and both the 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division as well as the 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division, deployed from the United States. The brigade from the 101st Airborne Division was originally planned to replace the 173d Airborne Brigade but, with the need for additional combat forces, both brigades remained in Vietnam. Two months later, the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile), recently reorganized from an infantry formation, reported in country, and the rest of the 1st Infantry Division arrived in October.
Two corps-level HQs were established in 1965-66, Task Force Alpha (soon to become I Field Force, Vietnam) for U.S. forces in the II Corps Tactical Zone, and II Field Force, Vietnam, for U.S. Army forces in the III Corps Tactical Zone (p.52-54). The 5th Special Forces Group was also established in-country by 1965. A brigade of the 25th Infantry Division arrived in late 1965, with the 4th Infantry Division deploying between August and November 1966.
The 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment was alerted for assignment to Southeast Asia on 11 March 1966, and was later commanded there by Colonel George Patton IV.
In April 1967, General Westmoreland, who had arrived in June 1964 as Commander of MACV, organized a division-sized blocking force along the border between North and South Vietnam. The deployment of a division-sized U.S. Army force would allow the 3rd Marine Division to move north, to provide greater support for the 1st Marine Division in the northern portion of the I Corps Tactical Zone. Designated as Task Force Oregon, it included the 196th Infantry Brigade; the 3rd Brigade, 25th Infantry Division at Chu Lai; and the 1st Brigade, 10lst Airborne Division. On 25 September 1967 the new Americal Division (technically, the 23rd Infantry Division) was activated to control the blocking force, replacing the provisional task force HQ. With the elapse of five months, all the three same brigades remained in the new division, but the brigade at Chu Lai was now named the 3rd Brigade, 4th Infantry Division, after a responsibility swap that had occurred in August.
In April 1966, all Army communications-electronics resources in Vietnam were combined in a single formation, the 1st Signal Brigade. It supported the combat signal battalions of the divisions and field forces in each corps area. Additionally, the 1st Signal Brigade operated the many elements of the Defense Communications System in Vietnam. To improve co-ordination and management of communications-electronics assets, the brigade commander also served as the U.S. Army, Vietnam, staff adviser on all matters pertaining to Army communications-electronics.
Naval Forces, Vietnam.
In contrast to the carrier, amphibious, and naval gunfire support forces and, at least during early 1965, the coastal patrol force, which Commander Seventh Fleet directed, the Navy's forces within South Vietnam were operationally controlled by COMUSMACV. Initially, General William C. Westmoreland exercised this command through the Chief, Naval Advisory Group. However, the increasing demands of the war required a distinct operational rather than an advisory headquarters for naval units. As a result, on 1 April 1966, Naval Forces, Vietnam, was established to control the Navy's units in the II, III, and IV Corps Tactical Zones. This eventually included the major combat formations: Coastal Surveillance Force (Task Force 115), River Patrol Force (Task Force 116), and Riverine Assault Force (Task Force 117). The latter unit formed the naval component of the joint Army-Navy Mobile Riverine Force.
Commander Naval Forces, Vietnam (COMNAVFORV) also controlled the Naval Support Activity Saigon (NSA Saigon), which supplied naval forces in the II, III, and IV Corps areas. Naval Support Activity Danang (NSA Danang), provided logistic support to all American forces in the I Corps area of responsibility, where the predominant Marine presence demanded a naval supply establishment. NSA Danang was under the operational control of Commander III Marine Amphibious Force.
MACV component commands.
Major component commands of MACV were:
Commanders.
The "Commander, U.S. Military Assistance Command, Vietnam" was known by the abbreviation COMUSMACV ( "com-U.S.-mack-vee"). COMUSMACV was in one sense the top person in charge of the U.S. military on the Indochinese peninsula; however, in reality, the CINCPAC and the U.S. ambassadors to Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia also had "top person in charge" status with regard to various aspects of the war's strategy.
Inactivation.
Under the terms of the Paris Peace Accords MACV and all American and third country forces had to be withdrawn from South Vietnam within 60 days of the ceasefire. A small U.S. military headquarters was needed to continue the military assistance program for the southern Republic of Vietnam Military Forces and supervise the technical assistance still required to complete the goals of Vietnamization. This headquarters was to become the Defense Attaché Office, Saigon. That headquarters was also to report operational and military intelligence through military channels to DOD authorities. In addition a multi-service organization was required to plan for the application of U.S. air and naval power into North or South Vietnam, Cambodia or Laos, should this be required and ordered. Called the United States Support Activities Group & 7th Air Force (USSAG/7th AF), it was to be located at Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Air Force Base in northeast Thailand.
The advance echelon of USSAG/7AF moved from Tan Son Nhut Air Base to Nakhon Phanom on 29 January 1973. Transfer of the main body, drawn largely from the operations and intelligence sections of MACV and Seventh Air Force, began on 10 February. USSAG was activated on 11 February 1973 under the command of commander of MACV, but at 08:00 on 15 February, USAF General John W. Vogt Jr., as USSAG/7AF commander, took over from MACV control of American air operations. U.S. air support operations into Cambodia continued under USSAG/7th AF until August 1973.
The DAO was established as a subsidiary command of MACV and remained under the command of commander of MACV until the deactivation of MACV on 27 March 1973 at which time command passed to the Commander USSAG/Seventh Air Force at Nakhon Phanom. The DAO was activated on 28 January 1973 with United States Army Major General John E. Murray, formerly MACV director of logistics, as the Defense Attaché and United States Air Force Brigadier General Ralph J. Maglione, formerly the MACV J-1 (Director for Manpower and Personnel), as deputy Defense Attaché.
By 29 March, the only American military personnel left in South Vietnam were the U.S. delegates to the Four-Party Joint Military Commission established under the Paris Peace Accords to oversee the ceasefire, themselves in the process of winding up work and departing; the fifty man DAO military contingent; and a 143-man Marine Security Guard. At 11:00 on the 29th, in a simple ceremony, General Weyand furled the colors of the Military Assistance Command, Vietnam, and formally inactivated it.
MACV Headquarters/DAO Compound.
The original MACV Headquarters were colocated with MAAG at 606 Trần Hưng Đạo, Cholon, but in May 1962 were moved to 137 Pasteur Street () in central Saigon. The Trần Hưng Đạo site subsequently became the headquarters of Republic of Korea armed forces in Vietnam.
As the US military presence in South Vietnam grew, MACV quickly outgrew these quarters and on 2 July 1966 construction of a new purpose-built facility () adjacent to Tan Son Nhut Airport and the ARVN Joint General Staff Compound was commenced. Due to the size of this facility, the new headquarters were labelled Pentagon East. The building was designed and constructed under the supervision of the U.S. Navy Officer in Charge of Construction RVN. The construction contractor was RMK-BRJ at a cost of $28 million.
Following the closure of MACV and the establishment of the DAO, the MACV Headquarters became the DAO Compound.


Battle of Mulroy

The Battle of Mulroy (Maol Ruadh or Maoile Ruaidh in Scottish Gaelic) was a Scottish clan battle fought in August 1688 in the Lochaber district of Scotland. It was fought between the Clan Mackintosh who were supported by government troops under Kenneth Mackenzie of Suddie against the Clan MacDonald of Keppoch who were supported by the Clan Cameron over disputed lands in the Braes of Lochaber. The battlefield has been inventoried and protected by Historic Scotland under the Scottish Historical Environment Policy of 2009.
Background.
In the 15th century the chief of Clan Mackintosh had been granted a charter for the lands of Glenroy and Glen Spean, but the Clan MacDonald of Keppoch had refused to give up possession and had declined to recognise Mackintosh's title. In spite of several attempts that had been made with or without the authority of the law to eject them, the MacDonalds had been able to hold on to the Brae of Lochaber. In September 1667, a marauding party of MacDonalds had invaded Glen Esk and stolen cattle from Lindsay of Edzell, whose daughter Mackintosh had recently married. In 1672, Mackintosh had unsuccessfully sued for a commission to eject the MacDonalds of Keppoch from the Brae of Lochaber. In 1678-79, Mackintosh made preparations to invade the Brae of Lochaber and take the law into his own hands, but was obstructed by the Earl of Moray and the Earl of Huntly. In 1681, Mackintosh finally received a commission against MacDonald of Keppoch, but with no satisfactory result. Archibald MacDonald of Keppoch died in 1682 and was succeeded by his son, Coll of the Cowes, who sent his own account in petition to the Privy Council of Scotland to settle the dispute by a "legal decision or amicable determination". However, Mackintosh had him apprehended, imprisoned in Inverness Tolbooth and put on trial, although he was later released on bail.
For a few years both sides remained quiet, but in 1688 matters came to a crisis with the Privy Council having renewed to Mackintosh the commission he had originally received in 1681. The chief of Clan Mackintosh having received a commission of "fire and sword" was determined to invade the lands of the Clan MacDonald of Keppoch and eject them for not paying rents that Mackintosh claimed from them as the superior of their lands. Ewen Cameron of Lochiel attempted to arrange matters between them, but failed and proceeded immediately to Edinburgh. While he was away the MacMartin-Camerons (a sept of his clan) who were closely related to the MacDonalds of Keppoch through frequent inter-marriages, finding that Lochiel had left home without leaving them any instruction as to what to do, offered their services to MacDonald of Keppoch.
Clan Macpherson and Clan Grant, who had been ordered to aid Mackintosh in the commission, did not support him but Mackintosh, with about one thousand of his own men, and a company of the king's troops under Mackenzie of Suddie (an Independent Highland Company) marched to Lochaber by order of the Privy Council. In 1685, Mackenzie of Suddie's Independent Highland Company had received instructions from the Privy Council to take more aggressive and punitive action against the caterans and broken men and had been so successful in this task that it was recommended that another Independent Highland Company should be set up to help keep the peace in the south. In 1688, the Privy Council ordered Mackenzie of Suddie and his company to support Mackintosh against MacDonald of Keppoch.
The battle.
According to Alexander Mackenzie, on 4 August 1688 MacDonald of Keppoch, with about half of the number of men that Mackintosh had, easily defeated the invading force and took their leader, Mackintosh of Mackintosh, prisoner. However, according to Alexander Mackintosh-Shaw, the MacDonalds of Keppoch had been reinforced by their kinsmen, the Clan MacDonell of Glengarry and the MacDonalds of Glencoe, and had the numerically superior force. Mackintosh-Shaw states that as the daylight had appeared, Mackintosh discovered that the MacDonalds had drawn up on a ridge above them which gave them a decided advantage over his own force down below. Both Mackintosh and Mackenzie of Suddie ordered their men to advance up the hill and attack, with the MacDonalds coming down the hill upon them armed with swords, targes and Lochaber axes which obliged them to give way. According to William Forbes Skene, Mackintosh had advanced on Keppoch itself but found the place deserted and learned that the MacDonalds of Keppoch along with the MacDonalds of Glengarry and Glencoe were stationed at Mulroy, for the purpose of attacking at day-break. Mackintosh immediately resolved on attacking them and his army had nearly surmounted the height of Mulroy when the battle began, which was maintained with obstinacy on both sides. The Cameron of Lochiel Memoirs state that the battle was fierce and bloody and that Mackintosh had the misfortune to be defeated. Many of Mackintosh's followers were slain, including four of the leaders, as well as Mackenzie of Suddie who was mortally wounded. Great numbers were also taken prisoner.
Aftermath.
Before releasing Mackintosh, MacDonald of Keppoch compelled him to renounce his claims and titles to the lands that were in dispute. However, according to Skene, the reason that MacDonald released Mackintosh was because the Macphersons, who were a member of the confederation of Clan Chattan of which Mackintosh was chief, suddenly appeared to assail the victors. MacDonald of Keppoch, although victorious, was in no condition to renew the fight with a fresh party and therefore surrendered Mackintosh to the Macphersons. Cameron of Lochiel was held responsible by the Privy Council for the conduct of his vassals and was accused as the principal author of the bloodshed. A majority of the Lordships decided that he should be arrested and put on trial. However, with the help of George Mackenzie, Viscount Tarbat who was a relative of Lochiel's and also a member of the Privy Council, he managed to escape back to his friends in Lochaber. Mackenzie of Suddie's Independent Highland Company suffered very heavy losses against the MacDonalds of Keppoch at Mulroy.
According to the Clan Donald account, in the aftermath of the battle of Mulroy, Mackintosh did not want to risk a repetition of his defeat which gave MacDonald of Keppoch an opportunity: in April 1689, MacDonald at the head of just under one thousand men, marched through Mackintosh's lands causing severe loss of property and halted on the outskirts of Inverness. The townspeople there had assisted Mackintosh on his expedition into Lochaber which had resulted in the battle at Mulroy, and MacDonald had other scores to settle with them. He entered the town with no opposition and threatened to burn it down unless he was paid 4000 merks. The town remained in a state of terror for three days until the arrival of Lord Dundee who acted as a mediator. Dundee arranged for the town to pay MacDonald 2000 dollars but was not able to recover cattle that had been taken from Mackintosh.
Pipe music.
The famous pipe tune "MacDonald took the Brae on them" highlighted the advantage the Highlanders had by initiating the attack from the high ground.
The last clan battle.
The Battle of Mulroy is sometimes described as being the last of the private clan battles fought between Scottish clans. However, this is perhaps inaccurate as the Mackintoshes had official government support for their actions against the Macdonalds and their army was in part made up of government troops from an Independent Highland Company under Mackenzie of Suddie. This would therefore leave the Battle of Altimarlach, fought in 1680 between the Campbells and Sinclairs, as the last true clan battle. In the later half of the 17th century, clans would only commit themselves to violence with official sanction from the crown and thus Mackintosh had only moved against MacDonald of Keppoch because the crown recognized the validity of his claim but had also actively intervened on his behalf by supplying him with troops.


Frank Tsosie Thompson

Frank Tsosie Thompson (September 4, 1920 – June 2, 2008) was an American Navajo code talker in the United States Marines during World War II.
Biography.
Thompson was born in Crystal, New Mexico, on September 4, 1920. He attended board schools in Albuquerque and Fort Defiance, Arizona. He enlisted in the United States Marines on the day he graduated from high school, May 5, 1942.
Thompson served in the Headquarters Company, 3rd Battalion, 6th Marine Regiment of the 2nd Marine Division during World War II. He served in a number of battles across the Pacific theater, including Tarawa, Abemana Atoll, Guadalcanal, Saipan and Tinian. Thompson reached the rank of corporal. He remained in the U.S. Marines from May 5, 1942, until September 17, 1945.
Thompson attended New Mexico Highlands University from 1947 until 1948 after the war using the G.I. Bill. He became a carpenter by profession. He worked in maintenance for the Navajo Nation in Fort Defiance, Arizona, for 37½ years until his retirement in 1991.
He was awarded the Congressional Silver Medal for his service as a code talker in 2001.
Frank Thompson died of natural causes at the age of 87 on June 2, 2008, in Breadsprings, New Mexico.
Navajo Nation President Joe Shirley Jr ordered that all American flags on the Navajo Nation be lowered to half staff from June 4 until June 7, 2008, in honor of Thompson. Shirley also issued a proclamation saying that Thompson "served the United States of America and the Navajo Nation with courage, honor and distinction." His funeral was held at the Sacred Heart Roman Catholic Church in Gallup, New Mexico, and he was buried in Hillcrest Cemetery.
Thompson was survived by his wife, Janet B. Thompson, his children Janice Thompson, Cassandra Bloedel, Floyd Thompson, Frankie Thompson, Terry Thompson, Francine Thompson and Valeri Llopis, and seven grandchildren.