Province of Ravenna

The province of Ravenna (; ) is a province in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Ravenna. As of 2015, it has a population of 391,997 inhabitants over an area of , giving it a population density of 210.81 inhabitants per square kilometre. Its provincial president is Claudio Casadio.
History.
Ravenna was first inhabited by Italic tribes from northern regions, and was conquered in 191 BCE by the Roman Republic. A port was constructed near Classe, and the Adriatic fleet was based in Ravenna. In 402 CE, Ravenna became the capital of the Western Roman Empire, which endured until the collapse of the empire and the fall of Rome in 476. Following this, the Barbarian Kings Odoacer and then Theodoric controlled Ravenna until it was conquered by the Byzantine Empire in 540; the Byzantines announced it to be their Exarchate.
It continued to be under Byzantine rule until it was invaded by the Lombards in 751, and it was then annexed by King of the Franks Pippin the Younger. It was placed under papal rule by Pippin the Younger in 756 or 757. Ravenna was subsequently ruled by the Holy See until it was given independence in the 12th century. The papacy gained control again in 1278 and was led by papal vicars until it was invaded by Venice in 1441. The War of the League of Cambrai took place near Ravenna in 1512, in which the papal forces were defeated, but the French forces were almost entirely killed and were driven from Italy. It remained under the rule of the Holy See until it became part of the Kingdom of Italy.
In 1921, uprisings in Ravenna triggered a rapid advance of the Fascist movement in the region. Buildings belonging to the Republicans and socialists were seized or burnt down by Italo Balbo, and on July 29, he and his men moved throughout the provinces of Ravenna and Forli, burning every socialist organisation headquarters in a night of terror which was later called the "column of fire". This was a pivotal moment in the advance of Fascism in northern Italy.
Geography.
The province of Ravenna is one of nine provinces in the region of Emilia-Romagna in the northeast of Italy. It is on the east of the region and abuts onto the Adriatic Sea. The Province of Ferrara lies immediately to the north and the Province of Bologna is to the west. The Metropolitan City of Florence in the region of Tuscany lies to the southwest, and the Province of Forlì-Cesena to the south. The provincial capital is the city of Ravenna, which is situated a few miles inland and is connected to the Adriatic Sea by the Candiano Canal.
Transport and infrastructures.
Railways.
The Province of Ravenna is served by the Bologna-Ancona, Russi-Faenza, Faenza-Florence, Faenza-Lavezzola, and Castel Bolognese-Ravenna railway lines. Services are operated by Trenitalia and its subsidiary Trenitalia TPER
The following railway stations can be found:
Bus services.
The main bus operators in the province are START Romagna and CO.ER.BUS, and they operate the main urban, suburban and interurban services in the area and neighbouring provinces
TPER also operate a few bus services between Lugo, Sant'Agata sul Santerno, Massa Lombarda, Bologna and Imola, with other services bound for the Province of Ferrara. However, its route 296 (Lugo–Bagnacavallo–Ravenna–Lido Adriano) is the only TPER route entirely in the Province of Ravenna.
Airports.
The Province of Ravenna has no operating international airport, but only a small aerodrome in Ravenna for private flights and flying schools.
The closest international airports are Bologna Airport and Rimini Airport.


Municipalities of Sweden

The municipalities of Sweden () are its lower-level local government entities. There are 290 municipalities which are responsible for a large proportion of local services, including schools, emergency services and physical planning.
Foundation.
The Local Government Act of 1991 specifies several responsibilities for the municipalities, and provides outlines for local government, such as the process for electing the municipal assembly. It also regulates a process ("laglighetsprövning", "legality trial") through which any citizen can appeal the decisions of a local government to a county court.
Municipal government in Sweden is similar to city commission government and cabinet-style council government. A legislative municipal assembly "(kommunfullmäktige)" of between 31 and 101 members (always an odd number) is elected from party-list proportional representation at municipal elections, held every four years in conjunction with the national general elections. The assembly in turn appoints a municipal executive committee "(kommunstyrelse)" from its members. The executive committee is headed by its chairman, (). Swedish municipalities generally employ one or more politicians as Municipal Commissioners, () one of which is usually the chairman of the executive committee.
The government of the Stockholm municipality is partially based on its own, separate municipal government law.
History.
The first local government acts were implemented on January 1, 1863. There were two acts, one for the cities and one for the countryside. The total number of municipalities was about 2,500. The rural municipalities were based on the country-side civil parishes or administrative parishes ("socknar"), often formed in the middleage around a church, and the then 89 cities/towns ("städer") (which is the same in Swedish) that were based on the old chartered cities. There was also a third type, "köping" or market town. The status of these was somewhere between the rural municipalities and the cities. There were only eight of them in 1863, rising to a peak of 96 in 1959.
Up until 1930, when the total number of municipalities reached its peak (2,532 entities), there were more partitions than amalgamations.
In 1943 more than 500 of Sweden's municipalities had fewer than 500 inhabitants, and the "1943 års kommunindelningskommitté" ("Municipal subdivision commission of 1943") proposed that the number of rural municipalities should be drastically reduced.
After years of preparations the first of the two nationwide municipal reforms of the 20th century was implemented in 1952. The number of rural municipalities was reduced from 2,281 to 816. The cities (by then 133) were not affected.
Rather soon it was established that the reform of 1952 was not radical enough. A new commission, "1959 års indelningssakkunniga" ("Subdivision experts of 1959") concluded that the next municipal reform should create new larger mixed rural/urban municipalities.
The Riksdag decided in 1962 that the new reform should be implemented on a voluntary basis. The process started in January 1964, when all municipalities were grouped in 282 "kommunblock"("municipal blocks"). The co-operation within the blocks should ultimately lead to amalgamations. The target year was 1971, when all municipalities should be of uniform type and all the remaining formal differences in government and privileges between cities and rural municipalities should be abolished.
The amalgamations within the "blocks" started in 1965 and more were accomplished in 1967 and 1969, when the number of municipalities dropped from 1006 to 848. The Riksdag, however, found the amalgamation process too slow, and decided to speed it up by ending the voluntary aspect. In 1971 the unitary municipality ("kommun") was introduced and the number of entities went down to 464; three years later it was 278. In one case (Svedala Municipality) the process was not accomplished until 1977.
Most of the municipalities were soon consolidated, but in some cases the antagonism within the new unities was so strong that it led to "divorces". The total number of municipalities has today risen to 290.
The question of whether a new municipality will be created is at the discretion of the central Swedish government. It is recommended that the lower limit of a new municipality shall be 5,000 inhabitants.
Some municipalities still use the term "City" (Swedish: "stad") when referring to themselves, a practice adopted by the largest and most urban municipalities Stockholm, Gothenburg and Malmö. 13 municipalities altogether, some of them including considerable rural areas, have made this choice, which is unofficial and has no effect on the administrative status of the municipality. The practice can, however, create some confusion as the term "stad" nowadays normally refers to a larger built-up area and not to an administrative entity.
Geographical boundaries.
The municipalities in Sweden cover the entire territory of the nation. Unlike the United States or Canada, there are no unincorporated areas. The municipalities in the north cover large areas of sparsely populated land. Kiruna, at 19 446 km2, is sometimes held to be the world's largest "city" by area, although places like La Tuque, Quebec (28 421 km2, official style "Ville"), the City of Kalgoorlie-Boulder in Western Australia (95 575.1 km2 and the Altamira in Northern Brazil (159 533 km2) are larger. (By comparison, the total area of the state of Lebanon is 10 452 km2.) At any rate, several northern municipalities are larger than many counties in the more densely populated southern part of the country.
Sub-division.
The municipalities are also divided into a total of 2,512 parishes, or "församlingar" (2000). These have traditionally been a subdivision of the Church of Sweden, but still have importance as districts for census and elections. Many of the parishes still correspond to the original "socknar", but there have been a lot of partitions and amalgamations throughout the years.
Duties.
According to law, the municipalities are responsible for:
Many municipalities in addition have services like leisure activities for youths and housing services to make them attractive in getting residents.


Ruhnu Parish

Ruhnu Parish (Estonian: "Ruhnu vald") is a municipality in Saare County, Estonia. It encompasses the island of Ruhnu in the Gulf of Riga, together with a number of uninhabited islets. Its population is the smallest of any of Estonia's 79 municipalities, the parish being exempt from the usual minimum population size of 5000. There are 60 permanent inhabitants during winter time; in summer the number increases to 150. In 2015 the parish council approved Ado Tuuga's designs for the municipality's flag and coat of arms.
The parish has only one village, Ruhnu village, in the centre of the island. There is a school, museum, library, two shops, two churches, first-aid point and local marine rescue team. In the southern part of the island near Ringsu cape, there is a weather station, airfield, diesel electric power station, harbour and cultural centre. In 2018, a 150 kilowatt solar power plant was completed near the airfield. Following the reconstruction of a wind turbine, renewables will account for more than half of the electricity produced on the island.
Ruhnu rural municipality was formed on 19 December 1991. Of all the parishes in Estonia, it has one of the biggest percentages of young people under the age of 29, and the smallest percentage of people older than 65. The biggest employer is the public sector, with tourism also increasing. Six families are active in agriculture - beekeeping, cattle and sheep farming and arable crops such as oats and barley.
60% of the land in Ruhnu Parish is currently in the ownership of Swedish citizens, the descendants of the pre-war ethnic Swedish population.
Ruhnu was part of Saaremaa district until 1950 when the Soviet authorities transferred it to Pärnu district. It was again assigned to Saaremaa in 1986. In 2016 Estonian Public Broadcasting reported the possibility of Ruhnu Parish returning to the jurisdiction of Pärnu.
In 2013 Ruhnu's parish council discussed a proposal to merge the island's administration with the City of Tallinn.


Alfred Guillou

Alfred Guillou (12 September 1844, Concarneau - 1926, Concarneau) was a French painter of Breton heritage.
Biography.
His father was a fisherman and farmer who served as mayor of Concarneau for fifteen years. He received his first art lessons from the lithographer Théodore Le Monnier (1815–1888), who was visiting Concarneau. On his advice, Guillou moved to Paris in 1862, where he attended the Académie Suisse for a short time, then found a position in the workshop of Alexandre Cabanel. While there, he met Jules Bastien-Lepage, Fernand Cormon and Théophile Deyrolle, who he convinced to give up architecture and join him at Cabanel's.
He debuted at the Salon in 1868 with his "Young Breton Fisherman". Three years later, he and his friend Deyrolle left Paris for Concarneau, with nothing more than they could carry on their backs. The following year, Deyrolle married Guillou's sister Suzanne (1846-1933), who was also a painter. Together, they created the Concarneau Art Colony, which benefitted from its proximity to Pont-Aven, where Paul Gauguin and his followers congregated. He also exhibited works at both the 1889 and 1900 Universal Exhibitions in Paris where he received silver medals.
After his marriage to the daughter of the engraver Joseph Gabriel Tourny (1817–1880), he maintained a home in Montparnasse, but spent as much time as possible in his hometown. Following his father's death in 1887, he built a home and workshop there, became involved in local politics and joined the board of the Musée des beaux-arts de Quimper.
Over the years, the Colony attracted many artists who were either interested in maritime subjects or wanted to achieve a sort of primitivism; represented for them by the traditions of the Breton people, which had survived mostly intact from an earlier period. Among the better-known artists who spent time there were Peder Severin Krøyer, Charles Cottet, Jules Bastien-Lepage, Pascal Dagnan-Bouveret, Amélie Lundahl, Cecilia Beaux and T. Alexander Harrison.


Day of the Canary Islands

The Day of the Canary Islands () is celebrated annually on . It is a public holiday in the Spanish autonomous community of the Canary Islands.
The day was chosen as the anniversary of the first session of the Parliament of the Canary Islands, held on .
Celebrations generally include cultural activities and private gatherings celebrating all things Canarian, including traditional food, sport and music.
History.
The Statute of Autonomy of the Canary Islands was published on . This law, just like all of the Statutes of Autonomy of the autonomous communities of Spain, recognises the right of the Canary Islands to a degree of self-government within the Kingdom of Spain and under its Constitution.
This form of regional autonomy is enacted through a regional legislature (in this case the Parliament of the Canary Islands), a regional executive (in this case the Government of the Canary Islands) and a High Court of Justice within the judicial system of Spain. The first session of the Parliament of the Canary Islands, presided by Pedro Guerra Cabrera, was held on .
Status.
The Statute of Autonomy of the Canary Islands recognises the festivity of 30 May as one of its official symbols, together with the flag, the coat of arms and the hymn of the Canary Islands.


County Louth

County Louth ( ) is a county in the Republic of Ireland. It is in the province of Leinster and is part of the Mid-East Region. It is named after the village of Louth. Louth County Council is the local authority for the county. According to the 2016 census, the population of the county was 128,884.
Geography.
County Louth is colloquially known as 'the Wee County' as it is Ireland's smallest county by area (826 km2 319 mi2). It is the 18th-largest in terms of population. It is the smallest of Leinster's 12 counties by size and the sixth-largest by population.
With its fairly average total population and its small size, Louth is the second-most densely populated county in Ireland, behind Dublin, and the fourth-most on the island of Ireland.
History.
County Louth is named after the village of Louth, which in turn is named after Lugh, a god of the ancient Irish. Historically, the placename has had various spellings; "Lugmad", "Lughmhaigh", and "Lughmhadh" (see Historic Names List, for full listing). "Lú" is the modern simplified spelling.
The county is steeped in myth, legend and history, and is a setting in the Táin Bó Cúailnge epic. Later it saw the influence of the Vikings, as seen in the name of Carlingford Lough. They also established a longphort at Annagassan in the ninth century. At this time Louth consisted of three sub-kingdoms, each subject to separate over-kingdoms: Conaille (Ulaidh); Fir Rois (Airgialla); and, the Fir Arda Ciannachta (Midhe). The whole area became part of the O'Carroll Kingdom of Airgíalla (Oriel) early in the 12th century under Donnchad Ua Cerbaill. At the same time, the area was removed from the diocese of Armagh and the episcopal see of the Diocese of Airgíalla or Clogher was transferred to Louth "c." 1130–1190.
A number of historic sites are in the county, including religious sites at Monasterboice, Mellifont Abbey and the St Mary Magdalene Dominican Friary.
The Normans occupied the Louth area in the 1180s, forming the County of Oriel (Uriel or Vriell) out of the O'Carroll kingdom. At this time the western boundary of occupation was unfixed and Monaghan was still considered part of Oriel. However, over time, Louth became differentiated as 'English' Oriel, to distinguish it from the remainder ('Irish' Oriel), outside the control of the Norman colony, which had passed into the hands of the McMahon lordship of Airgíalla.
In the early 14th century Edward Bruce made claim to the High Kingship of Ireland and led an expeditionary force to Ireland. The Scottish army was repulsed from Drogheda but laid waste to much of the Anglo-Norman colony of Ireland including Ardee and Dundalk. Edward was crowned on the hill of Maledon near Dundalk on 2 May 1316. His army was finally defeated and Edward killed in the Battle of Faughart near Dundalk, by a chiefly local force led by John de Bermingham. He was created 1st Earl of Louth and granted estates at Ardee on 12 May 1319 as a reward for his services to the Crown in defeating the Scots.
One of the Statutes of Kilkenny in 1465 (5 Ed. IV. Cap. 3) stated "That every Irishman that dwell betwixt or amongst Englishmen in the County of Dublin, Myeth, Vriell [i.e. Oriel], and Kildare ... shall take to him an English surname of one town, as Sutton, Chester, Trym, Skryne, Corke, Kinsale; or colour, as white, blacke, browne; or arte or science, as smith or carpenter; or office, as cooke, butler ...". This was an attempt to compel Irish families in the Pale, including Louth, to adopt English surnames.
In 1189, a royal charter was granted to Dundalk after a Norman nobleman named Bertram de Verdun erected a manor house at Castletown Mount. Bertram's granddaughter Roesia de Verdun later built Castle Roche in 1236. In 1412, a royal charter was granted to Drogheda which unified the towns of Drogheda-in-Meath and Drogheda-in-Uriel (Louth) as a County in its own right, styled as ‘the County of the town of Drogheda’. Drogheda continued as a County Borough until the setting up of County Councils, through the enactment of the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, which saw all of Drogheda, including a large area south of the River Boyne, become part of an extended County Louth.
Until the late 16th century, 1596, Louth was considered part of Ulster, before becoming part of Leinster after a conference held at Faughart between the Chiefs of Ulster (Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone and Hugh Roe O'Donnell), on the Irish side, and the Ulster-born Miler Magrath, Anglican Archbishop of Cashel, and Thomas Butler, 10th Earl of Ormond on that of the English. The lands of Ballymascanlan, part of the estates of Mellifont Abbey, were transferred from Armagh to Louth c. 1630.
The 16th and 17th centuries featured many skirmishes and battles involving Irish and English forces, as Louth was on the main route to 'the Moiry Pass' and the Ulster areas often in rebellion and as yet uncolonised. Oliver Cromwell attacked Drogheda in 1649 slaughtering the Royalist garrison and hundreds of the town's citizens. Towards the end of the same century, the armies of the warring Kings, James II and William (III) of Orange, faced off in south Louth during the build-up to the Battle of the Boyne; the battle was fought 3 km west from Drogheda. Drogheda held for James under Lord Iveagh, but surrendered to William the day after the battle of the Boyne.
In 1798, the leaders of the United Irishmen included Bartholomew Teeling, John Byrne, and Patrick Byrne, all from Castletown; Anthony Marmion from Louth Town and Dundalk, Anthony McCann from Corderry; Nicholas and Thomas Markey from Barmeath, and Arthur McKeown, John Warren, and James McAllister from Cambricville. They were betrayed by informers, notably a Dr. Conlan, who came from Dundalk, and an "agent provocateur" called Sam Turner, from Newry. Several leaders were hanged.
The priest and scientist Nicholas Callan (1799–1864) was from Darver.
Demographics.
County Louth is the 18th largest county in terms of population, but it is the most densely populated county in Ireland outside Dublin, with a population density of 160 people per km2, almost double the national average. The majority of the county's population lives in the two main towns of Drogheda and Dundalk, also the overall 6th- and 8th-largest urban areas in Ireland respectively.
Local government and politics.
Louth County Council.
The local authority is Louth County Council, offices in Dundalk, which provides a number of services including planning, roads maintenance, fire brigade, council housing, water supply, waste collection, recycling and landfill, higher education grants and funding for arts and culture.
Since the implementation of the Local Government Reform Act 2014 on 1 June 2014, County Louth has been subdivided into four Local Electoral Areas (often abbreviated as LEA) for elections to Louth County Council and three Municipal districts for local government, which are:
Key:
Freedom of the County.
The Following People and Military Units have received the Freedom of County Louth.
Louth Dáil constituency.
For elections to Dáil Éireann, Louth is represented by the five member Louth constituency which takes in the entire county of Louth and two electoral divisions in County Meath.
the Electoral (Amendment) Act 2009 merged the electoral divisions of St.Mary's (Part) and Julianstown, collectively known as "East Meath" in County Meath with County Louth to form one Louth Dáil constituency.
The Report on Dáil and European Parliament Constituencies 2007 outlined;"by extending the constituency southwards from, and in the environs of, Drogheda and taking in electoral divisions which have extensive linkages with the town. This will allow the inclusion of the town of Drogheda and hinterland areas in a single constituency." This merger allowed the areas of the Greater Drogheda area in County Meath and their combined population of 20,375 to be merged with Drogheda and County Louth.
Following the 2011 general election, the constituency elected two TDs for the Fine Gael party (centre right), and one TD each for Fianna Fáil (centre to centre-right), the Labour Party (centre left) and Sinn Féin (left wing).
Irish language.
The area of Omeath was Irish-speaking until the early 20th century. A local dialect of Ulster Irish existed there until about 1930 but is now extinct, although recordings have been made.
34.07% of the population of County Louth are Irish speakers, with 790 people who use Irish on a daily basis and 2,276 people who use Irish on a weekly basis outside the education system, according to the 2016 census.


Upper Palatinate

The Upper Palatinate (, , ) is one of the seven administrative districts of Bavaria, Germany, and is located in the east of Bavaria.
Geography.
The Upper Palatinate is a landscape with low mountains and numerous ponds and lakes in its lowland regions. By contrast with other regions of Germany it is more rural in character and more sparsely settled. It borders (clockwise from the north) on Upper Franconia, the Czech Republic, Lower Bavaria, Upper Bavaria and Middle Franconia.
Notable regions are:
History.
At the beginning of the High Middle Ages the region now known as the Upper Palatinate was part of the Bavarian March of the Nordgau. The region took its current name no earlier than the early 14th century.
From the mid 13th century much of the region was controlled by the Wittelsbach dynasty and until 1329 was ruled by the Wittelsbach Elector Palatine as part of the larger County Palatine of the Rhine (). By the 1329 Treaty of Pavia, the Wittelsbach territories were divided between two branches of the dynasty. The territory around the Rhine river in the west became known as the Rhenish Palatinate () or Lower Palatinate, and is today usually known simply as the Palatinate (); it is from this territory that the modern German state of Rhineland-Palatinate derives its name. By contrast, the territory to the east centred on Amberg became known as the Upper Palatinate (), upper and lower in this case referring to the elevation of the territories (compare Low and High German, Upper and Lower Lusatia, Upper and Lower Lorraine, Low Countries, Lower Saxony).
Cadet branches of the Wittelsbach dynasty also ruled over smaller territories in Neuburg and Sulzbach. As a result of the Elector Palatine Frederick V's abortive claim to the Bohemian throne in 1619–1620, the Upper Palatinate, along with the rest of his lands, were declared forfeit to the Emperor and, along with the Electoral title, given to the Duke of Bavaria. Although the Lower Palatinate was restored to Frederick's son by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, the Upper Palatinate remained under the Elector of Bavaria, and has remained a part of Bavaria ever since. The smaller territories of Sulzbach and Neuburg came to Bavaria in 1777 when Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria inherited the Bavarian lands of his Wittelsbach cousin Maximilian III Joseph, Elector of Bavaria. The city of Regensburg, an Imperial Free City, was not joined with the rest of the region until the end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and the end of the short-lived Principality of Regensburg under Carl von Dalberg, which existed from 1803 to 1810.
After the founding of the Kingdom of Bavaria the state was totally reorganised and, in 1808, divided into 15 administrative districts (; singular '), in Bavaria called ' (literally "Circles", singular: '). They were created in the fashion of the French departments, quite even in size and population, and named after their main rivers. In the following years, due to territorial changes (e.g. the loss of Tyrol, the addition of the Palatinate), the number of ' in the kingdom was reduced to 8. One of these was the ' (Regen District). In 1837 king Ludwig I of Bavaria renamed the ' after historical territorial names and tribes of the area. This also involved some border changes or territorial swaps. Thus the district name of Regenkreis changed to Upper Palatinate.
The development of railroads in the area is covered in the book "".
Districts.
"Landkreise" (districts):
"Kreisfreie Städte" (district-free towns):
Population.
Historical Population of Upper Palatinate:
Economy.
The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the region was €47.3 billion in 2018, accounting for 1.4% of German economic output. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was €39,200 or 130% of the EU27 average in the same year. The GDP per employee was 103% of the EU average.
Main sights.
Major tourist attractions include the former ducal residences Regensburg with the Walhalla nearby and Amberg, the city of Weiden and Waldsassen Abbey including the Kappl Trinity church nearby. Scenic attractions include the river Danube and the Upper Palatine Forest. A sight is also the town of Neumarkt and the pilgrim church of Maria Hilf in Freystadt nearby.


South Tipperary

South Tipperary () was a county in Ireland. It was part of the South-East Region and was also located in the province of Munster. It was named after the town of Tipperary and consisted of 52% of the land area of the traditional county of Tipperary. South Tipperary County Council was the local authority for the county. The population of the county was 88,433 according to the 2011 census. It was abolished on 3 June 2014, merged with North Tipperary under a new Tipperary County Council.
Geography and political subdivisions.
The county was part of the central plain of Ireland, but the diversified terrain contained several mountain ranges, notably the Knockmealdowns and the Galtees. The county was landlocked and drained by the River Suir. The centre of the county included much of the Golden Vale, a rich pastoral stretch of land in the Suir basin which extends into counties Limerick and Cork.
The county was established in 1898 with separate assize courts since 1838. The county town was Clonmel; other important urban centres included Carrick-on-Suir, Cashel, Cahir and Tipperary. The county's motto was "Vallis Aurea Siurensis" ().
Baronies.
There were six historic baronies in South Tipperary: Clanwilliam, Iffa and Offa East, Iffa and Offa West, Kilnamanagh Lower, Middle Third and Slievardagh.
Civil parishes and townlands.
Civil parishes in Ireland were delineated after the Down Survey as an intermediate subdivision, with multiple townlands per parish and multiple parishes per barony. The civil parishes had some use in local taxation and were included on the nineteenth century maps of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland. For poor law purposes, District Electoral Divisions replaced civil parishes in the mid-nineteenth century. There were 123 civil parishes in the county.
Local government and politics.
The administrative county of Tipperary (South Riding) was established in 1898. The area also had a separate existence as a judicial county following the establishment of assize courts in 1838. The county's name changed to South Tipperary, and the council's name to South Tipperary County Council under the Local Government Act 2001. The Council oversaw the county as an independent local government area. The Council was made up of 21 representatives, directly elected through the system of proportional representation by means of a single transferable vote.
Under the provisions of the "Local Government Act 1991, (Regional Authorities) (Establishment) Order", 1993, the territory of South Tipperary was defined as being in the South-East Region. This region was a NUTS III region of the European Union. The county of North Tipperary, by contrast, was part of the Mid-West Region. At a NUTS II level, both counties were in the Southern and Eastern region.
Irish language.
There were native speakers of Irish in South Tipperary until the middle of the 20th century. Recordings of their dialect, made before the last native speakers died, have been made available through a project of the Royal Irish Academy Library.


Province of Siena

The province of Siena () is a province in the Tuscany region of Italy. Its capital is the city of Siena.
Geography.
The province is divided into seven historical areas:
The area is a hilly one: in the north is Colline del Chianti; Monte Amiata is the highest point at ; and in the south is Monte Cetona. To the west are the Colline Metallifere (“Metalliferous Hills”), whilst the Val di Chiana lies to east.
Historically, the province corresponds to the northeastern portion of the former Republic of Siena.
The chief occupations are agricultural (wheat, grapes and fruit) and silk culture. The wine known as Chianti is produced here as well as in other parts of Tuscany: the Chianti Colli Senesi, however, is limited to this province.
Apart from the city of Siena the principal towns are Poggibonsi, Colle di Val d'Elsa, Montepulciano, Chiusi, and San Gimignano.
"Comuni".
There are 35 "comuni" (singular: "comune") in the province .
The main "comuni" by population, , are:
This is the complete list of "comuni" in the province of Siena:


Prague-West District

Prague-West District () is a district ("okres") in the Central Bohemian Region in the Czech Republic. Its administrative seat is in Prague. The most populated town of the district is Jesenice.
Complete list of municipalities.
Bojanovice –
Bratřínov –
Březová-Oleško –
Buš –
Černolice –
Černošice –
Červený Újezd –
Choteč –
Chrášťany –
Chýně –
Chýnice –
Číčovice –
Čisovice –
Davle –
Dobrovíz –
Dobříč –
Dobřichovice –
Dolní Břežany –
Drahelčice –
Holubice –
Horoměřice –
Hostivice –
Hradištko –
Hvozdnice –
Jeneč –
Jesenice –
Jílové u Prahy –
Jíloviště –
Jinočany –
Kamenný Přívoz –
Karlík –
Klínec –
Kněževes –
Kosoř –
Kytín –
Lety –
Libčice nad Vltavou –
Libeř –
Lichoceves –
Líšnice –
Měchenice –
Mníšek pod Brdy –
Nučice –
Ohrobec –
Okoř –
Okrouhlo –
Ořech –
Petrov –
Pohoří –
Průhonice –
Psáry –
Ptice –
Řevnice –
Řitka –
Roblín –
Roztoky –
Rudná –
Slapy –
Statenice –
"Štěchovice" –
Středokluky –
Svrkyně –
Tachlovice –
Trnová –
Třebotov –
Tuchoměřice –
Tursko –
Úholičky –
Úhonice –
Únětice –
Velké Přílepy –
Vestec –
Vonoklasy –
Vrané nad Vltavou –
Všenory –
Zahořany –
Zbuzany –
Zlatníky-Hodkovice –
Zvole


List of settlements in Surrey by population

This is a list of settlements in Surrey by population based on the results of the 2011 census. The next United Kingdom census will take place in 2021. In 2011, there were 36 built-up area subdivisions with 5,000 or more inhabitants in Surrey, shown in the table below.


Science and technology in Wallonia

Science and technology in Wallonia, the southern region of Belgium (Europe), is well developed with the presence of several universities and research institutes.
Universities in Wallonia.
Universities in Wallonia are part of the universities of the French Community.
According to the Academic Ranking of World Universities, the University of Louvain (UCLouvain) is among the top 200 universities worldwide.
According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the University of Liège is among the top 200 universities in Europe and top 400 universities worldwide.
Technology institutes.
Wallonia is home to several science and technology organizations.
Science Parks.
Several science parks associated with the universities are spread over Wallonia.


South Karelia

South Karelia (; ) is a region of Finland. It borders the regions of Kymenlaakso, South Savo and North Karelia, as well as Russia (Republic of Karelia and Leningrad Oblast).
Historical province.
"For history, geography and culture see: Finnish Karelia"
Regional Council.
The Regional Council of South Karelia is a joint municipal authority of nine member municipalities. The Council operates as the authority for regional development and unit for regional planning and looks after regional interests and to promote economic development and cultural well-being in South Karelia. The Council has statutory responsibility for regional development and planning.
The EU's regional Objective Programmes for South Karelia have partly been prepared in the Council as it also implements and coordinates various projects. The Council is also represented in several international organisations, such as AEBR.
Municipalities.
The region of South Karelia is made up of nine municipalities, of which two have city status (marked in bold).
Imatra Sub-region:
Lappeenranta Sub-region:
Tourism.
South Karelia is a popular tourist area in Finland with its special features – its nature, its location between Lake Saimaa and the border as well as its cultural heritage and history as a border region. Thanks to the natural attractions, waterways and islands, tourism has natural prerequisites for developing in South Karelia. The provincial centres are continuously improving their services. Lappeenranta has in recent years focused particularly on tourism services for families, and Imatra on fishing and spa tourism. There is a good selection of agritourism attractions and tourism services available around the region.
The most interesting attractions include Lake Saimaa, Saimaa Canal, Lappeenranta Fortification and Imatrankoski rapids, the Russian border and the short distance to Vyborg and St. Petersburg. Lappeenranta Fortification and its museums portray the history of the border zone and border arrangements over several centuries. Cruises on Lake Saimaa and along Saimaa Canal up to Vyborg are a unique tourist attraction for Finns and foreigners alike. The high quality guest marinas draw yachters to Lake Saimaa all the way from international waters.
The region also features an interesting cross-section of churches that represent various centuries, architectural styles and denominations. The internationally best-known of these is the Church of the Three Crosses in Imatra designed by Alvar Aalto.
The South Karelian nature has played a key role in the history of tourism. The rapids of Imatrankoski and their surroundings became the first actual tourist attraction in Finland. Russian upper classes and civil servants, in particular, came to marvel at the wild foams of the rapids. In the summer of 1772, Russian Empress Catherine the Great visited Imatra for one day. Her journey from St. Petersburg to Imatra took five days. The rulers and dignitaries of many other countries have left a memento of their visit in the rocks surrounding the rapids. Actual tourism in the modern sense developed in the 19th century. It was speeded up by the completion of Saimaa Canal and St. Petersburg railway in the latter half of the century. What also drew tourists all the way from St. Petersburg was the good fishing to be had in River Vuoksi, Imatra Rapids and Lake Saimaa.
The Rauha – Tiuruniemi area by the Lake Saimaa has long traditions in spa and hotel activities. As early as 1894 the area's first hotel spa - Rauha pensionat för turister - was established. In 1912 a Russia-born physicist Dimitri Gabrilovitsch bought the place to transform it into a sanatorium. The clinic's services at the time were different kinds of baths as well as galvanic and bright light treatments. The clinic had visitors from Russia, Europe and even the Americas. The spa in Lappeenranta, which is still in business today, was founded in 1871.
Tourism in South Karelia went into a decline for some time after the First World War ended the flows of travellers from St. Petersburg. Interest in domestic travel, which had arisen towards the end of the 19th century, increased as conditions became more settled in the newly independent Finland. Tourism had its heyday before the 1930s depression. The area, including Lake Saimaa and the legendary beaches of Terijoki, was a popular area for holiday villas. Tourism was once more affected by the closing of the borders after the Second World War. The unspoilt nature and Lake Saimaa attracted tourists especially from Central Europe and the Nordic countries. The Germans discovered the rented holiday houses on the shores of Saimaa.
Nature.
The ground in the region consists of loose soil types accumulated on top of bedrock during the last Ice Age, as the ice sheet retreated to the northwest. The soil shaped by the Ice Age is still clearly visible in the South Karelian environment and scenery. The greatest natural wonder in South Karelia consists of the parallel dividers called Salpausselkä, which transect the region, and their large edge formations. At its steepest, the divider plunges into Lake Saimaa in Kyläniemi village of Taipalsaari.
The variable terrain and great local height differences make South Karelia exceptional in Southern Finland. As a contrast to the rugged rocky islands of Saimaa and flat pinewoods, the region features lush deciduous woodlands reaching out from the Ladogian Karelia around Parikkala, Imatra and Lappeenranta. Parikkala and Rautjärvi are clearly different from other areas in the region, with the Ladogian Karelia even affecting their climate. The lush deciduous zone with great biodiversity shelters the most valuable wetlands of Finland. Bird wetland habitats of national importance are found in Siikalahti and Tarassiinlahti of Parikkala and Kuokkalampi in Ruokolahti. These wetlands harbour endangered habitats – birds, dragonflies, bats and butterflies.
Education.
Lappeenranta has been voted the best university town in Finland. The campus is welcoming, there are plenty of flats available and international student exchanges are competently organised. Most importantly, however, the education offered is versatile and of a high standard. The study programmes are being developed with an open mind. Some years ago, Lappeenranta University of Technology decided to include business studies in the curriculum. The University and Saimaa University of Applied Sciences were the first in Finland to suggest mutual co-operation between these two types of third-level educational institutes.
Heraldry.
The coat of arms of South Karelia is composed of the arms of Karelia.
Politics.
Results of the Finnish parliamentary election, 2019 in South Karelia:


Ranked lists of Spanish autonomous communities

This article includes several ranked indicators for Spain's autonomous communities, as well as for the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla.
Median Income.
The following table shows the difference in median income for each of the 17 autonomous communities of Spain. The data was provided by Adecco and the INE. The wealthiest Spaniards are from the Basque Country, with a median income of €27,174. The poorest Spaniards reside in Extremadura, where median income is €18,662. The data was for 2016.
By GRP.
GRP (nominal).
Spanish autonomies by gross regional product (nominal) in 2017, shown in euros and converted to United States dollars according to annual exchange rates.
GRP per capita.
Spanish autonomies by GRP per capita in euros, and converted to United States dollars according to annual exchange rates. For the national GDP per capita, the euro figure is converted from US dollars.


Ticino

Ticino (), sometimes Tessin (), officially the Republic and Canton of Ticino or less formally the Canton of Ticino, is one of the 26 cantons forming the Swiss Confederation. It is composed of eight districts and its capital city is Bellinzona. It is also traditionally divided into the Sopraceneri and the Sottoceneri, respectively north and south of Monte Ceneri. Red and blue are the colours of its flag.
Ticino is the southernmost canton of Switzerland. It is one of the three large southern Alpine cantons, along with Valais and the Grisons. However, unlike all other cantons, it lies almost entirely south of the Alps. Through the main crest of the Gotthard and adjacent mountain ranges, it borders the canton of Valais to the northwest, the canton of Uri to the north and the canton of Grisons to the northeast; the latter canton being also the only one to share some borders with Ticino at the level of the plains. The canton shares international borders with Italy as well, including a small Italian enclave.
Named after the Ticino, its longest river, it is the only canton where Italian is the sole official language and represents the bulk of the Italian-speaking area of Switzerland along with the southern parts of the Grisons. In , Ticino had a population of . The largest city is Lugano and the two other notable centres are Bellinzona and Locarno. The canton is a major tourist destination and is renowned for its distinct culture and gastronomy, and also for its warmer climate, especially around Lake Maggiore and Lake Lugano.
The land now occupied by the canton was annexed from Italian cities in the 15th century by various Swiss forces in the last transalpine campaigns of the Old Swiss Confederacy. In the Helvetic Republic, established 1798, it was divided between the two new cantons of Bellinzona and Lugano. The creation of the Swiss Confederation in 1803 saw these two cantons combine to form the modern canton of Ticino. Because of its unusual position, the canton relies on important infrastructures for connections with the rest of the country. The first major north-south railway link, the Gotthard Railway, opened in 1882. In 2016, the Gotthard Base Tunnel, the first flat route through the Alps, was inaugurated.
Etymology.
The name "Ticino" was chosen for the newly established canton in 1803, after the river Ticino which flows through it from the Novena Pass to Lake Maggiore.
Known as "Ticinus" in Roman times, the river appears on the Tabula Peutingeriana as "Ticenum". Johann Kaspar Zeuss attributed Celtic origins to the name, tracing it to the Celtic "tek", itself from an Indo-European root "tak", meaning "melting, flowing".
The official name of the canton is "Republic and Canton of Ticino" () and the two-letter code is TI. It is one of the four cantons of Switzerland officially referred to as "republics", along with Geneva, Neuchâtel and Jura.
History.
In ancient times, the area of what is today Ticino was settled by the Lepontii, a Celtic tribe. Later, probably around the rule of Augustus, it became part of the Roman Empire. After the fall of the Western Empire, it was ruled by the Ostrogoths, the Lombards and the Franks. Around 1100 it was the centre of struggle between the free communes of Milan and Como: in the 14th century it was acquired by the Visconti, Dukes of Milan. In the fifteenth century the Swiss Confederates conquered the valleys south of the Alps in three separate conquests.
Between 1403 and 1422 some of these lands were already annexed by forces from the canton of Uri, but subsequently lost. Uri conquered the Leventina Valley in 1440. In a second conquest Uri, Schwyz and Nidwalden gained the town of Bellinzona and the Riviera in 1500. Some of the land and Bellinzona itself were previously annexed by Uri in 1419 but lost again in 1422. The third conquest was fought by troops from the entire Confederation (at that time constituted by 12 cantons). In 1512 Locarno, the Maggia Valley, Lugano and Mendrisio were annexed. Subsequently, the upper valley of the river Ticino, from the St. Gotthard to the town of Biasca (Leventina Valley) was part of Uri. The remaining territory ("Baliaggi Ultramontani", "Ennetbergische Vogteien", the Bailiwicks Beyond the Mountains) was administered by the Twelve Cantons. These districts were governed by bailiffs holding office for two years and purchasing it from the members of the League.
The lands of the canton of Ticino are the last lands to be conquered by the Swiss Confederation. The Confederation gave up any further conquests after their defeat at the battle of Marignano in 1515 by Francis I of France. The Val Leventina revolted unsuccessfully against Uri in 1755. In February 1798 an attempt of annexation by the Cisalpine Republic was repelled by a volunteer militia in Lugano. Between 1798 and 1803, during the Helvetic Republic, two cantons were created (Bellinzona and Lugano) but in 1803 the two were unified to form the canton of Ticino that joined the Swiss Confederation as a full member in the same year under the Act of Mediation. During the Napoleonic Wars, many Ticinesi (as was the case for other Swiss) served in Swiss military units allied with the French. The canton minted its own currency, the Ticinese franco, between 1813 and 1850, when it began use of the Swiss franc.
In the early 19th century, the contemporary Franco-Danish scholar Conrad Malte-Brun stated that: "The canton of Tesino [Ticino] is the poorest, and the people the most ignorant of any in Switzerland. Until 1878 the three largest cities, Bellinzona, Lugano and Locarno, alternated as capital of the canton. In 1878, however, Bellinzona became the only and permanent capital. The 1870–1891 period saw a surge of political turbulence in Ticino, and the authorities needed the assistance of the federal government to restore order in several instances, in 1870, 1876, 1889 and 1890–1891.
The current cantonal constitution dates from 1997. The previous constitution, heavily modified, was codified in 1830, nearly 20 years before the constitution of the Swiss Confederation.
Geography.
Ticino is the southernmost canton of Switzerland. With a few exceptions in the extreme north and south of the canton, it lies entirely in the Ticino basin, a tributary of the Po. Along with Valais and the Grisons, it is one of the three cantons whose territory comprehends the Po basin, therefore south of the Alps. However, contrary to those cantons (and all others), all settlements of Ticino are on the south side of the Alps, therefore separated from the Swiss Plateau (and most of the country) by the great Alpine barrier. The canton also comprehends some small areas in the Rhine basin in the north, at the Gotthard Pass and around lake of Santa Maria. The extreme south of the canton is drained by the Po as well, but through the Breggia and Adda.
The canton is traditionally (but not officially) split into two regions. The northern region, the Sopraceneri, is formed by the valleys around Lake Maggiore. The southern region, the Sottoceneri, is the region around Lake Lugano. Between the two regions is Monte Ceneri, a moderately elevated mountain pass and important north-south axis. The Sopraceneri is constituted by the districts of Bellinzona, Blenio, Leventina, Locarno, Riviera and Vallemaggia. The Sottoceneri is constituted by the disctricts of Lugano and Mendrisio. While Lugano, the largest city, is in the Sottoceneri, the two other main cities, Bellinzona and Locarno, are in the Sopraceneri.
The Ticino, which gaves its name to the canton, is the largest river of Ticino. It flows from the northwest through the Bedretto Valley and the Leventina Valley to enter Lake Maggiore near Locarno. Its main tributaries are the Brenno in the Blenio Valley and the Moesa in the Mesolcina Valley in the Grisons. The lands of most of the canton are shaped by the river, which in its mid portion forms a wide valley, commonly known as the "Riviera". The western lands of the canton, however, are drained by the Maggia. The Verzasca Valley is between the Leventina Valley and the Maggia Valley. There is also a smaller area that drains directly into the Lake Lugano. Most of the land is considered within the Alps, but a small area is part of the plain of the Po which drains the north of Italy.
Although it includes the lowest point of Switzerland (Lake Maggiore) as well as its lowest town (Ascona), the topography of Ticino is extremely rugged, as it is the fourth canton with the biggest elevation difference. It lies essentially within the Alps, in particular the Lepontine Alps, the Saint-Gotthard Massif and the Lugano Prealps. The longest and deepest valleys are those of the Ticino, Verzasca and Maggia. The two highest mountains are the Rheinwaldhorn and the Basòdino. Other notable mountains are Pizzo Rotondo (highest of the Gotthard Massif), Pizzo Campo Tencia (highest fully within the canton), Monte Generoso (highest south of Lake Lugano) and Monte Tamaro (most prominent of the canton). For an exhausitve list, see list of mountains of Ticino.
The area of the canton is , of which about three-quarters are considered productive to trees or crops. Forests cover about a third of the area, but also the lakes Maggiore (or "Verbano") and Lugano (or "Ceresio") make up a considerable minority. The canton shares borders with three other cantons across the main ridge of the Alps: Valais to the northwest, to which it is connected by the Nufenen Pass, Uri to the north, to which it is connected by the Gotthard Pass and the Grisons to the northeast, to which it is connected by the Lukmanier Pass and the Mesolcina Valley; the latter valley, a few kilometres north of Bellinzona, being the only (natural) low elevation access to another canton. Ticino shares international borders with Italy as well. To the southwest is the region of Piedmont and to the southeast is the region of Lombardy. The main border crossing between Italy and Switzerland is that of Chiasso, in the extreme south of the canton.
Climate.
The climate of Ticino, while remaining alpine on the upper regions, is noticeably milder than the rest of Switzerland's on the lower regions, enjoying a higher number of sunshine hours and generally warmer temperatures. In German-speaking Switzerland, Ticino is nicknamed "Sonnenstube" (sun porch), owing to the more than 2,300 sunshine hours the canton receives every year, compared to 1,700 for Zurich.
The Basòdino, Ticino's second-highest mountain, is covered by the largest glacier of the canton. In winter, skiing is popular in the highest locations, notably in Airolo and Bosco/Gurin. In the lower regions, especially around Lake Maggiore and Lake Lugano, vineyards and olive trees are grown. Several types of cold hardy palm trees and other tropical species may be grown here, and although none are native, their presence in the ecosystem is increasing. Many gardens near the lakes, such as the Brissago Islands and the Scherrer Park, are renowned for their numerous exotic plants.
Diocese.
The Diocese of Lugano is co-extensive to the canton.
Wine region.
Ticino is one of the wine regions for Swiss wine. The defined region encompasses all of the canton plus the neighbouring Italian-speaking district of Moesa (Misox and Calanca valleys) in the canton of the Grisons.
Government.
The current Constitution of the Republic and canton of Ticino, originating from a draft approved on 18 August 1801 during the Helvetic Republic, was approved on 14 December 1997. In its preamble, it states that it was created by the Ticinese people (popolo) "in order to guaranty peaceful life together with respect for the dignity of man, fundamental liberties and social justice (...) faithful to its historic task to interpret Italian culture within the Helvetic Confederation".
The Grand Council ("Gran Consiglio") is the legislative authority of the canton, exercising sovereignty over any matter not explicitly delegated by the constitution to another authority. The Gran Consiglio has 90 members called "deputati" (deputies), elected in a single constituency using the proportional representation system. Deputies serve four-year terms, and annually nominate a President and two Vice-Presidents. The Gran Consiglio meets in Bellinzona, the cantonal capital.
The five-member Council of State (), not to be confused with the federal Council of States, is the executive authority of the canton, and it directs cantonal affairs according to law and the constitution. It is elected in a single constituency using the proportional representation system. Currently, the five members of the Government are: Claudio Zali, Raffaele De Rosa, Manuele Bertoli, Norman Gobbi and Christian Vitta.
Each year, the Council of State nominates its president. The current president of the Council of State is Norman Gobbi.
The most recent elections were held in April 2015; the next elections will be on 7 April 2019.
Politics.
Referendum decisions.
Since a referendum in September 2013, Ticino is the only Swiss canton where wearing full-face veils is illegal. Supporters of the ban cited the case of a 20-year-old Pakistani woman from Bellinzona, who was killed by her husband for refusing to wear a headscarf. The Burqa ban was later approved by the Grand Council in November 2015.
In September 2016, Ticino voters approved a Swiss People's Party-sponsored referendum that gives precedence to Swiss workers, as opposed to foreign workers, defying freedom of movement agreements between Switzerland and the EU.
Political subdivisions.
Districts.
The canton is divided into eight districts:
History of the districts.
Leventina was a subject of the canton of Uri until 1798, the year the Helvetic Republic was founded, when it became part of the new canton of Bellinzona along with the Swiss condominiums of Bellinzona, Riviera and Blenio. The condominiums of Locarno, Lugano, Mendrisio and Vallemaggia became part of the new canton of Lugano in 1798. These two cantons formed into one canton, Ticino, in 1803 when it joined the (restored) Swiss Confederation as a member canton. The former condominiums and Leventina became the eight districts of the canton of Ticino, which exist to the present day and are provided for by the cantonal constitution.
Municipalities and circles.
There are 115 municipalities in the canton (). These municipalities ("comuni") are grouped in 38 "circoli" (circles or sub-districts) which are in turn grouped into the eight districts ("distretti").
The mayor ("sindaco") is the president of the municipal government ("municipio") which comprises at least three members; a council also exists. The members of the council and the "municipio" are elected every four years by the citizens resident in the "comune" – the next elections are scheduled for April 2020.
Since the late 1990s there is an ongoing project to aggregate some municipalities, with the constitution of the canton allowing for the Grand Council of Ticino to promote and lead in deciding on mergers. This has resulted in changes to some of the circles, with many circles now consisting of just one or two municipalities. The most populous municipality – Lugano (having merged with numerous other municipalities) – is subdivided into "quartieri" (quarters) which are grouped into three (cantonal) circles. In the modern day, the circle serves only as a territorial unit with limited public functions, most notably the local judiciary.
Demographics.
Ticino has a population (as of ) of . , the population included 94,366 foreigners, or about 27.2% of the total population. The largest groups of foreign population were Italians (46.2%), followed by Croats (6.5%) and the Portuguese (5.9%). The population density (in 2005) is 114.6 persons per km2. As of 2000, 83.1% of the population spoke Italian, 8.3% spoke German and 1.7% spoke Serbo-Croatian.
As of 2019, 70.0% of total population is Catholic.
According to a 2012 survey, the population aged 15 years and older is mostly Catholic (70%), further Christian denominations account for 10% of the population (including Swiss Reformed 4%), 2% are Muslims and 1% of the population has another religion (including Jews 0.1%).
The official language, and the one used for most written communication, is Swiss Italian. Despite being very similar to standard Italian, Swiss Italian presents some differences to the Italian spoken in Italy due to the influence of French and German from which it assimilates words. Dialects of the Lombard language such as Ticinese are still spoken, especially in the valleys, but they are not used for official purposes.
Despite the dominance of Italian-speakers, fluency in Standard German and Alemannic German is sometimes taken to be an important prerequisite for employment, regardless of sector or sphere of work.
In 2016, Ticino was the European region with the second highest life expectancy at 85.0 years, and highest male life expectancy at 82.7 years.
Economy.
Tertiary sector workers make up 76.5% of the Ticinese workforce, compared to the Swiss average of 67.1%. Commerce (23.1%), tourism (10.1%) and financial activities (3.9%) are all important for the local economy, while the contribution from agriculture and fishing is marginal, employing 6.5% of the workforce on a Swiss average of 15.4%. The median gross private sector monthly salary in 2012 was 5,091 francs (US$5,580), below the national average of 6,118 francs (US$6,703).
 However, due to lesser cost of living and lower taxation compared to most other cantons, the overall disposable mean income is high. The GDP per capita at 82,438 francs in 2014, was seventh highest in Switzerland. Ticino is counted among the most prosperous regions of Switzerland and of Europe.
Lugano is Switzerland's third largest financial center after Zurich and Geneva. The banking industry alone has 8,400 employees and generates 17% of the gross cantonal product. Because of Ticino's shared language and culture, its financial industry has very close ties to Italy. In 2017, Ticino had an unemployment rate of 4%, higher than the Switzerland average where it was estimated at 3.7%.
"Frontalieri", commuter workers living in Italy (mostly in the provinces of Varese and Como) but working regularly in Ticino, form a large part (over 20%) of the workforce, far larger than in the rest of Switzerland, where the rate is below 5%. Foreigners in general hold 44.3% of all the jobs, again a much higher rate than elsewhere in the Confederation (27%). Frontalieri are usually paid less than Swiss workers for their jobs, and tend to serve as low-cost labour.
Italy is by far Ticino's most important foreign trading partner, but there's a huge trade deficit between imports (5 billion CHF) and exports (1.9 billion). By 2013, Germany had become the canton's main export market, receiving 23.1% of the total, compared to 15.8% for Italy and 9.9% for the United States. Many Italian companies relocate to Ticino, either temporarily or permanently, seeking lower taxes and an efficient bureaucracy: just as many Ticinese entrepreneurs doing business in Italy complain of red tape and widespread protectionism. The region has been attracting multinational companies particularly from the fashion industry due to its closeness to Milano. Hugo Boss, Gucci, VF Corporation and other popular brands are located there. Because the international fashion business has become a significant employer for Swiss and Italians alike, the region has also been termed the "Fashion Valley".
Three of the world's largest gold refineries are based in Ticino, including the Pamp refinery in Castel San Pietro, the leading manufacturer of minted gold bars.
Large companies based in the canton include: Bally, Hupac
The opening of the Gotthard Railway in 1882 led to the establishment of a sizeable tourist industry mostly catering to German-speakers, although since the early 2000s the industry has suffered from the competition of more distant destinations. In 2011, 1,728,888 overnight stays were recorded. The mild climate throughout the year makes the canton a popular destination for hikers. The Verzasca Dam, known for the opening scene of the 1995 film "GoldenEye", is popular with bungee jumpers. Swissminiatur in Melide is a miniature park featuring scale models of over 120 Swiss attractions. The Brissago Islands on Lake Maggiore are the only Swiss islands south of the Alps, and house botanical gardens with 1,600 different plant species from five continents.
Transport.
Several tunnels underneath the Gotthard Pass connect the canton to northern Switzerland: the first to open was the long Gotthard Rail Tunnel in 1882, replacing the pass road, connecting Airolo with Göschenen in the canton of Uri. A motorway tunnel, the Gotthard Road Tunnel, opened in 1980. A second rail tunnel through the pass, the Gotthard Base Tunnel, was opened on 1 June 2016. The new tunnel is the longest tunnel in the world, reducing travel time between Zürich and Lugano to 1 hour 40 minutes.
Treni Regionali Ticino Lombardia (TiLo), a joint venture between the Italian Ferrovie dello Stato and the Swiss Federal Railways launched in 2004, manages the traffic between the regional railways of Lombardy and the Ticino railway network via a S-Bahn system.
The Regional Bus and Rail Company of Ticino provides the urban and suburban bus network of Locarno, operates the cable cars between Verdasio and Rasa, and between Intragna – Pila – Costa on behalf of the owning companies, and, together with an Italian company, the Centovalli and Vigezzina Railway which connects the Gotthard trans-Alpine rail route at Locarno with the Simplon trans-Alpine route.
The canton has a higher than average incidence of traffic accidents, recording 16 deaths or serious injuries per 100 million km in the 2004–2006 period, compared to a Swiss average of 6.
Lugano Airport is the busiest airport in south east Switzerland, serving some 200,000 passengers a year.
Education.
There are two major centres of education and research located in the canton of Ticino. University of Italian Switzerland (USI, Università della Svizzera Italiana) in Lugano is the only Swiss university teaching primarily in Italian. The University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland (SUPSI, Scuola Universitaria Professionale della Svizzera Italiana), in Manno, is a professional training college focused on a practical method of teaching in the areas of applied art, economy, social work, technology and production science.
There is also a small American and Swiss accredited private college, Franklin University Switzerland, located above Lugano, as well as The American School in Switzerland in Collina d'Oro, a K-13 international school accepting day and boarding students.
Culture.
Ticino hosts two World Heritage sites: the Three Castles of Bellinzona and Monte San Giorgio. The city of Locarno is host to the Locarno International Film Festival, Switzerland's most prestigious film festival, held during the second week of August. Estival Jazz, a free open-air jazz festival, is held in Lugano and Mendrisio in late June and July. Past lineups have included Buddy Guy, Van Morrison, Yes, Jethro Tull, Yellowjackets, Al Jarreau, Randy Brecker.
Ticino has a rich architectural heritage, ranging from the anonymous rock architecture of grottos and splüi, over Romanesque and baroque to contemporary styles.
Grottos were ubiquitous cellars in Ticino, and symbolize rustic, family-run restaurants in the latter part of the 20th century. They serve local wine (usually Merlot or similar) in a little ceramic jug known as "boccalino", which is also a popular souvenir for tourists.
The canton is home to internationally recognized architects, such as Mario Botta, Aurelio Galfetti, Luigi Snozzi, Livio Vacchini. As early as the 18th century, aristocrats from Russia and Italy employed numerous architects from Ticino. More recently, the region became a centre of the Neo-Rationalist "Tendenza" movement.
Polenta, along with chestnuts and potatoes, was for centuries one of the staple foods in Ticino, and it remains a mainstay of local cuisine.
"Gazzosa ticinese", a soft drink available in lemon and a number of other flavours, is one of the most popular beverages from Ticino, and is also common in other regions of Switzerland. It usually comes in flip-top bottles. The estimate for the production of "gazzosa" in Ticino is 7–8 million bottles a year.
Newspapers and magazines published in Ticino include Corriere del Ticino, LaRegione Ticino, Giornale del Popolo, Il Mattino della Domenica, Il Caffè, L'Informatore, and the German-language Tessiner Zeitung.
Bocce is a folk game that was once a popular pastime locally, but by the early 21st century it was seldom played by younger people. Notable sports teams include HC Lugano, HC Ambrì-Piotta (ice hockey), FC Lugano (association football) and Lugano Tigers (basketball). Lugano has hosted the Italy-Belgium match at the 1954 FIFA World Cup, the 1953 and 1996 UCI Road World Championships, the 18th Chess Olympiad, and the annual BSI Challenger Lugano tennis tournament and Gran Premio Città di Lugano Memorial Albisetti 20 km racewalk.


Rapla County

Rapla County (), or Raplamaa, is one of the fifteen counties of Estonia. It is situated in the western part of the country and borders Järva County to the east, Pärnu County to the south, Lääne County to the west, and Harju County to the north. In January 2009 Rapla County had a population of 36,678 – constituting 2.7% of the total population of Estonia.
History.
The first written records of Rapla date back to the 1241 Danish census ("Liber Census Daniae").
County government.
The County Government (Estonian: "Maavalitsus") is led by a governor (Estonian: "maavanem"), who is appointed by the Government of Estonia for a term of five years. Since 2009, the Governor position is held by Tiit Leier.
Municipalities.
The county is subdivided into municipalities. There are 4 rural municipalities (Estonian: "vallad" – parishes) in Rapla County:
Geography.
Natural resources found in Rapla county include limestone, dolomite, peat, and clay.
Miscellaneous topics.
The church of Rapla was built in 1901. However, much of the interior dates back to several hundred years earlier and is of high structural quality and historical value. In the churchyard there are several crosses remaining from the 17th century.


List of clubs in the Oberliga Rheinland-Pfalz/Saarland


Sofia City Province

Sofia City Province (, "Oblast Sofiya-grad") is a province ("oblast") of Bulgaria. Its administrative center is the city of Sofia, the capital of the country.
The province borders on Sofia Province and Pernik Province. It consists of only 1 municipality – the Sofia Capital Municipality.
Cities and towns.
Bankya, Buhovo, Novi Iskar, Sofia
Villages.
Balsha, Bistritsa, Busmantsi, Chepintsi, Dobroslavtsi, Dolni Bogrov, Dolni Pasarel, German, Gorni Bogrov, Ivanyane, Jeleznitsa, Jelyava, Jiten, Kazichene, Klisura, Kokalyane, Krivina, Kubratovo, Katina, Lokorsko, Lozen, Malo Buchino, Marchaevo, Mirovyane, Mramor, Negovan, Pancharevo, Plana, Podgumer, Svetovrachene, Vladaya, Voluyak, Voynegovtsi, Yana
Ancestry.
Population (2011 census): 1 291 591
Ethnic groups (2011):
Identified themselves: 1 178 131


Sud-Vest (development region)

Sud-Vest Oltenia (English "South-West Oltenia") is a development region in Romania. As the other development regions, it does not have any administrative powers, its main function being to co-ordinate regional development projects and manage funds from the European Union.
Sud-Vest Development Region is roughly coterminous with the historic region of Oltenia (82,4%), and for that reason it is sometimes called "Regiunea de dezvoltare Sud-Vest Oltenia". The Danube forms the natural boundary between Romania and Serbia to the southwest, and Bulgaria to the south.
Counties.
The Sud-Vest region is made up of the following counties:


Province of Agrigento

The Province of Agrigento (; Sicilian: "Pruvincia di Girgenti"; officially "Libero consorzio comunale di Agrigento") is a province in the autonomous island region of Sicily in Italy, situated on its south-western coast. Following the suppression of the Sicilian provinces, it was replaced in 2015 by the Free municipal consortium of Agrigento. It has an area of , and a total population of 474,493. There are 43 comunes (Italian: "comuni") in the province.
History and location.
It is surrounded by Province of Palermo in the north, Trapani in the west, Mediterranean Sea in the south and Caltanissetta in the east. Gela inhabitants founded the province in 6th century B.C. as Akragas. The province was destroyed by the Carthage in 406 B.C. but was later ruled by the Romans, Goths, Byzantines and Arabs. The Arabs rebuilt several parts of the province. Several ancient Doric temples were constructed during the 6th and 5th century B.C. for the purpose of worshiping Hercules, Olympian Jupiter, Juno, Castor, Pollux and Demeter. They are located in the Valley of Temples (Italian: "Valle dei Templi"). The ancient temples and other architectural structures were built using the stones of the hills near Capo San Marco.
Places.
Here below are listed the towns of the province with more than 10,000 inhabitants:
Agrigento is the birthplace of the noted writer Luigi Pirandello and the philosopher Empedocles. According to the government records the number of unemployed people is about 17% of the total labour force. The province faces the Channel of Sicily in the south and is known for its beaches. The beaches of Torre Salsa have been designated as natural reserves and are protected due to their environmental importance.
Wine production.
The province is well known for its vineyards and wines. The total areas covered by vineyards in 1984 was almost triple to that in 1949. During this period Marsala based wine merchants used the grapes produced in the province to produce Marsala wine. In 1984 the local government passed a law which regulated this practice. Around three-quarters of the Sicilian land devoted to growing Fiano grapes is in the province. Some of the important municipalities known for their vineyards include Sambuca di Sicilia, Menfi and Santa Margherita di Belice.
Transportation.
The road network in the province comprises 540 km. of street roads, 1,000 km. of provincial roads, 260 km. of communal roads and 56 km. of regional roads. 55% of the total rail network is suitable for electric trains.

Molecular Inversion Probe

Molecular Inversion Probe (MIP) belongs to the class of Capture by Circularization molecular techniques for performing "genomic partitioning", a process through which one captures and enriches specific regions of the genome. Probes used in this technique are single stranded DNA molecules and, similar to other genomic partitioning techniques, contain sequences that are complementary to the target in the genome; these probes hybridize to and capture the genomic target. MIP stands unique from other genomic partitioning strategies in that MIP probes share the common design of two genomic target complementary segments separated by a linker region. With this design, when the probe hybridizes to the target, it undergoes an inversion in configuration (as suggested by the name of the technique) and circularizes. Specifically, the two target complementary regions at the 5’ and 3’ ends of the probe become adjacent to one another while the internal linker region forms a free hanging loop. The technology has been used extensively in the HapMap project for large-scale SNP genotyping as well as for studying gene copy alterations
and characteristics of specific genomic loci to identify biomarkers for different diseases such as cancer. Key strengths of the MIP technology include its high specificity to the target and its scalability for high-throughput, multiplexed analyses where tens of thousands of genomic loci are assayed simultaneously.
Technique Procedure.
Molecular Inversion Probe Structure.
The probes are designed with sequences that are complementary to the genomic target at its 5’ and 3’ ends
The internal region contains two universal PCR primer sites that are common to all MIPs as well as a probe-release site, which is usually a restriction site. If the identification of the captured genomic target is performed using array-based hybridization approaches, the internal region may optionally contain a probe-specific tag sequence that uniquely identifies the given probe as well as a tag-release site, which, similar to the probe-release site, is also a restriction site.
Protocol.
Probes are added to the genomic DNA sample. After a denaturation followed by an annealing step, the target-complementary ends of the probe are hybridized to the target DNA. The probes then undergo circularization in this process. These probes, however, are designed such that a gap delimited by the hybridized ends of the probes remains over the target region. The size of the gap ranges from a single nucleotide for SNP genotyping
 to several hundred nucleotides for loci capture (e.g. exome capture).
The gap is filled by DNA polymerase using free nucleotides and the ends of the probe are ligated by ligase, resulting in a fully circularized probe.
Since gap filling is not performed for non-reacted probes, they remain linear. Exonuclease treatment removes these non-reacted probes as well as any remaining linear DNA in the reaction.
In some versions of the protocol, the probe-release site (commonly a restriction site) is cleaved by restriction enzymes such that the probe becomes linearized. In this linearized probe the universal PCR primer sequences are located at the 5’ and 3’ ends and the captured genomic target becomes part of the internal segment of the probe. Other protocols leave the probe as a circularized molecule.
If the probe is linearized, traditional PCR amplification is performed to enrich the captured target using the universal primers of the probe. Otherwise, rolling circle amplification is performed for the circular probe.
The captured target can be identified either via array-based hybridization approaches or by sequencing of the target. If array-based approach is used, the probe may optionally contain a probe-specific tag that uniquely identifies the probe as well as the genomic region targeted by it. The tags from each probe are released by cleaving the tag release site with restriction enzymes. These tags are then hybridized to the sequences that are placed on the array and are complementary to them. The captured target can also be identified by sequencing the probe, now also containing the target. Traditional Sanger sequencing or cheaper, more high-throughput technologies such as SOLiD, Illumina or Roche 454 can be used for this purpose.
Multiplex analysis
Although each probe examines one specific genomic locus, multiple probes can be combined into a single tube for multiplexed assay that simultaneously examines multiple loci. Currently, multiplexed MIP analysis can examine more than 55,000 loci in a single assay.
Technique Development History.
Padlock Probe.
The design of the molecular inversion probes (MIP) originated from padlock probes, a molecular biology technique first reported by Nilsson "et al." in 1994
Similar to MIP, padlock probes are single stranded DNA molecules with two 20-nucleotide long segments complementary to the target connected by a 40-nucleotide long linker sequence. When the target complementary regions are hybridized to the DNA target, the padlock probes also become circularized. However, unlike MIP, padlock probes are designed such that the target complementary regions span the entire target region upon hybridization, leaving no gaps. Thus, padlock probes are only useful for detecting DNA molecules with known sequences.
Nilsson "et al." demonstrated the use of padlock probes to detect numerous DNA targets, including a synthetic oligonucleotide and a circular genomic clone. Padlock probes have high specificity towards their target and can distinguish target molecules that closely resemble one another. Nilsson "et al." also demonstrated the use of padlock probes to differentiate between a normal and a mutant cystic fibrosis conductance receptor ("CFCR") where the CFCR mutant had a 3bp deletion corresponding to one of the ends of the probe. Since ligation requires the ends of the probe to be immediately adjacent to one another when hybridized to the target, the 3bp deletion in the mutant prevented successful ligation. Padlock probes were also successfully used for in situ hybridization to detect alphoid repeats specific to chromosome 12 in a sample of chromosomes in metastasis state. Here, traditional, linear oligonucleotide probes failed to yield results. Thus, padlock probes possess sufficient specificity to detect single copy elements in the genome.
Molecular Inversion Probe.
In order to perform SNP genotyping, Hardenbol "et al." modified padlock probes such that when the probe is hybridized to the genomic target, there is a gap at the SNP position. Gap filling using a nucleotide that is complementary to the nucleotide at the SNP location determines the identity of the polymorphism. This design brings numerous benefits over the more traditional padlock probe technique. Using multiple padlock probes specific to a plausible SNP requires careful balancing of the concentration of these allele specific probes to ensure SNP counts at a given locus are properly normalized. In addition, with this design, bad probes affect all genotypes at a given locus equally. For instance, since MIP probes can assay multiple genotypes at a particular genomic locus, if the probe for a given locus does not work (e.g. fails to properly hybridize to the genomic target), none of the genotypes at this locus will be detected. In contrast, for padlock probes, one needs to design a distinct padlock probe to detect each plausible genotype a given locus (e.g. one padlock probe is needed for detecting "A" at a given SNP locus and another padlock probe is needed for detecting "T" at the locus). Thus, a bad padlock probe will only affect the detection of the specific genotype that the probe is designed to detect whereas a bad MIP probe will affect all genotypes at the locus. Using MIP, one avoids potential incorrect SNP calling since if the probe designed to assay a given locus does not work, no data is generated for this locus and no SNP calling is performed.
In their procedure, Hardenbol "et al." assayed more than 1000 SNP loci simultaneously in a single tube where the tube contained more than 1000 probes with distinct designs. The pool of probes was aliquoted into four tubes for four different reactions. In each reaction, a distinct nucleotide (A, T, C or G) was used for gap filling. Only when the nucleotide at the SNP locus was complementary to the applied nucleotide would the gap be closed by ligation and the probe be circularized. Identification of the captured SNPs was performed on genotyping arrays where each spot on the array contained sequences complementary to the locus-specific tags in the probes.
Since the DNA array costs is a major contributor to the cost of this technique, the performance of four-chip-one-color detection was compared to two-chip-two color detection. The results were found to be similar in terms of SNP call rate and signal-to-noise ratio.
In a recent report, this group successfully increased the level of multiplexing to simultaneously assay more than 10,000 SNP loci, using 12,000 distinct probes. The study examined SNP polymorphisms in 30 trio samples (each trio consisted of a mother, father and their child). Knowing the genotypes of the parents, the accuracy of the SNP genotypes predicted in the child was determined by examining whether a concordance existed between the expected Mendelian inheritance patterns and the predicted genotypes. Trio concordance rate has been found to be > 99.6%. In addition, a set of MIP-specific performance metrics was developed. This work set the framework for high-throughput SNP genotyping in the HapMap project.
Connector Inversion Probe.
To capture longer genomic regions than a single nucleotide, Akhras "et al." modified the design of MIP by extending the gap delimited by the hybridized probe ends and named the design Connector Inversion Probe (CIP). The gap corresponds to the genomic region of interest to be captured (e.g. exons). Gap filling reaction is achieved with DNA polymerase, using all four nucleotides. Identification of the captured regions can then be done by sequencing them using locus-specific primers that map to one of the target complementary ends of the probes.
Akhras "et al." also developed the multiplexing multiplex padlocks (MMP) barcode system in order to lower the costs of reagents. A single assay might involve DNA samples from multiple individuals and examine multiple genomic loci in each individual. A DNA barcode system that uniquely identifies each plausible combination of individual and genomic locus is represented as DNA tags that were inserted into the linker region of the probes. Thus, sequences from the captured regions would include the barcode, allowing the non-ambiguous determination of the individual and the genomic locus that the captured region belongs to.
This group has also developed a software for designing locus-specific CIPs (CIP creator 1.0.1).
Application.
Molecular Inversion Probe (MIP) is one of the techniques widely used to capture a small region of the genome for further examination. With the invention of the next generation sequencing technologies, the cost of sequencing whole genomes has decreased dramatically, however the cost is still too high for these sequencing machines to be used in practice in every laboratory. Instead, different genome partitioning techniques can be used to isolate smaller but highly specific regions of the genome for further analysis. MIP, for instance, can be used to capture targets for SNPgenotyping, copy number variation or allelic imbalance studies, to name a few.
SNP Genotyping.
In SNP genotyping, the probes are separated into four reactions and a different type of nucleotide is added to each reaction. If the SNP at the target region is complementary to the added nucleotide, the ligation is successful and the probe becomes fully circularized. Since each probe hybridizes to exactly one SNP target in the genome, successfully circularized probes provide the nucleotide identities of the SNPs. The tag sequences from the four nucleotide-specific reactions are then hybridized to either four genotyping arrays or two, dual-colour arrays (one channel for each reaction). Analyzing which spots on the array are bound by the tags allows the determination of the SNP identities at the genomic loci represented by those tags.
The SNPs targeted by MIP can then be used in areas of research such as quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis or genome-wide association studies (GWAS) where the SNPs are used in either indirect linkage disequilibrium studies or directly screened for causative mutations.
Copy Number Variation Detection.
Molecular inversion probe technique can also be used for copy number variation (CNV) detection. This dual role in SNP genotyping as well as CNV analysis of MIP is similar to the high-density SNP genotyping arrays which have recently been used for CNV detection and analysis as well. These techniques extract the allele-specific signal intensities from genotyping data and use that to generate CNV results. These techniques have higher precision and resolution than traditional techniques such as G-banded karyotypic analyses, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) or array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH).
Current Research.
MIP has been used extensively in many areas of research; some of the examples of the use of this technique in recent literature are outlined below:
MIP Design and Optimization.
Probe Design Optimization Strategies.
To optimize the degree of multiplexing and the lengths of the captured regions, a number of factors should be considered when designing probes:
MIP Protocol Optimization Strategies.
A number of experimental conditions can be modified for optimization, these include:
These factors are critical since in one study, proper optimization strategies increased target capture efficiency from 18 to 91 percent.
Performance Metrics.
Turner "et al." 2009 summarized two metrics that are commonly reported in MIP-based genomic capture experiments that identify the target by sequencing.
These two metrics are directly affected by the quality of the batch of probes.
To improve the results for low quality probes, higher levels of sequencing depths can be performed. The amount of sequencing scales needed nearly exponentially with decreases in uniformity and specificity.
Hardenbol "et al." 2005 proposed a set of metrics that concern SNP genotyping using MIPs.
An inherent trade-off exists between probe conversion rate and accuracy. Removing probes that yielded incorrect genotypes "increases" the accuracy but "decreases" the probe conversion rate. In contrast, using a lenient probe acceptance threshold "increases" probe conversion rate but "decreases" the accuracy.
Other Genomic Partitioning Techniques.
To reduce the costs from sequencing whole genomes, many methods that enrich specific genomic regions of interest have been proposed.
Other Capture by Circularization Methods.
Gene selector method: An initial multiplex PCR step is performed to enrich the targets of interest. The PCR products are circularized upon hybridization to target-specific probes with sequences complementary to the two primers used in the PCR step.
Capture by selective circularization method: The genomic DNA is digested into fragments with restriction enzymes. Using selector probes with flanking regions that are complementary to the target of interest, the digested DNA fragments are circularized upon hybridization to the selector probes.
Performance Comparisons between Genomic Partitioning Techniques.
Each method demonstrates trade offs between uniformity, capture specificity, cost, scalability and availability.


Joseph DeSimone

Joseph M. DeSimone (born May 16, 1964) is an American chemist, inventor, and entrepreneur who has co-founded companies based on his research, including the American 3D printing technology company, Carbon, of which he served as CEO from 2014 until November 2019.
Currently, DeSimone is the Sanjiv Sam Gambhir Professor of Translational Medicine in the Department of Radiology at Stanford University, where he is also Professor of Chemical Engineering. He joined the faculty at Stanford in 2020. In 2020, he was also elected to the board of trustees of the National Geographic Society. DeSimone previously held a joint appointment as the Chancellor's Eminent Professor of Chemistry at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and William R. Kenan Jr. Distinguished Professor of Chemical Engineering at North Carolina State University.
DeSimone has published over 350 scientific articles and has over 200 issued patents in his name with over 200 patents pending. He was awarded the 2020 Harvey Prize for "significant contributions to materials science, chemistry, polymer science nano medicine, and 3D printing".
Education.
Joseph DeSimone received his BS in Chemistry in 1986 from Ursinus College in Collegeville, Pennsylvania and his Ph.D. in Chemistry in 1990 from Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Virginia.
Career.
DeSimone is a member of the National Academy of Medicine (2014), National Academy of Sciences (2012), and the National Academy of Engineering (2005). He is also a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (2005).
In the 1990s, at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, he developed an environmentally friendly manufacturing process that relies on supercritical carbon dioxide instead of water and bio-persistent surfactants for the creation of fluoropolymers or high-performance plastics, such as Teflon. In 2002 DeSimone, along with Dr. Richard Stack, a cardiologist at Duke University, co-founded Bioabsorbable Vascular Solutions (BVS) to commercialize a fully bioabsorbable, drug-eluting stent for the treatment of coronary artery disease. BVS was acquired by Guidant in 2003.
As a professor at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, DeSimone and members of his academic laboratory also developed the nanoparticle fabrication technology, PRINT (Particle Replication in Non-Wetting Templates), leading DeSimone and students to co-found the company, Liquidia Technologies in 2004. Liquidia develops PRINT particle-based medical treatments and became a publicly traded company in 2018. At the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, the PRINT technology also became a foundation for the Carolina Center for Cancer Nanotechnology Excellence funded by the National Cancer Institute.
In 2015, DeSimone and colleagues published a paper in "Science Magazine" on their invention of a rapid polymer 3D printing technology, Continuous Liquid Interface Production (CLIP). The company, Carbon, which DeSimone co-founded, now develops printers with the CLIP technology. The printers are used to make end-use parts and products in several industries, including by the companies Adidas, Resolution Medical, and Ford.
Awards and honors.
DeSimone is the recipient of the 2000 Oliver Max Gardner Award from the University of North Carolina; the 2002 Engineering Excellence Award by DuPont; the 2002 Wallace H. Carothers Award from the Delaware Section of the American Chemical Society; the 2002 John Scott Award presented by the Board of Directors of City Trusts, Philadelphia, given to "the most deserving" men and women whose inventions have contributed in some outstanding way to the "comfort, welfare and happiness" of mankind; the 2005 American Chemical Society Award for Creative Invention; the 2007 Collaboration Success Award from the Council for Chemical Research; the 2008 Lemelson–MIT Prize, the 2009 North Carolina Award; the 2009 NIH Director's Pioneer Award; the 2010 AAAS Mentor Award in recognition of his efforts to advance diversity in the chemistry PhD workforce; the 2012 Walston Chubb Award for Innovation; the 2014 American Chemical Society Kathryn C. Hach Award for Entrepreneurial Success; the 2014 Dickson Prize in Science; the 2014 IRI Medal; and the 2015 Kabiller Prize in Nanoscience and Nanomedicine.
DeSimone was awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation, the highest honor in the U.S. for achievements related to technological progress, by President Barack Obama at the White House in May 2016. In 2017, Dr. DeSimone received the 22nd Annual Heinz Award in Technology, the Economy, and Employment. In 2019, DeSimone received the Wilhelm Exner Medal in "Polymer Manufacturing". Also in 2019, he was named the U.S. Entrepreneur Of The Year, National Overall Award winner by Ernst & Young. For the years 2019-2020 he was awarded the Harvey Prize of the Technion in Israel. In 2021, he received the Charles Goodyear Medal from the American Chemical Society Rubber Division.


Melissa Skala

Melissa Caroline Skala is an American biomedical engineer who is a Professor at the Morgridge Institute for Research. Her research considers photonics-based technologies for personalised medical therapies. She is a Fellow of The Optical Society, SPIE and American Institute for Medical and Biological Engineering.
Early life and education.
As a child, Skala wanted to be an astronaut. She eventually studied physics at undergraduate at Washington State University, and during a summer research programme in biomedical optics decided to switch her attention to the emerging field of biomedical engineering. Skala graduated with a master's degree in biomedical engineering from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 2004. Skala was a graduate student at Duke University, where she developed fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) for the diagnosis of neoplasia. After graduating, Skala was made a postdoctoral research fellow at Duke University.
Research and career.
In 2010 Skala was appointed an Assistant Professor at Vanderbilt University. She spent six years at Vanderbilt before joining the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 2016. Skala is Director of the Morgridge Institute for Research Optical Microscopy in Medicine Lab. Her research makes use of photonics-based technologies to monitor the function and interaction of immune cells. In particular, Skala develops new treatments for cancer patients through the use of biopsies and autofluorescence. She has shown that non-invasive, label-free fluorescence imaging can search through a patient's T cells, identify which might be the most useful for immunotherapy.
She has specialised in the treatment of pancreatic cancer, taking biopsies from tumours and creating organoids for laboratory-based investigations. These organoids are optically accessible, meaning Skala can evaluate the efficacy of different drugs and identify the optimised treatment regimes for specific patients. Skala makes use of optical coherence tomography as an imaging tool during brain surgery and in the treatment of liver cancer.
Alongside personalised treatment regimes, Skala has studied disparities in pancreatic cancer treatment, and whether ethnicity, location and insurance coverage impacts health outcomes. She has shown that women, Black and Asian patients are less likely receive medical treatment than their white male counterparts. Skala has developed organ-on-a-chip devices to study pulsatile flow and how it impacts cardiovascular disease. She is particularly interested in better understanding the irregularities in endothelial cells that occur in babies with heart defects.


George Truskey

George Alexander Truskey is an American biomedical engineer noted for his research on transport phenomena in biological systems, cardiovascular tissue engineering, and cell adhesion to natural and synthetic surfaces.
Biography.
Truskey received his B.S.E. in Bioengineering from the University of Pennsylvania in 1979. He then received his Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1985 under the direction of Clark K. Colton. Upon graduation, he became a research fellow at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Experimental Pathology, as well as an assistant professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at Tufts University. In 1987, he joined the faculty at Duke University as an assistant professor of Biomedical Engineering. From 2008 to 2010, he was the president of the Biomedical Engineering Society (BMES). He is the current R. Eugene and Susie E. Goodson Professor of Biomedical Engineering and the senior associate dean of research in the Pratt School of Engineering. In 2014, he successfully chaired the committee to appoint a new provost for Duke University.
Notable research contributions.
Truskey is the author of over 100 peer-reviewed research publications, a biomedical engineering textbook entitled Transport Phenomena in Biological Systems, over 6 book chapters, and over 180 research abstracts and presentations. His textbook has received positive feedback, with reviewers stating "While there are several other excellent books available on 'Transport Phenomena,' this is the only one that truly integrates biomedical engineering and physiology with basic principles of transport phenomena in a comprehensive manner." He directed Duke University's Translational Research Partnership with the Coulter Foundation, which added $10 million to the endowment of Duke's Pratt School of Engineering. The goal of the partnership is to promote translational research in Biomedical Engineering.
Current research.
In 2012, Truskey was awarded 1 of 12 awards for NIH's new Tissue Chip and Drug Screening initiative. These projects were also featured in a special supplement in Stem Cell Research and Therapy.
His current research also includes point-of-care endothelial cell seeding of nitinol stents and titanium devices to reduce restenosis complications. His lab is also examining the effect of cell aging on endothelial permeability and mechanotransduction.