Battle of Halidon Hill

The Battle of Halidon Hill (19 July 1333) was fought during the Second War of Scottish Independence. Scottish forces under Sir Archibald Douglas were heavily defeated by the English forces of King Edward III of England on unfavourable terrain while trying to relieve Berwick-upon-Tweed.
Background.
The First War of Scottish Independence between England and Scotland began in March 1296, when Edward I of England () stormed and sacked the Scottish border town of Berwick as a prelude to his invasion of Scotland. After 30 years of warfare that followed, the newly-crowned 14-year-old King Edward III was nearly captured in the English disaster at Stanhope Park. This brought his regents, Isabella of France and Roger Mortimer, to the negotiating table. They agreed to the Treaty of Northampton with Robert Bruce () in 1328 but this treaty was widely resented in England and commonly known as "turpis pax", "the cowards' peace". Some Scottish nobles refused to swear fealty to Bruce and were disinherited; they left Scotland to join forces with Edward Balliol, son of King John I of Scotland (), whom Edward I had deposed in 1296.
Robert Bruce died in 1329; his heir was 5-year-old David II (). In 1331, under the leadership of Edward Balliol and Henry Beaumont, 4th Earl of Buchan, the disinherited Scottish nobles gathered in Yorkshire and plotted an invasion of Scotland. Edward III was aware of the scheme and officially forbade it. The reality was different, and Edward III was happy to cause trouble for his northern neighbour. He insisted that Balliol not invade Scotland overland from England but turned a blind eye to his forces sailing for Scotland from Yorkshire ports on 31 July 1332. The Scots were aware of the situation and were waiting for Balliol. David II's regent was an experienced old soldier, Thomas Randolph, 1st Earl of Moray. He had prepared for Balliol and Beaumont, but he died ten days before they sailed.
Five days after landing in Fife, Balliol's force of some 2,000 men met the Scottish army of 12,000–15,000 men. The Scots were crushed at the Battle of Dupplin Moor. Thousands of Scots died, including much of the nobility of the realm. Balliol was crowned king of Scotland at Sconethe traditional place of coronation for Scottish monarchson 24 September 1332. Almost immediately, Balliol granted Edward III Scottish estates to a value of £2,000, which included "the town, castle and county of Berwick". Balliol's support within Scotland was limited and within six months it had collapsed. He was ambushed by supporters of David II at the Battle of Annan a few months after his coronation. Balliol fled to England half-dressed and riding bareback. He appealed to Edward III for assistance.
Edward III dropped all pretence of neutrality, recognised Balliol as king of Scotland and made ready for war. The English parliament met at York and debated the situation for five days without conclusion. Edward III promised to discuss the matter with both Pope John XXII and King Philip VI of France (). Possibly to prevent the Scots from taking the initiative, England began openly preparing for war, while announcing that it was Scotland which was preparing to invade England.
Prelude.
Edward's chosen target was the Scottish border town of Berwick. Berwick, on the North Sea coast of Britain, is on the Anglo-Scottish border, astride the main invasion and trade route in either direction. In the Middle Ages, it was the gateway from Scotland to the English eastern march. According to William Edington, a bishop and chancellor of England, Berwick was "so populous and of such commercial importance that it might rightly be called another Alexandria, whose riches were the sea and the water its walls". It was the most successful trading town in Scotland, and the duty on wool which passed through it was the Scottish Crown's largest single source of income. Edward hoped that the possibility of losing it would draw the Scots into a set piece battle, which he anticipated winning. During centuries of war between the two nations battles had been rare, as the Scots preferred guerrilla tactics and border raiding into England. Berwick was one of the few targets which might bring the Scots to battle as, in the words of the historian Clifford Rogers "abandoning it was almost unthinkable".
Archibald Douglas was Guardian of the Realm for the underage David. He was the brother of the "Good" Sir James Douglas, a hero of the First War of Independence. Weapons and supplies were gathered as he made arrangements for the defence of Berwick. Patrick Dunbar, Earl of March, the keeper of Berwick Castle, had recently spent nearly £200 on its defences. Sir Alexander Seton was appointed Governor of Berwick, responsible for the defence of the town. The town walls stretched for and were up to thick and high. They were protected by towers, each up to tall. The wall to the south-west was further protected by the River Tweed, which was crossed by a stone bridge and entered the town at a stone gatehouse. Berwick Castle was to the west of the town, separated by a broad moat, making the town and castle independent strongholds. Berwick was well-defended, well-stocked with provisions and materiel, and expected to withstand a long siege.
Berwick under siege.
Balliol, in command of the disinherited Scottish lords and some English magnates, crossed the border on 10 March. Edward III made grants of over £1,000 to the nobles accompanying him on the campaign and a similar amount was paid to Balliol's companions; Balliol received over £700 personally. He marched through Roxburghshire, burning and pillaging as he went and capturing Oxnam. He reached Berwick in late March and cut it off by land. Edward III's navy had already isolated it by sea. Balliol and the nobles accompanying him are said to have sworn not to withdraw until Berwick had fallen. Edward arrived at Berwick with the main English army on 9May, after leaving Queen Philippa at Bamburgh Castle south of Berwick. Balliol had been at Berwick for six weeks and had placed the town under close siege. Trenches had been dug, the water supply cut and all communication with the hinterland prevented. A scorched-earth policy was applied to the surrounding area to deny supplies for the town if an opportunity to break the siege occurred. The pillaging of the countryside also added to the English army's supplies.
The besieging army included troops raised in the Welsh Marches and the Midlands, as well as levies from the north which had already mustered on account of the earlier Scottish raids. By the end of the month, this force had been augmented by noble retinues, a muster at Newcastle, and the assembly of the English fleet in the River Tyne. Accompanying the army were craftsmen to build siege engines. Thirty-seven masons prepared nearly 700 stone missiles for the siege; these were transported by sea from Hull on 16 May. Edward III had arranged for the combined army to be revictualled by sea through the small port of Tweedmouth.
Douglas had assembled a large army north of the border but his inactivity contrasts sharply with Robert Bruce's swift response to the siege of 1319. Douglas seems to have spent the time assembling ever more troops, rather than using those he already had to mount diversionary raids. Minor raids into Cumberland were launched by Sir Archibald Douglas. These were insufficient to draw the English forces from the siege. But it gave Edward III a pretext for his invasion, of which he took full advantage.
In late June, the defenders set adrift burning brushwood soaked in tar, in an attempt to repel a naval assault. Instead of the English ships, much of the town was set on fire. William Seton, a son of the town's governor, was killed fighting an English seabourne assault. By the end of June the attacks by land and sea had brought the town to a state of ruin and the garrison close to exhaustion. It is believed that a desire for a respite from the plunging fire of the two large counterweight trebuchets used by the English was a significant factor in Seton requesting a short truce from King Edward. This was granted, but only on the condition that he surrender if not relieved by 11 July. Seton's son, Thomas, was to be a hostage to the agreement, along with eleven others.
Relief force.
Douglas was now faced with a situation similar to that which the English had faced before the Battle of Bannockburn. Nicholson considers that "If Berwick were to be saved immediate action on the part of the Scottish guardian was unavoidable". As a matter of national pride Douglas would have to come to the relief of Berwick, just as Edward II had come to the relief of Stirling Castle in 1314. The army that Douglas had spent so much time gathering was now compelled to take to the field. The English army is estimated to have been less than 10,000 strong – outnumbered approximately two-to-one by the Scots. Douglas entered England on 11July, the last day of Seton's truce. He advanced eastwards to Tweedmouth and destroyed it in sight of the English army. Edward III did not move.
Sir William Keith, with Sir Alexander Gray and Sir William Prenderguest, led a force of around 200 Scottish cavalry. With some difficulty, they forced their way across the ruins of the bridge to the northern bank of the Tweed and made their way into the town. Douglas considered the town relieved. He sent messages to Edward III calling on him to depart, threatening that if he failed to do so, the Scots army would devastate England. The Scots were challenged to do their worst. The defenders argued that Keith's 200 horsemen constituted the relief according to the truce and therefore they did not have to surrender. Edward III stated that this was not the case: they had to be relieved directly from Scotlandliterally from the direction of Scotlandwhereas Keith, Gray and Prenderguest had approached Berwick from the direction of England. Edward III ruled that the truce agreement had been breached – the town having neither surrendered nor been relieved. A gallows was constructed directly outside the town walls and, as the highest-ranking hostage, Thomas Seton was hanged while his parents watched. Edward III issued instructions that each day the town failed to surrender, another two hostages should be hanged.
Keith, having taken command of the town from Seton, concluded a fresh truce on 15 July, promising to surrender if not relieved by sunset on 19July. The truce comprised two indentures, one between Edward III and the town of Berwick and the other between Edward III and March, the keeper of Berwick Castle. It defined circumstances in which relief would or would not occur. The terms of surrender were not unconditional. The town was to be returned to English soil and law but the inhabitants were to be allowed to leave, with their goods and chattels, under a safe conduct from Edward III. All members of the garrison would also be given free passage. Relief was defined as one of three events: 200 Scottish men-at-arms fighting their way into Berwick; the Scottish army forcing its way across a specific stretch of the River Tweed; or, defeat of the English army in open battle on Scottish soil. On concluding the new treaty, Keith was allowed to immediately leave Berwick, travel to wherever the Guardian of Scotland happened to be, advise him of the terms of the treaty, and return safely to Berwick.
By this time Douglas had marched south to Bamburgh, where Edward III's queen Philippa was still staying, and besieged it; Douglas hoped that this would cause Edward III to break off his siege. In 1319 Edward III's father, Edward II, had broken off a siege of Berwick after a Scottish army had advanced on York, where his queen was staying, and devastated Yorkshire. However, whatever concerns Edward III had for his queen, he ignored the threat to Bamburgh. The Scots did not have the time to construct the kind of equipment that would be necessary to take the fortress by assault. The Scots devastated the countryside but Edward III ignored this. He positioned the English army on Halidon Hill, a small rise of some , to the north-west of Berwick, which gives an excellent view of the town and the vicinity. From this vantage point, he dominated the crossing of the Tweed specified in the indentures and would have been able to attack the flank of any force of men-at-arms attempting to enter Berwick. Receiving Keith's news, Douglas felt that his only option was to engage the English in battle.
Battle.
Crossing the Tweed to the west of the English position, the Scottish army reached the town of Duns, from Berwick, on 18July. On the following day it approached Halidon Hill from the north-west, ready to give battle on ground chosen by Edward III. Edward III had to face the Scottish army to the front and guard his rear against the risk of a sortie by the garrison of Berwick. By some accounts, a large proportion of the English army was left guarding Berwick.
To engage the English, the Scots had to advance downhill, cross a large area of marshy ground and then climb the northern slope of Halidon Hill. The Battle of Dupplin Moor the previous year had shown how vulnerable the Scots were to arrows. The prudent course of action would have been to withdraw and wait for a better opportunity to fight, but this would guarantee the loss of Berwick. The armies encountered each other's scouts around midday on 19July. Douglas ordered an attack. The "Lanercost Chronicle" reports:
 The Scots suffered many casualties and the lower reaches of the hill were littered with dead and wounded. The survivors continued upwards, through the arrows "as thick as motes in a sun beam", according to an unnamed contemporary quoted by Nicholson, and on to the waiting spears.
The Scottish army broke, the camp followers made off with the horses and the fugitives were pursued by the mounted English knights. The Scottish casualties numbered in thousands, including Douglas and five earls dead on the field. Scots who surrendered were killed on Edward's orders and some drowned as they fled into the sea. English casualties were reported as fourteen; some chronicles give a lower figure of seven. About a hundred Scots who had been taken prisoner were beheaded the next morning, 20July. This was the date that Berwick's second truce expired, and the town and the castle surrendered on the terms in the indentures.
Aftermath.
Edward, considering his part done, left for the south, and left Balliol to quell any remaining resistance in Scotland. On 19June 1334, Balliol did homage to Edward for Scotland, after formally ceding to England the eight counties of south-east Scotland. Balliol ruled a truncated Scottish state from Perth, from where he attempted to put down the remaining resistance. Balliol was deposed again in 1334, restored again in 1335 and finally deposed in 1336, by those loyal to David II. Berwick was to remain the military and political headquarters of the English on the border until 1461, when it was returned to the Scots by King Henry VI (). Rogers states that Berwick "remained a bone of contention throughout the Middle Ages", until its final recapture for the English by the Duke of Gloucester, the future King Richard III, in 1482.
Balliol proceeded north and held a parliament at Perth in October 1333, whereby he restored lands to the "Disinherited", by reversing all territorial grants of the Bruce. In doing so he dispossessed a whole new generation of Scots nobility of their land, thus ensuring continued conflict.
Estimate of the casualties: of nobles 4,000; of common people 19,000.


Put Down Your Whip

Put Down Your Whip, also translated as Lay Down Your Whip (), is a 1931 Chinese street play written by Chen Liting during the Republican era, who drew inspiration from the earlier play "Meiniang" by Tian Han.
Originally an anti-government play, it was adapted to take on an anti-Japanese theme after growing Japanese aggression against China. It became the most influential street play during the Second Sino-Japanese War, and was performed countless times throughout China, and even in the White House for President Roosevelt by the actress Wang Ying. The future Madame Mao was also among its many performers.
Wang Ying's performance of "Put Down Your Whip" inspired Xu Beihong's eponymous painting, which in 2007 set an auction price record for Chinese paintings.
Plot.
Original version.
A young girl named Fragrance (Xiang Jie) and her old father are poor and homeless street performers. Fragrance sings the folk song "Fengyang Flower-Drum" and does acrobatics on the street. She performs badly because she is weak from chronic hunger. Angry with his daughter's poor performance, the old man raises his whip to punish her. A young man, who is an actor in disguise, charges out from the audience, shouting "Put down your whip!" He scolds the old man for abusing his own daughter. Unexpectedly, Fragrance defends her father, and recounts her family's plight: they are refugees who have escaped flood, exploitative landlords, and tyrannical government of their hometown. The spectators are deeply moved by her misfortune. At the end, the young man turns to the spectators and exhorts them to resist the oppressive Kuomintang government: "We must resist those who coerce us to live a life of starvation and homelessness."
Later development.
After increasing Japanese encroachment into north China, and especially the December 9th Movement of 1935, the play was adapted to take on an anti-imperialist and anti-Japanese theme. Instead of escaping from government oppression and flood, Fragrance and her father now escape the brutal Japanese occupation of Manchuria; and instead of appealing to the audience to fight against the government, the young man urges his compatriots to unite and defend the country against Japanese invasion, or "we will soon meet the same fate as our countrymen in Manchuria." The theme song was also changed to the "September Eighteenth Melody" lamenting the September 18 Incident of 1931 when Japan invaded and occupied Manchuria. Other patriotic songs including the "March of the Volunteers", which later became the national anthem of the People's Republic of China, were also used. The location of Fragrance's hometown kept changing as new places became devastated by the Japanese invaders. After the 1937 Nanking Massacre, the fallen Chinese capital Nanking would become her hometown.
Reception.
The play was written by Chen Liting, then a 21-year-old primary school teacher in Nanhui County outside of Shanghai, drawing inspiration from Tian Han's play "Meiniang". Chen did not put his name on the script, however, because of the strong anti-government overtone in the original play.
The play was a failure when it debuted on 10 October 1931 in Nanhui. But after its adaptation to a patriotic anti-Japanese play, it became the most influential street play of the Sino-Japanese War, and was performed countless times throughout China during the war. The play was frequently staged by amateur performers as well as many famous stars. The great actress Wang Ying even performed an English version of the play in the White House for President Roosevelt, first lady Eleanor Roosevelt, and many diplomats. The future Madame Mao, then known as Li Yunhe, was also among its many performers.
"Put Down Your Whip" has been described in Chinese media as a "spiritual atomic bomb" against the Japanese invaders.
In art.
In October 1939, Wang Ying performed "Put Down Your Whip" in Singapore. Artist Xu Beihong, who was a friend of the actress, painted a life-size portrait of her performing the play. In April 2007 the painting was sold in auction for US$9.2 million, setting a record for the highest auction price ever paid for a Chinese painting.
Artist Situ Qiao also saw Wang Ying's performance in Singapore and painted his version of the play in 1940, which has become the painter's most famous work.


Victorville Army Airfield


Battle of Noemfoor

The Battle of Noemfoor was part of the New Guinea campaign of World War II. It took place on the island of Noemfoor, in Dutch New Guinea (now Papua, in Indonesia), between 2 July and 31 August 1944. During the battle, Allied forces landed on the island to capture Japanese bases as part of their advance through the Pacific towards the Philippines. The initial landing was largely unopposed and the Japanese defenders withdrew inland as the US troops came ashore. Sporadic fighting took place over the course of two months as the Allies secured the three airfields on the island and pushed the surviving Japanese troops to the southeastern coast. The island was later used by the Allies to support operations around Sansapor and on Morotai.
Background.
Geography and strategic situation.
Noemfoor is an elliptical, almost circular shape. It is approximately in diameter and encircled by coral reefs. The landscape is dominated by limestone and coral terraces, topped by a tall hill, which is covered by tropical rainforest, like much of the interior. One of the Schouten Islands, Noemfoor lies at the western end of the Japen Strait, to the north of Cenderawasih Bay (Geelvink Bay), between the island of Biak and the east coast of the Doberai Peninsula (Vogelkop/Bird's Head Peninsula), on mainland New Guinea.
The island was occupied by Japanese forces in December 1943. The indigenous civilian population numbered about 5,000 people, most of whom lived a subsistence lifestyle in coastal villages. There were also 1,100 laborers on the island: a 600-strong Formosan (Taiwanese) auxiliary labor unit and 500 Indonesian civilian forced laborers. According to the official U.S. Army history, over 3,000 Indonesian men, women, and children were shipped to Noemfoor by the Japanese military. Most came from Soerabaja (Surabaya) and other large cities on Java. These Javanese civilians were forced to construct roads and airfields, mostly by hand. Little food, clothing, shelter or medical attention were provided. Many attempted to steal Japanese supplies, and were executed. Others died from starvation and preventable disease. Survivors also alleged that sick Javanese were buried alive.
The Formosan labor troops had originally numbered about 900 men. They had also worked on airfield and road construction, on half the ration of rice issued to regular Japanese troops. When they became ill from exhaustion, hunger, or tropical diseases, they were put in a convalescent camp. In the words of the U.S. official history: "There, their rations were again cut in half, and the shelter and blankets provided covered but a fraction of the inmates. Medical care was given only to the worse cases, and then was inadequate."
Throughout 1943–1944, the Japanese built three airfields on the island, turning it into a significant air base. The three fields were: Kornasoren Airfield/Yebrurro Airfield, located toward the northern end of the island; Kamiri Airfield, on the northwestern edge of the island; and Namber Airfield, on the west coast of the island. Of these, Kornasoren was unfinished at the time of the battle. Noemfoor was also used as a staging area for Japanese troops moving to reinforce Biak, which was invaded by the Allies in May 1944 as part of their westward advance along the northern New Guinea coast. Japanese barges could travel from Manokwari to Noemfoor—about —during one night.
Allied plans.
By 20 June, Japanese forces on Biak had been largely defeated and construction work began on the Mokmer airfield, which was operational two days later. Bombing of the Noemfoor by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) began as early as April 1944. Between 20 June and 1 July, Allied bombers dropped 800 tons of bombs on the island.
In describing his preparations for the Western New Guinea campaign, General Douglas MacArthur wrote in his memoirs that: "[t]he Hollandia Invasion initiated a marked change in the tempo of my advance westward. Subsequent assaults against Wakde, Biak, Noemfoor, and Sansapor were mounted in quick succession, and, in contrast to previous campaigns, I planned no attempt to complete all phases of one operation before moving on to the next objective."
At the time of the battle, the area's strategic importance lay it is proximity along planned Allied avenues of advance through the southwest Pacific and western New Guinea toward the Philippines. Specifically, Noemfoor was selected for invasion for four reasons:
At the end of June, RAAF HQ reported that although the Namber and Kamiri airfields were serviceable, they were barely being used and "a possibly generous" estimate suggested that only 19 Japanese bombers and 37 fighters remained in New Guinea.
Opposing forces.
MacArthur selected the 158th Regimental Combat Team to assault the island in Operation Cyclone commencing on 2 July. This formation consisted primarily of units from the Arizona National Guard, United States Army, and was commanded by Major General Edwin D. Patrick. The 158th formed part of General Walter Krueger's Sixth Army (Alamo Force). At the time of their assignment to the operation, the 158th was engaged in fighting around Wakde. To free them up for the assault, in mid-June, Kruger decided to replace 158th at Wakde with the US 6th Infantry Division.
In mid-June, No. 10 Operational Group RAAF, under Air Commodore Frederick Scherger, was designated the controlling Allied air force unit for Operation Cyclone. The USAAF units attached to 10 OG for the invasion comprised: the 58th and 348th Fighter Groups and the 307th, 309th and 417th Bombardment Groups. Total personnel assigned to the task force numbered 10,000, including those from air units; the majority of these personnel, some 5,500, were service troops. Around 3,000 of these were assigned to undertake airfield construction tasks following the capture of the island. The ground invasion force – composed primarily of the 158th RCT – was primarily American and was known as Cyclone Task Force. It was augmented by the Australian No. 62 Wing RAAF, which was tasked with airfield improvement works, and a 39-strong contingent of Dutch civil administration personnel that was included to re-establish Dutch civil administration. This force was later reinforced by 10 local police officers after the landing.
Facing them were approximately 2,000 Japanese troops, mostly from the 219th Infantry Regiment (35th Division) as well as some from the 222nd Infantry Regiment, who had been in transit to Biak. The garrison was commanded by Colonel Suesada Shimizu, who was also the commander of the 219th Infantry Regiment. Shimizu had arrived on the island on 8 June and had organized his defending troops into fourteen strongpoints; ultimately these were too widely dispersed to enable a coherent defense. Other units assigned to the Japanese garrison included the 8th Independent Battalion (Provisional), several airfield construction units, a motor transport company, an antiaircraft unit and elements of an airfield company and airfield battalion. Throughout 1944, various kinds of Japanese aircraft were at the Noemfoor airfields. Elements of "61° Hiko Sentai" ("No. 61 Air Group"/"61st Flying Regiment"), flying Mitsubishi Ki-21 ("Sally") bombers, were based at Kamiri. However, Japanese aircraft played no significant role in the ensuing battle as the 23rd Air Flotilla was redeployed to resist US forces around Saipan on 13 June.
Invasion.
The landing force mounted at Finschhafen and Toem, in late June, and sailed to the objective in three groups after orders had been drawn up and rehearsals had been undertaken. From 04:30 on 2 July, warships from the U.S.-Australian Task Forces 74 and 75—under Rear Admiral Russell S. Berkey—bombarded Japanese positions on Noemfoor. TF 74 was commanded for the first time by Commodore John Collins, making him the first graduate of the Royal Australian Naval College to command a naval squadron in action. In response to the bombardment, Japanese antiaircraft guns briefly fired upon spotting aircraft until being knocked out by naval gunfire from Allied ships.
At 08:00 on 2 July, the 158th RCT was taken to the beach by TF 77, made up of LCMs and LCTs under Rear Admiral William Fechteler. The initial landings were near Kamiri airfield, on the northwest edge of the island. The island was surrounded by "an almost solid ring" of coral, but this did not hinder the landing and American newspapers later reported "almost no loss" of troops before reaching the shore. Shimzu's force had largely retired inland before the US landing. The initial landing was carried by two battalions, which land abreast of each other, securing a beachhead about half a mile wide, supported by LVTs crewed by personnel from the 3rd Engineer Special Brigade.
There had been extensive Japanese defensive preparations in the Kamiri area including wire entanglements, trenches, dugouts and prepared positions covering the Allied avenues of advance, but there was little resistance at Kamiri Airfield and the area was quickly secured as the assaulting infantry cleared the area. About 300 improvised land mines had been placed by the Japanese around the beach, but these were clearly marked and were dealt with quickly. A group of about 40 Japanese were killed around some of the caves in the area, but the majority of Japanese troops had withdrawn inland, as part of Shimzu's plan to move east towards Broe Bay to wait for evacuation; as a consequence the only opposition to the landing was an hour-long artillery bombardment from an inland battery, which fell on the landing beach and reef. One Allied soldier was killed in the bombardment, and two vehicles were destroyed before the battery was suppressed by naval guns.
In the words of the U.S. Navy official history: "Japanese encountered around the airfield were so stunned from the effects of the bombardment that all the fight was taken out of them." Kamiri was captured within hours of the landing. Reports indicated that approximately 45 Japanese soldiers were killed, and about 30 Japanese planes captured, although all of these were damaged as a result of the earlier bombardment and bombing. By 1750 hours on the first day, 7,100 troops had been landed, along with 500 vehicles and 2,250 tons of supplies, which had been unloaded from the eight assigned LSTs.
The following day, 3 July, as a precaution against Japanese resistance elsewhere, the 2,000 paratroopers of the U.S. 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment began dropping onto the island. The regiment's 1st Battalion arrived first, suffering 72 non battle casualties as several sticks were dropped from low altitude, resulting in a large number of leg fractures. The 3rd Battalion followed the next day, incurring another 56 non battle casualties in the drop. As a result of the large numbers of injuries, the 2nd Battalion was brought ashore in LCIs instead of being dropped by air.
The second base captured by US forces, Yebrurro airstrip, was secured by 4 July and the Allied beachhead was expanded towards Kamiri. That same day, the first elements of No. 10 Operational Group arrived on Noemfoor. There were no Japanese air attacks until the night of 4 July, when a light bomber dropped three bombs near Kamiri, without effect. A few days later, four single-engined fighters dropped about 40 incendiary bombs, causing some damage to Allied materiel.
Early on 5 July, there was an unsuccessful counter-attack by Japanese ground forces at Kamiri, around Hill 201, although it was defeated by 0630 hours. Around 200 Japanese were killed during the assault, which was carried out by two companies from the 219th Infantry Regiment and around 150 Formosan laborers. For the remainder of the day, US forces carried out mopping up operations and sent out patrols towards the northeast. The following day, a detachment of U.S. forces from Noemfoor also secured the smaller neighboring island of Manim. The 2nd Battalion, 158th Infantry Regiment embarked upon 20 LCTs and sailed down the western coast to capture Namber Airfield which came under Allied control, without resistance, on 6 July. The island was officially declared secure on 7 July. However, individual Japanese soldiers continued guerrilla activities, albeit largely limited to night time raids. While this was taking place, the Dutch detachment were able to establish contact with local chiefs who assisted in mopping up operations against the Japanese from late July.
Following this, as the Japanese withdraw further inland. Despite Shimzu's plans to withdraw to Broe Bay to await for evacuation, the majority of his troops melted into the hills and the evacuation never eventuated. Small groups attempted to resist and Shimzu's small force was slowly pushed towards the southeastern part of the island. Troops from the 503rd Parachute Infantry dispatched many patrols to pursue the withdrawing Japanese. Initially, a force of about 400–500 Japanese troops under Shimzu broke contact and gathered at Hill 670, several miles to the northeast of the airfield. The 1st Battalion, 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment reestablished contact on 13 July and over the course of three days pushed towards the crest of the hill, which was found abandoned on 16 July.
After withdrawing from Hill 670, Shimzu's force then managed to evade the US patrols until 23 July. About northwest of Inasi, troops from the 2nd Battalion, 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment clashed with the Japanese near the lagoon. For his actions during this engagement, Sergeant Ray E. Eubanks was later posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor. Contact between the two forces was lost from 25 July until 10 August, when a week long action took place around Hill 380. Despite US artillery and air strikes, the Japanese commander managed to slip through the US cordon with a small force and withdrew towards Pakriki, on the coast. Sporadic fighting continued throughout the rest of the month, but by 31 August all fighting had ceased.
Aftermath.
Casualties.
By 31 August, Cyclone Task Force had lost 66 killed or missing and 343 wounded. It had killed approximately 1,730 Japanese and taken 186 prisoners. According to the U.S. Army official history, only 403 of the original 3,000 Javanese civilian laborers were alive by 31 August. About 10–15 were reported to have been killed accidentally by Allied forces. The rest had died from mistreatment before the invasion.
About 300 Formosan labor troops had died before the invasion. Others fought the Allies, allegedly as a result of Japanese coercion. Over 550 surrendered; more than half of these were suffering from starvation and tropical diseases. Less than 20 were reported killed by Allied action. According to the U.S. Army historian, Robert Ross Smith, Allied personnel found evidence that human bodies, of Japanese, Formosan and Allied personnel, had been partly eaten by starving Japanese and Formosans.
Base development.
Allied airfield repair and construction work by the RAAF and U.S. Army Engineers began on 2 July. On the afternoon of 6 July, before the formal cessation of hostilities on the ground, an RAAF P-40 fighter squadron had landed at Kamiri, supporting operations on Noemfoor and becoming the first of many Allied air force units to be based there.
Namber Airfield was assessed as too rough and badly graded to be effectively used by Allied aircraft. It was abandoned in favor of expansion and improvements at Kornasoren. On 25 July, a USAAF P-38 Lighting fighter group was able to land there. By 2 September, two parallel runways had been completed; soon afterwards, B-24 Liberator heavy bombers began operating from Kornasoren Airfield, against Japanese petroleum facilities at Balikpapan, Borneo. Allied aircraft based on Noemfoor played an important role in the battles of Sansapor and Morotai.


406th Bombardment Squadron


Convoy LN-7

Convoy LN-7 was a trade convoy of merchant ships during the Second World War. It was one of the numbered LN convoys from Quebec City to Goose Bay, Labrador. The convoy was found on 2 September 1942 by , which then destroyed the merchant ship "Donald Stewart" early the next morning.
Background.
The March 1942 St. Lawrence Conference reviewed plans for convoy defence against U-boats in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the St. Lawrence River as well as establishing a base at Gaspé, Quebec for the St. Lawrence patrol force, named Gaspé Force. However, by Spring 1942 the only deterrent active within the St. Lawrence were air patrols. In early May, the first U-boat arrived in the St. Lawrence, . It entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence and sank two merchant vessels.
Following the attacks, all independent sailings were cancelled and a convoy system was adopted. As a result of merchant ship losses in the Atlantic Ocean, many slow lake freighters, vessels built for shipping on the Great Lakes, had been brought into service supplying St. Lawrence ports. The large number of slow ships prevented the adoption of slow and fast convoys of merchants, making all the convoys uniform in speed with a maximum of .
In 1942, there were increased demands for the protection of shipping as new convoy systems were created. Protection of convoys bringing material and workers to Goose Bay, Labrador for the construction of a large Royal Canadian Air Force base was required. The convoys would depart Quebec and bring the material to the drop off point at Hamilton Inlet in Labrador and the return trip would be made by the now-empty vessels. To provide escort for the new convoys, two s were reassigned from tanker escort duty in July 1942.
The , commanded by "Kapitänleutnant" Paul Hartwig, had entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the night of 26–27 August 1942. On 27 August, "U-517" torpedoed the United States Army transport "Chatham" in the Strait of Belle Isle. On 28 August, the U-boat sank the abandoned hulk "Arlyn" in the strait. These attacks, and those by led to the cancellation of the sailing of LN-6, which was composed of the corvette "Trail" and the merchant vessels "Ericus" and "Donald Stewart".
Ships in the convoy.
Merchant ships.
LN-7 was composed of three merchant vessels. "Canatco" had sailed from Quebec with the escort "Shawinigan" with "Ericus", "Donald Stewart" and the escort "Trail" joining from convoy LN 6 off Gaspé which had been cancelled after U-boat attacks in the Strait of Belle Isle. "Donald Stewart" was a Great Lakes freighter carrying cement and 55-gallon drums of aviation gasoline lashed to its deck. After the groups had merged, the three merchant ships sailed in a line abreast.
Escorts.
"Shawinigan" was the initial escort assigned to the convoy. "Trail" joined from convoy LN-6 after it had been cancelled due to U-boat attacks in the Strait of Belle Isle. Once the two groups had merged, a corvette was positioned ahead of the convoy on each flank.
Battle.
On 1 September "Trail", "Ericus" and "Donald Stewart" departed Gaspé to join LN-7 as it passed on its way to Hamilton Inlet. The convoy was spotted by "U-517" off Anticosti Island on 2 September, but was prevented from attacking right away by the appearance of a Canso aircraft from No. 117 Squadron RCAF. Hartwig then navigated ahead of the convoy, intending to attack later in the day.
NL-6, comprising the Flower-class corvette , the and three empty merchant vessels on their return trip to Quebec heading in the opposite direction. The escorts of the two convoys were concentrating on keeping the convoys apart. It was during this meeting at 03:00 on 3 September that "U-517" commenced a surface attack on the convoy, firing into convoy LN-7 from its southern flank. As the submarine fired two torpedoes, it was caught on the surface by "Weyburn". The corvette sought to ram, but not being fast enough to catch up to the surfaced submarine, opened fire with its forward gun. This action forced Hartwig to submerge. "Weyburn" then made a depth charge attack and sought to find the U-boat using its asdic, but made no contact.
One torpedo struck the merchant "Donald Stewart" forward of the stern, the other missed. The torpedo that struck ignited the gasoline causing flames to rise from the merchant " and spreading from stem to stern." 16 of 19 crew were recovered by "Shawinigan" with "Clayoquot" and "Trail" screening the operation. Hartwig had decided against a second attack on the convoys following "Weyburn"s attempt to ram and remained submerged.
Aftermath.
"U-517" continued to track LN-7 towards the Strait of Belle Isle. Following "U-517"s attack, air cover was strengthened in the area and beginning on 3 September, a Digby bomber from No. 10 Squadron RCAF was deployed to the area. The Digby caught "U-517" on the surface and dropped four depth charges, missing with all of them. One of the depth charges blew up on contact with the water and fragments damaged the wing of the aircraft. The U-boat submerged before the depth charges hit and suffered no damage. Thirty minutes after the air attack, "Trail" arrived on scene and "U-517" and turned towards Anticosti Island. Further U-boat attacks on convoys, with the strongest on 6 September on Convoy QS-33, transiting the Gulf and St. Lawrence River would force the Royal Canadian Navy to dedicate more powerful ships to convoy escort. On 9 September, the Royal Canadian Navy informed the Allies that St. Lawrence ports were to be closed to international shipping.


Santa Ana Army Air Base

Santa Ana Army Air Base (SAAAB) was a World War II-era air base located near Santa Ana, California. The air base was decommissioned in 1946, and part of the land was annexed by Costa Mesa in 1953. The air base was used for basic training, although it did not have planes, hangars or runways. The base was , and the main section of the base was located between Baker Street to the north, Harbor Boulevard to the west, Wilson Street on the south, and Newport Boulevard on the east. The land formerly occupied by the air base is today the home of John Wayne Airport, the Orange County Fairgrounds, and Orange Coast College.
Origins and development.
On 1 January 1942 the United States Army Air Corps activated Santa Ana Army Air Base and established the West Coast Air Corps Training Center at Santa Ana, California. The West Coast Air Corps Training Center at Santa Ana commanded flying training (basic, primary and advanced) at airfields in the Western United States. On 31 July 1943, was redesignated as the Western Flying Training Command.
Santa Ana Army Air Base was an air base without planes, hangars or runways. The original locations were at Maxwell Field, Montgomery, Alabama, Randolph Field, San Antonio, Texas and Moffett Field, Sunnyvale, California. These three Centers were to train a total of 7,000 pilots per year. However the national program was increased to 30,000 pilots per year in August 1940. Many contract training schools were started to help fill this quota.
In February 1941, the Army initiated three Air Corps Replacement Training Centers. These were induction centers for new recruits entering the Army Air Corps with no military experience. Each center was to provide for the classification and preflight instruction for pilots, navigators and bombardiers. The locations were to be at existing air corps facilities. This was the case except for the West Coast Air Corps Training Center at Moffett Field, near Sunnyvale, California. The United States Navy wanted to use the field exclusively for its lighter than air "blimp" base so the Army Air Corps had to look elsewhere for a new facility. A search of sites in southern California was conducted. The City Council of Santa Ana wanted the new center located near it so they arranged to lease a 409-acre site for $6,400 per year from M. H. Whittier Co. Ltd. with an option to buy at $500 per acre. The government could sublet from the city for $1 per year. The Army selected the Santa Ana site on 16 June 1941. The City leased the land on 21 August 1941.
National Training Center.
Santa Ana Army Air Base (SAAAB) was a huge basic training camp. Plans were also made to move the entire Army Air Force administrative offices at Moffett Field to the Santa Ana area.
The master plan called for the construction of 145 buildings that would include: 79 barracks, 3 warehouses, quartermaster supply office, 4 school buildings, 10 administration buildings, 13 day rooms, 13 supply rooms, 4 cadet messes, 2 officers' quarters, a motor repair shop, post office, gasoline service station, utility buildings, theater, 2 recreation buildings, commissary buildings, chapels, dispatchers' office, officers' mess, fire station, guard house, two post exchanges, and a 151-bed hospital and all utilities. This would amount to a new city in the middle of bean and tomato fields. The construction contract for the 177 buildings at SAAAB was awarded to the Griffith Company on 24 October 1941 for $2 million. The work was to be completed in 120 calendar days
The Base would not have a flying field as a part of its facilities. It would receive air cadets from civilian life and give them basic ground training prior to their advancement to one of the contract primary aviation schools for flight training.
The Orange County Airport was also selected as the site for the Headquarters Squadron originally located at Moffett Field. Arrangements were also made for the Air Corps lease five acres of land for a small facility at the adjacent airport to serve as a sort of "taxi service" for the Army Air Force officials to permit them to contact various points of flying activity along the West Coast.
The first set of buildings was completed on 15 May 1942; however, the officers and men began to move into the base on 16 February 1942. General Orders No. 14 made it official on 3 March 1942. The base grew rapidly as the need for pilots and air crews skyrocketed. Newly inducted soldiers, earmarked for the Army Air Forces, were given 9 weeks of basic training and then testing to determine if they were to be pilots, bombardiers, navigators, mechanics, etc. From SAAAB, they went on to other bases for training in their specialties. It planned to accommodate 2,500 to 3,000 cadets, 83 officers and 806 enlisted men, and to cost about $3.2 million to construct.
The first group of 50 cadets arrived on 20 February 1942. On 25 February 1942 the Headquarters and Headquarters Squadron with its enlisted men and approximately 2,000 cadets arrived to begin training. By March there were 5,000 cadets on the base. Cadets lived in tents until the new barracks could be completed. Instruction began in March for a nine-week course. In May 1942 the base was organized into Wings, Groups and Squadrons. A wing consisted of ten squadrons, divided into two Groups. A squadron usually had about 180 men. This was broken into flights and then squads. The first class of 2,601 cadets graduated on 1 July 1942. By the end of 1942 the annual rate of graduates from the Pilot School was over 45,000. To carry out this program, the Air Force had recruited a faculty of over 250 well-trained and experienced high school, college and university teachers who later became officers in the Air Corps.
In the Fall of 1942 SAAAB became an Overseas Replacement Depot (ORD) housing Army Air Forces personnel awaiting transportation overseas. Turnover was rapid so that by the end of the year 23,470 soldiers had passed through SAAAB. By the end of 1943 that number jumped to 57,895. The Base reached its maximum strength by the fall of 1943, with a population of some 26,000 servicemen. In November 1943 members of the Women's Air Service Pilots (WASP) began training at the base, followed shortly by members of the Women's Army Corp (WAC).
Being close to Hollywood and with such a large turnover of service personnel, the base attracted a lot of Hollywood celebrities who put on shows at the base.
Preflight training at the SAAAB peaked in the latter part of 1943. Pilot class 44D, the largest, completed training in October 1943. By then, the Army Air Forces had enough aircrews for the foreseeable future. On 31 May 1944 aircrew classification ceased at the SAAAB, only about two years since a began. The Pilot School closed on 22 May 1944. It had received 73,923 cadets and graduated 70,464 for flying schools. By the end of 1944 most pilot training schools were being closed by the Army Air Forces.
On 1 November 1944 the SAAAB was turned over to the Army Air Forces Personnel Distribution Command with General Arthur E. Easterbrook in command. At the time it had 800 buildings on the Base. Most of the remaining cadets were sent to San Antonio, Texas. From its inception until this transfer the SAAAB Classification Center had received 149,425 men. Of that total, 82,252 were classified as pilots, 21,842 as bombardiers and 14,230 as navigators. Classification eliminated 28,388 to ground crew and 188 to radio operator school. At its close 2,525 remained unclassified.
7 May 1945 V-E day was the close of the fighting in Europe. Suddenly SAAAB's role changed 180 degrees and it worked around the clock to become a separation center. By November 1945 81,000 combat veterans had been returned to private life. In late 1945 Japanese aliens from the alien internment camps being returned to Japan by the Immigrations and Naturalization Service (INS) were housed here while awaiting transportation to Japan
Finally on 13 March 1946 the Army deactivated the SAAAB. On 4 May 1946 the title to the SAAAB passed from the Army to the War Assets Administration.
Postwar use.
In the ensuing years some of the buildings on the base were sold and moved piecemeal, others became part of colleges. In 1953 the City of Costa Mesa was incorporated. In June 1955, the former SAAAB property was annexed to the City.
For a period of time in the mid-1950s a portion of the Base served as a Nike guided missile training base. The three-battery missile compound had been made operational in January 1956. Two years later, in June 1958, the Air National Guard received a five-acre parcel of land and the remaining 260 acres, including the five-acre air base water facility, was declared surplus and turned over to the GSA.
The western portion of the land that was the SAAAB is currently Orange County Fairgrounds, and the eastern portion is currently John Wayne Airport.
On 29 June 1979, a plaque was dedicated to "all pilots, bombardiers and navigators who trained here that contributed to an early victory in World War II". This plaque was placed on the Air National Guard base, which is the last active duty post on the original location of the SAAAB.
In popular culture.
In literature, Santa Ana Army Air Base is notable as being one of the two main settings for the novel "Catch-22" by Joseph Heller, and subsequent film and television adaptations of the book. Heller acknowledges at the beginning of the novel that he has heavily-fictionalized the other main setting – the Italian island of Pianosa – suggesting that SAAAB is depicted more realistically.


Battle of the Shirts

The Battle of the Shirts (, also the Battle of Kinloch-Lochy) was a Scottish clan battle that took place in 1544 in the Great Glen, at the northern end of Loch Lochy. The Clan Macdonald of Clanranald and their allies the Clan Cameron fought the Clan Fraser and men from Clan Grant. The battlefield has been included and protected by Historic Scotland in their Inventory of Historic Battlefields in Scotland.
Clan tradition of the clans involved and all histories written since the period have stated that the name was derived from the fact that the day was so hot that both sides threw off their chainmail hauberks, fighting in their shirts. However, some have postulated in recent times that "Blàr na Léine" is a corruption of "Blàr na Lèana " 'the Field of the Swampy Meadow'.
Background.
The chiefship of the Clan Macdonald of Clanranald was in dispute. Hugh Fraser, 3rd Lord Lovat, chief of Clan Fraser of Lovat, was the uncle of one of the warring claimants, Ranald Galda (the stranger), whose cause he supported. Lovat with over four hundred of his best men joined up with the Earl of Huntly, chief of Clan Gordon, who was the Lieutenant of the North. They intended to crush the MacDonalds and make Ranald the chief. The combined Fraser and Gordon force marched to Inverlochy, in Lochaber and they successfully established Ranald's control over Moidart by taking Castle Tioram.
The battle.
The Earl of Huntly decided to split his forces from the Frasers and returned to his own territory. The expedition being cut short, Fraser, Lord Lovat led his men up the Great Glen towards Glenmoriston. This decision to divide their forces for their return journey might indicate that Lovat and Huntly thought that the MacDonalds were no longer a threat.
The MacDonalds had been stalking the invaders but had held back because they were numerically inferior. However, with Huntly's men gone, the MacDonalds moved swiftly to outflank Lovat, falling upon the unsuspecting Frasers on an area of wild marshland to the north of Loch Lochy. The battle became known as "Blar-ne-leine" which means "the field of the shirts" because the heat of the day caused the Highlanders to take off their heavy chainmail coats and fight in their shirts. (This translation is however disputed by modern scholars who assert that it really refers to the marshy ground).
Lovat and his Frasers were outnumbered but he could have fought a rearguard action to cover his escape. Instead Lovat led his men into a pitched battle. Lovat was killed along with his son and heir, and hundreds of men with the victory falling to the MacDonalds.
Aftermath.
Lovat and his son were later buried at Beauly Priory. For the most part the Earl of Huntly focused his attention in other parts of Scotland thereafter, as a result of which John MacDonald, Cameron of Lochiel, and the chiefs of Glengarry, Keppoch, and Glencoe were free to spend the month of April 1545 sacking the regions near Urquhart Castle, destroying what they did not take. Parliament attempted to summon John to answer accusations of treason several times beginning in September, but John did not respond. No records suggest that Parliament ever successfully called to account the Captain of Clanranald, who finally died unrepentant in 1584.


Red Spear Society

The Red Spear Society began as a rural self-defense movement in Henan, Hebei and Shandong in northern China during the Warlord Era in the 1920s. These were local groups of small-holders and tenant farmers organized to defend villages against roaming bandits, warlords, tax collectors or later Chinese communists or Japanese. For most of the Republic of China period in China the Red Spear Society posed a challenge to government control in North China. They were similar in nature to the Big Swords Society.
Because of a large immigration to Northeast China to escape the chaos in North China they were also active in Manchuria forming part of the Anti-Japanese volunteer armies resisting the Japanese establishment of Manchukuo in 1932.
In Manchuria members of the brotherhood were described as "primitive-minded people" who placed their faith in rustic magics and belief in the righteous character's Heavenly reward. Red Spear bodies formed in the countryside round Harbin were in many cases led by Buddhist monks as they went into battle, they and their weapons decorated with magic inscriptions similar to the earlier Boxer rebels. The color red was used as it was believed to offer them protection against disaster.
Some Society members were won over and absorbed by the Chinese Red Army during the Second Sino-Japanese War or by the People's Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. In 1953 the Communist Party of China government launched a suppression campaign against Hui-Dao-Men ("Societies-Ways-Brotherhoods"), eradicating them from the Chinese mainland. Some of their offshoots have reappeared, reintroduced by Chinese adherents who live overseas.
Sources.
External links


German submarine U-506

German submarine "U-506" was a Type IXC U-boat of Nazi Germany's "Kriegsmarine" during World War II. The submarine was laid down on 11 July 1940 at the Deutsche Werft yard in Hamburg as yard number 296, launched on 20 June 1941 and commissioned on 15 September 1941 under the command of "Kapitänleutnant" Erich Würdemann.
After completing her training with the "4th U-boat Flotilla" based at Stettin, "U-506" was transferred to the "10th U-boat Flotilla" for front-line service on 1 February 1942. She sank 14 ships, three were classified as 'damaged' another vessel was declared a 'total loss'. The submarine's missions, particularly the sinking of the merchant ship Heredia and later involvement in the so-called "Laconia Incident" is chronicled in the 2016 book So Close to Home.
She was sunk in the Atlantic on 12 July 1943 by depth charges dropped by a US B-24 Liberator.
Design.
German Type IXC submarines were slightly larger than the original Type IXBs. "U-506" had a displacement of when at the surface and while submerged. The U-boat had a total length of , a pressure hull length of , a beam of , a height of , and a draught of . The submarine was powered by two MAN M 9 V 40/46 supercharged four-stroke, nine-cylinder diesel engines producing a total of for use while surfaced, two Siemens-Schuckert 2 GU 345/34 double-acting electric motors producing a total of for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of and a maximum submerged speed of . When submerged, the boat could operate for at ; when surfaced, she could travel at . "U-506" was fitted with six torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and two at the stern), 22 torpedoes, one SK C/32 naval gun, 180 rounds, and a SK C/30 as well as a C/30 anti-aircraft gun. The boat had a complement of forty-eight.
Service history.
1st patrol.
"U-506" first departed Hamburg on 2 March 1942 and sailed to Heligoland, leaving there on 9 March for her first patrol, which took her around the British Isles to Lorient in occupied France via the gap between the Shetland and Faeroe Islands, by 25 March.
2nd patrol.
The U-boat sailed from Lorient on 6 April 1942, crossed the Atlantic, and entered the Gulf of Mexico to operate off the Mississippi River Delta against the crucial oil trade. En route she sank a Nicaraguan merchant ship off the southern tip of Florida. Between 10 and 20 May she sank three American oil tankers and a banana boat, and damaged four other oil tankers, one so badly it was declared a total loss. On the return journey she sank two British merchant ships off the Bahamas, eventually returning to Lorient on 15 June.
3rd patrol.
"U-506" sailed from Lorient once again on 28 July 1942 and headed south to the coast of West Africa, operating against ships sailing from Freetown, Sierra Leone. There she sank five more merchant ships, four British, one Swedish. On the return journey the U-boat took part in the rescue operations after the sinking of the RMS "Laconia", before returning to Lorient on 7 November after 103 days at sea.
4th patrol.
The U-boat sailed from Lorient on 14 December 1942 and again headed south, this time to the coast of South Africa, where she sank two merchant ships, one British, the other Norwegian, before returning to base on 8 May. She was away even longer than on her third patrol-146 days.
5th patrol.
"U-506"s final voyage began on 6 July 1943. On 12 July the U-boat was attacked by a USAAF B-24 Liberator bomber of the 1st Anti-Submarine Squadron in the North Atlantic west of Vigo, Spain, in position . The U-boat was located by the aircraft's SC137 10 cm radar, which the Germans could not detect, and was attacked with seven depth charges. The U-boat broke in two, and about 15 men were seen in the water by the pilot, who dropped a liferaft and a smoke flare. Only six men were rescued by a British destroyer three days later.


Battle for Kvam

The Battle for Kvam took place 25 and 26 April 1940, in the Gudbrandsdal Valley in the village of Kvam, Oppland, Norway, between British, Norwegian, and German troops. The Germans were moving rapidly north up the river valley to conquer central Norway. In the battle, soldiers from 1st Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment and the 1st Battalion, King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry (KOYLI), together with their Norwegian counterparts, held a rapidly advancing German army at bay for two days. It was one of the hardest fought battles of the Norwegian Campaign.
Background.
The German invasion of Norway began on 9 April 1940. It was the first instance of a modern combined operation of land, sea and air forces. The Germans started by taking the major ports of Norway, but once they had accomplished those goals, they began to move through the interior of the country. At the outset of the invasion, King Haakon moved to escape capture by the Germans. He and his wife, Crown Princess Martha, together with their children, including Crown Prince Olav made their way east toward Hamar in the Gudbrandsdal Valley. When news of their escape reached the German high command. they ordered 100 highly trained German paratroopers to start chasing the royals and officials of the Norwegian government. As a result, the royal family had to stay constantly on the move through the Gudbandsdal Valley and the Swedish border. While the King and his family eventually made it to neutral Sweden, a larger mechanized German force followed the paratroopers and began to make its way up the Gudbrandsdal Valley, moving north toward Otta.
The Battle.
24 April.
The British force was part of the 1st Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment and the 1st Battalion, King's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry (KOYLI). They had landed at Åndalsnes on the night of 23/24 April. On the night that they landed, the battle had already been lost and the British were retreating in the face of the German advance up the Gudbrandsdal Valley. The commander of the Norwegian forces Major General Otto Ruge had already informed the British commanders that his troops were completely exhausted and any lines of defense in the Gudbrandsdal Valley were near collapse.
Lt. Col. E.E.E. Cass was in command to the 1st Battalion of the KOYLI, which made its way quickly by rail towards Kvam. They arrived at Kvam in the early morning hours of the 25th. When they reached Kvam, they encountered Norwegian and British soldiers in full retreat from the German advance at Ringebu to the south.
Topography of Kvam.
The topography of Kvam made a perfect location to set up a defense against the advancing German army.
Downriver from Kvam is a sharp bend in the Lågen River, known as the "Kvam's knee." Above the bend in the river, the Gudbrandsdal Valley widens to flat and open farmland, giving good fields of fire. At the bend in the river, the road is narrow with very steep hills to the east. There is a large island on the Lågen where the river splits. Due to ice jams on the river, much of the island was flooded. Battlefield accounts refer to the island as Viksøya (on most maps, it is called Storøya). There are hills on the island near the road directly opposite steep slopes to the east. The hillsides were still covered in knee deep snow and the local lakes were still solidly frozen over to the point that the British were able to establish a brief airfield on one frozen lake a few days before the battle. In April at Kvam's latitude, civil twilight begins around 4:30 a.m. and ends around 10:00 p.m. It was at the small village of Kvam that the British set up their defenses to stop the German advance.
25 April.
In order to slow the German movement up the Gudbrandsdal valley, the retreating British and Norwegians first tried to blow up a very narrow portion of the road south of Kvam called the "Kvamsporten" [the gates of Kvam]. This narrow portion of the road was lined with steep rock cliffs. The demolition did little to slow the advancing Germans.
A few British planes from the airfield on the nearby lake appeared in the sky, offering encouragement of air support in the early hours of the 25 April; however, the Germans quickly destroyed the airfield, any surviving planes retreated north to safety, and British airpower was non-existent during the battle.
Upon his arrival, Brig. Gen. Smyth set up his headquarters in front of the Kvam Church.
The British soldiers of the KOYLI arrived around 4:15 a.m. They quickly shed their heavy arctic clothing and, carrying only their weapons, ammunition and '37 web gear, began to set up defensive positions. Lt. Col. Cass put "A" and "C" companies on the island in the Lågen river west of the road and "B" company east of the road up on the steep slopes. The British soldiers were armed with rifles and bayonets, Bren light machine guns, and two Ordnance ML 3 inch mortars. In addition to their light weapons, the British soldiers had five 25 mm Hotchkiss anti-tank guns set up at the forefront, and three in support further behind.
General Jacob Hvinden Haug had informed the British that Norwegian soldiers under his command, who had dug in south of Kvam, could hold until the evening of the 25th. Unfortunately at 7:30 a.m. on the 25th, the Norwegian soldiers moved into Kvam, carrying their wounded through the British lines. There was now nothing between the British and the advancing German army.
The advanced elements of the German forces came up the road at 11:50 a.m. As the Germans approached, the first up the road was a Panzer II tank, followed by a light tank and an armored car. The KOYLI held their fire until the Germans were within 150 yards, when they opened fire disabling the tanks and causing immediate casualties on the German infantry, who were accompanying the tanks. The Germans immediately responded with their artillery and mortars. The heavy artillery and mortar barrage caused heavy casualties for the British soldiers near the front line positions.
At noon, Brigadier General Smyth was badly wounded by shrapnel from the artillery and was forced to relinquish command to Lt. Col A.L. Kent-Lemon, battalion commander of the York and Lancaster Regiment.
After a brief pause, the Germans infantry moved up the slope on the east side of the road to attack "B" company, but they were repulsed. The Germans then moved across the frozen river to attack the "A" company position on the island. "A" company had already suffered heavy losses from the artillery barrage, and was unable to stop the German offensive. By mid-afternoon, "A" company ceased to exist as an independent company, having lost 4 officers and 85 other ranks. "C" company moved forward to reinforce the line.
At 5:30 p.m., the first reinforcements arrived from the 1st Battalion, York and Lancaster Regiment, which reinforced the left flank.
By nightfall, company "B" on the east slope had held its position against the Germans, but its position was precarious. It decided to withdraw toward the village center of Kvam. Company "B" was reportedly in high spirits, having fought off several German attacks. In their withdrawal, the company had to abandon two of its Hotchkiss anti-tank guns.
At the end of the first day of fighting, the British had 89 casualties killed or wounded, while the Germans had 4 soldiers killed.
26 April.
At 5:30 a.m. the next day, the Germans commenced an intense artillery and machine gun barrage on the KOYLI. The Germans then commenced a series of infantry attacks against the left flank held by "C" company of the York and Lancaster Regiment. These attacks were all beaten off.
At 9:00 a.m., the Germans continued to attack the left flank of the British. This time they moved further up the steep hillside to the farmstead called Hillingen seter. Here they were met by three brave Norwegian soldiers, who though outnumbered, fought them off, losing their lives in the process.
At 11:00 a.m., the Germans renewed their attack, and now had air support, as well as increased artillery, to bomb the village of Kvam. They began to have some success infiltrating the British lines.
Around 1:00 p.m., the Germans brought tanks down the road toward "B" and "C" companies of the KOYLI in front of the village. The British had three of their 25 mm Hotchkiss anti-tank guns positioned to defend the road; however, a light road block had been created across the road using tree branches. These tree branches prevented any of the anti-tanks guns from finding their targets.
According to Plevy, Captain A.F. McRiggs crossed the road twice, fully exposed to machine gun fire from the German positions, to remove the debris from the road. Just as he finished, a bullet hit him in the shoulder, but one anti-tank gun could now see the tank.
Corporal Stokes of the York and Lancaster Regiment was in command of the third Hotchkiss gun beside the road at the back of the village. He could now see the tank and with his first shot he stopped the tank. His second shot set it on fire and left it at the side of the road. Moments later a second tank came up the road. Stokes waited until it was immediately beside the first tank, and he destroyed it with two shots in exactly the same way he stopped the first. Then the Germans sent an armored car rapidly down the road, and when it came between the two tanks, Corporal Stokes knocked it out with one shot. The three disabled vehicles now blocked the road. Corporal Stokes realized that his Hotchkiss gun was about to become a prime target, so he pulled his crew away from the position just before the Germans destroyed it. Stokes and his crew now became infantrymen.
Around 4:00 p.m., the British were in danger of being flanked on the left, but a company from the York and Lancaster battalion managed to hold them off. Then a company of 40 Norwegian skiers came down from high on the slopes above the battle. These Norwegian ski troops under the command of Paul Jørgenvåg opened fire on the Germans from a long distance up on the valley side. Although the fire had little effect from that distance, the Germans were forced to retreat because of their exposed position.
Unfortunately the situation was deteriorating and at 5:00 p.m., General Paget issued orders for Kvam to be abandoned at 11:00 p.m. and the companies were to retreat behind new positions at Kjørem approximately 4–5 km further north, where companies from York and Lancaster and from Green Howards had set up a new defensive position.
At 6:00 p.m., the Germans gained full control of the island in the Lågen. German artillery began to fire phosphorus shells into the forests where several British companies were in position, and the resulting forest fires forced the British to escape. Still the British held until ordered to retreat by General Paget.
The battle in Kvam on 25 and 26 April 1940 was the hardest in southern and central Norway. 1st Battalion KOYLI and 1st Battalion York and Lancaster had 54 soldiers killed. In addition, three Norwegian soldiers and three Norwegian civilians were killed in Kvam.
The three civilians killed included a Dane, Søren Sørensen, who was staying on the Svarthaugen farm. When he saw that the farm was burning, he went down to save the farm animals. After the battle, he was found near the railway line with three bullets through the head.
The other civilian was Petter Klomstad at Kjestad farm. He had seen the farm on fire and he ran to help a 92 year old bed-ridden woman on the farm. When some grenades began exploding, he ran into the barn for shelter. When he ran out of the barn, he was killed by shrapnel from a grenade.
Later in the day, 70-year-old Mari Bakken returned to her house to pick up more clothes. Her son found her in the courtyard the following morning with a bullet through her heart.
Aftermath.
Over 70 buildings in Kvam were burned to the ground as a result of the fighting. The village and church were essentially leveled. Families were left homeless and lost everything. One survivor recalled how residents lost their bank passbooks in the fire. It became necessary for each family to meet with the local bank boards to settle accounts with the bank.
The 54 British soldiers killed in the battle were buried in the Kvam churchyard. Today, a monument to the British soldiers stands in the Kvam churchyard. In addition, a war museum provides artifacts and information on the battle.
The three Norwegian soldiers who lost their lives in the fighting at Hillingen seter (farm) have been memorialized by a monument on the farmstead. Today, there is a very popular hiking trail to the Hillingen seter and the war memorial to the three brave Norwegians who died there defending their country.
In 2014, the main north-south highway up the Gudbrandsdal through Kvam was rebuilt and widened. During construction, the work crews came across unexploded ordnance from the battle near Kvam. Construction had to be halted while Norwegian military units moved in to dispose of the ordnance.


Convoy HX 300

Convoy HX 300 was the 300th of the numbered series of World War II HX convoys of merchant ships from Halifax to Liverpool. It started its journey on 17 July 1944 and was the largest convoy of the war, comprising 166 ships.
Background.
These HX convoys had been established shortly after declaration of war; and the first sailed on 16 September 1939. Ships in convoy were less vulnerable to submarine attack than ships sailing independently, but the Allies had difficulty providing an adequate number of escorting warships to establish a protective perimeter for detecting and defeating approaching submarines. British Admiralty operations research scientists evaluating convoy battles of 1941 and 1942 determined losses of ships in convoy were independent of convoy size, but varied with the number of attacking submarines and, when patrol aircraft were unavailable, with the number of escorting warships. They suggested convoy losses could be reduced by 64 percent by decreasing the frequency of convoys to increase the average number of merchant ships in each convoy from 32 to 54 and the number of escorting warships from 6 to 9. Additional reduction of losses was theoretically possible with even larger convoys, but difficulties maneuvering large formations of ships and providing port services for simultaneous arrival of so many ships discouraged very large convoys until trade convoy escort warships were required to support the Invasion of Normandy. More than one hundred ships sailed in each of 7 ON convoys and 9 HX convoys during the summer of 1944. HX 300 was the largest of these with 166 merchant ships arranged in 19 parallel columns to produce a formation approximately wide and long. Ships sailing from New York City on 17 July 1944 were joined by 30 merchant ships sailing from Halifax Harbour on 19 July, 24 sailing from Sydney, Nova Scotia on 20 July, and 3 from St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador to form the largest trade convoy of the war.
Escorting warships.
Ships sailing from New York were escorted by United States Navy submarine chasers "SC 1338" and "SC 1340", and by Western Local Escort Force (WLEF) and s , and . Ships sailing from Halifax were escorted by WLEF minesweeper and corvettes , , and . "Rosthern" and the escorts from New York were detached when the remaining ships from Halifax assumed responsibility for the convoy on 20 July. Ships sailing from Sydney were escorted by WLEF s and , and Norwegian . The escorting warships from Sydney detached from the convoy after the escorting warships from Halifax assumed responsibility for the ships from Sydney on 22 July. The four warships from Halifax were detached when Mid-Ocean Escort Force group C5 and corvettes , , , , , and assumed responsibility for the convoy on 24 July. The latter two corvettes had escorted the merchant ships sailing from St. Johns. Naval trawlers HMS "Cape Mariato" and HMS "Southern Spray" assumed responsibility for the convoy in the Western Approaches on 2 August. The convoy was not attacked by submarines and arrived in United Kingdom ports by 3 August 1944.
Results.
After the seven Canadian warships of escort group C5 brought the largest convoy of the Battle of the Atlantic safely across the mid-ocean, many of the convoy's ships began offloading food, fuel, and materials to support the civilian population of the British Isles. One ship from the convoy waited in Loch Ewe to carry supplies to the United States garrison in Iceland; nine ships waited in the Firth of Clyde until convoy JW 59 formed to carry war materials to the Soviet Union; and 46 waited at Oban until channel ports were ready for them to offload food, fuel, and ammunition for Allied armies moving east from France, and trucks, jeeps, half-tracks, and locomotives to move those supplies to the front. HX 300 was one of six hundred World War II trade convoys from North America to the British Isles. The following list describes the British, American, Norwegian, Greek, Dutch, Panamanian, Polish, Yugoslavian, French, and Swedish ships of this convoy and the cargoes they were transporting.


South Pacific Area

The South Pacific Area (SOPAC) was a multinational U.S.-led military command active during World War II. It was a part of the U.S. Pacific Ocean Areas under Admiral Chester Nimitz.
The delineation and establishment of the Pacific Ocean Areas was negotiated by the Allied governments of the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, and the Kingdom of the Netherlands in March-April 1942 in response to the Japanese attacks in Southeast Asia and the Pacific. The South Pacific Area was bounded on the west by the Southwest Pacific Area, on the north by the Central Pacific Area, and on the east by the Southeast Pacific Area. It originally encompassed the Ellice, Phoenix, Marquesas, Tuamotu, Samoa, Fiji, and New Hebrides island groups plus New Caledonia and New Zealand. Its western boundary was shifted to just west of Guadalcanal on 1 August 1942 to facilitate operations against that island.
The assignment orders for Major General Ernest Harmon as the Commanding General, Army Forces, South Pacific, dated 7 July 1942, said:
"The establishment of the Pacific Ocean Area as an area of United States strategical responsibility under the command of the Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet, became effective on May 8, 1942. The Commander-in-Chief, U.S. Pacific Fleet, has been designated the "Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Ocean Area". Under the Commander-in-Chief, Pacific Ocean Area, a U.S. Naval officer has been designated as "Commander, South Pacific Area". The South Pacific Force under COMSOPAC include the following:
In July 1942 the South Pacific Area, under Admiral Robert L. Ghormley, superseded by Admiral William Halsey Jr. from 16 October, comprised four commands: Amphibious Forces, South Pacific (AmphibForSoPac), under Admiral Richmond K. Turner, South Pacific Naval Forces under Admiral Ghormley, U.S. Army Forces South Pacific under Major General Millard Harmon, and South Pacific Air Forces under Admiral John S. McCain, Sr.. At a later stage Transport Group, South Pacific (TransGrpSoPac) was added to the organisation.
The organisation's first major battle was the Battle of Guadalcanal. Admiral Ghormley's Operations Order 1-42 established two task forces, Task Force 61 and Task Force 63, to carry out the operation.
On September 20, 1942, six weeks after the first American amphibious operation of the war got underway at Guadalcanal, Vice Admiral Aubrey Fitch assumed command of Aircraft, South Pacific Force (AirSoPac). Not a desk-bound admiral, he carried out numerous, hazardous flights into the combat zones, inspecting air activities and bases for projected operations. For these, he received a Distinguished Flying Cross. AirSoPac ultimately encompassing U.S. Navy, Army, Marine Corps, and Royal New Zealand Air Force air units. It saw great success aiding the Allied campaign in the area.
Commander, Aircraft, Solomons (ComAirSols), directed the combat operations of all land-based air forces in the Solomons during Operation Cartwheel, under the direction of AirSoPac. Rear Admiral Charles P. Mason was the first officer to hold the title ComAirSols; he assumed command on 15 February 1943 at Guadalcanal. Actually, Mason took over a going concern, as he relieved Brigadier General Francis P. Mulcahy, who had controlled all aircraft stationed at the island during the final phase of its defense. Mulcahy, who became Mason's chief of staff, was also Commanding General, 2d Marine Aircraft Wing. The fact that a general headed the staff of an admiral is perhaps the best indication of the multiservice nature of AirSols operations.
Vice Admiral Finch retained two areas of flight operations under his direct control; sea search by long range Navy patrol planes and Army bombers, and transport operations by South Pacific Combat Air Transport Command (SCAT). Throughout its long and useful life (November 1942-February 1945), SCAT's complement of Marine and Army transports was headed by Marine Aircraft Group 25's commanding officer. SCAT's operations area moved northward with the fighting during 1943, and by August's end, all regularly scheduled flights in SoPac's rear areas were being handled by the Naval Air Transport Service (NATS).


302d Bombardment Group


Eastern Defense Command

The Eastern Defense Command was first established as the Northeast Defense Command on 17 March 1941 as one of four U.S. Army continental defense commands to plan and prepare for and execute defense against enemy attack in the months before America's entry into World War II. Its mission was defined as: "a territorial agency with appropriate staff designed to coordinate or prepare to initiate the execution of all plans for the employment of Army Forces and installations against enemy action in that portion of the United States lying within the command boundaries." This organization was charged with coordinating the defense of the Atlantic Coast, replacing the New England Defense Sector, an organization of the U.S. First Army. However, this did not initially occur, and the command was little more than a planning agency until 24 December 1941.
Following the U.S. entry into World War II on 8 December 1941, the functions of the Northeast Defense Command were placed in a larger operational command, the Eastern Theater of Operations (following the example of the Western Theater of Operations established on the west coast) on 24 December, but the command was renamed the Eastern Defense Command on 20 March 1942. After 24 December, the command exercised control over Army coast defense, antiaircraft, and fighter assets from Maine through Florida. This specifically included the states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Florida (minus the western half of the Panhandle), as well as the District of Columbia. The command also included US Army forces in Newfoundland and, from April 1942, Bermuda.
The initial subordinate commands included First Army, the First and Third Air Forces, and the First, Second, and Third Corps areas. However, in January 1942 the Third Air Force was moved inland and placed under Air Force Combat Command. In September 1943 First Army and First Air Force were separated from the EDC.
The 26th Infantry Division (26th ID) was initially available to the Eastern Defense Command for mobile defense, stationed in the command's area from December 1941 through mid-1943, though it may have been relieved of this duty earlier. In early 1942 this division was augmented by several regimental combat teams, primarily regiments detached from divisions being "triangularized" (reducing from four infantry regiments to three). The 104th Infantry Regiment of the 26th ID continued on mobile defense duty through January 1943. The other units included at least the 111th, 113th, 181st (detached from the 26th ID), 366th, and 372nd Infantry Regiments. The 144th Infantry Regiment transferred in from the Western Defense Command in January 1943 and was withdrawn in March 1944. The mobile defense force lasted at least through early 1944.
The commanding generals of the defense commands were initially the commanders of the existing continental army commands established under the 1921 amendment to the National Defense Act of 1916 (First through Fourth Armies). The first commander of the Eastern Defense Command was First Army commander Lieutenant General Hugh A. Drum. The command's headquarters was co-located with First Army headquarters and a soon-to-be-established Second Service Command Corps Area at Fort Jay, Governors Island in New York City.
Lieutenant General George Grunert assumed command of the Eastern Defense Command upon Drum's mandatory retirement at age 64 in October 1943.
As prospects for any enemy attack on the United States all but diminished, Central Defense Command was merged into the Eastern Defense Command on 15 January 1944. In early 1945, Southern Defense Command was also absorbed by the Eastern Defense Command.
With Grunert's retirement in July 1945, his deputy, Brigadier General Kenneth Lord, became interim commander until the appointment of General Jonathan M. Wainwright. This was Wainwright's first command since he was compelled to surrender the Philippines to the Japanese Army in early 1942. In August 1945, he was liberated from a Japanese prisoner of war camp and assumed command after he returned to full duty. Upon Wainwright's 15 January 1946 transfer to Fourth Army at Fort Sam Houston, Lord assumed interim command until the abolition of Eastern Defense Command on 15 March 1946. Its residual staff and functions were transferred to 39th Headquarters and Headquarters Detachment, Special Troops, First Army as it returned from its combat assignment in Europe to its initial stateside posting at Fort Bragg, North Carolina.
Commanders.
The following men served as Commanding General, Eastern Defense Command:


Battle of Carbisdale

The Battle of Carbisdale (also known as Invercarron) took place close to the village of Culrain, Sutherland, Scotland on 27 April 1650 and was part of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. It was fought by the Royalist leader James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose, against the Scottish Government of the time, dominated by Archibald Campbell, 1st Marquess of Argyll and a grouping of radical Covenanters, known as the Kirk Party. The Covenanters decisively defeated the Royalists. The battlefield has been inventoried and protected by Historic Scotland under the Scottish Historical Environment Policy of 2009. Although Carbisdale is the name of the nearest farm to the site of the battle, Culrain is the nearest village.
Background.
Defeat in the 1648 Second English Civil War led to the Scottish Kirk Party under Argyll replacing the Royalist Engagers in government. Argyll was deeply shocked by the Execution of Charles I in January 1649 and immediately proclaimed his son as Charles II. However, it was clear that in order to exercise real power, he would be obliged to take the National Covenants of 1638 and 1643. Argyll was determined to ensure his compliance since his fathers' refusal to do so had split the Engagers and Kirk Party in 1648.
While Charles recognised Argyll provided the quickest way back to the throne, he was anxious to avoid making any more concessions than absolutely necessary and looked for alternatives. On 17 January 1649, Irish Protestant Royalists under James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormond agreed an alliance with the Catholic Confederation; after the king was executed on 30 January, they were joined by the Scots Presbyterian militia in Ulster.
James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose suggested a similar rising in Scotland and on 20 February 1649 Charles appointed him Lieutenant-Governor of Scotland and Captain General of all of his forces there. This was partially driven by news of a Royalist risings in Inverness and Atholl, although many of Charles' advisors were sceptical of its chances and feared needlessly antagonising the Kirk Party.
Landing in Orkney.
The Committee of Estates had no money to pay troops with, while the burghs in the south of Scotland had been exasperated by taxes. The former Covenanter general William Baillie had been a member of the Engagers and general John Urry (or Hurry) was now a companion of Montrose. The opposing forces were led by David Leslie, 1st Lord Newark and his subordinates Archibald Strachan and James Holborne of Menstrie. Leslie had no more than three thousand foot and fourteen hundred horse who were spread out over the Scottish Highlands. Montrose had hoped to raise as many as 10,000 men in the Highlands alone to support him. However, as it transpired the local clans did not rise up in his support, he had too few foreign troops and there was no sign of any movement in the Scottish Lowlands. By April 1650, Montrose had four to five hundred Danish troops in the Orkneys as well as 1,000 Orcadians, mostly untrained fishermen and farmers.
His commanders were a mixture of experienced former Royalists and mercenaries. They included James Crichton, 1st Viscount Frendraught, Sir William Johnston, Colonel Thomas Gray, Harry Graham, John Urry, Hay of Dalgetty, Drummond of Balloch, Ogilvie of Powrie, Menzies of Pitfodels, Douglas the brother of Lord Morton as well as English Royalists such as Major Lisle. Urry and 500 men were sent ahead to find a landing place on the main land and secured the Ord of Caithness for this purpose with no difficulty. Montrose and the rest of the army followed on 12 April 1650 and took shelter in the hills where they were safe from the Covenanter horse.
Meanwhile, on the opposing side, Leslie held Brahan Castle, the Castle Chanonry of Ross, Eilean Donan Castle and Cromarty Castle. John Gordon, 14th Earl of Sutherland also supported the Covenanters and garrisoned Dunrobin Castle, Skibo Castle and Dornoch Castle. Montrose's movements were rapid, landing in John o' Groats and advancing on Thurso where all of the local gentry, except for the Sinclairs, signed their oath of allegiance. Leaving Harry Graham with 200 men in Thurso, Montrose marched on Dunbeath Castle which belonged to Sir John Sinclair and took it after a siege of just a few days.
Now joined by Major Sir John Sinclair, Montrose left a garrison to hold Dunbeath and linked up with Urry at the Ord of Caithness with about 800 remaining men. Finding Dunrobin Castle was too strong to take, he proceeded inland along Glen Fleet to Lairg and Loch Shin, hoping for support from Clan Munro and Clan Ross, but above all from the Clan Mackenzie. Meanwhile Leslie moved north to Brechin, instructing Strachan, his commander in Moray, to check Montrose's advance. Taking the garrisons from Brahan and Chanonry, Strachan advanced as far as Tain where he was reinforced by more Covenanter troops. He had 220 veteran horse, 36 musketeers as well as a reserve force of 400 Munro and Ross clansmen - who Montrose had hoped would join his force. Sutherland was sent north to oppose Harry Graham and in doing so cut off the way of retreat for Montrose in that direction.
Strachan's Ride.
On Saturday, 27 April 1650, Strachan marched west from Tain to Wester Fearn, on the southern shore of the Kyle of Sutherland, a few miles south-east of Bonar Bridge. Leslie had only left Brechin on the same day. Montrose had marched down the Strath Oykel to a spot near the head of the Kyle of Sutherland under the side of a steep hill called Craigcaoinichean and was more or less level with Carbisdale. Montrose encamped there for several days waiting for the Mackenzies to arrive. Strachan reached Wester Fearn at about 3pm on 27 April. He knew the position of the enemy and knew that he needed to draw them down from the hill to the flat ground where he could use his cavalry. He therefore concealed most of his horse among the long broom which covered the slopes of Wester Fearn, while the Munros and Rosses went up the River Carron to a place on the heights above Carbisdale where they awaited further orders.
Strachan's scout, Andrew Munro, son of John Munro of Lemlair, reported Montrose's horse had been sent out to inspect his position and advised Strachan to send out a single troop of horse to deceive the enemy into thinking that they were few in number. Strachan accordingly sent a single troop of horse up the valley and Major Lisle's reconnaissance force of 40 horse informed Montrose there was just one troop of horse opposing them. As Strachan brought up the rest of his troops from Wester Fearn, Montrose ordered his infantry to advance but made no special preparations to defend himself. Strachan divided his cavalry into three divisions, the first of around 100 led by himself in person, the second of 80 commanded by General Hacket, the third of 40 under Captain Hutcheson. A separate division included the musketeers, the Munros and Rosses, commanded by Colonel John Munro of Lemlair, Ross of Balnagowan and Quarter-Master Shaw.
Carbisdale.
Strachan's plan was to advance with his own division to make it look as though his whole strength was just one hundred horse. He suddenly attacked Montrose's 40 horse who were forced backwards onto their infantry who had not been deployed for battle and were easily thrown into confusion. Montrose's foot soldiers amounted to no more than 1200, 400 of whom were Danes and Germans, and the rest raw levies from Orkney. They were not accustomed to receiving a cavalry charge unsupported and while the German and Danish mercenaries held their formation and fired into the advancing cavalry, the Orcadians fell back in disorder. Strachan's reserves, including his musketeers then fell upon the Royalists; Menzies of Pitfoddels was shot dead at Montrose's side and the remnants of his army tried to make a stand on the hillside on the wooded slopes of Craigcaoinichean. According to Buchan, this was the point at which the Munros and Rosses committed to the battle, a claim disputed by historian C.I Fraser of Reelig.
The Orcadians were cut down or drowned trying to cross the Kyle of Sutherland, while Montrose had been wounded several times and his horse shot from underneath him. He escaped on Crichton of Frendraught's horse, provided to him by Crichton himself. In all, Montrose lost 450 killed and another 200 drowned, while Buchan reports Urry was captured along with 58 officers and nearly 400 soldiers.
In contrast, Strachan lost just two men wounded and one trooper drowned. His scout had been John Munro of Lemlair while Montrose's scout had been Robert Munro of Achness and historians have therefore speculated whether Munro of Achness had lured Montrose into a trap by giving him false information. According to the "Montrose Memoirs", Munro of Achness and his three sons all escaped death or capture at Carbisdale and do not appear in the Parliamentary records of proceedings against Montrose's followers. However, historian Alexander Mackenzie states that Robert Munro of the Assynt, Inveran and Achness branch of the family, along with his two nephews, Hugh and John, were banished to the New England states of North America by Oliver Cromwell for having fought as Royalists at the Battle of Worcester just one year later in 1651.
Death of Montrose.
Disguised as a shepherd Montrose managed to avoid capture until he finally made it to Ardvreck Castle, seat of MacLeod of Assynt. There is a strong tradition MacLeod served with him at Inverness in 1645 and Montrose went to Ardvreck expecting to be given shelter; however, MacLeod was away and Montrose was met instead by his wife Christian Munro, daughter of Munro of Lemlair who had fought on the opposite side at Carbisdale. She therefore confined Montrose in the castle cellars along with Major Sinclair, found wandering in the hills. MacLeod was given a £25,000 reward for turning Montrose over to his enemies. He was taken to Edinburgh where he was hanged on 21 May.
After execution his body was dismembered, the quarters publicly displayed in Aberdeen, Glasgow, Perth and Stirling and the head on the Tolbooth in Edinburgh, where it remained for eleven years. After the Stuart Restoration in 1660, Montrose's remains were given one of the grandest state funerals ever held in Scotland. In 1707, Montrose's great-grandson, also called James Graham, the 4th Marquess, was created the 1st Duke of Montrose.