Voltage symmetrization system

Voltage Symmetrization System (VSS) was developed especially for electric power networks with great phase voltage unbalance. It is a three-phase system which enables earth-fault current and charging current elimination. Until now, the operation with earth-fault current compensation has been very complicated for the networks with a great voltage unbalance. In the past, it was necessary to operate such networks with an isolated neutral, solid grounding or with a significantly untuned arc-suppression coil. VSS can also substitute for an arc-suppression coil or it can complement it parallelly. Moreover, it contributes to a better function of earth-fault protections for high-resistance earth faults by equalizing phase-to-earth capacity unbalance. The VSS was patented.
The three-phase VSS has several basic functions:
Faultless condition.
If VSS is used for phase voltage unbalance elimination only, it is possible to operate it with a relatively low power. The VSS can effectively eliminate and control the phase voltage unbalance, which is caused by phase-to-ground capacity unbalance. The system enables to automatically maintain phase-to-ground capacity unbalance of the network in the range of assigned parameters, and thus provides the network with symmetrical phase voltage in the assigned range as well. In particular cases, the VSS can be used for artificial increase in phase voltage unbalance of the network, mostly for a short-time period during earth-fault localization in the network.
Reduction of charging current value in a faultless condition.
If VSS is used for line’s charging current elimination, it is not necessary to install shunt reactor. In single-phase cable lines, the VSS can eliminate the whole charging current because the operational capacity comprises phase-to-ground capacity only. In three-phase and overhead lines, the operational capacity comprises not only of phase-to-ground capacity but also of phase-to-phase capacity. VSS eliminates only charging currents of phase-to-ground capacity in these networks, which stands for 60% to 70% of line’s operational capacity value (VSS is not designated for elimination of phase-to-phase capacity charging current in the lines). VSS contributes to a significant reduction of charging reactive power flow.
Elimination of earth-fault current during an earth fault.
The advantage of the system is that it does not require a neutral to eliminate the earth-fault current. Therefore, the VSS has been implemented especially in networks which were operated with isolated neutral. During an earth fault in the network, the system eliminates earth-fault current. The function is in principle similar to an arc-suppression coil. In comparison to the arc-suppression coil, VSS eliminates earth-fault current more efficiently, even in unbalanced or extremely unbalanced networks.
Controlling the residual active earth-fault current during an earth fault.
VSS enables to control the magnitude of residual active earth-fault current. This can be applied to improve the function of directional ground protection or to decrease great active earth-fault current in the network. Such quality is used in networks with great active earth-fault current value, for instance in large cable lines.
Note.
As VSS does not require neutral for its connection, it can be connected anywhere in the network. At the same time, it is possible to adjust its power to a certain part of the network only, which can be use in local distribution networks or in long feeders, in feeders with high value of charging current, or in feeders with high capacity unbalance. The part of the network in which VSS is installed does not increase the value of phase-to-earth capacity current in power supply network. Furthermore, the value of network’s charging current decreases by the set system power. The VSS is very beneficial in networks with island operation. In island operation, the source is not loaded by charging current of the line and the separated island area is operated with resonant grounding. Such qualities cannot be reached with a classic arc-suppression coil.
Operational experience of VSS since 2005.
VSS systems have been installed in industrial 6 kV networks as well as in standard distribution networks up to 35 kV. Operational experience proved that VSS can eliminate even extremely high cross parameters unbalance in the network without negatively influencing the function of earth fault protection. Thanks to elimination of phase capacity unbalance, high reliability of directional ground protection can be reached even with high-resistance earth-faults. The possibility of operating the network with accurately compensated phase-to-earth capacity currents contributes to higher safety of the network operation.
References.
European Patent EP 1817829


Hawaiian Electric Industries

Hawaiian Electric Industries, Inc. (HEI; ) is the largest supplier of electricity in the state of Hawaii, supplying power to 95% of Hawaii's population through its electric utilities: Hawaiian Electric Company, Inc., Hawai'i Electric Light Company, Inc. and Maui Electric Company, Limited. In addition, HEI owns a financial institution serving Hawaii, American Savings Bank.
HECO, HELCO, and MECO employ more than 2,000 people. Approximately 20,000 Hawaii residents are shareholders of HECO’s parent company, Hawaiian Electric Industries. The company is headquartered in Honolulu. Net income was 219 million dollars on sales of 2.874B for 2019.
The island of Kauai is the only Hawaiian island not supplied by HEI. Instead, the consumer-owned Kauai Island Utility Cooperative manages that island's electricity.
History.
Hawaiian Electric Company (often abbreviated HECO, pronounced HEE-coh) incorporated on October 13, 1891. Within about 16 years the utility had 2,500 customers on Oahu. By 1914 HECO had started rural service to the windward side of the island and was marketing electric products like refrigerators and flat irons. In 1937 HECO broke ground on its second power plant, and transmission lines soon crisscrossed Oahu.
War and statehood.
During World War II HECO power plants linked to military bases, generating more than one million kilowatt hours of electricity each day. (= > 42 MW average power)
Hawaii became a state in 1959, and by then Oahu was entirely electrified. HECO opened a 116 MW plant in downtown Honolulu in 1954. The state's first reheat steam turbine generator went on line at Kahe on the west coast of Oahu. Today, Kahe is the state's largest plant with a total generating capacity of 650 MW.
Island expansion.
HECO purchased Maui Electric Company (abbreviated MECO and pronounced MEE-coh) in 1968. In 1970, HECO acquired the Hawaii Island's Hilo Electric Light Company (later renamed Hawai'i Electric Light Company, abbreviated HELCO and pronounced HEL-coh). In 1988 MECO acquired the Lanai City power plant on the island of Lana'i, and in 1989, Molokai Electric Company on the island of Moloka'i. Hawaiian Electric Industries, Inc. (HEI) was created as a holding company for these various utilities in 1983. In 2013, HECO began working with Siemens to develop a self-healing grid in eastern Oahu and Waikiki to ensure a reliable electrical supply.
On December 4, 2014, NextEra Energy tendered an offer to purchase HEI for $4.3 billion. The sale required approval by the Hawaii Public Utilities Commission. On July 18, 2016, it was announced that the merger was cancelled after the Public Utilities Commission disapproved the deal. The merger included plans to convert HEI's oil-fired generating plants to run on natural gas, which were to use liquified natural gas imported from a British Columbia plant of FortisBC. The upgrades were cancelled as they were dependent upon approval of the merger.
On December 24, 2019, HECO announced that it would begin operating under a single name with its subsidiaries MECO and HELCO—Hawaiian Electric.
Generation.
In 2016 HECO produced 8.8 TWh, of which 2.3 TWh were renewable. Most of the power came from oil, using 8.5 million barrels in 2016, down from 10.7 million barrels in 2008.
Hawaiian Electric supports the adoption of electric vehicles. The company's goal is to have the majority of vehicles in Hawaii be electric vehicles by 2045. As of November 2018, EVs were 1% of all vehicles. Hawaiian Electric filed a road map with the state.
Oahu.
HEI's total firm generating capability in 2020 was 1,794.5 megawatts serving 304,261 customers. Non-firm capacity was 777.8 megawatts. 25.2% comes from renewable resources.
Maui/Lanai/Molokai.
Total firm generating capability n 2020 was 274.1 megawatts serving 72,522 customers. Non-firm capacity was 192.1 mw. 40.8% came from renewable resources.
Hawaii.
Total firm generating capability 213.4 megawatts serving 86,576 customers. Non-firm capacity was 147.6 mw. 34.7% came from renewable resources.
Electric vehicles.
Through a cooperative effort with HECO, High Technology Development Corporation (HTDC), an agency of the State of Hawai’i, initiated the Hawai’i Electric Vehicle Demonstration Project (HEVDP) consortium to develop an electric vehicle industry in Hawai’i. The islands had about 5,000 rechargeable vehicles as of 2017.
Plans.
In 2015, the Hawaii State Legislature amended the State's Renewable Portfolio Standards to establish the nation's first goal of 100% renewable energy:
Hawaiian Electric has indicated in its Power Supply Improvement Plan that it will achieve these goals ahead of schedule, including achieving 100% renewable electricity for the island of Moloka'i by 2020. From 2021, HEI transitioned away from cost of service to Performance Based Regulation.


Hydro Ottawa

Hydro Ottawa is a regulated electricity distribution company operating in the City of Ottawa and the Village of Casselman in Ontario, Canada. As the third-largest municipally owned electrical utility in Ontario, Hydro Ottawa maintains the electricity distribution systems in the province, and serves over 335,000 residential and commercial customers across a service area of 1,100 square kilometres.
History.
Hydro Ottawa was formed in November 2000 from the amalgamation of five local distribution companies (Gloucester Hydro, Goulbourn Hydro, Kanata Hydro, Nepean Hydro and Ottawa Hydro). The history of the supply of electricity began in the 1880s with private electrical suppliers, became public in the early 1900s and continued in competition with private suppliers, chiefly those of Thomas Ahearn and his companies, until the 1950s.
In 1882, Electric lighting in Ottawa started in at Young's mill in Lebreton Flats (the previous year had seen Eddy's mill lit by electricity, on the Hull side). A year later, the House of Commons and the Senate were illuminated.
The first electric street lighting in Canada occurred on Victoria Day, 1884 when the Peterborough Light and Power Company lit 17 arc lights on George Street in Peterborough Ontario. In 1885, the Royal Electric Company (of Montreal, formed in 1884) set up street lighting systems in Charlottetown and St. John's, Newfoundland. Ottawa had originally intended on using this company to light the city's streets, however, council contracted Ottawa Electric Light Company (formed 1884) to install 165 arc lamps on the city's streets. That company, which had as a director one of its founders Francis Clemow, along with founder lumber baron G. B. Pattee, had built a power station which used a water-powered generator. In May 1885, the streets of Ottawa were lit by electricity.
In 1887, the Chaudière Electric Light and Power Company was formed by Thomas Ahearn, a local man and partner of Ahearn & Soper, formed in the early 1880s. In 1890, there were two electrical providers, (Clemow's) Ottawa Electric Light Company, and Ahearn's company, Chaudière Electric Light and Power Company.
In 1894 Ahearn merged Ottawa Electric Light Company, and Chaudière Electric Light and Power Company, and bought out Standard Electric Company of Ottawa (Limited) in the process, naming it Ottawa Electric Company, creating a virtual monopoly on electrical services in Ottawa. (Erskine Henry Bronson played a role in the development of this company).
The following decades would see a continuous struggle between the City of Ottawa and Thomas Ahearn regarding the supplying of electricity to the city. In 1899 (possibly 1901), a charter was granted by the city to Consumers Electric, a rival company to Ahearn's Ottawa Electric Company. In 1905, The City purchased Consumers Electric for $200,000, ending Ahearn's ongoing attempts at acquiring the company. They renamed it "Municipal Electric Department" which was the city's public electricity provider.
In 1908 Ahearn & Soper bought the Ottawa Gas Company, and with the Ottawa Electric Company formed the Ottawa Light, Heat and Power Company Limited. This parent holding company wholly owned the two previous companies and would refer to Ottawa Electric as its "Ottawa Electric division" well into the new century. This meant that there were no longer outside shareholders to Ottawa Electric, but there were shareholders to Ottawa Light, Heat and Power Company.
In 1915 the "Municipal Electric Department" became Ottawa Hydro; named as the "Ottawa Hydro Electric Commission", when it joined forces with the provincial network of the Ontario Hydro Electric Commission.
In 1920 Ottawa Light, Heat and Power Company Limited acquired the assets of The Ottawa Power Company, Limited which included the power plant at Victoria Island (Ottawa River) erected in 1900.
In 1950 Ottawa Hydro acquired the "Ottawa Light, Heat and Power Company, Limited", removing the last private sector competitor.
Hydro Ottawa was formed in 2000 when five municipal local distribution companies were merged: Gloucester Hydro, Goulbourn Hydro, Kanata Hydro, Nepean Hydro and Ottawa Hydro. In May 2002, Casselman Hydro also became a part of Hydro Ottawa.
Ottawa Hydro Electric Company Building - 109 Bank Street.
Ottawa Hydro Electric Company Building (Bridgehead at street level) is a Heritage building in Ottawa located at 109 Bank Street, on the south-east corner of Albert Street. It was designated as under Part IV of the "Ontario Heritage Act" in 1992. It commissioned W. C. Beattie to design this Art Deco style office building in 1934. It was Ottawa Hydro's headquarters until 1957.
Current services.
Hydro Ottawa provides electricity supply to its customers, by taking electricity from the provincial grid and distributing it to homes and businesses.
Hydro Ottawa also offers programs to help customers conserve electricity.


MC4 connector

MC4 connectors are single-contact electrical connectors commonly used for connecting solar panels. The MC in MC4 stands for the manufacturer Multi-Contact (now Stäubli Electrical Connectors) and the 4 for the 4 mm diameter contact pin. MC4s allow "strings" of panels to be easily constructed by pushing the connectors from adjacent panels together by hand, but require a tool to disconnect them to ensure they do not accidentally disconnect when the cables are pulled. The MC4 and compatible products are universal in the solar market today, equipping almost all solar panels produced since about 2011. Originally rated for 600 V, newer versions are rated at 1500 V, which allows longer strings to be created.
Background.
While small solar panels used for battery charging and similar tasks may not require special connectors, larger systems normally connect the panels together in series to form "strings". In the past this was accomplished by opening a small electrical box on the back of the panel and connecting user-supplied wires to screw terminals within. However, in the USA, bare terminals of this sort are limited to 50V or less by the National Electrical Code (NEC). Above 50V only a licensed electrician can make the connections . Additionally, these sorts of connections were subject to problems caused by water leakage, electrical corrosion and mechanical stress on the wires.
Starting in the 2000s, a number of companies introduced products to address these issues. In these systems, the junction box was sealed and two wires were permanently attached using strain reliefs. The cables ended with push-fit connectors that met the definition of a "convenience receptacle", meaning they could be (legally) connected together by anyone. Two connectors became somewhat common during this period, the Radox connector and MC3 connector, both of which essentially looked like weather-sealed phono jacks.
In 2008 the US Electrical Code was updated to require solar panel connectors to offer "positive locking", so that they were able to be plugged together by hand but only separated again using a tool. Radox, a European manufacturer, did not respond to this specification and has since disappeared from the market. Two US-based companies, Tyco Electronics and Multi-Contact, responded by introducing new connectors to meet this requirement.
Tyco's Solarlok became a market leader for a period in the late 2000s, but a number of factors conspired to push it from the market. Among these was the fact that the system had two sets of cables and wires, which led to considerable annoyance in the field when equipment from different vendors could not be plugged together. By 2011, the MC4 was already in a strong leadership position, which led to the introduction of compatible products from a variety of major connector vendors. Among these are the Amphenol Helios H4 and SMK PV-03.
Description.
The MC4 system consists of a plug and socket design. The plugs and sockets are inside plastic shells that appear to be the opposite gender - the plug is inside a cylindrical shell that looks like a female connector but is referred to as male, and the socket is inside a square probe that looks male but is electrically female. The female connector has two plastic fingers that have to be pressed toward the central probe slightly to insert into holes in the front of the male connector. When the two are pushed together, the fingers slide down the holes until they reach a notch in the side of the male connector, where they pop outward to lock the two together.
For a proper seal, MC4s must be used with cable of the correct diameter. The cable is normally double-insulated (insulation plus black sheath) and UV resistant (most cables deteriorate if used outdoors without protection from sunlight). Connectors are typically attached by crimping, though soldering is also possible.
The MC4 connector is UL rated at 20A and 600V maximum, depending on the conductor size used. Standards efforts in Europe also allow 1000V versions.
Application and safety.
MC Multilam Technology claims that constant spring pressure provides reliable low contact resistance. However, it is very important to never connect or disconnect them under load, even on low-voltage (12–48V) systems. An electric arc may form which can melt and seriously damage contact materials, resulting in high resistance and subsequent overheating. This is partly because direct current (DC) continues to arc, whereas commonly used alternating current (AC) more readily self-extinguishes at the zero-crossing voltage point. Large arrays of panels are commonly interconnected in series, made of strings of panels generating 17 to 34V each, with overall voltages up to 600V per string.
Connectors made by other manufacturers may be mated with original Stäubli parts and are sometimes described as "MC compatible", but may not conform to the requirements for a safe electrical connection with long term stability.
Interruption requires a special DC circuit breaker which allows opening the circuit without arc damage. Typical 120/230V AC switches and circuit breakers are not generally suited for DC applications.


Mel Pervais

Melvin "Mel" Pervais is a Canadian-American business executive, entrepreneur, engineer and member of the Ojibwa Nation.
Early life and education.
Pervais was born and raised on the Fort William Reserve near Thunder Bay, Ontario, the eldest son of eight children. At age five he began his academic studies in a one-room schoolhouse, housing eight grades, on the reserve. At age twelve he was sent to a Jesuit-run boarding school for Indian boys, the Garnier Residential School, away in Spanish, Ontario, and graduated at sixteen.
Career.
Early career.
At age sixteen, Pervais started work as a night watchman for the Jones Construction Company. Two months later, he took the opportunity to begin an apprenticeship as an instrument technician with Noranda Mines in Cutler, Ontario. Over the next seventeen years, he held various positions in the power generation industry before joining Johnson Controls in 1973 as the manager of a newly formed calibration engineering department. Pervais redirected the department's focus to nuclear power, boosting sales from $100,000 to $5 million over three years.
Cataract Inc..
Pervais left Johnson Controls in 1976 and, with his expertise and $10,000, started Amalgamated Services in Philadelphia with a business partner, providing engineering services to nuclear power plants. In 1979 the company merged with Cataract Engineering and Construction and Pervais became president. Never shy about his Indian heritage, Cataract's logo had an Indian motif and the company strived to hire Indian employees. Cataract also used a unique bonus and salary system to discourage sick days and draw talent from other companies; it was not uncommon for workers to out-earn their bosses, with some field technicians earning $90,000 a year.
Pervais sold Cataract Inc. through an employee stock ownership program for $20 million. At the time, Cataract had 500 engineers and technicians and reported annual sales of $50 million. He retired at age 45 to focus on a horse breeding and cattle operation on the Chief Joseph Ranch near Darby, Montana. The "Los Angeles Times" reported in 1984 that Pervais was one of the wealthiest Native Americans in the United States.
Rhodium 2001.
In 1991, Pervais returned from retirement to found Rhodium 2001, dedicated to recycling materials from scrapped catalytic converters. Pervais put more than $2 million of his own money into the new company, originally housed in a remodeled calving barn on his ranch. Pervais and partner Don Golbeck bought a license to a process developed by metallurgist inventor and chemical engineer C.A. Dickey to refine precious group metals from automotive catalytic converters, a process they used to retrieve a number of materials, including fine sand for the asphalt industry and platinum, palladium and rhodium compounds to sell to refiners.
Rhodium 2001's extraction process is notable for being environmentally friendly, requiring no smelter nor airborne emissions, and for being a closely guarded secret. It took two years of research and development by Dickey, who claimed it involved temperature and pressure. Neither Pervais, nor Dickey, were willing to reveal more about the process than that, for fear that other competitors might adopt it, rendering their company irrelevant. Said Pervais, "If you're an environmentalist, it's probably the greatest invention. I don't need a polluting process. I'd stay retired if that was the case."
Service and distinctions.
Pervais, whose grandfather was a tribal chief, has said his father pushed him into the non-Native American world at an early age. "It was the most traumatic thing he ever did," he says. "But it was the best thing he ever did for me." Pervais is an advocate for self-sufficiency in the Native American community and has spoken before students and other groups arguing that Native Americans must stop relying on federal aid and begin supporting themselves in the free-enterprise system.
In 1982 Pervais was invited by President Ronald Reagan to serve on a private sector task force that encouraged support of community projects including homes for the elderly and day care centers.
Pervais received honorary Doctorates of Engineering from Montana State University in 1995 and Lakehead University in 1996. Pervais is a former member of the United Indian Development Association, a Los Angeles organization that provides consulting services to Indian businesses. He is on the council of trustees with United National Indian Tribal Youth Inc. (UNITY), a national organization promoting personal development, citizenship and leadership among Native American youth.
Chief Joseph Ranch.
In 1987, Pervais bought the Chief Joseph Ranch, including a lodge built in 1917, a summer home for the family of William Ford. After the Fords sold it in 1952, it traded hands several times. When Pervais took it over, the ranch was in poor shape; the barns were falling apart and its perimeter was unfenced. Pervais improved the property and extensively renovated the lodge to its Ford-era conditions over a ten-year period. At the time, he owned a pet bobcat, Toma, named for one of Chief Joseph's wives. Pervais sold the ranch in 2004. Today it is a bed and breakfast.
Personal.
Melvin Pervais married his first love, Patricia, shortly after his graduation from the Garnier Indian School. Together they had 6 children. They later separated, then divorced, but remained close, loving, friends, until Patricia's passing in 2017.
Pervais married Lynda Hart Bailey, former wife of lawyer F. Lee Bailey, in 1985. Peter MacDonald, a former Navajo Tribal Chairman, served as Bailey's adopted Navajo "father" and offered twelve wild horses, a traditional dowry to the groom and a Navajo medicine man. In accordance with Pervais' Ojibwa heritage, a second ceremony took place at sundown the day after the wedding on the night of a new moon. Pervais is the father of seven children.


Amigo Energy

Founded in 2003, Amigo Energy is an electric utility seller in Texas. Amigo Energy is a subsidiary of Just Energy Group Inc., a publicly traded company (TSX:JE) with 1.8 million active customers across North America.
History.
Amigo Energy was founded in 2003.
In May, 2007 the company merged with Fulcrum Power Services which subsequently acquired Tara Energy.
In August 2007, Amigo signed a four-year, $7.5 million sponsorship agreement for Amigo Energy to become the jersey sponsor for the Houston Dynamo, a Major League Soccer team.
In August 2011, Fulcrum, including its subsidiary Amigo, was acquired by Canadian firm Just Energy.
Industry.
Amigo Energy is an electricity retailer that operates as one of 71 independent power marketers participating in deregulation of the Texas electricity market. Amigo ranks as the 17th largest power marketer by number of consumers according to a 2009 U.S. Energy Information Administration report. Texas began the process of deregulation in 2002. The Public Utility Commission of Texas (PUCT) enforces customer protection laws for the citizens of Texas and provides access to consumer information.


PacifiCorp

PacifiCorp is an electric power company in the western United States.
PacifiCorp has two business units:
PacifiCorp operates one of the largest privately held transmission systems in the U.S. within the western Energy Imbalance Market.
In 2001, PacifiCorp was purchased by Scottish Power. Since 2006, PacifiCorp has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Berkshire Hathaway Energy (formerly MidAmerican), itself an affiliate of Berkshire Hathaway.
PacifiCorp is currently headquartered in the Lloyd Center Tower at 825 N.E. Multnomah Street, Portland, Oregon, in the Lloyd District. Pacific Power is also headquartered in the same building. Rocky Mountain Power is headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah.
Pacific Power and Rocky Mountain Power combined serve over 1.6 million residential customers, 202,000 commercial customers, and 37,000 industrial and irrigation customers - for a total of approximately 1,813,000 customers. The service area is . The company owns and maintain of long distance transmission lines, of distribution lines, and 900 substations.
In 1977, PacifiCorp spun off its coal mining interests into a mining company known as NERCO, which was eventually listed on the New York Stock Exchange and ranked as high as 353 on the Fortune 500 list of the largest American companies. Through its majority interest in NERCO, PacifiCorp was involved in the mining of coal, oil, natural gas, gold, silver, and uranium. PacifiCorp still owned 82% of NERCO in 1993, when it was acquired by the mining giant Rio Tinto Group.
Organization.
PacifiCorp was formed in 1910 from the merger of several small electric companies in eastern Oregon and Washington to form the Pacific Power & Light Company. It gradually expanded its reach to include most of Oregon, as well as portions of California, Washington and Wyoming. In 1984, it reorganized itself as a holding company, PacifiCorp, headquartered in Portland with Pacific Power as its main subsidiary.
In 1987, PacifiCorp acquired Utah Power & Light. Headquartered in Salt Lake City, Utah Power had been formed in 1912 from the merger of four electric companies in Utah, Idaho and Wyoming. In 1881, one of those companies made Salt Lake City the fifth city in the world with central station electricity.
After the merger, Pacific Power and Utah Power operated as divisions of PacifiCorp. In a July 2006 reorganization, Pacific Power's territory in central and eastern Wyoming was merged with the Utah Power territory to form Rocky Mountain Power.
Pacific Power.
Pacific Power serves customers in Washington, Oregon and California. Major cities served include:
As of December 31, 2009, Pacific Power serves 555,070 customers in Oregon, 126,665 customers in Washington, and 45,148 customers in California.
Rocky Mountain Power.
Rocky Mountain Power serves customers in Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming.
Major cities served include:
Idaho.
Ammon,
Lava Hot Springs,
Malad City,
Montpelier,
Preston,
Rigby,
Rexburg,
Saint Anthony,
Shelley
Utah.
Rocky Mountain Power serves most major cities in Utah, with the following exceptions:
Bountiful,
Kaysville,
Lehi,
Logan,
Provo,
Murray,
Monroe,
Monticello,
Springville,
St. George
Wyoming.
Buffalo,
Casper,
Cody,
Douglas,
Evanston,
Green River,
Kemmerer,
Lander,
Laramie,
Rawlins,
Riverton,
Rock Springs,
Thermopolis
Customers.
As of May 1, 2007, Rocky Mountain Power serves approximately 758,000 customers in Utah, 129,000 customers in Idaho, and 67,000 customers in Wyoming.
Net metering.
In November 2017, Rocky Mountain Power made a deal with the state's utility authorities to phase out net metering. The program was paying customers who generated their own electricity with rooftop solar panels the residential rate for their excess energy that got sent back into the energy grid. As of August 2018, new rooftop solar installations were down 23 percent, likely due to the cancellation of the net metering program. New solar customers are paid by a transitional program that pays slightly less than the residential rate until 2033. People who installed solar panels prior to November 2017 are grandfathered at the previous rates until 2035.
History.
Utah Power and Light (UP&L) was organized on 6 September 1912 as a subsidiary of a large holding company, Electric Bond and Share Company (EBASCO) of New York. Within four years of its organization, UP&L had purchased twenty-seven other electric companies in the general Utah area, and eventually absorbed more than one hundred thirty.
Pacific Power & Light was formed in 1910 from the merger of several financially troubled utilities in Oregon and Washington. In 1954, Pacific Power & Light merged with the Mountain States Power Company, essentially doubling the company's service area. In 1961, the company purchased the California Oregon Power Company, extending its service into southern Oregon and northern California.
PacifiCorp owns, maintains and operates generation assets and manages the commercial and trading operations of the company. PacifiCorp owns 68 generating plants with a capacity of 9,140 megawatts. 70.6% of the generation is from thermal sources (i.e., coal or natural gas), 6.7% from hydroelectric sources, and 0.2% from renewable sources. 22.5% of PacifiCorp's generation is purchased from other suppliers or under contracts.
Generation resources.
In these tables of generation properties owned or partially-owned by PacifiCorp, total capacity is 10,556MW. Of this, 56% is coal, 24% is natural gas, 10% is hydroelectric, and 10% is renewable.
Major generation facilities include:
Coal mining.
PacifiCorp also owns and operates several captive coal mines located at or very near some of its generation plants. In Wyoming, PacifiCorp operates and has partial interest in Jim Bridger Mine and owns the Dave Johnston Mine, which is in final reclamation. The company also owned and operated the Deer Creek Mine in Utah, near the Huntington Plant but closed it in 2015 and has a partial interest in the Trapper Mine in Colorado.
Electric vehicles.
Calling it a "new era of utility involvement in transportation electrification," the "Portland Business Journal" in 2018 described PacifiCorp's electric vehicle promotion program as a plan that promises new electric vehicle charging sites, outreach and education efforts. The program was spawn from legislation passed in 2016 that called for more renewable energy from the state's utility companies.


Axial compressor

An axial compressor is a gas compressor that can continuously pressurize gases. It is a rotating, airfoil-based compressor in which the gas or working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation, or axially. This differs from other rotating compressors such as centrifugal compressor, axi-centrifugal compressors and mixed-flow compressors where the fluid flow will include a "radial component" through the compressor. The energy level of the fluid increases as it flows through the compressor due to the action of the rotor blades which exert a torque on the fluid. The stationary blades slow the fluid, converting the circumferential component of flow into pressure. Compressors are typically driven by an electric motor or a steam or a gas turbine.
Axial flow compressors produce a continuous flow of compressed gas, and have the benefits of high efficiency and large mass flow rate, particularly in relation to their size and cross-section. They do, however, require several rows of airfoils to achieve a large pressure rise, making them complex and expensive relative to other designs (e.g. centrifugal compressors).
Axial compressors are integral to the design of large gas turbines such as jet engines, high speed ship engines, and small scale power stations. They are also used in industrial applications such as large volume air separation plants, blast furnace air, fluid catalytic cracking air, and propane dehydrogenation. Due to high performance, high reliability and flexible operation during the flight envelope, they are also used in aerospace rocket engines, as fuel pumps and in other critical high volume applications.
Description.
Axial compressors consist of rotating and stationary components. A shaft drives a central drum which is retained by bearings inside of a stationary tubular casing. Between the drum and the casing are rows of airfoils, each row connected to either the drum or the casing in an alternating manner. A pair of one row of rotating airfoils and the next row of stationary airfoils is called a stage. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate the fluid in both the axial and circumferential directions. The stationary airfoils, also known as vanes or stators, convert the increased kinetic energy into static pressure through diffusion and redirect the flow direction of the fluid to prepare it for the rotor blades of the next stage. The cross-sectional area between rotor drum and casing is reduced in the flow direction to maintain an optimum Mach number axial velocity as the fluid is compressed.
Working.
As the fluid enters and leaves in the axial direction, the centrifugal component in the energy equation does not come into play. Here the compression is fully based on diffusing action of the passages. The diffusing action in the stator converts the absolute kinetic head of the fluid into a rise in pressure. The relative kinetic head in the energy equation is a term that exists only because of the rotation of the rotor. The rotor reduces the relative kinetic head of the fluid and adds it to the absolute kinetic head of the fluid i.e., the impact of the rotor on the fluid particles increases their velocity (absolute) and thereby reduces the relative velocity between the fluid and the rotor. In short, the rotor increases the absolute velocity of the fluid and the stator converts this into pressure rise. Designing the rotor passage with a diffusing capability can produce a pressure rise in addition to its normal functioning. This produces greater pressure rise per stage which constitutes a stator and a rotor together. This is the reaction principle in turbomachines. If 50% of the pressure rise in a stage is obtained at the rotor section, it is said to have a 50% reaction.
Design.
The increase in pressure produced by a single stage is limited by the relative velocity between the rotor and the fluid, and the turning and diffusion capabilities of the airfoils. A typical stage in a commercial compressor will produce a pressure increase of between 15% and 60% (pressure ratios of 1.15–1.6) at design conditions with a polytropic efficiency in the region of 90–95%. To achieve different pressure ratios, axial compressors are designed with different numbers of stages and rotational speeds. As a rule of thumb we can assume that each stage in a given compressor has the same temperature rise (Delta T). Therefore, at the entry, temperature (Tstage) to each stage must increase progressively through the compressor and the ratio (Delta T)/(Tstage) entry must decrease, thus implying a progressive reduction in stage pressure ratio through the unit. Hence the rear stage develops a significantly lower pressure ratio than the first stage.
Higher stage pressure ratios are also possible if the relative velocity between fluid and rotors is supersonic, but this is achieved at the expense of efficiency and operability. Such compressors, with stage pressure ratios of over 2, are only used where minimizing the compressor size, weight or complexity is critical, such as in military jets.
The airfoil profiles are optimized and matched for specific velocities and turning. Although compressors can be run at other conditions with different flows, speeds, or pressure ratios, this can result in an efficiency penalty or even a partial or complete breakdown in flow (known as compressor stall and pressure surge respectively). Thus, a practical limit on the number of stages, and the overall pressure ratio, comes from the interaction of the different stages when required to work away from the design conditions. These “off-design” conditions can be mitigated to a certain extent by providing some flexibility in the compressor. This is achieved normally through the use of adjustable stators or with valves that can bleed fluid from the main flow between stages (inter-stage bleed).
Modern jet engines use a series of compressors, running at different speeds; to supply air at around 40:1 pressure ratio for combustion with sufficient flexibility for all flight conditions.
Kinetics and energy equations.
The law of moment of momentum states that the sum of the moments of external forces acting on a fluid which is temporarily occupying the control volume is equal to the net change of angular momentum flux through the control volume.
The swirling fluid enters the control volume at radius, formula_1, with tangential velocity, formula_2, and leaves at radius, formula_3, with tangential velocity, formula_4.
Rate of change of momentum, F is given by the equation:
Power consumed by an ideal moving blade, P is given by the equation:
Change in enthalpy of fluid in moving blades:
Therefore,
which implies,
"Isentropic compression in rotor blade",
Therefore,
which implies
"Degree of Reaction",
The pressure difference between the entry and exit of the rotor blade is called reaction pressure. The change in pressure energy is calculated through "degree of reaction".
Therefore,
Instabilities.
Greitzer used a Helmholtz resonator type of compression system model to predict the transient response of a compression system after a small perturbation superimposed on a steady operating condition. He found a non-dimensional parameter which predicted which mode of compressor instability, rotating stall or surge, would result. The parameter used the rotor speed, Helmholtz resonator frequency of the system and an "effective length" of the compressor duct. It had a critical value which predicted either rotating stall or surge where the slope of pressure ratio against flow changed from negative to positive.
Steady-state performance.
Axial compressor performance is shown on a compressor map, also known as a characteristic, by plotting pressure ratio and efficiency against corrected mass flow at different values of corrected compressor speed.
Axial compressors, particularly near their design point are usually amenable to analytical treatment, and a good estimate of their performance can be made before they are first run on a rig. The compressor map shows the complete running range, i.e. off-design, of the compressor from ground idle to its highest corrected rotor speed, which for a civil engine may occur at top-of-climb, or, for a military combat engine, at take-off on a cold day. Not shown is the sub-idle performance region needed for analyzing normal ground and in-flight windmill start behaviour.
The performance of a single compressor stage may be shown by plotting stage loading coefficient (formula_26) as a function of flow coefficient (formula_27)
Stage pressure ratio against flow rate is lower than for a no-loss stage as shown. Losses are due to blade friction, flow separation, unsteady flow and vane-blade spacing.
Off-design operation.
The performance of a compressor is defined according to its design. But in actual practice, the operating point of the compressor deviates from the design- point which is known as off-design operation.

from equation (1) and (2)
The value of formula_29 doesn't change for a wide range of operating points till stalling. Also formula_30 because of minor change in air angle at rotor and stator, where formula_31 is diffuser blade angle.
Representing design values with (')
for off-design operations (from ):
for positive values of J, slope of the curve is negative and vice versa.
Surging.
In the plot of pressure-flow rate the line separating graph between two regions- unstable and stable is known as the surge line. This line is formed by joining surge points at different rpms. Unstable flow in axial compressors due to complete breakdown of the steady through flow is termed as surging. This phenomenon affects the performance of compressor and is undesirable.
Surge cycle.
The following explanation for surging refers to running a compressor at a constant speed on a rig and gradually reducing the exit area by closing a valve. What happens, i.e. crossing the surge line, is caused by the compressor trying to deliver air, still running at the same speed, to a higher exit pressure. When the compressor is operating as part of a complete gas turbine engine, as opposed to on a test rig, a higher delivery pressure at a particular speed can be caused momentarily by burning too-great a step-jump in fuel which causes a momentary blockage until the compressor increases to the speed which goes with the new fuel flow and the surging stops.
Suppose the initial operating point D (formula_34) at some rpm N. On decreasing the flow-rate at same rpm along the characteristic curve by partial closing of the valve, the pressure in the pipe increases which will be taken care by increase in input pressure at the compressor. Further increase in pressure till point P (surge point), compressor pressure will increase. Further moving towards left keeping rpm constant, pressure in pipe will increase but compressor pressure will decrease leading to back air-flow towards the compressor. Due to this back flow, pressure in pipe will decrease because this unequal pressure condition cannot stay for a long period of time. Though valve position is set for lower flow rate say point G but compressor will work according to normal stable operation point say E, so path E-F-P-G-E will be followed leading to breakdown of flow, hence pressure in the compressor falls further to point H(formula_35). This increase and decrease of pressure in pipe will occur repeatedly in pipe and compressor following the cycle E-F-P-G-H-E also known as the surge cycle.
This phenomenon will cause vibrations in the whole machine and may lead to mechanical failure. That is why left portion of the curve from the surge point is called unstable region and may cause damage to the machine. So the recommended operation range is on the right side of the surge line.
Stalling.
Stalling is an important phenomenon that affects the performance of the compressor. An analysis is made of rotating stall in compressors of many stages, finding conditions under which a flow distortion can occur which is steady in a traveling reference frame, even though upstream total and downstream static pressure are constant. In the compressor, a pressure-rise hysteresis is assumed. It is a situation of separation of air flow at the aero-foil blades of the compressor. This phenomenon depending upon the blade-profile leads to reduced compression and drop in engine power.
Negative stall is negligible compared to the positive stall because flow separation is least likely to occur on the pressure side of the blade.
In a multi-stage compressor, at the high pressure stages, axial velocity is very small. Stalling value decreases with a small deviation from the design point causing stall near the hub and tip regions whose size increases with decreasing flow rates. They grow larger at very low flow rate and affect the entire blade height. Delivery pressure significantly drops with large stalling which can lead to flow reversal. The stage efficiency drops with higher losses.
Rotating stalling.
Non-uniformity of air flow in the rotor blades may disturb local air flow in the compressor without upsetting it. The compressor continues to work normally but with reduced compression. Thus, rotating stall decreases the effectiveness of the compressor.
In a rotor with blades moving say towards right. Let some blades receives flow at higher incidence, this blade will stop positively. It creates obstruction in the passage between the blade to its left and itself. Thus the left blade will receive the flow at higher incidence and the blade to its right with decreased incidence. The left blade will experience more stall while the blade to its right will experience lesser stall. Towards the right stalling will decrease whereas it will increase towards its left. Movement of the rotating stall can be observed depending upon the chosen reference frame.
Development.
From an energy exchange point of view axial compressors are reversed turbines. Steam-turbine designer Charles Algernon Parsons, for example, recognized that a turbine which produced work by virtue of a fluid's static pressure (i.e. a reaction turbine) could have its action reversed to act as an air compressor, calling it a turbo compressor or pump. His rotor and stator blading described in one of his patents had little or no camber although in some cases the blade design was based on propeller theory. The machines, driven by steam turbines, were used for industrial purposes such as supplying air to blast furnaces. Parsons supplied the first commercial axial flow compressor for use in a lead smelter in 1901. Parsons' machines had low efficiencies, later attributed to blade stall, and were soon replaced with more efficient centrifugal compressors.
Brown Boveri & Cie produced "reversed turbine" compressors, driven by gas turbines, with blading derived from aerodynamic research which were more efficient than centrifugal types when pumping large flow rates of 40,000 cu.ft. per minute at pressures up to 45 p.s.i.
Because early axial compressors were not efficient enough a number of papers in the early 1920s claimed that a practical axial-flow turbojet engine would be impossible to construct. Things changed after A. A. Griffith published a seminal paper in 1926, noting that the reason for the poor performance was that existing compressors used flat blades and were essentially "flying stalled". He showed that the use of airfoils instead of the flat blades would increase efficiency to the point where a practical jet engine was a real possibility. He concluded the paper with a basic diagram of such an engine, which included a second turbine that was used to power a propeller.
Although Griffith was well known due to his earlier work on metal fatigue and stress measurement, little work appears to have started as a direct result of his paper. The only obvious effort was a test-bed compressor built by Hayne Constant, Griffith's colleague at the Royal Aircraft Establishment. Other early jet efforts, notably those of Frank Whittle and Hans von Ohain, were based on the more robust and better understood centrifugal compressor which was widely used in superchargers. Griffith had seen Whittle's work in 1929 and dismissed it, noting a mathematical error, and going on to claim that the frontal size of the engine would make it useless on a high-speed aircraft.
Real work on axial-flow engines started in the late 1930s, in several efforts that all started at about the same time. In England, Hayne Constant reached an agreement with the steam turbine company Metropolitan-Vickers (Metrovick) in 1937, starting their turboprop effort based on the Griffith design in 1938. In 1940, after the successful run of Whittle's centrifugal-flow design, their effort was re-designed as a pure jet, the Metrovick F.2. In Germany, von Ohain had produced several working centrifugal engines, some of which had flown including the world's first jet aircraft (He 178), but development efforts had moved on to Junkers (Jumo 004) and BMW (BMW 003), which used axial-flow designs in the world's first jet fighter (Messerschmitt Me 262) and jet bomber (Arado Ar 234). In the United States, both Lockheed and General Electric were awarded contracts in 1941 to develop axial-flow engines, the former a pure jet, the latter a turboprop. Northrop also started their own project to develop a turboprop, which the US Navy eventually contracted in 1943. Westinghouse also entered the race in 1942, their project proving to be the only successful one of the US efforts, later becoming the J30.
As Griffith had originally noted in 1929, the large frontal size of the centrifugal compressor caused it to have higher drag than the narrower axial-flow type. Additionally the axial-flow design could improve its compression ratio simply by adding additional stages and making the engine slightly longer. In the centrifugal-flow design the compressor itself had to be larger in diameter, which was much more difficult to fit properly into a thin and aerodynamic aircraft fuselage (although not dissimilar to the profile of radial engines already in widespread use). On the other hand, centrifugal-flow designs remained much less complex (the major reason they "won" in the race to flying examples) and therefore have a role in places where size and streamlining are not so important.
Axial-flow jet engines.
In the jet engine application, the compressor faces a wide variety of operating conditions. On the ground at takeoff the inlet pressure is high, inlet speed zero, and the compressor spun at a variety of speeds as the power is applied. Once in flight the inlet pressure drops, but the inlet speed increases (due to the forward motion of the aircraft) to recover some of this pressure, and the compressor tends to run at a single speed for long periods of time.
There is simply no "perfect" compressor for this wide range of operating conditions. Fixed geometry compressors, like those used on early jet engines, are limited to a design pressure ratio of about 4 or 5:1. As with any heat engine, fuel efficiency is strongly related to the compression ratio, so there is very strong financial need to improve the compressor stages beyond these sorts of ratios.
Additionally the compressor may stall if the inlet conditions change abruptly, a common problem on early engines. In some cases, if the stall occurs near the front of the engine, all of the stages from that point on will stop compressing the air. In this situation the energy required to run the compressor drops suddenly, and the remaining hot air in the rear of the engine allows the turbine to speed up the whole engine dramatically. This condition, known as surging, was a major problem on early engines and often led to the turbine or compressor breaking and shedding blades.
For all of these reasons, axial compressors on modern jet engines are considerably more complex than those on earlier designs.
Spools.
All compressors have an optimum point relating rotational speed and pressure, with higher compressions requiring higher speeds. Early engines were designed for simplicity, and used a single large compressor spinning at a single speed. Later designs added a second turbine and divided the compressor into low-pressure and high-pressure sections, the latter spinning faster. This "two-spool" design, pioneered on the Bristol Olympus, resulted in increased efficiency. Further increases in efficiency may be realised by adding a third spool, but in practice the added complexity increases maintenance costs to the point of negating any economic benefit. That said, there are several three-spool engines in use, perhaps the most famous being the Rolls-Royce RB211, used on a wide variety of commercial aircraft.
Bleed air, variable stators.
As an aircraft changes speed or altitude, the pressure of the air at the inlet to the compressor will vary. In order to "tune" the compressor for these changing conditions, designs starting in the 1950s would "bleed" air out of the middle of the compressor in order to avoid trying to compress too much air in the final stages. This was also used to help start the engine, allowing it to be spun up without compressing much air by bleeding off as much as possible. Bleed systems were already commonly used anyway, to provide airflow into the turbine stage where it was used to cool the turbine blades, as well as provide pressurized air for the air conditioning systems inside the aircraft.
A more advanced design, the "variable stator", used blades that can be individually rotated around their axis, as opposed to the power axis of the engine. For startup they are rotated to "closed", reducing compression, and then are rotated back into the airflow as the external conditions require. The General Electric J79 was the first major example of a variable stator design, and today it is a common feature of most military engines.
Closing the variable stators progressively, as compressor speed falls, reduces the slope of the surge (or stall) line on the operating characteristic (or map), improving the surge margin of the installed unit. By incorporating variable stators in the first five stages, General Electric Aircraft Engines has developed a ten-stage axial compressor capable of operating at a 23:1 design pressure ratio.
Design notes.
Energy exchange between rotor and fluid.
The relative motion of the blades to the fluid adds velocity or pressure or both to the fluid as it passes through the rotor. The fluid velocity is increased through the rotor, and the stator converts kinetic energy to pressure energy. Some diffusion also occurs in the rotor in most practical designs.
The increase in velocity of the fluid is primarily in the tangential direction (swirl) and the stator removes this angular momentum.
The pressure rise results in a stagnation temperature rise. For a given geometry the temperature rise depends on the square of the tangential Mach number of the rotor row. Current turbofan engines have fans that operate at Mach 1.7 or more, and require significant containment and noise suppression structures to reduce blade loss damage and noise.
Compressor maps.
A map shows the performance of a compressor and allows determination of optimal operating conditions. It shows the mass flow along the horizontal axis, typically as a percentage of the design mass flow rate, or in actual units. The pressure rise is indicated on the vertical axis as a ratio between inlet and exit stagnation pressures.
A surge or stall line identifies the boundary to the left of which the compressor performance rapidly degrades and identifies the maximum pressure ratio that can be achieved for a given mass flow. Contours of efficiency are drawn as well as performance lines for operation at particular rotational speeds.
Compression stability.
Operating efficiency is highest close to the stall line. If the downstream pressure is increased beyond the maximum possible the compressor will stall and become unstable.
Typically the instability will be at the Helmholtz frequency of the system, taking the downstream plenum into account.


Output transformerless

Output transformerless (OTL) is a type of vacuum tube audio power amplifier, which omits an output transformer for the purpose of greater linearity and fidelity. Conventional vacuum tube amplifier designs rely upon an output transformer to couple the amplifier's output stage to the loudspeaker. Instead, OTLs use one of two primary methods for output stage coupling: direct coupling (DC) or capacitive coupling (AC).
Additional definitions.
There is some contention with respect to applying the broader term "OTL" to capacitively coupled designs and variants. The need to delineate these designs from their directly coupled counterparts has led to the informal adoption of several additional terms, including:
Differentiation of designs.
By coupling methods: direct versus capacitive coupling and variants.
Background: The output coupling method of a vacuum tube amplifier generally serves two basic purposes:
Direct coupled designs.
In direct coupled OTL designs, both the necessary blocking of DC and matching of impedances are accomplished, respectively, through the topology of the amplifier's output section and the selection of vacuum tube types with sufficiently low impedance to allow effective power transfer to the loudspeaker. Typically, direct coupled OTL amplifiers will have a user-adjustable DC offset control, which allows the user to trim off any residual DC voltage residing at the amplifier's output terminals prior to operation. Servo-controlled variants also exist.
Capacitively coupled designs.
Like the direct coupled designs, capacitively coupled designs rely on the selection of tube types with a sufficiently low impedance to effect the transfer of power to the loudspeaker. However, unlike direct coupled designs, capacitively coupled designs do not have inherent DC blocking by virtue of their topology. Instead, DC voltage in the output section is blocked by an "output coupling capacitor" - typically a large-value (3000-6000μF) electrolytic capacitor - which is interposed between the amplifier's output section and the loudspeaker.
By output section topology.
There are several practical approaches to the design of an OTL amplifier's output section, each with their own respective strengths and weaknesses. While certain topologies lend themselves well to direct coupling, others are more suitable for capacitive coupling. The various designs in service may thus be grouped based upon their common output section topologies. Common topologies include:
OTL Applications.
OTL power amplifiers for driving loudspeakers require multiple tubes in parallel to obtain the required drive current. An alternative is to use high impedance loudspeakers (now rare, but the Philips produced 400 and 800 ohm speakers, such as type number: AD4690/M800).
OTL headphone amplifiers are more common, as typical headphones require the current that a single pair of tubes can provide.
OTL designs are sometimes also used when driving long communication or interconnect cables, when a predictable and low output impedance is required.


Allied Electronics

Allied Electronics & Automation is a United States based authorized distributor of industrial automation products, electronic components and electromechanical products. Allied is a subsidiary of Electrocomponents plc (LSE: ECM), and it is an certified company with 46 sales offices serving the United States, Canada, Mexico and Chile.
History.
The company was founded in 1928 in Chicago, Illinois by Simon "Sy" Wexler as Allied Radio, the radio parts distribution arm of Columbia Radio Corporation (also founded by Wexler in 1921). Allied distributed radio sets, tubes, capacitors, amateur radio equipment, citizens band radios, communications equipment, electronic kits and consumer audio systems through retail and mail order.
In 1970, the Tandy Corporation, Radio Shack's parent company, purchased Allied Radio, the consumer division, along with Allied Electronics, the industrial division. Over the years, Allied Radio was folded into Radio Shack and Allied Electronics focused on distribution of electronic components to electronics engineers. After multiple owners between 1967 and 1993, Allied was purchased by Electrocomponents of London, England in 1999. In 2018, the company changed their name to Allied Electronics & Automation to better reflect their position in the market with customers. Today, Allied serves as the North American distributor for Electrocomponents selling more than 3.5 million parts from over 500 suppliers to engineers and purchasers around the world.
Operations.
Allied Electronics & Automation is headquartered in Fort Worth, Texas. It has a 560,000 square foot distribution facility and a 57,000 square foot corporate office. Allied distributes a wide range of product technologies, including Automation and Control, Enclosures and Fans, Power, Interconnect, Test and Measurement, Passive and Active, Optoelectronics, and Assembly. Customers can access the company products through a variety of channels, including Sales Force and online ordering through their website. Allied services customers from small order hobbyists to large volume manufacturers. The management team of nine Vice Presidents and Chief Officers is led by President Ken Bradley.
Products.
Allied Electronics offers security products, industrial automation and control products, power products, sensors, switches and relays, test and measurement products, wires and cables, optoelectronics, motors and thermal management, tools and hardware, batteries, chemicals and adhesives, semiconductors etc.


China Huaneng Group

China Huaneng Group Co., Ltd., abbreviated as CHNG or Huaneng Group, is one of the five largest state-owned electricity generation enterprises in China, administrated by the State Council. It engages in the investment, construction, operation and management of power generation assets and the production and sale of electricity. In 2012, the company was ranked 246th on the "Fortune" 500 list.
History.
China Huaneng Group Corporation was founded in 1989 as the holding company for a series of companies of that under the supervision of of the State Council of China, including Huaneng Coal Corporation and Huaneng International Power Development Corporation, etc. The group was part of a project that replacing oil fired power plant to coal power plant (). In 1993, the corporation was under the dual supervision of the and the State Planning Committee. In 1995, Huaneng Coal Corporation became a separate state-owned enterprise group that under the provisional supervision of the State Planning Committee, as Shenhua Group. China Huaneng Group was then became the subsidiary of the State Power Corporation of China, a mega-conglomerate that replacing the commercial function of the Ministry of Power Industry. In 2002, the State Power Corporation of China was dismantled as groups of companies of power grid (such as State Grid Corporation of China and China Southern Power Grid) and power plants (such as the big five power groups, Huaneng, China Huadian, China Datang Corporation, China Guodian Corporation and China Power Investment Corporation) In the same year the leader of the mega-conglomerate, had fled China after being investigated for corruption. Huaneng also received some assets from State Power Corporation of China, such as the hydroelectricity company now known as , a listed company since 2017. In 2005, Huaneng also acquired the controlling stake (after the deal owned 51%) of from a subsidiary of the , becoming the indirect parent company of listed company (Mengdian Huaneng).
In 1994, it also saw the formation of two listed subsidiaries, Huaneng Power International (HPI) and Shandong Huaneng Power Development. Their American depositary shares were listed on the New York Stock Exchange. HPI later also started initial public offerings on the Stock Exchange of Hong Kong as well as the Shanghai Stock Exchange. The shares of Huaneng Power International was owned by aforementioned Huaneng International Power Development Corporation, but in recent years China Huaneng Group also owned some shares directly. HPI also merged with Shandong Huaneng Power Development in 2000.
In 2011 China Huaneng Group floated its wind power subsidiary Huaneng Renewables on the Stock Exchange of Hong Kong.
Operations.
The company oversees the national government's interests in 10 subsidiaries, including a 51% stake in Huaneng Power International. Through subsidiaries it develops and operates more than 130 thermal, wind power and hydropower plants. In addition to its power-generation business, the company enters other sectors, including energy-related mining, financing, transportation, information technology, and renewable energy researches. The company's investment division ranks the 15th in China by revenue and the 21st by asset size. The company owns the Changjiang Nuclear Power Plant in partnership with China National Nuclear Corporation, as well as the Beijing Huaneng Thermal Power Station. The latter, however, is to be closed by 2016 as part of Beijing's plan to eradicate pollution.
Environmental projects.
A sophisticated and expensive technology is to convert coal to gas and strip out the carbon dioxide before the gas is used to generate power. It has a billion dollar project underway called the GreenGen project led by China Huaneng Group, that is scheduled to go online by 2011 at the latest.
Acquisitions.
In March 2008 CHNG acquired Singapore-based Tuas Power from Temasek Holdings for US$3.04 billion. It was resold to China Huaneng Group's listed subsidiary Huaneng Power International in the same year. In November 2008 CHNG bought 50 per cent stake in InterGen from India's GMR Group for $1.2 billion.
Structure.
Beijing Headquarter.
The headquarter of Huaneng Group is located on the Chang'an Street of Beijing, only about 3 kilometers from Tian'anmen. In the headquarter, there are several subsidiaries and departments to take charge of different types of business. Major departments in the Beijing headquarter include:
Subsidiaries.
The Huaneng Group runs several subsidiaries corresponding to various types of energy industries. Most of those subsidiaries are based in the Beijing headquarter.
Regional Branches.
In addition to Beijing headquarter, Huaneng Group also have branches and companies in at least 29 different provinces or autonomous regions of China. Those regional branches and companies are in real charge of local power plants and electricity generation in each province or region, as well as some other related business. Currently, Huaneng's regional companies and branches include:
Research.
China Huaneng Group also takes on science and technology researches in energy-related fields. The company's current research directions and interests include:


Transener

Transener (BCBA: TRAN) is the leading Argentine company in the transmission of extra high voltage electric power.
The company owns the national extra high voltage transmission network, comprising almost 8,800 kilometers (5,500 mi) of transmission lines. Another 5,500 miles of lines belong to the distribution network and subsidiary, Power Distribution Transport Company of the Province of Buenos Aires S.A. (Transba S.A.).
Purchasing the power transmission network from a State enterprise, "Compañia de Tranporte de Energía en Alta Tensión", upon its 1993 privatization, Transener operates 95% of the high voltage lines in Argentina, and is a subsidiary of Pampa Energía, the largest private electricity producer in the country. Controlled by local conglomerate Pérez Companc until 2003, Pampa Enegía gained control of the company in 2004, when it bought a controlling stake from Brazilian energy giant Petrobras.


China Guodian Corporation

China Guodian Corporation (Guodian; ) is one of the five largest power producers in China, administrated by SASAC for the State Council. It is engaged in development, investment, construction, operation and management of power plants and power generation for electricity supply in Northern China, Northeast China, Central China, East China. Sichuan and Chongqing, Shandong, Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, and Xinjiang, as well as in Burma. Installed capacity of company power plants is exceeding 100,000 MWe. On August 28, 2017, SASAC announced that China Guodian Corporation and Shenhua Group will be jointly restructured. Shenhua Group will become China Energy Investment Corporation and will absorb China Guodian Corporation.
Listed subsidiaries.
A summary of the corporate structure may be found on page 4 of the document.
Unlisted subsidiaries.
Guodian United Power is responsible for development and manufacture of wind turbines.
They mainly producing onshore wind turbines of size 1500 kW (designed by the German development company aerodyn Energiesysteme GmbH).
In addition there a new turbines 2MW, 3MW and a 6MW offshore turbine in development.
They are at the top wind turbine manufacturers by annual market share (Nomber 8 in 2012).
Old Mutual – Guodian is a joint venture life insurance company.
Insurance business.
China Guodian Corporation is setting up a property insurance company in Beijing to diversify business into other areas, trying to aid its move towards becoming a more comprehensive energy conglomerate. China Guodian will hold the majority stake in the proposed new insurance company, whose registered capital is expected to reach 1 billion yuan ($146 million).
In the first half of 2008, China Guodian invested in a life insurance company. Later in September, the group purchased a 19.6 percent stake in a city commercial bank in Shijiazhuang, capital city of Hebei province, becoming the bank's largest shareholder.
Prior to China Guodian, the State Grid Corp and several other energy groups also expanded their businesses to the financial sector. They have established a number of insurance companies and hold stakes in securities and futures brokerages.


Engro Energy

Engro Energy Limited (formerly "Engro Powergen Limited") () The story of Engro Energy goes back to 2008, when a fully owned subsidiary was incorporated by conglomerate Engro Corporation to develop power projects in Pakistan and beyond.
Engro PowerGen.
Their first intervention in the energy sphere was launched in the form of Engro Powergen Qadirpur Limited which owns and operates a 217 MW power plant in Qadirpur, Ghotki and runs on permeate gas which was previously being flared. This unique aspect makes the Engro Powergen Qadirpur plant one of the few green power plants in Pakistan earning carbon credits.
Engro Energy Thar Projects.
Engro Energy formed the Sindh Engro Coal Mining Company in collaboration with its partners to unearth and mine one of the world’s largest lignite coal reserves in Thar. Soon thereafter, the Company ventured into establishment of 2×330 MW mine-mouth power plants in Tharparkar through a dedicated subsidiary, Engro Powergen Thar (Private) Limited.
Balochistan.
In June 2019, they announced to invest to develop a solar power project in Balochistan.


Algoma Power


Nikolai Fomin

Nikolai Maximovich Fomin (, ; born 1937 in Novoekonomichne, Donetsk Oblast, Ukrainian SSR) is a Ukrainian engineer.
He was the chief engineer of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant from 1981 until the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986.
Biography.
Nikolai Fomin was a member of the CPSU, but was expelled after the Chernobyl disaster. He started his career at the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant. In 1972 he began working at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. As chief engineer, he approved the infamous experiment that led to the explosion of the reactor. However, the deputy chief engineer Anatoly Dyatlov was the principal person responsible for the experiment.
Fomin learned of the accident at about 4 am on April 26, 1986, and subsequently participated in cleaning up the aftermath. He was subsequently arrested together with plant director Viktor Bryukhanov. The start of the trial, originally scheduled for March 24, 1987, had to be postponed several times due to Fomin's suicide attempts. Eventually, he and Bryukhanov were each sentenced to 10 years in prison.
While in prison, Fomin received psychiatric treatment several times. For health reasons, he was released from prison early and transferred to a psychiatric hospital. After his release from the hospital, he worked at the Kalinin Nuclear Power Plant. Since his retirement in mid-2000, he has lived with his wife, children and grandchildren in Udomlya.
Other.
In the television series Chernobyl, he is portrayed by Adrian Rawlins.


Compression Systems

Compression Systems (formerly Cooper Compression / Cooper Energy Services / Cooper Turbocompressor / Cooper), one of five organizational groups within Cameron International Corporation, is a provider of reciprocating and centrifugal compression equipment and aftermarket parts and services. Reciprocating compression equipment is used throughout the energy industry by gas transmission companies, compression leasing companies, oil and gas producers and independent power producers. Integrally geared centrifugal compressors are used by customers around the world in a variety of industries such as air separation, auto making, glass blowing, PET, petrochemical and chemical. Reciprocating compression was sold to GE Oil and Gas in June 2014.
History.
Compression Systems began in 1833 when Charles and Elias Cooper established a foundry in Mt. Vernon, Ohio. "Cooper", as it was known, was licensed to produce the Corliss steam engine in 1869 and entered the production of natural gas internal combustion engines in 1900. In 1929, Cooper merged with Bessemer Gas Engine Company, which was founded in Grove City, Pennsylvania, in 1899. In 1958, Cooper diversified into the controls industry with the establishment of the En-Tronic Controls Group. Five years later, the company acquired the Ajax Engine Company, founded in 1877, and the Pennsylvania Process, founded to manufacture compressors in 1920.
In 1965, the company branched out into electrical, automotive and tools and hardware industries. Two years later, it moved its headquarters to Houston and in 1968 began the Cooper Rolls joint venture with Rolls-Royce to market gas turbines.
1987 marked the acquisition of Joy Industrial Compressor Group, founded in 1955 in Buffalo, New York, which was renamed Cooper Turbocompressor as part of Cooper Compression. One year later, Cooper acquired Enterprise Engine after market services business.
In 1999, the rotating compressor business was sold to Rolls-Royce and Cooper Energy Services merged with Nickles Industrial Manufacturing and purchased Elliot Turbocharger Group, Inc.
In 2001, Cooper Energy Services and Cooper Turbocompresor combined to form Cooper Compression, which was later named Compression Systems in 2005.
Compression System brands.
Reciprocating compressors.
Ajax Engines
Cooper Bessemer integral engines
Superior Engines & Compressors
Turbine Specialties Engine Turbochargers (TSI)
Compression Specialties (CSI)
Texcentric Compressor Valves
Enterprise Engine enterprise power engines and separable compressors
Pennsylvania Process Separable Compressors
Centrifigul plant air compressors.
Turbo Air
Joy Compressor
Centrifugal engineered air and process gas compressors.
MSG
Turbo Air


Pacific DC Intertie

The Pacific DC Intertie (also called Path 65) is an electric power transmission line that transmits electricity from the Pacific Northwest to the Los Angeles area using high voltage direct current (HVDC). The line capacity is 3,100 megawatts, which is enough to serve two to three million Los Angeles households and represents almost half of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) electrical system's peak capacity.
The intertie originates near the Columbia River at the Celilo Converter Station of Bonneville Power Administration's grid outside The Dalles, Oregon and is connected to the Sylmar Converter Station north of Los Angeles, which is owned by five utility companies and managed by LADWP. The Intertie can transmit power in either direction, but power flows mostly from north to south.
The section of the line in Oregon is owned and operated by Bonneville Power Administration, while the line in Nevada and California is owned and operated by Los Angeles Department of Water and Power.
The transition is at the Oregon–Nevada border, at .
This is one of two HVDC lines serving Los Angeles; the other is Path 27.
Overview.
The idea of sending hydroelectric power to Southern California had been proposed as early as the 1930s, but was opposed and scrapped. By 1961, US president John F. Kennedy authorized a large public works project, using new high voltage direct current technology from Sweden. The project was undertaken as a close collaboration between General Electric of the US and ASEA of Sweden. Private California power companies had opposed the project but their technical objections were rebutted by Uno Lamm of ASEA at an IEEE meeting in New York in 1963. When completed in 1970 the combined AC and DC transmission system was estimated to save consumers in Los Angeles approximately US$600,000 per day by use of cheaper electric power from dams on the Columbia River.
One advantage of direct current over AC is that DC current penetrates the entire conductor as opposed to AC current which only penetrates to the skin depth. For the same conductor size the effective resistance is greater with AC than DC, hence more power is lost as heat. In general the total costs for HVDC are less than an AC line if the line length is over 500–600 miles, and with advances in conversion technology this distance has been reduced considerably. A DC line is also ideal for connecting two AC systems that are not synchronized with each another. HVDC lines can help stabilize a power grid against cascading blackouts, since power flow through the line is controllable.
The Pacific Intertie takes advantage of differing power demand patterns between the northwestern and southwestern US. During winter, the northern region operates electrical heating devices while the southern portion uses relatively little electricity. In summer, the north uses little electricity while the south reaches peak demand due to air conditioning usage. Any time the Intertie demand lessens, the excess is distributed elsewhere on the western power grid (states west of the Great Plains, including Colorado and New Mexico).
Components.
The Pacific Intertie consists of:
History.
The first phase of the scheme, completed in May 1970, used only mercury-arc valves in the converters. The valves were series connected in three six-pulse valve bridges for each pole. The blocking voltage of the valves was 133 kV with a maximum current of 1,800 amperes, for a transmission rating of 1,440 MW with a symmetrical voltage of 400 kV with respect to earth.
Each converter station housed six mercury arc valves groups, consisting each of seven valves, for a total of 42 valves in each converter.
The valves had a width of , a height of and a length of and weighed . Each valve contained mercury, with a weight of .


Arthur W. Murphy

Arthur W. Murphy is Professor Emeritus of Law at Columbia University, who has written on many aspects of nuclear power. From 1961-73 he was a member of the Atomic Safety and Licensing Board of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. In 1976 he wrote the book "The Nuclear Power Controversy".


Ho-Ping Power Company

The Ho-Ping Power Company (HPC; ) is an independent power producer company in Taiwan. The company is the subsidiary of Taiwan Cement Corporation and One Energy Holdings Limited.
Activities.
HPC participates in the "Greenhouse Gas Inventory and Verification Trial Plan" promoted by the Energy Bureau of the Ministry of Economic Affairs and the "'Greenhouse Gas Registration, Verification and Voluntary Reduction Trial Plan" by the Environmental Protection Administration.


Western HVDC Link

The Western HVDC Link is a high-voltage direct current (HVDC) undersea electrical link in the United Kingdom, between Hunterston in Western Scotland and Flintshire Bridge (Connah's Quay) in North Wales, routed to the west of the Isle of Man. It has a transmission capacity of 2,200 MW and was expected to cost £1bn. The link entered operational service on 7 December 2017 at a reduced capacity of 900 MW pending further work at Hunterston. It entered full use on 16 October 2018.
Description.
The link augments the existing capacity provided by double-circuit AC transmission lines which join the Scottish and English transmission grids.
It consists of of cable, of which is under water. It is the first subsea link at 600 kV. Operating at this higher voltage increases transmission capacity and reduces transmission losses in the cable, reducing power loss from transmission and the two AC/DC conversions to under 3%. There are two cables, which in shallow water are laid in a paired bundle, and in deep water are laid about 30 metres apart, generally buried about 1.5 metres below the seabed. The cables are jointed in 120 km sections.
Line commutated converter technology is used at each HVDC converter to maximise the amount of electrical power that can be transferred, which is predominantly exported from renewable sources in Scotland. This type of HVDC conversion technology means that large filter halls are required at each converter station. Gas-insulated switchgear is used at the Hunterston converter station to save space.
Routing the connection through the Irish Sea, as opposed to a land-based route, reduced the impact of the link on the visual environment and prevented the rising cost of land affecting the cost of the project. For the given distance, it was necessary to use a DC transmission technology for a subsea route, as the capacitive current required for an AC connection would be too high. Due to the proximity of the converter stations to the coastline, a decision was taken to host electrical infrastructure within built structures in order to reduce the effects of the coastal air on the equipment.
Power can be transferred in either direction (which might become more likely due to the closure of Longannet power station), but it is necessary for the link to be offline for a sufficient time prior to reversing the direction. Mass impregnated non-draining (MIND) cables are used in a bipolar arrangement, but no sea- or earth-return path is permitted for environmental reasons, meaning that both cables must be in service for the link to be operational. The cables are spaced apart to minimise thermal interference, but not so far as to materially impact any marine life which navigates using the magnetic field of the Earth.
Completion was delayed a year due to cable manufacturing problems. The link has since suffered a number of outages due to cable faults, which typically take several weeks to locate and fix:
Engineers working on the project discovered the almost intact wreck of the World War I German submarine UB-85.


Wind power in Mexico

Mexico is rapidly growing its production of wind power. In 2016, its installed capacity had reached 3,527 MW, increasing to 8,128 MW in 2020.
In 2008, there were three wind farms in the country. The Eurus Wind Farm was the largest wind farm in Latin America. 18 of 27 wind farms construction projects were based in La Ventosa in the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Oaxaca. According to the Mexican Wind Energy Association, Mexico was predicted to progress to rank twentieth worldwide in wind capacity by the end of 2012, and to produce four percent of the country's total electricity production. It also projected that the nation would have of wind generation capacity by 2020, and would be able to provide fifteen percent of Mexico's production. Brian Gardner, Economist Intelligence Unit's energy analyst, said, "With strong wind through the south, consistent sunlight in the north and a stable market, Mexico is well positioned for continued renewables growth". Wind power is in partial competition with Solar power in Mexico.
Resource Availability.
Mexico's wind availability is high, with some areas in the south producing average wind speeds upwards of 10m/s. However, while the country has ample wind, it lacks incentives to build the infrastructure to harness it. Oaxaca has become the central point from which wind power is expanding, due to its idealized geography, specifically its topography. Its isthmus separates the area's eastern mountain chain, the Sierra de Chiapas, from its western mountain chains, the Sierra de Oaxaca and Sierra Madre del Sur, creating a tunnel effect through which strong winds flow. According to the Wind Energy Atlas of Oaxaca, if the useable area of Oaxaca alone were occupied with turbines to its capacity, it is estimated that upwards of 44GW could be produced.


Alinta Energy

Alinta Energy is an Australian electricity generating and gas retailing private company owned by Hong Kong-based Chow Tai Fook Enterprises (CTFE). It was sold for $4 billion and was approved Treasurer Scott Morrison in 2017. Alinta Energy has an owned and contracted generation portfolio of up to 1,957 MW, approximately 1.1 million combined electricity and gas retail customers and around 800 employees across Australia and New Zealand.
In March 2011, due to a deleveraging transaction by the TPG Group, Alinta became Alinta Energy. Alinta Energy was acquired by Hong Kong-based Chow Tai Fook Enterprises in 2017. Chow Tai Fook Enterprises also acquired Loy Yang B power station with assists from Alinta Energy staff.
In May 2018, Alinta Energy was announced as the principal partner of the Australian Men's cricket team on a four-year deal, the longest in Australian Cricket history. The Alinta Energy logo will feature on the players' kits for all international matches played in Australia.
Electricity generation.
Alinta Energy's approximately 2,000MW electricity generation portfolio includes:
Natural gas.
Alinta Energy's gas assets portfolio includes:
Other assets.
Flinders Power, a division of Alinta Energy, in May 2016 permanently closed Playford A Power Station, Playford B Power Station and Northern Power Station and is in the process of demolishing and remediating the sites. The mining operations at Telford Cut Leigh Creek, which supplied coal to these power stations, ceased in 2015.
Alinta Energy is in the process of seeking approval to build the Reeves Plains Power Station, a new gas-turbine power station in South Australia.