Badges of the United States Navy

Insignias and badges of the United States Navy are military badges issued by the United States Department of the Navy to naval service members who achieve certain qualifications and accomplishments while serving on both active and reserve duty in the United States Navy. Most naval aviation insignia are also permitted for wear on uniforms of the United States Marine Corps.
As described in Chapter 5 of U.S. Navy Uniform Regulations, badges are categorized as "breast insignia" (usually worn immediately above and below ribbons) and "identification badges" (usually worn at breast pocket level). Breast insignia are further divided between "command" and "warfare and other qualification".
Insignia come in the form of metal pin-on devices worn on formal uniforms and embroidered tape strips worn on work uniforms. For the purpose of this article, the general term "insignia" shall be used to describe both, as it is done in Navy Uniform Regulations. The term "badge", although used ambiguously in other military branches and in informal speak to describe any pin, patch, or tab, is exclusive to "identification badges" and authorized "marksmanship awards" according to the language in Navy Uniform Regulations, Chapter 5.
The modern day United States Navy currently maintains the following breast insignia and badges:
Breast insignia.
Command.
The Command at Sea insignia is for commissioned officers between the ranks of Lieutenant (O-3) and Captain (O-6) who are in or have been in command of a ship or operational fleet air unit. The Command Ashore/Project Manager insignia is for officers who are or have been commanding officer of a naval installation, a shore-based command (to include non-deploying air commands), or in charge of a major program or project (the latter being primarily in the Naval Air Systems Command or Naval Sea Systems Command).
An incumbent officer wears insignia on the right breast; in full dress it is worn above the ribbons.
A post tour officer wears the insignia on the left breast 1/4 inch below the top of the pocket/flap. If a warfare or qualification insignia is already occupying that position, it is then worn 1/4 inch below that insignia, or on uniforms with pocket flaps, 1/4 inch below the flap. Women in full dress will wear post tour command insignia 1/4 inch above the left pocket, medals or primary breast insignia. Only one post tour command insignia may be worn.
Warfare and Other Qualification.
"Warfare and Other Qualification" insignia are awarded for completing qualifications in various fields within the Navy. They are worn on the left side of the uniform in the primary position (for one insignia), or the primary and secondary position (for two insignia). Only two of this class of breast insignia may be worn at one time.
Warfare and Other Qualification insignia are grouped in the following categories (in alphabetical order):
"Warfare" insignia take precedence over "Other" insignia and are placed in the primary position. If two Warfare insignia are authorized for wear, insignia of the specialty in which currently serving will be worn in the primary position. Personnel with multiple qualifications may wear only two insignia. Since September 2009, personnel with multiple designators within a single community (for example, an aviation officer who has earned both Naval Aviator and Naval Flight Officer qualifications) may wear both insignia, with their current billet's insignia on top.
Listed below are all the Warfare and Other Qualification insignia within each category.
Warfare Qualifications.
Aviation Warfare.
"Aviation Warfare" insignia (usually called "wings") are breast insignia of the aviation warfare community which are issued to those naval personnel who are trained and qualified to perform duties related to operation and support of naval aircraft.
There are two variants for line officers: Naval Aviator insignia for pilots, and Naval Flight Officer insignia for officers performing weapons systems officer, electronic countermeasures officer, navigator or similar functions. There is also an astronaut version of each of these insignia, known as the Naval Astronaut and Naval Astronaut (NFO), respectively.
The Enlisted Aviation Warfare Specialist (EAWS) insignia is earned by sailors who demonstrate an in-depth knowledge of Naval Aviation. The EAWS designation may be earned by both enlisted Naval Aircrew and non-flying enlisted support personnel in Naval Aviation. EAWS status does not require any sort of actual flight experience or flight status in a flight crew capacity.
In 2009, the United States Navy converted the Naval Aircrew insignia from a qualification to a warfare designator like the Enlisted Aviation Warfare Specialist, Enlisted Submarine Warfare Specialist, and Enlisted Surface Warfare Specialist. The title was changed from Naval Aircrew (NAC) to Naval Aircrew Warfare Specialist (NAWS). Per MILPERSMAN 1220-020.
Naval Aircrew Warfare Specialist (NAWS): Sailors must be qualified aircrew members; possess an eligible Navy enlisted classification of 78XX, 82XX, 8401, or 94XX; and be assigned to flying duty in an eligible billet for their NEC. Candidates must complete a positional qualification for the respective aircraft in which they fly within 18 months of reporting to a permanent duty station. See MilPersMan Article 1220-020. See further down this article for more on Naval Aircrew insignia.
Other insignia for qualification in specialized areas exists for Flight Surgeons, Flight Nurses, Experimental Psychologists/Physiologists, Observers/Flight Meteorologists, and Supply Corps personnel. With the exception of the Naval Aviation Supply Corps insignia, all of the above insignia require the wearer to be, or have been, on some sort of flight status in naval aircraft. Naval Aviation Supply Corps qualification does not require any sort of actual flight experience or flight status in a flight crew capacity.
In December 2009, the first of the new "Professional Aviation Maintenance Officer" (PAMO) warfare designators and insignia were awarded. The PAMO community consists of aerospace maintenance duty officers, aviation maintenance limited duty officers, and aviation maintenance chief warrant officers. Complete eligibility requirements can be found in OPNAVINST. 1412.11. Like the Naval Aviation Supply Corps qualification, the Professional Aircraft Maintenance Officer qualification also does not require any sort of actual flight experience or flight status in a flight crew capacity.
Explosive Ordnance Disposal Warfare.
The "Explosive Ordnance Disposal Warfare" (EOD) insignia, also known as the "crab", is awarded to personnel trained to deal with the construction, deployment, disarmament, and disposal of high explosives munitions. This group is part of Navy Special Operations and all are dive qualified as closed circuit divers. It is the only decoration awarded to all four uniformed services of the US Defense Department.
Enlisted EOD technicians wear the insignia as their primary warfare breast insignia. Officers formerly wore it as a secondary insignia under the Special Operations Warfare insignia, but now wear the Basic, Senior, and Master insignia as their primary warfare device.
In 2007, the Special Operations Officer Community was rechristened "Explosive Ordnance Disposal", a change which the Navy felt also needed to be reflected in the EOD Officer warfare device as well. The new officer insignia is identical to the Master EOD warfare device, but is gold in color.
Fleet Marine Force.
The "Fleet Marine Force" (FMF) insignia can be awarded to Navy personnel assigned to Fleet Marine Force command, a combined command of Navy and Marine Corps. The insignia is earned by both officers and enlisted.
Navy Hospital Corpsmen (or simply "Doc") and Religious Programs Specialists (RP) are good examples of Navy personnel in FMF.
The Chaplain (Chaps) version of the officers' badge does not include the crossed rifles.
Information Warfare.
The "Information Warfare" insignia was approved in September 2010 and is authorized for wear by members of the Information Warfare Community who have successfully completed the qualification requirements outlined in OPNAVINST 1412.13 (for officers) and COMNAVCYBERFOR INST 1414.1 (for enlisted members). Upon implementation in September 2010, experienced Information Warfare Officers in the redesignated 18xx designators were afforded the opportunity to qualify for the IDWO Insignia through completion of an online course and the submission of evidence of prior completion of prescribed requirements. All Information Warfare Officers not being awarded the IWO Insignia via this method are required to complete the prescribed Officer PQS. The insignia became available for purchase in October 2010.
Personnel comprising the Information Warfare Community include the following communities: intelligence, information
professional, cryptologic warfare (formerly information warfare), oceanography, meteorology and space cadre additional qualification designators/NECs.
Seabee Combat Warfare Specialist.
The "Seabee Combat Warfare Specialist" (SCWS) insignia is awarded to personnel assigned to qualifying units of the Naval Construction Force (Seabees) and Amphibious Construction Battalions after demonstrating superior proficiency in naval heritage, naval doctrine, command and control, hazardous material/hazardous waste environmental safety, supply & logistics, communications and communications security, weapons, general military tactics, contingency operations, embarkation, safety, basic first aid, civil engineer support equipment, and chemical, biological, & radiological warfare.
The two insignia variants correspond to the gold officer insignia and silver enlisted insignia. Officers are required to complete all aspects of the enlisted program, plus additional officer specific requirements while overall demonstrating broader and deeper knowledge proficiency commensurate with their increased responsibilities.
Qualifying units include Naval Construction Groups (NCG), Naval Construction Regiments (NCR), Naval Mobile Construction Battalions (NMCB), Underwater Construction Teams (UCT), and Construction Battalion Maintenance Units (CBMU), and personnel assigned to Amphibious Construction Battalions (ACB).
Engineering duty officer.
An Engineering Duty Officer (EDO) is a restricted line officer in the United States Navy, involved with the design, acquisition, construction, repair, maintenance, conversion, overhaul, and disposal of ships, submarines, aircraft carriers, and the systems installed aboard (weapons, command and control, communications, computers, etc.). As of August 1, 2016, there are approximately 835 engineering duty officers on active duty in the United States Navy, representing approximately 2 percent of its active-duty commissioned officers (and approximately 400 engineering duty officers in the Navy Reserve).
Special Operations.
The "Special Operations Warfare" (SPECOPS) insignia is earned by officers by virtue of training in the Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD), Mine Countermeasures (MCM), Operational Diving and Salvage (ODS), and Expendable Ordnance Management (EOM). Not to be confused with Special Warfare (i.e. SEALs), Special Operations, in Navy parlance, refers to dive qualified EOD technicians.
The insignia shares a similar design to the Surface Warfare insignia, but is considered a different category.
Special Warfare.
There are two "Special Warfare" insignia issued to Navy personnel serving under Naval Special Warfare Command, a part of USSOCOM: "Special Warfare" and "Special Warfare Combatant-Craft Crewman".
The Special Warfare insignia (aka the "SEAL Trident"), is awarded to personnel who completed BUD/S training and qualification, and have been designated as Navy SEALs and assigned to Navy SEAL Teams or SEAL Delivery Vehicle (SDV) Teams. The insignia is the same for both officer and enlisted personnel and is one of only three breast insignia authorized for enlisted personnel that is gold in color.
The Special Warfare Combatant-Craft Crewman (SWCC - pronounced "swick") insignia is awarded to enlisted personnel who complete SWCC training and qualification, and have been designated as United States Navy SWCCs assigned to Special Boat Teams. The SWCC qualification insignia consists of three separate insignias that denote the level of qualification achieved individually by SWCC sailors. The insignias include SWCC Basic, SWCC Senior, and SWCC Master. The SWCC Basic Insignia is a two and one-half by one and one-fourth inch silver matte metal pin showing a background of a cocked flintlock pistol, a crossed naval enlisted cutlass, and a Mark V Special Operations Craft atop a bow wave. The SWCC Senior Insignia incorporates an upright anchor in the background of the SWCC Basic Insignia. The SWCC Master Insignia incorporates a banner with three gold stars on the upper portion of the anchor from the SWCC Senior Insignia.
Submarine Warfare.
"Submarine Qualification" insignia (usually known as "dolphins" or "fish") are breast insignia of the submarine warfare community which are issued to those naval personnel after they complete a complex, demanding and extensive program that incorporates learning each system aboard the submarine and completion of certain watchstanding requirements including cross rate watch requirements. This program differs from many of the other "Warfare" programs in that it requires personnel to become proficient in engineering and operational details to such an extent that each person must be able to understand and perform basic operation of each system and equipment aboard the submarine. In addition each person must be able to efficiently perform damage control and emergency control functions in each space on the submarine. The Submarine Qualification insignia for officers and enlisted was first proposed by then-Captain Ernest King on June 13, 1923, with the current design finalized March 1924.
In addition to line officer and enlisted versions, there are insignia for officers working in engineering duty, medical corps, and supply corps.
Surface Warfare.
"Surface Warfare" insignia are breast insignia of the surface warfare community. They are earned by those naval personnel who are trained and qualified to perform duties aboard United States surface warships. The Surface Warfare Officer insignia was first proposed in 1972, and by 1980 a variety of the Surface Warfare insignia had been approved for issuance.
Line officers of the surface warfare community earn the Surface Warfare Officer (SWO) insignia. Enlisted personnel who complete the Enlisted Surface Warfare qualification program earn the Enlisted Surface Warfare Specialist (ESWS) insignia. Other insignia for qualification in specialized areas exist in the Medical Corps, Nurse Corps, Dental Corps, Medical Service Corps, and Supply Corps.
The SWO and ESWS insignia may be earned by United States Coast Guard personnel assigned to Navy commands.
The Enlisted Expeditionary Warfare Specialist Insignia is awarded to enlisted United States Navy personnel, and select United States Coast Guard personnel temporarily assigned to the U.S. Navy, who satisfactorily complete the required qualification course and pass a qualification board hearing. Enlisted members E-5 and above shall obtain the Enlisted Expeditionary Warfare (EXW) Specialist qualification while assigned to a qualifying unit. Enlisted members E-4 and below may voluntarily obtain EXW qualification while assigned to a qualifying unit and who meet eligibility requirements. The qualification was developed to provide a chance for enlisted sailors in the Navy Expeditionary Combat Command (NECC) community (naval personnel serving in a maritime security or maritime combat related role) to earn a warfare qualification. Core qualification skills will include but not be limited to weapons qualification and maintenance, marksmanship, land navigation, field communications, and expeditionary camp deployment. The design of the new pin encompasses the essence of enlisted expeditionary Sailors, presenting the bow and superstructure of a Sea Ark 34' patrol boat from Inshore Boat Units superimposed upon a crossed cutlass and M16A1 rifle. The waves represent the Navy's heritage, the cutlass represents the enlisted force, the M16A1 represents an NECC mission area and the boat, another NECC mission area. The background is the traditional waves of the Enlisted Surface Warfare Specialist Insignia.
The Navy Expeditionary Supply Corps Officer (NESCO) program is designed to recognize significant contributions made by Supply Corps officers while serving in operational expeditionary billets. Navy Expeditionary Supply Corps officer qualification represents a level of expeditionary knowledge that distinguishes an officer of the Supply Corps from his or her peers. The Navy Expeditionary Supply Corps officer qualification program is mandatory for all Supply Corps officers serving in designated billets as determined by Commander, Navy Expeditionary Combat Command (COMNAVEXPDCMBTCOM) and Commander, Naval Special Warfare Command (COMNAVSPECWARCOM).
Commanders and above with other Supply Corps professional qualification (e.g., Naval Aviation Supply Corps officer or Surface Warfare Supply Corps officer) may elect not to participate, but Navy Expeditionary Supply Corps officer qualification is encouraged for these officers.[1]
The Navy Expeditionary Supply Corps Officer (NESCO) insignia is a gold metal pin showing a Supply Corps oak leaf centered, superimposed on a crossed sword and M16A1 rifle, on a background of ocean swells. A metal insignia is available for uniforms requiring miniature medals.
The newest surface warfare qualification insignia to be implemented by the U.S. Navy is the Strategic Sealift Officer Warfare Insignia (SSOWI). The SSOWI is a redesign of the old Navy Reserve Merchant Marine Insignia, also known as the "Golden Chicken" or "Sea Chicken", originally created in 1938. The SSOWI is approved for wear by officers who have successfully completed the qualification requirements outlined in OPNAVINST 1534.1E. The insignia may be worn by:
The SSOWI is gold in color and is , reflecting the background of an eagle from the USS "Constitution"'s stern, crossed naval officer swords, and a U.S. shield with fouled anchor from the U.S. Merchant Marine flag.
Other Qualifications.
Aircrew.
The Aircrew insignia is issued to enlisted personnel trained to operate equipment aboard airborne aircraft. It is one of only three gold color breast insignia awarded to qualified enlisted personnel.
Navy aircrew assigned to Navy aircraft place "(NAC)" after their rating to indicate this skill. Navy aircrew qualified to wear the Combat Aircrew insignia place "(CAC)" after their rating. Example: "CTT1(NAC) Jenkins" is Cryptologic Technician Technical First Class Jenkins, who is a qualified Aircrewman.
Integrated Undersea Surveillance System.
The Integrated Undersea Surveillance System insignia is awarded to those personnel who have been trained and qualified in naval sonar and undersea surveillance (SOSUS) technology.
Officer in Charge/Petty Officer in Charge.
The "Officer in Charge/Petty Officer in Charge" (OIC/POIC) insignia is issued to personnel of the small boat community. It is issued to operators of small combatant and non-combatant vessels.
The "Small Craft insignia" is awarded to officers and petty officers commanding small combatant vessels that patrol brown-water (littoral zone) and riverine environments.
The "Craftmaster" insignia is awarded mainly to enlisted personnel commanding vessels, such as Landing Craft Utility, Landing Craft Air Cushioned, YTBs, and various other tugs and barges. It is also awarded to certain staff officers and a few select midshipmen.
Parachutists.
The "Parachutists" insignia, also known as "jump wings", is awarded to personnel for training in airborne school. The basic insignia is issued for completion of basic parachutist training. The Naval Parachutist insignia is issued after 10 qualifying jumps. It is used both by the Navy and the Marine Corps.
Enlisted personnel with jump wings place "(PJ)" after their rating to indicate this skill. Free-fall/HALO qualified place "(FPJ)" in their rating. Example: "EOD3(FPJ) Smith" is Explosive Ordnance Disposal 3rd Class Smith, who is Free-fall/HALO-qualified.
The Naval Parachutist insignia is a common secondary insignia among Navy SEALs, SWCC, Navy EOD, and Special Amphibious Reconnaissance Corpsman. It is one of only three gold color breast insignia awarded to qualified enlisted personnel.
Nuclear Weapons Security.
The Navy Nuclear Weapons Security Insignia (NWS) is awarded to enlisted sailors assigned to a Strategic Weapons Facility, Personal Reliability Program, supporting missions associated with the Marine Corps Security Force Battalion, or are qualified in their senior post or watch station consistent with their current pay grade and duties assigned. The insignia represents completion of twelve months of fully qualified service to the NWS mission. A gold star mounted at the bottom of the insignia indicates an additional year of qualified service to the NWS mission. A silver star indicates five years of fully qualified service.
Submarine Patrol.
The "Submarine Combat Patrol insignia" is a breast insignia worn by Navy personnel who have completed war patrols. Such patrols were conducted during World War II and this insignia has not been awarded since that time.
The "SSBN Deterrent Patrol insignia" or "boomer pin" is a breast insignia worn by Navy personnel of the submarine service who have completed strategic deterrent patrols in nuclear ballistic missile submarines. It is the successor to the Submarine Combat Patrol insignia awarded for submarine patrols during World War II. Upon the completion of their 20th successful patrol, personnel are upgraded from silver to gold.
Qualified personnel wear the insignia as a secondary device, after the Submarine Warfare device.
Underwater.
The "Deep Submergence insignia" is worn by Navy personnel who are qualified in submarines and have completed one year of regular assignment to a manned or unmanned deep submersible.
"Diver insignia" are issued to personnel who are qualified divers and is given in several degrees. The first degree of the diving insignia is Scuba Diver. The remaining insignia are awarded for deep sea dive qualifications and are issued in the degrees of Second Class, First Class, and Master Diver. There also exists a Diving Officer insignia for officers who completed Basic Diving Officer course, and insignia for medical personnel who have qualified as both divers and medical response personnel to medical emergencies underwater.
Enlisted personnel who are dive qualified place "(DV)" after their rating to indicate this skill. Example: "PO2(DV) Jones" is a Petty Officer 2nd Class Jones, who is Diver-qualified.
Badges.
Identification.
The Presidential and Vice Presidential Service badges are worn on the right side at a level corresponding to badges worn on the left side on dress uniforms, and center of the right pocket on other uniforms. The badges for Office of the Secretary of Defense and Joint Chiefs of Staff are worn on the left breast pocket, 1/4 inch below medals or secondary breast insignia on dress uniforms, and in the center of left pocket on other uniforms. If a breast insignia in the secondary position forces the badge below the lower seam of the pocket, the secondary insignia must be omitted. (see figure 1)
The Command Senior Enlisted Leader Identification Badge for E-7s and higher (see figure 2) are issued to chiefs holding a command position (e.g. senior enlisted of the entire Navy, of a fleet or task force, of a single ship, etc.). Male incumbents wear it on the left breast pocket, 1/4 inch below medals or secondary breast insignia on dress uniforms, and in the center of left pocket on other uniforms. If a breast insignia in the secondary position forces the badge below the lower seam of the pocket, the secondary insignia must be omitted. Women wear it 1/4 inch above the right pocket, but may opt to wear it as men do. Miniature versions are issued to post tour chiefs.
Recruiting, Recruit Commanders, and Career Counselor badges are worn on the left breast pocket, 1/4 inch below medals or secondary breast insignia on dress uniforms, and in the center of left pocket on other uniforms. The only exception is the U.S. Navy Law Enforcement badges (Naval Security Force, Chief Master-at-Arms, and Naval Corrections), which is worn 1/4 inch above the name tape or name tag of the uniform, above the right breast pocket. The Navy Law Enforcement "Chief Master-at-Arms" and "Naval Corrections" badges are only issued and worn for the duration of the personnel's assigned duties for that position, with the exception of the "Naval Security Force" badge which are issued to rated Master-at-Arms and Security Officers, which are uniquely serialized and issued to the person for the duration of their career. Not permitted for wear on dinner dress uniform (see figures 3 through 6).
Although not worn on Navy uniforms, the Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS) badge is also an identification badge of the U.S. Navy but is used by NCIS Special Agents, which are Naval Excepted Service employees. The badge is worn as an embroidered badge on jackets or displayed as part of a special agent's credentials (see figure 7).
Navy Uniform Regulations also allow CNO-approved Joint/Unified Command identification badges, including:
Marksmanship.
The U.S. Navy also has Marksmanship Competition Badges that are authorized for wear on Navy service uniforms for those sailors and officers who earn them. These badges are awarded by the Navy to sailors and officers upon receipt of official scores, known as "leg points", earned at an authorized Civilian Marksmanship Program (CMP) competition. In addition, sailors can also earn and wear the U.S. Marine Corps's Annual Rifle Squad Combat Practice Competition Badge when competing as part of a Marine Rifle Squad. (This badge is typically earned by Navy Corpsman assigned to Marine infantry units.) The following Marksmanship Competition Badges are currently awarded and authorized by the U.S. Navy (in order of precedence):
Note: The basic design of the Navy's EIC Badge is the same regardless of the level of competition where the badge was earned. To help distinguish one EIC badge from another, the word "NATIONAL" or "FLEET" is embossed above the word "RIFLEMAN" or "PISTOL SHOT"; only the Interservice/Navy EIC Badges will lack any markings above the weapon designation.


Roger Dooley

Roger Dooley is a fictional character in Marvel Comics.
Shea Whigham appeared as Roger Dooley in the Marvel Cinematic Universe TV series "Agent Carter" in the first season. He was depicted as the chief of the Strategic Scientific Reserve (SSR) who oversaw agents Peggy Carter, Jack Thompson, and Daniel Sousa.
Publication history.
Roger Dooley first appeared in "Marvel Graphic Novel" #18 and was created by John Byrne.
Fictional character biography.
Roger Dooley was a Level Four Special Officer for S.H.I.E.L.D.
Dooley was placed in charge of an operation to evaluate She-Hulk. During the operation, he accidentally teleported a colony of sentient cockroaches which later took over his body. When the cockroaches tried to have him take over She-Hulk, she threw him and his body ruptured.
Powers and abilities.
Roger Dooley was a trained S.H.I.E.L.D. agent.


Camp Holcomb

Camp Holcomb was a US military base in Chinwangtao (Qinhuangdao) China. Established in 1912 in response to the Boxer Rebellion, it was garrisoned by the 15th Infantry Regiment, US Army as part of their larger presence in nearby Tientsin (Tianjin). Chinwangtao is a strategic deep water port near where the Great Wall of China meets the sea. Called Camp Burrowes by the Army, on February 28, 1938, the base was transferred to the US Marine Corps and renamed Camp Holcomb after the Commandant of the Marine Corps, General Thomas Holcomb The base was surrendered to the Japanese on December 8, 1941. After World War II, the base was again used by the Marines until 1947, when it was caught up in the Chinese Civil War and evacuated.
There is a possibility that Camp Holcomb is the location of the missing Peking Man fossils. The fossils were being shipped to Tientsin in November 1941, and the ship that was tasked with transporting them, the "President Harrison", could not have docked at Tientsin itself. The ship never arrived, and the bones were lost. In a story relayed many years later to his son, a US Marine digging foxholes during 1947 when the base was under attack by Chinese Communists found a box full of bones but reburied it.


Spanish Air Force

The Spanish Air Force (SAF) (; literally, "Army of the Air") is the aerial branch of the Spanish Armed Forces.
History.
Early stages.
Hot air balloons have been used with military purposes in Spain as far back as 1896. In 1905, with the help of Alfredo Kindelán, Leonardo Torres y Quevedo directed the construction of the first Spanish dirigible in the Army Military Aerostatics Service, created in 1896 and located in Guadalajara. The new airship was completed successfully and, named 'España', made numerous test and exhibition flights.
The Spanish Army's air arm, however, took off formally in 1909 when Colonel Pedro Vives Vich and Captain Alfredo Kindelán made an official trip to different European cities to check the potential of introducing airships and airplanes in the Spanish Armed Forces. One year later a Royal decree established the National Aviation School, "Escuela Nacional de Aviación (civil)" in Getafe, near Madrid, under the Ministry of Public Works and Transport, "Ministerio de Fomento".
The established institution became militarized under the name "Aeronáutica Española" when Colonel Pedro Vives was chosen to lead it as director of the "Aeronáutica Militar", Military Aeronautics, the name of the air arm of the Spanish Army. Captain Alfredo Kindelán was named Chief of Aviation, "Jefe de Aviación".
On 17 December 1913, during the war with Morocco, a Spanish expeditionary squadron of the "Aeronáutica Española" became the first organized military air unit to see combat during the first systematic bombing in history by dropping aerial bombs from a Lohner "Flecha" (Arrow) airplane on the plain of Ben Karrix in Morocco. During the years that followed, most of the military activity of the Spanish Air Force would take place in Northern Morocco.
In 1915 Spain's first seaplane base was opened at Los Alcazares on the Mar Menor in the Murcia region and Alfredo Kindelán was named Military Aeronautics Director, displacing Pedro Vives. The Catalan Flying School was established in Can Tunis, Barcelona the following year and Getafe Aerodrome became a full-fledged military air base. In 1919 General Francisco Echagüe replaced Kindelán as leader of the "Aeronáutica Española".
In 1920 two Nieuport 80 and one Caudron G.3 were first painted with squadron identification numbers and the Spanish Air Force roundel. Shortly thereafter the "Aeronáutica Naval", the air branch of the Spanish Navy, already established through a Royal decree four years earlier, became functional in El Prat, in the same location as present-day Barcelona Airport.
In 1921, following the Spanish defeat at Annual, known as "Desastre de Annual" in Spain, the Zeluán Aerodrome was taken over by the Rif army and another aerodrome was built at Nador. Lieutenant Colonel Kindelán was named "Jefe Superior de Aeronáutica", becoming chief-commander of the air force in 1926, at the time when Spanish Morocco was retaken and the Rif War ended.
In 1926 a crew of Spanish aviators, that included Ramón Franco, Julio Ruiz de Alda, Juan Manuel Duran and Pablo Rada, completed the first Trans-Atlantic flight between Spain and South America in January 1926 on the "Plus Ultra". That same year, pilots González Gallarza, Joaquín Loriga Taboada and Rafael Martínez Esteve completed the first flight between Spain and the Philippines, in just one month. The expedition was flown with two Breguet 19 and known as the "Escuadrilla Elcano" or "Elcano Squadron".
In 1930 the Aeronaval Base in San Javier was established and in the same year a pro-Republican revolt in the Cuatro Vientos military aerodrome near Madrid was quashed. After the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic in 1931, General Luis Lombarte Serrano replaced Kindelán as chief-commander of the air force, but he would be quickly succeeded by Commander Ramón Franco, younger brother of later dictator Francisco Franco. Captain Cipriano Rodríguez Díaz and Lieutenant Carlos de Haya González flew non-stop to Equatorial Guinea, then a Spanish colonial outpost. Under Capitan Warlela cadastral surveys of Spain were carried out using modern methods of aerial photography in 1933. The following year Spanish engineer Juan de la Cierva took off and landed on seaplane carrier Dédalo with his autogyro C-30P. In 1934 Commander Eduardo Sáenz de Buruaga became new chief-commander of the air force.
Following a Government decree dated 2d October 1935, the Dirección General de Aeronáutica was placed under the authority of the War Ministry, "Ministerio de la Guerra", instead of under the "Presidencia del Gobierno", following which in 1936 the Air Force regional units became restructured. Accordingly, the Spanish Navy-based "Escuadra" model was replaced by "Región Militar" divisions which are still operative today.
Air warfare in the Spanish Civil War.
After the military rebellion that triggered the Spanish Civil War, Spanish military aviation was divided into the Air Force of the Spanish republican government and the National Aviation ("Aviación Nacional"), established by the army in revolt.
In July 1936, right after the coup, the first German Junkers Ju 52 and Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.81 arrived to help the rebels and the Fiat CR.32 fighters began operating in the Córdoba front. In August Heinkel He 51 fighters were also deployed. These planes helped the army in revolt to gain full control of the air, as did the German and Italian expeditionary forces, the Condor Legion and the Aviazione Legionaria. At first, the Spanish Republican Air Force had the control of great swathes of Spanish territory using a motley selection of planes, but the unwavering help received by Francisco Franco from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy reversed the situation. In September 1936 the Navy and Air Ministry, "Ministerio de Marina y Aire", and the Air Undersecretariat, "Subsecretaria del Aire" were established under the command of Indalecio Prieto as minister. The first serious air combat took place over Madrid when Italian bombers attacked the city in a massive bombing operation. In the reorganization of the military in the areas of Spain that had remained loyal to the government, the new military structure of the republic merged the "Aeronáutica Militar" and the "Aeronáutica Naval", the former being the air arm of the Spanish Republican Army and the latter the naval aviation of the Spanish Republican Navy, and formed the Spanish Republican Air Force. The Republican tricolor roundel was replaced by red bands for identification purposes, an insignia that had previously been used on "Aeronáutica Naval" aircraft during the monarchy in the 1920s, before the time of the Republic.
Many innovative, and often lethal, aeronautical bombing techniques were tested by Germany's Condor Legion forces on Spanish soil against the areas that remained loyal to the Republican Government with the permission of Generalísimo Franco. Nazi help to the Nationalist Air Force was part of Hitler's German re-armament strategy and the techniques that German Nazi pilots learned in Spain would later be used in World War II. Despite the devastation and the human casualties caused by the bombing of the Basque city of Guernica in 1937, known by the Luftwaffe as Operation Rügen, Hitler insisted that his longterm designs in Spain were peaceful. He called his strategy "Blumenkrieg" (Flower War), as evidenced in a January 1937 speech. The international outcry over Guernica, however, would not bring about any increase in the military help provided to the beleaguered Spanish Republic.The pilots of the Spanish Republican Air Force, often young and poorly trained were unable to check the Nazi German and Fascist Italian modern-warfare attacks. Despite Franco's claim that both air forces were equal, and despite the help of foreign pilots, Spanish Republican planes were mostly obsolete and often in a bad state of disrepair. Even after acquiring more planes from the Soviet Union in the mid-stages of the war, the Spanish Republican Air Force was no longer able to control the Spanish skies nor match the power of the German and Italian expeditionary forces in specific combat situations.
The Spanish Republican Air Force became practically irrelevant since the Battle of the Ebro in 1938 when the root of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces was broken. Finally it was completely disbanded after the victory on April 1, 1939.
Post-Civil War era.
The present Spanish Air Force ("Ejército del Aire", or EdA) was officially established on 7 October 1939, after the end of the Spanish Civil War. The EdA was a successor to the Nationalist and Republican Air Forces. Spanish Republican colors disappeared and the black roundel of the planes was replaced by a yellow and red roundel. However, the black and white Saint Andrew's Cross () fin flash, the tail insignia of Franco's air force, as well as of the Aviazione Legionaria of Fascist Italy and the Condor Legion of Nazi Germany, is still in use in the present-day Spanish Air Force.
After the changes introduced at the beginning of Franco's regime the Air Regions and their Command centres were the following:
The Blue Squadron ("Escuadrillas Azules") was an air unit that fought alongside the Axis Powers at the time of the Blue Division, "Division Azul" Spanish volunteer formation in World War II. The "Escuadrilla azul" operated with the Luftwaffe on the Eastern Front and took part in the battle of Kursk. This squadron was the "15 Spanische Staffel"/JG 27 "Afrika" of the VIII Fliegerkorps, Luftflotte 2.
During the first years after World War II the Spanish Air Force consisted largely of German and Italian planes and copies of them. An interesting example was the HA-1112-M1L "Buchón" (Pouter), this was essentially a licensed production of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 re-engined with a Rolls-Royce Merlin 500-45 for use in Spain.
In March 1946 the first Spanish military paratroop unit, the "Primera Bandera de la Primera Legión de Tropas de Aviación", was established in Alcalá de Henares. It first saw action in the Ifni War during 1957 and 1958. Because of US Government objection to use airplanes manufactured in the US in her colonial struggles after World War II, Spain used at first old German aircraft, such as the T-2 (Junkers 52, nicknamed "Pava"), the B-2I (Heinkel 111, nicknamed "Pedro"), the C-4K (Spanish version of the Bf 109, nicknamed "Buchón"), and some others. Still, Grumman Albatross seaplanes and Sikorsky H-19B helicopters were used in rescue operations. This is why still now in present times, EdA maintains a policy of having jet fighters from two different origins, one first line fighter of North American origin, and one from French-European origin (F-4C Phantom / Mirage F1, Mirage III; EF-18A / Eurofighter Typhoon).
Although in sheer numbers the EdA was impressive, at the end of World War II technically it had become more or less obsolete due to the progress in aviation technology during the war. For budget reasons Spain actually kept many of the old German aircraft operative well into the 1950s and 1960s. As an example the last Junkers Ju 52 used to operate in Escuadrón 721 training parachutists from Alcantarilla Air Base near Murcia, until well into the 1970s. The CASA 352 and the CASA 352L were developments built by CASA in the 1950s.
Links were established in the 1950s with the United States. Spain received its first jets, like the F-86 Sabre and Lockheed T-33 together with training and transport planes like the T-6 Texan, C-47 and C-54. This first age of jets was replaced in the 1960s by newer fighters like the F-104 Starfighter, F-4C Phantom and F-5 Freedom Fighter
Present times.
After the death of dictator Franco in 1975 and the ensuing Spanish transition to democracy years, the organization and equipment of the Spanish Air Force was again modernised to prepare for Spain's membership of NATO in 1982. Planes like the Mirage III and Mirage F1 were bought from France and became the backbone of the Air Force during the 1970s and part of the 1980s. French fighters formed the air force's mainstay until the arrival of the American F/A-18. Spanish F/A-18s participated in the Bosnian War and the Kosovo War under NATO command, based in Aviano, Italy. Assisted by USAF F16s, Spanish Air Force EF-18As dropped laser-guided bombs on Bosnian Serb ammunition depots at Pale, on 25 and 26 May 1994.
The Spanish Air Force is replacing older aircraft in the inventory with newer ones including Eurofighter Typhoon and the recently introduced Airbus A400M Atlas airlifter. Both are manufactured with Spanish participation; EADS CASA makes the Eurofighter's right wing and leading edge slats, and participates in the testing and assembly of the airlifter.
Unlike the air forces of most major NATO member states, the Spanish Air Force currently do not operate any AEW&C aircraft.
Its aerobatic display team is the Patrulla Aguila, which flies the CASA C-101 Aviojet. Its helicopter display team, Patrulla Aspa, flies the Eurocopter EC-120 Colibrí.
In July 2014 the Spanish Air Force joined the European Air Transport Command, headquartered at Eindhoven Airbase in the Netherlands.
Order of battle.
The basic organization of the Air Force is the following:
Wing structure.
The usual operational unit is the "ALA" (wing), composed by two or three "ESCUADRONES" (squadrons), each one of which is integrated by 18 to 24 airplanes. Thus, Ala 15, with base in Zaragoza Air Base, is formed by two squadrons with 18 F-18s each.
Aircraft identification.
The Spanish Air Force has its own alphanumeric system for identifying aircraft. This forms a prefix to the airframe serial number, usually marked on the tail. The letter or letters, correspond to the use given. Thus, C means "cazabombardero" (fighter bomber); A, "ataque" (attack); P, "patrulla" (patrol); T, "transporte" (transport); E, "enseñanza" (training); D, search and rescue; H, helicopter; K, tanker; V, Vertical Take Off and Landing (VTOL); and U, utility. An example would be that the F-18 with "C.15-08" on the tail is the fifteenth type of fighter that arrived in the Spanish Air Force (the Eurofighter is the C.16) and is the eighth example of this type to enter the SAF. On the nose or fuselage the aircraft has a numeral specific to the unit in which it is based.
Variants of planes in service, for example two-seater versions or tanker versions of transports planes, add another letter to differentiate their function, and have their own sequence of serial numbers separate from the primary versions. Example: "CE.15-02" will be the second F-18 two-seater (Fighter Trainer) delivered to the SAF. In addition, the aircraft used by the Spanish Air Force usually carry a code consisting of one or two digits followed by a dash and two numbers, painted on the nose or fuselage. The first number corresponds to the unit to which they belong, and the second the order in which they entered service. Example: the fourth F-18 arriving at Ala 12 will have on the nose the code "12-04". Those codes do change when the aircraft is re-allocated to a different unit.


USCGC Acacia

USCGC "Acacia" can refer to the following ships of the United States Coast Guard:


Central Defence Academy

The Central Defence Academy () is a military training center of the Common Corps of the Spanish Armed Forces located in the city of Carabanchel, Madrid. The center is responsible for providing specialization training to officers and non-commissioned officers in the Spanish Armed Forces and its service branches. The ACD consists of affiliate schools which specialize in areas of speciality in the Spanish Army (such as Legal, Audit, Health and Military Music) It was created in response to the provisions of the Royal Decree of King Felipe VI on 20 June 2014. It is regulated by the Order of the Ministry of Defense (MINISDEF) on 9 September 2015. The ACD reports directly to the General Directorate of Recruitment and Military Education of the Ministry of Defense. The director of the academy is an officer with the rank of general officer who also serves as the assistant director general of the Military Education Service
Structure.
The Central Defense Academy has the following structure:


Raven Forward Air Controllers

The Raven Forward Air Controllers, also known as The Ravens, were fighter pilots used as forward air controllers (FACs) in a covert operation in conjunction with the US Central Intelligence Agency in Laos during America's Vietnam War. The Ravens pinpointed targets for most of the air strikes against communist Pathet Lao and People's Army of Vietnam infiltrators in support of the Laotian Hmong guerrilla army.
Background.
On 23 July 1962, the United States and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam signed the Geneva Accords guaranteeing the neutrality of the Kingdom of Laos. One of the provisions of the accords called for the withdrawal of all foreign troops from Laotian soil. North Vietnam had troops still remaining in Laos from the end of the French Indochina War. The United States had a small contingent of advisors which it withdrew from the country.
The North Vietnamese deliberately ignored the accords because they were intent on keeping their supply corridor, the Ho Chi Minh trail, to continue their war against South Vietnam. North Vietnam's representatives repeatedly stated they had "no military presence in Laos", even though they had at least 4,000 troops stationed there from the end of the First Indochina War on.
Prince Souvanna Phouma, the Prime Minister of Laos, asked for US help to stop North Vietnamese incursions. To avoid the appearance of unilaterally violating the accords, US President John F. Kennedy directed the United States Air Force (USAF) to initiate covert operations in Laos to help the Lao fight the North Vietnamese communists.
USAF covert operations.
As USAF tactical air strikes began in Laos, it became apparent that, for the safety of noncombatants, some means of control was necessary. Beginning at least as early as July 1964, the absence of a close air support control system caused a variety of enterprising individuals to improvise procedures for marking ground targets. At various times, ground markers, including bamboo arrows and dropped smoke grenades, were used. Those marking targets often had little or no training in close air support. They varied in nationality, being Thai, Lao, or Hmong, as well as American. Both Continental Air Services, Inc and Air America pilots would sometimes serve as ad hoc forward air controllers.
Butterflies.
To begin operations, the USAF originally assigned four sergeants from Combat Control Teams in 1963. These sergeants turned in their uniforms and military identification and were supplied with false identification so they could work in civilian clothing. This process was designed to preserve the fiction of US non-involvement. Once "civilianized", these "Butterflies", as they were known, flew in the right (co-pilot's) seat in Air America Helio Couriers and Pilatus Porters. They were often accompanied by a Lao or Thai interpreter in the back seat. The Air Commando sergeants directed the air strikes according to USAF doctrine, using the radio call sign "Butterfly".
Two of the Butterfly Air Force combat controllers were Master Sergeant Charles Larimore Jones, soon joined by Technical Sergeant James J. Stanford. Another of the Butterflies was Major John J. Garrity, Jr., who in future would spend several years as the "éminence grise" of the US Embassy in Laos. They, and their successors, controlled air strikes without notice or objection until General William Momyer discovered that enlisted men were directing air strikes. At that point, he ordered their replacement with rated fighter pilots. By that time, the number of Butterflies had increased to six. In April 1966, General Momyer put an end to both the impromptu efforts to control air strikes and the Butterfly effort.
Development of rules of engagement by the embassy placed more emphasis on increased control over in-country close air support. So did the introduction of an integrated close air support system for Southeast Asia. Beginning in April 1966, as part of its effort to better direct air strikes, the USAF installed four tactical air navigation systems in Laos to guide US air strikes. One of these was emplaced on a mountain top at Lima Site 85, aimed across the border at Hanoi.
Ravens.
A successor operation, code-named Palace Dog, began replacing the original Butterfly effort in 1966. Central Intelligence Agency agent James William Lair recommended the use of Lao interpreters flying in the rear seat of light aircraft flown by US pilots, thus establishing the Ravens. The Ravens were fighter pilots in unarmed light aircraft who flew observation missions, marked enemy targets with smoke rockets, directed air strikes onto them, and observed and reported bomb damage assessments post strike. They were based in five Lao towns: Vientiane, Luang Prabang, Pakse, Savannakhet, and Long Tieng.
Recruitment.
Recruiting for the Ravens began when air force personnel reported for duty assignments in Vietnam. Forward air controllers beginning a tour in Southeast Asia were told as part of their orientation briefing that halfway through their year's tour of duty in Vietnam, they were eligible to volunteer for special duty via the "Steve Canyon Program". To be accepted for Steve Canyon, a pilot had to have a minimum of four months combat duty, including at least 60 days' service as a FAC, at least 100 hours' flight time as a fighter pilot or FAC, at least 750 hours flying time overall, and six months or more time remaining on his tour in Southeast Asia. Those who volunteered for the program did so with no knowledge of their destination. After screening by the 56th Special Operations Wing at Nakhon Phanom RTAFB, they received temporary duty orders, and were sent to the US Embassy, Vientiane, Laos. There they were stripped of all military identification and gear, supplied with USAID identification, and garbed in civilian clothing to be worn at all times. The screening system tended to select experienced and aggressive FACs.
The Ravens belonged only tangentially to the US Air Force. By presidential directive, the ambassador controlled all US military activity in Laos. The Ravens performed their duties under direction of the air attaché who in turn reported to the ambassador. The air force kept the Ravens' records and paid them, but had no operational control over them, although 7/13th Air Force was formed in an attempt to regain control of their pilots. Generals William Westmoreland and William Momyer both wanted to gain control of the outfit and the war in Laos. However, Ambassador William Sullivan, and his successor, G. McMurtrie Godley, continued to oversee air strikes in Laos. This was intolerable to the air force. In some cases, individual Ravens received poor ratings and slow promotions due to his participation in the program. The Ravens, however, liked the ambiguity of the situation because it left them free to coordinate air strikes with the CIA operatives running the local ground troops.
Operational history.
In November 1964, Roy Dalton was the first rated officer to augment the Butterflies. He was stationed at LS 36, a dirt air strip near Na Khang, Laos; he directed air strikes by the Royal Lao Air Force while riding in Air America helicopters, or from observation posts on mountaintops.
The Raven program was officially founded on 5 May 1966. It began with two pilots on 90 days' temporary duty, working out of aircraft borrowed from Air America. Lieutenants Jim F. Lemon and Truman Young had been directing air strikes on either side of the Vietnamese Demilitarized Zone. Upon their return to Nakhon Phanom Royal Thai Air Force Base, they were told that their unauthorized aerobatics and drunken transgressions would be forgotten if they volunteered for a secret program—the Ravens. Joined by a third Raven, they began 90-day TDY tours flying support for the Royal Lao Army.
In December, 1966, they acquired the use of an O-1 Bird Dog assigned to the Royal Lao Air Force at Savannakhet. Unlike the borrowed Air America planes, the O-1 had additional radios and smoke rocket tubes for improved communications and target marking. A de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver and a Helio Courier were also acquired, but seemed not to be used for directing air strikes.
By August 1967, the three Raven FACs on duty in Laos were augmented by three more Ravens stationed with Detachment 1, 606th Air Commando Squadron at Nakhon Phanom. At about the same time, the air attaché in Vientiane requested O-1s unmarked by national insignia be supplied by 7/13th Air Force, on the grounds that the Ravens needed their own airplanes instead of riding with civilian pilots. The O-1s were supplied. By November 1967, the Raven head count had increased to eight. The number of Ravens would increase in a futile attempt to keep up with the swelling tide of air strikes Laos, but they would never number more than 22 assigned at one time.
The chronic shortage of Ravens meant that they often spent long stretches flying combat missions. Raven John Mansur recalled flying as long as 11 hours, 45 minutes in a day. Ron Rinehart exceeded that, logging a 14-hour flight day. Incoming air strikes arrived en masse, with as many as six flights of fighter-bombers stacked up at various altitudes awaiting their turn to bomb. Rinehart would remain on station until his marking rockets were expended, all windows on his O-1 slathered in grease-penciled notes of air strikes, and his fuel tank empty. On three occasions, he landed dead stick back at base when he ran out of gas. In a single month, he directed over 1,000 tactical air strikes, flying over 280 combat hours. If President Lyndon B. Johnson’s March 1968 partial bombing halt diverted a steady stream of air power from Vietnam into Laos, his 1 November 1968 moratorium flooded the kingdom with US air power and overwhelmed the four Ravens stationed in northeastern Laos.
Tactical air power was allocated at a conference by 7/13th Air Force in Saigon. Air Attaché Colonel Robert Tyrell came away from this with 60% of all tactical air strikes in Southeast Asia scheduled for attacks within Laos. The position of Head Raven was created to serve as a de facto Air Liaison Officer, and the number of Ravens in-country doubled to handle the new work load. General Vang Pao, the ground commander of the CIA's clandestine army of Hmong hill tribesmen, used tactical air as airborne artillery. His combat operations became dependent upon it.
Operational hazards.
Both the O-1s and the later-supplied U-17s had severe maintenance problems in the beginning. Maintenance was spotty. It was performed by pilots, poorly trained Lao mechanics, or USAF technicians. The piston engines were tuned for optimum performance at Udorn Royal Thai Air Force Base's low elevation. They would run raggedly in the highlands of Laos. Adding to the woes were high power settings needed for maximum weight takeoffs, toting maximal loads, or short-field takeoffs. Engine life in O-1s fell from 1,800 hours to 400 hours flight time.
Engine failures became epidemic. Eighteen engine failures occurred during the last quarter of 1968. Karl Polifka (call sign Raven 45) reported 26 in a month, apparently February 1969. The upcountry USAF technicians were then replaced by Air America mechanics. The chief mechanic at Pakse was Stan Wilson and at Long Tieng was Dan Williams.
This led to all the O-1s being cycled through Udorn to have their fuel tanks cleaned out. Some of them had 18 years of crud and mud contaminating the tanks. Radio wiring, engine re-timing, and fuel system cleaning were accomplished on each aircraft and by May 1969 engine problems dropped drastically after that.
Anti-aircraft fire could be intense and accurate. Some Raven aircraft were known to take up to 50 rounds in battle damage on a single sortie.
Working as a Raven FAC was an exhausting, high-risk, high-stress job. The casualty rate among them ran about 50% wounded and killed; one calculation by a participating Raven at his end of tour was that 90% of the Raven planes had been hit by ground fire during their tours of duty; 60% had been downed by enemy action at some point; 30% had been killed in action. Note: Craig Duehring, who made this calculation, later became an Assistant Secretary of the Air Force. The roster of 161 Ravens includes the Butterfly FACs, none of whom were killed in action, as well as an army attaché, who was. Twenty-three of the Air Force Ravens died during the Secret War; Army Attaché Joseph Bush was the 24th. Robbins lists all Ravens deceased prior to the publication of his book. USAF Ravens are not listed in the 1988 directory of names of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, although they do appear on the wall.
Legacy.
Laos became the most bombed nation in history, largely due to the Raven FACs. Approximately the same tonnage of bombs were dropped on Laos as were dropped by the US in the entirety of World War II. Approximately 20% of the Laotian populace became refugees, largely relocating because of bombing. As of 2020, Laos is still plagued by unexploded ordnance.
Further reading.
As information about the Laotian Civil War is being declassified and publicly released, historians will continue to write additional reliable texts published by mainstream media. In the meantime, there has been a flurry of self-published texts on the subject, generally by participants. The self-published texts below do not meet Wikipedia standards as reliable sources. However, they contain a sizeable body of information unprocessed by historians, and are useful and interesting further reading for those wishing more insight into the subject.


United States Navy Regulations

United States Navy Regulations is the principal regulatory document of the Department of the Navy (not just the "United States Navy"), endowed with the sanction of law, as to duty, responsibility, authority, distinctions and relationships of various officials, organizations and individuals.
Navy Regulations are issued by the Secretary of the Navy, and are permanent regulations of general applicability, as opposed to other regulations that he or she may issue in accordance with law. The Navy Regulations serve in effect much as a vehicle of implementation of Title 10 of the United States Code as it pertains to the Naval Services. However, Navy Regulations do not take legal precedence over any order or directive issued by either the President or Secretary of Defense, or of an Act of Congress.
The Chief of Naval Operations is responsible for maintaining the Navy Regulations, and for ensuring that they conform to the current needs of the Department of the Navy. Other directives issued within the Department of the Navy may not conflict with, alter or amend any provision of Navy Regulations. Any additions, changes or deletions to the U.S. Navy Regulations must be approved by the Secretary of the Navy.
History.
Navy Regulations began with the enactment by the Second Continental Congress of the "Rules for the Regulation of the Navy of the United Colonies" on November 28, 1775. The first issuance by the United States Government which covered this subject matter was "An Act for the Government of the Navy of the United States," enacted on March 2, 1799. This was followed the next year by "An Act for the Better Government of the Navy of the United States."
In the years preceding the American Civil War, twelve successor publications were promulgated under a number of titles by the President, the Navy Department and the Secretary of the Navy. A decision by the Attorney General that the last of the pre-Civil War issuances was invalid led to the inclusion in the 1862 naval appropriations bill of a provision that "the orders, regulations, and instructions heretofore issued by the Secretary of the Navy be, and they are hereby, recognized as the regulations of the Navy Department, subject, however, to such alterations as the Secretary of the Navy may adopt, with the approbation of the President of the United States."
Thirteen editions of Navy Regulations were published in accordance with this authority (later codified as Section 1547, Revised Statutes) between 1865 and 1948. The 1973 edition of Navy Regulations was published under authority of , which provided that "United States Navy Regulations shall be issued by the Secretary of the Navy with the approval of the President." In 1981, this provision was amended to eliminate the requirement for presidential approval.
While leaving this provision unaffected, Congress enacted the Goldwater-Nichols Department of Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 (Pub. L. 99–443), which granted each of the service secretaries the explicit authority to prescribe regulations to carry out his or her statutory functions, powers and duties.


Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Space Acquisition and Integration

The Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Space Acquisition and Integration (SAF/SP) is a civilian position in the United States Department of the Air Force that is appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate. This position is established under Title 10 US Code Section 8016. The Assistant Secretary reports to the Secretary of the Air Force.
On December 20, 2019, Mr Shawn Barnes, Deputy Assistant Secretary, in the absence of a political appointee, was performing the role of the ASAF. Barnes will continue to perform the role of the ASAF until the Biden administration makes an appointment likely in the first quarter of 2021
Responsibilities.
The Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Space Acquisition and Integration will serve as the single service acquisition executive (SAE) and the Senior Procurement Executive for space programs in the Department of the Air Force.
History.
The position of the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force for Space Acquisition and Integration was created in the NDAA National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020 on 20 December 2019 to oversee and direct the Space and Missile Center, Space Rapid Capabilities Office and Space Development Center. The position was directed to stand up as the Service Acquisition Executive (SAE) in 2022. Until this date the position was to provide advise to the existing SAE for space programs the ASAF for Acquisition, Technology & Logistics (SAF/AQ). The office of the ASAF for Space Acquisition and Integration was created from the Office of the Principal Assistant to the Secretary of the Air Force for Space.


Jimmy Woo

James Woo (Woo Yen Jet) is a fictional secret agent appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by EC Comics writer Al Feldstein and artist Joe Maneely, the Chinese-American character first appeared in "Yellow Claw" #1 (October 1956) from Atlas Comics, the 1950s predecessor of Marvel. Woo has since appeared occasionally in a variety of Marvel publications.
The character has made scant, minor appearances in animated media and video games. However, he appears in live-action media as a recurring character in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, in which he is portrayed by Randall Park in the film "Ant-Man and the Wasp" (2018) and the Disney+ series "WandaVision" (2021).
Publication history.
Jimmy Woo was the hero of the espionage series "Yellow Claw", named for his antagonist, a "yellow peril" Communist mandarin. While the short-lived series named after that villain ran only four issues (October 1956 – April 1957), it featured art by Maneely, Jack Kirby, and John Severin.
Kirby took over as writer-artist with issue #2—inking his own pencil art there and in the following issue, representing two of the very rare occasions on which he did so. On the final issue, the inking was done by Western- and war-comics veteran Severin. Also, other artists drew the covers: Severin on #2 and #4, Bill Everett on #3.
Well regarded for its relatively mature storyline with a rare Asian fictional hero for the period and in particular for Maneely's exquisitely atmospheric art, the book nevertheless failed to find an audience. Woo and other characters from the series were brought into the Marvel universe a decade later, beginning with the "S.H.I.E.L.D." story in "Strange Tales" #160 (Sept. 1967). Woo joins that espionage agency in "Nick Fury, Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D." #2 (July 1968).
Woo went on to be featured in the 1977–1979 Marvel series "Godzilla" and the 2006–07 Marvel series "Agents of Atlas". Before the cancellation of the 1990s alternate universe Marvel imprint Razorline, as produced but unpublished titles of its various series were preparing to blend the Razorline into primary Marvel continuity, Woo as well as Nick Fury and other S.H.I.E.L.D. agents guest-starred in "Wraitheart" #5.
Woo starred as the leader of a team of S.H.I.E.L.D. operatives code-named Agents of Atlas, in the 2006–2007 series of that name.
Fictional character biography.
James Woo is an Asian-American FBI agent assigned primarily to investigate and apprehend the Chinese-national mandarin known as the Yellow Claw, a Fu Manchu manqué (author Sax Rohmer had a Fu Manchu novel titled "The Yellow Claw"). The Yellow Claw, who attempts world domination, claimed in 2000s comics that his American rubric is a mistransliteration of the Chinese characters for "Golden Claw". Complicating matters, the Claw's grandniece, Suwan, was in love with Woo in the 1950s series.
In retcon stories, Woo is the FBI agent assigned in 1958 to oversee the 1950s superhero team the Avengers, a short-lived predecessor of the later, more established team of that name.
As a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent, Woo went on to join its "Godzilla Squad" to hunt down the giant monster Godzilla (the character from the long-running series of films from the Japanese movie studio Toho). This unit, led by Dum Dum Dugan, employed such weapons as a giant robot called Red Ronin (for which Woo was shortlisted as a pilot candidate), and was headquartered in a smaller version of the S.H.I.E.L.D. Helicarrier, known as the Behemoth.
Woo was temporarily replaced by a Life Model Decoy (a form of artificial human utilized by S.H.I.E.L.D.) of the self-aware, renegade "Deltan" class, and went through five such bodies before dying with other repentant LMDs. Woo reemerged from stasis, along with other high-ranking officers that had been taken and replaced.
In 2006–2007 stories, Woo attempted a secret raid of a group identified as The Atlas Foundation. Going AWOL and taking several other willing agents with him, he infiltrated an Atlas Foundation location, resulting in all the recruits being killed. Woo was critically burned and lost higher brain function. The former 1950s Avenger Gorilla-Man, by now also a S.H.I.E.L.D. agent, gave the organization a classified record of the 1950s team, of which S.H.I.E.L.D. had no prior knowledge. Gorilla-Man rescues Woo with the aid of fellow 1950s teammates M-11 and Marvel Boy, who restores Woo to his 1958 self.
With his teammates he follows the Atlas Foundation around the world, restoring Namora to life, and eventually confronting the Yellow Claw, who reveals that the whole ordeal was only a test. As Woo passed it, the Yellow Claw commits suicide, ending his long life and placing Woo as head of the Atlas Foundation. Woo later surfaces in New York, where he and Spider-Man shut down a rebellious cell of the Atlas Foundation. Later, Woo becomes head of the Pan-Asian School for the Unusually Gifted, a Mumbai, India-based school for Asian teenagers with superhuman abilities. Sanjar Javeed is a teacher there.
Woo appears alongside the Asian-American superheroes The Hulk (Amadeus Cho), Ms. Marvel, Shang-Chi, and Silk and SHIELD agent Jake Oh, at a charity event attacked by an alien army. Dubbing their group the Protectors, Woo rallies the heroes and bystanders into defeating their captors. During the War of the Realms, Woo recruits most of the Protectors and several other Asian and Pacific superheroes into the Atlas Foundation as the New Agents of Atlas. Afterward, Woo resumes his duties as the head of the Atlas Foundation and installs Brawn as leader of the New Agents. He also teams with Blue Marvel and Night Thrasher to form a new iteration of the Three Xs. During an attack by the undersea kingdom Atlantis led by Namor against the portal-city of Pan, Woo introduces the original and new Agents of Atlas to each other.
Reception.
Jeff Yang, curator of the "Marvels & Monsters: Unmasking Asian Images in U.S. Comics, 1942–1986" exhibit at the Japanese American National Museum, called Jimmy Woo a "positive exception" to the "largely negative" depiction of Asians and Asian-Americans in comics at time when "the view of Asians was shaped by racist, xenophobic wartime propaganda."
Other versions.
Ultimate Marvel.
In the Ultimate Marvel universe, Jimmy Woo is an agent of S.H.I.E.L.D., partnered with Sharon Carter. He was introduced in "Ultimate Spider-Man" #16, in which he and Carter are trying to capture Doctor Octopus.
In other media.
Film.
Jimmy Woo appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) live-action film "Ant-Man and the Wasp" (2018), portrayed by Randall Park. This version's full name is James E. Woo, works as an FBI agent, and hails from Bakersfield, California. Additionally, he is more comical than his comic book incarnation. Woo monitors Scott Lang while he is on house arrest. Despite showing some animosity towards Lang however, he appears to want to be sociably friendly with him.


Commodore admiral

Commodore admiral (COMO) was a short-lived military rank of the United States Navy and United States Coast Guard that existed for less than 11 months during the year 1982. The rank of commodore admiral was established as the Navy's one-star admiral rank after over forty years during which all promoted Navy and Coast Guard captains were advanced directly to the two-star position of rear admiral, but were still paid as one-star officers in the pay grade of O-7 while in a "rear admiral, lower half" category. This was a result of the Navy Personnel Act of 3 March 1899 that eliminated the "rank" of commodore in the US Navy. The same protocol was adopted by the US Coast Guard when it was established as a military service in its current form and title in the early 1900s. In the early 1940s, commodore was briefly reinstituted as a one-star wartime rank in the US Navy and US Coast Guard, but most promoted captains were still advanced to the two-star insignia rank of rear admiral, lower half. With nearly all of the one-star commodore incumbents promoted to rear admiral by the end of World War II, the rank of commodore was again suspended.
The new rank of commodore admiral was created both as a means to appease the other three branches of the U.S. military, who felt that promoting USN and USCG O-6s to O-7, yet entitling them to wear the insignia of an O-8, was unfair, and also as a means of distinguishing that Navy and Coast Guard one-star admirals were in fact flag officers. This had been a major problem in World War II, when cultural mistakes had led to several US Navy commodores being regarded as senior captains by members of foreign militaries and in turn denied honors due to a U.S. flag officer.
Upon its establishment, many in the leadership of the US Navy and US Coast Guard felt that the rank of Commodore Admiral violated over a century of tradition and there were numerous petitions to the Chief of Naval Operations to eliminate the rank. As a compromise, the rank of commodore admiral was changed simply to "commodore" at the start of 1983. However, this change caused even further problems internal to the Navy because senior captains commanding multiple units, e.g., those in charge of air wings and air groups, destroyer squadrons, submarine squadrons, etc., had held the honorary title of "commodore" for decades. Also, many commodore admirals found that their mail was being redirected to the base officer's club, also known as the Commissioned Officer's Mess, Open (aka COMO). As a result, the "rank" of commodore in the USN and USCG was itself abolished as a rank in 1985. It was replaced by the new rank of rear admiral (lower half), essentially the same title as before dating back to before World War II. However, this time, officers promoted to O-7 wore one-star insignia.
The rank of commodore admiral is one of the rarest ranks in the history of United States Navy and United States Coast Guard. Only a handful of officers, mainly those captains promoted to O-7 during the year 1982, have ever held the position, such as Admiral Leon A. Edney, who promoted while serving as the commandant of midshipmen at the U.S. Naval Academy. Another famous example was that of Rear Admiral Grace Hopper.


Al Hutchinson

Al Hutchinson is a former RCMP Assistant Commissioner, who served as the Police Oversight Commissioner in Northern Ireland, who in November 2007 became the second Police Ombudsman for Northern Ireland.
A graduate of Carleton University and Queen's University, Belfast, Hutchinson served in the Office of the Oversight Commissioner, Tom Constantine, who was charged with overseeing the Patten Reforms of the RUC, from 2001 until Constantine's retirement. In January 2004 until the completion of the Oversight in May 2007 Hutchinson served as Oversight Commissioner.
On 26 June 2007 Hutchinson was announced as the successor to Nuala O'Loan as Police Ombudsman, and took up the office on 6 November 2007.
In June 2011 his performance was criticized by the Committee on the Administration for Justice. In September 2011 Mr Hutchinson was criticised in a report by the Criminal Justice Inspectorate. The report branded the organisation's management "dysfunctional", uncovered a major split in its staff, and found that Ombudsman Al Hutchinson had lost the trust of senior colleagues. It recommended that the ombudsman's office should be suspended from investigating historic murders because of a "lowering of independence" in the office. He resigned in January 2012.
In 2012, the Belfast High Court quashed the Ombudsman report's findings on the Loughinisland massacre. Hutchinson was replaced by Michael Maguire, who ordered a new inquiry into the massacre.
See also.
Northern Ireland Office
External links.


Camp Victoria

Camp Victoria was the Swedish camp where most of the Swedish soldiers in the international force in Kosovo were located. The camp was previously named Camp Gripen, but the name was changed in spring 2000. The camp is located in Hajvalia, south of Pristina.
The camp housed approximately 370 soldiers. Most of them were Swedish, but there were also Irish, Czech, Finnish and Latvian soldiers. Most of the soldiers belonged to the Swedish mechanized rifle company and the Swedish supply company. In June 2011, Camp Victoria was to be completely discontinued and KS21 was the last Swedish contingent that was operational at the camp before KS22 moved into the KFOR headquarters at Camp Film City.
Trivia.
The mess at Camp Victoria was called Muddy Mess.
Camp Victoria was also the name of a Swedish camp in Larnaca, Cyprus under UNFICYP.


Benton Fraser

Benton Fraser (born 1962) is a fictional character in the television series "Due South". He is a constable of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police who works in the American city of Chicago, Illinois as Deputy Liaison Officer in the Canadian consulate. He lives in a dangerous neighbourhood at the fictional address of apartment 3J at 221 East Racine, and later at the consulate itself, after his apartment building was burnt down. The character is portrayed by Canadian actor Paul Gross. Fraser's seemingly strange habits, such as tasting evidence and rigid sense of duty and courtesy, such as holding the door for anyone and everyone, add hilarity and whimsy to the show.
As Fraser often explains; ""I first came to Chicago on the trail of the killers of my father, and for reasons that don't need exploring at this juncture I have remained, attached as liaison with the Canadian Consulate"." Fraser is a strait-laced Canadian, and his faith in the honour and goodness of others tends to lead to interesting and humorous moments. Described as an "outdoors Sherlock Holmes", his behaviour often leads to the frustration of his de facto partner, Chicago detective Raymond Vecchio, played by David Marciano. His other "best friend," a deaf half-wolf, Diefenbaker, named after the Canadian Prime Minister, John Diefenbaker, reads lips in both English and Inuktitut, and often assists in the capture of criminals. In the third and fourth seasons of the show, Fraser teamed up with Detective Stanley Raymond Kowalski, after Ray Vecchio went undercover in the Las Vegas Mafia.
He is usually called "Fraser" by his friends and colleagues - some old friends will call him "Benton" or "Ben" at times. Ray calls him "Benny" or "Fraser", (often mispronouncing it "Fray-sure" as in the NBC sitcom "Frasier").
Character.
Benton Fraser was conceived in an igloo, (according to his father), and was born out in a field, and grew up in Inuvik, Northwest Territories; and Tuktoyaktuk, Northwest Territories. After his mother was killed when he was still young, Benton was raised by his paternal grandparents, who were traveling librarians. His mother, Caroline, was killed when he was an 8-year-old boy, and his father, Bob Fraser, (played by Canadian actor Gordon Pinsent), was murdered in the pilot episode, at this point, Benton had been with the RCMP for 13 years. Bob, or "Fraser Sr.," as he is sometimes known, was a legendarily effective officer in the RCMP and often appears to his son as a ghost throughout the series to offer help and advice. Other relatives include an Uncle Tiberius, (who died wrapped in Cabbage leaves, which the family assumes to have been a freak accident, first mentioned in "The Gift of the Wheelman" in season 1,) and an Aunt Winnie, (mentioned only in "Perfect Strangers", in season 3).
According to best friend, Ray Vecchio, in "An Eye for a Eye", Benton's problem is that "if [he] sees a problem, [he's] gotta fix it, [he] can't even go to the mens room without stopping to tell some simple, stupid, charmingly-witty Inuit story, that inspires people to take on the world's social ills." In "The Blue Line", in season 1, it is revealed that Benton is a fan of Ice hockey, and that he used to play it as a child; and in "Asylum", in season 3, it is shown that Benton is also a fan of curling.
Fraser has had an unfortunate recurring relationship with Victoria Metcalf, a bank robber with whom he became infatuated after pursuing her into and then helping her survive a lengthy winter storm. After the storm was over, Fraser turned Victoria in to the authorities and she was sent to prison. This encounter is first outlined in episode 14 of series 1, "You must remember this"; during a stake-out Fraser comes the closest to 'baring his soul' before turning to find Vecchio asleep. That episode fades with Fraser looking at a slightly crumpled black-and-white photo of her. She later resurfaced in Chicago, blackmailing Fraser into helping her use the money from the bank robbery to buy jewels on the black market, threatening to have Ray Vecchio framed for corruption. She left Chicago soon after her plot unraveled, and was not seen again.
Having little experience with romantic matters, Fraser appears to have suppressed his emotions, often for comic effect in the series, and buried himself in the masculine pursuits of law enforcement and campcraft. His super-human detective abilities provide humorous contrast with his inability to interact with women. His fixation upon the criminal Metcalf, and later, his superior officer, Margaret Thatcher, (no relation to the British prime minister), was unreasonable, and he may have used his attraction to an unavailable woman as a mechanism for avoiding change in his own life.
In the ITV documentary "South Bound" co-star David Marciano said it was vital that the character of Fraser be both innocent but also unemotional. Actor Daniel Kash, (Detective Louis Gardino in the series), in the same documentary observed about Fraser that 'You'll never see that character cry. You'll sense that he'll be crying inside but you'll never see tears going down his face. He's just too buffed for that, and too reserved.'
In the episode "Bounty Hunter", Fraser meets a woman who seems very compatible with him, but his father warns Benton off. Fraser Sr tries to get his son to understand that the woman is not the one who is vulnerable, but Benton. For all of his son's physical self-reliance, the young constable needs emotional maturing.
Fraser eventually discovered he had a half-sister, Maggie MacKenzie, in the season four episode "Hunting Season". Because Bob Fraser is her father, she can also see his ghost. Just like her father and half-brother, Maggie is a member of the RCMP. She arrived in Chicago pursuing the killers of her husband, under circumstances similar to Fraser's own arrival in the city, though she soon returned to Canada, unlike Fraser, who remained in Chicago for some time.
Fraser wears his uniform stetson hat both in uniform and out. When he loses it, he seems to get into trouble. Fans of the show have thus nicknamed it the "Stetson of Invulnerability". Fraser carries his paper money inside his hat. He frequently only has Canadian currency with him as it is "regulation" to be paid in that currency.
Fraser's apartment is at 221 East Racine. The neighbourhood is dangerous, but Fraser liked the apartment for its close proximity to his workplace.
Series finale.
Fraser would eventually return to Canada and, along with Stanley Kowalski, set out on an adventure to find the hand of Sir John Franklin, an explorer who disappeared while trying to discover the Northwest Passage. (The soundtrack for that segment was Stan Rogers's song "Northwest Passage".) As the series ended with the beginning of their expedition, it is unknown what has happened to Fraser or Kowalski since then. His closing remarks: ""If we find it...we'll let you know"."
The ITV documentary, made nine years after the series ended, concludes with Paul Gross saying ""We never did photograph it, but I can tell you that we, (Benton and Stanley,) found it"."


USCGC Escanaba (WPG-77)

The USCGC "Escanaba" (WPG-77) was a "A" type United States Coast Guard cutter stationed on the Great Lakes from her commissioning in 1932 until the start of U.S. military involvement in World War II in 1941. With the outbreak of war, "Escanaba" redeployed to participate in the Battle of the Atlantic, during the course of which she was ultimately lost with nearly all hands. Struck by either a torpedo or mine in the early morning of 13 June 1943, while serving as a convoy escort, "Escanaba" suffered a fiery explosion and sank within minutes, leaving only two survivors and one body out of her 105-man crew to be found on the surface by rescuers.
Construction.
"Escanaba" was built at Bay City, Michigan by the Defoe Shipbuilding Company with contract for her construction signed 10 November 1931 at a cost of $525,550. She was one of six "A" type cutters designed as a light icebreaker and her type were the first Coast Guard cutters to have a geared-turbine drive. The double-reduction DeLaval geared-turbine was powered by two Babcock & Wilcox main boilers which produced 1500 shaft horsepower. The ship carried 41500 gallons of oil to fire her boilers.
Great Lakes service.
"Escanaba", named for the city and river in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, was built at the Defoe Shipbuilding Company in Bay City, Michigan in 1932. The six cutters of her class were designed primarily for light ice breaking, rescue, and law enforcement duties. She was commissioned on 23 November 1932 in Grand Haven, Michigan, which would be her permanent station and home port until she was redeployed to the East Coast for combat duty in the Second World War. "Escanaba"'s primary, pre-war missions were ice breaking and search and rescue on the Great Lakes, which caused her to become well known throughout the region and a beloved part of her home port's community. During this period, from 1932 to 1934, future USCG Commandant Edwin J. Roland served aboard "Escanaba" as gunnery officer and navigator.
In the winter of 1934, "Escanaba " rescued the crew of the lake freighter after running aground at Muskegon.
World War II.
Greenland Patrol service.
With the outbreak of war in 1941, "Escanaba"'s home port was shifted to Boston, and she was assigned to the Greenland Patrol, performing escort duty and search and rescue operations in the North Atlantic.
On 15 June 1942, while escorting convoy XB-25 from Cape Cod to Halifax, "Escanaba" had two submarine contacts and made attacks on them. No sinkings were confirmed. After making these attacks, the ship rescued 20 people from the SS Cherokee, which had been sunk by a U-boat. In that same month, "Escanaba" was credited with the sinkings of two enemy submarines in a single day.
From 1 July until 23 August 1942, she was on weather patrol.
SS "Dorchester" rescues.
On 3 February 1943, "Escanaba" participated in the rescue of the survivors of the , which had been torpedoed by a German submarine. The rescue was marked by the "Escanaba"'s historic first use of rescue swimmers clad in survival suits to aid survivors, who were too weakened by shock or hypothermia in the icy water to pull themselves up cargo nets or sea ladders to the safety and warmth of rescuers' ships, or even to hold on to ropes cast to them from the rescue vessel. By way of the lines the rescue swimmers tied around those who were having trouble helping themselves, many struggling survivors who--debilitated by the cold--would have otherwise died, were hauled aboard the "Escanaba" by crewmen on deck. Even those in the water who appeared to be dead were harnessed by the retrieval swimmers and pulled aboard – it was found that only 12 of the 50 apparently dead victims thus brought aboard by the retrieval teams actually turned out to be dead. The rest proved themselves to be quite alive once given the benefit of warmth, dryness, and medical attention.
In all, "Escanaba" plucked 133 survivors from the water that day, only one of whom went on to die aboard the cutter after rescue. For their work in supervising and organizing the rescue, commanding officer Lieutenant Commander Carl U. Peterson received the Legion of Merit and executive officer Lieutenant Robert H. Prause Jr., whose experiments in a tethered rubber suit off a dock at Bluie West One had paved the way for this new "retriever method," received a letter of commendation. Ship's doctor Assistant Surgeon Ralph R. Nix of the US Public Health Service also received a letter of commendation for his work saving the lives of the critically chilled survivors. Three crew members who went "over the side" to bring in survivors, Ensign Richard A. Arrighi, Ship's Cook 2nd Class Forrest O. Rednour, and Steward's Mate 3rd Class Warren T. Deyampert, were awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for their actions in the water. All decorations and commendations, however, were to be awarded posthumously.
Sinking of "Escanaba".
On 10 June 1943, "Escanaba" began escorting her last convoy, GS-24 from Narsarssuak to St. John's, Newfoundland, in company with the "Mojave" (Flag), "Tampa", "Storis", and "Algonquin". The vessels they were tasked to escort were USAT "Fairfax" and the tug USS "Raritan".
At 0510 on 13 June, a large sheet of flame and dense smoke were seen rising from the "Escanaba", though no explosion was heard by the other ships in the convoy. She sank at 0513, going down so quickly that she did not have time to send any distress signals. "Storis" and "Raritan" were ordered to investigate and rescue survivors while the rest of the convoy began zigzagging and steering evasive courses to avoid enemy submarines. Although "Storis" and "Raritan" were able to arrive on the scene within ten minutes, only two survivors and one body could be found. At 0715 the two vessels returned to the main body of the convoy, having rescued Boatswain's Mate 2nd Class Melvin A. Baldwin and Seaman 1st Class Raymond F. O'Malley Jr., and having found the body of LT Prause. The entire crew of 13 officers and 92 men was lost to the explosion or to rapid hypothermia in the water with the exception of Baldwin and O'Malley, whose survival was attributed to their soaked clothing having frozen their unconscious bodies to floating debris, which prevented them from following their shipmates to the bottom.
The exact cause of the explosion could not be determined at the time, but was commonly attributed to a torpedo fired by one of several U-Boats which were in the area at the time. However, no U-Boats claimed the kill, and, according to Browning, it is now considered more probable that the cutter was sunk by a drifting mine.
Legacy.
The city of Grand Haven was hit hard emotionally by the loss of "its" cutter. As the war wore on, the citizens of Grand Haven managed to raise more than $1,000,000 in bonds to build a new cutter bearing the same name (USCGC Escanaba (WHEC-64)) in order to honor the ill-fated ship and its men. The city continues to hold an annual memorial service to honor the sacrifice of the 103 men who were lost with "Escanaba". The third Escanaba (WMEC-907) was commissioned in 1987 and is currently based in Boston, the final home port of her namesake.


List of United States Coast Guard radio stations

The United States Coast Guard maintains radio stations for communication between Coast Guard units, Coast Guard units and other government entities, and Coast Guard units and the general public. Most communications take place on the VHF marine bands. For long-range communications with aircraft, Coast Guard stations use shortwave single-sideband communications. Weather and safety of navigation forecasts involve facsimile as well as other modes over shortwave and mediumwave transmissions.
According to the NTIA, the Coast Guard is the seventh-biggest user of radio spectrum in the United States. The U.S. Coast Guard maintains a network of VHF radio stations at its shore stations and on cutters and boats, as well as stations of the U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary. In addition, the Coast Guard maintains a chain of high frequency (HF) and medium frequency (MF) radio stations that provide communications in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea. Coast Guard VHF Radio stations are currently being upgraded through the Rescue 21 program to meet the US obligations under the Global Maritime Distress Safety System.
History of Coast Guard shore stations.
The first Coast Guard shore stations were established after 1924, when the Coast Guard's mission expanded. The first shore station was at Rockaway Point Coast Guard Station, located at Fort Tilden, New York; and the network expanded to Nahant, Massachusetts; New London, Connecticut; Cape May, New Jersey; Cape Henry, Virginia (with the call sign NMN); Fernandina, Florida; Fort Lauderdale, Florida; Mobile, Alabama; San Francisco, California; San Pedro, California; Port Angeles, Washington; and Anacortes, Washington in the 1930s.
The network expanded even further in the 1940s, adding radio station NMH in Washington, D.C, among others. However, in the 1970s, the increasing use of automation caused the number of stations to contract. In 1976, for example, NMN (then at Communication Station (COMMSTA) Portsmouth) assumed the duties of NMH in Washington, and took over remote operations from Miami in 1993, Boston (NMF) in 1996, and New Orleans in 1998.
With the introduction of the computer-assisted Rescue 21 system, the ability of the Coast Guard to provide coverage on the marine VHF band in marginal areas has increased.
Current Assignments.
There are several Coast Guard radio stations responsible for operating more than one station or with a wide area of responsibility.
Communication Command (COMMCOM) is located on the site of U.S. Naval Security Group Northwest (near Newport News, Virginia), and has a staff of approximately 100 people. COMMCOM provides technical communications assistance and training to other Coast Guard units. It operates the following stations:
Communication Command Detachment Kodiak (COMMDET Kodiak) reports to COMMCOM and is responsible for communications in the Alaska area of operation and operates
Modes of transmission.
These stations broadcast navigation and marine safety messages through several means, including Navigational Telex [NAVTEX] transmissions on 518 kHz; facsimile transmissions of National Weather Service charts; single sideband transmissions; and Simplex Teletype Over Radio SITOR narrow-band direct-printing broadcasts. In the 1960s through the 1980s, these transmissions were broadcast live, with the interval signal of "Semper Paratus"; however, now, using Voice Broadcast Automation (VOBRA), a computerized voice ("Perfect Paul") reads the voice messages.
NAVTEX transmissions are identified by the last letter of the callsign of the station. Each station transmits a NAVTEX broadcast six times a day, including two rebroadcasts of the general forecast. A NAVTEX broadcast includes maritime navigation warnings, weather forecasts, ice warnings, Gulf Stream locations, radio navigation information, rescue messages, and marine advisories. Each station has 2 NAVTEX transmitters.
Besides broadcast messages, Coast Guard stations handle direct traffic between aircraft, cutters, boats, and shore stations on VHF, MF, and HF frequencies, including the HF Data Link encrypted e-mail system and Digital Selective Calling (DSC), which uses radio telephone to send digitally encrypted signals to either one receiver or a group or receivers.
Concerns.
The use of the radio spectrum by the U.S. Coast Guard, like all U.S. Government agencies, is assigned by the Department of Commerce's National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA). Specific frequency allocations are handled by the Interdepartment Radio Advisory Committee.
The role of the Auxiliary.
Coast Guard Auxiliary stations are privately owned stations that have been offered for use of the Government and have been approved by the Coast Guard. They may be on the marine VHF band or use HF communications. In addition, many Coast Guard Auxiliarists are qualified radio watchstanders at existing Coast Guard stations.
Coast Guard call signs.
Most Coast Guard land-based VHF radio stations do not use three-letter call signs as the larger communications stations do; instead, they identify themselves by the activity name, such as "Sector Baltimore", "Station Washington, D.C. (or Station Washington)". All Cutters (CG vessels 65 feet in length or greater) have four-letter international radio call signs, such as USCGC "Citrus"/NRPQ. Cutters normally identify themselves as "Cutter (name)". Boats identify themselves with the last digits of their registration number, for example, a Defender-class boat with the registration 25123 would be "Coast Guard 25123, while a 41-foot boat would be "Coast Guard 41345." Aircraft identify themselves by their number. A number beginning with "15,17,20" is a HC-130; "21" is a HU-25A/C/D; "23" is a HC-144A; "60" is a MH/HH-60J/T helicopter; "65 or 66" is a HH/MH-65; . Auxiliary aircraft and ships identify themselves as "Auxiliary ###".