Breakthrough infection

A breakthrough infection is a case of illness in which a vaccinated individual becomes sick from the same illness that the vaccine is meant to prevent. Simply, they occur when vaccines fail to provide immunity against the pathogen they are designed to target. Breakthrough infections have been identified in individuals immunized against a variety of different diseases including Mumps, Varicella (Chicken Pox), and Influenza. The character of breakthrough infections is dependent on the virus itself. Often, the infection in the vaccinated individual results in milder symptoms and is of a shorter duration than if the infection was contracted naturally.
Causes of breakthrough infections include improper administration or storage of vaccines, mutations in viruses and antibody blocking. For these reasons, vaccines are rarely 100% effective. The common flu vaccine is estimated to provide immunity to the flu in 58% of recipients. The measles vaccine fails to provide immunity to 2% of children that receive the vaccine. However, if herd immunity exists, it typically prevents individuals who are ineffectively vaccinated from contracting the disease. Accordingly, herd immunity reduces the number of breakthrough infections in a population.
In April 2021, the CDC reported that in the United States there were 5,814 COVID-19 breakthrough infections, and 74 deaths, among the more than 75 million people fully vaccinated for the COVID-19 virus.
Characteristics.
Breakthrough varicella.
The varicella vaccine is 85% effective at preventing varicella infection. However, 75% of individuals that are diagnosed with breakthrough varicella exhibit milder symptoms than individuals that are not vaccinated. These individuals with mild varicella have low fevers, fewer than 50 lesions on their skin and a maculopapular rashes. In contrast, unvaccinated individuals typically have a fever of 102, 200-500 skin lesions and macules (lesions that are not elevated) evolve to papules and vesicular lesions. Additionally, infection in unvaccinated individuals tends to last for a longer period of time than in individuals who have been infected.
The majority of cases of breakthrough varicella are attributed to the failure of an individual to uptake the varicella vaccine. Therefore, to prevent breakthrough infections, it is proposed that children receive a second dose of varicella vaccine less than a year after getting their first dose.
Breakthrough mumps.
The mumps vaccine is a component of the Measles, Mumps and Rubella vaccine (MMR). The mumps vaccine, specifically, is 88% effective at preventing mumps. Individuals with breakthrough cases of mumps have fewer serious complications from the infections as compared to individuals unvaccinated for mumps. These complications include the development of aseptic meningitis and encephalitis.
The cause of breakthrough mumps is not currently completely understood. Evolution of the virus (antigenic drift) is thought to explain the majority of breakthrough cases. Other theories suggest that memory T lymphocytes play a role in the development of breakthrough infections.
Breakthrough Hepatitis B.
Breakthrough cases of Hepatitis B are primarily attributed to mutations in the Hepatitis B virus (HBV) that make HBV surface proteins unrecognizable to antibodies produced from the HBV vaccine. Viruses with such mutations are called “vaccine escape mutants”. Breakthrough infections may also be caused by delayed vaccination, immunosuppression, and maternal viral load. It is possible for an individual to have breakthrough infection of HBV but be asymptomatic.
Biological causes.
Age.
As a person ages, their immune system undergoes a series of changes, in a process referred to as immunosenescence. Notable among these changes is a decreased production of naive T cells and naive B cells. The reduced number of naive lymphocytes (T and B cells) is attributed to the fact that the telomeres in hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), degenerate over time and, consequently, limit the proliferation of HSCs and production of lymphoid progenitor cells. This is compounded by the fact that, with time, HSCs tend to favor the production of myeloid progenitor cells over lymphoid progenitor cells. Mature lymphocytes are also unable to proliferate indefinitely. Compounded, the reduction in number of naive lymphocytes and limitations of the proliferative abilities of mature lymphocytes contribute to a limited number and variety of lymphocytes to respond to pathogens presented in a vaccine.
Indeed, vaccines, including the influenza vaccine, Tdap, and pneumococcal vaccines, are less effective in adults over the age of 65. Nevertheless, the CDC recommends that elderly adults get the flu vaccine because influenza infection is particularly dangerous in this population and vaccine provides at least a moderate level of immunity to the flu virus.
Antibody interference.
The presence of maternal antibodies in infants limits the efficacy of inactivated, attenuated and subunit vaccines. Maternal antibodies can bind to epitopes on the proteins produced by the virus in the vaccination. The recognition of viral proteins by maternal antibodies neutralizes the virus. Further, the maternal antibodies outcompete B cell receptors on the infant's B cells for binding to the antigen. Thus, an infant's immune system is not highly activated and the infant produces fewer antibodies. Even when B cells do bind to the pathogen, immune response is still frequently repressed. If B cell receptors bind to the antigen and FC receptors simultaneously bind to the maternal antibody, the FC receptors send a signal to B cell receptors that inhibits cell division. Because the infant's immune system is not stimulated and B cell division is inhibited, few memory B cells are produced. The level of memory B-cells is not adequate to ensure an infant's lifelong resistance to the pathogen.
In most infants, maternal antibodies disappear 12–15 months after birth, so vaccines administered outside this window are not compromised by maternal antibody interference.
Longevity of memory B cells.
When an individual is vaccinated against a disease, the individual's immune system is triggered and memory B cells store the specific antibody response. These cells remain in circulation the pathogen infection is cleared. Because the telomeres in genes degenerate after each successive cell division, lymphocytes, including memory B cells are not capable of proliferating indefinitely. Typically, the cells live for multiple decades, but there is variation in the longevity of these cells depending on the type of vaccine they were stimulated with and vaccine dosage. The reason for the differences in the longevity of memory B cells is currently unknown. However, it has been proposed that the differences in memory B cell longevity are due to the speed at which a pathogen infects the body and, accordingly, the number and type of cells involved in the immune response to the pathogen in the vaccine.
Virus evolution.
When a person is vaccinated, their immune system develops antibodies that recognize specific segments (epitopes) viruses or viral-induced proteins. Over time, however, viruses accumulate genetic mutations which can impact the 3d structure of viral proteins. If these mutations occur in sites that are recognized by antibodies, the mutations block antibody binding which inhibits the immune response. This phenomenon is called antigenic drift. Breakthrough infections of Hepatitis B and mumps are partially attributed to antigenic drift.
Other causes.
Vaccine quality and administration.
Vaccines may fail to provide immunity if the vaccine is of poor quality when administered. A vaccine loses potency if it is stored at the incorrect temperature or if it is kept after the expiration date. Similarly, appropriate vaccine dosage is essential to ensuring immunity. Vaccine dosage is dependent on factors including a patient’s age and weight. Failure to account for these factors can lead to patients receiving an incorrect amount of vaccination. Patients that receive a lower dose than recommended of a vaccine do not have an adequate immune response to the vaccine to ensure immunity.
In order for a vaccine to be effective, an individual must respond to the pathogens in a vaccine through the adaptive branch of the immune system and that response must be stored in an individual's immunological memory. It is possible for an individual to neutralize and clear a pathogen through the humoral response without activating the adaptive immune response. Vaccines with weaker or fewer strains of a pathogen, as is the case when a vaccine is of poor quality when administered, may primarily elicit the humoral response, and, thus, fail to ensure future immunity.


BlueCross BlueShield of South Carolina

BlueCross BlueShield of South Carolina (BlueCross) is an independent licensee of the Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association. BlueCross serves 21.5 million people through private business and government contracts.
BlueCross has several subsidiaries, two of which are affiliates licensed with the Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association. Licensed subsidiaries include BlueCross BlueShield of South Carolina Foundation and BlueChoice HealthPlan. Non-licensed affiliates include Companion Captive Insurance Company, Companion Life, PGBA, LLC, Planned Administrators, Inc. (PAI) and TCC of South Carolina.
History.
BlueCross began as the South Carolina Hospital Service Plan, later becoming "BlueCross of South Carolina" (BlueCross), when the General Assembly passed legislation bringing this group into existence. In the spring of 1947, the South Carolina Hospital Service Plan merged with the Hospital Benefit Association of Greenville, giving them a financial base. In 1971, BlueShield of South Carolina merged with BlueCross to form the current company.
In July 2020, BlueCross BlueShield of South Carolina and the BlueCross BlueShield of South Carolina Foundation joined several organizations well-established in the trenches of diabetes care, including the Alliance for a Healthier South Carolina and the state’s Department of Health and Environmental Control, to launch Diabetes Free SC, a long-term, multi-million dollar, statewide initiative dedicated to addressing these disparities in care in three strategic directions: improved pregnancy outcomes in women with diabetes; reduced lifelong risk of diabetes in children; and the prevention of diabetes and its complications in adults. The BlueCross Foundation awarded $11.6 million in three- to-five year grants to Prisma Health, the Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), the Alliance for a Healthier Generation and FoodShareSC to support efforts in each of these categories.
BlueChoice HealthPlan.
BlueChoice HealthPlan was founded in 1984, originally as Companion HealthCare, and was the first health maintenance organization (HMO) offered by BlueCross BlueShield of South Carolina. To date, BlueChoice HealthPlan has nearly 200,000 members.
In 2008 the HMO added a Medicaid option called BlueChoice HealthPlan Medicaid for eligible South Carolinians.
In 2013, A.M. Best affirmed BlueChoice HealthPlan's A+ (Superior) financial strength rating as part of the group rating for BCBSSC.
Coronavirus Pandemic.
BlueCross BlueShield of South Carolina decided to waive all out-of-pockets fees of the members for COVID-19 related treatments.


Nordic Orthopaedic Federation

The Nordic Orthopaedic Federation is the orthopaedic federation for the Nordic and other Northern European countries.It was founded 1919.The current president is Richard Wallensten of Karolinska University Hospital.
The federation consists of the following national orthopaedic associations:


Gervais Baudouin

Gervais Baudouin (c. 1645 – 1700) was a surgeon born in France who came to New France about 1677.
Baudouin's practice in Quebec consisted of being the doctor to the local Ursulines as well as the seminary of Quebec. In 1695, he was appointed surgeon-major of Quebec, a position he held until his death because of an epidemic. He was survived by his wife and eight children. We know that three daughters became nuns and one son, Michel became a Jesuit priest. Another son, Gervais became a surgeon.


Carl von Liebermeister

Carl von Liebermeister (2 February 1833 – 24 December 1901) was a German internist who was a native of Ronsdorf.
In 1856 he received his medical degree from Greifswald, and in 1860 became an assistant to Felix von Niemeyer (1820-1871) at the University of Tübingen. In 1864 he became a professor of pathology in Basel, and in 1871 returned to Tübingen as a successor to Dr. Niemeyer.
Liebermeister is remembered for his work involving the pathophysiology of fever, and research of anti-pyretic treatments such as hydrotherapy. His name is associated with a dictum dealing with the relationship between the frequency of an individual's pulse and the body's temperature when feverish. "Liebermeister's rule" states that in adult febrile tachycardia, pulse-beats increase at a rate of approximately eight beats per minute to each degree Celsius.
Liebermeister was interested in many facets of medicine, publishing articles on a wide array of subjects. Among his better known writings was "Handbuch der Pathologie und Therapie des Fiebers" (Textbook of Pathology and Therapy of Fevers, 1875). Also, he was the author of a comprehensive work on cholera called "Cholera Asiatica und Cholera Nostras", a treatise that was included in Hermann Nothnagel's "Specielle Pathologie und Therapie".


Harsha V. Dehejia

Harsha Venilal Dehejia (born 1938) is an Indo-Canadian allergologist, author, and radio host, and Professor of Indian Studies at Carleton University. He was the winner of the 2003 Raja Rao Award for Literature for outstanding contributions to the literature and culture of the South Asian Diaspora, and the host of the radio show "An Indian Morning" for over 40 years.
Earlier career.
Born and raised in Malabar Hill, South Mumbai, Dehejia received his medical doctorate from Bombay University, "with six gold medals", and then studied allergy and respiratory diseases at Cambridge University. He moved to Canada, where he began practicing medicine in Ottawa around 1968.
In 1975 Dehejia helped the radio station CKCU-FM obtain its first broadcast license, and began hosting the radio show "An Indian Morning" that November. In 1976, he wrote "a pocket-book sized manual entitled "I CanCope With Allergy"", and in 1980, he published "The Allergy Book". In a 1984 news piece, he noted his displeasure with "all the myths surrounding allergies," noting that people often misuse the term to refer to normal responses to toxins, when an allergy is defined as an abnormal response to substances harmless to most. Dehejia continued to engage in numerous civic and cultural activities as well, with "The Ottawa Citizen" noting in 2003:
By that year, Dehehjia was regularly travelling to India, working towards earn his PhD in religion from the University of Bombay and participating in seminars. Dehejia was also presented with the 2003 Raja Rao Award for Literature for outstanding contributions to the literature and culture of the South Asian Diaspora. In 2008, Dehejia was one of five recipients of a recognition for community leadership by the Indo-Canada Ottawa Business Chamber.
Later writing and activities.
In 2014, Dehejia published his only work of fiction, the novel "Parul: A Love Story", a story of a man who slowly surrenders his conviction in the principle of "Maya", that the world is an illusion. The protagonist experiences romance with a beautiful and sensual woman who induces him to accept the reality of the beauty of things in the world. In 2015, he celebrated the 40th year of his radio show, "An Indian Morning", the only show to have been broadcast continuously on CKCU-FM for that length of time.
In 2017, Dehejia published "Walk With Me On Mumbai Footpaths", recounting discoveries encountered while walking in Mumbai. The following year he published "Radhayan", which "explores the many stories that feature Radha," a Hindu goddess. Dehejia "spent over two years researching and writing" for this book. In 2019, Dehejia further explored this mythos with his chapter, “The heart-throb of Chaitanya” in the book "Finding Radha: The Quest for Love", and in an edited collection, "Radha: From Gopi to Goddess".
Personal life.
Dehejia's son, Vivek Harsha Dehejia, is also a professor at Carleton University, teaching in the areas of philosophy and economics.


American Breast Cancer Foundation

The American Breast Cancer Foundation is a charitable organization focused on breast cancer prevention. Based in Columbia, Maryland, the organization provides early detection, education and screening services.
An article by the "Tampa Bay Times" in 2013, listing the foundation for its use of professional fundraisers, was unaware the foundation terminated all relationships with professional telemarketers by 2011.
Although ABCF received a lower-than-desirable rating from Charity Navigator, (primarily due to telemarketing costs and business procedures in effect prior to 2010 under different management), the foundation maintains that its poor showing was based on old data for practices it no longer engages in.
Since its complete restructuring beginning in 2010, ABCF has made impressive gains in securing funding for its programs, relying only on events fundraising, private donations, and corporate donations. Between January 2012 and March 2014, ABCF received dollars from every state in the nation, Puerto Rico, and 3 foreign countries.
In 2014, ABCF was awarded a Gold Level Rating by the GuideStar Exchange for its significant gains to implement a best practice model.


Experiments in immunology

An experiment in immunology is a method of investigating immunological responses to antigens, or detecting and characterizing antibodies and lymphocytes. Findings from these experiments can be used to manipulate the immune system and develop drugs to combat immunological diseases.
Immunization.
Experimental immunologists study responses to simple antigens through immunization, the deliberate induction of an immune response in animal or human subjects. The immunized subject is then monitored for antibody response. This often involves the analysis of antiserum samples that contain specific antibodies against the immunizing antigen, and blood lymphocytes from lymphoid organs for examination of T cell-mediated responses.
However, some antibodies found in antiserum are cross-reactive. This means that they bind antigens that have no apparent relationship to the immunogen, and are problematic when antiserum is used to detect antigens that bind specifically to these antibodies. This can be resolved by absorption of these antibodies with their cross-reactive antigen, leaving only the antibodies that are specific to the immunogen of interest.
Antibody Experiments.
B cell immune responses are measured by analyzing antibodies produced through the humoral immune response. Serum is isolated from a clotted blood sample, and the circulating antibody that accumulates in the plasma is assayed by methods that include the following:
These experiments are used to determine the specificity, amount, isotype and affinity of the antibodies produced. Antibodies are highly specific for their particular antigens. They are therefore relatively easy to isolate and study, and make highly efficient probes in a range of biological experiments.
Lymphocyte Experiments.
In studying lymphocytes, the first step is to isolate them so that they can be studied in vitro. Lymphocytes can be isolated from blood, or from lymphoid organs such as the thymus, bone marrow, lymph nodes, and mucosal-associated lymphoid tissues. Methods include the following:
Upon isolation, the lymphocytes are characterized in terms of specificity, frequency and function. Frequently used assays include the ELISPOT, which measures the frequency of T cell response. It is similar to the ELISA assay in that antibodies bound to plastic wells are used to bind the cytokines secreted by T cells.
Manipulation of the Immune Response.
Findings from the experiments thus described can be used to manipulate the immune response and develop treatments to combat immunological diseases. For example, adoptive transfer is used to study the effects of lymphocytes in the absence of other lymphoid cells. Ionizing radiation kills lymphoid cells while leaving other tissues of the body intact, and this eliminates immune function. The body is thus prepared for restoration of immune function by adoptive transfer of new lymphocytes.
Another method is hematopoietic stem-cell transfer, used for studying lymphocyte development. Hematopoietic cells are killed by ionizing radiation, and the hematopoietic system is replaced by transfusion of donor bone marrow or purified hematopoietic stem cells. The resulting individuals are termed radiation bone marrow chimeras.
The abovementioned methods have been researched extensively, but there remain many areas in immunology that have yet to be covered, ranging from autoimmune diseases to transplant rejection. There is still room for progress, and only the future will tell what developments are yet to come.


Cytokine redundancy

Cytokine redundancy is a term in immunology referring to the phenomenon in which, and the ability of, multiple cytokines to exert similar actions. This phenomenon is largely due to multiple cytokines utilizing common receptor subunits and common intracellular cell signalling molecules/pathways. For instance, a pair of redundant cytokines are interleukin 4 and interleukin 13.
Cytokine redundancy is associated with the term cytokine pleiotropy, which refers to the ability of cytokines to exert multiple actions.


Macau Red Cross

The Macau Red Cross (, ) is a branch of the Red Cross in Macau. The headquarters is in the China Civil Plaza () in Sé. It also has a Medical Transfer Centre () in the Edificio Industrial Hap Si () in , Nossa Senhora de Fátima.
It is the humanitarian organisation in the territory that has existed for the longest time.
The previous head office is in São Lourenço.
History.
The 's presence in Macau began in 1920, and became established as a delegation in 1943. A chapter of the book "The Red Cross Movement" described the Macau Red Cross as "simultaneously, a local creation, a delegation integrated into a national/colonial context, an inter-imperial structure and part of a transnational institution with global reach." The Macau Red Cross left the Portuguese organisation and joined the Red Cross Society of China effective 20 December 1999.
It supports a school in , Shiqian County, Tongren, Guizhou: Melco Crown-Macau Red Cross Bo-Ai Primary School (). It first opened in 1964 and had its current facility open in 2017.


John Markowitz

John C. Markowitz (born 1954 in New York City) is an American physician, a Professor of Clinical Psychiatry at the Columbia University College of Physicians & Surgeons and a Psychiatric Researcher at the New York State Psychiatric Institute. For several decades he has conducted research on psychotherapies and medications as treatments for mood disorders (major depressive disorder and dysthymic disorder), anxiety disorders, and personality disorders. He is currently conducting an outcome study of three psychotherapies for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) thanks to a five-year grant from the National Institute of Mental Health. He is most widely published in the area of interpersonal psychotherapy or IPT, a manualized form of treatment, in which he was trained by the late Gerald L. Klerman, M.D. Dr. Markowitz is a graduate of Columbia University and Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons and received his psychiatric residency training at the Payne Whitney Psychiatric Clinic of Cornell University Medical School/New York-Presbyterian Hospital.


Kaiser Family Foundation

KFF (Kaiser Family Foundation), also known as the The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, is an American non-profit organization, headquartered in San Francisco, California. It prefers KFF since its legal name can cause confusion as it is no longer a foundation or a family foundation, and is not associated with Kaiser Permanente. KFF focuses on major health care issues facing the nation, as well as U.S. role in global health policy. KFF states that it is a non-partisan source of facts and analysis, polling and journalism for policymakers, the media, the health care community, and the general public, and its website has been heralded for having the "most up-to-date and accurate information on health policy" and as a "must-read for healthcare devotees."
Current activities.
Policy analysis and polling.
KFF publishes analysis, polling and journalism about health-care issues, and states that much of its work especially concerns persons with low income or those who are otherwise especially vulnerable to health-care cost, such as the uninsured, those with chronic illnesses, or Medicaid/Medicare recipients. In addition to domestic U.S. health policy issues, KFF also conducts work on the U.S. role in global health policy.
In early 2020 its analysis and polling focused heavily on the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2010, KFF began providing resources for consumers seeking information about the then new health insurance law, the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act with a series of animated videos explaining the health law and health insurance terms as well as a calculator for people to estimate what health insurance coverage would cost them.
Kaiser is well known for public opinion research, documenting the views and experiences of the public on health and related issuesoften in partnership with major news organizations, such as "The Washington Post" and "The New York Times".
Health news and information.
Through KHN (Kaiser Health News), KFF's editorially independent news service dedicated to coverage of health care policy and politics, KFF provides coverage of health policy issues and developments at the federal and state levels in the health care marketplace and health care delivery system.
KHN reporters were finalists for a 2020 Pulitzer Prize in Investigative Reporting for exposing predatory bill collection by the University of Virginia Health System that relentlessly squeezed low-income patients—many into bankruptcy—forcing the non-profit, state-run hospital to change its tactics.
KFF also sponsors training and site visits for health care reporters.
KFF works with major media and corporate partners, government agencies and health departments, national leadership and community organizations, and other foundations to undertake large-scale public information campaigns on pressing health and social issues, mostly on HIV/AIDS, including (current and former campaigns): It's Your (Sex) Life (MTV); GYT: Get Yourself Tested (MTV, CDC, Planned Parenthood); Rap it Up (BET); KNOW HIV/AIDS (Viacom and CBS Corporation); Enterate Protegate and Soy… (Univision); and PAUSE (Fox Broadcasting Network).
KFF worked with UNAIDS in 2004 to launch the Global Media AIDS Initiative at the United Nations to mobilize media in response to the global AIDS pandemic. Large-scale regional media coalitions operated under auspices of the GMAI, including efforts in Africa, the Caribbean, the Asia-Pacific region, Eastern Europe and now developing Central and South America.
Under Greater Than AIDSa national public information response to the U.S. epidemic launched in 2009KFF works with a broad cross section of public and private partners to increase knowledge, reduce stigma and promote actions to stem the spread of HIV. While national in scope, Greater Than AIDS focuses on communities most affected.
History.
KFF was established in 1948 by Henry J. Kaiser. The Kaiser Family Foundation was originally set up in Oakland, California, the same city in which Kaiser Permanente's headquarters were located. Later, the KFF moved to Menlo Park, about 50 miles away from Oakland. In 2018, it relocated to San Francisco, CA.
When Mr. Kaiser died in 1967, his second wife, Ale Chester, inherited half of his estate, and the other half went to the KFF. Ale sold all of her holdings, moved far away, and remarried. Mr. Kaiser's children received very little direct inheritance; but did receive authority to run the Kaiser Industries businesses, and the Kaiser Family Foundation.
In 1977, ten years after Kaiser's death, the conglomerate of disparate Kaiser Industries organizations split apart. The Kaiser Family Foundation was initially a major owner of these shares: at the time of dissolution, the Foundation owned 32 percent according to Fortune Magazine.
By 1985, the foundation no longer had an ownership stake in the Kaiser companies and is no longer associated with Kaiser Permanente or Kaiser Industries. KFF is now an independent national organization and one family member, selected by the Board, serves on the Board of Directors of KFF.
The Kaiser Family Foundation previously funded professorial chairs at UC Berkeley, Stanford University, Harvard University, and Johns Hopkins University, named the Henry J. Kaiser Professorships.
Starting in September 1990, KFF CEO Drew Altman directed "a complete overhaul of the Foundation's mission and operating style." Altman changed a "sleepy grant-making organization" (some $30 million a year interest on the $400 million endowment), into a leading voice and repository for facts and information on health-care issues.


Richard Bayliss

Sir Richard Ian Samuel Bayliss (2 January 1917 – 21 April 2006) (also known as "Dick" Bayliss) was an English physician specialising in endocrinology. He became Physician to the Queen and head of the Medical Household.
Early life and training.
Richard Bayliss was born in Tettenhall, then in Staffordshire, and was the son of an ironmaster. His early education was at Rugby School, and he then undertook pre-clinical studies in medicine at Clare College, Cambridge. His clinical training was at St Thomas' Hospital Medical School, London, where he qualified in medicine in 1941.
Career.
Following qualification, during the bombing of London in World War II, Bayliss undertook a number of jobs at St Thomas' Hospital, rising to the position of resident assistant physician. In 1945 he joined the Royal Army Medical Corps and for three years was head of medical services in India. Bayliss was awarded his MD in 1946, his thesis being on the subject of cardiac metastases from bronchogenic carcinoma. He returned to England in 1948 and in 1950 was appointed lecturer in medicine and consultant physician at Hammersmith Hospital. In 1950–51 he was also visiting Rockefeller fellow at Columbia University, New York. Bayliss moved to Westminster Hospital in 1954, becoming consultant physician specialising in endocrinology, and was dean of Westminster Hospital Medical School from 1960 to 1965. He retired from Westminster Hospital in 1981 but continued to see patients privately, and also undertook advisory, consultant and directing roles for a number of institutions, including the Royal Navy, the British Heart Foundation, and the British Thyroid Foundation.
Royal Household.
Bayliss joined the Medical Household as physician to the Royal Household in 1964. He was Physician to the Queen from 1970 to 1983, head of the Medical Household from 1973 to 1982, and was created KCVO in 1978. Amongst his other royal duties, Bayliss attended Princess Anne in 1976 when she fell from a horse, and he was present at the birth of Zara Phillips in 1981. He also attended the Duchess of Kent in 1977 after the loss of her baby, and again in 1979.
Personal life.
Bayliss was an accomplished pianist, and helped to organise the Christmas shows while a student at St Thomas'. He was proficient at jazz, and spent three months as a professional musician in Munich. Bayliss was also a keen skier and had been skiing shortly before his death at the age of 89. He was a lifelong smoker, and suffered from a variety of diseases. In 1964, at the age of 48, he suffered a myocardial infarction (heart attack) and, against medical advice, he was skiing within three weeks. He underwent coronary artery bypass surgery, and also suffered from a leaking aortic aneurysm, and a perforated Meckel's diverticulum. In addition he suffered from histoplasmosis, a fungal infection that he probably contracted while he was in the US. His death was due to cancer.
Bayliss was married three times. From his first marriage he had a son, who became a consultant radiologist, and a daughter. He had two daughters from his second marriage. Both these marriages were dissolved, and when he died, his third marriage had lasted 27 years.
Lectures and publications.
Lectures.
Both to the Royal College of Physicians:
Publications.
Bayliss published 100 papers, and wrote 33 chapters in books. He was also the author of:


Hermann Emminghaus

Hermann Emminghaus (20 May 1845 – 17 February 1904) was a German psychiatrist who was a native of Weimar. He was a pioneer of child and adolescent psychology, and a founder of developmental psychopathology.
He studied medicine at the Universities of Göttingen and Jena, obtaining his medical doctorate in 1869. Afterwards he was an assistant to Carl Gerhardt (1833-1902), who was director of the medical clinic in Jena. From 1874 to 1880 he worked at the University of Würzburg, where he was an assistant to Franz von Rinecker (1811-1883).
In 1880 Emminghaus was appointed to the first chair of psychiatry at the University of Dorpat. When he left Dorpat in 1886, his position was filled by Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926). In 1886 Emminghaus became a professor of psychiatry at the University of Freiburg, where he instituted a new regimen of treatment for mental patients, including a "no-restraint policy".
His best known written works are a book on general psychopathology called "Allgemeine Psychopathologie zur Einführung in das Studium der Geistesstörungen", and a publication on childhood mental illness titled "Die psychischen Störungen des Kindesalters". Since 1984 the "Hermann Emminghaus Prize" is awarded every two years in recognition of outstanding scientific work performed in the fields of child and adolescent psychiatry.


Joint Clinical Research Centre

The Joint Clinical Research Centre (JCRC) is a medical research institution in Uganda, specializing in HIV/AIDS treatment and management.
Location.
The headquarters of JCRC are located on Lubowa Hill, at Plot 101 Entebbe Road, approximately , by road, southeast of Kampala, the capital and largest city of Uganda. The geographical coordinates of the institution's headquarters are:0°13'51.0"N, 32°34'00.0"E (Latitude:0.230833; Longitude:32.566667).
Overview.
Founded in 1990, JCRC is a collaborative effort by three Ugandan ministries to address the challenges posed by HIV/AIDS and related infections: (a) the Ministry of Health, (b) the Ministry of Education and (c) the Ministry of Defence. The institution works in close collaboration with Makerere University College of Health Sciences (MUCHS).
Research.
JCRC focuses on HIV/AIDS research in all age groups, clinical trials of ARVs, nutritional and social interventions and the concomitant treatment of tuberculosis. The institution also carries out malaria research. The majority of the institution's research projects are in collaboration with national, regional and international organisations, including funding agencies, international health research institutions, international NGOs and universities, as well as corporate philanthropists.
Governance.
The research centre is administered by an eight-person board of directors, chaired by Justine Opio-Epelu. Other board members include Prof. Nelson Sewankambo, the immediate past Principal of Makerere University College of Health Sciences. Prof. Peter Mugyenyi, the internationally recognized HIV/AIDS researcher and pediatrician, who founded the institution, serves as the centre's executive director.
Future plans.
The JCRC has plans to build an international research hospital worth US$120 million in collaboration with "Tokushukai Medical Group" of Japan. Commitment for 70 percent funding has been obtained from the African Development Bank (AfDB).
In March 2018, the institution procured an Apheresis machine, which enables healthcare personnel to extract only those selected blood components from a donor's or patient's blood, and return the non-selected components back into the bloodstream of the donor/patient. This technique is of particular significance and utility, when treating patients with sickle cell disease and HIV/AIDS.


James A. McNamara

James A. McNamara Jr. (born in San Francisco) is an American-trained, board certified, orthodontist. He is known for his development of "McNamara analysis", one of the more popular methods of cephalometric analysis in cephalometry.
Life.
James A McNamara Jr., is a graduate of the University of California, Berkeley. He attended dental school at the University of California, San Francisco and continued on to a postgraduate residency in orthodontics at the same institution. He then attended the University of Michigan, where he received a doctorate in anatomy in 1972.
McNamara currently serves as the Thomas M. and Doris Graber Endowed Professor of Dentistry in the Department of Orthodontics and Pediatric Dentistry at the University of Michigan School of Dentistry, professor of cell and developmental biology at the University of Michigan Medical School and research scientist at the Center for Human Growth and Development.
McNamara is a member and past-president of the Midwest component of the Edward H. Angle Society of Orthodontists. He served as the chairman of the Council on Scientific Affairs of the American Association of Orthodontics from 1993 to 1996, and is currently the editor-in-chief of Craniofacial Growth Monograph Series, a 41-volume work published through the University of Michigan.
McNamara is the author of over 190 scientific articles, has written, edited or otherwise contributed to 53 textbooks and has presented lectures in 43 countries. Of particular note is his seminal work, "Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics", used as a text in many orthodontic courses. He developed a form of cephalometric analysis referred to as the McNamara method of analysis.
He has maintained a private orthodontic practice in Ann Arbor, Michigan since 1971.
He lives with his wife, Charlene, in Ann Arbor, Michigan.


One Small Voice Foundation

One Small Voice Foundation is a non-profit foundation which finances research into the medical disorders of optic nerve hypoplasia and hydrocephalus. It was founded by Deborah and Kevin Katzbeck after the birth of their hydrocephalic child in 2000.


Stephen Holgate (physician)

Professor Sir Stephen T Holgate CBE, BSc, MB BS, MD, DSc, CSc (hon), FRCP, FRCP (Edin), FRCPath, FAAAAI, FACAAI FEAACI, FERS, MAE, FMedSci. Birthdate 02 05 1947 Birthplace: Heywood, Lancashire. Nationality British. Married to Elizabeth and has 4 children Matthew, Edmund, Katharine and Michael. Fields Immunopharmacology, Respiratory Medicine, Allergy, Asthma and Air Pollution. Workplaces: University of Southampton and University Hospital Southampton NHS Foundation Trust, UK.
Education.
Holgate was educated at The King's School in Macclesfield until 1965, when he joined Charing Cross Hospital Medical School, London (now incorporated into Imperial College London) where he was awarded BSc and MB BS. After completing postgraduate medical training in London at the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases and the Royal Brompton Hospital, he moved to Salisbury and Southampton where he completed his Specialist higher medical training in General and Respiratory Medicine. While undertaking this as a Clinical Lecturer at the University of Southampton, concerned with the link between asthma death and over-use of Beta-adrenergic bronchodilator inhalers, he undertook research into Beta-Adrenergic Resistance; The development and Mechanisms in normal man, and in 1978, was awarded Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree by the University of London.
Career and research.
Holgate's research interests include immunopharmacology, allergy, asthma and pollution. In 1980, after completing a 2 year post doctoral fellowship with K Frank Austen at the Robert Brigham Hospital and Harvard University, Boston provided by the Dorothy Temple Cross MRC endowment and the Wellcome Trust he returned to the University of Southampton to pursue a research career in asthma and allied disorders. This was focused on the causes of human asthma and its treatment. After establishing the key role that mast cells and other key effector cells play in triggering the acute allergic inflammatory response in asthma, he pursued the mechanisms of asthma chronicity and variability across the lifecourse. He has utilised many approaches to study asthma including epidemiology, genetics, pathology, microbiology and immunology, pharmacology and experimental medicine. This research has informed guidelines on asthma management and has identified and validated novel therapeutic targets. When joined by Donna Davies, a particular focus has been the important role that the epithelium plays in orchestrating both chronic airway inflammation as well as airway wall remodelling. The concept emerged that in severe asthma, the airways behaved like a chronic wound with impaired epithelial repair and underlying tissue remodelling involving the deposition of new matrix, mucous metaplasia and proliferation of smooth muscle. In a collaboration with Genome Therapeutics Corporation in Waltham, Mass, USA, this approach led to the discovery of the first novel asthma susceptibility gene in 2002 of ADAM33 that encodes a metalloprotease linked to airway hyperresponsiveness and remodelling.
Another characteristic feature of asthma is periodic disease exacerbations. Holgate and his research group led by Sebastian Johnston first demonstrated the causal link between exacerbations in the autumn and winter months and respiratory virus infections. This led to the subsequent discovery that epithelial cells from those with moderate-severe asthma were deficient in their ability to generate an innate interferon beta response when infected by human rhinoviruses. This discovery was patented and in 2003 Holgate, Donna Davies and founded the University spin-off company Synairgen to explore the potential therapeutic benefits of inhaled interferon beta in attenuating virus-induced exacerbations of asthma and COPD. Linked to clinical trials showing antiviral protection in asthma and COPD and the knowledge that SARS CoV-2 has developed mechanisms to evade the innate immune response mechanisms in the lung and that patients with more severe COVID-19 are themselves deficient in being able to mount an interferon beta response, Synairgen has completed a successful Phase II placebo-controlled trial in COVID-19 and is proceeding to undertake larger international trials as a novel treatment for this disease.
Awards and honours.
Holgate was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2011 New Year Honours and was knighted in the 2020 Birthday Honours for services to medical research.
Other awards include the King Faisal Prize, the Ellison–Cliffe Lecture and the J. Allyn Taylor International Prize in Medicine.
References.
Category:Honorary graduates of the University of Exeter]]


Halford Fairchild

Halford Hosoi Fairchild (born March 16, 1949) is a Professor Emeritus of Psychology and Black Studies at Pitzer College in Claremont, California. He was the editor of "Psych Discourse: The Monthly Newsjournal of The Association of Black Psychologists" from 1991 until 2014. He is a former President of the Association of Black Psychologists and Chairman of the Intercollegiate Department of Africana Studies at the Claremont Colleges. He received his Ph.D. in Psychology from the University of Michigan in 1977. Among many accomplishments, Professor Fairchild published a series of papers that challenged the practice of scientific racism within psychology (e.g., Fairchild, 1991; Fairchild, Yee, Wyatt, & Weizmann, 1995; Yee, Fairchild, Weizmann, & Wyatt, 1993).


Memory T cell inflation

Memory T cell inflation phenomenon is the formation and maintenance of a large population of specific CD8+ T cells in reaction to cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection.
Cytomegalovirus (CMV).
CMV is a worldwide type of virus which affects 60-80 % of the human population in developed countries. The virus is spread through saliva or urine and in healthy individuals can survive under the immune system control with any visible symptoms. The CMV life strategy is to integrate DNA into the genome of the host cells and escape the mechanism of natural immunity.
Infection.
Immune response against CMV is primarily provided by CD8 + T cells which recognize viral fragments in MHC class I complex on the surface of infected cells and destroy these cells. Specific CD8+ T cells are generated in secondary lymphoid organs where naïve T cells encounter with cytomegalovirus antigen on antigen presenting cells. This results in a population of migrating effector CD8 + T-lymphocytes and the second small population called central memory T-cells that remains in the secondary lymphatic organs and the bone marrow. These cells are capable to respond and proliferate immediately after repeated pathogen recognition. The amount of memory cells generated as a response to cytomegalovirus is approximately 9.1% - 10.2% of all circulating CD4 + and CD8 + memory cells.
Memory CD8 + T lymphocytes characteristics.
Generally, these cells express a low level of node localization markers - CD62L, CCR7 and occur in peripheral organs. They retain their standard functions like cytokine production and cytotoxicity. They do not express costimulatory molecules (CD28) and PD-1 receptor inhibitors on the surface, but they express the inhibitory molecules KLRG1 and CD85.
Immunosenescence.
Remodeling of immune response and reduced ability to protect individuals from infectious diseases is observed in relation to age. Especially in the elderly, long-term CMV infection leads to a rapid increase the number of CMV-specific T cells. The number of CMV memory CD8 + T lymphocytes then predominate and the total number of available naïve T lymphocytes decrease. CD8+T cells form up to 50 % of all peripheral blood memory cells in HCV-positive elderly individuals. The same effect on the immune system has been described in herpes viruses and parvoviruses.
Use in therapy.
Potential therapeutic use of memory cells is vaccination based on induction of memory T cells in the periphery that will be capable of effectively and immediately attacking the pathogen.


Ambulacral

Ambulacral is a term typically used in the context of anatomical parts of the phylum Echinodermata or class Asteroidea and Edrioasteroidea. Echinoderms can have ambulacral parts that include ossicles, plates, spines, and suckers. For example, sea stars or "star fish" have an ambulacral groove on their oral side (underside). This ambulacral groove extends from the mouth to the end of each ray or arm. Each groove of each arm in turn has four rows of hollow tube feet that can be extended or withdrawn. Opposite the ambulacral groove is an ambulacral ridge on the aboral side of each ray, known as an ambulacrum. These have interambulacra between them.
Etymology.
From the Latin 'ambulācrum', meaning 'walk planted with trees', 'avenue', 'alley' and 'walking place'
Derives from' 'ambulāre', meaning 'to walk' or 'Amble' meaning 'To walk slowly or leisurely'.
Has Indo-European roots - deriving from 'Ambhi'


Jerry Ekandjo

Jerry Lukiiko Ekandjo (born 17 March 1947) is a Namibian politician, former anti-apartheid activist and political prisoner. He is one of the founding members of the SWAPO Youth League and has been one of the most active internal leading members of the South West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) during the liberation struggle. He spent eight years in prison on Robben Island after being charged for inciting violence in 1973. Ekandjo has been a member of the Cabinet of Namibia from independence in 1990 until 2018, serving the SWAPO government in various ministerial positions. His last appointment was Minister of Youth and Sport since 2012, from which he was recalled in early 2018. Previously he was Deputy Minister of Local Government and Housing from 1990 to 1995, Minister of Home Affairs from 1995 to 2005, Minister of Lands and Resettlement from 2005 to 2008, and Minister of Regional and Local Government, Housing and Rural Development from 2008 to 2012.
In 2012 Ekandjo was a candidate for the Vice-President of SWAPO and came second to Hage Geingob who eventually became the President of Namibia in 2015. In 2017 he was nominated as a candidate for the President of SWAPO and came second again to Hage Geingob.
Political career.
Ekandjo was born in Windhoek, South-West Africa. He was a member of the SWAPO Party Youth League from 1969 to 1973 and served as Chairman of its Windhoek Branch. In August 1973 he was arrested, and in November 1973 he was put on trial for incitement of violence. He was convicted and sentenced to eight years in prison, which he spent on Robben Island in South Africa. Following his release in 1981, he was a teacher from 1982 to 1987, and in 1989, he was the deputy head of SWAPO voter registration. Immediately prior to independence, he was a SWAPO member of the Constituent Assembly, which was in place from November 1989 to March 1990, and since independence in 1990 he has served as a member of the National Assembly of Namibia. He also became Deputy Minister of Local Government and Housing in 1990, serving in that position until 1995. He was Deputy Minister of Home Affairs from March 1995 until being promoted to the post of Minister of Home Affairs in September 1995. After nearly ten years as Minister of Home Affairs, Ekandjo was moved to the post of Minister of Lands and Resettlement on March 21, 2005.
He received the highest number of votes, 395 (tied with Nahas Angula), in the election to the Central Committee of SWAPO at the party's August 2002 congress. It was reported that at the time of the November 2007 SWAPO congress, some in the party wanted Ekandjo to become the party's Vice-President, although at the congress Hage Geingob was elected to the post without opposition. Ekandjo is widely considered to be a hardliner in the party. He received the highest number of votes in the election for the SWAPO Central Committee at the November 2007 congress. On January 27, 2008, he was elected as SWAPO's Secretary for Information and Publicity at a Central Committee meeting, a move that was considered surprising given Ekandjo's reputation for having a harsh attitude toward the media.
Ekandjo was moved from his post as Minister of Lands and Resettlement to that of Minister of Regional and Local Government, Housing and Rural Development in a Cabinet reshuffle on 8 April 2008. At SWAPO's 2012 party congress, Ekandjo stood as a candidate for SWAPO Vice-President, but he was defeated by Hage Geingob in the vote held on 2 December 2012. Geingob received 312 votes from the delegates, while Ekandjo received 220 votes and Pendukeni Iivula-Ithana received 64 votes. In the wake of the congress, Ekandjo was moved to the post of Minister of Youth and Sport as part of a Cabinet reshuffle on 4 December 2012.
In late August 2014, when SWAPO chose its list of parliamentary candidates for the November 2014 general election, Ekandjo only managed to obtain the 81st spot on the list, a poor performance that made it seem unlikely that he would be elected to the National Assembly. Although he failed to make it into parliament in the election, he was subsequently chosen by President Hage Geingob as one of his eight presidential appointees to the National Assembly. Geingob also retained Ekandjo as Minister of Sport, Youth and National Service when he named his cabinet in March 2015.
For the 2017 SWAPO electoral congress Ekandjo campaigned against president Geingob, calling the leadership of government and ruling party "weak". He was dismissed from his minister position on 1 February 2018, along with fellow critic and minister Iivula-Ithana.
Controversies.
In 2000, Ekandjo, as Home Affairs Minister, urged police to eliminate homosexuals from Namibia. This caused great controversy in Namibia, especially with Namibia's homosexual community. The opposition Democratic Turnhalle Alliance and United Democratic Front put forward a motion of no-confidence against Ekandjo, but in the vote on October 11, 2000, SWAPO MPs voted unanimously against the motion, defeating it.
On 9 February 2001, Ekandjo was found guilty of contempt of court for not releasing the jailed former representative of the Angolan rebel group UNITA in Namibia, Jose Domingo Sikunda, despite a court order to do so. The government said that it would appeal Ekandjo's conviction.
Views on HIV-AIDS.
Ekandjo, through his status as minister, has worked to reduce the prevalence of AIDS in Namibia. He has been quoted as saying "surely one of the main lessons of these past 25 years is that when we are united we win, when we are divided, AIDS wins".


Doctors for America

Doctors for America is a 501(c)(3) national, multi-specialty organization of physicians and medical students in the United States with a stated goal of improving affordable health care access. The movement was started in 2008 as "Doctors for Obama" and rapidly grew to 10,000 members within a few months.
The group stated that it had a membership of 15,000 and a presence in all 50 states in October 2009. The "four policy pillars" of the organization are expanding health insurance to all Americans; ensuring high-quality 21st-century care; expanding access to care; and improving practice environments for physicians in order to help them focus on improving patient care. The organization partnered with the American Academy of Family Physicians, the American Medical Student Association, the American College of Physicians, the American Osteopathic Association, and other organizations to promote health reform legislation in Congress to issue an July 30, 2009 open letter to all members of Congress publicly announcing their support for health reform legislation.
Some commentators stated that this large coalition of doctors (the organizations collectively represented nearly 450,000) provided an important counterweight to the American Medical Association's organization's initial opposition to health reform in 2009; later AMA statements supported health reform in principle.
Doctors for America also organized a website, Voices of Physicians (www.voicesofphysicians.org), which allowed physicians to publicize their frustrations with the current health system and their recommendations for improvement, and organized house meetings of physicians across the country to talk about health reform, and interactive web talks with figures such as Jacob Hacker and Howard Dean, and participated in White House meetings on health reform.
On 14 November 2013, the co-founder and president of Doctors for America, Dr. Vivek Murthy, was nominated by U.S. President Barack Obama to be the Surgeon General of the United States. He served as the 19th Surgeon General, and was in office from December 18, 2014 – April 21, 2017.
In 2019, the National Physicians Alliance merged with Doctors for America.


Jean Blanchet (physician)

Jean Blanchet (May 17, 1795 – April 22, 1857) was a physician and political figure in Canada East.
Blanchet was born in Saint-Pierre-de-la-Rivière-du-Sud in 1795. He studied at the Petit Séminaire de Quebec and then studied medicine with his uncle François Blanchet. He completed his medical training in London and Paris; he returned and entered practice in partnership with his uncle. In 1823, he began teaching anatomy at the Emigrant Hospital, later the Marine and Emigrant Hospital. He was a member of the Medical Board of Examiners for Quebec from 1831 to 1848 and helped found the Quebec School of Medicine, later affiliated with the Université Laval. He also taught general pathology and physiology at the Université Laval. He represented Quebec County in the Legislative Assembly of Lower Canada from 1834 to 1838. In 1854, he was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada for Quebec City; he resigned in 1857 due to ill health and died in Quebec City five weeks later.
His nephew, Joseph-Godric Blanchet, became a member of both the House of Commons of Canada and the Legislative Assembly of Quebec.


Julius Hirschberg

Julius Hirschberg (18 September 1843 – 17 February 1925) was a German ophthalmologist and medical historian. He was of Jewish ancestry.
In 1875, Hirschberg coined the term "campimetry" for the measurement of the visual field on a flat surface (tangent screen test) and in 1879 he became the first to use an electromagnet to remove metallic foreign bodies from the eye. In 1886, he developed the Hirschberg test for measuring strabismus. His series "Geschichte der Augenheilkunde" ("History of Ophthalmology"), nine volumes written from 1899 to 1917, is considered by some to be one of his greatest achievements.


Manfred Bayer

Dr. Manfred E Bayer (22 September 1928 – 27 February 2015) was a medical doctor and a microscopist, best known for his research in bacterial and viral infrastructure using electron microscopy. He was the first person to visualize yellow fever virus in cultured cells and to obtain ultra-thin sections of the cell wall of "E. coli" by penicillin.
Early life.
Bayer was born in Görlitz, Prussia. He joined the University of Kiel, Germany for higher studies in biology and obtained his degree in 1949. He studied medicine at the University of Hamburg, Germany. He completed his clinical training in 1953. He enrolled for physics in the same University and got a degree in 1959. His research on pathology enabled him to become the Research Associate at the University of Hamburg. He also did his diploma in tropical medicine and parasitology at the University of Hamburg.
Career and research.
Bayer served as the Assistant member of the Institute of Tropical diseases and Parasitology. Later, he joined the Institute of Cancer Research, Philadelphia as a research associate. He was also the Professor of Microbiology at the University of Pennsylvania Medical School from 1971 to 2000. He is an honorary visiting professor at Dalhousie University, Halifax. He died on February 27, 2015 at his home in Crozet, Virginia.
Beyer is known for his research on use of water-soluble embedding resins in electron microscopy. The use of resins will solidify samples so that thin sections could be obtained for electron micrography. He is also credited with the discovery of the structural units of hepatitis virus. This discovery was crucial for the invention of vaccine against Hepatitis.
Awards.
Dr. Bayer has won the Japanese Society for the Promotion in Science award. He was an editorial member in the "Journal of Bacteriology". He was given a research grant by Lyme Disease Association Inc. for his research on "Effects of Low Frequency Magnetic Fields on Borrelia burgdorferi."
See also.
List of German scientists


Zones of the lung

The zones of the lung divide the lung into four vertical regions, based upon the relationship between the pressure in the alveoli (PA), in the arteries (Pa), in the veins (Pv) and the pulmonary interstitial pressure (Pi) :
This concept is generally attributed to an article by West et al. in 1964, but was actually proposed two years earlier by Permutt et al. In this article, Permutt suggests "The pressure in the pulmonary arteries and veins is less at the top than at the bottom of the lung. It is quite likely that there is a portion of the lung toward the top in an upright subject in which the pressure in the pulmonary arteries is less than alveolar pressure."
The concept is as follows:
Alveolar pressure (PA) at end expiration is equal to atmospheric pressure (0 cm H20 differential pressure, at zero flow), plus or minus 2 cm H2O (1.5 mmHg) throughout the lung. On the other hand, gravity causes a gradient in blood pressure between the top and bottom of the lung of 20 mmHg in the erect position (roughly half of that in the supine position). Overall, mean pulmonary venous pressure is ~5 mmHg. Local venous pressure falls to -5 at the apexes and rises to +15 mmHg at the bases, again for the erect lung.
Pulmonary blood pressure is typically in the range 25–10 mmHg with a mean pressure of 15 mmHg. Regional arterial blood pressure is typically in the range 5 mmHg near the apex of the lung to 25 mmHg at the base.
Zone 1 is not observed in the normal healthy human lung. In normal health pulmonary arterial (Pa) pressure exceeds alveolar pressure (PA) in all parts of the lung. It is generally only observed when a person is ventilated with positive pressure or hemorrhage. In these circumstances, blood vessels can become completely collapsed by alveolar pressure (PA) and blood does not flow through these regions. They become alveolar dead space
Zone 2 is the part of the lungs about 3 cm above the heart. In this region blood flows in pulses. At first there is no flow because of obstruction at the venous end of the capillary bed. Pressure from the arterial side builds up until it exceeds alveolar pressure and flow resumes. This dissipates the capillary pressure and returns to the start of the cycle. Flow here is sometimes compared to a starling resistor or waterfall effect.
Zone 3 comprises the majority of the lungs in health. There is no external resistance to blood flow and blood flow is continuous throughout the cardiac cycle. Flow is determined by the Ppa-Ppv difference (Ppa - Ppv), which is constant down this portion of the lung. However, transmural pressure across the wall of the blood vessels increases down this zone due to gravity. Consequently the vessels wall are more stretched so the caliber of the vessels increases causing an increase in flow due to lower resistance.
Zone 4 can be seen at the lung bases at low lung volumes or in pulmonary edema. Pulmonary interstitial pressure (Pi) rises as lung volume decreases due to reduced radial tethering of the lung parenchyma. Pi is highest at the base of the lung due to the weight of the above lung tissue. Pi can also rise due to an increased volume of 'leaked' fluid from the pulmonary vasculature (pulmonary edema). An increase in Pi causes extraalveolar blood vessels to reduce in caliber, in turn causing blood flow to decrease (extraalveolar blood vessels are those blood vessels outside alveoli). Intraalveolar blood vessels (pulmonary capillaries) are thin walled vessels adjacent to alveoli which are subject to the pressure changes described by zones 1-3. Flow in zone 4 is governed by the arteriointerstitial pressure difference (Pa − Pi). This is because as Pi rises, the arterial caliber is reduced, thereby increasing resistance to flow. The Pa/Pv difference remains unchanged since Pi is applied over both vessels.
The ventilation/perfusion ratio is higher in zone #1 (the apex of lung) when a person is standing than it is in zone #3 (the base of lung) because perfusion is nearly absent. However, ventilation and perfusion are highest in base of the lung, resulting in a comparatively lower V/Q ratio.


Julius Jacobson (ophthalmologist)

Julius Jacobson (18 August 1828 – 14 September 1889) was a German ophthalmologist, known for his efforts in establishing ophthalmology as an independent subject in Prussia, separate from surgery.
Born into a Jewish family in Königsberg, he studied medicine at the University of Königsberg, receiving his doctorate in 1853. Following graduation, he furthered his education in ophthalmology at Prague under Carl Ferdinand von Arlt and at the University of Berlin as a pupil of Albrecht von Graefe. Afterwards, he returned to Königsberg, where in 1856–58 he worked as an assistant to Albert Seerig at the university surgical clinic. In 1859 he obtained his habilitation for ophthalmology, and two years later became an associate professor. In 1873 he was named a full professor of ophthalmology at the University of Königsberg, where he later became director of newly constructed eye clinic. He died in Cranz.
His name is associated with "Jacobson's retinitis", a condition that is also referred to as syphilitic retinitis. His daughter Margarethe Quidde married German pacifist Ludwig Quidde, who received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1927.


Horace Smirk

Sir Frederick Horace Smirk (12 December 1902 – 18 May 1991) was a notable New Zealand professor of medicine. He was born in Accrington, Lancashire, England, in 1902.
In the 1958 Queen's Birthday Honours, Smirk was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire.


Billie Jean King Leadership Initiative

The Billie Jean King Leadership Initiative (BJKLI) is a leadership and diversity nonprofit organization, founded by Billie Jean King in 2014. The BJKLI was created to address the critical issues required to achieve inclusive leadership that will lead to significant changes in how women and men operate in the world.
History.
Billie Jean King’s life has been dedicated to fighting injustice and discrimination worldwide. Billie Jean is a shining example of a woman who possessed the innate dedication and determination to achieve goals, break boundaries and crush stereotypes on her path to becoming one of the world’s most celebrated athletes. Nearly four decades ago, she embarked on a journey of equality and respect for women in sports. Today, Billie Jean is embarking on a new phase of her journey of inclusion with an understanding and direction no less profound than her actions of 40 years ago.


Carolyn Begley

Carolyn G. Begley is an American professor of optometry at Indiana University. According to the Web of Science, she has published over 80 articles in peer-reviewed medical journals that, , have been cited more than 1100 times, giving her an h-index of 19.


John Buse

John B. Buse formerly held the position of President, Medicine & Science on the board of the American Diabetes Association during 2008. Buse currently serves as the Director of the Diabetes Care Center at UNC.
Biography.
Buse attended high school at Porter-Gaud School School in Charleston, South Carolina, SC. He went on to receive his Bachelor's degree in Biochemistry from Dartmouth College and his Medical and Doctoral degrees from Duke University. He completed his internship and residency in internal medicine and his fellowship in endocrinology at the University of Chicago. He is the brother of Paul Buse, MD.


Georg Bartisch

Georg Bartisch (1535–1607) was a German physician who was a native of Königsbrück, Saxonia.
At the age of thirteen he began his medical career as an apprentice to a barber surgeon, and for a considerable portion of his life Bartisch was an itinerant surgeon who plied his trade throughout Saxony, Silesia, and Bohemia. He eventually settled down in Dresden, and in 1588 became court oculist to Duke Augustus I of Saxony.
Although Bartisch was not academically trained, he was considered a highly skilled practitioner of ocular medicine and surgery. He is credited for producing the first Renaissance manuscript on ophthalmic disorders and eye surgery, "Ophthalmodouleia Das ist Augendienst". It was published in 1583, and discussed ocular diseases, surgical techniques and instruments, and contained an ophthalmic atlas of 92 woodcuts depicting diseases of the eye. Bartisch is also remembered for his work in lithotomy for the removal of urinary calculi.
Despite his skill as a surgeon, Bartisch was a superstitious individual, as he believed that magic, astrology and witchcraft played a significant part in medicine.


The Mackinnons

The Mackinnons was a BBC Scotland drama series, which started in 1977. It starred Bill Simpson as the head of the Mackinnon family, a vet in the fictional Argyll town of Inverglen (the opening shot actually showed Inveraray). It was seen as inhabiting similar terrain to "Dr. Finlay's Casebook" and "Sutherland's Law", but was less successful.


Irwin Smigel

Irwin Elliot Smigel (October 9, 1924 – October 17, 2016) was an American aesthetic dentist, innovator and philanthropist.
Smigel founded the American Society for Dental Aesthetics (ASDA), and was President of the ASDA until his death in 2016. Smigel was involved with many major developments in dentistry over the past three decades, including: tooth bonding, laminates, veneers, changing facial structures and teeth whitening. New York University College of Dentistry dubbed him "The Father of Aesthetic Dentistry" in 2000. In 2009, The National Museum of Dentistry, an affiliate of the Smithsonian Institution, created a permanent exhibition called The Smile Experience celebrating Dr. Smigel's contributions to dentistry.
Smigel and his wife, Lucia Smigel, have two children, the writer/comedian Robert Smigel and Bellanca Smigel Rutter, and six grandsons. He died in Manhattan from pneumonia on October 17, 2016.
Career.
Smigel graduated from the New York University College of Dentistry in 1950. In the late 1970s Smigel appeared on ABC's "That's Incredible" where he performed "live" tooth-bonding on a patient for the first time on national television. He was called the "pioneer of tooth-bonding" on that show.
Later years.
Smigel practiced on Madison Avenue in New York City and was a visiting lecturer for several postgraduate aesthetic dentistry programs, including the University of Minnesota Dental School, SUNY School of Dentistry – Buffalo, University of Missouri Dental School, Case Western University and the Baylor University School of Dentistry. He lectured throughout the country to practicing dentists and worldwide in countries including India, Korea, Israel, Turkey, Japan, South America, Canada. The Irwin and Lucia Smigel Fund was created to allow young professional actors and performers who could not afford aesthetic dentistry to obtain this type of dental work at The New York University College of Dentistry.
Publications.
Numerous articles in Dentistry Today and many other dental trade journals.
Honors.
American Academy of Cosmetic Dentistry, 1994: Outstanding Contribution to Aesthetic Dentistry Award.
New York University College of Dentistry creation of the Irwin Smigel Prize in Aesthetic Dentistry presented to dentists for outstanding contributions to the world of aesthetic dentistry.
In June 2009, the National Museum of Dentistry, an affiliate of the Smithsonian Institution, honored Smigel in a new historical exhibition called The Smile Experience.
References.


Consultant Orthodontists Group

The Consultant Orthodontists Group (COG) is a group which represents consultant orthodontists in the United Kingdom
the COG was established in 1964 to represent consultant orthodontists working in the hospital service and the membership was limited to orthodontists holding consultant contracts in the National Health Service. Relationships with oral surgeons was a particular concern of the group in the early years and although it was primarily a political organisation, the COG held clinical and political meetings biannually and attendance was restricted to members of the group. It has established strong links with the Royal Surgical Colleges and the British Dental Association (BDA) through it representatives on the BDA Central Committee for Hospital Dental Services (CCHDS) and was often regarded as the political voice of orthodontists. Almost all members of the group were members of the British Society for the Study of Orthodontics (BSSO) and about 70 members belonged to the British Association of Orthodontists (BAO) as well.


Unsharpness

Unsharpness is the loss of spatial resolution in a radiographic image. There are generally considered to be three types of unsharpness: geometric unsharpness, motion unsharpness and photographic or system unsharpness.
Motion unsharpness is caused by movement of the patient, the detector or the source of X-rays, during the exposure. Movement of the patient, either voluntary or otherwise, is the most common cause and this can be minimised in a number of ways: immobilizing the patient, asking the patient to keep still or to hold the breath and keeping exposure time short, and thereby giving them less time in which to move, are the most obvious.
System unsharpness (previously called photographic unsharpnesss) is the result of the detector system employed. Every detector type has a limiting factor which determines its maximum spatial resolution. In film systems it is the size of the grains of photographic chemical. In computed radiography systems it the size of the laser used to read the phosphor plate in the cassette reader. In digital radiography systems it is the size of the individual thin film transistors. Since each type has a maximum capability, there is no way to minimise this system other than using a better and probably more expensive machine.
Geometric unsharpness is caused by aspects of the geometry of the X-ray beam. Two principal factors play simultaneously: the apparent focal spot size and the ratio between object-film distance (OFD) and focus-film distance (FFD). Fine focal spot sizes will minimise geometric unsharpness, and therefore give more detailed images, but it is often impossible to employ them due to the tube loading necessary in the exposure. Keeping the ratio FFD:OFD high will minimise geometric unsharpness. This is most easily done by keeping the OFD to a minimum, i.e., keeping the part of the body being X-rayed as close to the detector as possible. If this is not possible however, then increasing FFD beyond the normal 100–110 cm will be necessary to keep the unsharpness level acceptable.
References.
 Wilks R: 1983: Principles of Radiological Physics; Churchill Livingston. Edinburgh


Paul Chauchard

Paul Chauchard (14 June 1912 – 27 April 2003) was a French physician and writer of about 80 books. President of for 20 years.
Biography.
Physician and scientist, he was professor at the Institut Catholique de Paris (ICP) and the École pratique des hautes études .
On 1970 he became the first president of the movement Laissez-les-vivre.
He was father of 6 girls, one of them is a religious member of Cistercians.


Daphne Simeon

Daphne Simeon M.D. is an American psychiatrist, best known for her research on depersonalization disorder.
Education.
Simeon is a graduate of Columbia University's medical school, psychiatry residency and fellowship program, and psychoanalytic institute. Simeon now works at Beth Israel Medical Center in New York, at the Family Center for Bipolar Disorder.
Career.
Daphne Simeon, M.D. was until recently an associate professor of psychiatry at the Mount Sinai School of Medicine in New York City, where she did research, supervised, and taught. It is here that she ran a clinic that specifically treated depersonalization disorder. She also co-chaired an international task force that generated new recommendations for the DSM-V classification of dissociative disorders.
Works.
With editor and magazine writer Jeffrey Abugel, Simeon co-authored the book "Feeling Unreal: Depersonalization Disorder and the Loss of the Self" (), published by Oxford University Press in 2006. The book provides a thorough exploration of depersonalization disorder and represents more than a century of research. It presents a distillation of the scientific research on this disorder, the philosophical and literary references, as well as current treatment options.


Medicare Physician Group Practice (PGP) Demonstration

The Medicare Physician Group Practice (PGP) demonstration is Medicare's first physician pay-for-performance (P4P) initiative. The demonstration establishes incentives for quality improvement and cost efficiency. Ten large physician groups are participating in the demonstration, which started on April 1, 2005, and will run for 3 years. Previous funding arrangements, like the volume performance standard (VPS) and the sustainable growth rate (SGR) did not provide incentives to slow the growth of services. The Medicare PGP demonstration is an attempt to overcome these limitations.
Introduction.
Section 412 of the Medicare, Medicaid, and SCHIP Benefits Improvement and Protection Act of 2000 established the Medicare Physician Group Practice (PGP) Demonstration, a project designed to create incentives for physicians to improve both the cost efficiency and quality of the care they provide to Medicare beneficiaries. The Demonstration is a prime example of the shared savings model of payment reform and represents Medicare's first physician Pay-for-Performance initiative. The three main goals of the PGP Demonstration are:
The demonstration spanned five years, beginning on April 1, 2005 and ending on March 31, 2010.
Demonstration Design.
"Selection Criteria".
Participants in the PGP Demonstration were selected based on a wide variety of criteria, including but not limited to organizational structure, operational feasibility, geographic location, and proposed implementation strategy, with preference given to multispecialty groups with highly developed clinical and management information systems. Participating organizations were required to include 200 or more physicians.
"Participating Physician Groups".
10 large multispecialty groups representing approximately 5,000 physicians and 220,000 Medicare fee-for-service beneficiaries participated in the Demonstration. The participating groups included:
Source: Kautter, J., Pope, G.C., Trisollini, M., RTI International, and Grund, S., Iowa Foundation for Medical Care.
"Beneficiary Assignment".
For each performance year of the demonstration Medicare beneficiaries were retrospectively assigned to each PGP group if the majority of the patient's office or other outpatient services were provided by the PGP group.
"Spending Growth Rate".
An assigned beneficiary growth rate was calculated at the end of each performance year by comparing the total Medicare Part A and Part B per capita expenditures to a base year period. PGPs that were able to attain a spending growth rate of more than 2% lower than their comparison populations were eligible for shared savings. Each PGP's local market area served as the basis for comparison populations.
"Risk Adjustment".
Medicare Part A and Part B expenditures were risk adjusted according to the CMS-HCC concurrent risk adjustment model. The CMS-HCC concurrent risk adjustment model uses current year diagnoses to adjust current year expenditures to account for changes in case-mix or the health status of assigned beneficiaries in a PGP group.
"Regular Payment Mechanism".
Under the PGP Demonstration physicians continued to be paid for Part A and Part B services provided to Medicare beneficiaries according to regular Medicare fee-for-service fee schedules.
"Performance Payments".
Performance payments were separated into two metrics: cost efficiency and quality.
"Quality Measures".
The quality measures used in the Demonstration were developed by CMS in collaboration with the American Medical Association's Physician Consortium for Performance Improvement and the National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA), and were reviewed by the National Quality Forum. Quality measures were phased in such that Year 1 included only measures related to diabetes mellitus, Year 2 added measures related to congestive heart failure and coronary artery disease, and Year 3 added preventive care measures related to hypertension and cancer screening.
Source: Medicare Physician Group Practice Demonstration: Physicians Groups Continue to Improve Quality and Generate Savings Under Medicare Physician Pay-for-Performance Demonstration, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Department of Health & Human Services, July 2011.
Lessons From the PGP Demo.
"ROI".
In the first year of participation, PGPs invested $1.7 million on average. Some additional funding was provided by CMS to offset the high start-up costs faced by PGPs. Research indicates that the time frame in which PGPs can expect a reasonable return on initial investment is five years or more.
"Successes".
Those PGPs that were able to attain shared savings payments attributed their success to a variety of factors including but not limited to organizational structure, care process redesign, investment in care management programs, improved diagnostic coding, and market conditions.
Of the PGPs that were able to attain shared savings, Marshfield Clinic earned approximately half of these payments. Michigan, Dartmouth, and St. John's each earned approximately 15%, while Geisinger attained approximately 5%.
Theodore Praxel of Marshfield Clinic attributes the PGP's success to "an aggressive acceleration of multiple initiatives… including health information technology (point of care reminders, being completely chartless), care management programs, and education and feedback to providers regarding populations of patients with a given condition."
The four PGPs that qualified for performance payments in Year 2 were all either independent provider groups (Everett and Marshfield) or had close ties with an academic medical center (Dartmouth-Hitchcock and University of Michigan).
According to David Abelson, CEO of Park Nicollet Health Services, "[these] results provide compelling evidence that paying for outcomes, rather than volume, helps our patients, helps make health care more affordable and saves money for taxpayers."
"Challenges".
Several design issues were identified as being potential barriers to attaining higher cost efficiency and performance on quality measures. These identified barriers include comparator group construction, patient assignment and attribution, the risk adjustment mechanism employed, and the lack of timely data provided by CMS to participating PGPs regarding attribution. In addition, because the PGP demonstration relied on the fee-for-service model, PGPs had little control over where attributed patients chose to seek care. This proved problematic because under the demonstration the PGP was responsible for all costs of care that the patient incurred regardless of care setting, making it difficult to control costs.
Across all PGP demonstration sites the majority of savings achieved were in outpatient, rather than inpatient, services. RTI International, the research institute charged with evaluating the demonstration, hypothesized that the inclusion of a hospital in a PGP may be a "potential deterrent to achieving savings… [as] these systems may be unable to reduce avoidable admissions or use lower cost care substitutes without affecting their inpatient revenue." Similarly, none of the 5 PGPs that are part of integrated healthcare delivery systems (but not affiliated with an academic medical center), along with Middlesex Health System (a physician network sponsored by a hospital affiliate) were able to attain shared savings in Year 5.
The PGP Transition Demonstration and Beyond.
All 10 of the provider groups that participated in the original PGP Demonstration are currently participating in the Demonstration's successor program, the PGP Transition Demonstration (PGP TD). This 2-year demonstration has been modified from the original demonstration in several ways:
PGPs have the option of transitioning to Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs) under the Medicare Shared Savings Program.


Peter Beale (British Army officer)

Lieutenant General Sir Peter John Beale, (born 18 March 1934) is a retired senior British Army officer. He was the Surgeon-General of the British Armed Forces from 1991 to 1994. He also served as the Chief Medical Adviser to the British Red Cross from 1994 to 2000.
Early life.
Beale was born on 18 March 1934 to Basil and Eileen Beale. He was educated at St Paul's Cathedral School, an Independent preparatory school in the City of London, and on a music scholarship at Felsted School, a public school in Felsted, Essex. Following his preclinical studies, he received a Bachelor of Arts from Gonville and Caius College, University of Cambridge, which he attended as a choral scholar. In 1958, he qualified by graduating Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery from Westminster Hospital Medical School.
Military career.
On 7 June 1960, as part of National Service, Beale was commissioned into the Royal Army Medical Corps as a lieutenant. He was given the service number 465344. On 8 July 1960, he transferred from the national service list to a short service commission. He was given seniority in the rank of lieutenant from 26 October 1959, promoted to captain on 26 October 1960, and was the Regimental Medical Officer of 34 Light Anti Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery from 1960 to 1963. He transferred to a regular commission on 1 May 1963, was given seniority in the rank of captain from 26 October 1959, and was promoted to major on 26 October 1964. In 1971, having completed his medical training in the form of attaining Membership of the Royal College of Physicians, he was made an army consultant physician. He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 26 October 1972.
Beale became commander of the medical force attached to the 2nd Division in 1981. He was promoted to colonel on 1 April 1982, by which point he had been elected to Fellowship of the Royal College of Physicians and attained a Diploma in Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. He was appointed Commander Medical, I Corps in 1984, and was promoted to brigadier on 28 January 1985 with seniority from 26 October 1984. He was appointed Commander Medical, United Kingdom Land Forces in 1987, and promoted to major general on 30 November, He served as Director General Army Medical Services from 1990 to 1993. and appointed Honorary Physician to the Queen on 21 December that same year.
Beale was promoted to lieutenant general on 1 October 1991, and served as Surgeon General of the British Armed Forces from 1991 to 1994. He was appointed a Commander of the Venerable Order of Saint John in 1991 and, in the 1992 New Year Honours, was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire. Beale retired from the British Army on 1 October 1994.
Later life.
Upon leaving the British Army, Beale joined the British Red Cross as their Chief Medical Adviser. He held the post from 1994 to 2000. He was president of the Old Felstedian Society between 1998 and 2001, and the Army Officers Golf Society from 2001 to 2005.
Personal life.
In 1959, Beale married Julia Mary Winter, a fellow doctor. Together they had four sons and two daughters. One of the daughters predeceased her father. One of their sons is the actor Sir Simon Russell Beale. In 2001, he married for a second time to Mary Elisabeth Williams, who has a daughter.


Antoine Laurent Bayle

Antoine Laurent Jessé Bayle (13 January 1799 – 29 March 1858) was a French physician known for first describing paralytic dementia. He was born in Le Vernet, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, and was a nephew to pathologist Gaspard Laurent Bayle (1774–1816).
Bayle studied medicine in Paris, and worked as an intern under Antoine-Athanase Royer-Collard (1768–1825) at the Charenton mental asylum. Later he became an associate professor and deputy librarian of the Faculté de Médecine de Paris. He resigned from this position in 1834 and opened a private practice.
In 1822 Bayle was the first physician to provide a comprehensive description of general paresis, which is sometimes referred to as paralytic dementia, general paralysis of the insane, or "maladie de Bayle" in medical literature. In 1824 he founded the journal "Revue médicale", and from 1828 to 1837 was publisher of the multi-volume "Bibliothèque de thérapeutique" (Library of Therapeutics).


Raymond Mhlaba

Raymond Mphakamisi Mhlaba (12 February 1920 – 20 February 2005) was an anti-apartheid activist, Communist and leader of the African National Congress (ANC) also as well the first premier of the Eastern Cape. Mhlaba spent 25 years of his life in prison. Well known for being sentenced, along with Nelson Mandela, Govan Mbeki, Walter Sisulu and others in the Rivonia Trial, he was an active member of the ANC and the South African Communist Party (SACP) all his adult life. His kindly manner brought him the nickname "Oom Ray".
Personal life.
Mhlaba was born in Mazoka village in the Fort Beaufort district, Eastern Cape and was educated at Healdtown secondary school but had to drop out because of financial problems Mhlaba started working at a laundry in Port Elizabeth after leaving school in 1942. He met and married his first wife, Joyce Meke, who was also from the Fort Beaufort area in 1943. In their 17 years together, before her death in a car accident in 1960, they had three children Bukeka, Nomalungelo and Jongintshaba. In 1982, Mhlaba, who had been a political prisoner in Robben Island since 1964, was transferred to Pollsmoor Prison where he received special permission marry his common-law wife Dideka Heliso in 1986, with whom he had three children Mpilo, Nomawethu and Nikiwe.
Early political career.
Mhlaba started working at a laundry in Port Elizabeth after leaving school in 1942. The horrendous conditions at the laundry converted him to a trade unionist and he became the leader of Non European Laundry Workers Union in 1943. In 1943, he joined the South African Communist Party, serving as the party's district secretary from 1946 until the party was banned in 1950. In 1944, he became a member of the African National Congress. From 1944 Mhlaba maintained dual membership of the ANC and the SACP. He rose through the ANC ranks becoming the chairman of the Port Elizabeth branch of the ANC from 1947 to 1953, and then elected to the Cape Executive committee. Mhlaba was the first to be arrested for disobeying apartheid laws during the nationwide Defiance Campaign of 1952 together with Govan Mbeki and Vuyisile Mini for three months in "Rooi Hel" ('Red Hell' or North End Prison, Port Elizabeth). The campaign was launched in Port Elizabeth when Mhlaba led a group of volunteers singing freedom songs through the "Whites Only" entrance of the New Brighton Railway Station. This action earned him the Xhosa nickname "Vulindlela" or "he who opens the way." That same year, Mhlaba was charged under South Africa's Suppression of Communism Act. Although his political activities continued, he was barred from attending meetings or gatherings.
After the ANC was banned on 8 April under the Unlawful Organisations Act, the party took up the armed struggle forming its military wing Umkhonto we Sizwe. Mhlaba was one of its first recruits and was sent to China for military training. Before leaving he assisted Mandela in writing the Umkhonto constitution. In 1962, Mhlaba returned to South Africa, becoming a commander of the MK after Nelson Mandela's arrest.
Rivonia Trial.
On 11 July 1963 the South African apartheid government raided the ANC's underground headquarters in Rivonia, north of Johannesburg. Mhlaba and 10 other ANC and SACP leaders including Ahmed Kathrada, Walter Sisulu and Govan Mbeki were arrested and Nelson Mandela was already in prison. They were charged with
sabotage and conspiracy to overthrow the government.
On 9 October 1963, the world-famous Rivonia Trial with all the accused charged with high treason. On 12 June 1964, Mhlaba, Mandela and six other ANC leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment, and all were sent to Robben Island but the white Denis Goldberg was sent to Pretoria Central Prison instead of Robben Island.
Struggle from prison.
During his time in Robben Island, Mhlaba and other ANC members founded the ANC High Command or High Organ with Mandela as its head. The committee educated and supported younger imprisoned members, formulated policies on day-to-day concerns, prisoners' complaints, and strikes, and enforced discipline within their isolation unit. Looking back at their time in Robben Island Mandela said of Mhlaba: “I got to know him as the peacemaker. He spent a lot of time urging fellow prisoners to forget their differences and unite so that conditions for prisoners could improve."
Release from prison.
After his release from prison on 15 October 1989, he was elected to the ANC national executive and the South African Communist Party central committee. He became national chairperson of the SACP in 1995.
In January 1994 he was chosen as the ANC's nominee as Premier of the Eastern Cape, and in May 1994 he was elected to that post. He helped to establish the house of traditional leaders. He then became the High Commissioner to Uganda and Rwanda, until he retired in 2001. In April 2001 he released a book of his memoirs, narrated by him and researched and compiled by Thembeka Mafumadi.
He was chairperson of a black economic empowerment consortium involved in the Coega port project, but suffered a stroke on 19 July 2003, recovering quickly.
Death.
In 2004, Mhlaba was diagnosed with advanced liver cancer, and in December doctors discharged him from a private clinic saying there was nothing they could do for him. On 20 February 2005 he died in hospital. He was granted state funeral on 27 February 2005. Mhlaba is survived by his wife Dideka Heliso, three sons and five daughters.
Legacy.
Mhlaba is seen as a stalwart member of both the ANC and the SACP. He was recognised with the Isitwalandwe Medal in 1992 for his role in the liberation struggle, and the Moses Kotane Award in 2002 for his contribution to the SACP. The Nkonkobe Local Municipality which includes Alice and Mhlaba's hometown Fort Beaufort was renamed the Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality and Andries Pretorius street, The R30 in Bloemfontein was renamed after Raymond Mhlaba to honour him.
There's an ANC branch named after him in Mpumalanga, Nkangala region, sub-region Thembisile Hani ward 11 in Verena.


Dominique Franco

Dominique Franco is the president of the French Académie nationale de chirurgie. He is also advisor on instruction at the biomedical research center Institut Pasteur.


Emil Redlich

Emil Redlich (18 January 1866 – 9 June 1930) was an Austrian-Jewish neurologist born in Brünn.
In 1889 he received his doctorate from the University of Vienna, and later performed anatomical research of the brain at Heinrich Obersteiner’s institute. In 1895 he was a medical assistant at Julius Wagner-Jauregg's neurological institute, and in 1898 became head of a private mental institution in Inzersdorf, outside of Vienna. In 1914 he was appointed director of the "Nervenheilanstalt Maria-Theresia-Schlössel" in Vienna.
His name is associated with Redlich–Obersteiner's zone; the anatomical location where the central nervous system meets the peripheral nervous system. He also described a type of abortive disseminated encephalomyelitis with lesions scattered throughout the spinal cord and brain. This disorder was to become known as "Redlich–Flatau syndrome", named along with Edward Flatau (1868–1932), who stated that a virus could be the cause of the disease.


Adam Gruca

Adam Gruca (born 3 December 1893 in Majdan Sieniawski, died 3 June 1983 in Warsaw) was a famous Polish orthopaedist, inventor, and surgeon. He is considered to be the founder of modern orthopedic surgery in Poland. Gruca also invented various orthopaedic instruments and appliances.