Non-British personnel in the RAF during the Battle of Britain

The Royal Air Force (RAF) and Fleet Air Arm had included personnel from outside the United Kingdom from before the beginning of the Second World War, and many served in the Battle of Britain in summer 1940. Many of these volunteers were British subjects—thus, citizens—coming from territories that made up part of the British Empire. Additionally, a significant part was made up of refugees and exiles from German-occupied Europe and American emigrants.
The RAF Roll of Honour recognises that 574 pilots, from countries other than the United Kingdom, as flying at least one authorized, operational sortie with an eligible unit during the period between 10 July to 31 October 1940, alongside 2,353 British pilots. The numbers differ slightly from the participants whose names are engraved on the Battle of Britain Monument in London, unveiled on 18 September 2005.
All pilots, regardless of nationality, who flew with British units during the Battle are known collectively, after a phrase coined by Winston Churchill, as "The Few".
Background.
Prior to the outbreak of war, in view of the worsening European situation, the RAF had embarked on a series of expansion plans. These included Short-Service Commissions for pilots from the air forces of other British Commonwealth countries, namely Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa and Southern Rhodesia.
The governments of Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the UK, under an agreement signed in December 1939, created the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (BCATP), also known as the Empire Air Training Scheme. The plan had three main effects: first, joint military aircrew training facilities were set up in each member country, as well as Southern Rhodesia; second, these air forces also formed a common pool of aircrew and ground staff, who were posted to units according to operational needs and regardless of nationality and; third, under Article XV of the agreement, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) and Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) formed squadrons for service under RAF operational control. These so-called "Article XV squadrons" were given numbers in the 400-series, to avoid confusion with RAF units. Other squadrons from Dominion air forces served under RAF control during the Battle and other units, composed mostly of RAAF, RCAF and RNZAF personnel were formed within the RAF itself. Most of these squadrons and personnel were still in training and/or were not involved in fighter operations during the Battle of Britain, although No. 1 Squadron RCAF took part in operations from August 1940.
Contribution by country.
Australia.
When the war began, about 450 Australian pilots were serving in the RAF.
Australia was among the first countries to declare war on Germany and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF; previously the Australian Flying Corps) was among the world's oldest air forces, having served during the First World War, in the Middle East and Europe. Under the Empire Air Training Scheme (EATS), a total of 37,000 aircrew were trained in Australia during 1939–45.
However, the flow of RAAF personnel to the European theatre was slowed by three factors: first, establishment of the massively expanded training process meant that first aircrews trained by the RAAF during the war did not graduate until November 1940; second, RAAF doctrine emphasised the army co-operation and maritime patrol roles; third, the Australian authorities placed great emphasis on a provision of EATS, that Dominion personnel should serve with units from their own air forces, wherever possible. RAAF Article XV fighter squadrons were not operational in Europe until mid-1941.
Nevertheless, more than 30 Australians served in RAF Fighter Command during the Battle. The highest scoring Australian ace of the Battle was Flight Lieutenant Pat Hughes, of No. 234 Squadron RAF, who claimed 14 kills before his death on 7 September 1940.
No. 10 Squadron RAAF, a flying boat squadron was also based in Britain at the time, as part of Coastal Command.
Barbados.
At the start of the war, the small Caribbean island of Barbados was a British crown colony. Aubrey "Sinbad" de Lisle Inniss (1916–2003) was the sole Barbadian to serve as a pilot during the Battle of Britain. Inniss was born in Barbados to a British family and joined the RAF in 1939. During the Battle, he flew a Bristol Blenheim IF night fighter with No. 236 Squadron RAF and was responsible for shooting down a Heinkel He 111 in September 1940. Inniss, who became an ace during his subsequent war service, survived the conflict and retired from the RAF in 1957. The RAF Monument lists Inniss as Bajan, while the RAF Roll of Honour lists him as British.
Belgium.
At the time Belgium was invaded in May 1940, it had only a small airforce known as the "Aéronautique militaire" (AéMI). Although it played little role during the campaign in Belgium, a number of Belgian pilots succeeded in reaching Britain in the aftermath of the surrender. A significant number of Belgians were also undergoing flight training in France and, despite the reluctance of the Belgian government in Bordeaux, 124 reached Britain by August 1940 but few were able to participate in the Battle of Britain.
As of December 2014, the RAF officially recognizes 30 Belgians as having participated in the Battle of Britain (of whom 18 did not survive the war) although the Battle of Britain monument (constructed in 2005) includes 28. At the time of the battle, Belgian pilots were mixed into British units and did not have their own squadrons. By the summer of 1940, Belgians made up around half of No. 609 Squadron RAF, a unit flying Spitfire fighters. Nos. 235 and 236 Squadrons of RAF Coastal Command also had disproportionate numbers of Belgian pilots at 8 and 6 respectively. Altogether, Belgium provided the largest contingent of pilots during the Battle of Britain that were not from Eastern Europe or the Commonwealth.
During the course of the battle, Belgian pilots were responsible for shooting down 21 German aircraft. Between seven and 10 Belgians were killed. In 1942, two all-Belgian squadrons were formed and, in total, 1,200 Belgians had served in the RAF during the course of the war.
Canada.
Many Canadians served in the fighter squadrons which repulsed the "Luftwaffe" in the summer of 1940. In fact, although the RAF only recognises 83 Canadian pilots as flying on fighter operations during the Battle of Britain, the RCAF claims the actual figure was over 100, and that of those 23 who died and 30 more were killed later in the war. Much of this confusion can be attributed to the fact that apart from RCAF members flying in RCAF units, there were those RCAF members who were in RAF units as well as Canadians who were members of the RAF, not the RCAF. Another 200 Canadian pilots fought with RAF Bomber Command and RAF Coastal Command during the period and approx 2,000 Canadians served as ground crew.
Of these, 26 were in No. 1 Squadron RCAF, flying Hurricanes. The squadron arrived in Britain soon after Dunkirk with 27 officers and 314 ground staff. This squadron would later be re-numbered as No. 401 "City of Westmount" Squadron RCAF, in line with Article XV of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan (see above). It was the only fighter unit from the Commonwealth air forces to see combat in the Battle of Britain.
No. 1 Squadron made an inauspicious start to its service with Fighter Command, when on 24 August 1940 two of its Hurricanes mistook a flight of Bristol Blenheims for Junkers Ju 88s, shooting one down with the loss of its crew; an example of what is now known as friendly fire. No. 1 became the first RCAF unit to engage enemy aircraft in battle when it met a formation of German bombers over southern England on 26 August 1940, claiming three kills and four damaged, with the loss of one pilot and one aircraft. By mid-October the squadron had claimed 31 enemy aircraft destroyed and 43 probables or damaged for the loss of 16 aircraft and three pilots.
Other Canadians were spread across RAF squadrons, and on the second day of the Battle, 11 July, Canada suffered its first fighter casualty. In a "Luftwaffe" attack on the Royal Navy Dockyard naval base at Portland Harbour, Plt Offr D. A. Hewitt of Saint John, New Brunswick, flying a Hurricane with No. 501 Squadron RAF, attacked a Dornier Do 17 bomber and was hit himself. His aircraft plunged into the sea. Another Canadian pilot, Richard Howley, died eight days later.
The dispersed Canadian airmen included one who flew with No. 303 (Polish) Squadron. A total of 12 Canadian pilots in the Royal Air Force including Willie McKnight flew with No. 242 Squadron RAF at various times through the Battle. On 30 August, under the command of Squadron Leader Douglas Bader, nine 242 Squadron aircraft met 100 enemy aircraft over Essex. Attacking from above, the squadron claimed 12 victories for no loss.
Canadians also shared in repulsing the "Luftwaffe"'s last major daylight attack. On 27 September 303 Squadron and 1 Squadron RCAF, attacked the first wave of enemy bombers. Seven aircraft were claimed destroyed, one probably destroyed and seven were damaged.
The top Canadian scorer during the Battle was Flt Lt H. C. Upton of No. 43 Squadron RAF, who claimed 10.25 aircraft shot down.
Czechoslovakia.
Many of the Czechoslovak pilots had fled to France after Hitler's occupation of their country in March 1939 and had fought in the short "Armée de L'Air" in the Battle of France, gaining important combat experience. The rapid fall of France caused Czechoslovak soldiers and airmen to leave for Britain, where they established their own squadrons. Nearly 90 Czechoslovak pilots would fly in the Battle of Britain, with No. 310 and No. 312 (Czechoslovak) Squadrons, RAF, formed in the summer 1940 and operational during the battle. Some Czechs also served in other Fighter Command squadrons. Both Czechoslovak squadrons were equipped with Hurricanes.
Czechoslovak fighters earned a reputation for aggressive aerial combat and for skills and bravery. Together with Czechoslovak pilots serving in other RAF units, a total of 86 - 84 Czechs and 2 Slovaks - served, claiming almost 60 air kills. Nine pilots were killed. The top Czechoslovak ace was Sgt. Josef František, flying with No. 303 (Polish) Squadron, who claimed 17 confirmed kills, making him the highest scoring non-British pilot in the Battle of Britain.
Czechoslovak forces were financed by Czechoslovak government-in-exile through loan by Great Britain (Czechoslovak–British financial agreement).
France.
French volunteers and Free French forces served in 245 and 615 Squadron. 13 are recognised in the Battle of Britain Roll of Honour.
Ireland.
The Republic of Ireland (officially called Ireland from 1937) seceded from the British rule in 1922 after a two-year war of independence. Relations between the two countries were still strained in 1940. Although technically a British dominion, Ireland remained neutral for the duration of the Second World War.
Many individual Irish citizens did enlist in the British military, however, and ten pilots from the country fought in the RAF during the Battle of Britain. One of them, Brendan "Paddy" Finucane, became an ace who would claim a total of 32 enemy aircraft before he was killed in 1942. The eldest of five children, Finucane grew up in County Dublin, where his father had taken part in the Easter Rising of 1916. He and his family moved to England in 1936, and he enlisted in the Royal Air Force aged 17. Finucane became operational in July 1940 and downed his first Bf 109 on 12 August, claiming a second the following day. During a 51-day period in 1941, Finucane claimed 16 Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters shot down, while he was flying with an Australian squadron. Finucane became the youngest Wing Commander in the RAF, a rank he received at 21. He was shot down on 15 July 1942.
Jamaica.
In 1940, the island of Jamaica was crown colony under British rule. The sole Jamaican recognized as a participant in the Battle of Britain was Herbert Capstick, a Pilot Officer of British origin, who had been born in Jamaica in 1920. Capstick served in No. 236 Squadron RAF of Coastal Command. The Squadron was equipped with Bristol Blenheims and participated in anti-submarine operations in the English Channel. He survived the war and returned to live in Jamaica.
Newfoundland.
Newfoundland was a separate dominion within the British Empire at the time of the battle. Pilot Officer Richard Alexander Howley is recognized as the sole Newfoundlander to serve in the RAF during the period by the Battle of Britain monument. Howley served in No. 141 Squadron RAF, flying Boulton Paul Defiant turret fighters. He was shot down over Dover on 19 July 1940, and posted missing in action.
New Zealand.
New Zealand was among the first countries to declare war on Germany. The Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) was set up as a separate service in 1937, but numbered less than 1,200 personnel by September 1939. The Empire Air Training Scheme had resulted in about 100 RNZAF pilots being sent to Europe by the time the battle started. Unlike the other dominions, New Zealand did not insist on its aircrews serving with RNZAF squadrons, thereby speeding up the rate at which they entered service. An annual rate of 1,500 fully trained pilots was reached by January 1941.
The most prominent New Zealander in the battle was Air Vice Marshal Keith Park, a high scoring air ace in the First World War and a member of the RAF since its creation. At the time he was air officer commanding No. 11 Group, defending London and south-east England.
The RAF recognises 135 Fighter Command aircrew from New Zealand as having served in the battle. Several New Zealanders became high scorers, including Pilot Officer Colin Falkland Gray (No. 54 Squadron) with 14 claims, Flying Officer Brian Carbury (No. 603 Squadron) with 14 claims, and Pilot Officer Alan Christopher Deere (No. 54 Squadron), with 12 claims. Carbury shot down the first German aircraft over British territory since 1918, and was also one of two ace-in-a-day pilots of the battle.
Northern Rhodesia.
In 1940, Northern Rhodesia (today Zambia) was a British protectorate in Southern Africa. One Northern Rhodesian, of British origin, is recognised as a participant in the Battle of Britain. Pilot Officer John Ellacombe was born in Livingstone in 1920 and was educated in South Africa. He joined the RAF in 1939 and served in No. 151 Squadron during the Battle of Britain, flying Hurricanes. During the Battle, Ellacombe shot down several German bomber aircraft and was himself shot down on two occasions. He enjoyed a successful career in the RAF after 1940, retiring as an Air Commodore in 1973. He died in 2014.
Poland.
Following the German invasion of Poland, many Polish pilots were evacuated and made their way to France and Britain. During the German invasion of France in May 1940, of the 1,600 Polish pilots available to the "Armée de l'Air" it is estimated that only about 150 took an active part in combat. By June 1940, the Poles had over 85,000 men in France, including pilots and ground troops. Many of these personnel escaped to the UK around the time of the fall of France.
By mid 1940, some 35,000 Polish airmen, soldiers and sailors had made their way to Britain, making up the largest foreign military force in the country after the French, as well as making it the largest Polish army ever formed abroad; of these some 8,500 were airmen. Many were members of the Polish Air Force which had fought the "Luftwaffe". However, the Air Ministry and the RAF underestimated their potential value in fighting against the "Luftwaffe," as they felt that the Polish defeat on home soil was due to incompetence and lack of training. Most of the Poles were initially posted either to bomber squadrons or the RAF Volunteer Reserve.
Another one of the biggest barriers the Poles had to face was that of language. The fact that the majority of the Poles could not speak English made them unreliable in battle in the eyes of British commanders. One of the commanders stated that he would not have "people crashing around the sky until they understand what they're told to do." The Poles had to go through English language training before the majority of them could see action. On 11 June 1940, the Polish government-in-exile signed an agreement with the British Government to form a Polish Air Force in Great Britain. Finally, in July 1940, the RAF announced that it would form two Polish fighter squadrons: No. 302 Squadron and No. 303 Squadron were composed of Polish pilots and ground crews, although their flight commanders and commanding officers were British. The two fighter squadrons went into action in August, with 89 Polish pilots. Another 50 Poles took part in the battle, in RAF squadrons.
Polish pilots were among the most experienced in the battle; most had hundreds of hours of pre-war flying experience and had fought in the Invasion of Poland or the battle of France. The Polish pilots had been well trained in formation flying and had learned from combat experience to fire from close range. By comparison, one Polish pilot referred to the close formation flying and set-piece attacks practiced in the RAF as "simply suicidal". The 147 Polish pilots claimed 201 aircraft shot down. No. 303 Squadron claimed the highest number of kills, 126, of any Hurricane squadron engaged in the battle of Britain.
Witold Urbanowicz of No. 303 Squadron was the top Polish scorer with 15 claims. Antoni Głowacki was one of two Allied pilots in the battle to shoot down five German aircraft in one day, on 24 August –the other being New Zealander Brian Carbury. Stanisław Skalski, became the top-scoring Polish fighter ace of the Second World War. With their combat experience, Polish pilots would have known that the quickest and most efficient way to destroy an enemy aircraft was to fire from close range, which often surprised their British counterparts: "After firing a brief opening burst at 150 to 200 yards, just to get on the enemy's nerves, the Poles would close almost to point-blank range. That was where they did their real work. "When they go tearing into enemy bombers and fighters they get so close you would think they were going to collide." In all, 30 Polish airmen were killed during the battle.
The close range tactics used by the Poles led to suggestions of recklessness, but there is little evidence for this view. For example, the death rate in No. 303 Squadron was lower than the average rate for other RAF squadrons, despite the squadron having been the highest-scoring Hurricane squadron during the battle. The Polish War Memorial on the outskirts of RAF Northolt was dedicated in 1948, as a commemoration of the Polish contribution to Allied arms.
South Africa.
One of the RAF's leading aces, and one of the highest scoring pilots during the Battle of Britain was Adolph "Sailor" Malan DFC, an RAF pilot since 1936, who led No. 74 Squadron RAF at the height of the Battle of Britain. Under his leadership No. 74 became one of the RAF's best units. Malan claimed his first two victories over Dunkirk on 21 May 1940, and had claimed five more by the time the Battle started in earnest. Between 19 July and 22 October he shot down six German aircraft. His "Ten Rules for Air Fighting" were printed and pinned up in crew rooms all over Fighter Command. He was part of a group of about 25 pilots from South Africa that took part in the Battle, eight or nine of whom (depending on sources) died during the Battle.
Other notable pilots included P/O Albert "Zulu" Lewis, who opened his account over France in May with No. 85 Squadron, shooting down three Messerschmitt Bf 109s in one action. With No. 85 in August, and then in September with No. 249 Squadron under Squadron Leader (later Air Chief Marshal) Sir John Grandy, at North Weald. Lewis flew three, four and five times a day and 15 September 1940 got a He 111, and shared in the probable destruction of another. On 18 September he got his 12th confirmed enemy aircraft. By 27 September, flying GN-R, Lewis had 18 victories. He was shot down and badly burned on 28 September. Lewis missed the rest of the Battle and his recovery to flying fitness took over three months. Basil Gerald "Stapme" Stapleton, with several probables to his credit, survived a crash on 7 September, trying to stop bombers getting through to London. Both men would later command RAF squadrons.
The most senior officer of South African origin during the Battle was Air Vice-Marshal Sir Christopher J. Quintin-Brand KBE, DSO, MC, DFC, Air Officer Commanding No. 10 Group RAF covering the South-West; a long service RAF officer, he had joined the RFC in 1916.
Southern Rhodesia.
Southern Rhodesia (today Zimbabwe) was a British self-governing colony in Southern Africa at the time of the Battle of Britain. Three pilots born in Southern Rhodesia took part in the Battle of Britain: Squadron Leader Caesar Hull, Pilot Officer John Chomley, and Flight Lieutenant John Holderness. Of these, Hull and Chomley lost their lives. Hull, the highest-scoring RAF ace of the Norwegian Campaign earlier in the year, was killed in a dogfight over south London on 7 September 1940, a week after taking command of No. 43 Squadron RAF. Chomley went missing in action over the Channel on 12 August 1940 and was never found.
United States.
The RAF recognises seven aircrew personnel who were from the United States as having taken part in the Battle of Britain. American citizens were prohibited from serving under the various U.S. Neutrality Acts; if an American citizen had defied strict neutrality laws, there was a risk of losing their citizenship and imprisonment. It is believed that another four Americans misled the British authorities about their origins, claiming to be Canadian or other nationalities.
William Meade Fiske was probably the most famous American pilot in the Battle of Britain, although he pretended to be a Canadian at the time. Fiske saw service with No. 601 Squadron RAF and claimed one—unconfirmed—kill. He crashed on 16 August 1940, and died the following day.
In popular culture.
At the end of the 1969 film the "Battle of Britain" a list is shown containing the nationality of pilots that flew for the RAF. It incorrectly includes within this list a single person from Israel. This relates to George Goodman who was born in Haifa in 1920 and which was at the time British military-administered Palestine. Goodman was a British citizen and Israel did not become an independent country until May 1948. In some lists he is even recorded as Palestinian - also incorrectly.
During campaigning for the 2009 elections for the European Parliament, the far-right British National Party (BNP) used an image of a Spitfire, with the caption "Battle for Britain", in a publicity attempt to win support for the party's anti-immigration stance. The picture chosen, however, depicted a Spitfire flown by a Polish pilot from No. 303 (Polish) Squadron and the party was mocked in the British media as "absurd".
The sixth track of Swedish metal band Sabaton's 2010 album "Coat of Arms", entitled "Aces in Exile", is about foreign pilots in the Battle of Britain, predominantly the Polish pilots of the 303rd, the Czechoslovakian pilots of the 310th, and the Canadian pilots of the 401st.


RAF Third Tactical Air Force

The RAF Third Tactical Air Force (Third TAF), which was formed in South Asia in December 1943, was one of three tactical air forces formed by the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the Second World War. It was made up of squadrons and personnel from the RAF, Indian Air Force (IAF) and the air forces of other Commonwealth countries. Third TAF was formed shortly after the establishment of South East Asia Command to provide close air support to the Fourteenth Army.
It was first formed on 19 December 1943 designated the Tactical Air Force (Burma) and renamed as the Third TAF on 28 December 1943. Along with parts of the USAAF Tenth Air Force, it was subordinate to Joint Allied Eastern Air Command which was also formed in December 1943.
As the Air Force was formed, it was felt that at last British forces could go over to the offensive against the Japanese in the Burma Campaign. A start was made towards establishing a general offensive in Arakan in early 1943, but this was forestalled by a Japanese offensive. The Japanese were decisively beaten, but they shifted the focus of their attack to central Burma. Third TAF gave sterling service to Fourteenth Army during the Battle of Kohima and the Battle of Imphal, strafing and bombing the besieging Japanese troops, often at very low level.
After the defeat of the Japanese by IV Corps and XXXIII Corps in Assam, the monsoon intervened before many counterattacks could take place. After the enforced period of reduced operations, the Third TAF supported the advance of Fourteenth Army against the Japanese forces. However, command arrangement changes at the end of 1944 cutting short the life of the Third TAF. It was redesignated HQ RAF Bengal and Burma on 4 December 1944.
The Third TAF had two commanders, Air Marshal John Baldwin up until 15 August 1944, and then Air Marshal Sir Alec Coryton.
Composition.
The Third TAF comprised the following Groups:
Squadrons.
A Third TAF Communications Squadron was established on 28 December 1943, but disestablished on 4 December 1944 at RAF Comilla.


Fort Stedman Union order of battle

The following Union Army units and commanders fought in the Battle of Fort Stedman (March 25, 1865) during the Petersburg Campaign of the American Civil War. Even though the IX Corps was the principal Union participant between 4:30 and 8:00 a.m., the time period which centrally defines this Battle, desultory skirmishing was officially reported by elements of the II, V and VI Corps and produced casualties in these Corps on the day of battle. Order of battle is compiled from the official reports which observed casualties. The Confederate order of battle is listed separately.
Army of the Potomac.
II Corps.
MG Andrew A. Humphreys
V Corps.
MG Gouverneur K. Warren
VI Corps.
MG Horatio G. Wright
IX Corps.
MG John G. Parke


Vicksburg Union order of battle

The following Union Army units and commanders fought in the Siege of Vicksburg of the American Civil War. The Confederate order of battle is listed separately. Order of battle compiled from the army organization during the campaign.
Army of the Tennessee.
MG Ulysses S. Grant, Commanding

General Staff:
General Headquarters:
IX Corps.
MG John Parke
XIII Corps.
MG John A. McClernand

MG Edward Ord
Escort
Pioneers
XV Corps.
MG William T. Sherman
XVI Corps (detachment).
MG Cadwallader C. Washburn
XVII Corps.
MG James B. McPherson
Escort
District of Northeast Louisiana.
BG Elias S. Dennis


50th Expeditionary Signal Battalion

The 50th Expeditionary Signal Battalion is a United States Army unit which is part of the 35th Signal Brigade located at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. The
Brigade's mission is to provide worldwide contingency, force projection, forced-entry signal support to the XVIII Airborne Corps for power-projection operations during war and operations other than war.
In 2018, 50th Expeditionary Signal Battalion-Enhanced (50th ESB-E), 35th Theater Tactical Signal Brigade is serving as the ESB-E pilot unit. 50th ESB-E supports the XVIII Airborne Corps. Potentially this ESB-E will provide capabilities that are scalable, from small units (forcible-entry alongside paratrooper jumps), to larger, mature operations, as an expeditionary force keeps growing on the ground.


Jeff Denham

Jeffrey John Denham (born July 29, 1967) is an American politician, United States Air Force veteran, and businessman. A member of the Republican Party, he served as the U.S. Representative for from 2013 to 2019. Denham first won election to the U.S. House in 2010, representing for one term before redistricting led him to run in the 10th district in 2012.
From 2002 to 2010, Denham served in the California State Senate, representing the 12th District, which includes Madera, Merced, Monterey, San Benito, and Stanislaus counties. Prior to seeking political office, Denham served on active and reserve status in the United States Air Force for 16 years, and served in both Operation Desert Storm in Iraq and Operation Restore Hope in Somalia.
During his congressional tenure, Denham was active in immigration issues, notably in the effort to draft and pass legislation that would successfully resolve the status of Dreamers.
Denham was narrowly defeated in his 2018 bid for re-election by Democrat Josh Harder and became a lobbyist for K&L Gates.
Early life, education, and military service.
In 1984, at age 17, Denham enlisted in the United States Air Force. He served on active and reserve status for 16 years as a tactical aircraft maintenance specialist, during which he received the Meritorious Service Medal for his service during Operation Desert Storm (Iraq) and Operation Restore Hope (Somalia).
Denham received an associate degree from Victor Valley College in 1989 and a B.A. in political science from California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, in 1992. He has worked as a farmer and started a plastics container company to ship produce.
2000 State Assembly campaign.
In 2000, Denham ran for the California State Assembly against City Councilman Simon Salinas, a Democrat. A total of $2.5 million was spent in the race. Salinas defeated Denham with 52% of the vote.
California State Senate.
Elections.
Denham ran for the State Senate in 2002 against former Democratic State Assemblyman Rusty Areias. The race featured a number of negative political advertisements and was one of the most expensive legislative races in state history, with over $6.3 million spent. Denham's campaign highlighted Areias's financial difficulties, including unpaid taxes and did not focus on Areias's state policy positions. Denham's negative campaign tactics drew widespread criticism, including from fellow Republicans.
The election was on November 5, 2002, but the vote count was close; the lead in the race went back and forth for several days. Denham won by 1,843 votes, 48% to 47%.
In November 2006, Denham won re-election to a second term with 58% of the vote.
In 2008, a recall effort was instigated against Denham by Democrat Don Perata after Denham declined to cast a deadlock-breaking vote on the state budget. Supporters of the recall turned in more than 60,000 signatures with the recall scheduled to appear on the ballot on June 3, 2008. In early May, Perata called off the efforts to recall Denham after it showed signs of backfiring, but the election was already on the ballot. Denham easily survived the recall by a 75.4% to 24.6% margin. Denham himself speculated that the recall effort actually helped, rather than hurt, his political career by raising his profile.
Denham announced in December 2008 that he would be a candidate for Lieutenant Governor of California in the 2010 election. He ended his campaign soon after Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger, in November 2009, appointed Republican State Senator Abel Maldonado to fill the vacancy left by the resignation of Lieutenant Governor John Garamendi, a Democrat, who was elected to Congress.
Denham then campaigned briefly for the State Assembly seat being vacated by Tom Berryhill of Modesto but in late December 2009 he dropped out of that race to run for Congress.
Tenure.
During his time in the state legislature, Denham focused his efforts on education, agriculture and job creation. He called for a reduction in government waste in Sacramento, better use of state surplus assets, and a crackdown on sexual predators.
Denham's awards include Legislator of the Year by the California State Sheriffs' Association (2004), Outstanding Legislator by the California State Sheriff's Association (2005), Legislator of the Year by the California Small Business Association (2005), Most Progressive Law Enforcement Leader of the Year by A Woman's Place of Merced (2005), and California Teachers Association Gold Award (2005).
Committee assignments.
Denham's committee assignments in the California State Senate included:
U.S. House of Representatives.
Elections.
In December 2009, seven-term U.S. Congressman George Radanovich announced he would retire due to health reasons. He endorsed Denham as his successor in . In the Republican primary, Denham defeated Fresno mayor Jim Patterson, former U.S. Congressman Richard Pombo, and Fresno City Councilman Larry Westerlund 36%–31%–21%–12%. In the 2010 general election, Denham defeated Democrat Loraine Goodwin with 65% of the vote.
After redistricting, much of the old 19th became the 16th District, which was significantly more Democratic than its successor. Meanwhile, much of the northwestern portion of the old 19th (e.g. Turlock, Riverbank, Oakdale, and the rest of northeastern Stanislaus county) was transferred to the 10th District. That district had previously been the 18th District, represented by retiring five-term Democrat Dennis Cardoza. The new 10th included all of Stanislaus County and the southern portion of San Joaquin County (including Tracy and Manteca). It also included Denham's home in Atwater, which had been just outside the old 19th's boundaries. Members of the House are only required to live in the state they wish to represent.
Former NASA astronaut José M. Hernández ran against him as the Democratic candidate. The 10th was considered a swing district in the 2012 election. Denham won with 53% of the vote to Hernández's 47%.
In 2014, Denham ran unopposed in the Republican primary. His Democratic opponent was Michael Eggman. Although the seat was regarded by some as "vulnerable" earlier in the year, the "Rothenberg Political Report" ultimately listed the race as "Republican Favored" and Denham defeated Eggman with 56% of the vote.
Denham ran for re-election in 2016. He finished first in the top-two primary on June 7, 2016, and again faced Eggman in the general election on November 8, 2016. Denham won re-election with 52.4% of the vote to Eggman's 47.6%. More than $11 million was spent on the race, mostly from outside groups.
In May 2017, investor Josh Harder became the third Democrat to announce that he would challenge Denham in 2018. He said he would focus on job creation and economic opportunity. "There just not a lot of opportunities for entry-level positions," Harder said. "What we need [is] a better, positive vision for what the economic development of the valley can bring."
Challenging Denham for the Republican nomination was veterinarian Ted Howze, who criticized Denham's support for what critics characterized as "amnesty" for illegal immigrants. Denham came in first in the top-two primary, with 37.8% of the vote. Denham was one of ten military veterans to whose campaigns Ambassador John Bolton's PAC gave $10,000 apiece during the 2018 race.
The "Modesto Bee" wrote on May 12, 2018, that "Jeff Denham is going to be hard to beat." By this point, the original field of Democratic candidates had been cut in half from ten. In addition to Harder, they included Sue Zwahlen, a former emergency room nurse and school board member; Michael Eggman, a former farmer who had challenged Denham in 2014 and 2016; Virginia Madueño, the former mayor of Riverbank, California; and Michael Barkley. Harder was endorsed by former President Barack Obama. Harder won the Democratic nomination with 16.7% of the primary vote and faced Denham in the general election. Harder defeated Denham in a closely contested race, receiving 51.3% of the vote to Denham's 48.7% in a race that was not called until a week after election day.
Tenure.
In April 2017, Denham hosted a town hall meeting in Turlock, which approximately 1,000 constituents attended. When a constituent asked for him to support the release of Donald Trump's tax returns, Denham said "I'm not going to ask the previous president that I served under to show his birth certificate any more than I am going to ask this president to show his taxes."
Denham voted in favor of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017. Regarding his vote, Denham described the bill as a "win for the Valley" he represents and he said "everyone will see an increase in their paychecks in 2018." Denham said he believed the bill would grow local agricultural business.
In 2018, Denham made a bid to lead the United States House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure.
Committee assignments.
Denham was a member of the Republican Main Street Partnership and the U.S.-Japan Caucus.
Political positions.
As of January 2018, Denham had voted with his party in 90.5% of votes in the 115th United States Congress and voted in line with President Trump's position in 98.3% of votes. He ranked #43 out of 433 members of Congress in the number of times he had voted against his party's position. In the 114th United States Congress, Denham was ranked as the 41st most bipartisan member of the U.S. House of Representatives (and the second most bipartisan member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California) in the Bipartisan Index created by The Lugar Center and the McCourt School of Public Policy that ranks members of the United States Congress by their degree of bipartisanship (by measuring the frequency each member's bills attract co-sponsors from the opposite party and each member's co-sponsorship of bills by members of the opposite party).
Denham was a close ally of then-House Majority Leader Kevin McCarthy.
Vote Smart Political Courage Test.
Vote Smart, a non-profit, non-partisan research organization that collects and distributes information on candidates for public office in the United States, "researched presidential and congressional candidates' public records to determine candidates' likely responses on certain key issues." According to Vote Smart's 2016 analysis, Denham generally supported pro-life legislation, opposed an income tax increase, supported mandatory minimum sentences for non-violent drug offenders, supported lowering taxes as a means of promoting economic growth, opposed requiring states to adopt federal education standards, supports building the Keystone Pipeline, supported government funding for the development of renewable energy, opposed the federal regulation of greenhouse gas emissions, opposed gun-control legislation, supported repealing the Affordable Care Act, opposed same-sex marriage, and supported increased American intervention in Iraq and Syria beyond air support.
Tax reform.
In December 2017, Denham helped the Republican Party pass the Trump tax bill, which he called “a historic milestone” that would simplify the tax code, improve the economy, and reduce families' tax burdens. “Congress has delivered on our promise to lower taxes for the middle class,” he said, calling the bill “a win for the valley and for everyone who will see an increase in their paychecks in 2018.” He celebrated the doubled child tax credit and said the law would make local growers “more globally competitive.”
Employment.
Appearing on NPR in May 2018, he spoke up for the stricter requirements for food stamps in the new farm bill, which he said would encourage able-bodied people without children to take care of at home to find work.
Animal rights.
In September 2014, the Humane Society Legislative Fund endorsed Denham. The HSLF's Wayne Pacelle said Denham was “leading the charge on some of the most important animal protection issues in Washington.” In the 113th Congress, Denham was the lead sponsor of the Pets on Trains Act (H.R. 2066), which required Amtrak to allow companion animals on some passenger trains. He led the effort in the House Agriculture Committee to defeat the “King amendment,” which would nullify hundreds of state and local laws on food safety, animal welfare, and agriculture. He was a lead sponsor of the Egg Products Inspection Act Amendments (H.R. 1731), which would improve the treatment of hundreds of millions of laying hens. He co-sponsored the Prevent All Soring Tactics (PAST) Act (H.R. 1518) to strengthen the federal law against the use of caustic chemicals to on the hooves and legs of show horses to induce a high-stepping gait. He also co-sponsored the Animal Fighting Spectator Prohibition Act (H.R. 366), which made it a federal crime to attend or bring a child to a dogfight or cockfight.
In April 2018, Denham introduced a law that would forbid the consumption of dog or cat meat. “If passed,” reported the Washington Post, “the ban would send a clear signal that the United States condemns the dog and cat meat trades in East Asia.” Denham said that the law would signal “that the U.S. will not tolerate this disturbing practice in our country” and would demonstrate “our unity with other nations that have banned dog and cat meat, and it bolsters existing international efforts to crack down on the practice worldwide.”
Drug policy.
Denham had a "D" rating from marijuana legalization group National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws (NORML) regarding his voting record on cannabis-related matters. He was active in working with law enforcement to halt illegal growing of cannabis. Denham opposed the legalization of recreational marijuana, saying that "legalizing drugs, including marijuana, is a detriment to society and will endanger future generations." He voted for allowing veterans access to medical marijuana, if legal in their state, per their Veterans Health Administration doctor's recommendation, the second time the Veterans Equal Access Amendment was introduced in 2016.
Environment.
As of January 2018, he had a 6% lifetime score from the environmental advocacy group the League of Conservation Voters.
Economic issues.
Denham had argued that the national deficit is the biggest issue for the United States, and called it a threat to the nation's freedom.
In July 2012, he criticized an event put on by the General Services Administration, which cost $268,732. He said that he believed that the controversy went even further than the GSA.
Denham voted against raising the debt ceiling in 2013, which led to the United States federal government shutdown of 2013. He also voted against the bill that reopened the government and avoided a default.
Denham voted for the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act of 2017, which he praised as "a historic milestone". Denham's vote was criticized by Democratic opponent TJ Cox, who claimed the bill would "cost $1.43 trillion over the next decade".
Healthcare.
On April 26, 2017, Denham told "The Hill" that he was not in favor of the American Health Care Act (AHCA). Denham said that he could only support a repeal-bill that kept significant parts of Obamacare intact, such as coverage for pre-existing conditions and expanded Medicaid coverage. However, on May 4, 2017, Denham voted to repeal the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (Obamacare) and pass AHCA. Denham said that he voted for the revised version of AHCA, which allows states to seek a waiver to allow insurers to charge individuals with preexisting conditions higher premiums, because the bill would provide $8 billion over five years to help those with pre-existing conditions. He voted for this version of the bill before the nonpartisan Congressional Budget Office had estimated its impact; the CBO had estimated that 24 million Americans would lose insurance under the previous version of the bill.
During his re-election campaign, Denham falsely claimed that "The Washington Post" fact-checker had found his opponent's claims about the impact of Obamacare's repeal on preexisting conditions to be false. "The Washington Post" fact-checker responded, saying that Denham was "twisting an unrelated fact check and [was] misleading voters."
High-speed rail.
Denham, who served as chairman of the House Subcommittee on Railroads, had opposed plans for a high-speed train between San Francisco and Los Angeles. On March 6, 2017, the "New York Times" quoted him as saying that “no more federal dollars will go to California high-speed rail.” He charged that $600 million of state funds allocated by Proposition 1A in 2008 for Caltrain's electrification was being diverted. “'They are stealing Prop 1A money and using it for something else,” Denham said.
Immigration.
In October 2013, Denham co-sponsored the comprehensive immigration reform bill introduced by House Democrats. In announcing his support for the bill, he said: "We can't afford any more delays. I support an earned path to citizenship to allow those who want to become citizens to demonstrate a commitment to our country, learn English, pay fines and back taxes and pass background checks."
In August 2014, Denham broke ranks with the Republican Party and voted against a bill that would have dismantled the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals.
In the autumn of 2017, Denham unsuccessfully "pleaded with Trump...not to end the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program, which provided temporary deportation relief and work permits for hundreds of thousands of people brought to the country illegally as children."
In May 2018, Denham was one of a dozen House Republicans who, defying Speaker Paul Ryan, forced a vote on immigration in an effort to help the so-called Dreamers. In a May 16 interview with Tucker Carlson, Denham said that "the only way we're going to get the border secured is actually working together to pass something off the floor." In order to gain support for the Mexican border wall, he said, Republicans must support action to help Dreamers. "The only way you're going to get the 60 members on a bipartisan border security bill is with this solution that is equally as important that the president of the United States is asking for."
Denham said in June 2018 that he had forged an agreement with more conservative House members that would provide temporary residency visas for young immigrants and that would also fund Donald Trump's border wall with Mexico.
In a June 7, 2018, interview on MSNBC, Denham said, "I want to see a fixed to our broken immigration system" and that "You shouldn't be tearing families apart." He described the Trump Administration's "zero tolerance policy" as "a bad idea."
Water supply.
In June 2018, Denham joined three other local members of Congress in introducing legislation “to cut through red tape to raise the spillway gates at New Exchequer Dam and improve water supply reliability for Merced County.” The measure “would provide an additional 57,000 acre-feet for irrigation, groundwater replenishment and environmental benefits.”
Social issues.
In May 2016, Denham initially voted against an amendment to a defense appropriations bills by Democratic Representative Sean Patrick Maloney which would prohibit government contracts with companies that don't comply with President Obama's executive order banning federal contractors from discriminating against LGBT workers. The following week, Denham reversed course and voted for Maloney's amendment to uphold President Obama's executive order banning federal contractors from discriminating based on sexual orientation or gender identity.
2016 presidential race.
Denham did not make an endorsement in the 2016 presidential race. He said that he planned to support the Republican nominee but did not specifically endorse Donald Trump, and that "Like many Americans from both parties, my first choice for president is not on the ballot in November."
FEMA reforms.
On November 21, 2017, Denham introduced the Supporting Mitigation Activities and Resiliency Targets for Rebuilding Act, also known as the SMART Rebuilding Act. The SMART Rebuilding Act, which proposed cost-saving Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) reforms, was included in the U.S. House's subsequent Disaster Recovery Reform Act and supplemental appropriations bill. The disaster aid package, which included $81 billion in additional disaster relief funding in addition to Denham's FEMA reforms, was passed by the House in December 2017 in a bipartisan vote.
Personal life.
Denham and his wife Sonia have two children. She is Hispanic, and Denham has said that he learned Spanish to communicate with her family, including to help his Mexican father-in-law through the process of gaining U.S. citizenship. Denham owns and operates Denham Plastics, a supplier of reusable containers in the agriculture industry. He and his family also farm almonds at their ranch in Merced County.


94th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)

The 94th Infantry Division (German: "94. Infanteriedivision") was a German Army infantry division in World War II.
History.
Formation and the west campaign.
The 94th Infantry Division was raised in September 1939 as part of the fifth wave from men of Military District number 4 (Wehrkreis 4), which comprised Saxony and Thuringia. The division was then sent to the Saarland in December, should the French invade. The division then aided the 6th Army in their border-crossing the following year. Following a fatal car collision in August 1940, "General of the Infantry" Hellmuth Volkmann was replaced by "Major General" Georg Pfeiffer.
The east campaign and destruction.
In June 1941, the 94th Division attacked the Soviet Union with a large number of other German divisions. However; until October 1942, the 94th was assigned to the occupied Ukraine. In June 1942, "Major General" Pfeiffer was promoted to "Lieutenant General". During the Case Blue offensive, the division was sent with the 6th Army as a component of LI Corps to capture the industrial Russian city of Stalingrad, which was considered important in crushing Soviet morale. 94th Infantry Division was cut off from supplies and reinforcements outside of Stalingrad, as a Soviet pincer-movement left the 6th Army surrounded.
The commander for the 306th Infantry Lieutenant General Pfeiffer and his staff were flown out on December 11. The remnants of the 94th division surrendered in the last days of January 1943.
Recreation and surrender.
The 94th was recreated later in 1943 and later moved to the Mediterranean, where the Allies opened up a new front in Italy. In Autumn 1944, remnants of the 95th Infantry and 278th Grenadier Divisions were reconstituted as part of the 94th Infantry. The division surrendered on 22 April 1945.
War crimes.
The division has been implicated in the San Polo massacre (Tuscany), on 14 July 1944, when 63 civilians were executed.


Armoured Corps Training Centre (Germany)

The Armoured Corps Training Centre () in Munster is one of the German Army's training centres ("Zentren des Heeres") with particular responsibility for the basic and continuation training of armoured troops, including the armoured and the mechanized infantry corps of the German Army. By tradition, the centre is nicknamed the Armoured Corps School ("Panzertruppenschule") whose tasks it partly subsumed on 1 October 2007.


Infantry Division Hamburg (Wehrmacht)

The Infantry Division Hamburg () was an infantry division of the German Heer during World War II. It was assigned the ordinal number 324, but was no longer known as the 324th Infantry Division after 10 March 1945. The division existed only in early March 1945.
History.
Infantry Division Hamburg was formed as an emergency formation on 4 March 1945 in Wehrkreis X. It initially consisted of the Grenadier Regiments 588 and 589 (formerly Grenadier Regiment Hamburg 1 and Grenadier Regiment Hamburg 2, respectively), consisting of two battalions each, as well as the Division Fusilier Battalion 324, the Artillery Regiment 324 (two artillery detachment), and the Division Units 324. The division's only commander during its history was Walter Steinmüller.
Deployment was completed by 8 March 1945, and the division was rushed into the Wesel sector. Upon arrival in the region on 10 March, the fighting formations of the division were immediately folded into local units, whereas the staff and signals detachment remained nominally independent. The staff was subsequently renamed Division z.b.V. 618. In April 1945, the staff served under LXIII Army Corps, Army Detachment Lüttwitz, Army Group B.
All formations of Infantry Division Hamburg were destroyed in the Ruhr Pocket.


Tank Destruction Badge

The Tank Destruction Badge () was a World War II German military decoration awarded to individuals of the Wehrmacht who had single-handedly destroyed an enemy tank or an armored combat vehicle using a hand-held weapon. Anti-tank units were ineligible for this award. It was established on 9 March 1942, but could be awarded for actions dating back to 22 June 1941 (the start of Operation Barbarossa, the German invasion of the Soviet Union). Prior to the introduction of this award, the soldier would be awarded the General Assault Badge for the action.
On 18 December 1943, the OKH introduced a gold class that recognised the single-handed destruction of five tanks. A soldier could therefore have four silver badges which would all be replaced by a gold version upon the destruction of a fifth tank (to which separate silver could be added thereafter).
Variations.
The tank destruction badge featured a blackened 42 mm by 18 mm Panzer IV tank attached to an 88 mm by 33 mm silver band. 2 mm from the top and bottom edges ran 4 mm black stripes. The badge was pinned to the sleeve, and then was "sewn on". It had a cloth or cotton backing.
The gold award was similar except for a gold bullion wire background with black horizontal stripes. It featured a silver wash to the tank, instead of a black wash.
One noted recipient was Günther Viezenz, who destroyed 21 enemy tanks.


Valerio Morucci

Valerio Morucci (born 22 July 1949) is an Italian former terrorist, who was a member of the Red Brigades and who took part in the kidnapping and assassination of Aldo Moro in 1978.
Biography.
Morucci was born in Rome. He took part in the libertarian movement of 1968, and later entered Potere Operaio, a far-left organization. After the dissolution of Potere Operaio in 1973, he tried to form several political-military organizations including the Formazioni Comuniste Armate (FCA), which were absorbed by the Red Brigades (Italian: "Brigate Rosse", or BR) in 1976.
Morucci, considered an expert in weapons and military organizations, became the leader of BR's "column" in Rome. In March 1978, he took part in the ambush in via Fani in which the escort of former prime Minister Aldo Moro was massacred, and during which Moro was allegedly kidnapped. According to the official reconstruction of the events which followed, Morucci disturbed all the communications of the BR and was allegedly against the final decision (attributed to BR national leader Mario Moretti) to kill Moro. He also entered in contact with Lanfranco Pace and Franco Piperno (in turn in contact with the Italian Socialist Party, one of the few political forces favourable to negotiations to liberate Moro).
According to his declarations during the ensuing trials, Morucci escorted the red Renault 4 in which Moro's corpse was found on 9 May 1978 to its discovery location in via Caetani. He subsequently made the phone call announcing to the victim's relatives where Moro could be found. Morucci's voice has been identified as that which called Moro's family several times during the latter's time in captivity (aside from a call by Moretti on 30 April 1978).
Morucci was arrested in 1979. Due to his subsequent dissociation from BR, and the information given about the organization, he was paroled. His sentence expired in 1994. He wrote several books, including "Ritratto di un terrorista da giovane", in which he tells about his life before his militancy in the Red Brigades, "La peggio gioventù", about his militancy in the BR, and "Patrie galere. Cronache dall'oltrelegge", about his detention years.


Naval Artillery War Badge

The Naval Artillery War Badge or War Badge for the Coastal Artillery () was a World War II German military decoration awarded to the crews of Kriegsmarine land-based marine artillery and anti-aircraft units. It was presented to personnel of coastal defense units, and anti-aircraft units. The award was instituted on 24 June 1941 by Grand Admiral Erich Raeder to reward the actions of both individuals and crew members. It was also awarded to those killed in action in said units.
Description.
The medal was designed by Otto Placzek of Berlin. It consists of an outer laurel wreath of oak leaves with the German Eagle at the top, displaying "down-swept" wings while clutching a swastika (both gold in colour). The central area featured a coastal artillery gun with the sea behind (in grey colour). The early war version were made of bronze and later nickel. Inferior quality late-war versions were made of "pot or monkey metal". The medal was worn on the lower part of the left breast pocket of the naval service tunic.
Criteria for award.
A crew could receive the award by achieving eight points:
The badge was issued in a single degree only.


62nd Expeditionary Signal Battalion

The 62nd Expeditionary Signal Battalion is a unit within the 11th Signal Brigade in the Signal Corps of the United States Army.
History.
The battalion was originally constituted on 1 October 1933 in the Regular Army as the 62nd Signal Battalion, but was not activated until 13 October 1939 at Fort Sam Houston. During World War II, it served in the Tunisian Campaign, and the Rome–Arno, North Apennines, and Po Valley Campaigns during the Italian Campaign. For its actions in support of IV Corps, the 62nd received an Army Meritorious Unit Commendation on 18 March 1945.
On 25 September 1949, it was redesignated as the 62nd Signal Battalion, Corps, before being inactivated in Japan on 26 June 1950.
On 1 March 1963, it was redesignated as the 62nd Signal Battalion, and activated on 26 March of that year at Fort Bragg. On 25 April 1966, the Headquarters and Headquarters Detachment of the battalion was converted and redesignated as the Headquarters and Main Support Company of the 62nd Maintenance Battalion. It was sent to Vietnam, receiving the Meritorious Unit Commendation for its actions in 1969 and 1970 in 1971. After the United States withdrawal from Vietnam, it was inactivated on 4 October 1972 at Oakland Army Base.
On 1 January 1998, it was converted and redesignated as the 62nd Signal Battalion. The 62nd was reactivated on 17 October 2009 at Fort Hood.


Akinji

Akinji or akindji (, ; plural: "akıncılar") were irregular light cavalry, scout divisions (deli) and advance troops of the Ottoman Empire's military. When the pre-existing Turkish ghazis were incorporated into the Ottoman Empire's military they became known as "akıncı." Unpaid they lived and operated as raiders on the frontiers of the Ottoman Empire, subsisting on plunder. There is a distinction made between "akıncı" and "deli" cavalry.
History.
In war their main role was to act as advance troops on the front lines and demoralise the marching opposing army by using guerrilla tactics, and to put them in a state of confusion and shock. They could be likened to a scythe in a wheat field. They would basically hit the enemy with arrows. When attacked in melee, they would retreat while still shooting backwards. They could easily outrun heavy cavalry because they were lightly armed and their horses were bred for speed as opposed to strength. Akinji forces carried swords, lances, shields and battle axes as well, so that in a field of combat, they could face the enemy first and fight melee. In some Ottoman campaigns, such as the Battle of Krbava field, Akinji forces were the only units utilized without any need for Ottoman heavy cavalry or infantry.
Because of their mobility akinji were also used for reconnaissance and as a vanguard force to terrorize the local population before the advance of the main Ottoman forces. Since they were irregular militia, they were not bound by peace treaties, so they could raid border villages and attack enemy garrisons, fortresses and border posts during peacetime, constantly harassing the enemy and checking the weak spots on the rival country's defences. They would also attack trading routes to cut enemy's supply and transportation.
Akinji forces were led by certain families. Well-known akinji families were Malkoçoğlu, Turhanlı, Ömerli, Evrenosoğlu, and Mihalli. These akinji clans were mainly composed of Turkmen tribal warriors with a leading dynasty which descended from the warrior ghazis of the first Ottoman ruler Osman I. Adventurers, soldiers of fortune, mercenaries, warrior dervishes, and civilians looking for fortune and adventure would also join the ranks of akinji gangs.
Since akinjis were seen as irregular militia, they did not have regular salaries as kapikulu soldiers, or fiefs like timarli soldiers; their only income was the booty that they captured.
The Akinji system had an important role at the establishment of the empire and fast expansion of Ottoman territories in Europe. Though the akinji system worked excellently from the 14th to 16th centuries, it began to decline after the 16th century. Starting with 16th-17th century nomadic Tatar and Nogay cavalry from the Crimean Khanate also served as akinjis for the Ottoman Empire. After the Ottoman advance in Europe stopped, akinji warriors became unnecessary and without the economy of booty this warrior class slowly faded away. After the modernization of the Ottoman army, the last few officially recognized akinji clans were abolished. Still, last remnants of akinji system existed till late 19th century in the Balkan provinces as the bashi-bozouk (irregular) warriors.
Although the terminology differentiating between similar types of Ottoman cavalry corps is not fully clarified, the akinji, once decimated in the battle of Giurgiu in October 1595 as they were retreating over the Danube, was apparently gradually replaced by new irregular corps, such as the "deli" and "bashi-bozouk".
In literature.
Akinji lifestyle with battles was a romantic fantasy for the public and so akinjis were a popular subject in Ottoman folk literature and music. "Serhad türküleri" or "border folk songs" is a subcategory of Ottoman folk music dealing mostly with akinji raids and battles or love affairs of akinji warriors, sometimes odes to fallen warriors. Alişimin Kaşları Kara" (My Aliş had Black Eyebrows), "Estergon Kalesi" (Castle of Esztergom) are some of the most popular examples. In the modern period, romantic-revivalist Turkish writers also wrote poems about akinjis. Yahya Kemal's "Akıncılar" is one of the most well-known example on this subject.


Bristoe campaign Confederate order of battle

The following Confederate States Army units and commanders fought in the Bristoe campaign (October 13–November 7, 1863) of the American Civil War. The Union order of battle is listed separately. Order of battle compiled from the army organization from September 30, 1863, the casualty returns and the reports.
Army of Northern Virginia.
Gen Robert E. Lee
Second Corps.
LTG Richard S. Ewell
Third Corps.
LTG Ambrose P. Hill
Cavalry Corps.
MG J. E. B. Stuart
Reserve Artillery.
BG William N. Pendleton


John Stefanowicz

John Stefanowicz is an American Greco-Roman wrestler.
Stefanowicz won the Olympic Trials at 87 kg, qualifying him for the 2020 Summer Olympics. In the finals he swept Joe Rau.
Stefanowicz wrestled for the United States Marine Corps, becoming the first Marine member of the U.S. Olympic wrestling team since 1992. He holds the rank of Staff Sergeant.


Rich Mountain order of battle

The following is the organization of the Union and Confederate forces engaged at the Battle of Rich Mountain, during the American Civil War in 1861.
Union forces.
Department of the Ohio (Army of Occupation): MG George B. McClellan
Confederate forces.
Army of the Northwest: BG Robert S. Garnett


Unterarzt (military)

Unterarzt (short: UArzt or UA) was a military rank in the German Reichswehr and Wehrmacht until 1945.
It describes a qualified or licensed surgeon or dentist of the armed forces with the last or highest Officer Aspirant ("O.A." or "OA" – de: "Offizieranwärter") rank. According to the rank hierarchy it was comparable to Sergeant First Class (de: Oberfeldwebel) or Chief Petty Officer (de: Oberbootsmann) NATO-Rangcode OR7
in anglophone armed forces.
Wehrmacht.
Heer.
In the German Wehrmacht from 1933 until 1945 there were the OR7-ranks "Unterarzt" (physician), "Unterapotheker" (pharmacologist), and "Unterveterinär" (veterinarian). It was also comparable to the Oberfähnrich/Oberfähnrich zur See OR7-rank.
In line to the so-called Reichsbesoldungsordnung (en: Reich's salary order), appendixes to the Salary law of the German Empire (de: Besoldungsgesetz des Deutschen Reiches) of 1927 (changes 1937 – 1940), the comparative ranks were as follows: C 15
The "corps colour" of the military Health Service Support (HSS) in German armed forces was traditional "dark blue", and of the veterinarian service . This tradition was continued by the medical service corps in Heer and Luftwaffe of the Reichswehr and Wehrmacht. However, the "corps colour" of the "Waffen-SS" and "Kriegsmarine" HSS was .
Address.
The manner of formal addressing of military surgeons/dentists with the rank "Unterarzt" was, „Herr Unterarzt“.


230th Infantry Division (Wehrmacht)

The 230th Coastal Defense Division ( or ) was created in April 1942 for the defense of Alta in the Norwegian Finnmark.
The division was a non-standard organization, consisting mostly of a collection of fortress infantry battalions.
Organization.
Structure of the division:


List of Vorpostenboote in World War II

A Vorpostenboot (plural "Vorpostenboote") was an auxiliary warship used by Germany in both World Wars. Many vorpostenboote also served in other roles, such as sperrbrechers and weather ships. During World War II, the "Vorposentenboote" were organized into several surface flotillas which were in turn attached to various German ports. Over 30 "Vorpostenflotillas" were established off German, Channel, Baltic and Scandinavian coasts.
1 Vorpostenflotille.
1 "Vorpostenflotille" was active in the western Baltic from 1 October 1939 to 1 October 1940, when it was redesignated 3 "Sperrbrecherflotille".
2 Vorpostenflotille.
2 "Vorpostenflotille" existed from September 1939 to December 1944, when it was disbanded. Many vessels were redesignated within the unit, later designations are shown in brackets
3 Vorpostenflotille.
"3 Vorpostenflotille" was established in September 1939.
4 Vorpostenflotille.
4 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in September 1939 and was disbanded in September 1944. Many vessels were re-designated within the unit. Later designations are shown in brackets.
5 Vorpostengruppe.
5 "Vorpostengruppe" was established in September 1939 and disbanded on 22 May 1940.
6 Vorpostengruppe.
6 "Vorpostengruppe" was established in September 1939 and disbanded on 22 May 1940.
6 Vorpostenflotille.
6 "Vorpostenflotille" was established on 1 January 1943 and disbanded in September 1944.
7 Vorpostenflotille.
7 "Vorpostenflotille" was established on 22 September 1939. It was disbanded in September 1944.
8 Vorpostenflotille.
8 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in September 1939 and disbanded in 1945. One vessel was redesignated within the unit.
9 Vorpostenflotille.
9 "Vorpostenflotille" was established on 27 September 1939. It was disbanded on 23 April 1945.
10 Vorpostenflotille.
10 "Vorpostenflotille" was established in September 1939. It was renamed 10 Sicherungsflottille on 1 October 1943.
11 Vorpostenflotille.
11 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in September 1939. A few vessels were redesignated within the unit.
12 Vorpostenflotille.
12 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed on 26 September 1939. It was disbanded in December 1947.
† Losses:- V 1201 "Juno" struck a mine in the North Sea west of Heligoland. She was then attacked and sunk by an Allied de Havilland Mosquito aircraft on 17 September 1944. V 1202 "Friedrich Suthmeier" struck a mine in the North Sea west of Heligoland. She was then attacked and sunk by an Allied de Havilland Mosquito aircraft on 17 September 1944. V 1207 "P. von Rensen" was bombed and sunk in the North Sea off Heligoland by Allied aircraft on 17 April 1945. V 1214 "Joannes Georgius" struck a mine and sank in the North Sea off Sylt, Schleswig-Holstein on 27 September 1944. V 1233 "Vooruit" was sunk in the North Sea by British aircraft on 18 April 1944. "V 1236 Flevo III" struck a mine and sank on 11 July 1942. V 1236 "Augusta" was sunk in the North Sea by British aircraft on 18 April 1944. V 1237 "Notre Dame de Dunes" was sunk in the North Sea by British aircraft on 18 April 1944. V 1241 "Stangenwalde" was sunk in the North Sea off Terschelling, Friesland, Netherlands in a battle with, , , , , and on 1 May 1943. V 1249 "Mewa VIII" struck a mine and sank in the North Sea off Borkum, Lower Saxony on 24 February 1943. V 1250 was sunk in an Allied air raid on Wesermünde, Bremen on 2 June 1944. V 1252 collided with and sank in the North Sea off Borkum on 4 April 1943. V 1254 "Hermann Garrels" was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea off Terschelling by a Royal Navy Motor Torpedo Boat on 5 July 1944. V 1255 "Ernst Hecht" ran aground and was wrecked on 4 January 1945. V 1256 "Heinrich Onnen" was either torpedoed, or bombed and sunk by an Allied aircraft off Terschelling on 5 July 1945. V 1262 "Verwachting" in 1944. V 1269 struck a mine and sank in the North Sea west of Esbjerg, Denmark on 27 August 1944.
13 Vorpostenflotille.
13 "Vorpostenflotille" was established in September 1939. It was disbanded in January 1945.
† Losses:- V 1302 "John Mahn" was bombed and sunk in the English Channel by Royal Air Force aircraft on 12 February 1942. V 1303 "Freiburg" was sunk in the North Sea off Hook of Holland, South Holland, Netherlands by vessels of the 4th MTB Flotilla, Royal Navy on 9 October 1944. V 1304 "Eisenach" was sunk in the North Sea off IJmuiden, North Holland, Netherlands by , , , , and on 6 March 1944. V 1307 "Stettin" struck the sunken wreck of and sank in the North Sea off IJmuiden on 24 January 1944. V 1308 "Bredebeck" was sunk in the North Sea in a battle with and other vessels of the 54th MTB flotilla on 9 July 1944. V 1309 "Kapitän Stemmer" collided with V 811 "Hugo Homann" and sank in the North Sea off Hook of Holland on 28 February 1944. "V 1311 Döse" was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea off Hook of Holland by Royal Navy Motor Torpedo Boats on 11 May 1944. V 1314 "Gustav Hugo Deiters" was sunk in the North Sea off Den Helder, North Holland by , , , , and on 9 June 1944. V 1318 "Hans Pickenpack" struck a mine and sank in the North Sea off Vlieland, Friesland, Netherlands on 27 February 1943. V 1340 was bombed and sunk at Noordwijk, North Holland on 27 November 1943.
14 Vorpostenflotille.
14 "Vorpostenflotille" was established on 1 February 1943 and disbanded in 1945.
† Losses:- V 1401 "Deister" suffered a boiler explosion and sank in the North Sea off IJmuiden, North Holland, Netherlands on 26 April 1944; a vessel designated V 1401 was bombed and sunk at IJmuiden on 24 August 1944. V 1405 "Ritzebüttel" (as V 2008 "Ritzebüttel") struck a mine and sank in the Broad Fourteens off Westkapelle, West Flanders, Belgium on 25 February 1943. Ten crew were killed. V 1408 "Aue" was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea off IJmuiden by Bristol Beaufighter aircraft of the Royal Air Force on 29 April 1943. V 1409 "Limburgia" was torpedoed and sunk in Seine Bay by and on 18 April 1943. V 1411 "Zeemeeuw" sank in the North Sea off IJmuiden on 5 July 1944. V 1412 "Witte Zee" was sunk in the North Sea in a battle with , , , , , and on 14 July 1944. V 1415 "Azimuth" on 26 March 1944. V 1416 was sunk at IJmuiden by Martin B-26 Marauder aircraft of the United States Eighth Air Force. V 1417 "Stoomloodsvartuig 11" was sunk in the North Sea off Terschelling, Friesland, Netherlands by British aircraft on 17 January 1945.
15 Vorpostenflotille.
15 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in September 1939. It was disbanded in 1945.
The unit also operated these "Flower"-class corvettes captured whilst under construction in France.
16 Vorpostengruppe.
16 "Vorpostengruppe" was formed in July 1940. It was redesignated 16 "Vorpostenflotille" on 20 September 1940.
16 Vorpostenflotille.
16 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed on 20 September 1940. It was disbanded in July 1945.
17 Vorpostenflotille.
17 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in June 1940. It was disbanded in 1945.
18 Vorpostengruppe.
18 "Vorpostengruppe" was formed in July 1940. It was redesignated 18 "Vorpostenflotille on 3 October 1940.
18 Vorpostenflotille.
18 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed on 3 October 1940. It was disbanded in 1945.
†Losses:- V 1801 "Lutteur" was named "O 22 S" when she sank in December 1941. She was subsequently salvaged and repaired. She was sunk in an Allied air raid on Kiel, Schleswig-Holstein on 12 April 1944 but was salvaged in December 1944, repaired and returned to service. V 1802 "Orient" was sunk in the Baltic Sea off Memel, East Prussia by Soviet aircraft on 11 November 1944. V 1805 "Senateur Louis Brindeau" was sunk in an Allied air raid on Le Havre, Seine-Maritime, France on 15 June 1944. V 1807 "Wagram" struck a mine and sank on 14 August 1942. V 1808 "Dortmund" struck a mine and sank in the Broad Fourteens on 23 May 1942. V 1810 "Condor" was bombed and sunk in the English Channel off Boulogne, Pas-de-Calais, France on 2 June 1944. V 1814 "Linz" was sunk in an Allied air raid on Boulogne on 16 June 1944. V 1815 "Loodsboot 6" was sunk in an Allied air rain on Boulogne on 16 June 1944.
19 Vorpostenflotille.
19 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in July 1940. It was redesignated 5 "Sicherungsflotille" on 1 October 1943. One vessel was redesignated within the unit.
20 Vorpostenflotille.
20 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in July 1940. It was renamed 20 "Minensuchflotille" post-war.
† Losses:- V 2001 "Pastor Pype" was wrecked in the Wadden Sea on 5 March 1942. All 28 crew were rescued. V 2001 "Uranus" was sunk in the Baltic Sea by Soviet aircraft on 2 May 1945. V 2002 "Madeleine Louise" was bombed and sunk in the North Sea off Terschelling, Friesland, Netherlands by Lockheed Hudson aircraft of 407 Squadron, Royal Air Force on 15 May 1942. V 2003 "Loodsboot 7" was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea off Terschelling by Royal Navy Motor Gun Boats and Motor Torpedo Boats on 1 October 1942. V 2004 "Loodsboot 12" was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea off IJmuiden, North Holland, Netherlands by a Motor Torpedo Boat on 2 June 1944. V 2008 "Ritzebüttel" struck a mine and sank in the Broad Fourteens off Westkapelle, West Flanders, Belgium on 25 February 1943. V 2009 "Niedersachsen" was sunk in the Scheldt by Royal Navy Motor Torpedo Boats on 25 August 1944. V 2016 was sunk in the North Sea by Royal Navy Motor Torpedo Boats on 16 October 1944. V 2018 "Vogtland" struck a mine and was damaged in the North Sea off Terschelling on 28 March 1943. She was taken in tow by V 801 "Max Gundelach" but struck another mine the next day and sank with the loss of four of her crew. V 2019 "Adolf Hitler" was bombed and severely damaged in the Scheldt on 28 June 1943 and was beached. V 2020 "Alexander Becker" was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea off Egmond aan Zee, North Holland by Royal Navy Motor Torpedo Boats on 10 June 1944. V 2021 "Nürnberg" was sunk in the North Sea off Den Helder, North Holland by , , , , and on 9 June 1944. V 2022 "Emil Colsmann" was torpedoed and sunk in the Kattegat by the on 23 March 1945. V 2023 "Karlsburg" was sunk in an American air raid on Swinemünde, Pomerania on 12 March 1945.
51 Vorpostenflotille.
51 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed on 23 December 1940. It was disbanded in June 1945. A number of vessels were redesignated within the unit.
† Losses:- V 5101 "Blitz" was torpedoed and sunk in Nordfjord by Royal Air Force aircraft on 12 December 1944. V 5102 "Donner" was shelled and sunk in the Skaggerak by and on 27 December 1942. V 5103 "Taifun" collided with the Norwegian coaster and sank on 9 August 1942. V 5106 "Sturm" was sunk in a naval battle on 11 February 1944. V 5107 "Sturm" collided with and sank at Sognesjøen, sogn og Fjordane, Norway on 16 September 1941. V 5107 "Karmöy" was sunk in Lødingen, Norway by aircraft from on 20 November 1944. V 5108 "Föhn" was shelled and sunk in the Skaggerak by on 27 December 1941.

‡ Formerly named "Hareidingen".

‡‡ Formerly named "Aalesund".
53 Vorpostenflotille.
53 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed on 23 December 1940. It was disbanded in June 1945. A number of vessels were redesignated within the unit.
† Losses:- V 5304 was sunk at Lervik, Østfold, Norway by de Havilland Mosquito aircraft of 143 Squadron, Royal Air Force on 15 January 1945. V 5307 "Felix Scheder" was bombed and sunk in the Norwegian Sea off Stad, Norway by Fleet Air Arm aircraft based on and on 12 September 1944. V 5311 "Seeotter" struck a mine and sank off "Gejta", Norway on 5 July 1945 with the loss of 23 of her crew.
‡Formerly named "Jim".
Formerly named "Pol VIII".
55 Vorpostenflotille.
55 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in December 1940. It was disbanded in June 1945. A number of vessels were redesignated within the unit.
† Losses:- V 5502 "Biber" was sunk in Hjeltefjorden by Bristol Beaufighter and de Havilland Mosquito aircraft of the Banff Strike Wing, Royal Air Force on 24 September 1944. V 5502 "Snøgg" ran aground on the Norwegian coast on 1 September 1943. She sank on 6 September during salvage attempts. V 5506 "Zick" was sunk in Hjeltefjord by de Havilland Mosquito aircraft of 235 and 248 Squadrons, Royal Air Force on 23 October 1944. V 5525 was sunk in Sognefjord by and on 2 November 1944. V 5531 was sunk in Sognefjord by and on 2 November 1944.
57 Vorpostenflotille.
57 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in November 1940. It was disbanded in June 1945. A number of vessels were redesignated within the unit.
†Losses:- V 5705 "Elsaß" struck a mine and sank in the Norwegian Sea off Bodø, Nordland, Norway on 27 September 1943. V 5706 "Ostmark" ran aground and sank on 16 March 1941. V 5718 "Coburg" on 18 November 1943. V 5722 "Hornack" was sunk at Rørvik, Nord-Trøndelag, Norway by Allied aircraft on 26 October 1944.
59 Vorpostenflotille.
59 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in February 1941. It was disbanded in June 1945.
† Losses:- V 5905 "Nordriff" ran aground and was wrecked in Lopphavet on 29 December 1942. V 5907 "Geier" was shelled and sunk off Lofoten, Norway by on 26 December 1941. V 5908 "Penang" on 26 January 1944. V 5909 "Coronel" struck a mine and sank in Varangerfjord on 1 February 1943.
61 Vorpostenflotille.
61 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in November 1940. It was disbanded in June 1945. A number of vessels were redesignated within the unit.
† Losses:- V 6101 "Gauleiter Bohle" was bombed and sunk in the Norwegian Sea by Soviet Curtiss Kittyhawk, Ilyushin Il-2 and Yakovlev Yak-9 aircraft on 25 September 1944. V 6102 "Köln" was torpedoed and sunk in the North Sea by or on 19 August 1944. V 6106 "Tirol" was torpedoed and sunk in Varangerfjord by Soviet Navy torpedo boats on 12 December 1943. V 6107 was sunk in Varangerfjord by Soviet aircraft on 17 October 1944. V 6109 "Nordwind" was torpedoed and sunk in Busse Sound by Soviet aircraft on 23 March 1944. V 6111 "Masuren" was torpedoed and sunk in Korsfjord by Soviet aircraft on 24 October 1944. V 6112 "Friese" was torpedoed and sunk off Vardø, Finnmark, Norway by the on 19 August 1944. V 6113 "Gote" was torpedoed and sunk in Kongsfjord by Ilyushin Il-4 aircraft of the Soviet Ninth Guards Regiment. V 6115 "Ostwind" was torpedoed and sunk in the Barents Sea off Kiberg, Finnmark by the on 1 February 1943. V 6116 "Ubier" and V 6117 "Cherusker" struck a mine and sank in Porsangerfjord on 6 December 1943.
63 Vorpostenflotille.
63 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in May 1944. It was disbanded in 1945.
† Losses:- V 6307 "Mob-FD 2 Jupiter" was sunk by Soviet aircraft in Norwegian waters on 17 July 1944. V 6311 "Polarstern" was bombed and sunk in Syltefjord by Soviet aircraft on 22 October 1944.
64 Vorpostenflotille.
64 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in June 1944. It was disbanded in 1945.
† Losses:- V 6408 "Skagerak" was torpedoed and sunk off Folda, Nord-Trøndelag, Norway by on 16 January 1945. V 6413 "Fro" was sunk off Trondheim, Norway by aircraft based on on 14 November 1944.
65 Vorpostenflotille.
65 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in May 1944. It was disbanded in 1945.
† Losses: V 6507 "Othmarschen" in the Danish Straits on 3 October 1945. V 6517 was torpedoed and sunk off northern Norway by the on 11 October 1944.
66 Vorpostenflotille.
66 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in May 1944. It was disbanded in 1945.
† Losses:- V 6605 "Markgraf von Hindenburg" on 8 March 1945. V 6607 "Charlotte Sophie" on 18 June 1945.
67 Vorpostenflotille.
67 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed on 1 July 1944. It was disbanded in 1945.
† Losses:- V 6704 was scuttled at Vadsø, Finnmark, Norway on 15 October 1944. V 6707 was sunk at Kirkenes, Finnmark by Soviet aircraft on 16 October 1944. V 6719 struck a mine and sank in the Baltic Sea off Swinemünde, Pomerania on 26 September 1944. V 6733 "Widder" was sunk by Allied aircraft at Horten, Vestfold, Norway on 23 February 1945.
68 Vorpostenflotille.
68 "Vorpostenflotille" was formed in May 1944. It was disbanded in 1945.
† Losses:- V 6801 "Viking" was sunk in Ålesund by Bristol Beaufighter aircraft of the Royal Air Force on 17 October 1944. V 6803 "Burgunder" on 17 August 1944.
7 & 13 Sicherungsflotille.
7 "Sicherungflotille" was formed in February 1943 and was expanded in March 1943. It was disbanded in October 1944 and its vessels transferred to 13 "Sicherungflotille", which was disbanded on 24 April 1945.


Tactical air force

The term Tactical Air Force was used by the air forces of the British Commonwealth during the later stages of World War II, for formations of more than one fighter group. A tactical air force was intended to achieve air supremacy and perform ground attack missions.
Unlike the numbered air forces of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), the Tactical Air Forces did not include strategic bombing/heavy bomber capability. The USAAF situation changed in late 1943 when the 12th Air Force transferred its heavy bombers to the newly formed 15th Air Force. Later, when the Allied air forces in the MTO were reorganized into the Mediterranean Allied Air Forces (MAAF), the US 12th Air Force and the RAF Desert Air Force became part of the Mediterranean Allied Tactical Air Force and the US 15th Air Force and No. 205 Group RAF became part of the Mediterranean Allied Strategic Air Force. A Mediterranean Allied Coastal Air Force was also part of MAAF.
Operating strategic, tactical, and coastal air forces together throughout the latter stages of the Second World War was based on the successful practice primarily of Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Tedder and Air Vice Marshal Arthur Coningham during the Western Desert Campaign of WWII. This original 'tri-force' consisted of No. 205 (Heavy Bomber) Group, Air Headquarters Western Desert, and No. 201 (Naval Cooperation) Group as the strategic, tactical, and coastal components, respectively. Coningham commanded Air Headquarters Western Desert. To support Allied ground forces, he and Tedder developed some of the key features of Close air support still practiced in the 21st century.
The first tactical air force to be so named was the RAF Second Tactical Air Force, which was inaugurated within RAF Fighter Command on June 1, 1943, with the title "tactical air force" superseding the original title of "expeditionary air force".
The four tactical air forces were:
Also there was a U.S./French TAF, the 1st Tactical Air Force (Provisional), supporting 6th Army Group, consisting of XII Tactical Air Command and the French 1er Corps Aerien Francais. (Zaloga, Nordwind) 1 TAF (P) became operational early in November 1944 with Major General Ralph Royce in command. The 1er CAF was formed on 1 December 1944.
References.
Notes


Eagle Squadrons

The Eagle Squadrons were three fighter squadrons of the Royal Air Force (RAF) formed with volunteer pilots from the United States during the early days of World War II (circa 1940), prior to America's entry into the war in December 1941.
With the United States still neutral, many Americans simply crossed the border and joined the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) to learn to fly and fight. Many early recruits had originally gone to Europe to fight for Finland against the Soviet Union in the Winter War.
Charles Sweeny, a wealthy businessman living in London, persuaded the British Government to form an RAF squadron composed of Americans. (His uncle, also named Charles Sweeny, had been working along similar lines, recruiting American pilots to fight in France.) Sweeny's efforts were also coordinated in Canada by the World War I air ace Billy Bishop and the artist Clayton Knight, who formed the Clayton Knight Committee, which by the time the United States entered the war, had processed and approved 6,700 applications from Americans to join the RCAF or RAF. Sweeny and his rich society contacts bore the cost (over $100,000) of processing and sending the men to the United Kingdom for training.
Training.
The basic requirements for those interested in joining the Eagle Squadron were a high school diploma, being between 20 and 31 years of age, eyesight that was 20/40 correctable to 20/20, and 300 hours of certified flying time. These requirements, with the exception of the flight time, were not as strict as those required for service in the United States Army Air Corps, which was a reason for some of the pilots joining the squadron. Most Eagle Squadron pilots did not have a college education or prior military experience.
Once in Britain and having passed basic flight training, the new pilots were sent for advanced operational training to an operational training unit (OTU) for two to four weeks to learn to fly Miles Master trainers, Hawker Hurricanes, and Supermarine Spitfires before being ostensibly commissioned as RAF officers and posted to front-line RAF fighter squadrons. The American pilots assigned to the Eagle Squadrons never renounced their US citizenship and although they wore the uniforms and held the rank titles of RAF officers, their dress and duty uniform coats were modified with the Eagle Squadron patch, a white bald eagle flanked by the letters "ES" for Eagle Squadron.
Formation and evolution.
Three Eagle Squadrons were formed between September 1940 and July 1941. On 29 September 1942, they were turned over to the Eighth Air Force of the U.S. Army Air Forces and became the 4th Fighter Group. Of the thousands who volunteered, only 244 Americans served with the Eagle Squadrons. Sixteen Britons also served as squadron and flight commanders.
The first Eagle Squadron, No. 71 Squadron, was formed in September 1940 as part of the RAF's buildup during the Battle of Britain, and became operational for defensive duties on 5 February 1941. 71 Squadron commenced operations based at RAF Church Fenton in early 1941, before a move to RAF Kirton-in-Lindsey. In April, the squadron transferred to RAF Martlesham Heath in Suffolk for operations over Europe. During May, it suffered its first loss when Mike Kolendorski was killed during a fighter sweep over the Netherlands. The intensity of operations stepped up with a move into No 11 Group of Fighter Command, being based at RAF North Weald by June 1941. On June 21, 1941, 22 year-old Nathaniel Maranz became the first American pilot to become a prisoner of war when he was shot down by a Bf109 over the English Channel and picked up by a German patrol boat after swimming for an hour and a half. He was a prisoner in Stalag Luft III. The squadron's first confirmed victory came on 21 July 1941 when P/O William R. Dunn destroyed a Messerschmitt Bf 109F over Lille. In August, 71 Squadron replaced its Hurricanes and Spitfire Mk IIs, before quickly re-equipping with the latest Spitfire Mk Vs. The unit soon established a high reputation, and numerous air kill claims were made in RAF fighter sweeps over the continent during the summer and autumn of 1941. In December, the squadron was rested back at Martlesham Heath, before a move to Debden in May 1942.
The second Eagle Squadron, No. 121 Squadron, was formed at RAF Kirton-in-Lindsey in May 1941, flying Hurricanes on coastal convoy escort duties. On 15 September 1941, it destroyed its first German aircraft. The Hurricanes were replaced with Spitfires, and Spitfire Mk Vs arrived in November 1941. The following month, the squadron moved to RAF North Weald, replacing 71 Squadron. In 1942, its offensive activities over the English Channel included bomber escorts and fighter sweeps.
The third and final Eagle Squadron, No. 133 Squadron, was formed at RAF Coltishall in July 1941, flying the Hurricane Mk IIb. A move to RAF Duxford followed in August, and re-equipment with the Spitfire Mk V occurred early in 1942. In May, the squadron became part of the famed RAF Biggin Hill Wing. On 31 July 1942, during a bomber escort mission to Abbeville, 133's Spitfires fought 52-kill Luftwaffe 'ace' Oblt. Rudolf Pflanz of 11./JG 2 in combat; after shooting down one, Pflanz was himself shot down and killed in his Messerschmitt Bf 109G-1 over Berck-sur-Mer, France. 133 Squadron claimed three destroyed and one probable, while losing three aircraft. P/O "Jessie" Taylor accounted for two of the claims (a Bf 109F and an Focke-Wulf Fw 190) and P/O W. Baker was credited with a Fw 190 destroyed. On 26 September 1942, 11 of the unit's 12 brand new Spitfire Mk IXs were lost on a mission over Morlaix while escorting USAAF Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses in heavy cloud cover. Strong winds blew the unit further south than realised and, short of fuel, the squadron let down directly over Brest. Six pilots were shot down and taken prisoner, four were killed, one bailed out and evaded capture, while one crash landed in England. One of the British pilots taken prisoner, Flight Lieutenant Gordon Brettell, was later to be shot as one of the escapees in The Great Escape from Stalag Luft III in 1944.
The Dieppe Raid was the only time all three Eagle Squadrons saw action operating together. No. 71 moved from Debden to Gravesend in mid-August in anticipation of the Dieppe action, while No. 121 operated from Southend. 133 Squadron moved with No. 401 Squadron RCAF from RAF Biggin Hill to Lympne on the English south coast. 71 Squadron claimed a Ju 88 shot down, 121 an Fw 190, while 133 claimed four Fw 190s, a Ju 88 and a Dornier Do 217. Six 'Eagle' Spitfires were lost, with one pilot taken prisoner and one killed. Through to the end of September 1942, the squadrons claimed to have destroyed 73½ German planes while 77 American and 5 British members were killed. 71 Squadron claimed 41 kills, 121 Squadron 18, and 133 Squadron 14½.
When informed of the attack on Pearl Harbor, most of the Eagle Squadron pilots wanted to immediately join the fight against Imperial Japan. Representatives from 71 and 121 Squadrons went to the American embassy in London and offered their services to the United States. The pilots from 71 Squadron decided they wanted to go to Singapore to fight the Japanese and a proposal was put to RAF Fighter Command, but it was turned down.
On 29 September 1942, the three squadrons were officially transferred from the RAF to the Eighth Air Force of the United States Army Air Forces, with the American pilots becoming officers in the USAAF. The Eagle pilots had earned 12 Distinguished Flying Crosses and one Distinguished Service Order. Only four of the 34 original Eagle pilots were still present when the squadrons joined the USAAF. Typical were the fates of the eight original pilots in the third squadron: Four died during training, one was disqualified, two died in combat, and one became a prisoner of war. About 100 Eagle pilots had been killed, were missing or were prisoners.
Negotiations regarding the transfer between the Eagle Squadrons, the USAAF and the RAF had to resolve a number of issues. The RAF wanted some compensation for losing three front-line squadrons in which they had heavily invested. Determining what rank each pilot would assume in the USAAF also had to be negotiated, with most being given a rank equivalent to their RAF rank. For example, a flight lieutenant became a USAAF captain, while a wing commander became a lieutenant colonel. None of the Eagle Squadron pilots had previously served in the USAAF and did not have US pilot wings. As such, it was decided that they be awarded USAAF pilot wings upon their transfer. Due to their insistence, the Eagle Squadron pilots who transferred to the USAAF 4th Fighter Group were permitted to retain their RAF wings, reduced in size, on the opposite side of their uniform to their new USAAF pilots wings.
Major General Carl Spaatz, head of the USAAF in Europe, wanted to spread the experience of the Eagles amongst various new US fighter squadrons, but the pilots of the three Eagle Squadrons wanted to stay together. The 71, 121, and 133 Squadrons were renamed by the USAAF as the 334th, 335th and 336th and transferred as complete units, retaining their Spitfires until P-47 Thunderbolts became available in January 1943. The 4th Fighter Group flew Spitfires until its conversion to P-47s was completed in April 1943. All three units had switched to the P-51 Mustang by the second half of March 1944. The 4th Fighter Wing, along with the 334th, 335th and 336th Fighter Squadrons, exist today as F-15E Strike Eagle units at Seymour Johnson Air Force Base in Goldsboro, North Carolina and are part of the Ninth Air Force.
Individual pilots.
The first three members of the Eagle Squadrons were:
All three had served together in No. 609 Squadron RAF, at RAF Middle Wallop. They had joined the RAF Volunteer Reserve (RAFVR) together (receiving consecutive service numbers), were posted to No. 609 Squadron RAF together, fought in the Battle of Britain together, and were transferred to 71 Squadron together in September 1940. The trio had also all been killed by the time of the transfer of the Eagle Squadrons to the USAAF in 1942 (from the database of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC):
Phillip Leckrone, service number 84653, was another Battle of Britain veteran. He was also killed before the USAAF took charge of the Eagle Squadrons. Pilot Officer Leckrone was killed in January 1941, age 28.
The lives of these four pilots have been described in "The Few" by Alex Kershaw.
It is reported that Pilot Officer Art Donahue DFC stayed with the Eagle Squadron only a short time before requesting a transfer back to his original RAF unit. He did not appreciate the unruly behavior of many of the American pilots. He was killed in action in 1942.
Captain Don Gentile was a pilot with 133 Squadron, claiming two air victories, and by March 1944 had become the 4th Fighter Group's top ace in World War II, with 22 aerial kills.
Colonel Chesley "Pete" Peterson had 130 sorties with the Eagle Squadrons and became the youngest squadron commander in the RAF. When the Eagle Squadrons were transferred to the 4th Fighter Group, Peterson became the group's executive officer, succeeding to command of the group in April 1943, and becoming at 23 the youngest (at the time) colonel in the USAAF.
Colonel Donald Blakeslee was a pilot in 121 and 133 Squadrons during 1942, making 120 sorties and claiming three aerial kills. He became deputy commander of the 4th Fighter Group under Chesley Peterson, then commanded the group from January to October 1944.
Honours.
The Eagle Squadrons Memorial is located on Grosvenor Square opposite from a statue of Franklin D. Roosevelt.
British composer Kenneth J. Alford wrote a march, "Eagle Squadron", in honour of the pilots of the squadron. It is also a "thank you" to the American pilots: small sections of the "Star Spangled Banner" can be heard in the low brass during the trio.