Volga Hydroelectric Station

The Volga Hydroelectric Station or Volga GES () also known as the 22nd Congress of the CPSU Stalingrad/Volgograd Hydroelectric Power Station (), is the largest hydroelectric station in Europe, and it is the last of the Volga-Kama Cascade of dams, immediately before the Volga River flows into the Caspian Sea. It was the largest powerstation in the world between 1960 and 1963. Today, it is operated by the electricity company RusHydro.
History.
Built as part of a massive postwar effort known as the Great Construction Projects of Communism, it was authorized by Joseph Stalin signing the Council of Ministers of the USSR order #3555 on 6 August 1950. The plan called for building a station north of the city of Stalingrad (modern Volgograd) with a minimum storage capacity of 1.7 million kWh.
Ten thousand youths from the Komsomol league participated in the construction, and the city of Volzhsky was formed on the left bank of the river to provide housing. Machinery was sent from all corners of the country; Moscow, Tashkent, Chelyabinsk and Kharkov, and forestry from Karelia. New electrical equipment came from Zaporozhye and Sverdlovsk. The turbines and generators were built in Leningrad. In total more than 1,500 individual plants and dozens of research institutes sent equipment and specialists.
The first powerhouse came online on 22 December 1958, and the plant was declared complete on 10 September 1961. Technologically the station broke much new ground. In 1959 a new Moscow-Stalingrad 500 kV high voltage line power came into operation. Several years later, for the first time in the world, an experimental 800 kV DC line, Donbas to Volgograd, was successfully tested and later became operational. During the 1960s and 1970s several new types of electrotechnical and hydromechanical machines were tested for future Siberian and foreign stations.
Technical details.
Today the station is the largest in Europe. It consists of a 725-metre long, 44-metre high concrete dam that crosses the Volga river. Supporting it is a 3250-metre-long landfilled dam with a maximum height of 47 metres. The station also offers railway and road crossings of the Volga.
The present power rating of the station is 2,671 MW and annual energy output of ~12 billion kilowatt hours. There are a total of 22 generators. Seven generators produce 115 MW each, ten produce 125.5 MW each, and five produce 120 MW apiece. There is an additional 11 MW unit.
The 4.9 kilometre dam forms the Volgograd reservoir. At present the station is managed by OAO Volzhskaya GES that is owned by OAO GidroOGK, a daughter company of the state organisation RAO AES Rossii.
The generators of the power plant are connected to the power grid in a somewhat unusual way, sinces the machine transformers of the generators serve also as the inverter transformers of the static inverter plant of HVDC Volgograd-Donbass, which is on the dam. In contrast to other static inverter plants, it has no harmonic filters.
Economic value.
The new plant played a decisive role in the development of the Lower Volga region and the Donbas, as well as uniting the large energetic system of the Central, Volga, and Southern economic regions. The new dam also allowed for the Volga to become navigable, allowing for a path from Saratov to Astrakhan and the Caspian. In addition, there were projects for the irrigation of the excessive adjacent dry region of the left bank Volga south of it, particularly the West Kazakhstan Province.
The power generated by the station is used primarily by the city of Volgograd, by Moscow, by Donbas via the only long distance HVDC-line in Russia, the HVDC Volgograd-Donbass.
Ecology.
One of the most negative results that the dam caused was that it disrupted the traditional path of Caspian fish migration to their breeding grounds. The most affected became the beluga sturgeon, crucial to the Black Caviar industry. The fishery canal turned out to be inefficient, and from 1962 to 1967 the annual production rate was 15 percent of that before the dam.
The other major effect of the dam is that it formed one of the largest reservoirs, which amounts for a behemoth volume 31.5 cubic kilometres of water and stretches 540 km long, and up to 17 km wide with a massive 3,117 square kilometre surface area. As a result, numerous settlements and fertile lands were lost.


Synchroscope

In AC electrical power systems, a synchroscope is a device that indicates the degree to which two systems (generators or power networks) are synchronized with each other.
For two electrical systems to be synchronized, both systems must operate at the same frequency, and the phase angle between the systems must be zero (and two polyphase systems must have the same phase sequence). Synchroscopes measure and display the frequency difference and phase angle between two power systems. Only when these two quantities are zero is it safe to connect the two systems together. Connecting two unsynchronized AC power systems together is likely to cause high currents to flow, which will severely damage any equipment not protected by fuses or circuit breakers.
Operating principles.
The simplest aid to synchronizing a generator to another system uses lamps wired between similar phases of the two systems; when the lamps stay dark, the voltage and frequency of the two systems are the same and the generator may be connected. However, the accuracy of this approach is low since it is difficult to discern slight phase differences, and the lamps do not show the relative speeds of the two systems. Synchroscopes are instruments that show the relative frequency (speed) difference and the phase angle between the machine to be synchronized and the system voltage.
Since most synchroscopes are connected only to a single phase of the two systems, they cannot assure that the phase sequence is correct. When generators are newly connected to a power system, or temporary connections are used, other means are required to assure both systems have the same phase sequence. Some generators use both a synchroscope and a set of two lamps. If the lamps flash out of sequence, then the phase sequence is incorrect.
Synchroscopes are electrodynamic instruments, which rely on the interaction of magnetic fields to rotate a pointer. In most types, unlike voltmeters and wattmeters, there is no restoring spring torque for the magnetically produced torques to overcome; the pointer system is free to rotate continually. Synchroscopes have a damping vane to smooth out vibration of the moving system.
A polarized-vane synchroscope has a field winding with a phase-shifting network arranged to produce a rotating magnetic field. The field windings are connected to the "incoming" machine. A single-phase polarizing winding is connected to the "running" system. It is mounted perpendicular to the field winding and produces a magnetic flux that passes through the moving vanes. The moving vanes turn a shaft that carries a pointer moving over a scale. If the frequency of the source connected to the polarizing winding is different from the source connected to the field winding, the pointer rotates continually at a speed proportional to the difference in system frequencies (the beat frequency). The scale is marked to show the direction of rotation corresponding to the "incoming" machine running faster than the "running" system. When the frequencies match, the moving vanes will rotate to a position corresponding to the phase difference between the two sources. The incoming machine can then be adjusted in speed so that the two systems are in phase agreement.
In the moving iron instrument, an iron vane is mounted on a shaft along with the pointer. The field winding is a three-phase winding, with the phases connected to both the running and incoming sources through a phase-shifting "impedor" network containing resistors, capacitors, and inductors. In this instrument, conceptually the field winding produces two rotating magnetic fields due to the running and incoming sources. The iron vane moves in response to the resultant sum of the two fields.
The cross-coil synchroscope somewhat resembles a wound-field induction motor. A two-phase rotor winding is connected to the incoming machine source by a phase-shifting network through brushes and slip rings. The stationary field winding is connected to the incoming source.
In a Weston pattern synchroscope, the moving element is not free to rotate continuously and oscillates back and forth slowly as the two sources are brought into synchronism. The moving pointer is illuminated by a pilot lamp connected to a three-winding transformer fed by both sources. The pointer is only illuminated at the in-phase condition, thereby distinguishing between in-phase and 180-degree out of phase conditions.
All these instruments use single-phase connections to the running and incoming systems to simplify the wiring. For most systems, synchroscopes are connected through voltage transformers to reduce the machine voltage to around 120 volts to operate the instruments. Synchroscopes operate only over a limited range of frequencies, a few per cent above and below the system nominal frequency. Cross-coil type instruments draw a relatively large amount of power from the systems and are intended for only brief operation. The moving-iron and polarized-vane instruments put less burden on the system and can operate for a longer time without overheating.
Electronic digital systems can measure and display the phase angle difference directly. The display may be a ring of discrete LEDs arranged to simulate the effect of a pointer moving over a scale, with a different color of LED to indicate the "in phase" condition. These instruments may also have a relay contact for use by external control circuits, to indicate synchronism.
Process of synchronization.
Synchroscopes are used in any power plant that connects to an outside electrical grid and also in isolated plants containing more than one generator. Each generator must be synchronized with the others before being connected to the plant bus. If line voltages are unequal when they are connected, a heavy current will flow as each line will attempt to equalize the other, causing damage in the process.
When operators of an electric generator wish to connect it to the grid, they first start the generator spinning at a rate approximately equal to the line frequency of the grid with which they plan to connect. The voltage of the generator is then matched with the grid by adjusting the field/armature current. The synchroscope is connected to the power grid and to the generator being started.
If the generator is turning at a lower frequency than the grid, the synchroscope pointer rotates continually in the direction (usually counterclockwise) marked "slow" or "lag" on the dial to indicate that the generator is running slower than, or lagging behind, the grid. If the generator is running faster than the grid, the pointer rotates continually in the opposite direction, marked "fast" or "lead". Next, the plant operator adjusts the speed of the generator until it is running at precisely the same speed (frequency) as the grid. As the frequency of the generator nears that of the grid, the synchroscope pointer slows down and when the frequencies match, the pointer stops rotating.
There is then one more task to perform before the generator can be connected to the grid. Although the generator and the grid are now operating at the same frequency, they are not necessarily at the same position in the rotational cycle as each other. If two electrical networks operating at two different phase angles were to be connected to each other, a fault similar to a short circuit would occur, presenting a hazard of damage to the generator or other equipment.
The position (as opposed to rotation) of the pointer on a synchroscope indicates the phase angle between the two systems. The angle between the systems is zero when the synchroscope pointer is directly on the line in between the "slow" and "fast" markings on the dial. (In the picture example in this article, the zero-phase-angle position is straight upwards, at the "twelve o'clock" position.)
Speed of the prime mover is adjusted slightly according to the "slow" or "fast" indication of the pointer. Slightly before the pointer reaches the zero mark, the plant operator returns the generator to the grid frequency in order to stop the needle when it reaches the zero mark. When the pointer is at zero and is not moving, the two systems are synchronized.
Once the two systems are synchronized, they can be safely connected.
Depending on the application and the circuit design, the breaker is closed when the synchroscope pointer is passing through approximately "eleven o'clock", while traveling slowly in the fast direction, allowing time for the circuit breaker to close. This is intended to prevent the generator paralleling onto the grid as a motor load, potentially damaging the prime mover (steam turbine or reciprocating internal combustion engine). The machine may be protected from this occurrence by a "reverse power" trip.
In some power plants, a set of lamps may be connected between the generator and system busses (or between the instrument transformers connected to those busses) as a backup to the synchroscope instrument. The lamps flicker at the difference between system and generator frequency. The lamps can be connected to go dark when the phase voltages are identical and in-phase.
Multiengine vehicles.
In addition to synchronizing generators to power systems, similar frequency-difference indicating instruments are used on multiengine ships and aircraft to allow the operators to exactly synchronize the speed of engines. This helps reduce the noise and vibration due to slight differences, for example, in the speeds of two propellers on an aircraft. In this application a synchroscope responds to slight speed differences that would not be visible on an engine tachometer.


Geothermal power in New Zealand

Geothermal power in New Zealand is a small but significant part of the energy generation capacity of the country, providing approximately 17% of the country's electricity with installed capacity of over 900MW. New Zealand, like only a small number of other countries worldwide, has numerous geothermal sites that could be developed for exploitation, and also boasts some of the earliest large-scale use of geothermal energy in the world.
Geothermal energy has been described as New Zealand's most reliable renewable energy source, above wind, solar and even hydroelectricity, due to its lack of dependence on the weather. It has also been described as the currently (2000s and 2010s) most attractive new source of energy for New Zealand, as petrochemical fuel prices rise and easy hydro power sites have been tapped - it has been estimated that another 1000MW of geothermal resource can be used for generating electricity.
Geothermal fields.
The exploration of New Zealand's geothermal fields has been very extensive, and by the 1980s, most fields were considered mapped, with 129 found, of which 14 are in the 70-140 °C range, 7 in the 140-220 °C range and 15 in the >220 °C range. Currently, some potential new geothermal fields are being surveyed that have no surface expression.
New Zealand's high-temperature geothermal fields are mostly concentrated around the Taupo Volcanic Zone (which also has most of the currently operating generation capacity), in the central North Island, with another major field at Ngawha Springs in Northland. However, more systems (some of them potentially exploitable) are scattered all over the country, from the Hauraki Plains to the Bay of Plenty to numerous hot springs in the South Island, most of them associated with faults and other tectonic features.
Many applications of geothermal energy in New Zealand reinject the cooled steam / fluid back into the underground fields, to extend or infinitely use the fields as power sources.
History.
Geothermal energy use in New Zealand is strongly tied to Wairakei, where the first geothermal plant was opened in 1958. At that time, it was only the second large-scale plant existing worldwide (the first being the Valle del Diavolo 'Devil's Valley' plant in Larderello, Italy opened in 1911). Several new plants and efficiency-enhancing second-stage equipment have been added since, though there is also some loss of steam generation due to the decade-long drawdown. Some plants are therefore capped in steam extraction volumes to allow the fields to regenerate, and a percentage of the steam/water is reinjected.
The Mokai and Rotokawa geothermal plant was the first to come into operation via a resource consent applied for and issued under the Resource Management Act.
The 5 years up until 2016 saw a number of new power stations completed. Kawarau 90MW, Nga Awa Purua 140MW, Ngatamariki 80MW and Te Mihi 140MW.
Research.
Considerable geothermal research expertise exists at New Zealand's Crown Research Institutes and universities. In particular, at GNS Science, Industrial Research Limited, and the Geothermal Program at the University of Auckland. New Zealand is also one of the partner nations of the International Partnership for Energy development in Island Nations (EDIN). As part of EDIN, New Zealand is involved in international research projects to evaluate and increase geothermal power generation domestically as well as in 18 Pacific Island nations.
Laws and regulations.
The Geothermal Energy Act 1953 was made redundant by the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA). The Geothermal Energy Act granted water rights, which have generally been replaced by RMA resource consents.
The Geothermal Energy Regulations 1961 define the role of "geothermal inspectors" and specify processes for applications for authorities and licences.
The Rotorua City Geothermal Energy Empowering Act 1967 is an Act to enable the Rotorua City Council to make provisions for the control of the tapping and use of geothermal energy in the city of Rotorua.
The Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) is a significant, and at times, controversial Act of Parliament passed in 1991. The RMA regulates access to natural and physical resources such as land, air and water, with sustainable use of these resources being the overriding goal. New Zealand's Ministry for the Environment describes the RMA as New Zealand's principal legislation for environmental management.
The Resource Management Act is the principal legislation controlling the use of geothermal resources in New Zealand. The New Zealand Geothermal Association considers the procedures which are currently being adopted under the RMA as the single largest obstacle to further geothermal development, holding that "the regulatory process leads to long delays which impose a significant up-front cost on projects, reducing their financial viability".
List of geothermal power stations.
Under construction.
Geothermal development projects include Tauhara stage 2.


ENMAX

ENMAX Corporation (ENMAX) is a vertically integrated utility that generates and distributes electricity, natural gas, renewable energy, and value-added services to customers in Alberta, Canada.
Overview.
ENMAX, headquartered in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, is a wholly owned subsidiary of The City of Calgary.
According to their 2013 annual report, in 2013, ENMAX generated net earnings of $352.5 million and paid a dividend to The City of Calgary in the amount of $67.5 million (ENMAX 2013:8). ENMAX’s core operations include electricity generation, transmission and distribution and the sale of electricity natural gas and renewable energy products to residential, commercial and institutional customers in Alberta.
History.
In 1904, The City of Calgary built its own electric plant when its contract with a private supplier ended. The City of Calgary Electric System began operating on December 2, 1905. In 1996, City Council approved a proposal to make The City of Calgary Electric System a wholly owned subsidiary ENMAX Corporation commencing on January 1, 1998. This subsidiary and an affiliated retailer, "ENMAX Energy", was incorporated on January 1, 1998. January 1, 2001, ENMAX Energy entered the restructured, deregulated electric marketplace in Alberta.
ENMAX Power regulated and non-regulated operations.
ENMAX Power Corporation (EPC), the Transmission and Distribution services business line, is made up of regulated and non-regulated operations. This entity is responsible for the operation and maintenance of the City of Calgary’s distribution system and a portion of the transmission network, ensuring ongoing reliability of the electricity supply to Calgarians.(ENMAX 2011:20).
ENMAX Power’s regulated operations include the provision of electricity transmission, distribution and management services for the regulated rate option to customers in the Calgary area. Covering 1,089 square kilometres in Calgary and surrounding areas, ENMAX Power’s transmission system consists of approximately 300 km of transmission wires and 7,600 km of distribution lines in Calgary and surrounding areas, with 37 substations powering residences and businesses within Calgary city limits.(ENMAX 2011:3).
In 2011, ENMAX Power worked on several projects such as the Downtown Cable Replacement Project, North Calgary Area Transmission Project and the South Calgary Reinforcement Project to meet the increasing need for electricity spurred by Calgary’s rapid growth.(ENMAX 2011:26).
ENMAX Energy Corporation.
ENMAX Energy Corporation (EEC) is the generation and energy retail services arm of ENMAX that offers electricity and natural gas products and services to customers. ENMAX Energy’s electricity is supplied through a combination of long-term contracts, namely power purchase agreements (PPAs), ownership of generation facilities and through purchases from the Alberta electricity market. Natural gas is supplied by purchases in Alberta's natural gas market. Current operating facilities include the Crossfield Energy Centre, Calgary Energy Centre and the Downtown District Energy Centre. ENMAX Energy’s owned generation also includes 100 per cent ownership of the 80 MW Taber wind farm and 63 MW Kettles Hill wind farm, and a 50 per cent interest in the 75 MW McBride Lake wind farm, all located in southern Alberta. The company continues to receive significant supply from their power purchase agreements (PPAs) with the Keephills and Battle River coal-fired facilities.(ENMAX 2011:19).
ENMAX Energy claims to apply fresh approaches to producing energy by locating natural gas-fired power generation facilities close to where electricity is required.(ENMAX 2011:21). The company is in the initial building phase of the Shepard Energy Centre, an 800 megawatt (MW) combined-cycle facility, and has received regulatory approval for the Bonnybrook Energy Centre, a 165 MW cogeneration facility.(ENMAX 2011:19).
Additional ENMAX subsidiaries.
ENMAX Energy Corporation not only works within the Wholesale Energy and Generation business lines, but also provides energy products to Alberta customers. ENMAX Energy provides the EasyMax option for residential and small business customers. EasyMax is an electricity and gas energy plan for residential and small business customers providing competitive rate options with no penalty for cancellation. Additionally, specialized billing and data management solutions to industrial customers, primarily in the oil and gas sector, are offered through the ENMAX subsidiary, ENMAX Commercial Services Inc. (formerly Valeo Power Corporation).
ENMAX Power Services Corporation (EPSC), a subsidiary of ENMAX Corporation, provides engineering, procurement, construction and maintenance services for overhead, underground, and light rail transit (LRT) utility infrastructure, roadway lighting and signal and communication systems. EPSC is not regulated by the Alberta Utilities Commission. In September 2010, Fort Chicago Energy Partners L.P(now Veresen Inc) agreed to purchase the British Columbia-based hydro assets of EPSC. These include Furry Creek Hydro, upper and lower Clowhom Hydro and 50 percent interest in Culliton Creek Hydro.
ENMAX Encompass Inc., a subsidiary of ENMAX Corporation, provides billing and customer care services to residential and small commercial customers. ENMAX Encompass is also contracted to perform customer service, water meter reading and billing services to The City of Calgary and other municipalities across the province.
ENMAX Envision Inc., a subsidiary of ENMAX Corporation, provides commercial high-speed data and internet services primarily in Calgary. ENMAX Envision grew its customer base by 23 per cent and its revenue by 12 per cent in 2011.(ENMAX 2011:).
ENMAX sold its Envision subsidiary to Shaw Communications Inc. in April 2013 for $225 Million.
District Energy Centre.
The Calgary District Energy Centre began operations in March 2010, capable of providing heat for up to 10 million square feet of buildings. The facility incorporates high efficiency boilers fueled by natural gas. District Energy is more efficient, has fewer emissions and is more cost-effective than conventional heating systems. Customers are connected to the facility through an underground thermal distribution system, which occupies significantly less space than a traditional heating system.
Shepard Energy Centre.
The Shepard Energy Centre is a natural gas-fuelled power plant located in Calgary, Alberta. It is Alberta's largest natural gas-fuelled power facility, being capable of generating more than 800 megawatts of power to Alberta's provincial grid. The Shepard Energy Centre is also one of the most efficient gas plants in Alberta. The Shepard Energy Centre will also emit less than half the carbon dioxide per MW of conventional natural gas-fuelled energy plants.
Price of electricity fluctuates widely in Calgary.
By April 2014 it was announced that electricity prices for home owners and industry in Calgary will spike nearly 40 per cent from "seven cents per kilowatt-hour in April likely to 10.6 cents in May. According to the Calgary Herald in Calgary the price of electricity is based on a "wildly fluctuating monthly price." Edmonton customers already pay 50 percent less in access fees than Calgary consumers because in Edmonton, the price of electricity is a flat rate based on consumption. As well "the local access fee charged to Enmax customers on behalf of the city will also increase."
The Regulated Rate Option (RRO).
The RRO is the default option if households and small businesses in Calgary do not choose an energy plan with a retail supplier. Prior to 2006 the price of electricity with the RRO would fluctuate quarterly or yearly. In July 2006 the Province of Alberta introduced new provincial regulations that meant that the Regulated Rate Option (RRO) for Calgary would fluctuate monthly.
Bonnybrook Energy Centre.
The Bonnybrook Energy Centre is a planned natural gas-fired cogeneration facility that will be built in Calgary’s southeast industrial zone. Once built, Bonnybrook will generate 165 MW of electricity, which is approximately half of downtown Calgary’s energy requirements (ENMAX 2011:24). This facility will reduce the amount of fresh water used by reusing industrial wastewater from the nearby Canada malting site and will play an integral role in heating office buildings in downtown Calgary. Bonnybrook will emit less than half of the carbon dioxide associated with conventional coal-fired facilities and will enhance the reliability of the region’s power supply (ENMAX 2011:21).
Generate Choice.
In 2011, ENMAX Energy launched its Generate Choice, a program which offers Albertans home-based renewable energy choices such as solar power and wind generation (ENMAX 2011:7). Response to the program has been poor: by August 2011, only 3,100 people even expressed interest in having a solar photo-voltaic (PV) system installed, and of those, only 172 agreed to have one installed.
In June 2012, Brian Keating, one of Calgary’s best known naturalists and an official spokesperson for Generate Choice, became the 100th Calgary homeowner to join in the program. "Through a lease program, the panels generate a portion of a home’s energy needs. A set of six panels is a 1.3 kilowatt-hour photovoltaic system that will produce between 1,000 and 1,400 kWh per year. The average home in Calgary uses 625 kWh per month," says Colin Dumais, technology specialist with ENMAX".
Financial performance.
ENMAX is a wholly owned subsidiary of The City of Calgary. Over the last 11 years, ENMAX has returned approximately $600 million to The City of Calgary. In 2011, over $550 million was invested back into Calgary’s electricity infrastructure to maintain reliability and support future growth. Revenues increased from $2.4 billion in 2010 to $3.1 billion in 2011. In 2011, the company generated net earnings of $184.6 million and paid a dividend in the amount of $56 million to its Shareholder, The City of Calgary (ENMAX 2019:8).
Public involvement.
ENMAX has been named one of Alberta’s Top 50 employers by Mediacorp.
Controversy.
In 2011, the CEO of ENMAX, Gary Holden, resigned after controversial handling of travel expenses that violated the company's ethical guidelines.


Viktor Bryukhanov

Viktor Petrovich Bryukhanov (Russian: Виктор Петрович Брюханов) (born 1 December 1935, Tashkent, USSR) is the former manager of construction of Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant and the director of the plant from 1970 to 1986.
Biography.
Viktor Bryukhanov was born on 1 December 1935 in the city of Tashkent, Uzbekistan (formerly USSR). Oldest son of the four children, his father used to work as a glazier and his mother was a cleaning lady. He later went on to become the only one of his brothers to receive higher education attaining a degree from Energy Department of the Tashkent Polytechnic in electrical engineering in 1959. After graduation, he was offered a job at Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan. He worked at the Angren Thermal Power Plant in the following positions: duty de-aerator installer, driver of feed pumps, assistant turbine driver, turbine driver, senior turbine workshop engineer, shift supervisor and became workshop director a year later.
In 1966, he was invited to work at the Slavyanskaya Thermal Power Plant. He started as a senior foreman and rose up to the rank of head of workshop and finally, deputy chief engineer, finally resigning in 1970 to build a nuclear power plant in Ukraine. He was a member of Communist Party of Soviet Union since 1966. Between 1970 and 1986, he was repeatedly elected member of the regional district office of Kyiv, Chernobyl, and Prypiat city committees of the party.
Viktor met his wife Valentina at Angren Power Plant. Valentina was an assistant to a turbine engineer and Viktor was a trainee fresh from the university.
Chernobyl Power Plant construction.
In 1970 the energy minister offered Bryukhanov a new assignment - build an atomic power plant consisting of four RBMK reactors on the banks of the Prypiat River in Ukraine. Initially, Bryukhanov proposed construction of pressurized water reactors (PWAs), but this decision was met with opposition stating safety and economic reasons supporting construction of RBMK reactors, which was eventually performed. At a cost of almost 400 million rubles, Bryukhanov was responsible for building the reactors from scratch. As there was nothing nearby, he would need to bring materials and equipment to the construction site. He organized a temporary village, known as "Lesnoy", and had a schoolhouse built. In 1970, he was joined in Lesnoy by his wife, six-year-old daughter and infant son. By 1972, they had moved into the new city of Prypiat.
During construction, deadlines were missed due to tight schedules, lack of construction equipment, and defective materials. Three years after assuming the role of director, the plant still had not been built. He offered to resign, but his resignation was torn up by his Party-appointed supervisor from the Energy Ministry in July 1972. On 1 August 1977, two years later than planned and more than seven years after the planning and the construction of the plant was launched, the first reactor of the Chernobyl Power Plant went online. At 8:10pm on 27 September the same year, Ukraine's first nuclear electricity ran across 110 and 330 kilovolt lines and on to the Soviet power grid.
Bryukhanov ignored and failed to acknowledge the radioactive leak that occurred on September 9, 1982 when steam rose through a vent stack shared by reactors 1 and 2, indicating at least one broken pipe. The radioactive contaminants had spread fourteen kilometers from the plant and reached Prypiat. Bryukhanov also postponed an outstanding time-consuming safety test of reactor 4 so as to meet Moscow's launch deadline of December 31, 1983. By 1984, all the reactors of the Chernobyl Power Plant (formally known as the Vladimir I. Lenin Nuclear Power Plant) were online and functioning.
The disaster.
On 26 April 1986, the head of the chemical division called Bryukhanov to report an incident at the station. Bryukhanov attempted to contact the shift supervisor but there was no answer at the fourth reactor block. He ordered all authorities to meet at the bunker at the headquarters of civil defense. While on a bus passing by the fourth reactor block, Bryukhanov realized the upper structure of the reactor was gone.
The explosion had lifted the 1,000-ton reactor lid. Lacking high-range dosimeters, officials had difficulty determining whether a radiation release had occurred or not and, if so, how much radiation had been released. Bryukhanov, assisted by manager Dyatlov and chief engineer Fomin, kept ordering the operators to add more cooling water.
Based on faulty information from Dyatlov, Bryukhanov continued to deny that the reactor core had exploded. At 3:00 AM, Bryukhanov, contacted Vladimir V. Marin, the official in charge of nuclear matters of the Communist Party at his Moscow home to report the accident and assure officials that the situation was under control.
Aftermath.
After Bryukhanov went on a week's leave on 22 May, party officials made arrangements to remove him permanently from his position as director of the power plant. As part of discovery procedures dictated by the law, investigators brought him the materials they uncovered during the course of their inquiries, which were used in a case against him. Bryukhanov also found a letter written by one of the Kurchatov Institute experts, which revealed the perilous design faults that were kept hidden from him and his staff for 16 years.
On January 20, 1987, after he sat in isolation for six weeks, the prosecutor's office filed their closing indictment with the Supreme Court of USSR. All of the 48 files of evidence sent to Moscow were classified top secret.
Viktor Bryukhanov was found guilty of gross violation of safety regulations, creating conditions that led to an explosion. Reports also mentioned that he failed to ensure correct and firm leadership in the difficult conditions of the accident and displayed irresponsibility and inability to organize. Bryukhanov was sentenced to 10 years in a labor camp along with a five-year sentence for abuse of power which ran concurrently . He accepted professional responsibility but denied criminal liability.
On 3 July 1986, the decision of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU for the mistakes that led to the Chernobyl disaster meant that Bryukhanov was expelled from the CPSU.
In September 1991, he was released ahead of schedule. After his release, he continued to work at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant as head of the technical department.
Bryukhanov has lived with his wife in the Desnyansky district in Kyiv since 1992. He worked as an employee of Ukrinterenergo, Ukraine's state-owned energy company, in charge of liquidating the consequences of the Chernobyl accident. By his 80th birthday in December 2015, Bryukhanov had retired due to failing eyesight, and had also suffered two strokes, followed by a third in 2016.


Ecogen Energy

Ecogen Energy is a power station operator in Victoria, Australia. It operates two peaking power plants: the natural gas fired Newport Power Station and Jeeralang Power Station.
Until 1999 Ecogen Energy was a trading name of Generation Victoria, and was the operator of gas powered power stations. The company was sold by the State Government of Victoria in March 1999 to AES Corporation subsidiary AES Transpower for $361 million, $350 million going in debt reduction and the state receiving $11 million.
AES Transpower sold Ecogen Energy in December 2002 to Babcock & Brown and their investment offshoot Prime Infrastructure for $81 million. A 73% stake was sold to Babcock & Brown Power in 2006 for $59 million. Babcock & Brown Power sold its 73% interest to co-shareholder Industry Funds Management in 2008 for $87 million, which held the remainder of the shares. In 2018, Ecogen was sold by IFM Investors to EnergyAustralia for $205 million.


Deformed power

Deformed power is a concept in electrical engineering which characterize the distortion to the sinusoidal states in electric network. It was introduced by Constantin Budeanu in 1927.
It is defined by the following formula:
where S, P, Q, D are the apparent, active, reactive and deformed powers.
In linear electrical components like electrical resistance occurs no deformed (distortion) power. It is caused by nonlinear loads represented for instance by semiconducting devices (rectifiers, thyristors) especially when used for rectification of an alternating current to a direct one. The rectification is needed especially for providing current for electric traction and electrochemical industry.


Meridian Energy

Meridian Energy Limited is a New Zealand electricity generator and retailer. The company generates the largest proportion of New Zealand's electricity, generating 35 percent of the country's electricity in the year ending December 2014, and is the fourth largest retailer, with 14 percent of market share in terms of customers as of December 2015.
Meridian was one of three electricity companies formed from the break-up of the Electricity Corporation of New Zealand (ECNZ) in 1998–99, taking over the Waitaki River and the Manapouri hydro schemes. Originally a state-owned enterprise wholly owned by the New Zealand Government, the company was partially privatised in October 2013 by the Fifth National Government, with the government retaining a 51.02% shareholding.
Today, Meridian operates seven hydroelectric power stations and one wind farm in the South Island of New Zealand, four wind farms in the North Island, and two wind farms in southern Australia – one in South Australia and one in Victoria.
History.
Meridian originated from the break-up of the Electricity Corporation of New Zealand (ECNZ) in 1999 as a result of the reforms of the New Zealand Electricity Market. Meridian's share of ECNZ was corporatised as a state-owned enterprise with its own board of directors and with two Ministerial shareholders: the Minister of Finance and the Minister of State-Owned Enterprises. In 2013 it was partially privatised by the fifth National Government of New Zealand.
As part of reforms, local electricity companies were split into lines and retail and the retail portion sold off. Meridian initially acquired the retail base of Northpower, Centralines, Scanpower, and Network Waitaki, and later acquired Orion's retail base from NGC.
Power stations.
Meridian Energy owns and operates seven hydroelectric power stations in the South Island – six on the Waitaki River and at Manapouri. It also owns and operates seven wind farms in New Zealand and Australia, and a single turbine in Brooklyn, Wellington. In total, Meridian has a total installed capacity of 2,754 MW in New Zealand and 201 MW overseas.
Proposed.
Projects being developed by Meridian Energy include the following.
Sustainability.
Carbon Footprint.
In 2006, Greenpeace judged Meridian as the only "green" electricity company in New Zealand. In 2007, Meridian announced that it had received CarboNZero certification from Landcare Research confirming that the generation and retailing of its electricity was carbon neutral.
In 2008, Meridian issued and sold the first carbon credits issued and sold under the JI program of the Kyoto Protocol.
In June 2008, National's Climate Change spokesman Nick Smith complained to the Commerce Commission that Meridian's claim of carbon neutrality in its advertising was misleading as Smith considered that Meridian had to buy thermally generated power during dry years to supply its customers. A spokesman for Meridian said they stood by the validity of the certification of their carbon-neutral status. In July 2009, the Commerce Commission concluded that Meridian's statements of carbon neutrality were not misleading.
Electric Vehicles and Charging Programme.
In 2015 Meridian began converting its business fleet to electric vehicles in an effort to reduce carbon emissions. In early 2019 Meridian joined the EV100 initiative, it has committed to its light passenger vehicle business fleet becoming 100% electric by 2030. In August 2019 the company won the Deloitte Energy Award for a Low Carbon Initiative for its work on electric business fleet conversion.
Kākāpō Recovery Programme.
Meridian Energy are National Partners of the Department of Conservation Kākāpō Recovery Programme since 2016. Kākāpō are an endangered New Zealand native parrot. The involvement helps fund research and initiatives relating to genetics, nutrition, disease management and finding new sites. Meridian staff are also involved through providing electrical support and volunteers to the remote pest-free islands the kākāpō are surviving on.
Project River Recovery.
In 1990 Meridian established Project River Recovery, recognising the impacts of hydroelectric development from the 1930s to the 1980s on the Waitaki's braided rivers and wetlands. Project River Recovery's work is run by the New Zealand Department of Conservation and includes intensive weed control, predator control, construction of wetlands, and research and monitoring programmes. When Tekapo A and Tekapo B were sold to Genesis Energy in 2011, the electricity company joined the compensatory funding agreement.
Waiau River Recovery.
In 1996 the Waiau Fisheries and Wildlife Enhancement Trust was formed to mitigate and improve the Waiau River from impacts by the Manapouri Hydro Station. The trust was established in partnership with the Waiau Working Party and ECNZ (now Meridian Energy Limited). The area covered is from Te Wae Wae Bay in the south to Lake Te Anau in the north. The work focuses on enhancing wetlands, waterways and riparian plantings.
Community.
Wellington Wind Sculpture Walkway.
Wellington, New Zealand's capital city, is well known for wind and the Meridian Energy Wind Sculpture walkway celebrates this. In 2007 the four sculptures won Best Public Art and the final piece was opened in May 2010. The five sculptures are the '"Zephyrometer'" by Phil Price, '"Urban Forest'" by Leon van den Eijkel (in collaboration with Allan Brown), '"Akau Tangi'" by Phil Dadson, '"Tower of Light"' by Andrew Drummond and "'Pacific Grass"' by Kon Dimopoulos. The sculptures are managed by the Wellington Sculpture Trust
KidsCan.
In 2013 Meridian became the principle partner of the KidsCan Charity. In April 2019 the company committed to a further three years of support, helping provide lunches, raincoats, shoes and warm clothing to kids in need.
Power Up Community Fund.
Meridian supports communities near its generation assets through the Power Up fund. This includes promoting conservation, community and educational efforts in seven communities around New Zealand.
Controversy.
In 2019, Meridian was found to mislead consumers when they implied the electricity they retailed was 100% renewable after a complaint was brought to the Advertising Standards Authority by rival retailer Electric Kiwi. Additionally, Meridian Energy was found to have pushed up power prices in December 2019 by unnecessarily spilling water from its south island dams that could have been used for generation, according to a preliminary ruling from New Zealand's Electricity Authority.


Arnold Gundersen

Arnold "Arnie" Gundersen (born January 4, 1949 in Elizabeth, New Jersey) is a former nuclear industry executive, and engineer with more than 44 years of nuclear industry experience who became a whistleblower in 1990. Gundersen has written dozens of expert reports for nongovernment organizations and the state of Vermont. His curriculum vitae shows Gundersen is a licensed Critical Facility Reactor Operator from 1971-1972.
Gundersen questioned the safety of the Westinghouse AP1000, a proposed third-generation nuclear reactor and has expressed concerns about the operation of the Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant. He served as an expert witness in the investigation of the Three Mile Island accident and has provided commentary on the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.
Background.
Gundersen is a graduate of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (1971), with a B.S. cum laude and a GPA of 3.74 in nuclear engineering, holds a master's degree in nuclear engineering, and gained an Atomic Energy Commission Fellowship (1972). Gundersen has more than 40 years of nuclear power engineering experience. Gundersen holds a nuclear safety patent, was a licensed reactor operator, and is a former nuclear industry senior vice president. During his nuclear power industry career, Gundersen also managed and coordinated projects at 70 nuclear power plants in the US.
Career.
From 1972 to 1976 Gundersen worked at the Northeast Utilities Service Corporation as a nuclear engineer; and from 1976 to 1979 at New York State Electric & Gas as an engineering supervisor. From 1979 to 1990 Gundersen was employed at "Nuclear Energy Services", a Danbury, Connecticut-based consulting firm. Gundersen served as an expert witness in the investigation of the 1979 Three Mile Island accident. He co-authored the "DOE Decommissioning Handbook", First Edition (1981–82).
In 1990 Gundersen was a senior vice president at Nuclear Energy Services when he discovered radioactive material in an accounting safe. Three weeks after notifying the company president of what he believed to be radiation safety violations, Gundersen was fired. According to "The New York Times", for three years, Gundersen was "awakened by harassing phone calls in the middle of the night" and "became concerned about his family's safety". Gundersen believes he was blacklisted, harassed and fired for doing what he thought was right.
While also writing numerous nuclear expert reports from 1993 to 2008, Gundersen was employed at a number of Connecticut schools teaching mathematics and physics; in 2007 he became Mathematics Professor at Community College of Vermont.
Gundersen is chief engineer of Fairewinds Associates, and on the board of directors for Fairewinds Energy Education a 501c3 non-profit organization.
Publications.
“The Lessons of the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Accident”, "International Symposium on the Truth of Fukushima Nuclear Accident and the Myth of Nuclear Safety," Iwanami Shoten Publishers, University of Tokyo, Japan, August 30, 2012.
“The Echo Chamber: Regulatory Capture and the Fukushima Daiichi Disaster”, "Lessons From Fukushima," February 27, 2012, Greenpeace International.
Co-author of "Fukushima Daiichi: Truth And The Way Forward," Shueisha Publishing, February 17, 2012, Tokyo, Japan.
Invited chapter author for the "DOE Decommissioning Handbook," First Edition, 1981-1982.
Patents.
Energy Absorbing Turbine Missile Shield – U.S. Patent # 4,397,608 ¬– September 8, 1983
Views.
AP1000.
In April 2010, Gundersen released a report (commissioned by several nongovernment organizations) which explored a hazard associated with the possible rusting through of the AP1000 containment structure steel liner. In the AP1000 design, the liner and the concrete are separated, and if the steel rusts through, "there is no backup containment behind it" says Gundersen. If the dome rusted through the design would expel radioactive contaminants and the plant "could deliver a dose of radiation to the public that is 10 times higher than the N.R.C. limit" according to Gundersen. Westinghouse has disputed Gundersen’s assessment. Gundersen has testified before the Nuclear Regulatory Commission’s Advisory Committee on Reactor Safeguards saying that "if a hole appeared, the chimney effect would disperse radioactive material far and wide".
Vermont Yankee.
In 2010 Gundersen expressed concerns about the operation of the Vermont Yankee Nuclear Power Plant, saying a leak of radioactive tritium there could be "followed by releases of other, more dangerous materials if the plant keeps operating". The plant ceased operations in 2014 and is currently in the process of nuclear decommissioning.
Gundersen has said that the U.S. nuclear industry and regulators need to reexamine disaster planning and worst-case scenarios, especially in reactors such as Vermont Yankee, which have the same design as the crippled nuclear plant at the center of the 2011 Japanese Fukushima nuclear emergency. He has stated that Vermont Yankee and similar plants are vulnerable to a similar cascade of events as in Japan.
Fukushima.
As part of Fairewinds Energy Education, Gundersen has hosted numerous videos and provided updates about the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. He was also a regular guest on media outlets such as Democracy Now and CNN discussing the issue. In an interview with Al Jazeera, Gundersen referred to Fukushima as "the biggest industrial catastrophe in the history of mankind".
In September 2013 Gundersen accused the Japanese government of lying in order to secure its position as host of the 2020 Olympic Games when it claimed that the disaster was under control and that there existed no health concerns. The plant, Gundersen said, "is leaking into the Pacific Ocean extensively" and that thyroid cancers, deformed fish and radioactive animals were being discovered.
In early October 2013, Gundersen stated that due to newly discovered leaks and impending tropical storms, the potential existed for a release of radiation 15,000 times that of Hiroshima.
Other.
A weeklong series in the December 1992 "Cleveland Plain Dealer" entitled "Lethal Doses: Radiation That Kills" exposed the extreme medical malpractice of radiation medicine and the serial failings of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to do anything about it. Runner-up for the Pulitzer Prize in 1993, the Plain Dealer’s five-part series detailed case after case of misappropriation and sloppiness using nuclear material that led to disfigurement and death. One of the five parts held information provided by Arnie Gundersen uncovering botched inspections and cozy personal relationships between NRC inspectors and licensees. Two congressional investigations were held in response to this series in order to obtain NRC reform on the matter.
"Federal regulation of medical radiation uses : Hearing before the Committee on Governmental Affairs," United States Senate, One Hundred Third Congress, first session, May 6, 1993.
https://archive.org/stream/federalregulatio00unit/federalregulatio00unit_djvu.txt
Partial Hearing Transcript before the Committee on Governmental Affairs, May 6, 1993, page 22:
Committee Chairman Senator John Glenn: "... what is the NRC doing to assure that Commission employees don't engage in potential conflict of interest practices?"
NRC Chairman Selin: "... it is true. Everything Mr. Gundersen said was absolutely right; he performed quite a service..." [stating that the conflict of interest issue is ] "much more troublesome because , to be frank, it's not just a question of who was paying for the lunches, but why these people were having lunch together in the first place. I mean it was the familiarization and the fraternization that was more worrisome... We are very concerned about this situation. We are sharpening our regulations, but in this case there is no question that the actions happened as described by the IG, people knew or should have known that they should not have done these actions... But that is a very worrisome situation- both of fraternization with the licensees and then the well-meaning but very dangerous practice of recommending people to licensees to help them solve problems."


807 (vacuum tube)

The 807 is a beam tetrode vacuum tube, widely used in audio- and radio-frequency power amplifier applications.
Audio uses.
807s were used in audio power amplifiers, both for public address and Hi-Fi application, usually being run in push-pull pairs in class AB1 or AB2 giving up to 120 watts of usable power. The plate voltage limit is 750 volts and the screen grid limited to 300 volts. Because of the 300 volt screen grid voltage limit, the 807 cannot be triode connected for high power applications. Failure to observe this precaution will cause screen grid failure. Less commonly a single 807 was used in a pure class-A, single-ended audio output stage delivering about 10 watts.
RF uses.
The 807 is fully rated to 60 MHz, derated to 55% at 125 MHz in Class C, Plate-modulated operation, thus they were popular with amateur radio operators (radio hams).
In this application a single 807 could be run in class-C as an oscillator or amplifier which could be keyed on and off to transmit Morse Code in CW mode. For voice transmission on AM a final amplifier with one or more 807s, up to about four, could be connected in parallel running class-C. Connecting multiple 807s in parallel produced more power to feed to the antenna. Often the modulator stage (simply a transformer-coupled audio amplifier for A.M., with the secondary of its output transformer in series with the anode supply of the final amplifier), was also constructed using 807s. Many hams found multiple paralleled 807s a cheaper alternative to a single larger valve, such as a single 813, as many military surplus 807s became available cheaply after World War II. In Australia 807s are affectionately referred to as "stubbies" because they are almost as ubiquitous as that common Australian beer container.
The class C operational values in the info box at the right are for "anode modulated A.M. operation"; for CW operation a maximum anode voltage of 600 is permissible, whereby the anode current increases to 100 mA and the anode/plate dissipation rises to 25 watts. The screen voltage is the same, at 300, but its dissipation rises to 3.5 watts.
37 watts of R.F. power is produced from 220 mW of drive but only a 50% duty cycle is allowed. The maximum allowable negative "control grid, g1" excursion allowable is -200 volts and average control grid current is 5mA in both A.M. and CW modes.
Later versions could be used on CW with a supply voltage up to 750 V and a current of 100 mA to produce 50-55 watts of output power.
Differences from 6L6.
The electrically similar 6L6 was not favored by hams because high transient voltages on the anode when operating in class C could cause a flashover between pins 2 and 3 on the octal base, whereas the 807 had the anode connected to a top cap, physically distant from all the base pins.
Derivatives.
The 1624 (VT-165) is an 807 variant with a directly heated filamentary cathode operating at 2.5 V, 2 A.
The 1625 (VT-136) is an 807 variant with a 12.6 V heater and a 7-pin base. These tubes were used as RF power amplifiers in some of the SCR-274 and AN/ARC-5 "command set" transmitters of WW2. Postwar, 1625 tubes flooded the surplus market, and were available for pennies apiece. Surplus 1625s found some commercial use, notably the use of a pair as modulator tubes in the Heathkit DX-100 amateur transmitter.
The HY-69 is an 807 variant with a 5-pin base and a directly heated filamentary cathode operating at 6.3 V, 1.6 A.
The 5933/807W is a ruggedized military version of the 807. It uses a shorter, straight-sided T12 bulb, which provides better element support for improved microphonics and shock/vibration resistance.
The ATS-25 is a military version with ceramic base.
The Г-807 (G-807) is a Soviet/Russian version. The 6П7С (6P7S) is similar to Г-807, but with an 8-pin octal base.
The 807 also found some use as a horizontal output tube in early TV receivers, particularly those manufactured by DuMont. The 807 design (with some "value engineering" to reduce production cost) was the basis for the first application-specific horizontal sweep tubes such as the 6BG6G and 6CD6G. The redesign mainly involved the omission of some of the internal RF shielding, and the substitution of a bakelite Octal base for the micanol or ceramic 5-pin.
In turn, these low cost sweep tube derivatives found some use as RF power amplifiers in homebrew amateur radio transmitters in the 1950s.
Slang.
Ham operators in the US sometimes use the term "807" to refer to bottles of beer due to the shape of the tube.


Ceramic resonator

A ceramic resonator is an electronic component consisting of a piece of a piezoelectric ceramic material with two or more metal electrodes attached. When connected in an electronic oscillator circuit, resonant mechanical vibrations in the device generate an oscillating signal of a specific frequency. Like the similar quartz crystal, they are used in oscillators for purposes such as generating the clock signal used to control timing in computers and other digital logic devices, or generating the carrier signal in analog radio transmitters and receivers.
Ceramic resonators are made of high-stability piezoelectric ceramics, generally lead zirconate titanate (PZT) which functions as a mechanical resonator. In operation, mechanical vibrations induce an oscillating voltage in the attached electrodes due to the piezoelectricity of the material. The thickness of the ceramic substrate determines the resonant frequency of the device.
Packages.
A typical ceramic resonator package has either two or three connections. The two pin devices are typically just the resonators themselves, while three and sometimes four pin devices are filters, often used in AM and FM broadcast radios as well as many other RF applications. They come in both surface-mount and through-hole varieties with a number of different footprints. The oscillation takes place across two of the pins (connections). The third pin (if present; typically the center pin) is connected to ground.
Applications.
Ceramic resonators can be used as the source of the clock signal for digital circuits such as microprocessors where the frequency accuracy is not critical. Quartz has a 0.001% frequency tolerance, while PZT has a 0.5% tolerance.
They are used in timing circuitry for a wide array of applications such as TVs, VCRs, automotive electronic devices, telephones, copiers, cameras, voice synthesizers, communication equipment, remote controls and toys. A ceramic resonator is often used in place of quartz crystals as a reference clock or signal generator in electronic circuitry due to its low cost and smaller size.
The lower Q and higher frequency range achievable can be beneficial in use of TCXOs, temperature-compensated crystal oscillators. The frequency of the oscillator can be "pulled" in wider range than with high-Q crystal. This allows wider range of adjustments, which may be critical in devices operating in extreme (especially low) temperatures where the crystal's own temperature-frequency dependence could take it outside of the pullable range for the desired frequency.
Ceramic filters.
Ceramic resonators look similar to ceramic filters. Ceramic filters are frequently used in the IF stages of superheterodyne receivers. Originally ceramic filters were used as very low cost filters for broadcast radio receivers, both medium wave sets with typical IFs of 455 kHz and FM broadcast sets with IF stages at around 10.7 MHz. However, as the performance has significantly improved, they are used in many other RF applications as well.


Electricity sector of the United States

The electricity sector of the United States includes a large array of stakeholders that provide services through electricity generation, transmission, distribution and marketing for industrial, commercial, public and residential customers. It also includes many public institutions that regulate the sector.
In 1996, there were 3,195 electric utilities in the United States, of which fewer than 1,000 were engaged in power generation. This leaves a large number of mostly smaller utilities engaged only in power distribution. There were also 65 power marketers. Of all utilities, 2,020 were publicly owned (including 10 Federal utilities), 932 were rural electric cooperatives, and 243 were investor-owned utilities. The electricity transmission network is controlled by Independent System Operators or Regional Transmission Organizations, which are not-for-profit organizations that are obliged to provide indiscriminate access to various suppliers in order to promote competition.
The four above-mentioned market segments of the U.S. electricity sector are regulated by different public institutions with some functional overlaps: The federal government sets general policies through the Department of Energy, environmental policy through the Environmental Protection Agency and consumer protection policy through the Federal Trade Commission. The safety of nuclear power plants is overseen by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Economic regulation of the distribution segment is a state responsibility, usually carried out through Public Utilities Commissions; the inter-state transmission segment is regulated by the federal government through the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission.
Principal sources of US electricity in 2019 were: natural gas (38%), coal (23%), nuclear (20%), other renewables (11%), and Hydro (7%). Over the decade 2004–2014, the largest increases in electrical generation came from natural gas (2014 generation was 412 billion kWh greater than 2004), wind (increase of 168 billion kWh) and solar (increased 18 billion kWh). Over the same decade, annual generation from coal decreased 393 billion kWh, and from petroleum decreased 90 billion kWh.
In 2008 the average electricity tariff in the U.S. was 9.82 Cents/kilowatt-hour (kWh). In 2006–07 electricity tariffs in the U.S. were higher than in Australia, Canada, France, Sweden and Finland, but lower than in Germany, Italy, Spain, and the UK. Residential tariffs vary significantly between states from 6.7 Cents/kWh in West Virginia to 24.1 Cents/kWh in Hawaii. The average residential bill in 2007 was US$100/month. Most investments in the U.S. electricity sector are financed by private companies through debt and equity. However, some investments are indirectly financed by taxpayers through various subsidies ranging from tax incentives to subsidies for research and development, feed-in tariffs for renewable energy and support to low-income households to pay their electric bills.
Electricity consumption.
Electricity consumption data in this section is based upon data mined from US DOE Energy Information Administration/Electric Power Annual 2018 files
In 2018 the total US consumption of electricity was 4,222.5 terawatt-hours (TWh).
Consumption was up from 2017, by131.9 TWh or +3.2%.
This is broken down as:
In addition from consumption from the electrical grid, the US consumers consumed an estimated additional 35.04 TWh from small scale solar systems. This will be included in the per capita data below.
Electricity consumption per person (per capita) is based upon data mined from US DOE Energy Information Administration/Electric Power Annual 2018 files Population data is from Demographics of the United States. Per capita consumption in 2018 is 13,004 kWh. This is up 372 kWh from 2017 and down 4.6 % from a decade ago and down 6.4% from its peak in 2007. The following table shows the yearly US per capita consumption by fuel source from 1999 to 2019.
The following table used the first column from the Demographics of the United States#Vital statistics table for population, and generation from Electric Power Annual. Technically this means that "consumption" includes transmission losses, etc., because the values in the table were all calculated from table ES1. Summary Statistics for the United States. Note that pumped storage is not a generation source, but is used by all sources other than hydro to smooth out the flow, and is thus similar to a transmission loss, and is included with Misc. Net imports = Imports – Exports. Also for the first time in 2016 the small scale solar estimate is included in the solar contribution.
Electricity generation.
In 2018 the total installed electricity generation summer capacity: in the United States was 1,084.37 gigawatts (GW), up 11.91 Gigawatts from 2017. The main energy sources for electricity generation include
Actual USA electricity generation in 2018 was 4,178.08 Terawatt hours (TWh) and was up 143.8 TWh (3.6%) from 2017. The USA also imported 58.26 Terawatt hours and exported 13.805 Terawatt hours: making a total of 4222.5 Terawatt hours for consumption, up 131.9 TWh (3.2%) from 2017.
Electricity generation was primarily from the following sources:
The share of coal and nuclear in energy generation is much higher than their share in installed capacity, because coal and nuclear plants provide base load and thus are running longer hours than natural gas and petroleum plants which typically provide peak load, while wind turbines and solar plants produce electricity when they can and natural gas fills in as required to compensate.
The following table summarize the electrical energy generated by fuel sources for the USA. Data was mined from Electric Power Annual 2019. Profile data is from Electric Power Monthly and is for 2019.
Fossil fuel.
Fossil fuels – mainly coal and natural gas – remain the backbone of electricity generation in the U.S., accounting for 68% of installed generation capacity in 2010. Coal production has fallen significantly since 2007 with most of the losses being replaced by natural gas, but also a growing fraction of non-hydroelectric renewables.
In 2007 the Department of Energy estimated the planned additional capacity for 2008–12 at 92 GW, most of which to be fueled by natural gas (48 GW) and coal (19GW).
Nuclear power.
As of 2007 in the United States, there are 104 commercial nuclear reactors in the US, generating approximately 20% of the nation's total electric energy consumption. For many years, no new nuclear plants have been built in the US. However, since 2005 there has been a renewed interest in nuclear power in the US. This has been facilitated in part by the federal government with the Nuclear Power 2010 Program of 2002. and the Energy Policy Act. As of March 9, 2009, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission had received applications for permission to construct 26 new nuclear power reactors However, as of 2013 most of the new applications had been abandoned due to the low cost of electricity generated with natural gas which had become available at cheap prices due to the boom in hydraulic fracturing; electricity produced using natural gas being 4 cents a kilowatt hour versus 10 cents, or more, for nuclear.
Renewable energy.
The following table summarizes the electrical energy generated by renewable fuel sources for the US. Data was obtained from Electric Power Monthly 2/2020.
Note: Biomass includes wood and wood derived fuel, landfill gas, biogenic municipal solid waste and other waste biomass.
The development of renewable energy and energy efficiency marks "a new era of energy exploration" in the United States, according to President Barack Obama. In a joint address to the Congress on February 24, 2009, President Obama called for doubling renewable energy within the next three years. From the end of 2008 to the end of 2011 renewable energy increased by 35% and from the end of 2008 till the end of 2014, 41.4%.
Renewable energy accounted for more than 17 percent of the domestically-produced electric energy used in the United States in 2017, up from 9.25% in 2008. In the past ten years, wind production has increased by 359% (4.59X) and now provides over 6.3% of US electric requirements.
Over this same time period solar has increased by 5100% (52X) and now provides 1.32% of US electric energy needs.
According to a report by the Interior Department, U.S. wind power – including off-shore turbines – could more than meet U.S. electricity needs. The Department of Energy has said wind power could generate 20% of US electricity by 2030.
Several solar thermal power stations, including the new 64 MW Nevada Solar One, have also been built. The largest of these solar thermal power stations is the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert with a total generating capacity of 354 MW, making the system the largest solar plant of any kind in the world.
Energy efficiency and conservation.
The federal government promotes energy efficiency through the Energy Star program. The Alliance to Save Energy, an industry group, also promotes energy efficiency.
Responsibilities in the electricity sector.
Policy and regulation.
Policy for the electricity sector in the United States is set by the executive and legislative bodies of the federal government and state governments. Within the executive branch of the federal government the Department of Energy plays a key role. In addition, the Environmental Protection Agency is in charge of environmental regulation and the Federal Trade Commission is in charge of consumer protection and the prevention of anti-competitive practices.
Key federal legislation related to the electricity sector includes:
Many state governments have been active in promoting renewable energy. For example, in 2007 25 states and the District of Columbia had established renewable portfolio standards (RPS). There is no federal policy on RPS.
The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission is in charge of regulating interstate electricity sales, wholesale electric rates, and licensing hydropower plants. Rates for electricity distribution are regulated by state-level Public Utilities Commissions or Public Services Commissions.
Deregulation and competition.
Deregulation of the electricity sector consists in the introduction of competition and the unbundling of vertically integrated utilities in separate entities in charge of electricity generation, electricity transmission, electricity distribution and commercialization. The deregulation of the electricity sector in the U.S. began with the Energy Policy Act of 1992 which removed obstacles for wholesale competition. In practice, however, regulation has been unevenly introduced between states. It began in earnest only from 1996 onwards when the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission issued orders that required utilities to provide transmission services "on a reasonable and non-discriminatory basis". In some states, such as in California, private utilities were required to sell some of their power plants to prevent concentration of market power.
As of April 2014, 16 U.S. states – Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, and Texas –
and the District of Columbia have deregulated their electricity markets in some capacity. Additionally, seven states – Arizona, Arkansas, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Virginia, and Wyoming – started electricity deregulation in some capacity but have since suspended deregulation.
The deregulation of the Texas electricity market in 2002 is one of the better-known examples. The result has been that the different states with in United States have a wide spectrum of different levels of deregulation. Some states only allow large commercial customers to choose a different supplier, some allow all consumers to choose. Contrary to the largely similar methods of deregulation for natural gas, different states have taken very different approaches to electricity deregulation.
Service provision.
Electric utilities in the U.S. can be both in charge of electricity generation and electricity distribution. The electricity transmission network is not owned by individual utilities, but by companies and organizations that are obliged to provide indiscriminate access to various suppliers in order to promote competition. In 1996, there were 3,195 electric utilities in the United States and 65 power marketers. Of these, 2,020 were publicly owned (including 10 Federal utilities), 932 were rural electric cooperatives, and 243 were investor-owned utilities. Fewer than 1,000 utilities are engaged in power generation.
Generation.
About 80% of the electricity in the U.S. is generated by private ("investor-owned") utilities. The remaining electricity is produced by the public sector. This includes federal agencies such as the Tennessee Valley Authority (producing mainly nuclear and hydropower), and Power Marketing Administrations of the Department of Energy, one of which is the Bonneville Power Administration (in the Pacific Northwest)(hydropower). It also includes municipal utilities and utility cooperatives.
The largest private electric producers in the United States include:
Transmission.
There are two major wide area synchronous grids in North America, the Eastern Interconnection and the Western Interconnection. Besides this there are two minor power grids in the U.S., the Alaska Interconnection and the Texas Interconnection. The Eastern, Western and Texas Interconnections are tied together at various points with DC interconnects allowing electrical power to be transmitted throughout the contiguous U.S., parts of Canada and parts of Mexico. The transmission grids are operated by transmission system operators (TSOs), not-for profit companies that are typically owned by the utilities in their respective service area, where they coordinate, control and monitor the operation of the electrical power system. TSOs are obliged to provide non-discriminatory transmission access to electricity generators and customers. TSOs can be of two types: Independent System Operators (ISOs) and Regional Transmission Organizations (RTOs). The former operates within a single state and the latter covers wider areas crossing state borders.
In 2009 there were four RTOs in the U.S.:
There are also three ISOs:
RTOs are similar, but not identical to the nine Regional Reliability Councils associated in the North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC), a non-profit entity that is in charge of improving the reliability and security of the bulk power system in the U.S., Canada and the northern part of Baja California in Mexico. The members of the Regional Reliability Councils include private, public and cooperative utilities, power marketers and final customers. The Regional Reliability Councils are:
The FERC distinguishes between 10 power markets in the U.S., including the seven for which RTOs have been established, well as:
ISOs and RTOs were established in the 1990s when states and regions established wholesale competition for electricity.
Distribution.
About 75% of electricity sales to final customers are undertaken by private utilities, with the remainder being sold by municipal utilities and cooperatives.
Economic and financial aspects.
Tariffs and affordability.
In 2008 the average electricity tariff in the U.S. was 9.82 cents/kWh, up from 6.9 cents/kWh in 1995. Residential tariffs were somewhat higher at 11.36 cents/kWh, while commercial tariffs stood at 10.28 cents/kWh and industrial tariffs at 7.01 cents/kWh. The cost of supplying high-voltage power to high-volume industrial customers is lower than the cost of providing low-voltage (110 V) power to residential and commercial customers.
In 2006–07 commercial electricity tariffs in the U.S. (9.28 cents/kWh) were higher than in Australia (7.1 cents/kWh), Canada (6.18 cents/kWh) that relies mainly on hydropower or in France (8.54 cents/kWh) that relies heavily on nuclear power, but lower than in Germany (13.16 cents/kWh), Italy (15.74 cents/kWh) or the UK (11.16 cents/kWh) that all rely to a larger degree on fossil fuels, all compared at purchasing power parity.
Residential tariffs vary significantly between states from 6.7 cents/kWh in West Virginia to 24.1 cents/kWh in Hawaii. An important factor that influences tariff levels is the mix of energy sources used in power generation. For example, access to cheap federal power from hydropower plants contributes to low electricity tariffs in some states.
Average residential electricity consumption in the U.S. was 936 kWh/month per in 2007, and the average bill was US$100/month. Average residential consumption varies considerably between states from 530 kWh/month in Maine to 1344 kWh/month in Tennessee. Factors that influence residential energy consumption are climate, tariffs and efforts to promote energy conservation.
Revenues.
Total revenue from the sale of electricity in 2008 was US$344bn, including US$148bn from residential customers, US$129bn from commercial customers and US$66bn from industrial customers. Many large industries self-generate electricity and their electricity consumption thus is not included in these figures.
Financing.
Most investments in the U.S. electricity sector are financed by private companies through debt and equity. However, some investments are indirectly financed by taxpayers through various subsidies.
Subsidies and tax incentives.
There is a large array of subsidies in the U.S. electricity sector ranging from various forms of tax incentives to subsidies for research and development, feed-in tariffs for renewable energy and support to low-income households to pay their electric bills. Some subsidies are available throughout the U.S., while others are only available in some states.
Tax incentives include federal and state tax deductions and tax breaks. Tax incentives can be directed at consumers, such as for the purchase of energy-efficient appliances or for solar energy systems, small wind systems, geothermal heat pumps, and residential fuel cell and microturbine systems. Tax incentives can also be directed at electricity producers, in particular for renewable energy.
The Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) received federal funding of $5.1 billion in Fiscal Year 2009. It is funded mainly by the federal government through the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, and is administered by states and territories. While some of its funding is for fuel for heating, some is also used to cover electricity bills for both heating and cooling.
In April, 2009, 11 U.S. state legislatures were considering adopting feed-in tariffs as a complement to their renewable electricity mandates.


Gibraltar Wave Farm

Located on the east side of Gibraltar, on a former World War II ammunition jetty, the Gibraltar Wave Farm is the first commercial, grid-connected wave energy power station in all of Europe. The project utilizes the devices of Eco Wave Power Ltd, an Israel-based wave energy company. The wave farm was initially launched with an estimated peak capacity of 100 kW in April 2016 and plans for expansion to 5 MW within the next years. The project is operating through a 25-year PPA (power purchase agreement) between Eco Wave Power, the Government of Gibraltar, and the Gibraltar Electricity Authority. Upon completion, it is expected generate 15% of the total electricity consumption of Gibraltar. The project is funded, in part, by the 2014-2020 European Regional Development Fund, in order to put the country in line with the EU's renewable energy goal: 20% energy generated from renewable power by 2020. The project is also funded by private investment groups.
As of February 2018, the Gibraltar Wave Farm accrued 15,000 grid connected hours (and counting), a new world record for wave energy plant.
Opening ceremony.
The opening ceremony took place on May 26, 2016.
Chief Minister Fabian Picardo cut the ribbon, and stated to GBC press, "At last we are seeing the grid fed with renewable energy, something that was long overdue ...But it's even more exciting than that. This is the first time, in the whole of Europe, that a renewable wave energy system is linked into an electricity grid. The Gibraltarians are here pioneers in our partnership with Eco Wave Power..."
Minister of Health, The Environment, and Climate Change Dr. John Cortes confirmed the technology, "This is clearly working. I think that the future is bright and the future, like the past all those 6 million years ago, is in the power of the sea all around us."
Gibraltar's Director of European Programmes, Charles Collinson, stated, "...And I hope that we are able to collaborate in future expansion of this project."
Technical description.
Converter consists of three main functional parts: mechanical, hydraulic and electric systems. Mechanical system serves for wave energy receipt on floaters and its transmission to hydraulic cylinders. Hydraulic system transforms mechanical energy from the sea to hydraulic fluid pressure and to force of hydraulic motor rotation, which transfers moment of rotation to generator. Generator is part of converter electrical system. It receives
moment of rotation and transforms it to electrical power. "


EnergyAustralia

EnergyAustralia (formerly TRUenergy) is an electricity generation, electricity and gas retailing private company in Australia, a wholly owned subsidiary of the Hong Kong-based and listed CLP Group. EnergyAustralia also had a portfolio of generating sites using thermal coal, natural gas, hydro-electric, solar energy, and wind power.
The company was founded in 1995 and its headquarters are located in Melbourne, Victoria.
History.
In 2005, TXU Corp sold all its Australian assets to Singapore Power, which retained the distribution businesses (electricity and natural gas distribution networks) in Victoria, and onsold the retail and generation businesses to the Hong Kong-based CLP Group, which also owned the Yallourn Power Station, in Victoria's Latrobe Valley. In Australia, CLP traded as TRUenergy, and became the fifth largest energy retailer in Australia. In 2011, TRUenergy acquired from the New South Wales Government the state's electricity retail business and trade name of EnergyAustralia. Following the sale of the government's electricity retail assets, the government changed the name of the remainder of the government enterprise to Ausgrid, and in 2012 TRUenergy changed its name to EnergyAustralia.
In late 2011, there were media reports that TRUenergy may be floated in 2012 and later reported that this initial offering may be considered in 2013.
In July 2013, EnergyAustralia acquired Wallerawang Power Station, along with Mount Piper Power Station, both in New South Wales, from Delta Electricity for A$160 million. In November 2014, EnergyAustralia announced that it would permanently close Wallerawang due to ongoing reduced energy demand, lack of access to competitively priced coal and the power station's high operating costs. EnergyAustralia began the process of removing useful equipment from the station in 2015 and began demolition of the site when this process was completed.
On 15 May 2014, Catherine Tanna was appointed Managing Director of the company.
On 6 November 2015, EnergyAustralia closed its call centre in Melbourne's north-east (Mill Park) and moved jobs to the Philippines putting up to 300 jobs in doubt.
In 2018, EnergyAustralia became one of the 17 energy businesses who supported the launch of the "Energy Charter", a global initiative aimed at bringing together all parts of the power supply chain to give customers more affordable and reliable energy.
On 10 March 2021, EnergyAustralia announced that it will close the Yallourn Power Station in mid-2028, four years ahead of schedule, and instead build a 350 megawatt power-generating battery in the Latrobe Valley by the end of 2026. At the time, Yallourn produced about 20% of Victoria's electricity.
Operations.
EnergyAustralia supplies electricity and natural gas to more than 2.6 million residential and business customers throughout Australia.
As at July 2017, EnergyAustralia has a master hedge agreement with Ecogen Energy for Ecogen to supply to it the output from Ecogen's gas-fired Newport and Jeeralang Power Stations, both in Victoria, which have a combined capacity of . EnergyAustralia also owns the gas-fired Hallett Power Station in South Australia with a capacity of .
In addition to the retail function, EnergyAustralia has a significant portfolio of industrial and commercial customers, and a A$5 billion portfolio of energy assets, including Hallett Power Station, Wallerawang Power Station (now decommissioned), and Mount Piper Power Station. It owned an underground natural gas storage facility at the Iona Gas Plant near Port Campbell until 2015.
Carbon neutral electricity.
EnergyAustralia offers a carbon neutral electricity option to their customers by purchasing carbon offset units from a range of Australian and international offset projects including renewable energy projects in developing countries, land management and tree planting in Australia. Certified by the Australian Government's National Carbon Offset Standard, the carbon neutral program aims to provide carbon neutral energy to offset the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere.
Sustainability.
EnergyAustralia created a climate change strategy in 2007 to define their environmental responsibilities and measure/manage their impact on the environment through their operations.
The strategy offered short, medium and long-term climate change targets and included meeting climate targets through the following measures:
Quoted as their main reduction target, greenhouse gas is aimed to be reduced by 60% by 2050, based on a 1990 emissions baseline for the National Electricity Market (NEM) and EnergyAustralia's market share of the NEM in 2050.
Proposed projects.
EnergyAustralia is working on a number of projects to meet energy market demand.
Mallee Solar Park, if built, will be capable of generating emission-free electricity, providing Victoria with clean energy.
Marulan Power Station, if built, will be a gas-fired station located in New South Wales Southern Tablelands and will have a capacity of 700 MW.
Stony Gap Wind Farm is a proposed wind farm, to be located in South Australia, capable of producing 123MW, potentially saving 395,000 tonnes of greenhouse gas emissions each year.
Tallawarra Lands is a development that will aim to provide positive environmental employment and social outcomes for the Illawarra area.
Waterloo Stage 2 is a project that proposes to add 6 more wind turbines to Waterloo Wind Farm to supply enough green energy to power a further 7516 households a year. This has now been completed.
Mt Piper & Wallerawang Power Stations are set to be assisted by a number of EnergyAustralia projects to support the management of these power stations' assets.
Brown Coal Projects aim to prove new technologies and develop alternative uses for brown coal, focusing on upgrading brown coal to high-value products. Products include 'pulverised coal injection' (PCI, used in steel production), liquids, gases and chemicals. These projects also aim to provide access to land, coal supply and utilities such as water and electricity.
Two examples of projects under development that EnergyAustralia is supporting are Coal EnergyAustralia and Ignite Energy Resources. These projects have been awarded government funding of $30 million and $20 million respectively under the Advanced Lignite Demonstration Program and both projects aim to produce PCI and oil from Yallourn coal.
Energy generation and assets.
EnergyAustralia's portfolio of assets includes:


Weatherhead

A weatherhead, also called a weathercap, service head, service entrance cap, or gooseneck (slang) is a weatherproof service drop entry point where overhead power or telephone wires enter a building, or where wires transition between overhead and underground cables. At a building the wires enter a conduit, a protective metal pipe, and the weatherhead is a waterproof cap on the end of the conduit that allows the wires to enter without letting in water. It is shaped like a hood, with the surface where the wires enter facing down at an angle of at least 45°, to shield it from precipitation. A rubberized gasket makes for a tight seal against the wires. Before they enter the weatherhead, a "drip loop" is left in the overhead wires, which permits rain water that collects on the wires to drip off before reaching the weatherhead.
A weatherhead termination is only used at low voltages (up to 600 volts), since higher distribution voltages require more insulation between conductors and metal enclosures. Higher-voltage connections are made through a pothead.
Weatherheads are required by electrical codes or building codes. They are also used on utility poles where overhead power lines enter a conduit to pass underground.


Boralex

Boralex is a power company that develops, builds, and operates renewable energy power facilities (wind, hydroelectric, solar and thermal) in Canada, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In 2020, Boralex’s total installed capacity reached 2,455 MW.
History.
Boralex was established in 1990 as a joint venture between three companies: LaduBORo, ALbany Oil, and EXar.
In 1997, Boralex issued its first public share offering to finalize several acquisitions and strengthen its financial position. The company ended the year with an asset portfolio of 11 power stations with a total installed capacity of 62 MW.
The next year, Boralex acquired La Rochette hydroelectric power station, its first property in France, and moved into the wood-residue thermal energy market with the acquisition of the Stratton power station in Maine.
By the end of 2001, Boralex had 200 employees and 18 sites in Québec, the United States and France, for a total installed capacity close to 350 MW generated by hydroelectric, thermal and gas- and wood-residue-fired cogeneration power stations. In November 2002, Boralex took its first step into wind power, starting up its first wind farm in Avignonet-Lauragais, France.
In the late 2000s, Boralex continued to expand in the wind power market. In Canada, a consortium of Boralex and Gaz Métro Limited Partnership, with the assistance of the Séminaire de Québec, got approval for two wind power projects, including the Seigneurie de Beaupré wind farms. Seigneurie de Beaupré began operating in 2013 with a total installed capacity of 272 MW, and remains one of the largest wind sites in Canada.
Boralex first entered Scotland’s energy sector by acquiring a portfolio of projects in 2016.
In July 2017, Caisse de dépôt et placement du Québec (CDPQ, investor for Quebec’s public pension fund), acquired 17.3% of Boralex’s shares which were previously owned by cousin company Cascades, becoming the principal shareholder, with an agreement to explore partnership opportunities for future projects.
Boralex continued expanding its footprint in the United States through hydro and solar facilities in New York, California, Indiana, and Alabama.
In 2020, Boralex issued its first Corporate Social Responsibility Report, “Beyond Renewable Energy” to highlight the company’s environmental, social, and governance strategies to align with the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
Leadership.
After leading the company for 14 years, expanding the Quebec-based company into a renowned and cutting-edge international player in the renewable energy industry, Patrick Lemaire retired as CEO in 2020. He remains a member of the Board of Directors, and Patrick Decostre is appointed as his successor.
Decostre was Boralex’s first employee in Europe, where he spent 18 years building the company’s footprint and established the first onshore wind farm in France. Under his leadership, Boralex became the largest independent producer of onshore wind power in France. Most recently he served as Vice President and Chief Operating Officer based in Montreal.
Patrick Lemaire was recognized multiple times for his leadership as a CEO. He was notably named CEO of the Year, SME Category, by "Les Affaires" Magazine, and was ranked in the Top 100 Power People report, both in 2017.
Strategic Plan.
On June 18, 2019, Boralex management announced the strategic plan that will guide it to achieve the financial objectives set for 2023. The plan builds on our solid expertise and experience in sectors with high growth potential. It includes complementary initiatives to diversify and optimize our operations and revenue sources.
Boralex’s strategic plan sets out 4 main directions: growth (in markets with promising renewable energy programs), diversification (into solar power and energy storage), new customers (through corporate PPAs and other sources of revenues) and optimization (operational and financial). It also includes 3 financial objectives and, since February 2021, 10 corporate social responsibility (CSR) priorities.
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) and ESG.
Boralex unveiled its first Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) report in February 2021, under the theme “Beyond Renewable Energy”. It details its value-adding and more structured approach, with careful consideration of risk and opportunity management.
Boralex’s CSR and environmental, social and governance (ESG) strategy underscores its mandate for sustainable development and its approach to the relationships it has with all of its stakeholders. Through ten priority issues sorted under three clear and distinct areas of commitment, CSR is now part and parcel of Boralex’s business model.
Apuiat.
In February 2021, Boralex announced an historic partnership with the Innu Nation to establish a large-scale wind farm on terriroty of the Uashat mak Mani-utenam First Nation and public lands in the City of Port-Cartier, in the province of Quebec. The project, called Apuiat—meaning a paddle in Innu Aimun, a symbol of moving forward together—is expected to begin construction in the summer of 2022. The Innu communities and Boralex will equally share profits from the sale of electricity generated by the wind farm, and both host communities will receive annual royalties.
“After many months of work with our Indigenous partners, I am proud to present a win-win project for the Innu communities, for Québec and for the planet,” said Premier Francois Legault. “With the Apuiat wind farm, we are continuing to build a greener Québec, a more prosperous Québec, a prouder Québec!”.


Blade solidity

Blade solidity is an important design parameter for the axial flow impeller and is defined as the ratio of blade chord length to spacing.
Where
In case of an axial flow impeller mean radius is defined in terms of hub (formula_4,inner radius) and tip radius (formula_5,outer radius) as :
Blade solidity affects various turbomachinery parameters. So to vary those parameters one needs to vary blade solidity but there are some limitations imposed by Aspect ratio (wing) (span/chord), pitch. If an impeller has few blades i.e high pitch it will result in less lift force and in a similar manner for more blades i.e. very low pitch, there will be high drag force.
Blade solidity should not be confused with rotor solidity, which is the ratio of the total area of the rotor blades to the swept area of the rotor.
Flow over isolated airfoil.
Blade solidity is an important parameter that inter relates turbomachine parameter to airfoil parameter. Lift and drag coefficient for an airfoil is inter related to blade solidity as shown:
where
In an airfoil the mean line curvature is designed to change the flow direction, the vane thickness is for strength and the streamlined shape is to delay the onset of boundary layer separation, taking all the design factors of an airfoil resulting forces of lift and drag can be expressed in terms of lift and drag coefficient.
Preliminary design procedure.
Design of the impeller depends on specific speed, hub-tip ratio and solidity ratio. To illustrate the dependence, an expression for axial flow pump and fan is shown
where
Cordier diagram can be used to determine specific speed and impeller tip diameter formula_23. Accordingly solidity ratio and hub-tip ratio (range 0.3-0.7) can be adjusted.
Solidity ratio generally falls in the range of 0.4-1.1