Armilla patrol

The Armilla patrol was the name of the Royal Navy's permanent presence in the Persian Gulf during the 1980s and 1990s.
Background.
The Royal Navy withdrew its forces from the Persian Gulf in 1971 (the former Flag Officer, Middle East, and Senior Naval Officer, Persian Gulf) in line with the United Kingdom's general retreat from "East of Suez". However, tensions in the area remained high and Royal Navy ships were still a frequent sight in the area. In 1980, tensions in the Middle East led to the outbreak of war between Iraq and Iran. In response to the increased danger to British shipping and other British interests, in the Persian Gulf, Armilla Patrol was set up. HMS Coventry (D118) and HMS Naiad (F39); and later HMS Alacrity (F174), were the first ships to patrol the Gulf of Oman and the Straits of Hormuz. There has been at least one Royal Navy ship on patrol in the area ever since. In addition to the surface combatant, the Royal Navy has also maintained an auxiliary of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) in the Persian Gulf.
During the Falklands war, the Royal New Zealand Navy dispatched frigates to carry out the Armilla patrol duties, freeing the British ships on station for service with the Royal Navy task force tasked with freeing the Falkland Islands from the Argentine invasion.
The Armilla patrol was praised by British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and a call was made in parliament for an Armilla Patrol Medal to go to those serving in the Patrol at the time in 1989. Ships Companies were subsequently awarded the General Service Medal (Gulf) for patrol and escort duties between 17 November 1986 and 31 October 31 October 1988. Mine countermeasures ships were awarded the GSM for service between 1 November 1988 until 28 February 1989.
Typical Armilla patrol deployments lasted for six months or so, with the supporting RFA vessel sometimes spending an aggregate total of over a year in the area. The patrol was reinforced with an aircraft carrier or task group in times of high tension or British involvement in wartime operations or by frigates or destroyers transiting the area for other operations in the Far East or Pacific.
The largest British presence in the Persian Gulf during the Armilla patrol was during the two operations against Iraq. In 1991, eight Royal Navy ships supported by a number of RFA vessels were sent to the area.
Post 1990s.
In 2003, over 30 British warships and auxiliaries were involved in the invasion of Iraq. A number of vessels, including minesweepers, survey vessels and submarines, are periodically rotated through the area to provide additional capability.
Beginning in 2006 the surface combatant deployed was tasked with patrol in the Persian Gulf and as part of Operation Oracle, the United Kingdom's assistance to the United States in its operations in the Arabian Sea, along with flexibility in tasking for operations in the Far East and Pacific.


Commander-in-Chief, Western Approaches

Commander-in-Chief, Western Approaches was the commander of a major operational command of the Royal Navy during World War II. The admiral commanding, and his forces, sometimes informally known as 'Western Approaches Command,' were responsible for the safety of British shipping in the Western Approaches.
History.
Admiral Martin Dunbar-Nasmith, who had been Commander-in-Chief, Plymouth, also took over responsibility for the Western Approaches from the start of World War II.
After the fall of France in June 1940, the main North Atlantic convoy routes were diverted around the north of Ireland through the north-western approaches. By late 1940, the location of the Combined Operations headquarters at Plymouth was increasingly awkward and the decision was taken to move the Combined Operations headquarters to Liverpool. On 7 February 1941, the headquarters was established at Derby House, Liverpool, with a secondary control bunker built in Magee College, Derry. Derby House was designated HMS "Eaglet"; shore establishments were often given ship ("stone frigate") names to meet the requirement that their Navy personnel be borne upon the books of a specific ship. The headquarters of No. 15 Group RAF (part of Coastal Command) moved to Liverpool at the same time. On 17 February 1941 Admiral Sir Percy Noble was appointed as the new Commander-in-Chief, Western Approaches Command. The Western Approaches Tactical Unit (WATU) was formed in January 1942 to develop and disseminate new tactics to counter German submarine attacks on trans-Atlantic shipping convoys. WATU took up residency on the top floor of Derby House.
Over the next two years, Admiral Noble built up the bases for the North Atlantic escort groups at Greenock on the Clyde, Derry and Liverpool and set up the training facilities that were the foundations for eventual victory in the Battle of the Atlantic.
On 19 November 1942, Admiral Max Horton replaced Admiral Noble; Horton then was Commander-in-Chief until Western Approaches Command closed on 15 August 1945.
Horton’s leadership played a vital role in the final defeat of the U-boat menace. Horton used the increasing number of escorts that were available to the command to organize "support groups" that were used to reinforce convoys that came under attack. Unlike the regular escort groups, the support groups were not directly responsible for the safety of any particular convoy. This freedom gave them much greater tactical flexibility, allowing the support groups to detach ships to hunt submarines spotted by reconnaissance or picked up by high-frequency direction finding (HF/DF). In situations where the regular escorts would have had to return to their convoy, the support groups were able to persist in hunting a submarine for many hours until it was forced to the surface.
Museum.
The reinforced central core of the command bunker at Derby House proved too costly to demolish, and so whilst the rest of the building has been converted to modern offices, the bunker has been restored as a museum, open to the public. The areas open to visitors are only a small part of the original complex. The museum is known as the Western Approaches Museum.
Following years of neglect, the site was taken over by non-profit organisation BigHeritage in 2017, which saw an extensive restoration of the site and the discovery of new hidden parts of the bunker complex . The reopened site has seen a large increase in visitor numbers, and now ranks as one of the most popular historic sites in Liverpool.
Commanders-in-Chief, Western Approaches.
Commanders-in-Chief included:


Chester Nez

Chester Nez (January 23, 1921 – June 4, 2014) was an American veteran of World War II. He was the last surviving original Navajo code talker who served in the United States Marine Corps during the war.
Early years.
Nez was born in Chi Chil Tah, New Mexico, to the Navajo (Black Sheep Clan) of the (Sleeping Rock People). He was raised during a time when there were difficult relations between the U.S. government and the Navajo Nation. His mother died when he was only three years old. Nez recalled children often being taken from reservations, sent to boarding schools, and told to not speak the Navajo language. At eight years old, Nez was sent to a school run by the Bureau of Indian Affairs. His English given name, Chester, after US president Chester A. Arthur, was assigned then. It was from one of the government-run boarding schools, in Tuba City, Arizona, that Nez was recruited into the Marine Corps.
Code talker.
Nez kept his decision to enlist from his family. He and 28 other Navajos formed Recruit Training Platoon 382 at Marine Corps Base San Diego in May 1942. The 29 who graduated from boot camp, including Nez, were then assigned to the Camp Elliot, California, where they were tasked with creating a code for secure voice tactical (battlefield) communications. At the time, tactical radios were not equipped, as they are today, with encryption/decryption technology, allowing the enemy to listen to radio traffic, often with disastrous results. The Navajo language was chosen because its complex syntax and phonology made it exceedingly difficult to learn as a second language, and it had no written form. Nez stated the developers used everyday words, in order to easily memorize and retain them. In 1942, he was among the code talkers to be shipped out to Guadalcanal, where they worked in teams of two: one to send and receive, the other to operate the radio and listen for errors. Nez also fought in Bougainville, Guam, Angaur and Peleliu. He was honorably discharged as a private first class in 1945 and returned to serve stateside in the Korean War from which he was discharged as a corporal.
Post-military life.
From 1946 to 1952, Nez attended the University of Kansas to study commercial arts, but by 1952 discontinued his studies after having exhausted funding from his G.I. Bill; he was awarded an honorary bachelor's degree by the Kansas University College of Liberal Arts and Science on Veterans Day, 2012.
Following his military service, he worked as a painter for 25 years at a V.A. hospital in Albuquerque. In 2011, he wrote the memoir "Code Talker: The First and Only Memoir by One of the Original Navajo Code Talkers of WWII" with Judith Avila.
Congressional Gold Medal.
On July 26, 2001, Nez was one of the five living code talkers who received the Congressional Gold Medal from President George W. Bush:
Death.
Nez died on June 4, 2014, from kidney failure in Albuquerque, aged 93.


List of Allied attacks on the German battleship Tirpitz

The German battleship "Tirpitz" was attacked on multiple occasions by Allied forces during World War II. While most of the attacks failed to inflict any damage on the battleship, she was placed out of action for a lengthy period following the Operation Source midget submarine attack on 22 September 1943 and for a short period after the Operation Tungsten aircraft carrier strike on 3 April 1944. "Tirpitz" suffered severe and irreparable damage after being hit by a Tallboy bomb during the Operation Paravane air raid on 15 September 1944, and was sunk with heavy loss of life in the Operation Catechism raid on 12 November that year.


John Pinto

John Pinto (December 15, 1924 – May 24, 2019) was an Navajo politician. He served as a Democratic member of the New Mexico Senate from 1977 until his death in 2019.
Early life.
Pinto was born in Lupton, Arizona, in the Navajo Nation. Pinto served in the United States Marine Corps during World War II and was a Navajo code talker.
Career.
After leaving the military, Pinto was a teacher and organizer for the National Education Association. Elected to the New Mexico Senate in 1977, Pinto represented the 3rd District, which includes the Four Corners-area and spans much of western San Juan County, as well as a portion of western McKinley County. Much of the district is made up of the Navajo Nation and includes Shiprock, Sheep Springs, and part of Gallup. At 94, he was the longest-serving member in the Senate.
Personal life.
He died in Gallup, New Mexico, on May 24, 2019 at the age of 94. He was succeeded in office by his granddaughter, Shannon Pinto.


Taoliao Army

Taoliao Army, was the former Hsingan Reclamation Army that had gone over to the Japanese during the invasion of Manchuria. It was involved in Operation Nekka that captured Rehe. Following which in 1933 it became the Rehe Guard Army. It had the same commander throughout, Chang Hai-peng.
The Taoliao Army was part of the Manchukuoan Army formed upon the foundation of the state of Manchukuo. It was composed of at least eight Detachments. The 1st, 4th, 5th, 7th and 8th Detachments are mentioned in Anti Bandit Operations against Feng Zhanhai and Mongolian bandits in the summer of 1932. At the time of Operation Nekka in January 1933, seven Detachments are mentioned as being in the Manchukuoan force of 40,000 men attached to the Japanese invasion army.
Sources


Battle of Boroughbridge

The Battle of Boroughbridge was fought on 16 March 1322 in England between a group of rebellious barons and King Edward II, near Boroughbridge, north-west of York. The culmination of a long period of antagonism between the King and Thomas, Earl of Lancaster, his most powerful subject, it resulted in Lancaster's defeat and execution. This allowed Edward to re-establish royal authority, and hold on to power for (a little under) five more years.
Not in itself a part of the Wars of Scottish Independence, the battle is significant for its employment of tactics learned in the Scottish wars in a domestic, English conflict. Both the extensive use of foot soldiers rather than cavalry, and the heavy impact caused by the longbow, represented significant steps in military developments.
Background.
Edward II was a weak and ineffectual king (made to look the more so by comparison with his father and son, Edward I and Edward III), and his reign was marked by military failure and internal strife. A great number of the barony turned against the King, and Thomas of Lancaster eventually became the leader of the opposition. Lancaster was Edward's cousin, and next to the King he was the richest man in the country. Through a set of regulations known as the Ordinances, Lancaster and his associates had been trying to put restrictions on royal authority, but by the late 1310s Edward was again in full control of central government. The situation was aggravated by the King's ostentatious patronage of his favourite, Hugh Despenser, and Hugh's father by the same name.
In 1319, the King and Lancaster fell out during a failed campaign against Scotland. The next year Lancaster refused to attend a parliament summoned by the King, and later the same year, Edward obtained papal absolution from his oath to follow the Ordinances. Meanwhile, an inheritance dispute had broken out in the Welsh Marches between the Despensers and certain marcher lords, including Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of Hereford. Lancaster now took the initiative with the discontented. In 1321 he summoned two meetings of magnates, one at Lancaster's residence of Pontefract in March, and the other at Sherburn in June. The meetings consisted of northern and marcher lords, as well as Lancaster's own retainers, but little assistance was forthcoming from the northerners. The marcher rebellion, and the threat of civil war, forced the King to exile the younger Despenser, but the favourite was recalled within weeks.
Edward now seized the initiative, and moved northwards. Lancaster convened one final meeting at Doncaster in November, and also entered into an alliance with Robert I of Scotland to strengthen his hand against the King. In January 1322 Edward crossed the River Severn, and secured the surrender of several of the marcher lords while Lancaster remained passive. As the royal army crossed the River Trent after the Battle of Burton Bridge, Lancaster was forced to flee north. On 16 March Lancaster and his army had reached Boroughbridge by the River Ure where they were joined by the Earl's Secretary Sir Robert de Holland and the force he had raised in Lancashire. There they were cut off by the forces of Sir Andrew Harclay, a veteran from the Scottish wars, who had gathered the levies from the counties of Cumberland and Westmorland.
Battle.
When Lancaster arrived at the town of Boroughbridge, Harclay was already in possession of the bridge crossing the river. The rebel forces counted probably no more than 700 knights and men-at-arms, against the 4,000 or so soldiers in the royal army. Lancaster initially tried to negotiate, but Harclay could not be swayed. Since there was no realistic alternative place to cross the river, and with the royal forces in pursuit from the south, the rebels had no choice but to fight. The ensuing battle was short and one-sided.
Harclay had deployed his men on foot to hold the bridge from the northern side. Additional forces were placed at a nearby ford, though contemporary sources do not specify the exact location of this ford. The royal pikemen were deployed in a schiltron formation, a tactic learned from the Scots in the Scottish wars. The formation proved effective against the oncoming cavalry. The rebels divided into two columns; one led by Hereford and Roger de Clifford, attacking the bridge on foot, the other under Lancaster, trying to cross the ford by horse. According to a graphic description in the chronicle the "Brut", Hereford was killed as he crossed the bridge by a pikeman hiding underneath, who thrust his spear up through the Earl's anus. Clifford was also severely injured, and that column of the army fell into disarray. Lancaster's party fared little better; under heavy archery fire his cavalry was cut off before it even reached the ford, and was forced to retreat. This event shows an early – if not entirely novel – effective use of the longbow against cavalry, a tactic which was to become central to future English military success.
Lancaster negotiated a truce with Harclay, and withdrew to the town. During the night a great number of the rebels deserted, and the next day the sheriff of York arrived from the south with additional forces. Lancaster, now greatly outnumbered and with no chance of retreat, had no choice but to surrender to Harclay.
Aftermath.
Thomas of Lancaster was taken to Pontefract Castle, which by then had fallen to the King. There he was submitted to what was little more than a show trial, and – in front of a gathering of earls and barons – sentenced to death. On 22 March 1322, he was led out of the castle and beheaded in front of a jeering crowd. In the years to come, a cult emerged around the person of the late earl as a martyr, and even a possible saint. Lancaster had shown no signs of extraordinary piety or other personal abilities during his lifetime, and the cult has been interpreted as a reaction to the incompetent and oppressive reign of Edward II.
Some thirty of Lancaster's followers were also executed, among these Clifford and the baron John Mowbray. Clifford was hung from Clifford’s Tower in York, which is now named after him.
Andrew Harclay was richly rewarded for his loyal and competent performance at Boroughbridge. On 15 March he was created Earl of Carlisle, and promised lands worth 1000 marks yearly. Yet Harclay, who had turned down Lancaster's overtures to join in the rebellion, was no great adherent of the King. As a warden of the Scottish Marches he grew constantly more frustrated with the King's idleness, and eventually negotiated a peace treaty with the Scots. This action on Harclay's part amounted to treason, and early in 1323 he was apprehended by the King's men, and hanged, drawn and quartered.
As for Edward II himself, his dependence on the Despensers grew only deeper, and their transgressions more severe. Lancaster's supporters (including Roger Mortimer, William Trussell and Robert de Holland) found themselves systematically accused of false charges, being imprisoned and having their lands taken over by the Despensers. Mortimer and Trussell eventually fled to Paris where they were to be joined by Edward's estranged wife Isabella who may have become Mortimer's lover.
In 1327 Isabella and Mortimer staged a coup against the King. Edward II was deposed and his son, Edward III, succeeded in his place.


Operation Platypus

Operation Platypus was an operation by Allied special reconnaissance personnel from Z Special Unit ("Z Force") during the Borneo Campaign of World War II. Platypus involved small groups being inserted into the Balikpapan area of Dutch Borneo (Kalimantan), to gather information and organise local people as resistance fighters against the Japanese.
On 20 March 1945, "Platypus 1" (also known as Project “Robin”) was carried out, using Hoehn folboats (collapsible canoes) and inflatable rubber dinghies that had been lashed to the side of the submarine USS "Perch". Four members of Z Force, in two of the folboats, which had been fitted with outboard motors, travelled to shore north of Balikpapan. As one of the motors failed to start, both crews resorted to paddling. One folboat, crewed by Sergeants Bruce Dooland (Australian Army) and Bill Horrocks (New Zealand Army), managed to reach the shore. The other folboat, carrying the mission commander Major D. J. (Don) Stott and his deputy Captain Leslie McMillan, both New Zealanders, capsized; both men were reported missing, presumed drowned. At other planned landing sites Japanese patrols were encountered and no further landings took place that night.
On the night of 22 March, the main body of "Platypus 1", using folboats fitted with outboard motors, managed to land despite the motors failing. At one stage they were surrounded by Japanese patrols but managed to evade them.
Meanwhile Dooland and Horrocks used mirrors to signal Allied aircraft and were extracted by a US Catalina aircraft. To conceal operational techniques from the Japanese, their folboat was partly dismantled and stowed in the Catalina.
Eight further phases of Operation Platypus were carried out.


Battle of Cromdale

The Battle of Cromdale took place at the Haughs of Cromdale on 30 April and 1 May 1690. The site is on a hillside near the village of Cromdale, then in Inverness-shire and now in the Highland council area. The battlefield has been included in the Inventory of Historic Battlefields in Scotland and protected by Historic Scotland under the Scottish Historical Environment Policy of 2009.
Background.
After their defeat at the Battle of Dunkeld in 1689, the Highland clans had returned to their homes in low spirits. Sir Ewen Cameron assumed control over the army's remnant. Sir Ewen and the other Jacobite chiefs complained to King James over the precarious state of his support in Scotland and the necessity of sending them aid. James was occupied with preparations for resisting a threatened invasion of Ireland. To aid his supporters in Scotland, James sent clothing, arms, ammunition and provisions. He also directed a few officers from Ireland to Lochaber, among whom was Major-General Thomas Buchan, whom James made commander-in-chief of the Jacobite forces in Scotland.
On Buchan's arrival, a meeting of the chiefs and principal officers was held at Keppoch to formulate a plan of action. While some of the clans proposed to submit to the government, this proposition was resisted by Sir Ewen. The meeting unanimously resolved to continue the war, but not until the labours of the spring season were complete in the Highlands. The general muster of the clans was postponed. In the meantime, a detachment of 1,200 infantrymen was to be placed at Buchan's disposal to weaken the enemy's quarters along the borders of the Lowlands.
General Buchan advanced his men through Badenoch, intending to march down Speyside into the Duke of Gordon's country, where he expected to muster additional forces. Due to desertion, Buchan's force had dwindled to 800 men. Ignoring counsel from his Scottish officers not to advance past Culnakill, (the modern Coulnakyle near Nethybridge) Buchan marched down the Spey as far as Cromdale where he encamped on the last day of April.
Battle.
He was met near Grantown-on-Spey at Cromdale by a larger government force under Sir Thomas Livingstons, commander of the garrison of Inverness. As Livingston approached with his men, on the opposite bank of the Spey, the Jacobite forces started to retreat. Livingston's cavalry crossed the river and intercepted the Jacobites who made a brief stand at the foot of the hill of Cromdale. However, a thick fog came down the side of the mountain and enveloped the outnumbered Jacobites, compelling Livingston to discontinue the pursuit. According to reports, the Highlanders had 400 men killed and taken prisoner. Livingston's losses were reported as between none and 100 killed.
A group of around 100 men, who had separated from the main Jacobite force, crossed the Spey the following day. After being pursued by some of Livingston's men, they were overtaken and dispersed on the moor of Granish near Aviemore, where some of them were killed. They attempted to seize the castle of Lochinclan, but their attack was repelled by the proprietor and his tenants.
Aftermath.
The defeat at Cromdale effectively ended the rebellion in Scotland. Nevertheless, Jacobite propagandists declared the action a victory for the Jacobite forces, and composed a popular song, "The Haughs of Cromdale", to promote that viewpoint. It is listed in James Hogg's "Jacobite Reliques" as song number 2. The last verse reads:
"The loyal Stuarts, with Montrose,"

"So boldly set upon their foes,"

"And brought them down with Highland blows"

"Upon the Haughs of Cromdale."

"Of twenty-thousand Cromwell's men,"

"a thousand fled to Aberdeen,"

"The rest of them lie on the plain,"

"They're on the Haughs of Cromdale."
"Of twenty-thousand of Cromwell's men,"
"a-thousand fled to Aberdeen,"

"The rest of them lie on the plain,"

"They're on the Haughs of Cromdale."

Strangely enough, the hero of the song, James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, died forty years before the battle occurred. The tune has remained popular and is still played by pipe bands.


58th Air Division

The 58th Air Division (58th AD) is an inactive United States Air Force unit. Its last assignment was with Air Defense Command, based at Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. It was inactivated on 1 February 1959.
History.
World War II.
B-29 development.
The 58th Bombardment Operational Training Wing (Heavy) was constituted on 22 April and activated on 1 May 1943 at Smoky Hill AAF, Kansas. The wing's mission was to train the first Boeing B-29 Superfortress aircrews and help prepare the new aircraft for operational combat duty. On 1 June 1943 the wing was reassigned to the Boeing manufacturing plant at Marietta Army Air Field, Georgia in advance of delivery of the first YB-29 prototypes. By July, seven YB-29s had been delivered to the USAAF and were used to equip new training squadrons of the 472d Bombardment Group, the first operational group of the 58th Bomb Wing.
In August 1943, it was decided that 58th Bombardment Wing would be stationed in the China Burma India Theatre by the end of 1943 and would begin attacking Japanese home island targets by flying out of bases in China. It would be commanded by General Kenneth B. Wolfe and would consist of four operational groups of B-29s. It was envisaged that once sufficient numbers of B-29s were available, Japan could be forced out of the war within six months by the destruction of her war industries, making a costly seaborne invasion of the home islands unnecessary. It was projected that such a program could defeat Japan by mid-1945.
On 15 September 1943, the headquarters of the 58th BW was moved to Smoky Hill AAF, with some of its groups near the Wichita factory. The 58th Bomb Wing however, initially had 5 groups (the 40th, 444th, 462d, 468th, and 472d Bombardment Groups). The 40th was reassigned from Sixth Air Force in the Caribbean, the others were newly formed. The 472d Group was destined to remain at Smoky Hill Field as an operational training unit (OTU), and the others were to be deployed to India.
President Roosevelt wanted the B-29 bombing raids against Japan to start by January 1944. However, delays in the B-29 program forced General Arnold to admit to the President that the bombing campaign against Japan could not begin until May 1944 at the earliest.
The crew training program was one of the more difficult aspects of the entire B-29 program. Because of the complexity of the B-29 aircraft, a lengthy process of crew integration was required before combat operations could begin. There was no time to start from scratch, so volunteers were called for from B-24 crews returning from operations in Europe and North Africa. The crews of the B-29 needed a degree of specialist training that was not required for crews of other, less complex Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress or Consolidated B-24 Liberator aircraft. It usually took 27 weeks to train a pilot, 15 to train a navigator, and 12 to train a gunner. The complexity of the B-29 was such that a lengthy process of crew integration had to take place before combat deployment could begin.
Although a total of 97 B-29s had been produced by the beginning of 1944, only 16 of the aircraft were really airworthy. Most of the others were in AAF modification centers, located near the Bell-Marietta and Martin-Omaha plants and at air bases in Kansas, undergoing a series of modifications and changes necessitated by the lessons of air combat over Europe. At that time, much of the equipment and components of the Superfortress had still not been perfected, and rather than delay production by stopping the assembly lines to incorporate modifications and add new equipment, it was decided to let the first production airplanes leave the lines at Wichita deficient in combat readiness and deliver them to these USAAF modification centers to bring them up to combat standards.
Crews began to arrive at Kansas bases in November 1943, but few bombers were ready to receive them. At that time, there was only one Superfortress for every twelve crews, and most crews had to train on Martin Martin B-26 Marauders or Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses. By the end of December, only 67 pilots had managed to fly a B-29 and few crews had been brought together as a complete team. Many gunners did not even see their first B-29 until early 1944.
It was not until December 1943 that the decision not to use the B-29 against Germany was finally made, and to concentrate the B-29 exclusively against Japan. However, in early 1944, the B-29s were still not ready to begin Roosevelt's promised offensive against Japan Most of the B-29s were still held up at the modification centers, awaiting conversion to full combat readiness. By March 1944, the B-29 modification program had fallen into complete chaos, with absolutely no bombers being considered as combat ready. The program was seriously hampered by the need to work in the open air in inclement weather, by delays in acquiring the necessary tools and support equipment, and by the USAAF's general lack of experience with the B-29.
Operations in India and Tinian.
After much effort, the headquarters of the XX Bomber Command had been established at the former RAF Kharagpur Airfield, India on 28 March 1944 under the command of General Wolfe. The first B-29 reached its base in India on 2 April 1944. In India, existing airfields at Kharagpur, Chakulia, Piardoba and Dudkhundi had been converted for B-29 use. All of these bases were located in southern Bengal and were not far from port facilities at Calcutta. All of these bases had originally been established in 1942–43 for Consolidated B-24 Liberators. The conditions at these bases were poor, and the runways were still in the process of being lengthened when the first B-29s arrived. The headquarters of the 58th BW, together with the four squadrons of the 40th Bombardment Group (the 25th 44th, 45th, and 395th) were assigned to the airfield at Chakulia, the first planes arriving there on 2 April 1944. The Headquarters was moved to Kharagpur airfield on 23 April. The 444th Bombardment Group (676th, 677th, 678th and 679th Squadrons) went to Charra, arriving there on 11 April. The 462d Bombardment Group (768th, 769th, 770th, and 771st squadrons) to Piardoba, arriving there on 7 April. The 468th Bombardment Group (792nd, 793rd, 794th and 795th Squadrons) arrived at Kharagpur on 13 April. The 444th Bombardment Group later moved to a permanent airfield at Dudhkundi, leaving Charra to become a transport base for the C-87s and C-46s which would support the effort.
On 4 April 1944, a special strategic formation, the Twentieth Air Force, was established, which would carry out the aerial assault against Japan. This was done at the insistence of General Arnold himself, mainly to avoid having the B-29s being diverted to tactical missions under pressure from CBI theatre commanders. Twentieth Air Force would be commanded by General Arnold himself at Joint Chiefs of Staff level. It would be completely autonomous and their B-29s would be completely independent of other command structures and would be dedicated exclusively against strategic targets in Japan. The operational vehicle was to be the 58th Bombardment Wing (Very Heavy) of XX Bomber Command.
The primary flaw in flying from bases in China was the fact that all the supplies of fuel, bombs, and spares needed to support the forward bases in China had to be flown in from India over the Hump, since Japanese control of the seas around the Chinese coast made seaborne supply of China impossible.
The first B-29 bombing raid took place on 5 June 1944. Led by General Saunders himself, 98 B-29s took off from bases in eastern India to attack the Makasan railroad yards at Bangkok, Thailand. This involved a 2261-mile round trip, the longest bombing mission yet attempted during the war. Other missions followed, but the command could launch only about one sortie a month per aircraft against targets in Japan. "For every Superfortress combat mission, the command flew an average of six B 29 round-trip cargo missions over the Hump. Even after the Air Transport Command took over the logistical supply of the B 29 bases in China at the end of 1944, enough fuel and bombs never seemed to reach Chengtu."
On 13 July 1944, General Saunders combined the personnel of the 58th Wing into headquarters, XX Bomber Command, attaching the wing's personnel to the appropriate division of the command's staff. Although the wing continued to exist as a papr unit, it had no further operational functions in India.
By late 1944, it was becoming apparent that B-29 operations against Japan staged out of bases in Chengtu were far too expensive in men and materials and would have to be stopped. In December 1944, the Joint Chiefs of Staff made the decision that the 58th Bombardment Wing's B-29s would be moved to newly captured bases in the Marianas in the central Pacific. The 58th Bomb Wing flew its last operations from India and China on 8 February 1945.
The wing moved to Tinian in early 1945 and was reassigned to the XXI Bomber Command on 29 March. The wing continued bombardment operations against Japan. Its units made daylight attacks from high altitudes on strategic targets, participated in incendiary raids on urban areas, and dropped mines in Japanese shipping lanes. After the Japanese surrender, groups of the 58th Bomb Wing dropped food and supplies to Allied prisoners of war in Japan, Korea, and Formosa, and took part in show of force missions.
Strategic Air Command.
The 58th Bomb Wing returned to the United States late in 1945, being assigned to March Field, California. It was reassigned to Continental Air Forces, later Strategic Air Command, on 21 March 1946. The newly formed Strategic Air Command was ill-equipped. it had inherited the headquarters buildings previously occupied by the Continental Air Forces at Bolling Field in Washington, D.C. and some of "operational assets" that had been assigned to it. On 7 June 1946, Eighth Air Force was relocated to MacDill Field, Florida, from Okinawa and assigned as one of SAC's two Numbered Air Forces, (the other being Fifteenth Air Force) but it was only moved on paper; it did not involve the moving personnel or equipment. The 58th Bomb Wing was assigned to Eighth Air Force. In fact, Eighth Air Force headquarters were manned chiefly by personnel from the 58th Bombardment Wing stationed at Fort Worth Army Air Field, Texas.
SAC's bomb wings were drastically undermanned and under equipped. Not all had aircraft. At the close of 1946, demobilization was in full swing and few were fully equipped and manned. The entire Strategic Air Command had a total of 148 bombers, all B-29s. Virtually all were equipped to drop conventional bombs, as the United States then had only nine Atomic Bombs and only a few B-29s of the 509th Group to deliver them if necessary. The Truman Administration was determined to balance the national budget. It seemed as if America's vast military power was no longer needed, so appropriations were drastically slashed. One unit after another was disbanded. The command staff and all personnel of the wing were eliminated on 1 November 1946 and the organization was reduced to a paper unit. For two years the wing remained in this status until the 58th Bomb Wing was inactivated on 16 October 1948.
Air Defense Command.
"Inactive for seven years, the 58th was reactivated as the 58th Air Division (Defense) in September 1955 and assumed responsibility for the defense of parts of Illinois, Indiana, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia, and supported operations, when necessary, of other commands. It supervised training programs for its subordinate units and supported exercises such as 'Hour Hand, Blue Light, Red Cap, Iron Ba', and Surefire."


Battle of Glenlivet

The Battle of Glenlivet was a Scottish clan battle fought on 3 October 1594 near Glenlivet, Moray, Scotland. It was fought between Protestant forces loyal to King James VI of Scotland who were commanded by Archibald Campbell, 7th Earl of Argyll, against Catholic forces who were commanded by George Gordon, 6th Earl of Huntly, and Francis Hay, 9th Earl of Erroll. The Catholics won a decisive victory in the battle, but in the aftermath were subdued by King James.
Background.
For two centuries from the mid-15th century the Clan Gordon and Clan Campbell controlled the north-east and west of Scotland respectively, as the magnates who straddled the divide between the Scottish Highlands and Scottish Lowlands. James VI of Scotland had been unsure whether to support Catholics or Protestants. This was because the Catholics were still numerous and in particular among the nobility of the north. In 1593 he had sent a secret mission to the Pope with the idea of returning Scotland to the allegiance of Rome. However, in 1594 he once again changed his mind and decided that laws against Catholics would be enforced. Between 1588 and 1595, the northern earls of Huntly, Errol, and Angus, who were all Catholics, made overtures to Phillip II of Spain, in revolt against James VI of Scotland. When James discovered this potentially treasonable correspondence with Spain he marched north and sent an advance force under Archibald Campbell, 7th Earl of Argyll, who was still a teenager, to oppose the rebel army under George Gordon, then the 6th Earl of Huntly, and Francis Hay, 9th Earl of Errol. The King's army was sent to Gordon country which was the stronghold of the Catholic side.
The Earl of Argyll, aged just 19 years, had with him a force of about 12,000 men. He entered into Badenoch and laid siege to Ruthven Castle on 27 September 1594. In Argyll's army was the Earl of Atholl, Lachlan Mor Maclean, chief of Clan Maclean, the Chief of Clan Mackintosh, the Laird of Grant, the Clan Gregor, MacNeil of Barra, together with the whole of Clan Campbell. Ruthven Castle was well defended by the Clan Macpherson who were vassals of the Earl of Huntly and so the Earl of Argyll had to give up the siege. Following this Argyll marched through Strathspey and on 2 October encamped at Druminnor Castle. From there Argyll sent orders for Lord Forbes, Clan Fraser of Lovat, Clan Dunbar, Clan Mackenzie, Clan Irvine, Clan Ogilvy, and the Clan Leslie to join him.
The Earls on the opposing side knew that Argyll was a youth with no military experience, whose army was made up of raw and undisciplined militia and which also included a great number of Catholics.
As Argyll approached, the Earl of Errol with 100 selected horsemen joined the Earl of Huntly at Strathbogie. Huntly's force now amounted to nearly 1,500 men, mostly horsemen, and from there they advanced to Carnborrow where the two Earls and their followers made the vow to conquer or die. They then marched to Auchindoun arriving the same day. Huntly received intelligence that Argyll was about to descend from the mountains to the lowlands and sent Captain Thomas Carr and a party of horsemen to carry out reconnaissance. They accidentally met Argyll's scouts who they chased and some of whom they killed. Huntly then resolved to attack Argyll before he was joined by the Lord Forbes and the forces which were waiting for his appearance in the lowlands.
Argyll passed Glenlivet and reached the banks of a small stream named Alltacoileachan, but he had no idea that Huntly and Errol would attack him with such an inferior force and was therefore astonished to see them approach him. He was apprehensive that Huntly's cavalry would counterbalance his numerical superiority of foot soldiers and so held a council of war to decide if they should attack or retreat to the mountains which were inaccessible to Huntly's horse, and where he could wait until the lowland forces, which were mainly cavalry, would arrive to support him. The council advised Argyll to wait for the King to arrive with his forces to support him, or at least until the Frasers and Mackenizes had arrived from the north, or the Irvines, Forbeses, and Leslies from the south. However, Argyll disregarded this decision and was determined to wait for the attack from the enemy and encouraged his men by pointing out how small their enemy was.
The battle.
Argyll positioned his army in two divisions on a hill between Glenlivet and Glenrinnes. On the right wing were the Macleans and Mackintoshes, commanded by Lachlan Maclean and Mackintosh of Mackintosh. On the left wing were the Grants, MacNeils, and MacGregors who were commanded by Grant of Gartinbeg. In the centre were the Campbells who were commanded by Campbell of Auchinbreck. This vanguard consisted of 4,000 men, half of whom carried muskets. The rear of the army was commanded by Argyll himself and consisted of about 6,000 men.
Huntly's vanguard consisted of 300 men who were led by Errol, Sir Patrick Gordon of Auchindoun, the Gordon Laird of Gight, the Laird of Bonnitoun, and Captain Thomas Carr. Huntly followed with the remainder with the Macpherson Laird of Cluny on his right and the Gordon Laird of Abergeldy on his left. Huntly also had three pieces of field artillery under the command of Captain Andrew Gray.
Argyll had the advantage of being on a hill and Huntly's forces were further hampered by the moss on the ground and the turf pits that had been dug. However, Huntly still advanced up the hill. He had made arrangements with Campbell of Lochnell who had agreed to join Huntly's side as soon as the battle commenced, before the charge of Huntly's cavalry. Campbell of Lochnell was at enmity with Argyll who had murdered his brother in 1592 and he was also Argyll's nearest heir. However, Campbell of Lochnell was shot dead by the first cannon fire and his men then fled from the field. Argyll's Highlanders had never seen field pieces before and were thrown into disorder and Huntly followed this up by charging at them with his cavalry. Errol was directed to attack the right wing of Argyll's army that was commanded by Maclean. However, this wing was at the top of a steep hill and Errol was annoyed by the thick vollies of shot from above, and so had to make a detour leaving the enemy on his left. Gordon of Auchindoun charged up this steep hill with a small party to attack Maclean, but he was killed doing so. Maclean received repeated assaults but maneuvered his men so well that he succeeded in cutting off Errol from Huntly. However, Huntly came to Errol's assistance and relieved him.
The battle continued for two hours. Huntly's horse was shot from underneath him but he was immediately provided with another one. The main body of Argyll's army began to give way and retreat. However, Maclean continued in the field until finding the contest hopeless and also made his retreat. The success of Huntly was mainly due to Campbell of Lochnell's treachery of Argyll and also that of Grant of Gartinbeg who retreated as soon as the action began and was in fact one of Huntly's vassals. This had left the centre and left wing of Argyll's army completely broken.
Argyll's army suffered 500 men killed, including MacNeil of Barra, Campbell of Lochnell, and Campbell of Auchinbreck. Huntly's losses were relatively small: fourteen gentlemen were slain including Patrick Gordon of Auchindoun and the Gordon Laird of Gight. The Earl of Errol and a number of others were wounded.
Although a battle fought at national level, Glenlivet also incorporated the feud between the Clan Cameron and Clan Mackintosh. Alexander Mackenzie states that Allan Cameron of Lochiel "at the head of a few of his clan, he performed signal service against his old enemies, the Mackintoshes, whom he defeated, and pursued with great eagerness, and did Huntly such services as merited a different reward from that which he afterwards received".
The location of the battlefield is approximately east of Glenlivet. The site of the battle is currently under research, to be inventoried and protected by Historic Scotland under the Scottish Historical Environment Policy of 2009.
Aftermath.
The day following the battle, 4 October 1594, Huntly and Errol realised that they had no outside support. They assembled with their adherents in Elgin Cathedral where they held the last public celebration of Mass to be held in the Cathedral. There they discussed the situation and Huntly's uncle, who was a Jesuit priest implored his friends and kinsman to remain in their own land. However, King James gathered a considerable force and marched into the disturbed districts with none of the rebel nobles offering resistance to the royal army. A general amnesty followed the leaders' submission, who deserted their men and fled abroad. In early 1595, Errol embarked at Peterhead and Huntly at Aberdeen, for the Continent. As the king headed north he arranged for the houses of Sir John Ogilvie, son of Lord Ogilvie, Sir Walter Lindsay, Old Slains Castle that belonged to Errol and Strathbogie Castle that belonged to Huntly to be razed to the ground, on the pretext that Jesuits and priests had been haboured in them. Huntly spent sixteen months travelling through Germany and Flanders after which he was recalled to Scotland where along with Errol and Angus were restored to their former honours by the Parliament held at Edinburgh in November, 1597. Two years later the king elevated the Earl of Huntly to be Marquess of Huntly.
John Maclean, a chieftain of the Macleans was mortally wounded but requested to be buried at the nearby Chapel of Downan, which had apparently been destroyed by Argyll's troops before the battle and then later rebuilt.
Between 1591 and 1594 the peace in Scotland had been disturbed on several occasions caused by the activities of Francis Stewart, 5th Earl of Bothwell, who was a nephew of the third husband of Mary, Queen of Scots, James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell. This had resulted in the serious revolt of the Catholic dissidents in the north-east. However, with the death of John Maxwell, 8th Lord Maxwell, who was a staunch Catholic, at the Battle of Dryfe Sands in 1593 and the fall of the northern Earls after the Battle of Glenlivet in 1594, the Catholic cause was destroyed.
Music connected with the battle.
The Battle of Glenlivet in 1594 was the last time that the Highland harp was used on the battlefield, finally being discontinued in the Scottish Highlands in about 1734, leaving the Great Highland bagpipe as the instrument of Scottish martial music. A ballad called "The Battell of Balrinnes" which was written by Patrick Hannay (died c. 1630) was based on the Battle of Glenlivet and in particular Andrew Gray who commanded Huntly's artillery. Another ballad, called "Bonnie James Campbell" may have been a lament for a man killed in the battle. The oldest known copy of the ballad is in a manuscript held in the Advocates Library in Edinburgh, but its precise age is not known. Several different versions and interpretations of the ballad have since been published. The original manuscript version is as follows:
Archaeology.
A group of standing stones near to the site of the battle are said to have an association with the Battle of Glenlivet, although it is not known when the stones were set.


Eureka Shipbuilding

Eureka Shipbuilding was a wooden shipbuilding company in Eureka, California. The shipyard was just south of town in Fields Landing on the South Bay of Humboldt Bay. To support the World War 2 demand for ships Eureka Shipbuilding shipyard switched over to military construction and built: United States Marine Corps tugboatss. Eureka Shipbuilding was started in 1941. On January 25, 1943 Eureka Ship Builders, Inc. was awarded a contract to build six V2-M-AL1 tugboats at a cost of $35,970 each, contact number DA-MCc-824. V2-M-AL1 tus is a class of Type V ship. The V2-M-AL1 is also called a Port Sewall class tug. V2-V2-M-AL1 tugs were named for American ports. All of Eureka Shipbuilding tug were used for Lend-Lease use to Britain as type TUSA tugs.
Afte the war in 1947 the company was renamed `
V2-M-AL1 tugboats were: Wood hull, 90 tons, a beam of 19 feet, had a diesel engine with 240 horsepower, fuel Oil tanks with 1920 gallons. Other Built V2-M-AL1 were built by Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, Standard Shipbuilding, Steinbach Iron works, Arlington Shipbuilding, Texas Shipbuilding, Siletz Boatworks, Blair Company, and Marinette Marine.
Eureka Boat Building & Repair.
Eureka Boat Building & Repair built boats:


Tunis Field Battalions

Tunis Field Battalions were German provisional infantry battalions active in 1942–43 in North Africa.
Five Tunis Field Battalions were created between 9 November and 15 November 1942 by renaming a like number of "Afrika Marsch-Bataillone" (Africa Replacement Draft Battalions) that were originally intended to be used to refill the ranks of Field Marshal Erwin Rommel's battered Africa Corps. These five battalions, Tunis Field Battalions T1, T2, T3, T4 and T5, were instead airlifted from Sicily beginning on 10 November 1942 to help defend the Bizerte and Tunis Bridgeheads in Vichy France-controlled Tunisia.
Not originally conceived as combat units, intended only as replacement pools composed of a variety of specialist as well as combat troops, these Tunis Field Battalions lacked heavy weapons, vehicles, field kitchens and communications equipment. Nevertheless, in the days following the Allied Landings in Northwest Africa (Operation Torch) that began on 8 November 1942, these units, joined by Luftwaffe paratroopers, were all the German High Command had available to seize Tunisian bridgeheads before the Allies got there first. Having won the race the Tunis, the Germans then began protracted defensive warfare in the mountains of western Tunisia, where the Tunis Field Battalions found themselves incorporated into other German divisions that were lacking infantry, including the 10th Panzer Division, the 334th Infantry Division, and the Hermann Göring Division. Two Tunis Field Battalions, T3 and T4, were incorporated into Division von Broich/von Manteuffel; a provisional infantry division formed from a variety of units including Fallschirmjäger, Italian infantry and units scraped together from Rommel's Army. For most of their short service life, these battalions all served in Jürgen von Arnim's Fifth Panzer Army until all were forced to capitulate in Tunisia by 13 May 1943.
List of Tunis Field Battalions formed from Africa Draft Replacement Battalions.
Tunis Field-Battalion T1, assigned to Division von Broich/von Manteuffel, formed from Africa Draft Replacement Battalion A16
Tunis Field-Battalion T2, assigned to Kampfgruppe Pfeiffer, Panzergrenadier Regiment 104, of the 21st Panzer Division, formed from Africa Draft Replacement Battalion A18
Tunis Field-Battalion T3, assigned to Panzergrenadier Regiment 160 of Division von Broich/von Manteuffel, formed from Africa Draft Replacement Battalion A20
Tunis Field-Battalion T4, assigned to Panzergrenadier Regiment 160 of Division von Broich/von Manteuffel, formed from Africa Draft Replacement Battalion A21
Tunis Field-Battalion T5 (aka Battalion Mickley), assigned to Grenadier Regiment 756, of the 334th Infantry Division, later Kampfgruppe Schmid of the Hermann Göring Division, formed from Africa Draft Replacement Battalion A23
Battalion Commanders.
Tunis Field Battalion T1: "Rittmeister" von Willich
Tunis Field Battalion T2: "Oberleutnant" Dieter Krüger-Haye, succeeded by "Major" Knösel February 1943
Tunis Field Battalion T3: "Hauptmann" Michael Bürgermeister, relieved of command for negligence on 5 March 1943 by "Hauptmann" Lerch, on the direct orders of "Generalmajor" Hasso von Manteuffel
Tunis Field Battalion T4: "Hauptmann" Karl Koch
Tunis Field Battalion T5: "Hauptmann" Karl Mickley
Prominent Members of Tunis Field Battalions.
There were several members of Tunis Field Battalions that were singled out for high awards for valor and performance of duty in adverse conditions. The list includes:
"Hauptmann" (Captain) Karl Koch, who was awarded the German Cross in Gold on 10 May 1943 for his service as the commander, Tunis Field-Battalion T4
"Leutnant" (2nd Lieutenant) Wilhelm Herr, commander of 4th Company, Tunis Field-Battalion T5, who was mentioned in dispatches and awarded the "Ehrenblattspange" (Honor Roll Clasp) on 8 April 1943
"Stabsfeldwebel" (Sergeant Major) Ewald Mrusek, who was awarded the Knight’s Cross for heroism while serving as a platoon leader in 2nd Company, Tunis Field-Battalion T1 on 24 March 1943
"Hauptmann" Eduard-Heinrich Kiefer, a Luftwaffe officer, who was awarded the Knight’s Cross on 18 May 1943 for his service as the commander, 4th Armored Reconnaissance Company, Tunis Field-Battalion T5, although by that time, Kiefer was in a POW camp. Incidentally, after the war Kiefer went into show business in Germany, changed his name to “Til Kiwe” and starred in a number of German movies and television shows.


List of armoured fighting vehicles used by the Imperial Japanese Army in the Second Sino-Japanese War

This is a list of armour used by the Imperial Japanese Army in the Second Sino-Japanese War.
The present list also includes other military armoured vehicles in use at the time (armoured personnel carriers, armoured cars, armoured trains, etc.).


Convoy HX 65

Convoy HX 65 was a North Atlantic convoy of the HX series which ran during the battle of the Atlantic in World War II. It was the 65th of the numbered series of merchant convoy] run by the Allies from Halifax to Liverpool. The convoy was attacked by German U-boats and aircraft, losing eight of its 51 ships sunk and a further three damaged. One U-boat was damaged.
Background.
HX 65 formed of three sections sailing from the Americas, and was to divide into two sections for the landfall in the United Kingdom.
The main body, of 13 ships, departed Halifax on 12 August 1940; with ships gathered from the US eastern seaboard; it was led by convoy commodore V.Adm. BG Washington in the steamship "Harpalyce". It was accompanied by its ocean escort, the Armed Merchant Cruiser "Voltaire", and a local escort of two RCN warships.
It was joined on 14 August by 16 ships from Sydney, on Cape Breton Island, also with a local escort. These had gathered from ports on the St Lawrence and the Great Lakes.
On 16 August the convoy was joined by BHX 65, 22 ships from the Caribbean and South America, that had gathered at Bermuda, departing there on 11 August escorted by the armed merchant cruiser .
Ranged against HX 65 were U-boats of the German Navy's 1st, 2nd and 7th U-boat Flotillas, operating from Kiel and Wilhelmshaven.
Action.
On 22 August HX 65’s Western Approaches escort began to arrive; the destroyer and the corvette left the outbound OA 201, arriving later that day. On 24 August the destroyer and the corvette arrived from OB 201.
On the morning of 24 August tanker "La Brea" (one of two ships that had dropped out of HX 65 5 days earlier) was sighted by in the North West Approaches WNW of Rockall. She was attacked and sunk, leaving two boats of survivors in bad weather and rough seas. They made landfall in the Hebrides over the next two days.
On the evening of 24 August the convoy divided, one section (referred to in some sources as HX 65A) of 20 ships bound for Methil on Scotland’s east coast via Cape Wrath and the north of Scotland, and a second section (HX 65 B) of 22 ships bound for Liverpool.
The Methil section, led by "Harpalyce" and escorted by "Skeena" and "Godetia" was found by "U-48", which attacked during the night of 24/25 August, sinking 2 ships, "Empire Merlin" and "Athelcrest". She was counter attacked by "Godetia" but escaped without damage.
Later, on the morning of 25 August the convoy was sighted twice more, by and , but the convoy had been joined by a Sunderland from Coastal Command, and both submerged on sighting the aircraft. "U-32" made a perfunctory attack, which failed.
That evening the convoy was found again, by , and attacked just before midnight. "U-124" fired four torpedoes and claimed four ships sunk; the actual success was two ships sunk ("Harpalyce" and "Fircrest") and another ("Stakesby") damaged. "Harpalyce" and "Fircrest" went down quickly with heavy loss of life. "Stakesby" was abandoned, but was later salvaged by the tug "Thames" and repaired. "U-124" was counterattacked by "Godetia" and damaged when she ran onto a rock. After the corvette had left, "U-124" was unable to continue convoy operations relegated to weather reporting.
Later that day the convoy was reinforced by and , two destroyers from Scapa Flow.
On the evening of 26 August the convoy came under air attack near Kinnaird Head by "Luftwaffe" aircraft from occupied Norway; eight Ju 88s of KG 30 based at Aalborg. four ships were hit; one was sunk and three damaged. "Nellie" and "City of Hankow" made port safely, but "Cape York" sank under tow on the following day. Later on the night of 26/27 August a second air attack by four He 115 torpedo bombers of KuFlGr 506, based in Stavanger, hit "Remuera", which sank. The remaining 16 ships arrived at safely at Methil on 27th.
Meanwhile on 25 August the Liverpool section, led by V.Adm. Leir in "Manchester Merchant" and escorted by "Westcott", was found by which gave chase. Several tankers had fallen out of the convoy, to be chivvied by the escort, and one of these, "Pecten", was torpedoed by "U-57". The escort counter-attacked, but "U-57" escaped. This section was also reinforced on 26 August, by the sloop . No further attacks developed and the 21 ships arrived without further incident at Liverpool on 27 August.
Forces involved.
Allied forces.
Merchant ships.
Convoy information is from Arnold Hague's Convoyweb
Escort.
Escort information is from Arnold Hague's Convoyweb


Operation Regenbogen (U-boat)

Operation Regenbogen (, "Rainbow Order") was the code name for the planned mass scuttling of the German U-boat fleet, to avoid surrender, at the end of World War II.
Background.
At the beginning of May 1945 Nazi Germany was collapsing under the Allied onslaught.
The Soviets had captured Berlin, and on 30 April Hitler had committed suicide. He had appointed Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz as Head of State and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. US Forces from the west and Soviet forces from the east had already met at Torgau, cutting the Reich in two, while in the north 21st Army Group was poised to capture Hamburg and the other German ports.
The state of the German navy, the "Kriegsmarine", was no better. Of its capital ships only survived, sheltering at Copenhagen; only the U-boat Arm was capable of continuing the fight. The "Kriegsmarine" had approximately 470 U-boats remaining. Some 170 of these were operational U-boats ("Front" boats), based mainly in occupied Norway, and another 200 home-based boats in various stages of building, commissioning and working up; these were mainly in the north German ports and on the Baltic.
As head of the "Kriegsmarine", and as commander of the U-boat arm, Dönitz was committed that his U-boat force should not be surrendered. However, as the new German leader, he was keen to extricate Germany from the war and, if possible, avoid Allied, particularly Soviet, retribution. To that end he had opened negotiations with the western Allies, through Field Marshal Montgomery commander of Allied 21 Army Group, in North Germany.
As the Allies closed in on the North German ports the "Kriegsmarine" started to destroy what was left to prevent its capture, while all serviceable boats were ordered to bases in Norway. During May a final massacre of U-boats fleeing to Norway took place; 23 U-boats were destroyed or damaged beyond repair in transit in the first week of May.
Against this backdrop, Dönitz and the U-boat arm made plans for a mass scuttle of his U-boats, to be carried out on receiving the code-word "Regenbogen".
The Operation.
During May the "Kriegsmarine" started to scuttle its U-boats ahead of the advancing Allied armies.
On 1 May 1945, 3 U-boats were wrecked at Warnemünde, outside Rostock on the Baltic coast, the first of a wave of scuttling boats and destroying facilities.
On 2 May, a further 32 U-boats were scuttled at Travemünde, near Lübeck.
On 3 May, Dönitz sent his chief aide von Friedeburg to Montgomery at Lüneburg to open negotiations for an armistice with the western allies. This was refused, as von Friedeburg was not empowered to agree to an unconditional surrender, upon which the Allies insisted. Also on 3 May another 39 boats were wrecked, 32 at Kiel and another 7 at Hamburg, on the North Sea coast.
On 4 May the Supreme Allied Commander, Eisenhower allowed the German forces in Northwest Europe, including naval forces, to surrender to Montgomery and 21 Group; for this, Montgomery insisted that German naval forces, including the U-Boat arm, be surrendered intact. This would come into effect at 8 am on 5 May. Meanwhile, on 4 May, four more boats, two in the Kiel Canal and two at Flensburg, were scuttled.
In the early hours of 5 May, the "Regenbogen" order was given, only to be countermanded 8 minutes later, to avoid jeopardizing the surrender negotiations, and later that day all operational U-boats were ordered to cease hostilities. Despite this a further 87 boats were destroyed on 5 May; 64 on the Baltic (41 at Gelting Bay, 13 at Flensburg and 10 at various other points), while on the North Sea coast 23 boats were disposed of, 13 at Wilhelmshaven and 10 in the Weser estuary.
On 6 May, there were no further sinkings, but on 7 May the two Walter boats were wrecked at Cuxhaven. Over the last week at least 195 U-boats had been scuttled.
On 8 May, Germany surrendered unconditionally; the remaining naval units, including the surviving U-boats, surrendered to Allied forces. At least 150 U-boats were surrendered to the Allied navies, either at sea or at their operational bases. 52 boats were surrendered at sea, either on patrol or in transit, and 98 in port, mostly in Norway and at bases in Germany, Denmark and France. Two U-boats ( and ) fled to Portuguese waters, where they were scuttled by their crews, the former off Porto and the later some miles from Nazaré. Two others ( and ) and their crews arrived in Mar del Plata, Argentina, where they surrendered to the local authorities.
Conclusion.
Various figures are given for the numbers of U-boats involved during this period; Kemp gives 218 scuttled, and 154 surrendered;
Tarrant gives the same.
Blair gives 222 scuttled and 174 surrendered.
Neistle lists 195 scuttled and 150 surrendered. A number of U-boats disposed of were not in commission; some had not yet been commissioned, some had been decommissioned. The discrepancies are mainly accounted for depending on whether these are included or not.
Most sources give a number of U–boats scuttled at the end of the war, and describe the "Regenbogen" order, conflating the two.
Kemp describes the scuttle as an act of defiance, and quotes "Ali" Cremer's order to scuttle rather than surrender her.
It is questionable, however, to what extent the effect the order had, or even if it was given at all. To take Cremer's case in point, Neistle lists "U-2519" as being scuttled on 3 May at Kiel, before the surrender negotiations were complete, and at least 24 hours before the "Regenbogen" order was given.
Dan van der Vat states the order was given at 1:34 am on 5 May, but countermanded eight minutes later by Dönitz.
Blair on the other hand describes the order as being given "according to some sources", and queries "whether it was true or not", but believes some "ambiguous orders of some kind" were issued. But he also states the scuttle began on 5 May, while Neistle is clear it started 4 days earlier, at beginning of the month.
Certainly by 1 am on 5 May at least 76 boats had already been wrecked, about half the total. On 5 May, and subsequently, another 89 were wrecked/scuttled, all in North German ports.
Neistle gives the total of U-boats scuttled as 195, of which half were destroyed before, and half after, the "Regenbogen" order was given. Of the boats destroyed, most (184) were non-operational "Home" boats in North German ports.
11 were "Front" boats, and these include those fatally damaged in the May massacre and subsequently scuttled by their crews.
On 8 May 1945, the surviving U-boats were surrendered to the Allied navies, either at sea or at their operational bases in Norway and on the North Sea coast, ending the "Kriegsmarine"s war at sea.


Aleutian Islands World War II National Monument

The Aleutian Islands World War II National Monument is a U.S. national monument in the Aleutian Islands of Alaska. It is located on three islands in the Alaska Maritime National Wildlife Refuge. It was designated as part of World War II Valor in the Pacific National Monument by an executive order of George W. Bush on December 5, 2008, with sites in Alaska, California, and Hawaii. The John D. Dingell, Jr. Conservation, Management, and Recreation Act, signed into law March 12, 2019, separated the national monument into separate units in each state. It is managed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service.
The national monument includes three sites:


Convoy HX 228

HX 228 was a North Atlantic convoy of the HX series which ran during the Battle of the Atlantic in World War II. It was one of a series of four convoy battles that occurred during the crisis month of March 1943 and is notable for the loss of the Escort Group leader Commander AA "Harry" Tait.
Prelude.
HX 228 was an east bound convoy of 60 ships, plus local contingents, which sailed from New York on 28 February 1943 bound for Liverpool and carrying war materials.
The Mid-Ocean Escort Force group B3 joined the convoy from St Johns. The escort group was led by Commander AA Tait of HMS "Harvester"; the other ships of this group were the destroyers HMS "Escapade", ORP "Burza" and ORP "Garland" and the corvettes HMS "Narcissus" and FNFL ships "Aconit", "Renoncule" and "Roselys". The group was backed by the escort carrier and two destroyers which sailed from Argentia on 5 March.
Arrayed against them in the North Atlantic were three U-boat patrol lines, "Wildfang", "Burggraf" and "Neuland", although in the event only a re-configured "Neuland", comprising 13 U-boats, engaged HX 228.
In early March the U-boat rakes came into contact with Convoy SC 121, which was several days ahead of HX 228, and engaged it. The Admiralty diverted HX 228 north-east to avoid the conflict and thus straight into the "Neuland" patrol area.
Action.
On 10 March the first contact was made by "U-336" in heavy weather. During the rest of the day eight others were directed to join. Ironically, at this point the weather forced "Bogue" and her group to detach, as it was impossible to fly off aircraft in the storm. She sailed for Argentia and took no part in the action.
On the evening of 10/11 March, during a snow squall, the first attacks took place.
"U-221" attacked three ships, sinking two ammunition ships, "Tucurinca" and "Andrea F. Luckenbach", and damaging a third, SS "Lawton B. Evans". "U-221" was vigorously counterattacked, and withdrew to repair damage.
"U-444" and "U-757" both fired on "William C Gorgas", which dropped back and sank later.
"U-757" also fired on "Brant County", which was also carrying ammunition. "Brant County" caught fire and exploded, and "U-757" was damaged as a result. "U-757" was forced to return to base and was later attacked in the company of two other U-boats in the Bay of Biscay by the RAF, but all survived.
"U-86" and "U-406" both claimed hits using the new pattern-running FAT torpedoes. "Jamaica Provider" was damaged during this stage.
During the morning of 11 March, "Harvester" sighted "U-444" on the surface and ran in to attack. She opened with gunfire and then rammed "U-444", suffering damage to her propellers in the process. It was originally thought that "Harvester" had sunk "U-444" but she was found later on the surface and finished off by French corvette "Aconit". While in the area, "Harvester" found and picked up 50 survivors from "William Gorgas" and 1 from "U-444". While attempting to re-join the convoy her engines failed, and she summoned "Aconit" for assistance. While "Harvester" lay helpless, she was sighted and torpedoed by "U-432"; she sank with 149 on board, including Commander Tait.
Arriving on the scene, "Aconit" gained Asdic contact on "U-432" which was lying motionless at periscope depth, her commander and crew celebrating their victory. "Aconit" attacked with depth charges, blowing her to the surface and sinking her later with gunfire.
"Aconit" picked up 20 survivors from "U-432", 48 from "Harvester", 12 from "William C Gorgas", and one from "U-444", to join the three previously picked up.
Despite further action that day and during the night of 11/12 March there were no further losses to either side, and on 12 March Admiral Karl Dönitz, the "Befehlshaber der U-Boote" (Commander in chief of U-boats), called off the attack.
HX 228 arrived safely at Liverpool on 15 March 1943.
Conclusion.
HX 228 cannot be seen as a victory for either side. The convoy had lost four ships and a warship, with the loss also of Commander Tait, an effective and well-respected Escort Group commander. The "Neuland" wolf pack had lost two boats, a potentially ruinous rate of exchange.
Tables.
Allied merchant ships sunk
Allied warships sunk
U-boats destroyed


7th Marine Regiment

The 7th Marine Regiment is an infantry regiment of the United States Marine Corps based at Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms, California. Nicknamed the "Magnificent Seventh", the regiment falls under the command of the 1st Marine Division and the I Marine Expeditionary Force.
Mission.
Conduct mechanized, combined-arms operations and other expeditionary operations in order to support theater engagement plans and contingency operations. The regiment will be prepared to deploy within 48-hours of the receipt of an execute order as either the ground combat element for the 1st Marine Expeditionary Brigade (1st MEB) or as a major subordinate element of the 1st Marine Division. As directed, the regiment will prepare infantry battalions for deployment to the Pacific Command (PACOM AOR) in order to support III Marine Expeditionary Force (III MEF) operations and training
History.
Early years.
The 7th Marine Regiment was formed in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on 14 August 1917. From August 1917 through August 1919, the 7th Marine Regiment served in Cuba. Returning to Philadelphia in August 1919 the regiment was decommissioned on 6 September 1919.
The regiment was reactivated on 6 September 1933 at Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia with two battalions and was again alerted for service in Cuba but did not deploy. At the end of the crisis, 7th Marines' battalions were re-designated and the regiment was once again decommissioned on 17 January 1934.
World War II.
On 1 January 1941, the 7th Marine Regiment was re-activated at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. The regiment moved to what is today Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. In the spring of 1942 the 7th along with 1/11 were detached to form the 3rd Marine
Brigade for duty in Samoa. On 18 September 1942 the regiment, now reassigned to the 1st Marine Division, landed in the Solomon Islands on Guadalcanal. For four long months the regiment relentlessly attacked the Japanese defenders and repulsed banzai charges and suicidal attacks. Colonel Amor L. Sims led the regiment during the whole Guadalcanal Campaign and his men annihilated over 6,000 Japanese in 42 separate engagements.
Arriving in Australia in January 1943, the vast majority of the regiment suffered from malaria, wounds or fatigue.
Again and again the regiment was called upon to storm the Japanese-held islands in the Pacific. The Seventh Marine Regiment fought in such places as Eastern New Guinea, New Britain, "Bloody Peleliu" and the island fortress of Okinawa. 7th Marines saw intense fighting on the island of Okinawa under Colonel Edward W. Snedeker where they sustained 700 Marines killed or wounded in the fighting to take Dakeshi Ridge and another 500 killed or wounded in the fighting near Wana Ridge.
After the surrender of Japan, 7th Marines took part in Operation Beleaguer in China from 30 September 1945 through 5 January 1947. The mission was to repatriate the Japanese military that remained in China after V-J day. They returned to MCB Camp Pendleton, California in January 1947 and were reassigned to the 1st Marine Division. The regiment was deactivated on 6 March 1947 as part of the Marine Corps' draw down of forces after the war. 7th Marines however was quickly reactivated on 1 October 1947 but only as a shell of its former self as it consisted of only four companies. Company "C" deployed to China from 2 May through 23 June 1949 to safeguard the withdrawal of Americans and was the last element of Fleet Marine Force to depart China.
Korean War.
Seoul.
On 17 August 1950, after the outbreak of the Korean War, the 7th Marines was reactivated as part of the 1st Marine Division. On 21 September 1950 the regiment landed at Inchon and took part in the recapture of Seoul. On 7 October 1950, after 22 days of fighting, 7th Marines, situated north of the Han River was relieved by units of the US & ROK Armies and retired to a staging area near Incheon.
Chosin Reservoir.
After reembarking on amphibious shipping and sailing to the east coast of the peninsula, the regiment came ashore at Wonsan on 26 October. Based on X Corps tasking, 1st Marine Division ordered 7th Marines to advanced north along the Hamhung-Chosin Reservoir road to the northern tip of the reservoir and be prepared to advance to the northern border of Korea. From 29–31 October 7th Marines was transported north via rail and trucks to Hamhung where the regiment prepared to spearhead the division's advance north. Before the regiment began to move north on 1 November, it had already begun to receive reports from adjacent ROK AND US Army units that Chinese forces were operating in the area. Because the nearest US Army unit to the west was nearly 60 miles away, the regiments left flank was exposed during its entire movement north. The regiment's first major encounter with Chinese Forces occurred in the vicinity of Sudong on 2–4 November when two Chinese battalions attempted to envelop its position. Although the MSR was cut for a period of time, the regiment defeated the enemy in zone at the cost of more than 100 wounded Marines and continued north.
On 10 November, the regiment occupied Koto-ri and on 13 November again began pushing north having been ordered to seize Hagaru-ri and be prepared for follow on operations to seize Yudam-ni. The first elements of 7th Marines reached Yudam-ni on the wetern side of the Chosin Reservoir on 25 November.
On the night of 27 November, the PVA's 79th and 89th Divisions surrounded the 5th, 7th and 11th Marine Regiments at Yudam-ni. 5th and 7th Marines were able to hold the line while inflicting heavy casualties on the Chinese. Acting on the instruction of the Corps Commander Major General Edward Almond and 1st Marine Division Command General Oliver P. Smith, Lieutenant Colonel Raymond L. Murray and Colonel Homer L. Litzenberg, commanders of the 5th and 7th Marines, respectively, issued a joint order to break out from Yudam-ni to Hagaru-ri on 30 November. 5th & 7th Marines moved south out of Yudam-ni on 1 December and reached the perimeter at Hagaru-ri on 3 December.
After a short rest, the breakout began on 6 December, with the 7th Marines as the vanguard of the retreating column, while the 5th Marines covered the rear. 7th Marines pushed aside the PVA 76th Division south of Hagaru-ri, and continued along the MSR. The regiment opened the road between Hagaru-ri and Koto-ri by capturing the high ground surrounding the road. But as soon as the Marines pulled out, the 77th Division returned to the peaks and attacked the column. The entire regiment was inside the perimeter of Koto-ri by 1700 on 7 December. 7th Marines, with remnants of Regimental Combat Team 31 attached, continued to attack south seizing the approaches to the Funchilin Pass on 8–9 December. PVA forces had destroyed the bridge at the Funchilin Pass delaying the retreat until Marine and Army engineers constructed a temporary bridge. Upon its completion on 9, 7 December Marines continued south with the rest of the 1st Marine Division arriving at Hungnam by 11 December.
Between 11–12 December, 7th Marines embarked upon amphibious shipping finally sailing from Hungnam Harbor on 15 December. Over the next few days, 7th Marines along with the rest of he 1st Marine Division disembarked at Pusan and established their command post 40 miles west of there near Masan.
Remainder of the Korean War.
By mid-January, elements of the regiment had been deployed north into the vicinity of Pohang to interdict North Korean infiltrators in the area. After a significant battle of 25 January the area was secured. In mid-February, 7th Marines and he rest of the 1st Marine Division were deployed north to Chungju and took part in Operation Killer and served as the Division reserve for Operation Ripper which eventually led to the recapture of Seoul in March. The regiment remained heavily engaged in the UN offensives in the vicinity of Seoul from March through June 1951 when UN forces had seized favorable position in the vicinity of the 38th parallel.
On 27, 7 August Marines and a regiment from the Republic of Korea Marine Corps relieved US Army and Korean units near an area known as the "Punchbowl." Three days later the regiment attacked north as part of the Battle of the Punchbowl. The regiment remained decisively engaged in heavy combat until being relieved on 12 September 1951. For the remainder of the year and until March 1952 the regiment found itself dug and defending heavily fortified positions in fighting similar to the trench warfare of World War I.
Twenty Marines from the regiment were awarded the Medal of Honor for their action during the Korean War.The 7th Marine Regiment finally departed South Korea on 10 March 1955, sailing from Inchon and arriving at MCB Camp Pendleton two weeks later.
Vietnam War.
In fall of 1962, substantial parts of the regiment embarked for the Caribbean and possible action in Cuba, aimed at forcing the removal of Soviet nuclear missiles pointed at the United States. As the Cuban Missile Crisis subsided, The Seventh Marines returned to Camp Pendleton, California.
In 1965, the regiment was deployed to South Vietnam. While in service in Vietnam the 7th Marine regiment participated in the following military operations: Operation Starlite, Operation Piranha, Operation Harvest Moon, Operation Mallard, operations Texas and Indiana, Operation Golden Fleece 7-1, Operation Rio Blanco, Operation Shark, Operation Boone, Operation Duval, Operation Desoto, Operation Foster, Tet Offensive, Operation Allen Brook, Operation Mameluke Thrust, Operation Daring Endeavor, Operation Linn River, Operation Meade River, Operation Oklahoma Hills, Operation Taylor Common, Phase I of Operation Pipestone Canyon, the defense of Que Son, Operation Pickens Forest and Operation Imperial Lake. The last elements of 7th Marines departed the Republic of Vietnam 13 October 1970.
Gulf War.
In August 1990, shortly after shifting the home of the regimental colors from Camp Pendelton to the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms, California, the Marines and sailors of the regiment deployed to Saudi Arabia. They were part of the attack into Kuwait and eventual victory. In August 1991, as a result of the unique organizational changes that occurred in Seventh Marines, and with the addition of 3rd LAR Battalion, 3rd Tank Battalion and Delta Company, 3rd Assault Amphibian Battalion, Seventh Marine Regiment became Regimental Combat Team Seven (RCT-7).
In December 1992, RCT-7 deployed on Operation Restore Hope to relieve famine and return order to Somalia, remaining there for five months.
On 13 August 1993, on the eve of the regiment's 76th anniversary, the regiment formally marked the return to its original designation by changing its name from Regimental Combat Team 7 to 7th Marines (Reinforced).
In August 1996, organizational changes once again designated 3rd LAR Battalion (Formerly LAI Bn) and 1st Tank Battalion as separate battalions in direct support of the 7th Marine's MPF Mission. Also in direct support is Delta Company 3rd AA Battalion who returned to 3rd Assault Amphibian Battalion.
Global War on Terrorism.
In January 2003, the 7th Marines deployed to Kuwait as part of Operation Iraqi Freedom. On 21 March, the regiment crossed the line of departure into Iraq as it moved to seize and cut off Iraqi units around Basrah. During the course of the next few weeks, the regiment continued the offensive to capture Baghdad and collapse the regime of Saddam Hussein. During much of the attack north, the regiment led the 1st Marine Division in the deepest attack in Marine Corps history. The regiment again deployed to Iraq in February 2004 where they were based at Al Asad Airbase and were responsible for security and stabilization operations in the western desert regions of Al Anbar Province. The regiment's third Iraq deployment came in 2006 where they were again operating throughout Al Anbar and based at Al Asad.
1st Battalion, 3rd Marines and other supporting units from Hawaii were attached to the 7th Marine Regiment in 2004 and 2005 during Operation Phantom Fury to assist with the invasion of Fallujah.
The regiment deployed in support of Operation Enduring Freedom as part of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Helmand Province, Afghanistan from September 2009 – September 2010. They were based at Camp Dwyer.
The regiment returned to Afghanistan in September 2012 in support of Operation Enduring Freedom and remained there until September 2013. They were based at Camp Leatherneck.
Special Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task Force, Crisis Response, Central Command, April 2015 – present.
In April 2015, 7th Marines took command of the Special Purpose Marine Air-Ground Task Force from 5th Marines.
Since late-2014, the infantry battalions of 7th Marines (1/7, 2/7, 3/7, & 3/4 after re-activation) have served as the Ground Combat Element for the SP-MAGTF and will continue to do so for the foreseeable future.
Unit awards.
A unit citation or commendation is an award bestowed upon an organization for the action cited. Members of the unit who participated in said actions are allowed to wear on their uniforms the awarded unit citation. The unit is authorized to fly the appropriate streamer on its organizational flag. The 7th Marine Regiment has been presented with the following awards: