Tower House, Brighton

Tower House is a former private house in the Withdean area of the English coastal city of Brighton and Hove. Built in 1902 for a former jeweller to King Edward VII, it remained in private ownership until it was converted into flats and a daycare centre in 1988. It is one of the few large houses and villas to survive in the high-class Withdean area—many were demolished in favour of blocks of flats after World War II—and it has been described as "Brighton's finest example of a grand Edwardian house". English Heritage has listed the building at Grade II for its architectural and historical importance.
History.
Withdean was originally an outlying hamlet in the large Sussex parish of Patcham, adjacent to Preston parish which was itself immediately north of Brighton. The area was merely "a scattering of farms" until the 19th century, when its position on the main road to London and extensive tree planting carried out from the 1790s made it an attractive place for wealthy people to build large houses and villas. The road was originally a turnpike and had a tollgate at Preston; after it was moved north of Withdean in 1854, people living to the south no longer had to pay tolls to travel into Brighton, further improving the desirability of the largely undeveloped land. Around the same time, the Withdean Strawberry Gardens were developed as an attraction for visitors (especially from Brighton, by now a rapidly growing resort) and residents. They were renamed the Tivoli Gardens in about 1852, and remained a popular attraction throughout the 19th century. By the end of the century, though, they were surrounded by large houses, and in 1888 they were sold off for development.
In 1902, the larger part of the Tivoli Gardens site was bought by 55-year-old James John Savage, former jeweller to King Edward VII, who wanted a large house to retire to with his family. He commissioned architects George Burstow & Sons to design a 12-bedroom house "with a tower, which would offer panoramic views over the surrounding neighbourhood". The building was completed in the same year, and he moved in with his wife, three daughters and a large retinue of servants. He lived there until his death in 1922, and his wife stayed for another 11 years until her death. In 1934 the house was sold at auction to another wealthy local family, the Berrymans, who had lived at a villa called Norbury on the other side of London Road but who had lost much of their land when the road was widened. They paid £4,000 for Tower House.
The Auxiliary Territorial Service requisitioned the house during World War II, but it was returned to the Berryman family afterwards and stayed in private ownership until 1988. In that year the house, its grounds and the adjacent Tivoli House (built to the immediate north of Tower House in 1903, and latterly a Brighton Borough Council residential home) were acquired by developers Cussins Green Homes. They demolished Tivoli House and built modern blocks of flats (Robinia Lodge and Tower Gate) and a terrace of houses on the site and in the grounds. Tower House itself was retained, though, and was converted into ten flats and a daycare centre. The exterior was restored at the same time, and Tower House now appears as it would have done when built. Brighton and Hove City Council operate the day centre, which in 2011 was one of four "in-house building-based day services for older people" in the city. In November 2015, the council stated it was considering closing the day centre and moving the services offered to other locations or outsourcing them to the private sector. Impending cuts to Government grants were identified as the reason.
The upper floors of the building now have ten flats. One, the Crow's Nest, covers four storeys including the tower and the space inside its lead-covered cupola. "One of Brighton's most unique properties", it was put up for sale in 2007. In the same year, another two-bedroom flat in the building was on the market for £349,950.
Tower House was listed at Grade II by English Heritage on 26 August 1999. This status is awarded to "nationally important" buildings of "special interest". As of February 2001, it was one of 1,124 Grade II-listed buildings and structures, and 1,218 listed buildings of all grades, in the city of Brighton and Hove. The house is also within the boundary of the Preston Park Conservation Area, one of 34 conservation areas in Brighton and Hove. Originally designated in 1970 as part of the Preston Village Conservation Area, this was split into a separate area in 1988. The conservation area appraisal states that "the most regrettable aspect" of the late-20th-century development surrounding Tower House is the creation of a wide access road which breaks the long run of original boundary walls fronting London Road.
Architecture.
Tower House, "Brighton's finest example of a grand Edwardian house", is an "imposing and richly detailed" building which—despite being set back from the main London Road—forms a local landmark due to its tall corner tower with a large lead cupola. This has ogee curves and sits on top of an octagonal timber roof lantern. The house is constructed of red brick in the Edwardian/Queen Anne Revival style. It rises to 3–4 storeys and has a six-window range. The four-storey tower at the south corner is recessed; the main building has a symmetrical façade composed of two projecting gabled wings with two-storey bay windows and a central recessed three-bay entrance wing. This has a porch in the form of a three-arched arcade, above which projects a wooden balcony. On the roof between the gables is a small dormer window with a curved gable on which is painted the year 1902 and the Savage family's monogram. Further back on the south side is a gabled single-storey conservatory. To the rear are another two gabled wings, the gables tile-hung and with cornices. There is also a wide ironwork veranda. Some original features survive inside, including an arched fireplace, decorative panelling and a Doric-columned arcade, but the central divided staircase and a stained glass ceiling which illuminated the entrance hall were removed during the renovations of 1988.
The house "contained all the necessary rooms for living in traditional Edwardian style. There were 17 rooms excluding the "compact domestic offices" for servants, and the grounds covered . The auction particulars of 1934 stated that there were eight "principal" and four "secondary" bedrooms, "three bathrooms, four reception rooms, spacious hall, billiard room, ... garage, conservatory and outbuildings". Unusual features typically seen only in much more modern houses included an underfloor heating system and a combined bath and shower unit.


Santa Cecilia Chapel

The St Cecilia Chapel ( or "ta' Santa Ċilja") is a former Roman Catholic chapel in the limits of Għajnsielem, Gozo, Malta, dedicated to Saint Cecilia. It was built in around 1540, but it was deconsecrated in 1644, being converted into an ancillary building for the nearby Santa Cecilia Tower.
The only surviving medieval chapel on Gozo, it was severely damaged in an arson attack in 2007 and a partial collapse in 2008. The chapel was then passed to the NGO Wirt Għawdex, who restored it between 2008 and 2011. Since its inauguration in 2012, the restored chapel is open to the public once every month.
History.
The date of construction of the Santa Cecilia Chapel is unknown, but it is believed to date back to around 1540. The area around the chapel was referred to as "Santa Cecilie del Mugiarro" or in variants of that name in notarial documents dated 1424 and 1569. The surrounding area is still known as "ta' Santa Ċeċilja" or "ta' Santa Ċilja". The oldest recorded reference to the building itself was made in a pastoral visit by Bishop Baldassare Cagliares in 1615.
In 1613, the knight Fra Bernardo Macedonia built a tower nearby and it was called the Santa Cecilia Tower after the chapel. The chapel was described as being in good condition in 1630, and it was maintained through donations in the next few years. However, it was in a bad state by 1635, and it was deconsecrated in 1644. The chapel became an ancillary building to the tower, at times probably housing a mule-driven mill.
The chapel (along with the tower) was scheduled as a Grade 1 monument in 1996, and it was expropriated by the government in 1997, although the order was not executed due to a compensation issue and the chapel remained in use as an animal shelter and a store until the early 21st century. Its interior was burnt down by vandals in August 2007, causing irreparable damage in the process. Part of the west wall and some roof slabs collapsed after heavy rainfall in January 2008.
Emergency stabilization works were carried out after the 2008 collapse, and later that year the chapel was entrusted to the NGO Wirt Għawdex. Restoration continued until 2011, and it was inaugurated on 24 March 2012. The restoration works were carried out by Wirt Għawdex and the Ministry for Gozo and were sponsored by the Baron Group of Companies, with additional funds coming through eco-gozo projects and The Rotary Club Gozo. The chapel was converted into a venue for cultural activities including lectures, exhibitions and concerts.
The chapel remains under the care of Wirt Għawdex, and it is open to the public free of charge on the last Saturday of every month from 11:00 to 13:00. Group visits can be arranged by appointment.
The chapel is now also listed on the National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands.
Architecture.
The Santa Cecilia Chapel has a simple design, and it is a typical example of Maltese vernacular architecture from the late medieval period. It is the best preserved unaisled chapel in Malta, which were once common throughout the islands. It is the only surviving medieval chapel in Gozo.
The building has an almost perfect square plan, measuring , having a slight pitch on the roof. The chapel is constructed out of local limestone, with the façade being constructed out of ashlar blocks while the other sides are built out of rubble stonework. The chapel's floor is about below ground level, so it is led to by three steps. The interior is divided into four bays by three stone arches, which support the building's roof. A small window above the door is the only source of natural light in the chapel, apart from the doorway.


Elm Ridge Plantation

Elm Ridge Plantation, also known as the Hatch House and Holbrook House, is a historic forced-labor farm and plantation house in rural Hale County near Greensboro, Alabama. The one-story raised cottage-style house was built about 1836. It was added to the Alabama Register of Landmarks and Heritage on November 2, 1990 and to the National Register of Historic Places on October 11, 1991, due to its architectural significance.
Its property includes five contributing buildings and one other contributing structure.


Luzhi

Luzhi Town () is a famous historic old town located in the Wuzhong District, 18 km east of Suzhou, Jiangsu province, China.
Etymology.
It was also known as Puli (), an ancient name for this town. This river town was named after a Tang dynasty recluse poet Lu Guimeng who retired in this town. Lu Guimong had a pseudonym: Mr. Pu-li ().
At that time, Puli consisted of two districts: Puli () and Liuzhi (). Liuzhi meant that there were six straight rivers in the town. In the Suzhou dialect, "liu" was pronounced as "lu", and () pronounced as Luzhi. At the end of the Qing dynasty, Puli was changed to Luzhi township of Yuanhe County.
Luzhi is famous for its beautiful waterways and ancient bridges, some of the bridges dated back to the Song dynasty. A walk in the ancient town Luzhi is said to be a walk into history frozen in time, tranquil and serene.
The Ming dynasty poet Gao Qi poem : "Scene of Puli" is still an accurate description of the scenery in the ancient town Luzhi today:
Luzhi is one of the best preserved old towns in China, along with its old canals and streets. In 2003, the Chinese government published a list of "Ten Famous Chinese Historical Townships", with Luzhi featured on this list. In 2004, Luzhi was awarded a Township Preservation Award by UNESCO.


Auberge de Castille

The Auberge de Castille () is an auberge in Valletta, Malta, that now houses the Office of the Prime Minister of Malta, Robert Abela. The auberge is located at Castile Place, close to Saint James Cavalier, the Malta Stock Exchange, and the Upper Barrakka Gardens. It sits at the highest point of Valletta and overlooks Floriana and the Grand Harbour area.
Built in the Baroque style under the magistracy of Manuel Pinto da Fonseca in the 1740s, it replaced a 1574 building erected to house knights of the Order of Saint John from the langue of Castile, León and Portugal. The name "Castille" (or "Kastilja" in Maltese) is often used as a metonym to refer to the Prime Minister and his office, as the "White House" is used to refer to the Executive Office of the President of the United States.
History.
Hospitaller rule.
Auberge de Castille was built in 1573–74 to designs of the architect Girolamo Cassar. The original auberge, which took over the role of an earlier Auberge de Castille et Portugal in the former capital Birgu, was built in the Mannerist style, and it was regarded as Cassar's most innovative design. The auberge had a single storey, and its façade had panelled pilasters dividing it into 11 bays. The design of the auberge is known from a late 17th-century painting and an early 18th-century drawing.
The original Auberge de Castille was dismantled and completely rebuilt in the Spanish Baroque style between 1741 and 1744, during the magistracy of Grand Master Manuel Pinto da Fonseca. The new building was built to designs of Andrea Belli, and construction was supervised by "capomastro" Domenico Cachia. Some alterations, including the enlargement of the main door, were made in 1791.
French occupation and British rule.
The Order of St. John was expelled from Malta with the French invasion and occupation in 1798. The auberge subsequently became a headquarters for the French forces, and it later housed a Commission for National Property. The building suffered some damage during the blockade of 1798–1800.
In 1800, the British occupied Malta, creating the Malta Protectorate in September of that year. This protectorate was officially ruled by the Kingdom of Sicily, but was in reality part of the British Empire. In 1805, the auberge became the headquarters of the British Armed Forces in Malta. In 1813, Malta officially came under British rule as the Crown Colony of Malta within the British Empire. The auberge was also used as a residence for British officers. In 1814, a disabled contingent from the army of Egypt was accommodated in the auberge. A Protestant chapel was opened in one of the rooms of the first floor in 1840. A signalling station with a large aerial was installed on the roof in 1889 to communicate with warships of the Mediterranean Fleet moored in the Grand Harbour. It was known as the Castille Tower.
The then Princess Elizabeth, now Queen Elizabeth II, worked with the Soldiers, Sailors, Airmen Families Association (SSAFA) when it was housed at Auberge de Castile.
In 1942, during the Second World War, the right side of the building was damaged by aerial bombardment. The damaged parts were later repaired, and the aerial was removed. The auberge was also used as the General Headquarters of the Army for Malta and Libya, and also for Cyprus after 1954.
Independent Malta.
Malta became an independent country as the State of Malta, with Queen Elizabeth II reigning as Queen of Malta, in September 1964. The country became a republic, as the Republic of Malta, in December 1974. On 4 March 1972, the Office of the Prime Minister of Malta moved from Auberge d'Aragon to Auberge de Castille. The Prime Minister leads the business of the government from the auberge, and the name "Castille" (or "Kastilja" in Maltese) is often used as a metonym to refer to the Prime Minister and his office.
Over the years, some of the stonework began to crumble and the façades were blackened. The building was restored between 2009 and 2014.
The building was included on the Antiquities List of 1925 together with the other auberges in Valletta. It is now scheduled as a Grade 1 national monument by the Malta Environment and Planning Authority, and it is also listed on the National Inventory of the Cultural Property of the Maltese Islands.
Architecture.
Auberge de Castille is built in the Baroque style, and it is a two-storey building with a rectangular plan and a central courtyard. Its façade is divided into eleven bays defined by pilasters in the central bays or plain panelling in the outer bays. Ornate windows are set within recessed panels. The building has a continuous cornice, and its corners are rusticated.
The main entrance is approached by a flight of steps, and the doorway is flanked by columns which support a trophy of arms and a bronze bust of Grand Master Manuel Pinto da Fonseca. A moulded window is located above the bust, and it is surmounted by Pinto's coat of arms. The centrepiece above the window bears the coats of arms of Castile and León and of Portugal. Just in front of the entrance are two historic canons, now used for decoration.
The auberge has been called "probably the finest building in Malta". Both the exterior and the interior, especially the ornate façade and the steps leading to the doorway, were designed to be imposing.
Auberge de Castille is linked to Auberge d'Italie across Merchants Street through a World War II-era underground air-raid shelter.
Commemorative coins.
Auberge de Castille was depicted on two commemorative coins minted in 2008 by the Central Bank of Malta. The coins show the auberge's portico on the reverse and the coat of arms of Malta on the obverse.


Mission Museum

The Mission Museum (Portuguese: Museu das Missões) is a historical museum in São Miguel das Missões, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. It is located on the site of the ruins of São Miguel das Missões, a jesuit reduction including the Church of São Miguel Arcanjo and surrounding ruins. The museum houses works from the church and statuary of the Rio Grande do Sul region. The museum was designed by the architect Lúcio Costa (1902–1998) and was built from materials from the ruins. It was conceived as an open shelter for religious works related to the church site; transparent glass panels were soon added.
Construction.
The creation of the museum was one of the first initiatives of the government organization now known as National Institute of Historic and Artistic Heritage, known at the time as SPHAN. SPHAN was created in 1937 and in the same year the architect Lúcio Costa (1902–1998) was sent by the organization to Rio Grande do Sul to analyze the remnants of the Sete Povos das Missões ("Seven Peoples of the Missions") and propose conservation measures for the site.
The architect Lucas Mayerhofer directed the stabilization works in the (Church of São Miguel) and designed a museum building to house statuary related to the site. It officially opened in 1940. The museum became part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site titled "Jesuit Missions of the Guaranis" in 1984.
Destruction.
The museum was almost completely destroyed by a tornado on April 26, 2016. Both the structure, its glass walls, and 83 Jesuit statues were significantly damaged.


Miraflores Charterhouse

Miraflores Charterhouse () is an Isabelline style charterhouse, or Carthusian monastery of the Order of the Carthusians, built on a hill (known as Miraflores) about three kilometres from the center of the Spanish city of Burgos, autonomous community of Castile and León.
Its origin dates back to 1442, when King John II of Castile donated a hunting lodge outside Burgos, which had been erected by his father Henry III of Castile "the Mourner" in 1401, to the Order of the Carthusians for its conversion into a monastery, thus fulfilling his father's wishes, as stated in his will. A fire in 1452 caused the destruction of the pavilion, and construction of a new building began in 1454. It is this building, which was placed under the patronage of Saint Mary of the Annunciation, which exists today. The construction was commissioned to Juan de Colonia, and was continued after his death by his son, Simón de Colonia, who completed the structure in 1484 at the behest of Queen Isabella I of Castile, surviving daughter of king John II of Castile and queen Isabella of Portugal, whose impressive buried are housed in the monastery.
It is a late-Gothic jewel, and its highlights include the church, whose Isabelline style western facade is decorated with the coats-of-arms of its founders. The monastery consists of a single nave with stellar vault and side chapels, and is topped by a polygonal apse.
Situation and access.
The Charterhouse is 3 km east of the city center of Burgos, in the parque de Fuentes Blancas, close to the Arlanzón River.
The monument is easily accessible from the city of Burgos, and can be reached along an easy footpath in a natural setting. It is possible to go by bus or taxi from the city, and it has free parking for private vehicles and buses. Visits are free and open to the public.
Origins.
First in 1401 was erected the Palace-alcázar of Miraflores, built by King Henry III of Castile "the Mourner". Later, the Miraflores Charterhouse was founded in 1442 after the donation to Order of the Carthusians by King John II of Castile inside the Palace-alcázar of Miraflores. That original monastery, originally placed under the patronage of Saint Francis of Assisi, suffered a fire in 1452 causing a new approach to the building according to the current design, which was commissioned architect Juan de Colonia, who worked at that time in the Cathedral of Burgos.
With the arrival to the throne of the John II's daughter, Isabella I of Castile, return the work in monastery from the year 1477, undertaking new projects such as the Sepulchers of the Kings or the Altarpiece. It will continue the architectural tracery of Garci Fernández de Matienzo and later of Simón de Colonia, son of Juan de Colonia, finishing the works of vaulting of the monastery in year 1484.
Between 1532 and 1539 undertaken other architectural works in the monastery under direction of Diego de Mendieta, designed to create the side chapels and give greater height to the church as well as the incorporation of spires and pinnacles, and incorporation of the cresting.
19th-century drawings of the Miraflores Charterhouse.
Both of these sights preverves within today
Written sources.
The sources for the study of the Miraflores Charterhouse include writings of various kinds
Exterior set.
Floor.
The floor of the monastery follows other Carthusian monasteries's pattern of the Middle Ages. The floor develops from the placement of the church and the layout of two main cloisters for each of the groups of Carthusian monks who inhabit: Fathers and Brothers. Around these two cloisters are individual hermitages that allows the monk to live solitude and silence own of the Carthusian spirituality. This part of the monastery is not visitable.
The floor of the church is formed by a single quadripartite longitudinal nave, distinguishing the spaces of the chancel, the choir of the Fathers, the choir of the Brothers and the faithfuls stay. The nave is closed with vaults with tiercerons, keeping the Gothic original layout.
Portal.
The church's portal rose in year 1486 and was originally located on left side of the monastery, providing access to faithfuls directly from outside the monastery. It consists of pointed archivolts decorated with plants, animals and some human figurative motifs located under a big ogee with poaceaes. In the tympanum represents the motive of the Compassion of the Virgin, which according to late-Medieval iconographic canons, shows the Virgin sitting with her died Son in her arms, accompanied by the symbols of the moon and sun.
Stylistically it is linked to the works of the Colonia (father and son), who participated in the rising of the monastery. It can also relate with other portals of other Burgalese monasteries, i.e. the church of San Nicolás de Bari or the church of San Lesmes Abad.
Between 1657 and 1659 was ordered its move to the current location, accessing from courtyard de la Portería and connecting to the nave of the monastery. In year 2010 proceeded to restore the portal to returning to its original condition, especially recovering the Compassion of the Virgin's sculpture.
Courtyard.
The entrance's portal to the church of the Charterhouse is currently located in an entrance's courtyard landscaped with a Saint Bruno of Cologne's statue, founder of the Order. Its tracery dates from first half of the 16th century, originally serving as connection of the stays of the monastery with the service units and the portería.
The arcaded long gallery preceding the courtyard is formed by arches that form recessed groin vaults finished off in keystones with modular decoration. In 2010 the cloister is intervened for ensure the maintenance of the walls and consolidate the out of waters of the courtyard, that suffered inclement weather.
Inside set.
Altarpiece.
The main altarpiece of the Charterhouse was carved in wood by artist Gil de Siloé and polychrome and gilded by Diego de la Cruz (whose gold came from the first shipments of the Americas after its discovery) Made between 1496 and 1499, is undoubtedly one of the most important existing works of the Spanish Gothic sculpture, by its compositional and iconographic originality and excellent quality of carving, valued by the polychrome.
One of the most important elements of the altarpiece is the angelic wheel in which is framed the Christ crucified image for its beauty and significantly accentuated expressiveness by the work of polychrome of Diego de la Cruz. In the outer part of the wheel, are placed the figures of God the Father to the left and the Holy Spirit to the right bearing the rungs of the cross.
In the bottom of the cross, the figures of the Virgin Mary and John the Evangelist complete the scene. The pelican located at top of the cross gives the core set an extraordinary symbolic value as an allegory to the Eucharistic sacrifice, because the bird feeds its birdies of its own blood.
Royal Sepulchers.
The royal sepulchers set were designed by artist Gil de Siloé commissioned by Queen Isabella I of Castile. On the one hand is the Sepulchers of John II of Castile and Isabella of Portugal, placed in the nave's center, eight-pointed star shaped. And in the Gospel side of the church is located the Sepulcher of infante Alfonso of Castile. Both sepulchers were made in alabaster and are late-Gothic sculpture's jewels.
Sepulchers of the King John II of Castile and Queen consort Isabella of Portugal.
The sepulcher of John II of Castile and of his second wife Isabella of Portugal is made in alabaster and is in Gothic style. It has octagonal eight-pointed star shaped, formed by the superposition of a square and a diamond.


Town Club (Portland, Oregon)

The Town Club is a women's club based in Portland, Oregon.
The Town Club.
Founded in 1928, the club's original membership consisted of the wives of prominent Portland businessmen. The stated purpose of the club was to "promote and develop the physical and mental capacities of its members and to provide and maintain suitable opportunities, accommodations and facilities for social, recreational, educational, civic and charitable enterprises, movements and undertakings." In 1929, Mrs. T. B. Wilcox donated the property for the Town Club building. By 1930, membership had grown to 350. While membership is primarily women, men are allowed to join the club. The club is still active.
The building.
The Town Club's building was constructed in 1930 in the Mediterranean Revival style. It was designed by Johnson, Wallwork, & Johnston. Due to the steep incline of the property the club house was constructed with three "split" levels. It has a brick facade and hipped tile roof. Originally, the building contained bedrooms to accommodate members returning to Portland to visit.
The Town Club building was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1987. The building is still standing and serves as a club house and event venue.


Coronet Cinema, Eltham

The Coronet Cinema on Well Hall Road, by Well Hall Roundabout in Well Hall, Eltham, London, is a grade II listed building with Historic England in the streamline moderne style. It was designed by Andrew Mather and Horace Ward for Odeon Theatres and opened in 1936. In 1981 it became the Coronet Cinema but closed in 2000. The building became derelict and remained unused for over a decade, it was eventually converted and extended into 53 flats and a parade of shops including a Tesco Express, and a gym and fitness centre, but the main front of the building remains intact.


Palacio de los Concejos

The Palace of the Councils or Palace of the Duke of Uceda (in Spanish, Palacio de los Consejos or Palacio del duque de Uceda) is a building from the 17th century located in central Madrid, Spain. It is located on the Calle Mayor, corner of calle Bailén Street.
The palace is representative of Spanish baroque architecture, and was commissioned by Cristóbal Gómez de Sandoval-Rojas, first Duke of Uceda, and powerful minister or valido of King Philip III of Spain. It was designed by Francisco de Mora, although works was directed by Juan Gómez de Mora and executed by Captain Alonso Turrillo from 1608 to 1613. The palace stands before the Church of Santa María de la Almudena.
When it was built, decorated with the heraldic arms of the Sandoval family flanked by lions, it was judged too ostentatious for a nobleman. After the Duke's fall from grace, it became property of the Royal family, and housed the mother of Charles II of Spain, the queen mother, Mariana of Austria. She died there on the night of May 16, 1696.
Upon his arrival to Madrid in 1701, the Bourbon king Philip V of Spain transferred many of the royal offices or councils from the then extant Real Alcázar of Madrid to the Palacio de Uceda, and since then, it has been known as the "Palacio de los Consejos". The main council, however, remained in the palace. In the 19th century, the council of state and the Capitanía General were moved here.


Torreya State Park

Torreya State Park is a 13,735 acre (56 km²) Florida State Park, United States National Natural Landmark and historic site thirteen miles (19 km) north of Bristol. It is located north of S.R 12 on the Apalachicola River, in northwestern Florida (Florida Panhandle), at 2576 N.W. Torreya Park Road.
It was named for the Florida Nutmeg ("Torreya taxifolia") trees, a rare species of "Torreya" tree endemic to the local east bank of the Apalachicola River's limestone bluffs.
Geography.
With river swamps and high pinelands, extensive ravines and high bluffs along the river, the park has one of the most variable terrains of any in Florida. The high elevation of the park is about 300 feet at the top of Logan Hill. Many streams run through the park
History.
Prior Native American inhabitation has been confirmed by archaeological discoveries in the area.
In 1818, General Andrew Jackson and his army crossed the Apalachicola here during the First Seminole War. Ten years later, the first government road to cross the new Territory met the river here.
Due to the river's importance during the Civil War, a six-cannon battery was placed on a bluff to prevent the passage of Union gunboats. These cannons never saw combat action at this location. The gun pits' remains can still be seen in the park.
Gregory House.
In 1849, Jason Gregory built a plantation house at Ocheesee Landing, across from the park's current location. After the Civil War, like most plantations, it fell into disuse.
Not long after the Civilian Conservation Corps was established in 1933, they started work to create the park. Part of the project in 1935 was disassembling the old Gregory House, moving it across the river and reconstructing in the park, where it stands today.
Visitors can tour the Gregory House for a small fee.
Natural history.
Flora.
The park is one of the few places in the country where the endangered species Few-flowered croomia ("Croomia pauciflora") can still be found. Other endangered species in the park include the feathery false lily of the valley ("Maianthemum racemosum"), Canadian honewort ("Cryptotaenia canadensis"), and bloodroot ("Sanguinaria canadensis").
The varieties of hardwood trees include Southern live oak ("Quercus virginiana"), White oak ("Quercus alba"), Water hickory ("Carya aquatica"), Southern wax myrtle ("Myrica cerifera"), Sourwood ("Oxydendrum arboreum"), American beech ("Fagus grandifolia"), Tulip tree ("Liriodendron tulipifera"), Florida maple ("Acer floridanum"), and Sweetgum ("Liquidambar styraciflua").
Species of softwood trees include the variety of both Needle palm ("Rhapidophyllum hystrix") and Dwarf palmetto ("Sabal minor"), Loblolly pine ("Pinus taeda"), Longleaf pine ("Pinus palustris"), and Redbay ("Persea borbonia").
The endemic Florida Nutmeg ("Torreya taxifolia") trees are restricted to the limestone bluffs and their ravines within Torreya State Park, along the east bank of the Apalachicola River in northern Florida and southern Georgia. It was one of the first federally listed in 1984. It is a Critically endangered species on the IUCN Red List, due to estimated 98% decline in mature individuals within the last three generations. Its total extent of occurrence is estimated to be about only . The Apalachicola valley served as a refugium for "T. taxifola" during the last ice age, when its range shrank due to cooler temperatures.
Fauna.
Many animals can be seen in the park. Some of the mammals there include deer, squirrel, raccoon, opossum, fox, skunk, rabbit, bobcat and black bear. Dozens of species of birds can be viewed. Numerous species of amphibians and reptiles exist there as well, such as the Eastern Hognose Snake, gopher tortoises, and the rare Apalachicola dusky salamander.
Recreational activities.
The park has such amenities as birding, boating, hiking, picnicking, wildlife viewing and full camping facilities. It also has concessions, a museum and interpretive exhibit.
The Apalachicola River Bluffs Trail, a National Recreational Trail, is part of the park.


Kinnersley Castle

Kinnersley Castle in Herefordshire, England, is one of the many marches castles along the Welsh Borders.
The Castle of Kinnersley, on the A4112 east of Eardisley, was originally a stone structure, thought to have been built during the reign of Henry I of England (1100-1135 C.E.). The Elizabethan building that now occupies the site has obliterated all but a few traces of the medieval castle.
Although it looks predominantly Elizabethan on the outside, it has many features of different periods. It was 'renovated' in the 16th century by the Vaughn family and houses a fine example of an intricate plasterwork ceiling in the solar, thought to be one of the oldest in Herefordshire. There are many green men and serpent hounds to be found on this ceiling, a lot of the detail is picked out in gold. On the stone overmantel of the fireplace, carved into the stone is a boy's head with a serpent around its neck.


Sherburne Ranger Station Historic District

The Sherburne Ranger Station in Glacier National Park is an example of the National Park Service Rustic style. Located in the Swiftcurrent portion of the park, it was built in 1926. It is part of a small historic district that includes a mess hall and subsidiary structures, formerly known as the Sherburne Road Camp, established in 1931. The ranger station closely resembles the ranger stations at Belly River and Lake McDonald. A checking station at the road remains substantially intact.


Cowdray House

Cowdray House consists of the ruins of one of England's great Tudor houses, architecturally comparable to many of the great palaces and country houses of that time. It is situated in the Parish of Easebourne, just east of Midhurst, West Sussex standing on the north bank of the River Rother. It was largely destroyed by fire on 24 September 1793, but the ruins have nevertheless been Grade I listed.
Manor House.
The original fortified manor house was built between 1273 and 1284 by Sir John Bohun across the river from the town of Midhurst. He named it "Coudreye", the Norman word for the nearby hazel woods.
16th century.
In the 1520s, Sir David Owen, uncle to Henry VII, began construction of the current Cowdray House on the site of the former home Coudreye, which he had acquired upon the death of his wife Mary Bohun in 1496.
In 1529, Sir David's son, Henry, sold the estate of Cowdray to Sir William Fitzwilliam. In 1533 Henry VIII granted a licence to Fitzwilliam's trustees to inpark of meadow, pasture and wood and build fortifications at "Cowdry".
In 1536, following the Dissolution of the Monasteries, Sir William was given the nearby Easebourne Priory and other properties, whilst in 1538 his half-brother and heir who later inherited Cowdray, Anthony Browne, received Battle Abbey. It is rumoured that a dispossessed monk from Battle cursed the family and house "by fire and water, thy line shall come to an end and it shall perish out of this land."
Henry VIII made three visits to the house during his reign, in August 1538, July 1539 and August 1545. Mary of Guise, widow of James V of Scotland, stayed a night at Cowdray in October 1551. The house was also visited by Edward VI in July 1552 and by his sister Elizabeth I in August 1591. The speeches and entertainments for Elizabeth were printed later in the year.
In November 1538, the last surviving member of the House of Plantagenet, Lady Margaret Pole, 8th Countess of Salisbury, was imprisoned at Cowdray until September 1539. She was the niece of Richard III, the last Plantagenet King who died at Bosworth Field in 1485. She was removed to the Tower of London, and was executed in May 1541.
In 1548 Anthony Browne's son, Sir Anthony Browne inherited Cowdray; he was later ennobled as the 1st Viscount Montague upon the marriage of Queen Mary I to King Philip of Spain.
Henry Wriothesley, third earl of Southampton (1573–1624), courtier and literary patron, was born at Cowdray House near Midhurst in Sussex on 6 October 1573. He was the third child and only surviving son of Henry Wriothesley, 2nd Earl of Southampton, and his wife, Mary Browne, daughter of the first Viscount Montagu. Wriothesley is famous as the dedicatee of Shakespeare's "Venus and Adonis" and "The Rape of Lucrece", and the likely inspiration for the 'fair youth' of Shakespeare's Sonnets.
17th century.
In 1592 the 1st Viscount's grandson Anthony-Maria Browne inherited Cowdray. During his ownership of Cowdray, Guy Fawkes was briefly employed as a footman and the 2nd Viscount was briefly imprisoned for complicity in the Gunpowder plot after staying away from Parliament on 5 November 1605 following a warning.
In the mid-1630s Robert May was employed as a cook at Cowdray House.
During the English Civil War two thirds of the Cowdray estate were sequestered from Francis Browne, 3rd Viscount Montagu, and the house was garrisoned by Parliamentary forces. There are marks on the walls of the main courtyard of the house thought to be from musketballs fired by soldiers during this time.
18th century.
In 1770, under the ownership of the 7th Viscount Montague, Capability Brown was employed to modernise the gardens.
On 24 September 1793, during restoration work, a fire started in the carpenters' workshop in the North Gallery where some smouldering charcoal was allowed to fall upon the sawdust and woodshavings strewn across the floor. During the restoration work the family's furniture and treasures had also been stored in the North Gallery to make re-decorating easier. From the collection only three paintings and a few small pieces of furniture were saved, the rest including artefacts from Battle Abbey being devoured by flames.
Less than two weeks later, the 8th Viscount Montague perished whilst trying to ride the Rhine Falls and the title passed to a descendant of the 2nd Viscount, Mark Browne who later died childless and the peerage became extinct. These two events marked the conclusion of the supposed curse set upon the family 250 years earlier. The estate was inherited by the 8th Viscount's sister and by marriage William Stephen Poyntz.
19th and 20th centuries.
During the early 19th century the house was left to ruin; it was quickly colonised by plants, most notably ivy, which hastened its decay. Small alterations were made to the surviving Kitchen Tower such as a floor being put in above the kitchens, though it was not inhabited. Following the death of William Poyntz the estate passed to his three daughters, but they could not decide how to divide the estate and it was eventually sold to the 6th Earl of Egmont in 1843.
In 1908 the 8th Earl of Egmont sold the estate to Sir Weetman Dickinson Pearson, becoming "Baron Cowdray of Midhurst" and later in 1917 became the 1st "Viscount Cowdray". The Viscount put a halt to the decay, arranging for the careful removal of the ivy, the restoration of any unsafe structures and a full survey of the ruins to be completed.
21st century.
The house remains under the ownership of the Viscount Cowdray, currently residing with the 4th Viscount Cowdray who inherited it in 1995. Following a major preservation/conservation project in 2006 the ruins were opened to visitors on 31 March 2007.
Cowdray House featured largely in Anya Seton's 1972 historical romance "Green Darkness".
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St Mabyn Parish Church

St Mabyn Church is a Grade I listed late 15th-century Church of England parish church in St Mabyn, Cornwall, United Kingdom. The church is dedicated to Saint Mabyn or Mabena, who was regarded in local tradition as one of the many children of Brychan, a Welsh saint and King of Brycheiniog in the 5th century.
History and description.
The current church replaced an earlier one also dedicated to Mabyn. Mabyn is listed alongside several other local saints with churches dedicated to them in the 12th-century "Life of Saint Nectan", suggesting that the earlier church had already been established at that time.
A dendrochronology report gives construction dates of 1513–35 for the north aisle, 1485–1514 for the nave, and 1487–1523 for the porch. A song to the patron saint was sung at the dedication. Built in the Perpendicular style, with possible Norman origins, it consists of a chancel, nave and north and south aisles. Several monuments were removed by Rev. Granville Leveson-Gower in 1818 and some restoration occurred in 1884; it was re-seated and repaved in 1889. The building is of ashlar slate stone on a moulded plinth and wall plate, rag slate roofs with gable ends. The arcades each have seven four-centred arches of granite, supported by monolith granite pillars with sculpted capitals of St Stephens porcelain stone.
The tower of three stages is 85 feet in height, with a battlemented parapet and crocketted finials, the top stage is decorated with four carved figures, possibly the Four Evangelists. There is a piscina (used to cleanse sacred vessels after mass at the high altar) on the north side and the remains of rood loft stairs, now built up. In the south aisle is a second piscina and a priest's doorway. The font is one of Norman table-top type: it has a circular basin, hollowed in a square block decorated with blind arcade set on a round ornamented shaft.
The earliest recorded Priest in charge was Roger de Worlegan in 1267. Charles Peters, rector 1726–75, was recognized as the finest Hebrew scholar in Europe; his "Dissertation on the Book of Job" was published in 1751.
The register dates from the year 1562.
A credence table which survives in the church may originally have been the panel of a tomb raised in Mabena's honour. It is possible that all her sisters had tombs erected for them.
One of the stained glass windows is a memorial to Francis John Hext, of Tredethy, who died in January, 1803, and Margaret (Lang), his wife who died in March, 1794.
There were five bells in 1787 and later six, bell casting took place in a nearby garden called "bell garden".
A church clock was installed in 1950. The belfry has a ring of eight bells that allows 5,030 changes to be rung.
The graveyard contains 12 Grade II listed headstones.
In 2008 extensive refurbishment of the roof was undertaken, including replacement of lead valleys, renewal of granite copings, replacement of cast iron gutters and ceiling repairs, the work cost £115,000 and was partly funded by English Heritage.
In March 2014 thieves broke into the church and stole a 19th-century painting of Christ's preparation for entombment (a copy of a work by Italian artist Jacopo Bassano) and also a policeman's truncheon dated 1807.
The Priest in charge is David Seymour and the minister is David Pollard.


House of Tudor

The House of Tudor was an English royal house of Welsh origin, descended from the Tudors of Penmynydd. Tudor monarchs ruled the Kingdom of England and its realms, including their ancestral Wales and the Lordship of Ireland (later the Kingdom of Ireland) from 1485 until 1603, with six monarchs in that period: Henry VII, Henry VIII, Edward VI, Jane, Mary I and Elizabeth I. The Tudors succeeded the House of Plantagenet as rulers of the Kingdom of England, and were succeeded by the House of Stuart. The first Tudor monarch, Henry VII of England, descended through his mother from a legitimised branch of the English royal House of Lancaster, a cadet house of the Plantagenets. The Tudor family rose to power in the wake of the Wars of the Roses (1455–1487), which left the Tudor-aligned House of Lancaster extinct in the male line.
Henry VII succeeded in presenting himself as a candidate not only for traditional Lancastrian supporters, but also for discontented supporters of their rival Plantagenet, cadet House of York, and he took the throne by right of conquest. Following his victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field (22 August 1485), he reinforced his position in 1486 by fulfilling his 1483 vow to marry Elizabeth of York, daughter of Edward IV, thus symbolically uniting the former warring factions of Lancaster and York under the new dynasty. The Tudors extended their power beyond modern England, achieving the full union of England and the Principality of Wales in 1542 (Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542), and successfully asserting English authority over the Kingdom of Ireland (proclaimed by the Crown of Ireland Act 1542). They also maintained the nominal English claim to the Kingdom of France; although none of them made substance of it, Henry VIII fought wars with France trying to reclaim that title. After him, his daughter Mary I lost control of all territory in France permanently with the fall of Calais in 1558.
In total, the Tudor monarchs ruled their domains for just over a century. Henry VIII () was the only son of Henry VII to live to the age of maturity. Issues around royal succession (including marriage and the succession rights of women) became major political themes during the Tudor era. When Elizabeth I died childless, the Scottish House of Stuart succeeded as England's royal family through the Union of the Crowns of 24 March 1603. The first Stuart to become King of England (), James VI and I, descended from Henry VII's daughter Margaret Tudor, who in 1503 had married King James IV of Scotland in accordance with the 1502 Treaty of Perpetual Peace.
For analysis of politics, diplomacy and social history, see Tudor period.
Ascent to the throne.
The Tudors descended on Henry VII's mother's side from John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset, one of the children of the 14th century English prince John of Gaunt, the third surviving son of King Edward III. Beaufort's mother was Gaunt's long-term mistress Katherine Swynford. The descendants of an illegitimate child of English royalty would normally have no claim on the throne, although Gaunt and Swynford eventually married in 1396, when John Beaufort was 25. The church then retroactively declared the Beauforts legitimate by way of a papal bull the same year, confirmed by an Act of Parliament in 1397. A subsequent proclamation by John of Gaunt's son by his earlier wife Blanche of Lancaster, King Henry IV, also recognised the Beauforts' legitimacy but declared the line ineligible for the throne. Nevertheless, the Beauforts remained closely allied with Gaunt's descendants from his first marriage, the House of Lancaster, during the civil wars known as the Wars of the Roses. However the descent from the Beauforts, did not necessarily render Henry Tudor heir to the throne, nor did the fact that his father's mother, Catherine of Valois, had been a Queen of England (although, this did make Henry the son of King Henry VI's half-brother). The legitimate claim was that of Henry Tudor's wife, Elizabeth of York, as daughter to Edward IV, and descendant of the second son of Edward III, Lionel, Duke of Clarence, and also his fourth son, Edmund, Duke of York. As she had no surviving brothers, Elizabeth had the strongest claim to the crown, but while she became queen consort, she did not rule as queen regnant; for the last attempt a female made at ruling in her own right had resulted in disaster when the mother and uncle of Henry II of England fought bitterly for the throne in the 12th century.
Family connections and the Wars of the Roses.
"The above-listed individuals with well-defined sides are coloured with red borders for Lancastrians and blue for Yorkists (Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick, aka Warwick the Kingmaker, his relatives, and George Plantagenet changed sides, so they are represented with a purple border)"
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Henry Tudor had, however, something that the others did not. He had an army which defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III, in the field of battle and the support of powerful nobles to take the crown by right of conquest. How Richard III had come to the throne proved controversial, even among powerful Yorkists. Henry Tudor, as Henry VII, and his son by Elizabeth of York, Henry VIII, eliminated other claimants to the throne, including his first cousin once removed, Margaret Pole, Countess of Salisbury, and her family. Only Reginald Pole survived, but he was a cardinal in the Catholic Church, with no heirs. He later became Archbishop of Canterbury under Henry the VIII's Catholic daughter, Mary I.
On 1 November 1455, John Beaufort's granddaughter, Margaret Beaufort, Countess of Richmond and Derby, married Henry VI's maternal half-brother Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond. It was his father, Owen Tudor (), who abandoned the Welsh patronymic naming practice and adopted a fixed surname. When he did, he did not choose, as was generally the custom, his father's name, Maredudd, but chose that of his grandfather, Tudur ap Goronwy, instead. This name is sometimes given as "Tewdwr", the Welsh form of Theodore, but Modern Welsh "Tudur", Old Welsh "Tutir" is originally not a variant but a different and completely unrelated name, etymologically identical with Gaulish "Toutorix", from Proto-Celtic "*toutā" "people, tribe" and "*rīxs" "king" (compare Modern Welsh "tud" "territory" and "rhi" "king" respectively), corresponding to Germanic Theodoric.
Owen Tudor was one of the bodyguards for the queen dowager Catherine of Valois, whose husband, Henry V, had died in 1422. Evidence suggests that the two were secretly married in 1429. The two sons born of the marriage, Edmund and Jasper, were among the most loyal supporters of the House of Lancaster in its struggle against the House of York. Henry VI ennobled his half-brothers: Edmund became Earl of Richmond on 15 December 1449
and was married to Lady Margaret Beaufort, the great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt, the progenitor of the house of Lancaster; Jasper became Earl of Pembroke on 23 November 1452. Edmund died on 3 November 1456. On 28 January 1457, his widow Margaret, who had just attained her fourteenth birthday, gave birth to a son, Henry Tudor, at her brother-in-law's Pembroke Castle.
Henry Tudor, the future Henry VII, spent his childhood at Raglan Castle, the home of William Herbert, Earl of Pembroke, a leading Yorkist. Following the murder of Henry VI and death of his son, Edward, in 1471, Henry became the person upon whom the Lancastrian cause rested. Concerned for his young nephew's life, Jasper Tudor took Henry to Brittany for safety. Lady Margaret remained in England and remarried, living quietly while advancing the Lancastrian (and her son's) cause. Capitalizing on the growing unpopularity of Richard III (King of England from 1483), she was able to forge an alliance with discontented Yorkists in support of her son. Two years after Richard III was crowned, Henry and Jasper sailed from the mouth of the Seine to the Milford Haven Waterway and defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field (22 August 1485). Upon this victory, Henry Tudor proclaimed himself King Henry VII.
Henry VII.
Upon becoming king in 1485, Henry VII moved rapidly to secure his hold on the throne. On 18 January 1486 at Westminster, he honoured a pledge made three years earlier and married Elizabeth of York (daughter of King Edward IV). They were third cousins, as both were great-great-grandchildren of John of Gaunt. The marriage unified the warring houses of Lancaster and York and gave the couple's children a strong claim to the throne. The unification of the two houses through this marriage is symbolized by the heraldic emblem of the Tudor rose, a combination of the white rose of York and the red rose of Lancaster.
Henry VII and Elizabeth of York had several children, four of whom survived infancy:
Henry VII's foreign policy had an objective of dynastic security: witness the alliance forged with the marriage in 1503 of his daughter Margaret to James IV of Scotland and through the marriage of his eldest son. In 1501 Henry VII married his son Arthur to Catherine of Aragon, cementing an alliance with the Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile. The newlyweds spent their honeymoon at Ludlow Castle, the traditional seat of the Prince of Wales. However, four months after the marriage, Arthur died, leaving his younger brother Henry as heir apparent. Henry VII acquired a papal dispensation allowing Prince Henry to marry Arthur's widow; however, Henry VII delayed the marriage.
Henry VII limited his involvement in European politics. He went to war only twice: once in 1489 during the Breton crisis and the invasion of Brittany, and in 1496–1497 in revenge for Scottish support of Perkin Warbeck and for the Scottish invasion of northern England. Henry VII made peace with France in 1492 and the war against Scotland was abandoned because of the Western Rebellion of 1497. Henry VII came to peace with James IV in 1502, paving the way for the marriage of his daughter Margaret.
One of the main concerns of Henry VII during his reign was the re-accumulation of the funds in the royal treasury. England had never been one of the wealthier European countries, and after the War of the Roses this was even more true. Through his strict monetary strategy, he was able to leave a considerable amount of money in the Treasury for his son and successor, Henry VIII. Although it is debated whether Henry VII was a great king, he certainly was a successful one if only because he restored the nation's finances, strengthened the judicial system and successfully denied all other claimants to the throne, thus further securing it for his heir.
Henry VIII.
The new King Henry VIII succeeded to the throne on 22 April 1509. He married Catherine of Aragon on 11 June 1509; they were crowned at Westminster Abbey on 24 June the same year. Catherine had been the wife of Henry's older brother Arthur (died 1502); this fact made the course of their marriage a rocky one from the start. A papal dispensation had to be granted for Henry to be able to marry Catherine, and the negotiations took some time. Despite the fact that Henry's father died before he was married to Catherine, he was determined to marry her anyway and to make sure that everyone knew he intended on being his own master.
When Henry first came to the throne, he had very little interest in actually ruling; rather, he preferred to indulge in luxuries and to partake in sports. He let others control the kingdom for the first two years of his reign, and then when he became more interested in military strategy, he took more interest in ruling his own realm. In his younger years, Henry was described as a man of gentle friendliness, gentle in debate, and who acted as more of a companion than a king. He was generous in his gifts and affection and was said to be easy to get along with. The Henry that many people picture when they hear his name is the Henry of his later years, when he became obese, volatile, and was known for his great cruelty.
Catherine did not bear Henry the sons he was desperate for; her first child, a daughter, was stillborn, and her second child, a son named Henry, Duke of Cornwall, died 52 days after birth. A further set of stillborn children followed, until a daughter, Mary, was born in 1516. When it became clear to Henry that the Tudor line was at risk, he consulted his chief minister Cardinal Thomas Wolsey about the possibility of annulling his marriage to Catherine. Along with Henry's concern that he would not have an heir, it was also obvious to his court that he was becoming tired of his aging wife, who was six years older than he was. Wolsey visited Rome, where he hoped to get the Pope's consent for an annulment. However, the Holy See was reluctant to rescind the earlier papal dispensation and felt heavy pressure from Catherine's nephew, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, in support of his aunt. Catherine contested the proceedings, and a protracted legal battle followed. Wolsey fell from favour in 1529 as a result of his failure to procure the annulment, and Henry appointed Thomas Cromwell in his place as chief minister .
Despite his failure to produce the results that Henry wanted, Wolsey actively pursued the annulment (divorce was synonymous with annulment at that time). However, Wolsey never planned that Henry would marry Anne Boleyn, with whom the king had become enamoured while she served as a lady-in-waiting in Queen Catherine's household. It is unclear how far Wolsey was actually responsible for the English Reformation, but it is very clear that Henry's desire to marry Anne Boleyn precipitated the schism with Rome. Henry's concern about having an heir to secure his family line and to increase his security while alive would have prompted him to ask for a divorce sooner or later, whether Anne had precipitated it or not. Only Wolsey's sudden death at Leicester
on 29 November 1530 on his journey to the Tower of London saved him from the public humiliation and inevitable execution he would have suffered upon his arrival at the Tower.
Break with Rome.
In order to allow Henry to divorce his wife and marry Anne Boleyn, the English parliament enacted laws breaking ties with Rome, and declaring the king Supreme Head of the Church of England (from Elizabeth I the monarch is known as the Supreme Governor of the Church of England), thus severing the ecclesiastical structure of England from the Catholic Church and the Pope. The newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, was then able to declare Henry's marriage to Catherine annulled. Catherine was removed from Court, and she spent the last three years of her life in various English houses under "protectorship", similar to house arrest. This allowed Henry to marry one of his courtiers: Anne Boleyn, the daughter of a minor diplomat Sir Thomas Boleyn. Anne had become pregnant by the end of 1532 and gave birth on 7 September 1533 to Elizabeth, named in honour of Henry's mother. Anne may have had later pregnancies which ended in miscarriage or stillbirth. In May 1536, Anne was arrested, along with six courtiers. Thomas Cromwell stepped in again, claiming that Anne had taken lovers during her marriage to Henry, and she was tried for high treason and incest; these charges were most likely fabricated, but she was found guilty and executed in May 1536.
Protestant alliance.
Henry married again, for the third time, to Jane Seymour, the daughter of a Wiltshire knight, and with whom he had become enamoured while she was still a lady-in-waiting to Queen Anne. Jane became pregnant, and in 1537 produced a son, who became King Edward VI following Henry's death in 1547. Jane died of puerperal fever only a few days after the birth, leaving Henry devastated. Cromwell continued to gain the king's favour when he designed and pushed through the Laws in Wales Acts, uniting England and Wales.
In 1540, Henry married for the fourth time to the daughter of a Protestant German duke, Anne of Cleves, thus forming an alliance with the Protestant German states. Henry was reluctant to marry again, especially to a Protestant, but he was persuaded when the court painter Hans Holbein the Younger showed him a flattering portrait of her. She arrived in England in December 1539, and Henry rode to Rochester to meet her on 1 January 1540. Although the historian Gilbert Burnet claimed that Henry called her a "Flanders Mare", there is no evidence that he said this; in truth, court ambassadors negotiating the marriage praised her beauty. Whatever the circumstances were, the marriage failed, and Anne agreed to a peaceful annulment, assumed the title "My Lady, the King's Sister", and received a massive divorce settlement, which included Richmond Palace, Hever Castle, and numerous other estates across the country. Although the marriage made sense in terms of foreign policy, Henry was still enraged and offended by the match. Henry chose to blame Cromwell for the failed marriage, and ordered him beheaded on 28 July 1540. Henry kept his word and took care of Anne in his last years alive; however, after his death Anne suffered from extreme financial hardship because Edward VI's councillors refused to give her any funds and confiscated the homes she had been given. She pleaded to her brother to let her return home, but he only sent a few agents who tried to assist in helping her situation and refused to let her return home. Anne died on 16 July 1557 in Chelsea Manor.
The fifth marriage was to the Catholic Catherine Howard, the niece of Thomas Howard, the third Duke of Norfolk. Catherine was promoted by Norfolk in the hope that she would persuade Henry to restore the Catholic religion in England. Henry called her his "rose without a thorn", but the marriage ended in failure. Henry's fancy with Catherine started before the end of his marriage with Anne when she was still a member of Anne's court. Catherine was young and vivacious, but Henry's age made him less inclined to use Catherine in the bedroom; rather, he preferred to admire her, which Catherine soon grew tired of. Catherine, forced into a marriage to an unattractive, obese man over 30 years her senior, had never wanted to marry Henry, and conducted an affair with the King's favourite, Thomas Culpeper, while Henry and she were married. During her questioning, Catherine first denied everything but eventually she was broken down and told of her infidelity and her pre-nuptial relations with other men. Henry, first enraged, threatened to torture her to death but later became overcome with grief and self-pity. She was accused of treason and was executed on 13 February 1542, destroying the English Catholic holdouts' hopes of a national reconciliation with the Catholic Church. Her execution also marked the end of the Howard family's power within the court.
By the time Henry conducted another Protestant marriage with his final wife Catherine Parr in 1543, the old Roman Catholic advisers, including the powerful third Duke of Norfolk, had lost all their power and influence. The duke himself was still a committed Catholic, and he was nearly persuaded to arrest Catherine for preaching Lutheran doctrines to Henry while she attended his ill health. However, she managed to reconcile with the King after vowing that she had only argued about religion with him to take his mind off the suffering caused by his ulcerous leg. Her peacemaking also helped reconcile Henry with his daughters Mary and Elizabeth and fostered a good relationship between her and the crown prince.
Edward VI: Protestant zeal.
Henry died on 28 January 1547. His will had reinstated his daughters by his annulled marriages to Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn to the line of succession. Edward, his nine-year-old son by Jane Seymour, succeeded as Edward VI of England. Unfortunately, the young King's kingdom was usually in turmoil between nobles who were trying to strengthen their own positions in the kingdom by using the Regency in their favour.
Duke of Somerset's England.
Although Henry had specified a group of men to act as regents during Edward's minority, Edward Seymour, Edward's uncle, quickly seized complete control and created himself Duke of Somerset on 15 February 1547. His domination of the Privy Council, the king's most senior body of advisers, was unchallenged. Somerset aimed to unite England and Scotland by marrying Edward to the young Mary, Queen of Scots, and aimed to forcibly impose the English Reformation on the Church of Scotland. Somerset led a large and well equipped army to Scotland, where he and the Scottish regent James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran, commanded their armies at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh on 10 September 1547. The English won the battle, and after this Queen Mary of Scotland was smuggled to France, where she was betrothed to the Dauphin, the future King Francis II of France. Despite Somerset's disappointment that no Scottish marriage would take place, his victory at Pinkie Cleugh made his position appear unassailable.
Edward VI was taught that he had to lead religious reform. In 1549, the Crown ordered the publication of the Book of Common Prayer, containing the forms of worship for daily and Sunday church services. The controversial new book was not welcomed by either reformers or Catholic conservatives; it was especially condemned in Devon and Cornwall, where traditional Catholic loyalty was at its strongest. In Cornwall at the time, many of the people could only speak the Cornish language, so the uniform English Bibles and church services were not understood by many. This caused the Prayer Book Rebellion, in which groups of Cornish non-conformists gathered round the mayor. The rebellion worried Somerset, now Lord Protector, and he sent an army to impose a military solution to the rebellion. The rebellion hardened the Crown against Catholics. Fear of Catholicism focused on Edward's elder sister, Mary, who was a pious and devout Catholic. Although called before the Privy Council several times to renounce her faith and stop hearing the Catholic Mass, she refused. Edward had a good relationship with his sister Elizabeth, who was a Protestant, albeit a moderate one, but this was strained when Elizabeth was accused of having an affair with the Duke of Somerset's brother, Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley, the husband of Henry's last wife Catherine Parr. Elizabeth was interviewed by one of Edward's advisers, and she was eventually found not to be guilty, despite forced confessions from her servants Catherine Ashley and Thomas Parry. Thomas Seymour was arrested and beheaded on 20 March 1549.
Problematic succession.
Lord Protector Somerset was also losing favour. After forcibly removing Edward VI to Windsor Castle, with the intention of keeping him hostage, Somerset was removed from power by members of the council, led by his chief rival, John Dudley, the first Earl of Warwick, who created himself Duke of Northumberland shortly after his rise. Northumberland effectively became Lord Protector, but he did not use this title, learning from the mistakes his predecessor made. Northumberland was furiously ambitious, and aimed to secure Protestant uniformity while making himself rich with land and money in the process. He ordered churches to be stripped of all traditional Catholic symbolism, resulting in the simplicity often seen in Church of England churches today. A revision of the Book of Common Prayer was published in 1552. When Edward VI became ill in 1553, his advisers looked to the possible imminent accession of the Catholic Lady Mary, and feared that she would overturn all the reforms made during Edward's reign. Perhaps surprisingly, it was the dying Edward himself who feared a return to Catholicism, and wrote a new will repudiating the 1544 will of Henry VIII. This gave the throne to his cousin Lady Jane Grey, the granddaughter of Henry VIII's sister Mary Tudor, who, after the death of Louis XII of France in 1515 had married Henry VIII's favourite Charles Brandon, the first Duke of Suffolk.
With the death of Edward VI, the direct male line of the House of Tudor ended.
Jane: The nine days' queen.
The dying Edward VI, under the pressure of John Dudley, the Duke of Northumberland, named his cousin Lady Jane Grey his successor due to her fervent Protestant beliefs. Edward's reluctance to follow the line of succession, which named his half-sister Mary as next in line, stemmed from his knowledge that Mary, firmly Catholic, would restore England to a Catholic nation. Lady Jane Grey was consistently at court after her father was made Duke of Suffolk in October 1551. Her mother, Lady Frances Brandon, was the daughter of Mary Tudor, Queen of France, youngest sister of Henry VIII. On 21 May 1553 Jane was married to John Dudley's son, Lord Guildford Dudley. This was a political move organised by the Duke to ensure that Protestantism stayed the national religion if Jane were to become queen. Edward died on 6 July 1553 and fifteen-year-old Jane, who fainted when she heard the news, was made queen on 10 July. However, despite the efforts of the Duke of Northumberland and Jane's father, the Duke of Suffolk, the public's support was with Princess Mary, the rightful heir according to Henry VIII's will. On 19 July Suffolk persuaded his daughter to relinquish the throne, which she had never wanted, to Mary. Mary's supporters joined her in a triumphal procession to London, accompanied by her younger sister Elizabeth. Lady Jane and her father were arrested for high treason and imprisoned in the Tower of London. Her father was pardoned, but his participation in Wyatt's rebellion led to his death shortly after. Jane and her husband Lord Guildford were sentenced to death and beheaded on 12 February 1554. Jane was only sixteen years old, and the cruel way in which her life had been lost for a throne she never desired aroused much sympathy among the public.
Mary I: A troubled queen's reign.
Mary soon announced her intention to marry the Spanish prince Philip, son of her mother's nephew Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. The prospect of a marriage alliance with Spain proved unpopular with the English people, who were worried that Spain would use England as a satellite, involving England in wars without the popular support of the people. Popular discontent grew; a Protestant courtier, Thomas Wyatt the younger, led a rebellion against Mary aiming to depose and replace her with her half-sister Elizabeth. The plot was discovered, and Wyatt's supporters were hunted down and killed. Wyatt himself was tortured, in the hope that he would give evidence that Elizabeth was involved so that Mary could have her executed for treason. Wyatt never implicated Elizabeth, and he was beheaded. Elizabeth spent her time between different prisons, including the Tower of London.
Mary married Philip at Winchester Cathedral, on 25 July 1554. Philip found her unattractive, and only spent a minimal amount of time with her. Despite Mary believing she was pregnant numerous times during her five-year reign, she never reproduced. Devastated that she rarely saw her husband, and anxious that she was not bearing an heir to Catholic England, Mary became bitter. In her determination to restore England to the Catholic faith and to secure her throne from Protestant threats, she had 200–300 Protestants burnt at the stake in the Marian Persecutions between 1555 and 1558. Protestants came to hate her as "Bloody Mary." Charles Dickens stated that "as bloody Queen Mary this woman has become famous, and as Bloody Queen Mary she will ever be remembered with horror and detestation"
Mary's dream of a new, Catholic Habsburg line was finished, and her popularity further declined when she lost the last English area on French soil, Calais, to Francis, Duke of Guise, on 7 January 1558. Mary's reign, however, introduced a new coining system that would be used until the 18th century, and her marriage to Philip II created new trade routes for England. Mary's government took a number of steps towards reversing the inflation, budgetary deficits, poverty, and trade crisis of her kingdom. She explored the commercial potential of Russian, African, and Baltic markets, revised the customs system, worked to counter the currency debasements of her predecessors, amalgamated several revenue courts, and strengthened the governing authority of the middling and larger towns. Mary also welcomed the first Russian ambassador to England, creating relations between England and Russia for the first time. Had she lived a little longer, Catholicism, which she worked so hard to restore into the realm might have taken deeper roots than it did. However, her actions in pursuit of this goal arguably spurred on the Protestant cause, through the many martyrs she made. Mary died on 17 November 1558 at the relatively young age of 42.
Elizabeth I: Age of intrigues and plots.
Elizabeth I, who was staying at Hatfield House at the time of her accession, rode to London to the cheers of both the ruling class and the common people.
When Elizabeth came to the throne, there was much apprehension among members of the council appointed by Mary, because many of them (as noted by the Spanish ambassador) had participated in several plots against Elizabeth, such as her imprisonment in the Tower, trying to force her to marry a foreign prince and thereby sending her out of the realm, and even pushing for her death. In response to their fear, she chose as her chief minister Sir William Cecil, a Protestant, and former secretary to Lord Protector the Duke of Somerset and then to the Duke of Northumberland. Under Mary, he had been spared, and often visited Elizabeth, ostensibly to review her accounts and expenditure. Elizabeth also appointed her personal favourite, the son of the Duke of Northumberland Lord Robert Dudley, her Master of the Horse, giving him constant personal access to the queen.
Early years.
Elizabeth had a long, turbulent path to the throne. She had a number of problems during her childhood, one of the main ones being after the execution of her mother, Anne Boleyn. When Anne was beheaded, Henry declared Elizabeth an illegitimate child and she would, therefore, not be able to inherit the throne. After the death of her father, she was raised by his widow, Catherine Parr and her husband Thomas Seymour, 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley. A scandal arose with her and the Lord Admiral to which she stood trial. During the examinations, she answered truthfully and boldly and all charges were dropped. She was an excellent student, well-schooled in Latin, French, Italian, and somewhat in Greek, and was a talented writer. She was supposedly a very skilled musician as well, in both singing and playing the lute. After the rebellion of Thomas Wyatt the younger, Elizabeth was imprisoned in the Tower of London. No proof could be found that Elizabeth was involved and she was released and retired to the countryside until the death of her sister, Mary I of England.
Imposing the Church of England.
Elizabeth was a moderate Protestant; she was the daughter of Anne Boleyn, who played a key role in the English Reformation in the 1520s. She had been brought up by Blanche Herbert Lady Troy. At her coronation in January 1559, many of the bishops – Catholic, appointed by Mary, who had expelled many of the Protestant clergymen when she became queen in 1553 – refused to perform the service in English. Eventually, the relatively minor Bishop of Carlisle, Owen Oglethorpe, performed the ceremony; but when Oglethorpe attempted to perform traditional Catholic parts of the Coronation, Elizabeth got up and left. Following the Coronation, two important Acts were passed through parliament: the Act of Uniformity and the Act of Supremacy, establishing the Protestant Church of England and creating Elizabeth Supreme Governor of the Church of England ("Supreme Head", the title used by her father and brother, was seen as inappropriate for a woman ruler). These acts, known collectively as the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, made it compulsory to attend church services every Sunday; and imposed an oath on clergymen and statesmen to recognise the Church of England, the independence of the Church of England from the Catholic Church, and the authority of Elizabeth as Supreme Governor. Elizabeth made it clear that if they refused the oath the first time, they would have a second opportunity, after which, if the oath was not sworn, the offenders would be deprived of their offices and estates.
Pressure to marry.
Even though Elizabeth was only twenty-five when she came to the throne, she was absolutely sure of her God-given place to be the queen and of her responsibilities as the 'handmaiden of the Lord'. She never let anyone challenge her authority as queen, even though many people, who felt she was weak and should be married, tried to do so. The popularity of Elizabeth was extremely high, but her Privy Council, her Parliament and her subjects thought that the unmarried queen should take a husband; it was generally accepted that, once a queen regnant was married, the husband would relieve the woman of the burdens of head of state. Also, without an heir, the Tudor line would end; the risk of civil war between rival claimants was a possibility if Elizabeth died childless. Numerous suitors from nearly all European nations sent ambassadors to English court to put forward their suit. Risk of death came dangerously close in 1564 when Elizabeth caught smallpox; when she was most at risk, she named Robert Dudley as Lord Protector in the event of her death. After her recovery, she appointed Dudley to the Privy Council and created him Earl of Leicester, in the hope that he would marry Mary, Queen of Scots. Mary rejected him, and instead married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, a descendant of Henry VII, giving Mary a stronger claim to the English throne. Although many Catholics were loyal to Elizabeth, many also believed that, because Elizabeth was declared illegitimate after her parents' marriage was annulled, Mary was the strongest legitimate claimant. Despite this, Elizabeth would not name Mary her heir; as she had experienced during the reign of her predecessor Mary I, the opposition could flock around the heir if they were disheartened with Elizabeth's rule.
Numerous threats to the Tudor line occurred during Elizabeth's reign. In 1569, a group of Earls led by Charles Neville, the sixth Earl of Westmorland, and Thomas Percy, the seventh Earl of Northumberland attempted to depose Elizabeth and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots. In 1571, the Protestant-turned-Catholic Thomas Howard, the fourth Duke of Norfolk, had plans to marry Mary, Queen of Scots, and then replace Elizabeth with Mary. The plot, masterminded by Roberto di Ridolfi, was discovered and Norfolk was beheaded. The next major uprising was in 1601, when Robert Devereux, the second Earl of Essex, attempted to raise the city of London against Elizabeth's government. The city of London proved unwilling to rebel; Essex and most of his co-rebels were executed. Threats also came from abroad. In 1570, Pope Pius V issued a Papal bull, "Regnans in Excelsis", excommunicating Elizabeth, and releasing her subjects from their allegiance to her. Elizabeth came under pressure from Parliament to execute Mary, Queen of Scots, to prevent any further attempts to replace her; though faced with several official requests, she vacillated over the decision to execute an anointed queen. Finally, she was persuaded of Mary's (treasonous) complicity in the plotting against her, and she signed the death warrant in 1586. Mary was executed at Fotheringhay Castle on 8 February 1587, to the outrage of Catholic Europe.
There are many reasons debated as to why Elizabeth never married. It was rumoured that she was in love with Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, and that on one of her summer progresses she had birthed his illegitimate child. This rumour was just one of many that swirled around the two's long-standing friendship. However, more important to focus on were the disasters that many women, such as Lady Jane Grey, suffered due to being married into the royal family. Her sister Mary's marriage to Philip brought great contempt to the country, for many of her subjects despised Spain and Philip and feared that he would try to take complete control. Recalling her father's disdain for Anne of Cleves, Elizabeth also refused to enter into a foreign match with a man that she had never seen before, so that also eliminated a large number of suitors.
Last hopes for a Tudor heir.
Despite the uncertainty of Elizabeth's – and therefore the Tudors' – hold on England, she never married. The closest she came to marriage was between 1579 and 1581, when she was courted by Francis, Duke of Anjou, the son of Henry II of France and Catherine de' Medici. Despite Elizabeth's government constantly begging her to marry in the early years of her reign, it was now persuading Elizabeth not to marry the French prince, for his mother, Catherine de' Medici, was suspected of ordering the St Bartholomew's Day massacre of tens of thousands of French Protestant Huguenots in 1572. Elizabeth bowed to public feeling against the marriage, learning from the mistake her sister made when she married Philip II of Spain, and sent the Duke of Anjou away. Elizabeth knew that the continuation of the Tudor line was now impossible; she was forty-eight in 1581, and too old to bear children.
By far the most dangerous threat to the Tudor line during Elizabeth's reign was the Spanish Armada of 1588, launched by Elizabeth's old suitor Philip II of Spain and commanded by Alonso de Guzmán El Bueno, the seventh Duke of Medina Sidonia. The Spanish invasion fleet outnumbered the English fleet's 22 galleons and 108 armed merchant ships. The Spanish lost, however, as a result of bad weather on the English Channel, poor planning and logistics, and the skills of Sir Francis Drake and Charles Howard, the second Baron Howard of Effingham (later first Earl of Nottingham).
While Elizabeth declined physically with age, her running of the country continued to benefit her people. In response to famine across England due to bad harvests in the 1590s, Elizabeth introduced the poor law, allowing peasants who were too ill to work a certain amount of money from the state. All the money Elizabeth had borrowed from Parliament in 12 of the 13 parliamentary sessions was paid back; by the time of her death, Elizabeth not only had no debts, but was in credit. Elizabeth died childless at Richmond Palace on 24 March 1603. She left behind a legacy and monarchy worth noting. She had pursued her goals of being well endowed with every aspect of ruling her kingdom, and of knowing everything necessary to be an effective monarch. She took part in law, economics, politics and governmental issues both domestic and abroad. Realms that had once been strictly forbidden to the female gender had now been ruled by one.
Elizabeth never named a successor. However, her chief minister Sir Robert Cecil had corresponded with the Protestant King James VI of Scotland, great-grandson of Margaret Tudor, and James's succession to the English throne was unopposed. There has been discussion over the selected heir. It has been argued that Elizabeth would have selected James because she felt guilty about what happened to his mother, her cousin. Whether this is true is unknown for certain, for Elizabeth did her best to never show emotion nor give in to claims. Elizabeth was strong and hard-headed and kept her primary goal in sight: providing the best for her people and proving those wrong who doubted her while maintaining a straight composure.
The House of Tudor survives through the female line, first with the House of Stuart, which occupied the English throne for most of the following century, and then the House of Hanover, via James' granddaughter Sophia. Queen Elizabeth II is a direct descendant of Henry VII.
Before and after comparisons.
Public interference regarding the Roses dynasties was always a threat until the 17th century Stuart/Bourbon re-alignment occasioned by a series of events such as the execution of Lady Jane Grey, despite her brother-in-law, Leicester's reputation in Holland, the Rising of the North (in which the old Percy-Neville feud and even anti-Scottish sentiment was discarded on account of religion; Northern England shared the same Avignonese bias as the Scottish court, on par with Valois France and Castile, which became the backbone of the Counter-Reformation, with Protestants being solidly anti-Avignonese) and death of Elizabeth I of England without children.
The Tudors made no substantial changes in their foreign policy from either Lancaster or York, whether the alliance was with Aragon or Cleves, the chief foreign enemies continuing as the Auld Alliance, but the Tudors resurrected old ecclesiastic arguments once pursued by Henry II of England and his son John of England. Yorkists were tied so much to the old order that Catholic rebellions (such as the Pilgrimage of Grace) and aspirations (exemplified by William Allen) were seen as continuing in their reactionary footsteps, when in opposition to the Tudors' reformation policies, although the Tudors were not uniformly Protestant according to Continental definition—instead were true to their Lancastrian Beaufort allegiance, in the appointment of Reginald Pole.
The essential difference between the Tudors and their predecessors, is the nationalization and integration of John Wycliffe's ideas to the Church of England, holding onto the alignment of Richard II of England and Anne of Bohemia, in which Anne's Hussite brethren were in alliance to her husband's Wycliffite countrymen against the Avignon Papacy. The Tudors otherwise rejected or suppressed other religious notions, whether for the Pope's award of "Fidei Defensor" or to prevent them from being in the hands of the common laity, who might be swayed by cells of foreign Protestants, with whom they had conversation as Marian exiles, pursuing a strategy of containment which the Lancastrians had done (after being vilified by Wat Tyler), even though the phenomenon of "Lollard knights" (like John Oldcastle) had become almost a national sensation all on its own.
In essence, the Tudors followed a composite of Lancastrian (the court party) and Yorkist (the church party) policies. Henry VIII tried to extend his father's balancing act between the dynasties for opportunistic interventionism in the Italian Wars, which had unfortunate consequences for his own marriages and the Papal States; the King furthermore tried to use similar tactics for the "via media" concept of Anglicanism. A further parallelism was effected by turning Ireland into a kingdom and sharing the same episcopal establishment as England, whilst enlarging England by the annexation of Wales. The progress to Northern/Roses government would thenceforth pass across the border into Scotland, in 1603, due not only to the civil warring, but also because the Tudors' own line was fragile and insecure, trying to reconcile the mortal enemies who had weakened England to the point of having to bow to new pressures, rather than dictate diplomacy on English terms.
Rebellions against the Tudors.
The following English rebellions took place against the House of Tudor:
Tudor monarchs of England and Ireland.
The six Tudor monarchs were:
Armorial.
Coat of arms as sovereigns.
As Prince of Wales, Arthur, Henry, and Edward all bore these arms,
Tudor Badges.
The Welsh Dragon supporter honoured the Tudor's Welsh origins. The most popular symbol of the house of Tudor was the Tudor rose (see top of page). When Henry Tudor took the crown of England from Richard III in battle, he brought about the end of the Wars of the Roses between the House of Lancaster (whose badge was a red rose) and the House of York (whose badge was a white rose). He married Elizabeth of York to bring all factions together.
On his marriage, Henry adopted the Tudor Rose badge conjoining the White Rose of York and the Red Rose of Lancaster. It symbolized the Tudor's right to rule as well the uniting of the kingdom after the Wars of the Roses. It was used by every English, then British, monarch since Henry VII as a royal badge.
Tudor Monograms.
The Tudors also used monograms to denote themselves:
Lineage and the Tudor name.
The Tudor Name.
As noted above Tewdur or Tudor is derived from the words tud "territory" and rhi "king". Owen Tudor took it as a surname on being knighted. It is doubtful whether the Tudor kings used the name on the throne. Kings and princes were not seen as needing a name, and a " 'Tudor' name for the royal family was hardly known in the sixteenth century. The royal surname was never used in official publications, and hardly in 'histories' of various sorts before 1584. ... Monarchs were not anxious to publicize their descent in the paternal line from a Welsh adventurer, stressing instead continuity with the historic English and French royal families. Their subjects did not think of them as 'Tudors', or of themselves as 'Tudor people'". Princes and Princesses would have been known as "of England". The medieval practice of colloquially calling princes after their place birth (e.g. Henry of Bolingbroke for Henry IV or Henry of Monmouth for Henry V) was not followed. Henry VII was likely known as "Henry of Richmond" before his taking of the throne. When Richard III called him "Henry Tudor" it was to stress his Welshness and his unfitness for the throne as opposed to himself, "Richard Plantagenet", a "true" descendant of the royal line.
Royal lineage.
The Tudors' claim to the throne combined the Lancastrian claim in their descent from the Beauforts and the Yorkist claim by the marriage of Henry VII to the heiress of Edward IV.
In popular culture.
Numerous feature films are based on Tudor history. Queen Elizabeth has been in special favorite for filmmakers for generations. According to Elizabeth A. Ford and Deborah C. Mitchell, images of Elizabeth I move:


Montevideo (Rotterdam)

Montevideo is a 43-storey, residential skyscraper on the river Nieuwe Maas in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. The Montevideo logo on the roof is an letter "M" which brings the tower's total height to . The logo is also designed to be a giant wind vane. Designed by Mecanoo architecture firm principal, Francine Houben, the building is one of the tallest woman-designed buildings in the world. The tower was opened 19 December 2005, featuring 192 apartment units, of office space, and of retail space. The building is named after the Uruguay capital city, Montevideo.
Awards.
The building received a commendation award by the International Highrise Award 2006, and it has been awarded the Dedallo Minosse Prize. In addition it finished in third place in the 2005 Emporis Skyscraper Award selection.


Stephanuskirche (Wolfsburg)

Stephanuskirche (Evangelical Lutheran Church of St. Stephen) also known as Detmerode Church is a church and parish center in Wolfsburg, Germany designed by Finnish architect Alvar Aalto in 1963. Completed in 1968, the building is a prominent example of International modernism in Germany.
The church contains 250 seats and can be configured to hold a capacity of 600 when needed.


Wootton Manor

Wootton Manor is a country house in Folkington, East Sussex. Originally a mediaeval manor house, from which parts of the chapel survive, it was rebuilt in the mid-17th century in a rather old-fashioned Jacobean style. Rupert Gwynne and his wife settled in the house after their marriage in 1905, and later commissioned the Arts and Crafts architect Detmar Blow to restore and extend the house, which he did in four directions, and add outbuildings, as well as working in the gardens. The cookery writer Elizabeth David, and her three sisters, grew up in this house.
The central building has been listed as Grade II* by English Heritage.


York House, Strand

York House (formerly Norwich Place or Norwich Palace) was one of a string of mansion houses which formerly stood on the Strand, the principal route from the City of London to the Palace of Westminster.
Building.
Norwich Palace.
It was built as the London townhouse of the Bishops of Norwich not later than 1237, and on 4 February 1536 it was given by King Henry VIII to his favourite Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk in exchange for Suffolk House in Southwark, the Bishop having been provided with a new residence in Cannon Row, Westminster.
York House.
It came to be known as York House when it was granted to the Archbishop of York in 1556 and retained that name for the rest of its existence. Its neighbours were on the west Suffolk House (later Northumberland House), the townhouse of the Earls of Suffolk, a branch of the Howard family headed by the Dukes of Norfolk, and in the 1640s sold to the Earl of Northumberland; and on the east Durham House, the London residence of the Bishop of Durham. The Bishop of York was by tradition Lord Keeper of the Great Seal of England and for about seventy years from 1558 the house was leased to various secular holders of that high office, including Nicholas Bacon, Thomas Egerton and Francis Bacon. In the 1620s it was acquired by the royal favourite George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, and after an interlude during the English Civil War it was returned to George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, who sold it to developers for £30,000 in 1672. He made it a condition of the sale that his name and full title should be commemorated by George Street, Villiers Street, Duke Street, Of Alley, and Buckingham Street. Some of these street names are extant, though Of Alley has been renamed York Place, Duke Street is now John Adam Street and George Street is now York Buildings. Villiers Street runs along the eastern side of Charing Cross railway station.
Riverside setting.
The mansions facing in the Strand were built there partly because they had direct access from their rear gardens to the River Thames, then a much-used transport artery. The surviving York Watergate (also known as "Buckingham Watergate"), built by George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham in about 1626 as a ceremonial landing stage on the river, is now marooned from the river, within the Embankment Gardens, due to substantial riverside land reclamation following the construction of the Thames Embankment. With the Banqueting House it is one of the few surviving reminders in London of the Italianate court style of King Charles I. Its rusticated design in a Serlian manner has been attributed to Sir Balthazar Gerbier, to Inigo Jones himself and to the sculptor and master-mason Nicholas Stone. The design is modelled closely on that of the Medici Fountain in the Jardin du Luxembourg in Paris. It was restored in the 1950s.
Events.
The York House Conference which assembled there in February 1626 ended unsatisfactorily with the final rupture between Puritan members of Parliament and Buckingham. York House was the setting for a masque presented before their majesties in May 1627, in which Buckingham appeared followed by "Envy, with divers open-mouthed dogs' heads representing the people’s barking, while next came Fame and Truth", just before his departure for his unsuccessful second foray against France.
The first Duke granted lodgings at York House to the painter Orazio Gentileschi, and to Sir Balthazar Gerbier, diplomat and sometime painter. Although the Duchess tried to expel the latter after the Duke's assassination in 1628, it was in Gerbier's lodgings that Peter Paul Rubens sojourned during his visit to London the following year.
Inventory.
An inventory of the contents of York House drawn up in 1635 is a valuable source for scholars both for the light it sheds on one of the handful of great art collections formed in the circle of Charles I, and for the furnishings of a fashionable early Stuart nobleman's residence. In the 'Great Chamber' twenty-two paintings were displayed with fifty-nine pieces of Roman sculpture, many of which were heads. In the 'Gallery' were a further thirty-one heads and statues. Apparently the only modern sculpture at York House was Giambologna's "Samson and a Philistine", a royal gift from King Philip IV of Spain to Charles I, who passed it to his favourite, Buckingham.
Legacy.
In the early 19th century the designation "York House" was revived by the palatial York House, built in the Stable Yard, St. James's Palace, for the Duke of York, brother of George IV and heir apparent. Foundations were begun to designs by Robert Smirke, who was quickly replaced by Benjamin Dean Wyatt and his brother Philip; when the Duke died in 1827, deeply in debt with the house unfinished, it was subsequently completed as Stafford House; its gilded interiors by Sir Charles Barry for Stafford's heir, the Duke of Sutherland, inspired Queen Victoria's famous remark about "coming from my house to your palace".
The name is carried today by a commercial building in Portugal Street, Kingsway, London.
The York Watergate is at the centre of the song "London Plane" by progressive rock band Big Big Train on their 2016 album "Folklore". The song is written from the perspective of a nearby London plane tree that was a sapling at the time of the construction of the Watergate in 1626 and tells of the stories that such a tree may have witnessed in the years since.