Blue Scar

Blue Scar is a 1949 British drama film directed by documentary filmmaker Jill Craigie. Set in a Welsh village where the mine has recently been nationalised, it focuses on the relationship between Olwen Williams, a miner's daughter who leaves the village to live in London, and Tom Thomas, who dedicates his life to working in the mine. With Craigie's background in documentary films with a social message, "Blue Scar" was designed to raise questions about the value of nationalising the coal industry. It was the only non-documentary film Craigie directed.
Plot.
Olwen Williams (Gwyneth Vaughan) is a miner's daughter from a mining town in South Wales, where the mine has recently been nationalised. She is keen to move on from her impoverished upbringing to a more fulfilling lifestyle. An opportunity is presented to her when she wins a singing scholarship to a music college in Cardiff. She decides to leave her hometown to take up this opportunity, which means being away from Tom Thomas (Emrys Jones), a local miner who is in love with her.
While Olwen is away from home, an industrial psychologist from London named Alfred Collins (Anthony Pendrell) proposes to her, and she accepts. She announces this news to Tom while attending her father's funeral following a mining accident. Olwen moves to London with Alfred, but is disillusioned by her new life there.
Meanwhile, Tom is injured in a mining accident and spends time at Talygarn, a convalescent home. Here
he is looked after by Glynis (Dilys Jones), a physiotherapist and friend of Olwen. Tom and Glynis fall in love. Tom also encounters success at work, rising to the position of manager. After his promotion, he visits Olwen in London, in a vain attempt to persuade her to return to Wales. Tom later dies of a mining-related condition. The film ends with Olwen singing "Home! Sweet Home!" in a radio broadcast.
Production.
"Blue Scar" was produced by Outlook Films, an independent production company established in 1948 by director Jill Craigie and managed in partnership with producer William MacQuitty. Craigie was a socialist documentary filmmaker, and "Blue Scar" was the first and only non-documentary film she directed; after "Blue Scar", she concluded that documentary was the best film genre for social criticism.
The film was conceived as a critical commentary on the nationalisation of the coal industry, especially in terms of safety, working conditions and the treatment of miners. The title, "Blue Scar", is a reference to the blue colour that characterises wounded skin when affected by coal dust. Half of the funding came from the National Coal Board, although there is disagreement about the total cost of production: according to Craigie, the film cost £80,000, whereas MacQuitty placed the figure in his autobiography as £45,000.
The disused Electric Theatre cinema in the Welsh town of Port Talbot served as a makeshift studio, hired at a charge of £1 per day. The interior of the cinema was adapted for the filming, including the construction of a soundproof stage. Coal was brought in for filming scenes in the mine itself. Other scenes were shot on location in Abergwynfi, a village in south west Wales. Most of the cast consisted of amateur actors drawn from the local area.
The film was scored by Welsh composer Grace Williams. As well as being Williams's first film score, this was the first time a British woman had scored a feature film.
Release.
The film's treatment of its subject matter created difficulties for distribution, as cinemas were reluctant to show it. MacQuitty later recalled: "We had no clout. We couldn't force them to take it. At that time there was a feeling that people wanted only escapism, not reality". "Daily Herald" critic Richard Winnington led a campaign for the film to be released in ABC Cinemas and, after a series of test screenings, the film was eventually distributed within the ABC chain.
Reception.
Film studies specialists have disagreed about the film's reception when it was released. According to Gwendolyn Audrey Foster, the film was met with "excellent reviews and enthusiastic audience response", but Philip Gillett has suggested the opposite. In the "Monthly Film Bulletin", the British Film Institute review praised the film's realism, in authentically capturing the life and environment of the mining village. The reviewer, however, suggested that the plot had "many absurdities" and that Craigie, although talented as a director, had "rather less talent for story-telling". A reviewer in "The Times" shared this view, stating that the miners' lives were well-captured, but that the social message was "not very clear" and the film's ending was "just plain silly". The reviewer was also uncertain about the mix of documentary and fiction elements, feeling that "the blend of romantic story and objective demonstration of the ways of the Welsh mining villages is not always harmonious".


Joe Gormley (trade unionist)

Joseph Gormley, Baron Gormley, OBE (5 July 1917 – 27 May 1993) was President of the National Union of Mineworkers from 1971 to 1982, and a Labour peer.
Early life.
Joe Gormley was born in Ashton-in-Makerfield, Lancashire in 1917, one of seven children, and became a miner at the age of fourteen. He was an active trade union official and became a committee member of the St Helens area branch of the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM) in 1957. He served as general secretary of the North West region (comprising Lancashire and Cumberland) from April 1961 and joined the national executive in 1963. He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire in the 1970 New Year's Honours. He was a fan of Wigan rugby league football club.
1970s.
In 1971, he was elected as leader of the NUM and presided over the national strike that began on 9 January 1972. The strike lasted for seven weeks and the Middle East oil crisis caused widespread power cuts. Emergency measures were used to economise on electricity by reducing the working week to three days. After much negotiation the strike was resolved on 25 February 1972 with a 21% increase in pay and concessions won by the miners. Miners moved to the top of the UK's industrial wage league, having previously been seventeenth.
Only two years later, NUM members voted again to strike and stopped work on 4 February 1974. The Prime Minister, Edward Heath, called a snap election on this issue, asking the public, "Who governs Britain?" Gormley tried to persuade the National Executive Conference to postpone the strike until after any election, but the strike went ahead. After the election brought in a new Labour government, the union's demands were met.
1980s.
In 1981, the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, threatened to break with the 'Plan for Coal' and close 23 pits. A ballot for strike was held if the government closed pits contrary to the Plan for Coal. A strike mandate resulted with an 87.6% majority. The NUM Executive had a clear mandate for strike action if the government breached the Plan for Coal agreement. When a national strike was threatened, Thatcher backed down; many miners went on unofficial strike in the year, but Gormley rejected calls for a national strike. He left his post in 1982 and was replaced by the more left-wing Arthur Scargill. In 1982, his last-minute appeal got miners to accept a Government offer of a 9.3% raise, rejecting Scargill's call for a strike authorisation. When asked what he had achieved during his period as President, he replied, "Everyone wants to be related to a miner".
One of Gormley's long-term legacies which affected the 1984–85 strike was his role in the wage reforms of 1977. The reforms paid miners a wage proportionate to the output of their region. This gave Nottinghamshire miners the highest wages of all and so they were very reluctant to go on strike in 1984, when few of their pits were under threat and those miners had high wages to lose. Another key matter was that two ballots of the NUM membership had rejected these reforms, and Gormley responded by declaring productivity schemes now to be for the regional committees to decide, with or without a regional ballot. When this was challenged in the High Court as a violation of union rules, the court upheld Gormley. This confusion over when the NUM needed to hold a ballot became of huge importance during the 1984-85 strike, when Scargill tried to mimic Gormley's methods and make a national strike into something on which regional committees could decide.
He was made a life peer as Baron Gormley, of Ashton-in-Makerfield in Greater Manchester in the 1982 Birthday Honours.
He was the subject of "This Is Your Life" in 1982 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews.
Special Branch.
In 2002, the BBC uncovered that Gormley had worked for Special Branch by passing on information on extremism within his own union. A former Special Branch officer made this allegation and said that Gormley "loved his country. He was a patriot and he was very wary and worried about the growth of militancy within his own union". The BBC claimed, "Special Branch was talking to more than 20 senior trades union leaders during the early 1970s".


Vulcan Coal Mine

Vulcan Coal Mine is an underground mining exploitation, one of the largest in Romania located in Vulcan, one of six cities in the Jiu Valley region of Hunedoara County. The legal entity managing the Vulcan mine is the National Hard Coal Company which was set up in 1998. The mine has reserves of 23.5 million tonnes of coal.


Silver Valley (Idaho)

The Silver Valley is a region in the northwest United States, in the Coeur d'Alene Mountains in northern Idaho. It is noted for its mining heritage, dating back to the 1880s.
Geography.
Silver Valley is a narrow valley about in length, east of the city of Coeur d'Alene. The South Fork of the Coeur d'Alene River flows through the valley and Interstate 90 traverses the valley between Fourth of July Pass to the west and Lookout Pass on the Montana border.
Several towns are located in the valley, all in Shoshone County. These include (from west to east) Pinehurst, Smelterville, Kellogg, Wardner, Osburn, Silverton, Wallace, and Mullan. The Silver Valley has also been referred to as the Coeur d'Alene Valley and the Coeur d'Alene Mining District.
Geology.
The Coeur d'Alene (Silver Valley) Mining District is located in Proterozoic metasediments. The mined portion of the stratigraphic column in the Silver Valley, known as the Belt series, can be divided into six main formations, three of which have upper and lower parts. These are, from oldest to youngest: the Prichard Formation (lower and upper), Burke Formation, Revett Formation, St. Regis Formation (lower and upper), Wallace Formation (lower and upper), and Striped Peak Formation. Of these, all but the Striped Peak are ore-bearing. All six of these formations are primarily composed of quartzite and argillite. Some limestone and dolomite also occur in the Wallace and Prichard, and a smaller amount of carbonate occurs in the St. Regis. Ripple marks and mud cracks occur throughout the series. Together, these imply a shallow marine depositional environment.
The mining district occurs along the intersection of two major regional structural features. A large anticline extends through the district, running in a north-northwesterly direction. The Lewis and Clark line – a series of strike-slip faults running across the Pacific Northwest – crosses this anticline, generally trending in an east-west direction. Within this mining district, the major structure of the lineament is the Osburn fault, which runs directly through the district’s most successful silver belts. Its 16-mile (27 km) displacement divides the district into two distinct parts, the southern Page Galena Belt, and the northern Golconda Lucky Friday Belt.
Three main minerals make up most of the ore production in the Silver Valley. Galena (PbS or lead(II) sulfide) is the most important ore mineral found in the Coeur d’Alene District veins. Galena is present in veins throughout the district. Sphalerite ((Zn,Fe)S) is the second most important ore mineral, present in at least small amounts in most veins. The sphalerite is an important source of zinc throughout the ore belts. The third most abundant ore mineral is tetrahedrite (Cu,Fe)12Sb4S13. However, the tetrahedrite is responsible for the majority of the silver produced by the Silver Valley, as it’s the tetrahedrite interspersed in the galena of the district that makes it so argentiferous.
History.
A party of twelve miners led by Elias Davidson Pierce found gold in Orofino Creek, a tributary of the Clearwater River, in 1860. The ensuing gold rush continued through 1875 before slowing. Among the prospectors who came north seeking gold in the Coeur d'Alene Mountains was Andrew J. Prichard, who found gold in the alluvial sands of a creek near present-day Murray, Idaho in 1883. Later in the year, prospectors entered present day Burke Canyon seeking placer gold along Canyon Creek.
Miners and prospectors came to the region after gold and silver deposits were found in the Coeur d'Alene Mountains and the Northern Pacific Railroad came to the region in 1883. In the 1890s, two significant miners' uprisings took place in the Coeur d'Alene Mining District, where the workers struggled with high risk and low pay. In 1892, the union's discovery of a labor spy in their midst, in the person of Charlie Siringo, a sometime cowboy and Pinkerton agent, resulted in a labor strike that developed into a shooting war between miners and the company in Burke Canyon. When the mine owners planned to reduce wages of some workers to offset increased operating costs, the miners declared a strike against the reduction of wages and the increase in work hours and demanded a "living wage" be paid to every man working underground – the common laborer as well as the skilled in a stand for industrial unionism. To restore order to the state of rebellion in Shoshone County, Governor N. B. Willey declared martial law and sent federal troops to arrest and detain the union miners, but not before dozens of casualties including six deaths and the destruction of the Frisco Mill. A similar labor confrontation in 1899 took place after the union was launching an organizing drive of the few mines not yet fully unionized, where miners working in the Bunker Hill and Sullivan mines were receiving fifty cents to a dollar less per day than other miners. Like in the 1892 strike, martial law was declared by Governor Frank Steunenberg and wholesale arrests and mass incarcerations were done to bring back order.
By 1903, Burke Canyon was the most developed mining region in the Coeur d'Alene Mountains and was home to seven dividend-paying mines: the Gem of the Mountains, Frisco, Mammoth, Standard, Hecla, Tiger-Poorman and Hercules mines. Other mines soon began production throughout the Coeur d'Alene mining district, including the Bunker Hill Mine (1886), Star-Morning Mine (1887), Sunshine Mine (1890), Galena Mine (1922) and Lucky Friday Mine (1942).
A devastating wildfire swept through the area in August 1910 as lightning- and human-caused fires, fanned by strong winds and dry conditions, consumed three million acres and damaged or destroyed Wallace, Kellogg, Osburn, Burke and Murray. During the fire, Ed Pulaski, a U.S. Forest Service ranger led a crew of forty-five men into an abandoned prospect mine near Wallace, saving thirty-nine lives.
After WWII the district included 34 concentrating mills and 24 mines. The largest operations included Bunker Hill, Sunshine, Day, Federal and Hecla.
Although miners were originally lured to the general area by the promise of gold, the primary metals mined in the valley were silver, zinc, and lead. The total quantities produced are impressive: over a billion ounces of silver, 3 million tons of zinc, and 8 million tons of lead totalling over $6 billion in value, ranking the valley among the top ten mining districts in world history. During the 1970s, nearly half of the nation's silver production came from the Silver Valley. After nearly a century of vigorous mining and smelting activity, operations were severely curtailed in the early 1980s, resulting in massive unemployment and a significant loss of population. In addition to the economic difficulties, the valley has been saddled with significant environmental challenges.
A disaster at the Sunshine Mine on the day shift on the morning of May 2, 1972 resulted in the carbon monoxide poisoning deaths of 91 men. The mine was closed for seven months after the fire, one of the worst mining disasters in American history, and the worst disaster in Idaho history.
While some mining operations remain, the Silver Valley has focused its future upon recreational tourism and light manufacturing. The nearest major population center is the city of Spokane, Washington, which is west along I-90. The growing recreational city of Coeur d'Alene is halfway in between. The extensive restoration efforts can be seen in the return of the tundra swans. Restoration means returning an area to its healthy natural habitat.
The Idaho Geological Survey lists several active and inactive mines in the Silver Valley:
Outdoor recreation.
There are two alpine ski areas in the Silver Valley, both easily accessible from I-90. Lookout Pass is at the east end of the valley on the Montana border adjacent to the freeway. Silver Mountain is thirty miles west, accessed from the Kellogg city limits by the world's longest single-stage passenger gondola, a quarter mile (400 m) from the highway.
Bicycling is fast becoming a key recreational pursuit for both locals and tourists in the Silver Valley, with trails and paths ranging from easy to extreme. In addition to the challenging lift-served mountain-bike trails at Silver Mountain, there are two new major bike paths in the vicinity that use old railroad grades.
Lookout Pass ski area is also a primary staging area for the unique "Route of The Hiawatha" rail-trail, which begins in Montana and runs downhill through tunnels and over trestles to the North Fork of the St. Joe River, 15 miles (24 km) away. The trail is named for the Olympian Hiawatha passenger trains of the Milwaukee Road railroad, on whose abandoned tracks, trestles, and tunnels the gravel trail rests. One of the tunnels ("Taft") is over 1.6 miles (2.6 km) in length. When completed, the Route of The Hiawatha will stretch from St. Regis, Montana to the very remote Pearson, Idaho, several miles north of Avery, (equidistantly south of Mullan).
The other trail is the "Trail of the Coeur d'Alenes", completed in 2004. The paved bike path runs more than 72 miles (115 km), starting from Mullan in the east. It follows the South Fork of the Coeur d'Alene River down through the Silver Valley to the south end of Lake Coeur d'Alene, passing over a historic bridge, then up to Plummer in northwest Benewah County. The bike trail uses old right-of-way from the Union Pacific railroad.


Lumena

China Lumena New Materials (commonly called Lumena) is a Chinese mining and manufacturing company primarily engaged in the production of polyphenylene sulfide (PPS), an industrial plastic. According to a market research report in 2016, the company is among the largest producers of PPS.
Lumena mines the glauberite and associated class of minerals that is the raw ingredient used by the company to manufacture PPS and thenardite products including laxatives.
History.
The company traces its origins to 1952.
In June 2009, the company raised US$149 million in an IPO on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange. Although the company had planned to launch an IPO in 2008, the Sichuan earthquake that year delayed the plans.
The Hong Kong listed company was suspended from trading by the exchange after Glaucus, a short seller investment research firm, published a report that alleged sales stated by the company were fraudulently inflated and its claim to have the most production capacity volume was misleading. Following turmoil for the company created by the report, on January 19, 2015, one of its creditors, Taiwan-based Mega Bank, filed a winding up petition against Lumena to institute involuntary insolvency proceedings for the company before the Grand Court of the Cayman Islands.
Mining.
Lumena is vertically integrated. From two captive mines in Sichuan at the Dahongshan Mining Area and the Guangji Mining Area the company mines glauberite and associated minerals, which are then used to manufacture natural thenardite products and PPS, the two product segments of the company.
The company announced the acquisition in June 2011 of two mining companies in Meishan, Sichuan, but canceled the planned acquisition in announcement in April 2012.
Product segments.
PPS.
Lumena is one of a handful of manufacturers of PPS, a plastic with several engineering applications, along with competitors including Solvay (which bought the PPS business from Chevron Philips), Chengdu Letian, DIC Corporation, Kureha, Fortron (a joint venture between Kureha and Ticona), Toray Industries, and Tosoh.
The PPS line of business began after the acquisition in 2010 of Sino Polymer New Materials Co., Ltd., a PPS manufacturer, that owned and operated two plants in Deyang and Chengdu in Sichuan. The goal behind the acquisition was to build a vertically integrated company as one of the main feedstocks in producing PPS is thenardite.
Thenardite.
Derived from the company's mines, the other product segment of the company is natural thenardite products, which is mainly divided into medical thenardite or powder thenardite. The edible medical thenardite is used as a laxative and anti-inflammatory agent while powder thenardite is an ingredient of powdered laundry detergent. Procter & Gamble is a major buyer of powdered thenardite from the company, using it to make laundry detergent.


Central Ohio Coal Company

The Central Ohio Coal Company, once a subsidiary of American Electric Power, is now a subsidiary of CONSOL Energy. At one time, they owned and operated the Big Muskie in the Cumberland, Ohio area. They were responsible for fueling the AEP Muskingum River Power Plant at Relief, Ohio.
From the 1960s to the late 1980s, the company employed nearly 1,000 people in southeastern Ohio, producing up to 1.7 million tons of coal annually. Today, it is still one of the major employers in Morgan County, Ohio, although its high-sulfur coal now spurs little demand. Many of the company's employees were members of the United Mine Workers.
10,000 acres (40 km2) of reclaimed land owned by the company was donated to form The Wilds.


North Eastern Coalfields

North Eastern Coalfields is a unit of Coal India Limited, which has its headquarters in Margherita in Assam. The unit came into existence in 1975 after nationalization of coal mines in India. It took over the private mines operating in the Northeastern states of India and at present has mines operating in states of Assam, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh. At present there are five working mines – three underground and two opencast mines.


Codelco

Codelco ("Corporación Nacional" "del" "Cobre de Chile" or, in English, the National Copper Corporation of Chile) is a Chilean state owned copper mining company. It was formed in 1976 from foreign-owned copper companies that were nationalised in 1971.
The headquarters are in Santiago and the seven-man board of directors is appointed by the President of the Republic. It has the Minister of Mining as its president and six other members including the Minister of Finance and one representative each from the Copper Workers Federation and the National Association of Copper Supervisors.
It is currently the largest copper producing company in the world and produced 1.66 million tonnes of copper in 2007, 11% of the world total. It owns the world's largest known copper reserves and resources. At the end of 2007 it had a total of reserves and resources of 118 million tonnes of copper in its mining plan, sufficient for more than 70 years of operation at current production rates. It also has additional identified resources of 208 million tonnes of copper, though one cannot say how much of this may prove economic.
Codelco's principal product is cathode copper. It is also one of the world's largest molybdenum producers, producing 27,857 fine metric tons in 2007, and is a large producer of rhenium, of which Chile is the world's largest producer. It also produces small amounts of gold and silver from refinery anode slimes, the residue from electro refining of copper.
History.
Codelco's history begins with Law 11,828, of May 5, 1955, that created the "Copper Office" ("Departamento del Cobre") of the Chilean government, approved under President Carlos Ibáñez del Campo. During the administration of President Eduardo Frei Montalva, Congress sanctioned Law 16,425, on January 25, 1966, and transformed the "Copper Office" into the "Copper Corporation of Chile" (Codelco).
With the constitutional reform that nationalized copper (Law 17,450 July 11, 1971), during President Salvador Allende's government, full ownership of all copper mines and copper fields in the country were transferred to Codelco. The creation of the "Corporación Nacional del Cobre de Chile", as it is currently known, was formalized by decree of April 1, 1976, under the Augusto Pinochet dictatorship.
Codelco's symbol is based on the alchemical symbol for copper.
The company.
Codelco consists of research, exploration, acquisition and development departments. It has five principal operating divisions, Codelco Norte, Salvador, Andina, Ventanas and El Teniente, and a 49% interest in the El Abra Mine. It has several other potential mining operations under exploration and development including the Alejandro Hales, Gaby/Gabriela Mistral, the Toki Cluster, Mocha, and Casualidad projects. All excess profits go to the government, including a 10% tax on foreign currency sales (Law 13,196). In 2007 Codelco paid US$7.394 billion to the Chilean Treasury. Codelco has negotiated a 7 year US$3.0 billion syndicated loan which, with the US$1.96 billion in cash and cash equivalent at the end of 2007 leaves the corporation well placed to finance the several new projects that it is investigating.
Divisions.
Codelco Norte.
Codelco Norte is a division of Codelco that is made of the Chuquicamata and Radomiro Tomic mining areas.
Chuquicamata.
Copper has been mined for centuries at Chuquicamata as was shown by the discovery in 1898 of "Copper Man", a mummy dated at about 550 A.D. which was found trapped in an ancient mine shaft by a fall of rock. However mining on any scale did not start until the later years of the 19th century and these early operations mined the high grade veins (10-15% copper) and disregarded the low grade disseminated ore. One attempt was made to process the low grade ore in 1899-1900 by Norman Walker, a partner in La Compañia de Cobre de Antofagasta, but it failed leaving the company deeply in debt.
The modern era started when the American engineer Bradley finally developed a method of working low grade oxidised copper ores. In 1910 he approached the lawyer and industrialist Albert C Burrage who sent engineers to examine Chuquicamata. Their reports were good and in April 1911 he started to buy up mines and claims in association with Duncan Fox y Cia., an English entrepreneur.
Unfortumately Burrage did not have the capital to develop a mine so he approached the Guggenheim Brothers. They examined his claims and estimated reserves at 690 million tonnes grading 2.58% copper. The Guggenheims also had a process for treating the low grade ores developed by E A Cappelen Smith and were immediately interested, organised the Chile Exploration Company (Chilex) in January 1912 and eventually bought out Burrage for US$25 million in Chilex stock.
The modern mine.
Chilex then went ahead with the development and construction of a mine on the eastern section of the Chuquicamata field - it acquired the remainder gradually over the next 15 years - and a 10,000 tons per day leaching plant which was planned to produce 50,000 tons of electrolytic copper annually. Amongst the equipment purchased were steam shovels from the Panama Canal. A port and oil-fired power plant were built at Tocopilla, 90 miles to the west and an aqueduct was constructed to bring water in from the Andes. Production started on May 18, 1915. Actual production rose from 4345 tonnes in the first year to 50,400 tonnes in 1920 and 135,890 tonnes in 1929 before the Depression hit and demand fell. The Guggenheims gave up control of the mine in 1923 when they sold 51% to Anaconda Copper, which acquired most of the remainder in 1929. Anaconda ran the mine until the 1960s when the Chilean state acquired a 51% holding in the "Chilenization" of the copper industry. In 1971 the mine was nationalised and in 1976 was incorporated into Codelco.
Production from the capping of oxidised minerals, which required mere leaching in sulphuric acid to dissolve the copper and the recovery of the copper by electrolysis was the sole means of production until the 1950s. However their gradual depletion forced the construction of a mill and flotation plant in 1961 to treat the underlying secondary sulphides. These have been steadily expanded until recently the pit was producing over 600,000 tonnes of copper annually, though this has now fallen with the lower grades as the richer secondary mineralisation is also depleted in the three porphyries that make up the orebody.
The present mine is a conventional truck and shovel operation, with a large proportion of the ore crushed in-pit and transported by underground conveyors to the mill bins. The 182,000 tonnes p.a. concentrator is also conventional and is primary crushing followed by SAG mills and ball mills with cyclone classification. The flotation section produces both copper and molybdenum concentrates. The 1.65 million tonnes p.a. of concentrate are smelted in one Outokumpu flash smelter and one Teniente converter with electric furnace and cylindrical slag cleaning followed by four Pierce Smith converters. The blister copper goes to six anode furnaces which feed three anode casting wheels. The anodes go on to the 855,000 tonnes p.a. electrolytic refinery.
The future of Chuquicamata.
Plans to go underground and mine the rest of the Chuquicamata orebody by block caving are now well advanced. At the SIMIN conference in 2007 in Santiago Codelco engineers detailed a possible future mining plan. The open pit is becoming gradually uneconomic and it was estimated that mining would slow down and stop by 2020. In the meantime the mill will be kept up to its 182,000 tonnes per day capacity with sulphides from Radomiro Tomic and Alejandro Hales. The underground mine will start up in 2018 and when it reaches full capacity of 120,000 tonnes per day in 2030, the balance of the tonnage will come from the Alejandro Hales underground mine. It is estimated that extractable underground reserves below the present pit total 1,150 million tonnes of ore grading 0.76% copper and 0.052% molybdenum.
This remarkable mine was for many years the world's largest annual producer until overtaken recently by Escondida and it is one of the largest ever copper mining excavation. It has produced over 29 million tonnes of copper in total, far more than any other mine
Radomiro Tomic.
The Radomiro Tomic deposit, 5 km north of the main pit, was discovered in 1952 when Anaconda conducted an extensive churn drilling programme to explore for oxidised ore to the north of the Chuquicamata pit. It was named Chuqui Norte but they did not develop it, largely because the technology had not been developed, particularly SX/EW. Two smaller areas of interest were found and the overall results showed that the Chuquicamata complex of mineralised porphyries is no less than 14 km long.
The deposit is covered with some 100 metres of alluvium and in 1993/94 Codelco estimated a resource base for the operation of 802 million tonnes of oxide ore grading 0.59% copper and 1,600 million tonnes of refractory (sulphide) ore. The deposit covers an area of 5 km x 1.5 km.
Mining started in 1997 and is again a conventional truck and shovel operation followed by crushing, pre treatment and stacking before acid leaching. Copper is extracted by SX/EW. Leached ore is removed by bucket wheel excavator followed by secondary leaching. It is likely that the 'refractory' sulphide ore will be mined and used to keep the Chuquicamata mill full during the changeover to underground mining. The last published production by Radomiro Tomic, from Cochilco, was 379,600 tonnes in 2013.
Northern expansion of Mina Sur.
Between the main pit and Mina Sur there remains a substantial tonnage of so-called exotic copper in the channel of paleogravels (ancient gravels) between the two and which were mined in Mina Sur. The minerals, thought to be deposited by colloidal copper solutions leached from the main deposit, included manganese bearing copper pitch and copper wad, along with other impurities which made the ore difficult to leach in the original vats and produced a substandard cathode. The 'exotic' ore is now being heap leached and the copper extracted by SX/EW which leaves the impurities behind in the leach solution. It is expected that this operation will produce 129,000 tonnes of good quality copper cathode annually.
Secondary waste dump leach.
This is the leaching of certain copper bearing waste dumps and is expected to produce 26,000 tonnes of copper annually.
Ministro Alejandro Hales (formerly Mansa Mina).
This is a major discovery that was made between Chuquicamata and Calama. It was initially estimated to have reserves of over 500 million tonnes grading over 1% copper, but was found to be geologically complex and have a high arsenic content and work was stopped on it for some years. Work resumed in 2000, as a result of the development of a process to treat high arsenic ores, the need for sulphide ore feed to the mill when Chuquicamata's mining goes underground and to test bioleaching technology. It is also possible that it may enable an expansion of the sulphide mill's capacity.
Pollution.
For many years Chuquicamata, particularly its smelter, was a byword for pollution and the inhabitants of the Chuquicamata camp and Calama had serious amounts of arsenic in their blood. This has changed drastically. The camp at Chuquicamata has been closed and the inhabitants moved to Calama, away from the dust and general pollution close to the mine.
The off gasses from the flash smelter, Teniente converter and Pierce-Smith converters have a high enough sulphur dioxide content to allow sulphuric acid production in a single absorption sulphuric acid plant which has improved sulphur capture to 98%. The Corporation also planned some years ago to reduce arsenic emissions by 97% but there have been no recent reports. Pollution of the River Loa, which flows through Calama is a problem which is being addressed but little has been reported.
Salvador.
The El Salvador mine is a combined open pit and underground copper mine in the company town of El Salvador. The El Salvador mine was purchased by Anaconda Copper, who had little intention of mining it, due to high tax rates by the Chilean government. When the tax rates were reduced Anaconda decided to bring the mine into production. Production at the mine began in the early 1960s, and was intended to replace production of the company's Potrerillos mine, which would be closing. Production from the El Salvador would increase Chile's total output of copper about 450,000 tons of copper per year, rather than a decrease in production, out of satisfaction and relief, the company renamed the mine El Salvador, Spanish The Savior. In 2005 Codelco had planned to shut down the El Salvador mine in 2011 because of declining ore grades and increased costs, but extended the project life by an additional 15–20 years.
They' also have a new project call San Antonio that would be located in the old mine at Potrerillos. The General Manager is Jaime Rojas, the General Counsel is Oscar Lira, the sustainability and external affairs manager y Rodrigo Vargas and the Human Resources manager is Ariel Guajardo.
Andina.
Situated some 80 km northeast of the capital, Santiago, the Andina mine was discovered in 1920 but production did not start until 1970. It consists of the Rio Blanco underground (block cave) mine and the Sur Sur open pit and an underground concentrator. Unlike other Codelco mines, it does not have its own smelter. Geologically it consists of about half the Los Bronces-Rio Blanco complex of mineralised breccias, the other half being owned and mined by the Los Bronces mine of Compania Minera Disputada de la Condes which is in turn owned by Anglo American.
Originally owned by the American Cerro De Pasco Corporation, who brought the mine to production, it has been gradually built up by Codelco and is now the subject of a major expansion scheme. At the end of 2007, reserves and resources in the mining plan totalled 5,698 million tonnes grading 0.78% copper containing 44.3 million tonnes of metal and additional identified resources of 11,342 tonnes grading 0.52% copper containing 59.6 million tonnes of metal.
The orebodies are at considerable heights, between 3,000 and 4,200 metres and operations can be severely affected by the weather. Originally the mine was only the underground block cave and an underground concentrator with an "hotel" (bunkhouse) where the workers live when the Rio Blanco valley is impassable in the winter. Now the Sur Sur and Don Luis breccias above and to the south of the underground mine are being worked as open pits. Production in 2007 was 218,322 tonnes of extractable copper and 2,525 tonnes molybdenum in concentrate from the 72,000 tonnes per day concentrator.
Work is now under way on the Andina Phase I Development Project which aims to raise mill capacity to 92,000 tonnes per day and is expected to be complete by November 2009. Pre feasibility studies on raising mill capacity to over 200,000 tonnes per day by 2014 should be complete this year. Deep drilling to prove up resources to sustain such a production rate continue. No estimates of the likely copper output at a milling rate of 200,000 tonnes per day have been given and cannot be until the deep drilling campaign is complete.
One of the mysteries of Andina is why it did not buy Compania Minera Disputada de las Condes when Peñarroya was prepared to sell it for a very low price in 1972. It went to Enami who subsequently sold it for a handsome profit to Exxon Minerals for US$97 million. It would have given Codelco complete control of the district. When Exxon finally did decide to sell in 2002, Codelco expressed interest but were not prepared to match the US$1.3 billion that Anglo American were prepared to give for it.
Rock glaciers have been seriously intervened by Andina since the late 1980s, when it started to deposit several million tons of waste rock on top of rock glaciers, resulting in their acceleration and partial destabilisation. Since then, 2.1 km2 of rock glaciers with a water equivalent of more than 15 million cubic metres have been affected by Andina, including the partial removal of rock glaciers.
El Teniente.
Situated 44 km east of Rancagua and 75 km south of the capital, Santiago, El Teniente claims to be the largest underground copper mine in the world (see below). The El Teniente orebody has been known and worked on a small scale for many years. In the 16th century it became the property of the Jesuits as it was located on their Hacienda de la Compañia de Jesús. They operated a small mine known as the Socavón de los Jesuitas. Following their expulsion, the hacienda was acquired in 1768 by Don Mateo de Toro y Zambrano y Ureta. Between 1819 and 1823 his heirs restarted and enlarged the workings, bringing in a mining engineer to help. However, these and subsequent attempts to establish anything more than a small scale mine failed for lack of capital and the property was eventually bought by the American, William Braden, for approximately US$100,000. The same year Braden formed Rancagua Mines, which became the Braden Copper Company, in association with old colleagues from ASARCO, including Barton Sewell.
Work started on establishing a mine in 1905 after Government permission had been acquired but progress was slow because of difficulty of access and a hard winter climate. A small gravity plant was soon erected but it was not until 1912 that a flotation plant was erected at Sewell. Control passed to Kennecott in 1915 and it ran the mine until nationalisation in 1971.
The present mine.
The porphyry orebody consists of a stockwork (a network of narrow veins) of mineralised veinlets, mainly in andesitic lavas and tonalite, superimposed by a leached zone and a substantial zone of secondary enrichment, both of very variable thickness. It surrounds a narrow, almost circular ring of tourmaline breccia which in turn surrounds the Braden Chimney, an inverted cone of breccia which was emplaced after the main mineralisation. Reserves and resources are substantial. At the end of 2007 reserves and resources in the mining plan totalled 4,204 million tonnes grading 0.91% copper or 38.3 million tonnes of contained copper. In addition the mine has identified additional resources of 15,827 million tonnes grading 0.46% copper or nearly 73 million tonnes of contained copper though there is no indication how much of this may prove economic. Production in 2007 was 404,728 tonnes copper and 5,053 tonnes molybdenum.
Mining is gradually moving lower and removing the ore between the barren country rock and the Braden Chimney. Access is through adits (horizontal tunnels) to shafts and other services cut in the Braden Chimney. Mining methods include panel caving, panel caving with pre-undercut, and block caving, which have been adapted to overcome the serious rockburst problem which stopped mining some years ago on level 6 and threatened the future of the mine. A new level, Level 8, is now in operation and another, lower, level is being studied which will give access to 1.5 billion tonnes of ore grading 0.96% copper and extend the life of the mine by many years.
All ore is now treated in the lower Colón mill, the original Sewell mill being closed. Capacity is now 130,000 tonnes daily, split equally between SAG and conventional milling, followed by flotation, thickening and filtration. The recent increase in mill capacity has been necessary to compensate for the gradual move of mining into the lower grade primary ore zone. The concentrate goes to the Caletones smelter further down the valley. This is equipped with two Teniente converters with slag furnaces, three Pierce Smith converters and six anode furnaces feeding two anode and one fire refined casting wheels. Tailings are flumed down the valley to dams on flatter ground. An independent company, Minera Valle Central, retreats old and current El Teniente tailings and extracts some 12,000 tonnes p.a. of copper in concentrate.
Sewell.
Sewell, the original mine camp and known as the 'city of stairs' because it looked as though it had been poured down the mountain, has become a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It was founded in 1906 by William Braden to house his mine workers and had a population of around 15,000 at its peak. It was closed down in the late 1980s as all the workers moved down to Rancagua.
El Abra.
Codelco sold a 51% interest in its El Abra deposit in 1994 to Cyprus-Amax (now part of Freeport McMoRan Copper and Gold) who then developed it. Production started in 1996. It is a porphyry copper with an extensive capping of leachable oxide and sulphide mineralisation. Production over the next three years is expected to be in the 152,000 to 168,000 tonnes copper p.a. from the 227,000 tonnes p.a.capacity SX/EW plant. It is planned to exploit the underlying sulphides starting in 2010 which should extend the mine life by over 10 years.
Other projects.
The Gabriela Mistral ("Gaby") Project is an oxide copper project located 120 km south of Calama. Reserves are estimated at 580 million tonnes of oxide ore grading 1.41% copper and there is underlying sulphide mineralisation but this is not being considered at present. A 14 year open pit leaching and SX/EW operation producing about 150,000 tonnes of copper annually is planned. Startup was in 2008 marking the milestone to be the first mine in the world to introduce the full autonomous trucks from [Komatsu]. Leaching of tailings with the potential to produce and additional 30,000 to 50,000 tonnes p.a. between 2011 and 2014 is being investigated, as is wind power. An 'exotic copper' orebody, "Vicky" has also been found in the Gabriela Mistral area with potential estimated resources of 80 million tons of oxide ore with a copper grade of 0.6%. A 44,000 m² central solar heating plant supplies 80% of the 80 GWh annual heat for an electrowinning copper extraction process, despite dust problems.
The Toki Cluster is a group of porphryies that is now included in the Codelco Norte division. In 2004 the resources in the four porphyries found to date was estimated at 18 million tonnes of copper. Since then a fifth, "Miranda", has been found containing estimated resources of 2.5 million tonnes of copper.
Ventanas.
Ventanas is a smelter situated on the coast 35 km north of Valparaiso. It was transferred from ENAMI in May 2005. It processes concentrates and anodes from Andina and El Teniente, amongst other producers, and makes Codelco increasingly self-sufficient. The 'New Ventanas Project' is investigating the feasibility of converting it into a large scale smelting and refining complex.
The plant consists of a Teniente converter with electric furnace slag cleaning, three Pierce Smith converters, a rotary anode furnace and two reverbatory refining furnaces and two anode casting wheels. Capacity is 450,000 tonnes p.a. concentrate to produce 110,000 tonnes copper annually. Off gasses go to a Hugo Petersen sulphuric acid plant. The refinery produces cathode copper, and gold, silver and selenium are produced from the anode slime left over from the refining process.
Codelco's presence out of Chile.
On July 26, 2012, the Chilean and Ecuadorian government signed an agreement to activate the highly controversial Junin copper mining project, in the Intag area of Northwestern Ecuador. The agreement calls for Codelco, jointly with the Ecuadorian national mining company- ENAMI- to begin exploration activities in the biodiverse Cordillera de Toisan after the second quarter of 2013. The project would be one of the first experience for the Chilean-owned company outside the Chilean deserts where it has most of its mines. It is controversial because Intag is the same area where communities have forced two transnational mining companies to abandon exploration activities due to widespread rejection of mining activities (Mitsubishi subsidiary in 1997 and Canadian Copper Mesa in 2009).


Simberi mine

The Simberi mine is one of the largest gold mines in Papua New Guinea and in the world. The mine is located in the north of the country on Simberi Island, New Ireland Province. The mine, owned by St Barbara Limited, has estimated reserves of 3.3 million oz of gold.


William Mainwaring

William Henry Mainwaring (1884 – 18 May 1971) was a Welsh coal miner, lecturer and trade unionist, who became a long-serving Labour Party Member of Parliament. Both as a trade unionist and a politician he struggled, largely successfully to counter Communist influence. He was said to have spoken "with passion and fire on behalf of his fellow miners".
Mining.
Mainwaring was born in Swansea and went to local schools, leaving to work as miner in the South Wales coalfield. He was a member of the South Wales Miners' Federation, and through their sponsorship was able to continue his education at the Central Labour College in London where he studied economics.
Labour College lecturer.
After two years at the College, he returned to the coal face, but in 1919, Mainwaring was appointed as a Lecturer in Economics and Vice-Principal of the Central Labour College. This college, which renamed as The Labour College in 1920, was founded by the South Wales Miners' Federation and the National Union of Railwaymen, but most of the students were South Wales miners; opponents suspected the college was "class teaching for revolutionary aims".
Miners' agent.
Mainwaring ran for the South Wales nomination for a candidate to be Secretary of the Miners Federation of Great Britain in 1924, but was narrowly defeated by A. J. Cook. Mainwaring polled 49,617 against Cook's 50,123 votes. Cook went on to win the post and vacated his previous post as miners' agent for the Rhondda district; Mainwaring was appointed to succeed him. He was one of two agents for the district, and with his fellow agent Alderman David Lewis, Mainwaring had to fight the attempts by members of the Communist Party of Great Britain to gain influence. In 1928, under Communist influence, the lodges of the Rhondda Miners' Federation called for a membership ballot to elect their representative on the South Wales Miners' Federation executive. Mainwaring and Lewis offered their resignations but the district committee refused to accept them.
Industrial dispute.
After a new law allowed the miners' working day to increase to 7½ hours, the South Wales coalowners decided to reduce the wages of miners in November 1930. Mainwaring declared that the new terms of employment were "absolutely preposterous" and threatened to lead a strike. However, after lengthy negotiations, the South Wales miners agreed to work under the new terms "under protest". Communists picketed the Lewis Merthyr colliery at Trehafod in Rhondda, and nearly half of the men did not go in to work.
Mainwaring did get the South Wales nomination for the secretaryship of the Miners' Federation of Great Britain in 1932, after the death of A. J. Cook. A preferential voting system was used, and Mainwaring came in third place on first preference votes, being eliminated from the voting.
Rhondda East byelection.
The death of Lieutenant-Colonel David Watts-Morgan, the Labour Member of Parliament (MP) for Rhondda East, in early 1933 left a vacancy for a Labour candidate in which the influence of the miners was predominant. Mainwaring's name was immediately mentioned as a possible candidate, with rivals including Alderman David Lewis, Mrs Watts-Morgan (the widow of the former MP), and some local party figures. Mainwaring was selected, and faced opposition from Arthur Horner of the Communist Party and William Thomas, a local Liberal, in the byelection.
Mainwaring received a letter of support from Labour Party leader George Lansbury, and an appeal from the President, Vice-President and General Secretary of the South Wales Miners' Federation was made for all miners and their families to vote for him. The Labour Party had won easily in a straight fight with Arthur Horner at the previous election, but the decision of the Liberal Party to fight an energetic campaign (the Liberal candidate was allied with David Lloyd George and opposed to the National Government) was thought to have given the party a scare because Labour had benefited from Liberal votes in 1931. Mainwaring predicted that he would get between 20,000 and 22,000 votes. In the event, Mainwaring won with 14,127 votes, with Horner second having increased his vote compared with 1931.
Parliament.
In Parliament, Mainwaring concentrated on mining issues, calling in July 1933 for the Home Secretary to examine the circumstances of the Bedwas colliery dispute where miners and their families had been imprisoned for breaches of the peace. He moved the rejection of the government's Coal Mines Bill in 1934, arguing that legislation dealing with coal mines was futile while the mines were in private ownership, and had evaded previous acts. He was also active on issues affecting the unemployed, where he consistently opposed attempts to reduce unemployment benefit; in 1935 he warned that agitation on the subject in South Wales would "spread like a flame throughout the country".
Arms industry.
During the 1930s he was a pacifist, criticising private armament firms for "trafficking in the blood of nations". Mainwaring also moved to delete a provision which would criminalise possession of documents which if distributed to the armed forces would incite disaffection, pointing to the fact that some parts of holy scripture might be included within the description and declaring his certainty that his own possessions included enough to keep him in prison forever. He also moved a motion in 1936 that called for the government to be given full power to take action against profiteers in the event of war; this motion was agreed.
At the 1935 general election, Mainwaring had to defend his seat against the Communist leader Harry Pollitt. The Communists caused some amusement when they appealed to Labour to withdraw their candidate to stop splitting the working-class vote. Mainwaring succeeded in increasing his majority to 8,433.
Employment law.
In the new Parliament, Mainwaring won sixth place on the ballot to introduce a Private Member's Bill and chose to try to make employers liable for injuries to workmen caused by the negligence of fellow workmen. When debated, a Conservative MP moved to reject the Bill, and the Government declared their opposition; the Bill was defeated by 146 to 85. In the next session, Mainwaring won again, this time in first place; he introduced the Workmen's Compensation Bill, which aimed to compensate more dependents of employees for injuries caused in the workplace. He was again met with a motion for rejection which was passed by only six votes (115 to 109).
Unemployment.
Mainwaring organised a march of the unemployed from South Wales to Westminster in November 1936, calling for work. When the Minister of Labour went in a delegation to South Wales to unveil charity gifts, Mainwaring urged the people of South Wales to refuse to meet them and to "turn the insult back in their faces". He criticised the Government for failing to direct industry to the "Special areas" in South Wales suffering unemployment, pointing to statistics which showed they had been developed elsewhere.
Rhodesia.
Outside his normal area, Mainwaring was named as a member of the Royal Commission on Rhodesia in 1938. He went on a long visit to the territories in August 1938 to gather evidence, and then went on to visit the Rand in South Africa. Mainwaring endorsed the report of the Royal Commission which called for a single Governor for the three territories of Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland.
Wartime.
During the wartime coalition, Mainwaring was not always prepared to go along with the Labour Party's alliance with the Conservatives. He supported an amendment to criticise the poor position of old age and widow pensioners in 1942, along with 48 other Labour MPs but against the wishes of the front bench. He also voted to criticise the Government for delaying implementation of the Beveridge Report in February 1943.
1945 general election.
At the 1945 general election, Mainwaring faced a tough fight against Harry Pollitt who had kept up his connection with the Rhondda East constituency. Although the Liberal Party did not field a candidate, the Welsh nationalists of Plaid Cymru did. Senior Labour figures including Professor Harold Laski spoke for Mainwaring, who was put under pressure by the Communists' identifying with the working class while the Labour national campaign made a bid for middle-class votes.
Civil aviation.
Mainwaring succeeded in winning a very narrow victory by 972 votes. He was a notably less frequent speaker in the post-war Parliaments, but kept up his allegiance to the left. In 1946 he broke with the whip to support an amendment to the Civil Aviation Bill which required the directors of the new airline corporations to be full-time, and to oppose a Lords amendment affecting the Air Traffic Advisory Council. However Mainwaring opposed an amendment to exclude men from Wales and Monmouthshire from the liability to do National Service, declaring that "no decent man or woman in Wales would support the amendment".
Korean war.
At the 1950 general election, Harry Pollitt made his third challenge to win the Rhondda East constituency. However, the outbreak of the Cold War against Soviet Union was thought to have alienated many in the coalfield. At the poll, Mainwaring obtained a majority of 22,182 and Pollitt barely retained his deposit. Mainwaring was a strong supporter of the Government policy of fighting the Korean War, which he declared to be in the interests of workers of Britain.
Welsh nationalism.
Mainwaring became a staunch opponent of Welsh nationalism. In 1955 he denounced the assumption that the English "were in some peculiar way wholly foreign and alien to Wales", and ridiculed basing a nation on "poets, preachers and musicians". He supported reform of the system of leasehold ownership to allow leasehold tenants to buy their freeholds, attacking the sale of estates to financiers.
Retirement.
After being little active in his last Parliament, Mainwaring announced his retirement a year before the 1959 general election. He lived to the age of 87.


Peter Norman Nissen

Peter Norman Nissen, (6 August 1871 – 2 March 1930) was a Canadian-American-British mining engineer, inventor and army officer. He held a number of patents for his inventions and developed the Nissen hut prefabricated shelter during the First World War.
Early years.
Peter Nissen was born in the United States. His father, Georg Herman Nissen, had emigrated from Bergen, Norway, during 1857. Georg Nissen was primarily a mining engineer who developed a stamp mill used in crushing ore. The family, which included his wife Annie Lavinia Fitch and son Peter, travelled around the United States and Canada as he changed job sites.
Peter Nissen moved with his family to Canada in 1891. He resided in Halifax, Nova Scotia and later studied mining engineering at the Mining and Agriculture School of Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario. Nissen completed his studies without taking the final examination. At university, he met Louisa Mair Richmond, whom he married in 1900.
First World War.
In 1910 he moved to Witwatersrand, South Africa with his wife and daughter Betty and in 1913 he moved to Great Britain. Nissen worked there principally in the sale and distribution of the Nissen stamp mill until he joined the British Army at the start of the First World War. He was commissioned in January 1915 in the Sherwood Foresters (Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Regiment), transferring to the Royal Engineers in May 1915.
Between 16 and 18 April 1916, Major Nissen of the 29th Company Royal Engineers began to experiment with hut designs. Nissen constructed three prototype semi-cylindrical huts. His design was subject to intensive review by his fellow officers, Lieutenant Colonels Shelly, Sewell and McDonald, and General Clive Gerard Liddell, which helped Nissen develop the design. After the third prototype was completed, the design was formalised and the Nissen hut was put into production in August 1916.
Two factors influenced the design of the hut. First, the building had to be economical in its use of materials, especially considering wartime shortages of building material. Second, the building had to be portable; this was particularly important in view of the wartime shortages of shipping space. This led to a simple form that was prefabricated for ease of erection and removal. The Nissen hut could be packed in a standard Army wagon and erected by six men in four hours. The record for erection was 1 hour 27 minutes. At least 100,000 were produced in the First World War.
Nissen patented his invention in the UK in 1916 and patents were taken out later in the United States, Canada, South Africa and Australia. Nissen received royalties from the British government only for their sale after the conflict; he received some £13,000. Production of Nissen huts waned between the wars, but revived in 1939. Nissen Buildings Ltd waived its patent rights for wartime production during the Second World War (1939–45).
In the 1917 New Year Honours, Nissen was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his contribution to the war effort. He was awarded the Order of St. Sava, third class, by Serbia in 1919. After the War, he left the army with the rank of lieutenant colonel.
Later years.
He was naturalised in 1921 as a British subject. In that year he purchased Deepdale, an imposing house on Westerham Hill, Westerham in Kent, where he lived until his death. Until at least the 1970s, two Nissen huts at Deepdale were used as garages.
His first wife, Louisa, died in July 1923. Nissen married Lauretta Maitland in 1924 and they had two children, Peter and George. He died in 1930 and was buried at St Mary's churchyard in Westerham.


Surigao City

', officially the ' (Surigaonon: "Siyudad nan Surigao"; ; ), is a and capital of the province of , . According to the , it has a population of people.
Located at the north-easternmost tip of Mindanao, it has a total land area of 245.34 km2 which is roughly 1.4% of Caraga region.
The absence of a fort in Surigao belies its significance and sphere of influence during the Spanish period. It was the capital of the expansive province of the same name from 1750 until its dissolution in 1911, covering a third of Mindanao Island's total land area. It is one of the oldest port towns in Mindanao, founded by Spanish colonizers in 1655. It has abundant mineral reserves including gold, iron, manganese, silica, cobalt, copper, chromite and among the world's largest nickel deposits in Nonoc Island. The Asian Institute of Management ranks the city as among the most competitive small-sized cities in the Philippines, with an estimated total income of 600 million pesos in 2012.
The city serves as a jump off point to visitors of nearby Siargao, Dinagat and Bucas Grande islands. It is Mindanao's closest landmass to the Visayas region. Eleven nautical miles across Surigao Strait separates the city from Panaon Island in the Visayas. Surigao is the center of politics, commerce, banking, industry and education of Surigao del Norte and Dinagat Islands as well as parts of neighboring provinces of Surigao del Sur, Agusan del Norte and Southern Leyte.
Etymology.
There are two hypotheses on the original meaning of "Surigao" among linguists, depending on the original root word. If the root word was taken to be "sulig" ("sprout" or "spring up"), then Surigao may have derived from "suligao" ("spring water"), likely referring to the Surigao River (known as "Suligaw" in Mandaya) that empties at the northern tip of the island of Mindanao. Early historical accounts record the name of the river as Suligao, Surigao, or Zurigan.
Another possibility is that it is derived from Visayan "surogao" or "suyogao", meaning "water current". From "suyog" (also "sulog" or "surog"), "current". Other Visayan words derived from the same root include Sinulog, Sulu, and Tausug (Suluk).
There is also a popular legend about Visayan fishermen who went adrift on a stormy day at the mouth of today's Surigao River. With boats wrecked, they were unable to sail back to sea. They were met by a docile village chieftain named "Solibao" who offered them his abode. The fishermen helped the chieftain procure food for the village's daily subsistence in exchange for his hospitality. One day, with much luck, they were able to paddle back home with the help of other fisherman who made it to the village they now named "Solibao". Some of the men eventually returned and settled in the area. During the 15th century, Spanish galleons dropped anchor near the settlement and came ashore. The Spanish historian, worn from the long transpacific journey misheard the people when he asked where they were, and instead wrote in his diaries "Surigao", referring to the land at the north-easternmost tip of Mindanao Island.
The town was renamed Caraga after its founding, derived from the word "calagan", from the Kalagan people, whose name means "people of the [fierce/brave] spirit". The Italian adventurer Giovanni Francesco Gemelli Careri, who published a book of travel in the country, cited Francisco Combes, S.J. as a source in saying that Calagan is derived from the two Visayan words, "kalag" for soul and "an" for people. Today, Caraga is the official name referring to the entire Region XIII, created through Republic Act No. 7901 on February 25, 1995, making it the newest region in the Philippines.
History.
The site around Surigao was settled early on, even before the Spanish conquest. Fishing villages dotted along the coast facing the Hinatuan Passage while Mamanwa tribes inhabited the interior highlands. The confluence of three major bodies of water- Pacific Ocean, Surigao Strait and Mindanao Sea, kept the area inhabited continuously for many centuries, although its historical importance waxed and waned as other parts of the archipelago were explored and developed.
Spanish Era.
Ferdinand Magellan sailed into the Philippine Archipelago, reaching the island of Homonhon in an epic voyage of discovery and eventual circumnavigation of the world in 1521. Magellan's fleet proceeded to Limasawa through Surigao Strait, a notch north-west of the city's pelagic boundaries, before dropping anchor on the waters off the island of Cebu, ushering the Spanish colonization of the Philippines.
Present day Surigao originated from a site in the city proper formerly known as "Bilang-Bilang" where it served as a port of call for inter-island vessels. It was renamed Banahao which became an integral part of the old district of Caraga, a town founded on June 29, 1655. After Caolo, present day Siargao, burned in 1750, Surigao became the capital of the expansive geopolitical, eclessiastical and military district of Surigao which reached the fringes of Davao and would include today's provinces of Surigao del Sur, Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, parts of Compostela Valley, Misamis Oriental, Davao del Norte and Davao Oriental. It officially became the permanent residence of the Augustinian Recollects on February 1, 1752, when all the canonical books were moved from Caolo to Surigao. The first canonical books bore the signature of Fr. Lucas de la Cruz. Previously, the place was just a "vista" of the parish in Caolo. Its strategic location and new status as the seat of government was costly. Surigao witnessed violent territorial struggles as it suffered ultimately from relentless Moro raids. In 1752, the town was devastated. Most of its 2,000 inhabitants were either killed or taken as slaves by the Moros.
American Period.
At the turn of the century in 1901, the American colonizers established a civil government in the province of Surigao, keeping the town of Surigao as its capital. Surigao was then among the largest municipalities in land area with a jurisdiction of 949.90 square kilometers, larger than today's Butuan. During this period, there was only one main road, the Old Spanish road. The commercial district, market and plaza (Luneta) were all situated in one small area. In 1930, the Old Spanish road was abandoned and a new provincial road was constructed. The Casa Real was built where municipal administrators would hold their official functions. Surigao's core barrios- Taft and Washington, were named after United States presidents William Howard Taft and George Washington.
World War II.
Surigao featured prominently in World War II's Pacific theater. On May 23, 1942, the Japanese Imperial Army under Colonel Yoshie occupied Surigao after arriving from Butuan. They formally took over on May 28, 1942, under Lieutenant Ichichara, taking control from Mayor Amat. Filipino guerrilla units based in Surigao continued to operate in the hinterlands. Liberation from the Japanese rule dawned on September 9, 1944. American planes started their campaign by bombing the town in the early morning. It was followed by a strafing of all Japanese warships docked at the Surigao wharf, which came to transport fresh troops and supplies to their forces in Leyte. No less than fifty warships were sunk by the raiding American bomber planes. After the attack, not a single Japanese ship was seen afloat. The following month, on October 24–25, the famous Battle of Surigao Strait, the final line battle in naval history, was fiercely fought by allied forces against the Japanese fleet. By April 12, 1945, the whole province of Surigao was liberated from Japanese occupation.
One American family who had lived in and near Surigao before the war returned after the Japanese left the area in 1945. Virginia Holmes, a child in 1945, many years later wrote, "We were shocked at the destruction the war years had wrought. Many houses stood empty, and others were mere skeletons. Walls were pockmarked with bullet holes. There were piles of rubble everywhere. The tree-lined streets that used to be so pretty were now full of potholes, and only a few trees were left undamaged." Holmes said the cemetery had been neglected and at least part of it was overgrown in weeds.
Post War Reconstruction.
Massive reconstruction followed the destruction brought by the war. The Surigao Provincial Capitol was completed in 1946 atop the hill overlooking the city. Other facilities were built including schools, athletic field and municipal jail. In 1948, the first election of municipal officials was held. In the same year, construction of the Surigao Provincial Hospital commenced. Six years later in 1954, construction of the first municipal building started and was completed in 1955. Economic activities continued to flourish with the launching of gold mining operations by Mindanao Mother Lode Mines in Mabuhay, 10 kilometers away from the city. Rapid economic growth and immigration resulted to losing some of its fishing and agricultural barrios as they were converted into towns of Malimono (July 31, 1956), San Francisco (May 24, 1957) and Sison (September 15, 1959). During the same year, settlements including Capalayan, Libuac, Catadman, Mat-i, Lipata, "Dakung Patag", "Bunyasan", "Cantapoy", "Balite", and "Bambanon" were elevated into barrios, the forerunner of modern-day barangays.
At that time, Surigao was classified as a 1st Class B municipality with an annual income of P160,000.00 and a population of nearly 50,000. It was primarily an agricultural town producing mainly copra and basic staples including rice, corn, bananas and rootcrops. Fishing was also a major source of livelihood. On September 18, 1960, pursuant to the Republic Act 2786 dated June 19, 1960, the province of Surigao was divided into Surigao del Norte and Surigao del Sur. The town of Surigao remained as a capital, this time for the province of Surigao del Norte.
Surigao was on a rapid growth path. Already, it had a domestic airport, three movie houses, three hotels and two hospitals. However, on November 19, 1964, tragedy befell the town as it saw its most massive destruction yet. It was in the direct path of supertyphoon "Ining", internationally code- named "Louise" , with peak winds at 240 kilometers per hour. The wrath of the storm was severe and devastation wide, both in infrastructure and human lives. Just as they overcame the destruction of war, the locals tenacity was again proven in the town's rebuilding. In a short time, after three years in 1967, Pacific Cement Corporation started commercial operations in Mabuhay, producing among the highest quality cement in the country. In 1969, Marinduque Mining Industrial Corporation started nickel exploration in Nonoc Island with an initial capitalization of Php1.0 billion pesos, ushering a new era of prosperity.
Cityhood.
Pursuant to Republic Act No. 6134, Surigao was converted to a chartered city on August 31, 1970, with Pedro Espina as its first city mayor.
Geography.
Surigao City is situated at the north-easternmost tip of Mindanao Island. It is bounded by Municipalities of Dinagat and Basilisa to the north, Philippine Sea and the Municipality of Cagdianao to the east, Municipalities of Sison and Tagana-an to the south, Mindanao Sea and the Municipality of San Francisco to the west and the Surigao Strait to the north-west.
Topography.
Surigao City is marked by rolling hills that gently buffers its eastern and western boundaries. To the south-west towers the Kabangkaan Ridge which divides the city from the municipality of San Francisco (formerly Anao-aon). Kinabutan River (otherwise known as Surigao River) meanders Surigao valley before it empties to the Surigao tidal basin, a shrinking mangrove swamp fast overtaken by the city's expansion. It has an average elevation of 19 meters or 65.5 ft. above sea level. The highest elevation on the mainland at the Kabangkaan Ridge has a peak elevation of 465 meters above sea level. Along the border of Tagana-an is Mapawa Peak with an elevation of 245 meters above sea level. Barangays Cabongbongan, Nabago and Capalayan are at the foot of its slopes.
More than two dozen islands and islets make up two fifths of the city's total land area. They are separated from the mainland by Hinatuan Passage, which connects Mindanao Sea to the Pacific Ocean. The largest island of Nonoc is marked by a rusty-red weathering mantle of lateritic nickel ore, visible from any vantage point on the mainland coast. Its highest elevation at 263 meters above sea level typifies most of its hilly terrain. Across the channel at Hikdop Island, the highest point is Mt. Telegrapo at 100.05 meters. Hinatuan Island is similar to Nonoc's bare and rusty-red hilly appearance. Other notable islands of Hanigad, Sibale, Bayaganan and Awasan are generally flat, covered mostly with coconut trees and assorted hardwoods. Large swaths of mangrove and nipa palm forests cover its brackish waterways and shallow fringes of its coastlines.
Climate.
Like most of the country, Surigao is officially considered a tropical rainforest climate type, Köppen class "Af" with an average monthly precipitation of 308.66 mm (12.5 inches). It is distinctly wettest between the months of November until March. During the drier season between April to September, brief afternoon showers and thunderstorms locally called "sobasco", are commonplace.
Barangays.
Surigao City is subdivided into 54 barangays, 33 in the mainland and 21 in the islands. Of the 36 coastal barangays, 15 are in the mainland and 20 are in the islands. The urban area covers 15 barangays or approximately 20% of the total land area. These include Taft, Washington, San Juan, Sabang, Canlanipa, Cagniog, Luna, Togbongon, Rizal, Lipata, Punta Bilar, Mabua and Ipil.
The 21 island barangays are Alang-Alang, Alegria, Aurora, Baybay, Bilabid, Bitaugan, Buenavista, Cagutsan, Cantiasay, Catadman, Danawan, Libuac, Lisondra, Manjagao, Nonoc, San Jose, Sidlakan, Sugbay, Talisay, and Zaragoza.
Demographics.
The demographics of Surigao City are evidence of an ethnically diverse city. Throughout its history, Surigao has been a point of entry for migrants from other regions of the Philippines, enticed by the city's political significance, attractive natural setting, abundant resources and during the last century, increased mining operations. Butuanons, Hiligaynons, Warays, Cebuanos and other ethnic groups found home in Surigao and eventually learned how to speak the language. Some of their descendants now hold prominent positions in the city and provincial governments. Migrants from China also found home in Surigao; their direct descendants now comprise the bulk of successful merchants of the Surigao business community.
Surigao is home to one of the country's oldest and most colorful tribes, the "Mamanwa". They are similar to the Negritoes of Luzon in features and stature. They are generally short, dark-skinned with a crop of short kinky hair. Forced to settle in the hinterlands due to development, they continued to practice their customs and traditions. The faith about "Kahimunan", one of their many tribal festivities, highlights music and graceful dancing. Revelers chant and play while accompanied by native musical instruments including the gimbar (drum), gong and bamboo percussion called "kalatong" and "katik". Wild pigs, chicken and indigenous fruits including the rare "kayape" are among the offerings. A "baylan" (priest) presides the celebration as a tribute and invocation to their god "Magbabaya" and departed ancestors for good health and abundant harvest.
Mamanwas are also known for their creative patterns, brass jewelries and indigenous crafts, displayed proudly on their costumes as they fill the streets at the height of the "Bonok Bonok Maradjao Karadjao" Festival every September 9, celebrated on the occasion of the feast of Saint Nicolas de Tolentino, Surigao City's patron saint. "Bonok-bonok" and its prehistoric origins was another ritual to thank their gods, presided by various village chieftains and their wives. Happiness and friendship are expressed through dancing, chanting and singing. They wave scarves of "banay" as symbols of goodwill, wealth and blessings for all tribal villages.
Today, most of the Mamanwas still live in the hinterlands, occasionally descending to town to sell or barter handicrafts and fresh harvest. Bands still subsist on foraging even as majority of them have adopted a more modern way of life over the years.
Language.
Sinurigaonon, the official language in the city and province is unique among the Visayan languages. It is also spoken by the majority of the population in the province of Surigao del Sur and around Lake Mainit in Agusan del Norte. Similarities with the Cebuano language is undeniable, however, staunch Cebuano speakers can hardly understand people who speak Surigaonon. There is no doubt Surigaonon existed as pure and distinct, slowly pelted over time by Visayan words as migrants settled in the area. Today, Surigaonon is the most widely spoken language inherent in the eastern Caraga region.
Surigaonon has similar consonant and vowel sounds, stress, intonation patterns to the Cebuano language and Boholano dialect. Surigaonon underwent certain morphophonemic processes, such as assimilation, deletion, alternation and metathesis (Dumanig, 2005). In the study conducted by Dumanig (2005) on Descriptive Analysis of Surigaonon language it was found that there are 18 consonants (b,d,g,h,j,k,l,m,n,ng,p,r,s,t,w,y,o,?) with 18 sounds and 3 vowels (a,i,u) with 5 sounds. It has also 25 consonant clusters (br, bl, bw, by, dr, dy, dw, gr, gw, kr, kl, kw, mw, my, nw, pr, pl, pw, py, sw, sy, tr, tw, ty, hw) and 4 diphthongs (aw, ay, iw, uy), which are similar to the Cebuano language (Rubrico, 1999). There are Surigaonon words that are spelled similarly but they differ in meaning depending on how each syllable is stressed (Dumanig, 2005). Surigaonon language follows two intonation patterns like the rising and falling intonation. The rising intonation is common in asking yes or no questions and the falling intonation occurs in ending declarative and imperative statements (Dumanig, 2005)
Economy.
Surigao City underwent rapid economic growth that spanned nearly two decades beginning in the late 1960s. Pacific Cement (PACEMCO) started commercial operations manufacturing Portland cement and the Canadian-owned company Marinduque Mining and Industrial Corporation (MMIC) also started extracting nickel and iron ore in Nonoc Island. This was a boon to the city as it generated commerce to meet increasing demand for goods and services. Towards the late 1970s, Surigao attained first class status. The rest of the province also saw increased mining operations, primarily extracting gold and copper. The city became the nexus of mining activity in the entire Northern Mindanao (Region X), at the time among Philippines' largest regions encompassing nearly half of Mindanao Island. Philippines' Bureau of Mines and Geosciences moved its regional headquarters in the city at Km. 1.
In 1983, MMIC ended commercial operations due to financial losses and heavy debt as a result of plummeting prices of nickel and high operating costs. Copra processing plant Surigao Coconut Development Corp. (SUCODECO) in Lipata also shut down. Surigao's weakened economy was further affected when typhoon "Nitang" (internationally codename Typhoon Ike) struck the city in September 1984. Seventy percent of the buildings and infrastructure were destroyed. Commercial activities declined, relying on basic services, small-scale industries, agriculture and fishing.
From the mid 80s until the turn of the 21st century, Surigao's economic woes mirrored the rest of the nation as it saw some of its original families leave for opportunities in other places, both local and overseas.
During the last decade, the city saw improvement of its key macroeconomic indicators. Increased retail activity was evident downtown as new stores opened and existing ones expanded. The success of major restaurant chains like Jollibee (3 branches as of mid-2020), Greenwich, Chowking (closed in 2014 but reopened in May 2016) and Mang Inasal opened the floodgates for more investments in the city. McDonald's also opened in March 2013 (after 5 years, it opened its second branch in October 2018) followed by Goldilocks in March 2015 and finally, the 2nd branch of Red Ribbon in June 2016. Shakey's Pizza opened its first doors at the ground floor of Gaisano Capital Mall in June 2019. Dunkin' Donuts and KFC were planned to open soon in the future. Hotel rooms doubled with the opening of new hotels and expansion of existing ones, with adequate convention facilities. Port expansion was completed in 2009, increasing its handling capacity. Today, it is one of the country's key seaports for gross registered tonnage handled, mainly from its mineral exports .
Agriculture and Fishing.
The city's primary agricultural produce includes rice, corn, vegetables, rootcrops, coconut, copra and bananas. It is a major supplier of fish and crustaceans; its exports reach buyers as far as Hong Kong, Japan and China. An integrated fishport is planned which includes functional facilities such as fish market, gear and commercial shops, administration building and fish container storage facilities.
Retail.
Surigao's retail activity is centered mainly around Luneta Park along the streets of San Nicolas, Borromeo and Rizal. A new uptown shopping district is developing in the city's Barangay Luna. Regional malls opened in early 2012 (one of which is Gaisano Capital Surigao, opened in December 2011). ParkWay Mall also opened in the last quarter of 2012 (including ParkWay Supermarket, opened in June 2013). 7-Eleven opened its first two stores in the last quarter of 2018 along with Prince Hypermart, which is also a branch to open in the city, coming soon in early 2019 and CityMall is also expected to open.
Mining.
Nonoc Island has been identified as a special economic zone (Ecozone) by the national government, a boon older residents are quite familiar due to its once prosperous nickel ore production. This project is aimed to put the island's existing infrastructure, including a 1300-meter concrete airstrip and two 60,000 dwt seaport, back in operation. In 2005, China's Jinchuan Group Ltd. submitted a proposal to invest approximately US$1.0 billion for the rehabilitation and revival of the Nonoc nickel refinery. In 2010, Jinchuan renewed its interest in Nonoc, offering a bigger investment at $1.5 billion. However, its insistence for another feasibility study and disagreements over the operating structure shuttered the deal with Philnico who owns the mining rights for the island. In January 2012, San Miguel Corporation of the Philippines entered into a memorandum of agreement with the city government to rehabilitate and operate the Nonoc mines for $3 billion, the single biggest investment in the city yet.
The recent entry of major international mining company Sumitomo with $1.3 billion investment in the province sparked renewed interest of its vast mineral reserves and has helped spur secondary economic activities in the city. Other mining companies like Philex Mining Corporation, Mindoro Resources Ltd. and Anglo Ashanti are in various stages of exploration.
Tourism.
Tourism figures showed 200,000 foreign arrivals in the city in 2011, registering a 37% growth.
Local government.
Surigao City is governed via the mayor-council system. The city council, nationally called "Sangguniang Panlungsod", consists of the vice mayor and 12 council members. The mayor is elected directly every three years.
Infrastructure.
Surigao Provincial Sports Complex
Host to numerous national and regional events, the complex underwent renovation in 2009 at a cost of Php320 million. It is situated on the 2-hectare Vasquez field and includes a 3,500-person capacity grandstand, a fully air conditioned 3,500 seating capacity gymnasium, a brand new amphitheater, an Olympic-size swimming pool (renovated in 2020) and a fully rubberized track and field oval. Surigao Provincial Convention Center, also part of the complex, has a seating capacity of approximately 2,500 persons.
Waste Management Facility
Averaging a 21-ton daily collected garbage, the local government of Surigao built a sanitary landfill in Sitio Looc in 2009 under a PP150 million grant from the Swedish government and assistance from the Land Bank of the Philippines. It is considered a model for solid waste management which includes a P45 million-worth waste treatment facility, a material recovery facility which treats recyclables and a leachate collector, which extracts and treats liquids from garbage.
Transportation.
Motorized tricycles, an indigenous form of auto- rickshaw that can accommodate about six passengers, is mainly the mode of transport in the city. Buses and jeepneys follow fixed routes to outlying barangays, towns and neighboring provinces. The city is also served by outrigger water taxis called pump boats that follow scheduled sea routes to island "barangays". Larger vessels called "Lantsa" have scheduled trips to Siargao, Dinagat and Bucas Grande. Regular ferry service connects the city to ports in Southern Leyte, Cebu, Manila and Agusan del Norte. There are direct flights to Manila and Cebu originating from the city's airport with occasional chartered flights to Siargao, Butuan and Tandag.
Historic Verano port completed a PP414 expansion and upgrade in 2009 to meet world standards and increased cargo demand from a revitalized mining industry in the province. Additional 2000 square meters of reclaimed area and 120 meters of berthing space were added. The port ranks as a major transshipment point in region.
Lipata Port and Ferry Terminal serves as the entry point to Mindanao Island forming part of the extensive Pan-Philippine Highway also called Maharlika Highway AH26 that originates from Laoag to its southern terminus in Zamboanga City. The port has ro-ro capabilities that provides regular service to the ports of Liloan and San Ricardo, both in Southern Leyte.
The northernmost terminus in Mindanao of the Pan-Philippine Highway (AH26) is in Surigao City, dissecting the Surigao Valley before the Surigao-Davao Coastal Road spurs at Bad-as, Placer. An integrated Land Transport Terminal serves companies with routes that reach major destinations including Ormoc, Tacloban, Legazpi, Manila, Butuan (change buses travel to Cagayan de Oro), Tandag, Davao, and Bislig (Mangagoy). Bus companies serving this terminal includes Bachelor Express, Philtranco, Davao Metro Shuttle, PP Bus Line and Surigao Express.
Completed in 2007, San Juan-Lipata Coastal Road connects the Port of Lipata to downtown Surigao, cutting the travel time in half. It includes a series of bridges across coastal barangays of San Juan and Sabang. The longest, Banahaw, spans the Surigao tidal basin.
Classified by the Civil Aviation Authority of the Philippines as a principal domestic airport, Surigao Airport (SUG) is one of the two airports that serve the province of Surigao del Norte and northern parts of Surigao del Sur and Agusan del Norte. Cebgo and Airphil Express have regular scheduled flights from Surigao to Manila and Cebu. Small private planes operate chartered flights to Siargao's Sayak Airport. Due to increased passenger traffic and cargo, it is undergoing feasibility studies for future expansion to accommodate larger aircraft.
Telecommunications.
New facilities built by leading telecommunication companies paved way for clear reception to other parts of the country and the rest of the world. The PLDT, Bayan Telecommunications (Bayantel), Sun Cellular, Globe Telecom and Smart Communications operate vital transmission towers in the city.
Healthcare.
On February 11, 1997, the Congress of the Philippines enacted Republic Act 8244 converting Surigao Provincial Hospital into a regional training hospital and renamed it Caraga Regional Hospital, effectively expanding its scope and services that would include the entire Caraga region with a catchment population of nearly 2 million people. Today, this 150- bed tertiary hospital, a core referral facility, is rapidly expanding with intensive care units that includes Coronary, Pediatric, Surgical and Burn.
In October 2010, the city opened a PP35 million Drug Rehabilitation and Treatment Center in Anomar. Established under the aegis of the Department of Health, it is the first and only facility in the entire Caraga region solely focused on the treatment and rehabilitation of victims of substance abuse.
Other major hospitals in the city include St. Paul University Hospital, Miranda Family Hospital, Surigao Medical Center (undergoing a major expansion) & the soon to open Surigao Doctors Hospital.
Education.
Surigao traces its roots to formal schooling in the year 1906 when the last group of Spanish Benedictine Missionaries, who had worked zealously to have founded the Cartilla or Doctrina School (Escuela Catolica de San Nicolas), vacated Surigao. Soon after their departure, the Missionaries of the Sacred Heart also known as the Dutch Fathers, succeeded them, created the parish of Surigao, and made the Escuela Catolica de San Nicolas a parochial school which later became San Nicolas College. In 2002, Surigao became the first urban center in the entire Caraga region to host a university after San Nicolas College changed its nomenclature in 2004 to Saint Paul University Surigao, a part of Saint Paul University System.
In 1969, Surigao School of Arts and Trades was established on 1.2 hectares of land donated by the provincial government. It focused on curricula geared towards technology at a time the city saw rapid transformation with the onset of nickel exploration at the Nonoc island refinery. While the school was built, it initially held classes at the Provincial Sports Complex with a core census of 14 teachers and 103 students. In 1998, the school was renamed Surigao State College of Technology after it merged with Malimono School of Fisheries. On June 4, 2013, Surigao del Norte State University was established under Rep. Act 10600, integrating Surigao del Norte State College of Technology with Siargao National College of Science and Technology in Del Carmen and the Surigao del Norte College of Agriculture and Technology in Mainit. The name change is still yet to be implemented after it was amended by RA 11010 that the institution shall retain its status prior to the effectivity of this Act until it is able to comply with CHED requirements.
San Sebastian College - Recoletos College of Law - Surigao City Extension located in Taft opened in 1997. Other colleges in the city include Surigao Education Center , St. Jude Thaddeus Institute of Technology, STI College Surigao , Northeastern Mindanao Colleges, St Ignatius Loyola Computer College, and the newly established Surigao Doctor's College (formerly the Center for Healthcare Professions - Surigao).
In 1996, Caraga Regional Science High School was established in San Juan, providing students in the entire region an opportunity to join an academe of reputable standards, now nationally recognized. Students undergo a rigorous highly accelerated 4- level curriculum which includes two years of general studies and two years of a chosen major. With much success as it garnered consistent topnotchers in the National Secondary Achievement Test (NSAT), students also have opportunities to carry out independent research and compete in Intel Science Fairs.