Bismarck-class battleship

The "Bismarck" class was a pair of fast battleships built for Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine" shortly before the outbreak of World War II. The ships were the largest and most powerful warships built for the "Kriegsmarine"; displacing more than normally, they were armed with a battery of eight guns and were capable of a top speed of . was laid down in July 1936 and completed in September 1940, while her sister s keel was laid in October 1936 and work finished in February 1941. The ships were ordered in response to the French s. They were designed with the traditional role of engaging enemy battleships in home waters in mind, though the German naval command envisioned employing the ships as long-range commerce raiders against British shipping in the Atlantic Ocean. As such, their design represented strategic confusion that dominated German naval construction in the 1930s.
Both ships had short service careers. "Bismarck" conducted only one operation, Operation Rheinübung, a sortie into the North Atlantic to raid supply convoys sent from North America to Great Britain. During the operation, she destroyed the British battlecruiser and damaged the new battleship in the Battle of the Denmark Strait. "Bismarck" was defeated and sunk in a final engagement after a three-day chase by the Royal Navy. Disagreements over the cause of the sinking persist with chiefly British sources claiming responsibility for the sinking of the ship. Evidence reviewed by Robert Ballard and James Cameron indicates that her loss was most likely due to scuttling as originally claimed by her surviving crew-members.
"Tirpitz"s career was less dramatic; she operated in the Baltic Sea briefly in 1941 before being sent to Norwegian waters in 1942, where she acted as a fleet in being, threatening the convoys from Britain to the Soviet Union. She was repeatedly attacked by the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force between 1942 and 1944, but she was not seriously damaged in these attacks. In 1944, Lancaster bombers hit the ship with two Tallboy bombs, which caused extensive internal damage and capsized the battleship. "Tirpitz" was broken up for scrap between 1948 and 1957.
Design.
A series of conceptual designs was begun by the "Reichsmarine" (Navy of the Realm) in 1932 to determine the ideal characteristics of a battleship built to the limit of the Washington Naval Treaty. These early studies determined that the ship should be armed with eight guns, have a top speed of , and have strong armor protection. At the time, the German Navy was constrained by the terms of the Treaty of Versailles that had ended World War I, which restricted battleships to a maximum displacement of . The sketch design for what became the "Bismarck" class was produced by the Construction Office in 1933 and the final design agreed 1936. Ministerial advisor Hermann Burckhardt was responsible for the project, and he later supervised the launching of "Tirpitz". During this period, the naval leadership grappled with a variety of problems, including the strategic and operational use of such a ship and the preferred propulsion system. War games suggested that the new battleships could be used both to attack French shipping at long range and to fight in a traditional battle against the French and Polish navies, then seen as the most likely threats. Due to the numerical inferiority of the German fleet and the assumption that naval battles would take place at relatively close range in the North Sea, the design staff placed great emphasis on stability and armor protection. Very thick vertical belt armor was adopted, along with heavy upper-citadel armor plating and extensive splinter protection in the bow and stern of the ships.
The "Reichsmarine" learned in June 1934 that Italy had decided to build a pair of 35,000-ton battleships armed with guns, which would surely provoke the construction of similar ships for the French fleet. To keep pace with their French rivals, the next two battleships built by Germany would need to be of a similar size and armament. At the same time, Germany was preparing to begin negotiations with Great Britain to secure a bilateral naval agreement that would effectively abrogate the naval restrictions of the Versailles treaty. In exchange, Germany would limit its fleet to a third the size of the Royal Navy. With the construction of at least two 35,000-ton battleships within reach, the German naval design staff began work in late October to lay out requirements for armament, armor, and speed. A preliminary design was completed in November, which resulted in a ship armed with eight 33 cm guns in four twin gun turrets, protected by an armored belt that was thick, and capable of a top speed of . The staff noted that such a ship would likely exceed the 35,000-ton limit, so triple or quadruple turrets should be considered to reduce the weight.
The design staff had decided that four twin turrets would provide the best solution to distribution of the main battery, as it would provide equal firepower forward and aft, as well as simplify fire control. This arrangement was similar to the last German battleships of the Imperial period, the . The similarity led to speculation that the "Bismarck"s were essentially copies of the earlier ships, though the arrangement of the main battery along with a three-shaft propulsion system were the only shared traits. As design work continued into January 1935, "Generaladmiral" (General Admiral) Erich Raeder, the commander of the "Reichsmarine", met with the various department and section leaders to refine the design requirements. The Naval Ordnance Department argued for an increase to 35 cm guns to keep parity with the expected Italian and French ships, which Raeder approved on 19 January. Another meeting in March saw the Ordnance Department raise the possibility of increasing the projected main battery again to , though Raeder initially rejected the idea owing to the significant increase in displacement. Nevertheless, though he formally approved the 35 cm version on 1 April, he allowed for the option to increase the main battery depending on foreign developments. Just a month later, Raeder decided to adopt the larger gun on 9 May, largely the result of Chancellor Adolf Hitler's preference for the 38 cm gun.
In June 1935, Germany signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, which allowed Germany to build battleships at a ratio of 35 percent to the total tonnage of the Royal Navy; this granted Germany effective parity with France, at least in terms of allotted tonnage. It also made Germany party to the international treaty system begun at the Washington Conference. By this time, the only significant issue to be settled was the propulsion system, which was largely dependent on strategic questions. Many senior officers in the navy envisioned using the "Bismarck" class in the Atlantic Ocean, which would require a long cruising range. The naval constructors examined diesel engines, steam turbines, and turbo-electric drive engines; the last system was the preferred choice, as it had been extremely successful in the two American s and the French passenger ship . The design staff were also required to provide sufficient range to the new battleships; they would have to make long voyages from German ports to reach the Atlantic, and Germany had no overseas bases where the ships could refuel. Raeder ordered the turbo-electric engines for the new ships, but the contracting manufacturer, Siemens-Schuckert, could not meet the navy's requirements and removed itself from the project less than a month before construction on "Bismarck" began, forcing the navy to revert to high-pressure steam turbines.
The displacement of "Bismarck" and "Tirpitz" was ultimately limited by the capabilities of existing infrastructure in Kiel and Wilhelmshaven, and the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, rather than international agreements. On 11 February 1937, the Construction Office informed Raeder that the ships could not displace more than due to harbor constraints and canal depths. The office also expressed a preference for building a third vessel and remaining within the 35,000-ton treaty limit. Admiral Werner Fuchs, the head of the General Command Office of the Oberkommando der Marine, advised Raeder and Hitler that modifications would be necessary to reduce the displacement to ensure the new ships met the legal requirements of the London Naval Treaty. Japan refused to sign the new treaty, and so on 1 April 1937 an escalator clause permitting treaty signatories to build ships up to a limit of went into effect. The final design displacement of was well within this limit, so Fuchs's modifications were discarded.
Even though Raeder and other senior naval officers envisioned using "Bismarck" and "Tirpitz" as commerce raiders against first French and later British shipping in the Atlantic, and in fact used them in that role during World War II, the ships were not designed for that mission. Their steam turbines did not afford the necessary cruising radius for such a role, and many of the decisions made for the ships' armament and armor layout reflect the expectation to fight a traditional naval battle at relatively close range in the North Sea. The disconnect between how "Bismarck" and "Tirpitz" were designed and how they were ultimately used represents the strategic incoherence that dominated German naval construction in the 1930s.
General characteristics.
The "Bismarck"-class battleships were long overall and long at the waterline. The ships had a beam of , and a designed draft of ; the draft at standard displacement was , and at a full load. The ships had a designed displacement of ; "Bismarck"s standard displacement was , and when fully laden, the ship displaced . "Tirpitz" was heavier, displacing and , respectively. The ships had a double bottom for 83 percent of the length of the hull, and twenty-two watertight compartments. The ships were 90 percent welded construction. The stern was weakly constructed; this had significant consequences on "Bismarck"s only combat mission. The building cost of "Bismarck" was 196 million Reichsmarks, while "Tirpitz" was slightly cheaper at 191.6 million Reichsmarks. Both ships had seven searchlights.
The ships were very stable, primarily because of their wide beam. The ships suffered from only slight pitching and rolling, even in the heavy seas of the North Atlantic. "Bismarck" and "Tirpitz" were responsive to commands from the helm; they were capable of maneuvering with rudder deflections as small as 5°. With the rudder completely over, the ships heeled only 3°, but lost up to 65% of their speed. The ships handled poorly at low speeds or when traveling astern. As a result, tugs were necessary in confined areas to avoid collisions or grounding. The ships had a standard crew of 103 officers and 1,962 enlisted sailors, although the crew of "Tirpitz" expanded to 108 officers and 2,500 men by 1943. The ships carried smaller boats, including three picket boats, four barges, one launch, two pinnaces, two cutters, two yawls, and two dinghies.
Although both ships were from the same class, there were substantial differences between "Bismarck" and "Tirpitz". The funnel cap on "Bismarck" was silver-grey, however the cap on "Tirpitz" was always black. The two cranes on "Bismarck" were sited further outboard and further aft, and "Tirpitz" mounted her two cranes on the superstructure deck. The flak guns (starboard II and port II) were mounted further inboard on "Bismarck". When "Bismarck" was launched she had a straight stem, and "Tirpitz" had the Atlantic bow. Both ships had a degaussing coil fitted prior to commissioning. "Bismarck" had a single aircraft hangar on each side of the funnel and a double hangar at the base of the mainmast. "Tirpitz" had two double hangars on each side of the mainmast base. Four minesweeping paravanes were carried, two on either side of the aft superstructure deck. These were used in conjunction with the bow protection gear.
Propulsion.
The "Bismarck"-class ships both had three sets of geared turbine engines; "Bismarck" was equipped with Blohm & Voss turbines, while "Tirpitz" used Brown, Boveri, and Co. engines. Each set of turbines drove a 3-bladed screw that was in diameter. The three-shaft arrangement was chosen over a four-shaft system, as was typically used on foreign capital ships, since it would save weight. At a full load, the high and medium-pressure turbines ran at 2,825 rpm, while the low-pressure turbines ran at 2,390 rpm. The ships' turbines were powered by twelve Wagner ultra high-pressure, oil-burning water-tube boilers. "Bismarck" and "Tirpitz" were originally intended to use electric-transmission turbines that would have produced apiece. These engines would have provided for a higher top speed, but at the cost of greater weight. The geared turbines were significantly lighter, and as a result had a slight performance advantage. The geared turbines also had a significantly more robust construction, and so they were adopted instead.
Both ships were rated for a top speed of ; "Bismarck" just exceeded this speed on sea trials, reaching , while "Tirpitz" made on trials. This difference was largely the result of a significant increase in horsepower for "Tirpitz", which reached , compared to for "Bismarck". The two ships had different fuel stores; "Bismarck" was designed to carry 3,200 tons of fuel oil, but could store up to 6,400 tons of fuel in a normal configuration; with extra fuel bunkers, the fuel carried could be increased up to 7,400 tons. "Tirpitz" was designed to carry 3,000 tons of fuel, and with additional bunkers, was able to store up to 7,780 tons. At 19 knots, "Bismarck" could steam for , and "Tirpitz" had a maximum range of at that speed.
Robert Ballard, the discoverer of "Bismarck", noted that the adoption of the three-shaft arrangement caused serious problems for "Bismarck". The center shaft weakened the keel, especially where it emerged from the hull. In addition to retaining greater hull strength, a four-shaft arrangement would have allowed a greater ability to steer the ship using only propeller revolutions than the three-screw system according to Ballard. During "Bismarck"s Atlantic operation in May 1941, the ship's rudder was disabled by a torpedo hit, and her course could not be corrected by altering screw revolutions; this problem had already been revealed during sea trials, but it could not be corrected.
Electric power was provided by a variety of generators, including two electric plants of four 500 kW diesel generators, two electric plants each with five 690 kW turbo-generators, one at 460 kW generator connected to a 400 kVA AC generator and one 550 kVA AC diesel generator. The generators were manufactured by Garbe, Lahmeyer & Co. The electrical plant provided a total 7,910 kW at 220 volts.
Armament.
Main battery.
"Bismarck"s and "Tirpitz"s main battery consisted of eight SK C/34 guns in four twin turrets, "Anton" and "Bruno" in a superfiring pair forward of the superstructure and "Caesar" and "Dora" aft. The turrets allowed elevation to 30°, which gave the guns a maximum range of . The guns fired projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 820 meters per second (2,690 ft/s). The main battery was supplied with between 940–960 shells total, for approximately 115–120 shells per gun. As with other German large-caliber naval rifles, these guns were designed by Krupp and featured sliding wedge breech blocks, which required brass cartridge cases for the propellant charges. Under optimal conditions, the rate of fire was one shot every 18 seconds, or three per minute. The gun turrets were electrically trained and the guns were hydraulically elevated. Gun elevation was controlled remotely. The turrets required each gun to return to 2.5° elevation for loading. "Tirpitz" was eventually provided with time-fuzed shells to combat the repeated Allied bombing attacks.
The "Bismarck"s' use of four twin turrets (the 4 × 2 configuration) was a design practice that hearkened back to the First World War. Almost all other post-1921 capital ships had triple or even quadruple turrets, which allowed for additional heavy caliber guns, while reducing the number of turrets. Fewer turrets reduced the length of the battleship's armored citadel (particularly magazine length and the armor needed to protect it) and shortened the vessel itself. Although triple turrets were considered for the "Bismarck"s, there were concerns that the extra barrel would lower the overall rate of fire in each turret, along with fears that a single well-aimed hit could disable a larger proportion of the ship's firepower. It was also felt that four twin turrets allowed for a better field of fire and a more effective sequence of salvos.
Secondary battery.
The ships' secondary battery consisted of twelve SK C/28 guns mounted in six twin turrets. The 15 cm gun turrets were based on the single-gun turrets used aboard the "Scharnhorst" class. They could elevate to 40° and depress to −10°; they had a rate of fire of around six shots per minute. The 15 cm guns fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of 875 m/s (2,871 ft/s). At maximum elevation, the guns could hit targets out to . As with the main battery guns, "Tirpitz"s 15 cm guns were later supplied with time-fused shells.
The decision to mount low-angle 15 cm guns has been criticized by naval historians, including Antony Preston, who stated that they "imposed a severe weight penalty", while American and British battleships were being armed with dual-purpose guns. Naval historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin note that "the use of dual-purpose armament would have possibly increased the number of anti-aircraft guns, but might have weakened the defence against destroyer attack, which German naval experts deemed more important."
Anti-aircraft battery.
As built, "Bismarck" and "Tirpitz" were equipped with an anti-aircraft battery of sixteen C/33 65-caliber guns in eight twin mounts, sixteen C/30 guns in eight dual mounts, and twelve C/30 guns in individual mounts. The 10.5 cm guns were the same weapons as used aboard the "Scharnhorst" class, and were mounted on the first superstructure deck. After "Bismarck" was sunk in 1941, two amidships guns on "Tirpitz" were moved forward so as to provide them with better fields of fire. The sixteen guns were guided by four fire-control directors, two just aft of the conning tower, a third positioned aft of the main mast, and the fourth directly behind turret Caesar. "Tirpitz"s directors were covered by protective domes, though "Bismarck"s were not.
The ships' 3.7 cm 83-caliber guns were twin mounted and placed in the superstructure. The mounts were hand-operated and automatically stabilized for roll and pitch. These guns were supplied with a total of 32,000 rounds of ammunition. "Bismarck" and "Tirpitz" were initially armed with twelve 2 cm guns in single mounts, though these were augmented over time. Both ships initially carried twenty-four thousand 2 cm rounds. "Bismarck" received a pair of quadruple gun mountings, for a total of twenty 2 cm guns. Over the course of her career, "Tirpitz"s 2 cm battery was increased to 78 guns in single and quadruple mountings. By 1944 she carried over ninety thousand 2 cm rounds.
Torpedo armament.
"Bismarck" had none, while "Tirpitz" was fitted with two banks of quadruple torpedo tube mounts between the end of 1941 and early 1942. "Tirpitz" carried 24 torpedoes.
Armor.
The armor plate was mainly Krupp cemented steel, which contained 0.34% carbon, 3.78% nickel, 0.31% manganese, and 2.06% chrome. This had two classifications, Ww for Wotan (soft) and Wh for Wotan hard. The "Bismarck"-class ships had an armored belt that ranged in thickness from ; the thickest section of armor covered the central portion, where the gun turrets, ammunition magazines, and machinery spaces were located. This portion of the belt was capped on either end by 220 mm thick transverse bulkheads. The ships had an upper deck that was thick, and an armored deck that was between thick amidships, and tapered down to at the bow and at the stern. The deck was mounted low in the hull, however, which reduced the volume of internal space protected by the armored citadel. This contrasted with contemporary British and American designs that featured a single thick armored deck mounted high in the ship.
The forward conning tower had a thick roof and thick sides, while the range finder had an armored roof 100 mm (4 in) thick and 200 mm (8 in) thick sides. The aft conning tower had much lighter armor: the roof was 50 mm thick and the sides were , while the aft range finder had a 50 mm thick roof and 100 mm sides. The main battery turrets were reasonably well-protected: the turret forward roofs were 180 mm (7.1 in) and roof rears were thick, the sides were 220 mm thick, and the faces were thick with thick shields. These armor thicknesses were less than those of contemporary British () and French ("Richelieu") designs. Conversely, the secondary battery was better-protected than most rivals. The 15 cm gun turrets had thick roofs, sides, and 100 mm fronts. The 10.5 cm guns had shields. The roof armour was 40mm (1.6 in).
Regarding underwater protection, the armor was resistant to a 250kg TNT explosive charge. Armour depth was 5.5 meters (216.5 in), with the longitudinal bulkhead thickness being 53mm (2.1 in). Overall bottom protection had a depth of 1.7 meters (66.9 in). The citadel could resist a hit from a 38cm shell of a weight of 1,016kg fired from ranges between 10,793 meters and 21,031 meters for the machinery, and from 23,319 meters for the magazine.
Construction.
"Bismarck" was laid down at the Blohm & Voss shipyard on 1 July 1936. The ship was assigned construction number 509, and the contract name "Ersatz Hannover", since she had been ordered as a replacement for the old battleship . The ship was launched on 14 February 1939 with Adolf Hitler in attendance. The granddaughter of the ship's namesake, Otto von Bismarck, christened the ship. As with other German capital ships, "Bismarck" was originally built with a straight bow. Experiences with other ships revealed the necessity of a clipper bow to prevent them from shipping too much water in heavy seas, so Blohm & Voss accordingly modified "Bismarck"s bow during the fitting-out process. The ship was commissioned into the fleet on 24 August 1940, with Kapitän zur See Ernst Lindemann in command. Three weeks later, the ship left Hamburg for trials in the Baltic Sea, before returning in December for final fitting-out work. Further trials and tests were conducted in the Baltic in March and April; "Bismarck" was placed on active status the following month.
"Tirpitz"s keel was laid at the "Kriegsmarinewerft" (Kriegsmarine Shipyard) in Wilhelmshaven on 20 October 1936, under construction number 128. She had been ordered under the contract name "Ersatz Schleswig-Holstein" to replace the obsolete battleship . "Tirpitz" was named for Grand Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the architect of the High Seas Fleet before World War I. His daughter, Ilse von Hassel, christened the ship on 1 April 1939. Fitting out work lasted until February 1941; "Tirpitz" was commissioned into the fleet on 25 February. A series of trials were then conducted, first in the North Sea and then in the Baltic.
Service history.
"Bismarck".
After "Bismarck" joined the fleet, plans were drawn up for a sortie into the North Atlantic, which was codenamed Operation Rheinübung (Rhine Exercise). The operation initially called for a force composed of "Bismarck", "Tirpitz", and the two s. "Tirpitz" was not yet ready for service by May 1941, and was being overhauled. The force was reduced to "Bismarck", , and the heavy cruiser . "Gneisenau" was damaged by a British bombing raid on Brest, so it was decided that only "Bismarck" and "Prinz Eugen" would conduct the operation. Admiral Günther Lütjens was placed in command of the pair of ships.
Early on the morning of 19 May, "Bismarck" left Gotenhafen, bound for the North Atlantic. While on the trip through the Danish Belt, "Bismarck" and "Prinz Eugen" encountered the Swedish cruiser in Kattegat; the sighting was passed through the Swedish Navy to the British naval attaché in Stockholm. The British Royal Air Force conducted aerial reconnaissance of the Norwegian fjord in which "Bismarck" and "Prinz Eugen" had stopped, to confirm the sighting. While in Norway, Admiral Lütjens failed to replenish the approximately of fuel "Bismarck" had spent on the first leg of the voyage.
By 23 May, "Bismarck" and "Prinz Eugen" had reached the Denmark Strait. That evening, the British cruisers and briefly engaged "Bismarck" before dropping back to shadow the German ships. At 06:00 the following morning, observers aboard "Bismarck" spotted the masts of the battlecruiser and the new battleship . The British ships steamed directly towards "Bismarck" and "Prinz Eugen", before attempting a turn to bring the two forces on a roughly parallel course. During the turn, at least one of "Bismarck"s 38 cm shells penetrated one of the aft ammunition magazines aboard "Hood", which caused a catastrophic explosion and destroyed the ship. There were only three survivors from "Hood"s crew of 1,421. The German ships then concentrated their fire on "Prince of Wales", which was forced to withdraw. "Bismarck" did not emerge unscathed; a direct hit on her bow from "Prince of Wales" caused "Bismarck" to take in some of water. The ship was also leaking oil, which made it easier for the British to track her.
After retreating, "Prince of Wales" joined "Norfolk" and "Suffolk"; the ships briefly engaged "Bismarck" at around 18:00. Neither side scored a hit. By this time, 19 warships were involved in the chase. This included six battleships and battlecruisers and two aircraft carriers, along with a number of cruisers and destroyers. After the second engagement with "Prince of Wales", Lütjens detached "Prinz Eugen" to continue the operation while "Bismarck" sailed for port. Shortly before midnight on 24 May, a group of Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers from 825 Naval Air Squadron on attacked "Bismarck". One torpedo struck the ship amidships, though without doing any serious damage. The shock from the explosion, coupled with "Bismarck"s maneuvering at high speed, damaged the temporary repairs that had stopped the flooding from the earlier battle damage. Her speed was reduced to to slow the flooding while repair teams fixed the reopened wounds.
Early on 25 May, "Bismarck" doubled back past her pursuers in a wide circle. The maneuver successfully shook off the British ships, which turned west in an attempt to find the ship. Despite the maneuver, Admiral Lütjens was unaware that he had evaded the British, and so sent a series of radio transmissions, which were intercepted by the British and used to gain a rough fix on his position. Due to the damage his ship had sustained, Lütjens decided to head for occupied France rather than continue his mission. On the morning of 26 May, a Coastal Command PBY Catalina flying boat spotted "Bismarck" to the north-west of Brest; she was steaming at a speed that would put her under the protective umbrella of German aircraft and U-boats within 24 hours. The only British forces close enough to slow her down were the aircraft carrier and her escort, the battlecruiser . At approximately 20:30, a flight of fifteen "Ark Royal"s 820 Naval Air Squadrons Swordfish torpedo bombers launched an attack on "Bismarck". Three torpedoes were believed to have struck the ship; the first two torpedoes failed to do serious damage to the ship, but the third hit jammed "Bismarck"s rudders hard to starboard. The damage could not be repaired, and the battleship began turning in a large circle, back towards her pursuers.
An hour after the Swordfish attack, Lütjens transmitted the following signal to Naval Group Command West: "Ship unable to maneuver. We will fight to the last shell. Long live the Führer." At 08:47 the following morning, the battleship opened fire, followed directly by . "Bismarck" replied three minutes later, though at 09:02 a 16-inch shell from "Rodney" destroyed the forward turrets. Half an hour later, "Bismarck"s rear turrets were silenced as well. At around 10:15, both British battleships had ceased fire, their target a burning wreck. The British were running dangerously low on fuel, but "Bismarck" had not yet been sunk. The cruiser fired several torpedoes into the crippled ship, which then took on a severe list to port. At approximately the same time as "Dorsetshire"s attack, engine room crew detonated scuttling charges in the engine rooms. There is still significant debate as to the direct cause of "Bismarck"s sinking. Only 110 men were rescued by the British before reports of U-boats forced them from the scene. A further five men were rescued by German vessels.
"Tirpitz".
"Tirpitz"s first action following her commissioning into the Kriegsmarine on 25 February 1941 was to act as a deterrent to a possible Soviet attempt to break out their Baltic Fleet following the German invasion of the Soviet Union. The ship was joined by the heavy cruiser and the light cruisers , , and . The force patrolled off the Åland Islands for a few days before returning to Kiel. On 14 January 1942, "Tirpitz" left German waters for Norway, escorted by the destroyers Richard Beitzen, Paul Jacobi, Bruno Heinemann and Z29, arriving at Trondheim on the 17th. The Germans used the ship as a fleet in being to tie down British naval forces to protect the convoy route to the Soviet Union and to deter an invasion of Norway.
On 6 March, "Tirpitz", escorted by the destroyers Z25, Friedrich Ihn, Paul Jacobi and Hermann Schoemann, launched a raid on the British convoys to the Soviet Union. The Germans attempted to intercept convoys PQ-12 and QP-8, but the inclement weather prevented them from finding the convoys. A Soviet freighter that was sailing independently of the convoys was sunk by the destroyers. The British submarines Trident and Seawolf reported "Tirpitz". A Home Fleet squadron consisting of the battleships "King George V" and "Duke of York", the aircraft carrier "Victorious", the heavy cruiser "Berwick" and destroyers failed to find the Germans. "Victorious" launched a strike of twelve Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers, however the aircraft were repulsed without having scored any hits on the German ships. "Tirpitz" and the destroyers were back in port by 12 March. The close call prompted Hitler to mandate that "Tirpitz" was not to attack another convoy unless its escorting aircraft carrier had been sunk or disabled.
The RAF launched a series of unsuccessful bombing raids against "Tirpitz" while she was moored in the Faettenfjord. The first on 30/31 January by seven Short Stirling of No 15 Squadron and nine Handley Page Halifax bombers of No 76 Squadron. Next came a raid by 36 Halifax bombers, took place on 30/31 March. On 27/28 April, "Tirpitz" was attacked by 26 Halifax bombers of No 4 Group and 10 Avro Lancasters of No 5 Group. This was followed on 28/29 April by 23 Halifaxes of No 76 Squadron and 11 Lancasters. A combination of heavy German anti-aircraft fire and poor weather caused all three missions to fail. Over the rest of the year and into late 1942, "Tirpitz" underwent a refit in the Faettenfjord, which lacked dockyard facilities of any type. As a result, the work was done incrementally; a large caisson was built to allow the rudders to be replaced. Naval historians William Garzke and Robert Dulin stated that "the repairs to this ship were one of the most difficult naval engineering feats of World War II."
In January 1943, "Tirpitz" emerged from the lengthy overhaul, after which she was transferred to Altafjord. Here, she participated in extensive training operations with "Scharnhorst" and the heavy cruiser , which lasted until the middle of the year. On 6 September, "Tirpitz", "Scharnhorst", and the destroyers Z27, Z29, Z30, Z31, Z33, Erich Steinbrinck, Karl Galster, Hans Lody and Theodor Riedel bombarded the island of Spitzbergen, which served as a British refuelling station. The two battleships destroyed their targets and returned safely to Altenfjord; this was the first time "Tirpitz" fired her main guns in anger. On 22/23 September, six British midget submarines attacked "Tirpitz" while at anchor. Only two of the submarines, X6 and X7 successfully planted explosive charges against the battleship's hull. The first charge exploded at 0812, the second shortly afterwards. Very extensive damage was sustained; nearly all electric lighting failed, partial flooding of electric switchboard room 2, flooding of the double bottom and fuel bunkers on the port side. Structural damage in the engine plant of the housing and components of the port turbine and condenser; the tail shafts were out of alignment, the thrust bearing was damaged, the propelllers were immobilised, and the port rudder assembly was flooded. The main gun turrets had been jolted off their roller tracks, only one rangefinder was still active, one 15cm turret was jammed, three of four fire control centres were damaged, the aircraft catapult was inoperable and two Arado 196 floatplanes were seriously damaged. Casualties were light however, one dead and 40 wounded. "Tirpitz" had been successfully neutralized. Over the next six months, a workforce of some 1,000 men effected the needed repairs, which were finished by March 1944.
The British resumed the series of air attacks almost immediately after repairs were completed. On 3 April, the Royal Navy launched Operation Tungsten, during which 40 fighters and 40 Barracuda bombers from six carriers attacked the ship. They scored 15 direct hits and two near misses, which caused heavy damage, killed 122 men, and wounded 316 more. The Royal Navy attempted to repeat the attack three weeks later on the 24th, but had to call the operation off due to inclement weather. Operation Brawn, another carrier-launched attack, followed on 15 May, but again weather interfered. Another carrier strike was attempted on 28 May, but it too was cancelled due to poor weather conditions. Operation Mascot, which was to be conducted by the carriers "Victorious", "Furious", and on 17 July, was frustrated by the heavy smokescreen over the battleship.
The Royal Navy launched the Operation Goodwood series in late August. Goodwood I took place on 22 August, with 38 bombers and 43 fighters from five carriers. The attackers failed to score any hits. Goodwood III followed two days later, with 48 bombers and 29 fighters from , "Furious", and "Indefatigable". The bombers made two hits on the ship, which did only minor damage. The last Royal Navy operation, Goodwood IV, followed on 29 August. Thirty-four bombers and 25 fighters, launched from "Formidable" and "Indefatigable", attacked the ship, though fog prevented them from scoring any hits.
The task of sinking "Tirpitz" now fell to the RAF, which performed three airstrikes armed with new Tallboy bombs. The first attack, Operation Paravane, came on 15 September, when a force of 27 Lancasters dropped a single Tallboy each; the bombers succeeded in hitting "Tirpitz" directly in the bow with one of the bombs. The bomb completely penetrated the ship and exploded directly under her keel. This caused of water to flood the ship; "Tirpitz" had again been disabled. A month later, on 15 October, "Tirpitz" was moved to Håkøya Island off Tromsø to be used as a floating artillery battery. Two weeks later, on 29 October, the British launched Operation Obviate, which consisted of 32 Lancaster bombers. Only a near miss was achieved, though it caused "Tirpitz" to take in more water. The last attack, Operation Catechism, took place on 12 November. Thirty-two Lancasters attacked the ship and scored a pair of direct hits and a near miss. The bombs detonated one of "Tirpitz"s ammunition magazines and caused the ship to capsize. Casualties were high: 1,204 men were killed in the attack. Another 806 men managed to escape the sinking ship, and a further 82 were rescued from the capsized hulk. The wreck was gradually broken up for scrap between 1948 and 1957.
Notes.
Footnotes
Citations


Crimea Shield

The Crimea Shield () was a World War II German military decoration. It was awarded to military personnel under the command of Field Marshal von Manstein, including supporting naval and air force units, who fought against Soviet Red Army forces between 21 September 1941 and 4 July 1942 and who captured the Crimea region ("Krim" in German). It was instituted on 25 July 1942. It was the most widely distributed of the various German campaign shields, with approximately 250,000 awarded.
Design.
The Wehrmacht's Army Group South advanced through the Crimean peninsula between the Autumn of 1941 and Summer of 1942. To commemorate the hostilities that ended with the German capture of Sevastopol on 4 July 1942, the Crimea Shield was created for all members of the armed forces under area commander Field Marshal Erich von Manstein.
The shield is of stamped sheet metal with a bronze finish. It is headed by the German eagle clutching a laurel wreath surrounding a swastika, flanked by the dates ' and '. This sits on a backdrop of the Crimean peninsula, bearing the word . It was issued mounted on a cloth backing that matched the uniform of the appropriate armed service: army, navy or air force, and sewn onto the left upper sleeve of the tunic and greatcoat. Where the recipient received more than one campaign shield, the earlier was worn above any later awards.
After an initial ban, the Federal Republic of Germany re-authorised the wear of many World War II military decorations in 1957. These included the Crimea Shield, re-designed by removing the eagle and swastika emblem. Members of the Bundeswehr could wear the shield on the ribbon bar, represented by a small replica of the award on a field grey ribbon.
Criteria for award.
The Crimea Shield could be awarded to all members of the Wehrmacht and to Luftwaffe and other units affiliated to the campaign between 21 September 1941 and 4 July 1942. The following conditions needed to have been met for the award:
Romanian troops serving in the Crimea were also eligible.
Gold version.
A special pure-gold version of the Crimea Shield was also produced. It was first bestowed upon Marshal Ion Antonescu, the military dictator of Romania, at the end of the Siege of Sevastopol (3 July 1942). It was awarded to him in Bucharest by Erich von Manstein, on Adolf Hitler's behalf. The second and last "Golden Krimschild" was awarded to von Manstein himself, on 24 November 1942.


Bob Fitch

Robert E. Fitch (July 28, 1919 – April 15, 2003) was an American athlete and coach. He broke the world record in the discus throw in 1946 with a mark of 54.93 m (180 ft  in). He developed a rotational technique referred to as the "Minnesota Whip" and delivered a masters thesis on the subject. His training mate Fortune Gordien went on to break world records and win Olympic medals.
Fitch was a two-time American champion in the discus (1942 and 1946) and was the winner of the 1942 NCAA Championships. He was also part of the University of Minnesota championship-winning college football. He later became golf coach for Indiana University and developed the team into a top level NCAA side, winning six Big Ten Conference titles during his tenure from 1957 to 1989 – a record for an Indiana coach.
Career.
Born in Audubon, Iowa, Fitch was the son of a veterinarian and spent the first ten years of his life in Audubon before moving with his family to Minneapolis. He went on to study at the University of Minnesota. He was part of the college football team as an end for the Minnesota Golden Gophers at a time when the team ranked first in the nation and overseen by coach Bernie Bierman. Greater success came in the discus throw with the track and field team. He won the NCAA Championship title in 1942 – Minnesota's first such champion. He also won the AAU national championship meet that year. After graduating college, he was drafted in the seventh round of the 1942 NFL Draft by the Washington Redskins, but chose not to pursue professional football.
After graduating, he worked for the United States Coast Guard for several years before returning to education at Minnesota, starting a master's degree in physiology. It was in this second stint at the university that his discus throwing reached its peak. Under the guidance of Jim Kelly, Minnesota's track coach, he began experimenting with technique to find a better way of throwing the discus. Kelly credited Fitch with inventing a method of throwing called the "Minnesota Whip", which is now the accepted style worldwide. This was a development for the sport, which frequently still had rough earth in throwing circles. It was Fitch that mastered the technique first – on June 8, 1946 he threw a discus throw world record of 54.93 m (180 ft  in), bettering the mark of Adolfo Consolini by more than half a meter. He secured the United States discus title for a second time that year.
Gordien went on to follow in Fitch's footsteps by winning the NCAA title, and had three straight wins at the competition from 1946 to 1948. Fitch was unable to start international competition – amateur athletes were self-funded at the time and he needed a job to live – but Gordien went on to win the Pan American Games title in 1955 and two Olympic Games medals in 1948 and 1956. The younger Gordien became the more decorated of the two, winning seven national titles between 1947 and 1954, and broke the world record on four occasions, his best being in 1953.
Working with Gordien while continuing his studies, Fitch produced his masters thesis "Mechanical analysis of the discus throw" in 1951. He also served as an assistant college football coach for Indiana University. He asked the Indiana athletic director if he could stop coaching to focus on his doctoral studies. The director instead offered him a position to reorganise the school's golf course, which was becoming a financial drain. Fitch accepted the position, becoming the Indiana Hoosiers head coach for golf in the process.
As the head of Hoosiers golf, he transformed both the team and turned the course into a profitable venture. He led the Hoosiers to the Big Ten Conference runner-up spot in 1958 and they won the title for the first time in 1962, then again in 1968. The team topped the Big Ten championships four times in the 1970s. On top of his six conference titles, he also led the Hoosiers to the runner-up spot ten times between 1958 and 1984. He took the previously undecorated Hoosiers into NCAA Division I Men's Golf Championships competition on twelve occasions, with the team's best placing being sixth in 1974. Despite strong results in sporting achievements, Fitch emphasised academics first and foremost for student-athletes. His charges remembered Fitch pushing them hard both physically and academically, in the style of his previous coach Bernie Bierman. After his retirement in 1989, Fitch later reflected "I'm mighty proud that for 10 straight years my golf team led all athletic teams on campus in grade-point average and only three players didn't graduate in the 34 years I coached golf". His 32 years as Hoosiers golf head coach made him the longest-tenured coach in Indiana University history.
On August 29, 1942 Fitch married Helen Dichensheets. He died on April 5, 2003 in Bloomington, Indiana.


John L. Barkley

John Lewis Barkley (August 28, 1895 – April 14, 1966) was a United States Army Medal of Honor recipient of World War I. Born in Blairstown, Missouri, near Holden, Barkley served as a Private First Class in Company K, 4th Infantry Regiment, 3rd Division. He earned the medal while fighting near Cunel, France, on October 7, 1918. His autobiography, "Scarlet Fields: The Combat Memoir of a World War I Medal of Honor Hero," details his service leading up to and following his Medal of Honor action. The book draws comparisons as the American literary response to "All Quiet on the Western Front." Barkley died in 1966, and is buried in Forest Hill Cemetery, Kansas City, Missouri.
Medal of Honor citation.
Rank and organization: Private First Class, U.S. Army, Company K, 4th Infantry, 3rd Division. Place and date: At Cunel, France; October 7, 1918. Entered service at: Blairstown, Missouri. Birth: August 28, 1895; Blairstown, Missouri. General Orders: War Department, General Orders No. 44 (April 2, 1919).
Citation:
Military awards.
Barkley's military decorations and awards include:


Mirror Master

Mirror Master is the name of several fictional supervillains appearing in comic books published by DC Comics. He is a recurring foe of the Flash with considerable technical expertise and skills involving the use of mirrors. Three individuals have donned the guise of Mirror Master (with a couple being members of the Rogues at different times). In 2009, Mirror Master was ranked as IGN's 79th Greatest Comic Book Villain of All Time.
Both incarnations of Mirror Master have made several appearances in DC-related media, with Sam Scudder being portrayed in live-action by David Cassidy in the 1990 "The Flash" series and by Grey Damon in the 2014 "The Flash" series, while Efrat Dor portrayed a gender-swapped version of Evan McCulloch, renamed Eva McCulloch / Mirror Monarch, and reimagined as a CEO of her own company in the 2014 series.
Publication history.
The Sam Scudder version of Mirror Master first appears in "The Flash" #105 and was created by John Broome and Carmine Infantino.
The Evan McCulloch version of Mirror Master first appears in "Animal Man" #8 and was created by Grant Morrison and Chas Truog.
Fictional character biography.
Sam Scudder.
Samuel Joseph Scudder is a simple convict, but has the goal to learn how to get inside the reflection of a mirror. Stumbling into a hall of mirrors, he experiments and discovers a way to get in his own reflection. He uses this power to become the criminal Mirror Master, and is a frequent foe of the Flash. Scudder dies around the same time as Barry Allen, alongside the Icicle during the "Crisis on Infinite Earths". Later, Captain Boomerang briefly assumes Scudder's identity, becoming the second Mirror Master. He uses this as an alternate identity with which to commit crimes, thus not alerting his teammates in the Suicide Squad to his extracurricular activities. Pre-"Crisis", he studies mirrors after someone's reflection is held inside a mirror he was working on in the prison workshop. He then learns how to create creatures of light.
In the "Blackest Night" crossover event, Sam Scudder is reanimated as an undead Black Lantern during the Blackest Night and is preparing an attack on the Rogues with the other deceased members, who are also reanimated.
The Rogues visit Sam Scudder's old hideout and unveil a giant mirror with the words "In Case of Flash: Break Glass". It has been shown in several past incidents that something lives in the mirror universe that is deadly. The Rogues learn that the giant mirror is actually a slow-acting poison.
In "The New 52", a 2011 reboot of the DC Comics universe, Sam Scudder is the current Mirror Master. It is revealed that a year prior he, Captain Cold, Heat Wave and Weather Wizard underwent a procedure at an unknown facility that would merge them with their weapons, giving them superpowers. The procedure went awry, causing an explosion at the facility. Golden Glider, who was also at the facility, was caught in the explosion. The five were given superpowers but each in a twisted manner. Heat Wave gains pyrokinesis but at the cost of his body being burned, Weather Wizard becomes emotionally tied to his weather wand causing constant depression, Sam would be forever trapped in Mirror World, and Golden Glider becomes an astral projection of herself. It is implied that Sam is in a romantic relationship with her. The Rogues blame Captain Cold for this and have turned against him because of it.
Evan McCulloch.
Scottish mercenary Evan McCulloch is left as a baby on the doorstep of an orphanage run by a Mrs. McCulloch, with nothing but his first name and a photograph of his parents. He grows up fairly normal and around age 8, Evan is sexually assaulted by an older boy. Evan, in self-defense, drowns the boy in a creek. Never caught, Evan leaves the orphanage at 16 with his parents' photograph.
He settles in Glasgow, taking up a life that leads to crime and eventually takes up employment as an assassin. He becomes one of the most renowned mercenaries in the United Kingdom.
One day, he has two hits scheduled, and due to an eye injury is barely able to make out his second target. After firing his shot, he recognizes the target as his father. At the funeral, Evan sees his mother.
Over the next few days, he tries to work up the courage to see her, but visits her too late, discovering that she has committed suicide. Stricken with grief at the loss of both parents, Evan decides to turn himself in but is instead picked up by a consortium of U.S. government and big business interests, who offer him the costume and weapons of the original Mirror Master in exchange for his services.
His first assignment is to scare Animal Man into abandoning his animal-rights stance, a mission he fails thanks to the hero's wife. After he is fired and replaced for refusing to actually kill Animal Man's wife and children, McCulloch helps Animal Man track and fight the same men who gave McCulloch his weapons, but his heroism is short-lived. He continued to work as a criminal and a supervillain-for-hire. On occasion, he has also worked out of costume as a mercenary in Britain.
He moves to Keystone City and comes into conflict with Wally West, now the third Flash. He discovers a "Mirror Dimension" which enables him to travel through any reflective surface. During the events of "Underworld Unleashed," the Rogues accept him as Scudder's successor. After being betrayed by Neron, McCulloch and four of the other Rogues die and go to Hell, only to return after a confrontation between Neron and the Flash. For a brief time, McCulloch is a member of Lex Luthor's initial Injustice Gang and fights the Justice League, but abandons the team when Batman offers to pay him twice what Luthor was offering.
During a brief team-up with Captain Cold, Mirror Master was contacted by Brother Grimm about a plan to permanently get rid of the Flash, but when Grimm betrayed Cold and McCulloch by trapping them in a pocket mirror universe in Linda Park's diamond ring, they joined forces with Wally to escape this dimension and confront Grimm's theft of Keystone City, Wally even briefly lending speed to the two Rogues so that they could ensure that Keystone's citizens were all in the city when it returned to Earth while Wally fought Grimm.
He works with Blacksmith in her takeover of Keystone and Central City. When her plan fails, he joins Captain Cold's gang and battles a cocaine addiction. He seems to sober up since the death of Captain Boomerang.
McCulloch joins Alexander Luthor, Jr.'s Secret Society after the Rogue War. He, Captain Boomerang and Captain Cold battle the Outsiders before "Infinite Crisis". In "Infinite Crisis" #7, they all participate in the Battle of Metropolis, being defeated by the Martian Manhunter.
One Year Later, Evan is a member of the new Suicide Squad,again using cocaine. He is seen taking incriminating photos of Sasha Bordeaux and Michael Holt together. The Rogues are then persuaded by Inertia, an enemy of Bart Allen, the Flash IV, to kill the Flash. This makes all the Rogues angry for being tricked when they find out they murdered a kid.
Mirror Master is one of the exiled villains in the Salvation Run along with his fellow Rogues Captain Cold, Heat Wave, Weather Wizard, and Abra Kadabra.
After the villains escape, he joins Libra's Secret Society of Super Villains.
Evan teams with Doctor Light to recover Metron's chair, and are challenged by, but defeat, the "League of Titans", a Teen Titans spin-off team. Evan persuades the rapist Dr. Light not to sexually assault the unconscious heroines. Evan and the rest of the Rogues reject Libra's offer, wanting to stay out of the game, and take their revenge on Inertia.
Mirror Master and the Rogues visit his predecessor Sam Scudder's old hideout and unveil a giant mirror with the words "In Case of Flash: Break Glass" written on it. Afterward, McCulloch is still on the run with the Rogues.
Powers and abilities.
Mirror Master uses mirrors that produce fantastic effects such as hypnotism, invisibility, holograms, physical transformations, communications and travel into other dimensions (other parallel universes or planes of existence).
Evan McCulloch uses a laser pistol.
Other versions.
Tangent Mirror Master.
A Mirror Master featured in "Tangent: Superman's Reign" #1, has a body made of a glass-like substance, and was able to create portals to other worlds in the Multiverse.
League Busters Mirror Master.
A fourth Mirror Master who wears a purple outfit briefly appeared as a member of the "League-Busters" in "Justice League International" v2, #65 (Jun 1994).
"New Rogues".
The New Rogues version of Mirror Master is Mirror Man, an unknown man who possesses Mirrors Stolen. He is not to be confused with the Batman villain of the same name.
"Flashpoint".
In the alternate timeline of the "Flashpoint" event, Evan McCulloch is imprisoned in the mirrors in a place called the Mirrorverse. It is mostly assumed Captain Cold killed him, and he cannot leave the Mirrorverse or he will die. Anyone else entering the Mirrorverse will die also. Mirror Master assembles the Rogues members Weather Wizard, Tar Pit, and Fallout. Mirror Master then escapes from Iron Heights and pursues revenge against Captain Cold for imprisoning him. Captain Cold kills the Rogues members and then enters Mirror Master's Mirrorverse without warning. Mirror Master attempts to kill him, but Captain Cold pushes him out of the Mirrorverse and he dies.
25th Century Mirror Master.
A futuristic version Mirror Monarch is a heroic Mirror Master as part of the 25th Century cops known as The Renegades from Professor Zoom's future, but was found dead by Barry Allen in public by a shadowy figure in a Flash suit. The Monarch's allies, from a futuristic, heroic incarnation of the Rogues, arrest Barry. However, after witnessing Barry's selfless heroism when their attempt to arrest him is interrupted by Captain Boomerang, the future version of the Top explains that Barry will kill Mirror Monarch because he mistook him for Mirror Master; the 'In Case of Flash' mirror will release the powerful demons known as the Mirror Lords, one of which will possess Iris, with Barry being forced to kill Mirror Master in order to send the demons back into the mirror or face Iris being permanently possessed by the Mirror Lord, only to kill Mirror Monarch by accident. When the Flash enters the gateway of unveil a giant mirror, but there are no demons or Mirror Lords only for it to show him a vision of his mother and he is caught by the Renegades. The Flash learns that Top is actually framing him for a crime he committed. The Flash is taken to a 25th-century courtroom and tells them, despite the historical evidence that the Mirror Lords did not escape and travels back to the 21st century to fight the Top. The Top reveals that he killed Mirror Monarch prevent the Flash from finding out that the Top's ancestor was the real murderer case which would cost him his job. The Renegades then take the Top back to the 25th century to be tried and the Flash finds the real murderer.
"Injustice: Gods Among Us".
Mirror Master appears in "" comic, leading a team hired by the US government through several shell companies to kidnap Superman's parents, Jonathan and Martha Kent, from their home in Smallville. Mirror Master kicks down the door to their bedroom, ordering them down on the floor. When they do not act fast enough, he shoves Martha down, prompting Jonathan to punch him despite McCulloch's warning. Jonathan is restrained on Mirror Master's orders and then smacked upside the head by Mirror Master's rifle, knocking him out. McCulloch orders his men to torch the house before he and his men retreat into his mirror dimension with the Kents in tow. When Superman arrives at his parents burning house Mirror Master greets him through a mirror, mocking Superman, unfazed by his threats. He tells Superman that he will never see his parents again but that they are safe, despite the fact Scudder had to rough up Superman's father. In a rage, Superman smashes the mirror, but Mirror Master is unaffected. He goes on, telling Superman "Simple message: Stop what you're doing". He advises Superman to stay out of government business and that if he persists, they will start "sending little pieces of one of them. Maybe we'll even let you choose which one". Mirror Master is the subject of a Justice League manhunt in Central City, with several of the Flash's Rogues Gallery being interrogated by the League for McCulloch's location. It is ultimately Captain Cold who reveals where Mirror Master is: a bar in Keystone City. The Flash and Wonder Woman crash the bar and make for McCulloch sitting at the bar, but it is revealed that it is not Mirror Master but a projection from the nearby wall mirror. Mirror Master mocks Flash, but the Speedster has the last laugh when Raven appears behind McCulloch and forces him out halfway from the mirror. Wonder Woman forces the location of Superman's parents out of Mirror Master with her Lasso of Truth and the threat of smashing the mirror he is only halfway out of. Mirror Master quickly reveals that the Kents are in Bolivia. Wonder Woman then orders Mirror Master to strip himself of his weapons so they can use his tech to free the Kents. Though he is not seen after this, he is most likely incarcerated. He then reappears in "Year Five", where he is one of the thousands of villains released from Superman's prison by Plastic Man. He is next seen along his fellow Rogues as their new leader, due to Captain Cold going into hiding, as they meet with Batman, who offers them to help him take down Superman's Regime, due to the Rogues' code against killing, which Batman respects. Mirror Master, along with Weather Wizard, Heat Wave, and Golden Glider, attack several Regime buildings in a coordinated attack around the world. They then attack a Regime base in Central City, evacuating the soldiers first before they set to blow it up. Bizarro though shows up and attacks them. During the fight, Scudder gets knocked unconscious, leaving Golden Glider to try to figure out how to use his belt to escape while Heat Wave and Weather Wizard distract Bizarro. When Weather Wizard calls Bizarro a fake, an angry Bizarro lashes out and incinerates him and Heat Wave with his heat vision. Golden Glider, though, manages to escape through a mirror portal with Scudder and they report about what happened to Batman as they mourn Rory and Mardon. They are then seen holding a memorial for Rory and Mardon at a bar, where it is revealed that Scudder and Glider are in a relationship as they share a kiss. The Flash then visits the bar to pay his respects, but Scudder and Glider angrily berate him, thinking he has come to brag and turn them in, but Flash reveals that he has always respected the Rogues and came by to pay his respects. He also agrees to not turn them in as he, Scudder, and Glider share a beer together.
In other media.
Music.
There is a reference to Mirror Master in the Ookla the Mok song "Stranger In The Mirror". He is referred to in the song lyrics as "the villain in issue 104 of The Flash", even though Mirror Master actually debuted in issue 105.


359th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)

The 359th Infantry Division () was a German infantry division in World War II. It was formed on 11 November 1943 in Radom and surrendered to Soviet forces near Braunau, present-day Broumov in the Czech Republic.


List of U-boat regions

The following list of U-boat regions pertains to the higher echelon commands for the U-boat flotillas during World War II. The regions were organized between 1941 and 1944 and were commanded by an officer known as the "Führer der Unterseeboote" for his particular region. Regions could contain as few as two flotillas with as many as ten.
History.
Before the outbreak of World War II, individual U-boat flotillas were under the direct command of a single "Führer der Unterseeboote (F.d.U.)" in the person of Karl Dönitz. who had also acted as commander of the 1st U-boat Flotilla. In 1939, Dönitz's title was renamed as the "Befehlshaber der Unterseeboote (B.d.U.)" to which all the flotillas directly reported.
The first U-boat region was created in Italy in November 1941 to provide local command authority for the U-boat flotillas operating in the Mediterranean Sea. The largest region, "Region West" headquartered in Paris, was established in 1942 to oversee U-boat activity during the Battle of the Atlantic.
Later war U-boat regions were created between 1943 and 1944 due to the various operational needs of the U-boat flotillas. The standard rank for a U-boat region commander was either "Fregattenkapitän" or "Kapitän zur See". Towards the end of the war, a new office known as "Kommandierender Admiral der Unterseeboote", was established by the Kriegsmarine to direct overall submarine operations. An office known as the "Operationsabteilung (b.d.U.op)" coordinated specific U-boat tactics.
In the last weeks of the war, when U-boat operations were mostly restricted to the North Sea around Norway, the "Oberkommando der Marine (OKM)" became the direct commander for the U-boat regions. Some flotillas overlapped between regions due to shifting base assignments and operational tasking.
Atlantic U-boat regions.
U-boat Region West - "Führer der Unterseeboote West (F.d.U.West)"
The "F.d.U. West" region was the largest U-boat command established during the Second World War. The region began in July 1942 as a legal affairs office known as the "Gericht des Führer der Unterseeboote West". In 1943, the U-boat region was expanded under the command of "Kapitän zur See" Hans-Rudolf Rösing and moved its command to Angers.
At its height, the U-boat Region West held authority over ten U-boat flotilla. Day-to-day operations were overseen by two staff offices ("1. und 2. Admiralstabsoffizier"). The command also maintained an engineering office, administrative office, medical department, as well as the original legal office.
Specific assigned flotillas were:
In August 1944, as the Germans withdrew from France, the staff of region west evacuated to Norway. The command technically existed until the end of the war, although its authority now overlapped with the North Sea U-boat regions.
U-boat Region Central - "Führer der Unterseeboote Mitte (F.d.U.Mitte)"
This U-boat region was formed in May 1944 solely for combating the anticipated Allied invasion of France. No flotillas were ever assigned and the region disbanded after the Invasion of Normandy.
Mediterranean U-boat regions.
U-boat Region Italy - "Führer der Unterseeboote Italien (F.d.U.Italien)"
Existed from 1941 to 1943 before being renamed as the U-boat Region Mediterranean.
U-boat Region Mediterranean - "Führer der Unterseeboote Mittelmeer (F.d.U.Mittelmeer)"
Received the 23rd and 29th flotillas from the Italian region due to restructuring in 1943. Eventually dwindled to only three U-boats assigned to the entire region. By the end of the war, the region was a paper command placed under the authority of the "Admiral Ägäis Division", part of "Marinegruppenkommando Süd".
North Sea U-boat regions.
U-boat Region East - "Führer der Unterseeboote Ost (B.d.U.Ost)"
U-boat Region Norway - "Führer der Unterseeboote Norwegen (F.d.U.Norwegen)"
The last U-boat region to be in operation as of May 1945 when Germany surrendered.
U-boat Region North Sea - "Führer der Unterseeboote Nordmeer (F.d.U.Nordmeer)"
Made up of retreating U-boat flotillas during the German withdrawal from Occupied France. Shared exactly the same operational area with U-boat Region Norway and technically had command over the same flotillas.
Asian U-boat regions.
U-boat Area Southeast Asia - "Chef im Südraum"
This was a special U-boat region established in December 1944 was an operational command authority for the "Monsun Gruppe". The region was headquartered in Penang and was under the command of Fregattenkapitän Wilhelm Dommes.
Training flotillas.
The U-boat training flotillas were originally organized under a single U-boat training division ("Unterseebootslehrdivisionen") and were later placed under the command of an office known as the "F.d.U. Ausb. - Führer der U-Ausbildungsflottillen".
Unassigned flotillas.
Flotillas 15, 16, and 17 were scheduled for activation between 1942 and 1943 but were never organized and thus never assigned to a region. Flotilla 28 was ordered in 1944 and likewise never formed.
The 30th U-boat Flotilla operated independently in the Black Sea and was never assigned to a U-boat region. The last flotilla of the war (the 33rd U-boat Flotilla) also operated independently of a region.


Deutschland-class battleship

The "Deutschland" class was a group of five pre-dreadnought battleships built for the German (Imperial Navy), the last vessels of that type to be built in Germany. The class comprised , the lead ship, , , , and . The ships closely resembled those of the preceding , but with stronger armor and a rearranged secondary battery. Built between 1903 and 1908, they were completed after the launch of the revolutionary British all-big-gun battleship in 1906. As a result, they had become an obsolescent design before entering service. The ships nevertheless saw extensive service in the High Seas Fleet, Germany's primary naval formation, through the late 1900s and early 1910s, when they were used for training including overseas cruises.
Following the start of World War I in July 1914, the German fleet adopted a strategy of raids on the British coast, which the five "Deutschland"-class ships supported. These operations culminated in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916, where all five ships saw action, despite their marked inferiority to British dreadnoughts. Regardless, they intervened to protect the battered German battlecruisers from their British counterparts, allowing them to escape. In the confused night actions, "Pommern" was torpedoed and sunk by a British destroyer. After the battle, the four surviving ships were removed from front-line service and used for coastal defense through mid-1917. Thereafter, "Hannover" alone remained on patrol duty, while the rest were used as barracks or training ships. After Germany's defeat, the Treaty of Versailles permitted the postwar navy to retain several old battleships for coastal defense, including the four "Deutschland"-class ships.
"Deutschland" was broken up in 1920–1922, but the remainder were modernized and returned to active service in the mid-1920s. Their activities mirrored those of the pre-war period, including overseas training cruises and extensive fleet maneuevers. "Hannover" was decommissioned in 1931 and was to be converted into a target vessel, although this was never done. She was eventually broken up in 1944–1946. "Schlesien" and "Schleswig-Holstein" remained in service for training duties through the 1930s into the Nazi-era (War Navy). Both ships saw limited duty during World War II, including bombardment of Polish forces during the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and the occupation of Denmark and invasion of Norway in April 1940. Both ships were sunk near the end of the war.
Design.
In 1900, (Vice Admiral) Alfred von Tirpitz, the State Secretary for the (Imperial Naval Office), secured the passage of the Second Naval Law, an amendment to the First Naval Law of 1898. The previous law had called for a total strength of nineteen battleships by 1 April 1904, which was reached with the five s, but the new law increased the projected battle fleet to a total of thirty-eight. The first tranche of vessels—the —introduced the gun, marking a significant increase in firepower over earlier German battleships. The naval command had originally intended to build ten battleships of the "Braunschweig" type, starting with the 1901 fiscal year with two ships built per year, but ultimately they only built five. During construction, a series of minor improvements were incorporated into subsequent designs, and by the time work began on the second vessel of the 1903 fiscal year, a more significantly altered design had been prepared.
A series of changes were made to the secondary and tertiary batteries for what became , the lead ship of the new class. The designers discarded the wing turrets that the "Braunschweig"s had used for some of their secondary guns; the turrets had required support structures whose elimination saved weight and allowed the designers to place the secondary battery entirely in casemates in a more efficient arrangement. Removing the turrets freed up deck space that was used to add another pair of guns and place the forward set of four in protective embrasures. "Deutschland" and her sister ship were designed for use as flagships for the fleet and a squadron, respectively, which required additional accommodation spaces. After "Deutschland", which mixed set of fire-tube and water-tube boilers, the remaining four members of the class received a uniform set of water-tube boilers. These were lighter, and the weight savings were passed on to the armor layout in the form of a slightly thicker armor belt and a strengthened upper deck.
The "Deutschland" design was criticized in Germany at the time the ships were being built, as the trend in all the major navies pointed to battleships armed with all-big-gun batteries; indeed, work on what would become the of dreadnought battleships had already begun in 1903. Tirpitz had insisted on building the "Deutschland"s in large part due to the fact that they were the largest design that could fit in Germany's existing naval infrastructure, most significantly the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal. Widening the canal and improving harbor facilities would be excessively expensive and Tirpitz sought to avoid another budgetary fight with the so soon after the passage of the 1900 law. As a result, they were rendered obsolescent almost immediately by the commissioning of the British in December 1906.
General characteristics.
The "Deutschland"-class ships were long at the waterline and overall. They had a beam of and a draft of forward. The ships were designed to displace normally, and displaced up to at full load. Their hulls were built with transverse and longitudinal steel frames, to which steel hull plates were riveted. The hull was divided into twelve watertight compartments, although "Pommern" had thirteen compartments. The hull included a double bottom that ran for 84 percent of the length of the ship.
Because "Deutschland" and "Hannover" were completed as flagships, they had an enlarged superstructure aft to house the larger command staffs they typically carried. "Deutschland" had a larger forward conning tower that incorporated a central fire-control position; "Pommern" received the same conning tower, but the other three ships had shorter towers without the fire-control room. All five members of the class were fitted with short military masts with lighter poles atop them that were fitted with spotting tops. The ships handled less easily than the preceding "Braunschweig"-class ships, though they suffered less marked weather helm. Their metacentric height was . Steering was controlled with a single rudder.
The ships' crews numbered 35 officers and 708 enlisted men. When one of them was a squadron flagship, the crew was augmented by 13 officers and 66 enlisted men; while serving as a second command ship, 2 officers and 23 enlisted men were added to her standard crew. After she became a training ship in 1935, "Schlesien"s crew consisted of 29 officers and 559 enlisted men, plus up to 214 cadets. "Schleswig-Holstein" differed somewhat; her crew as a training ship numbered 31 officers and 565 men and up to 175 cadets. "Deutschland" and her sisters carried a number of smaller vessels, including two picket boats, one admiral's barge, two launches, one pinnace, two cutters, two yawls, and two dinghies. The boats were handled with a pair of large cranes amidships; "Deutschland" had hers located further forward than the other members of the class.
Machinery.
"Deutschland" and her sisters were equipped with three triple-expansion steam engines that each drove a screw propeller; the outer screws were three-bladed and in diameter, while the center shaft used a four-bladed screw that was in diameter. Each engine was placed in its own engine room. "Deutschland" was fitted with eight water-tube boilers and six fire-tube boilers but the rest of the vessels received twelve water-tube models, all of which were coal-fired. These were divided into three boiler rooms, each of which was ducted into a funnel.
"Deutschland"s engines were rated at , while the other four ships' engines were rated at . The design speed for all of the ships was , though on trials all five ships exceeded both figures, with "Deutschland" reaching for and the other members of the class making for . "Schleswig-Holstein" was the fastest member of the class.
"Deutschland" was designed to carry of coal and the other members could carry , though additional spaces could be utilized as fuel storage, which increased fuel capacity to . This provided a maximum range of at a cruising speed of . Electrical power was supplied from four turbo-generators that supplied each at 110 volts.
Armament.
The ships carried the same main battery as the preceding "Braunschweig" class. The primary armament comprised four 28 cm SK L/40 quick-firing guns in hydraulically operated twin turrets. The turrets were placed on the centerline, one forward and one aft. The DrL C/01 turrets allowed the guns to depress to −4 degrees, and elevate to +30 degrees, which enabled a maximum range of . The guns fired shells at a muzzle velocity of . Ammunition storage amounted to 85 shells per gun.
The secondary battery consisted of fourteen 17 cm SK L/40 quick-firing guns, all of which were mounted in casemates. Five were placed on either side in the upper deck and the remaining four were located a deck above in the superstructure, one on each corner. The guns fired shells at a muzzle velocity of . These guns were chosen as they used the largest shell that could be reasonably handled without machinery. The guns could elevate to 22 degrees, which allowed a maximum range of . Their rate of fire was approximately one shot every nine to ten seconds, and each gun was supplied with 130 shells.
For defense against torpedo boats, the ships carried a tertiary battery of twenty-two 8.8 cm SK L/35 quick-firing guns. These were placed in casemates in hull sponsons, in embrasures in the superstructure, and in open mounts. The guns fired shells at a muzzle velocity of , and could be elevated to 25 degrees for a maximum range of . The ammunition allotment for each gun was 130 shells. The ships were temporarily fitted with four machine cannon, but these were quickly removed.
They were also armed with six torpedo tubes, with a total of 16 torpedoes. The tubes were all placed below the waterline, with one in the bow, one in the stern, and two on each broadside. These weapons were long and carried a TNT warhead. They could be set at two speeds for different ranges. At , the torpedoes had a range of . At an increased speed of , the range was reduced to .
Armor.
The "Deutschland"-class ships were equipped with Krupp cemented armor. "Deutschland" had a slightly different arrangement in the belt armor and the citadel in the superstructure. "Deutschland"s belt was at the waterline and tapered to on the lower edge. Her sister ships' belts was increased in thickness to at the waterline and down to on the bottom edge. In all five ships, this section of armor extended from the forward barbette to the aft one. On either end, the belt was reduced to . In all ships, the belt was backed by a layer of teak that was thick. Above the belt was a strake of armor that protected the casemate guns; in "Deutschland", this was thick, while on the other four ships the armor was 170 mm thick. All members of the class were fitted with cork cofferdams, a common practice at the time intended to prevent uncontrolled flooding in the event of shell hits.
All five ships had an armored deck that was thick. The deck sloped downward at the sides to connect with the lower edge of the belt, which provided a second layer to contain shell fragments from hits that penetrated the belt. The sloped section was in the bow and stern sections where the belt was thinner, and reduced to behind the main section of belt. Their forward conning towers were protected by on the sides and 80 mm on the roofs, while the rear conning towers had worth of armor on the sides. The main battery gun turrets had armored sides that were thick and roofs that were thick. The barbettes that held the turrets were armored with thick steel.
Modifications.
The ships of the "Deutschland" class were modified several times over their long careers. Modifications to the ships' masts were made between 1909 and 1914, shifting positions for searchlights and adding a fully enclosed spotting top to the fore mast. "Schlesien" and "Schleswig-Holstein" had eight oil-fired boilers installed in place of eight of their coal-fired boilers in late 1915. "Deutschland" had two of her 8.8 cm guns removed in late 1916 and a pair of 8.8 cm guns in anti-aircraft mountings were installed. Beginning in 1917, some of the ships began to be partially or fully disarmed so the guns could be used ashore during the war. "Deutschland" was completely disarmed in late 1917 and "Schleswig-Holstein" was reduced to just four SK L/45 guns and four 8.8 cm SK L/30 guns in 1918. "Schlesien" was similarly re-armed for training duties.
As the ships were returned to active service in the early 1920s, they received a series of modernizations and alterations to their armament. "Hannover", which had not been disarmed, carried her original battery of 28 cm and 17 cm guns, though her 8.8 cm battery had been reduced to eight weapons by the time she was recommissioned in 1921. All six of her torpedo tubes were removed at that time. "Schlesien" and "Schleswig-Holstein" were modernized in the mid-1920s, which included the re-installation of their 28 cm batteries, but in place of their 17 cm guns they each received fourteen SK L/45 guns, along with eight 8.8 cm guns as on "Hannover". They had large tubular fore masts installed, which had large spotting tops. "Schlesien" had her two forward funnels merged together, while "Schleswig-Holstein" had hers similarly modified in 1928. "Schlesien" had her forward sponsons plated over.
In 1930 and 1931, the ships were modified again. "Hannover" had a pair of above-water torpedo tubes fitted and four of her 8.8 cm guns were replaced with 8.8 cm anti-aircraft guns, and a tubular mast like her sisters' was installed. She also had her bow sponsons plated over. "Schlesien" and "Schleswig-Holstein" each lost two of their 15 cm guns, received four of the 50 cm torpedo tubes, and exchanged all of their 8.8 guns for four 8.8 cm anti-aircraft guns. Both ships had another pair of 15 cm guns removed in 1935; "Schlesien" received four anti-aircraft guns at that time and "Schleswig-Holstein" received four the next year. Also in 1936, "Schleswig-Holstein" had her sponsons removed. As part of her conversion into a training ship, "Schlesien" had her remaining coal-burning boilers removed in 1938 and the boiler room became an accommodation space and training room for the cadets. The uptake from that boiler room was removed, leaving just two straight funnels.
After the start of World War II in September 1939, both ships underwent a series of changes to their armament, particularly to their anti-aircraft batteries. "Schleswig-Holstein" received an additional eight 2 cm guns that year. In February 1940, "Schlesien" received four L/83 anti-aircraft guns. In April, the ship had her remaining ten 15 cm guns removed, while "Schleswig-Holstein" only lost three of hers. In August, "Schlesien" had her 3.7 cm guns taken off to strengthen the anti-aircraft defenses of Hamburg and "Schleswig-Holstein" was almost completely disarmed, retaining only her 28 cm guns. The following year, she received four 8.8 cm guns, four 3.7 cm guns, and three 2 cm guns. By 1943, "Hannover" had been reconstructed for her planned role as a target ship, which involved removing most of her superstructure and all of her guns, though the turrets remained. "Schlesien" had the 3.7 cm guns returned that year, and in 1944, a pair of Bofors guns were added, along with sixteen more 2 cm guns, bringing the total to twenty barrels. Later that year, the 8.8 cm guns were replaced with six 10.5 cm anti-aircraft guns, her 4 cm battery was increased to seven or ten guns, and her 2 cm battery altered to either eighteen or twenty-two guns. "Schleswig-Holstein" was under refit to be similarly equipped, but work was not completed before her loss; she was slated to receive six of the 10.5 cm guns, ten 4 cm guns, and twenty-six of the 2 cm guns in addition to the four 3.7 cm weapons.
Service history.
After "Deutschland" entered service in 1906, she replaced the battleship as the fleet flagship, a role she held until 1913, when the new dreadnought took her place. With the commissioning of the rest of the class, the Home Fleet was reorganized as the High Seas Fleet in 1907. The vessels were assigned to I Battle Squadron and II Battle Squadron during this period, ultimately being concentrated in II Squadron along with three of the "Braunschweig"-class ships by the early 1910s as the "Nassau" and s filled the ranks of I Squadron. "Hannover" served as the flagship of I Squadron and later as the flagship of the deputy commander of II Squadron.
The ships' peacetime careers were fairly uneventful, consisting primarily of routine fleet training. Squadron and fleet exercises typically took place in April and May every year, a major fleet cruise generally followed in June and July, after which the fleet assembled for the annual large-scale maneuvers in late August and September. The major fleet cruises typically went to Norwegian waters in company with Kaiser Wilhelm II's yacht, though in 1908 and 1909, the fleet embarked on long-distance cruises out into the Atlantic, making visits to mainland Spain, the Canary Islands, and the Azores. These came at the insistence of the fleet commander of the time, Prince Heinrich, who foresaw the need to operate at greater distances. During the summer cruise in July 1914, the fleet remained off Norway owing to the July Crisis that resulted in the start of World War I.
World War I.
Following the start of the war, the German fleet adopted a strategy of raids on the British coast to try to draw out portions of the British Grand Fleet where they could be defeated in detail. The battlecruisers of I Scouting Group conducted the raids while the battle squadrons of the High Seas Fleet stood by in support; these included the raid on Yarmouth in November 1914, the raid on Scarborough, Hartlepool and Whitby in December, and bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft in April 1916. All five members of the class operated with the fleet during this period, though the anticipated battle failed to materialize during these operations. While not conducting fleet operations, the ships of II Squadron also patrolled the mouth of the river Elbe to support the light forces defending the German Bight; they also conducted training exercises in the relative safety of the Baltic Sea. In February 1915, "Deutschland" became the flagship of II Squadron.
In late May 1916, the Germans planned another operation to draw out the British fleet, which resulted in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June. During the operation, the ships were commanded by (Rear Admiral) Franz Mauve. Being significantly slower than the rest of the German line of battle, the ships of II Squadron saw no action during the first stages of the engagement. Toward the end of the fleet battle on the evening of 31 May, the five "Deutschland"-class ships came to the aid of the mauled battlecruisers of I Scouting Group, when Mauve placed his ships between them and their counterparts in the British Battle Cruiser Fleet. In the growing darkness, the Germans had difficulty making out their targets and failed to score any hits; the British, however, managed to hit three of the "Deutschland"s. "Pommern" was forced briefly to haul out of line. Mauve then disengaged his ships, ending their only clash with British capital ships during the battle. As the German fleet withdrew overnight, II Squadron took up positions toward the rear of the German line. British light forces repeatedly clashed with the German fleet, and in one of these night actions, "Pommern" was hit by a torpedo from the destroyer , detonating one of her ammunition magazines and destroying the ship.
The German experience at Jutland demonstrated that pre-dreadnoughts had no place in a fleet action with dreadnoughts, and so the "Deutschland"s spent the rest of 1916 on coastal defense duty in the Elbe and occasionally in the Danish straits. In August 1917, II Battle Squadron was disbanded and most of the ships were reduced to secondary duties, being partially disarmed to free up guns for use ashore. "Deutschland" and "Schleswig-Holstein" became barracks ships and "Schlesien" served as a training ship. "Hannover" remained in active service for guard duty in the straits.
Inter-war years.
Following Germany's defeat in the war, the fleet was significantly reduced in size by the Treaty of Versailles, which permitted the Germans to retain six battleships of the "Braunschweig" and "Deutschland" classes, with another two in reserve. "Deutschland" was discarded in 1920 and was broken up by 1922, but the other three members of the class were kept by the postwar navy, which was reorganized as the "Reichsmarine" (Navy of the Realm). All three ships were heavily modernized in the early 1920s to prepare them for active service. "Hannover" was the first member of the class to return to service, in 1921, becoming the fleet flagship, a role she alternated with . "Schlesien" and "Schleswig-Holstein" remained out of service until the middle of the decade, when they were rearmed; "Schleswig-Holstein" became the flagship on her recommissioning in 1926. "Hannover" was modernized again in the late 1920s after "Schlesien" recommissioned to take her place.
Throughout the 1920s, the ships took part in a training routine similar to that of the prewar years, including training exercises throughout the year and long-range training cruises that went as far as the Mediterranean Sea. The ships frequently went to Norwegian waters, as they had done under the Imperial government. "Hannover" was decommissioned in September 1931 and saw no further service, though there were plans to convert her into a target ship. "Schleswig-Holstein" and "Schlesien" remained on active duty into the early 1930s, but by 1933, the new heavy cruiser had been commissioned, and so "Schlesien" was decommissioned to be converted into a dedicated training ship. "Schleswig-Holstein" followed for a similar rebuilding in 1935–1936. The two ships spent the rest of the decade training naval cadets, including a lengthy voyage to North and South America for "Schlesien" in 1936–1937. During this period, Germany came under the control of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party, which set upon a rearmament strategy and an aggressive foreign policy that led to the outbreak of World War II in September 1939.
World War II.
"Schleswig-Holstein" steamed to Danzig, Poland in late August 1939, and was moored off the Polish military depot at Westerplatte on the morning of 1 September. She opened fire on the base in Westerplatte, firing the first shots of World War II. The initial German attack was repulsed, leading to heavy fighting that "Schleswig-Holstein" supported for the next week, and culminating in the Polish surrender on 7 September. Later that month, "Schlesien" joined her sister in bombarding Polish positions along the coast, including the Hel Fortified Area. The ships returned to training duties after the Polish campaign, and in early 1940, "Schlesien" was used as an icebreaker in the Baltic Sea.
"Schleswig-Holstein" and "Schlesien" then participated in the occupation of Denmark and invasion of Norway, respectively, in April 1940. Neither vessel saw action during the operations. Afterward, "Schleswig-Holstein" was again removed from front-line service and used as a training ship, while "Schlesien" resumed her ice-breaking duties. In March 1941, "Schlesien" escorted mine-layers in the Baltic. After returning from this operation at the end of the month, she became a stationary training ship in Gotenhafen. "Schleswig-Holstein" was briefly reactivated in early 1942 for ice-breaker service in the Baltic, and in May she accidentally collided with a shipwreck in the Gulf of Riga, forcing a return to Gotenhafen for repairs. The ship was thereafter reduced to training duties.
"Hannover" was broken up starting between 1944 and 1946. In mid-1944, "Schlesien"s and "Schleswig-Holstein"s anti-aircraft armament was considerably strengthened to allow them to be used as air defense ships in the port of Gotenhafen. "Schleswig-Holstein" was attacked by RAF bombers in December 1944, and although she was sunk in shallow water, her weapons could still be used. After a fire permanently disabled the ship, her crew was sent ashore to assist in the defense of Marienburg. "Schlesien" provided fire support for German troops in the vicinity of Gotenhafen between 15 and 21 March 1945. In April, "Schlesien" was moved to Swinemünde to restock her ammunition supply as well as evacuate 1,000 wounded soldiers from the front. On 3 May she struck a mine outside Swinemünde; the following day she was scuttled by her crew in shallow water. Both ships were broken up in situ after the war.


List of Roman legions

This is a list of Roman legions, including key facts about each legion, primarily focusing on the Principate (early Empire, 27 BC – 284 AD) legions, for which there exists substantial literary, epigraphic and archaeological evidence.
When Augustus became sole ruler in 31 BC, he disbanded about half of the over 50 legions then in existence. The remaining 28 legions became the core of the early Imperial army of the Principate (27 BC – AD 284), most lasting over three centuries. Augustus and his immediate successors transformed legions into permanent units, staffed by entirely career soldiers on standard 25-year terms.
During the Dominate period (near the end of the Empire, 284–476), legions were also professional, but are little understood due to scarcity of evidence compared to the Principate. What is clear is that late legions were radically different in size, structure, and tactical role from their predecessors, despite several retaining early period names. This was the result of the military reforms of Emperors Diocletian and Constantine I, and of further developments during the 4th century.
The legions were identified by Roman numerals, though the spelling sometimes differed from the modern "standard". For example, in addition to the spellings "IV", "IX", "XIV", "XVIII" and "XIX", the respective spellings "IIII", "VIIII", "XIIII", "XIIX" and "XVIIII" were commonly used.
Late Republican legions.
Until the Marian reforms of 107 BC, the Republican legions were formed by compulsory levy of Roman citizens (who met a minimum property qualification) and raised whenever it was necessary. Usually they were authorized by the Roman Senate, and were later disbanded.
Gaius Marius' reforms transformed legions into standing units, which could remain in being for several years, or even decades. This became necessary to garrison the Republic's now far-flung territories. Legionaries started large-scale recruiting of volunteer soldiers enlisted for a minimum term of six years and a fixed salary, although conscription was still practiced. The property requirements were abolished by Marius, so that the bulk of recruits were henceforth from the landless citizens, who would be most attracted to the paid employment and land offered after their service.
In the last century of the Republic, proconsuls governing frontier provinces became increasingly powerful. Their command of standing legions in distant and arduous military campaigns resulted in the allegiance of those units transferring from the Roman state to themselves. These "imperatores" (lit: victorious generals, from the title imperator they were hailed with by their troops) frequently fell out with each other and started civil wars to seize control of the state, such as Sulla, Caesar, Pompey, Crassus, Mark Antony and Octavian (later Augustus, the first Emperor himself). In this context, the "imperatores" raised many legions that were not authorised by the Senate, sometimes having to use their own resources. As civil wars were resolved, many of these "private" units would be disbanded, only for more to be raised to fight the next civil war. By the time Augustus emerged as sole ruler of Rome in 31 BC, over 50 legions were in existence, many of which were disbanded.
The legions included in the following list had a long enough history to be somehow remarkable. Most of them were levied by Julius Caesar and later included into Octavian's army, some of them were levied by Marc Antony.
Early Empire legions.
Codes for Roman provinces in the table:
Legend.
Legion number and title (cognomen).
The numbering of the legions is confusing, since several legions shared the same number with others. Augustus numbered the legions he founded himself from I, but also inherited numbers from his predecessors. Each emperor normally numbered the legions he raised himself starting from I. However, even this practice was not consistently followed. For example, Vespasian kept the same numbers as before for legions he raised from disbanded units. Trajan's first legion was numbered XXX because there were 29 other legions in existence at the time it was raised; but the second Trajanic legion was given the sequential number II. XVII, XVIII and XIX, the numbers of the legions annihilated in the Teutoburg Forest, were never used again. (These three legions are without titles, suggesting that in disgrace their titles may have been deliberately forgotten or left unmentioned.) As a result of this somewhat chaotic evolution, the legion's title became necessary to distinguish between legions with the same number.
Legions often carried several titles, awarded after successive campaigns, normally by the ruling emperor e.g. XII Fulminata was also awarded: "paterna" (fatherly), "victrix" (victorious), "antiqua" (venerable), "certa constans" (reliable, steadfast) and "Galliena" (Gallienus '). "Pia fidelis" (loyal and faithful), "fidelis constans" and others were titles awarded to several legions, sometimes several times to the same legion. Only the most established, commonly used titles are displayed on this table.
The geographical titles indicate
Legions bearing the personal name of an emperor, or of his "gens" (clan) (e.g. "Augusta", "Flavia") were either founded by that Emperor or awarded the name as a mark of special favour.
The title GEMINA means that two diminished legions have been combined to make one new one.
Main legionary base.
This shows the "castra" (base) where the legion spent the longest period during the Principate. Legions often shared the same base with other legions. Detachments of legions were often seconded for lengthy periods to other bases and provinces, as operational needs demanded.
Emblem.
Legions often sported more than one emblem at the same time, and occasionally changed them. Legions raised by Caesar mostly carried a bull emblem originally; those of Augustus mostly a Capricorn
Date disbanded.
For legions that are documented into the 4th century and beyond, we do not know when or how they were terminated. For legions disappearing from the record before 284, the reason (certain or likely) is given as:
Castra legionaria.
Indicates the bases ("castra") and/or provinces where the legion was based during its history, with dates.
Notes.
Contains points of note, including explanation of titles and details of a legion's fate.
Province names and borders are assumed throughout the Principate period as at 107, during the rule of Trajan, and after the annexation of Dacia and Arabia Petraea. The map above shows provinces at the end of Trajan's reign, 117. They are the same as in 107, except that Armenia and Mesopotamia have been annexed (they were abandoned soon after Trajan's death); and Pannonia has been split into two (the split occurred ). In reality provincial borders were modified several times between 30 BC and 284: this explains any discrepancy with other sources, as to a legion's location at a particular date.
Late Empire legions.
Diocletian reorganized the Roman army, in order to better counter the threat of the Germanic peoples of northern Europe as well as that of the Persians from the East. The army was formed by "border" and "field" units.
The "border" ("limitanei") units were to occupy the limes, the structured border fortifications, and were formed by professional soldiers with an inferior training.
The "field" units were to stay well behind the border, and to move quickly where they were needed, with both offensive and defensive roles. Field units were formed by elite soldiers with high-level training and weapons. They were further divided into:
These units usually numbered between 300 and 2,000 soldiers and some of them kept their original numbering schemes. The primary source for the legions of this era is the "Notitia Dignitatum", a late 4th-century document containing all the civil and military offices of both halves of the Roman Empire (revised in for the Western Empire).