Carl August Wilhelm Berends

Carl August Wilhelm Berends (April 19, 1759 – December 1, 1826) was a German physician born in Anklam, Pomerania.
He studied medicine at Viadrina University in Frankfurt an der Oder, where in 1788 he became a professor of medicine. In 1811 he moved to the University of Breslau, being due to closure of Viadrina University in Frankfurt, and resulting in the relocation of much of its faculty to Breslau. In 1815 he was appointed professor of medicine at the University of Berlin and hospital director at the Berlin Charité.
In 1789 Berends published "Über den Unterricht junger Ärzte am Krankenbett" (Education of Young Physicians at the Bedside), in which he described his experiences at the Thielschen Krankenhaus in Frankfurt. Shortly after his death in 1826, his one-time student, Karl Sundelin, published Berends' lectures on practical medical science ("Vorlesungen über die praktische Arzneiwissenschaft").


Caring for Carcinoid Foundation

The Neuroendocrine Tumor Research Foundation (NETRF), previously known as the Caring for Carcinoid Foundation (CFCF), is a nonprofit corporation organized under the laws of Massachusetts in order to support neuroendocrine and carcinoid cancer research in the public interest. The mission of NETRF is to fund research to discover cures and more effective treatments for carcinoid, pancreatic, and related neuroendocrine cancers. The specific objectives and purposes of the Foundation are to support doctors and scientists who are researching the causes of carcinoid and related neuroendocrine tumors and developing treatments; and to inform the public about research and treatments. The Foundation is accredited by the Better Business Bureau.
The Foundation was founded in 2004 by Nancy Lindholm (formerly Nancy O'Hagan), who is herself a carcinoid patient. It is located in Boston. On November 10, 2010 the Foundation celebrated the first annual Worldwide Neuroendocrine Tumor (NET) Cancer Awareness Day by launching their new website, which provides comprehensive information for family and friends. From time to time the Foundation makes grants available jointly with the American Association for Cancer Research. On other occasions the Foundation acts in conjunction with other grant providers or as the sole grant provider. In 2015, the organization officially changed its name to the Neuroendocrine Tumor Research Foundation and its website to www.netrf.org.


Trisha Suppes

Trisha Suppes is a Professor at Stanford University in the School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences. She also works at the VA Palo Alto Health Care System as director of the Bipolar and Depression Research Program. She is noted for being an expert in the treatment and management of Bipolar Disorder. She been the author or co-author of over 200 peer-reviewed articles and has written numerous academic textbooks for the treatment of Bipolar Disorder. Suppes' recent work includes exploring the biological basis of mood disorders.
Education.
Suppes earned her MD at Dartmouth Medical School in Hanover, New Hampshire, and went on to earn a PhD in anatomy and physiology at the University of California, Los Angeles. Post graduation medical school, her residency in adult psychiatry was completed at McLean Hospital in Belmont, Massachusetts. She completed a postdoctoral fellowship in neurology at Stanford University School of Medicine.


Alicia Munroe

Alicia Munroe is a fictional character from the BBC medical drama "Casualty", played by Chelsea Halfpenny. She first appears in the series thirty episode "Cradle to Grave", broadcast on 19 September 2015. The character is introduced as an F2 doctor for a workplace bullying storyline with registrar Lily Chao (Crystal Yu), appearing for a stint of eight episodes. Alicia is characterised as bright, bubbly and a try-hard, making her appear naive. Despite this, Alicia is a brilliant doctor who always does more than is acceptable for her patients. Alicia's backstory states that she has grown up in Newcastle where she attended medical school, but recently moved to Holby.
Halfpenny reprised the role in August 2016 and the character was involved in a story about how separation affects adults. Alicia then became embroiled in a love triangle between brothers Caleb "Cal" Knight (Richard Winsor) and Ethan Hardy (George Rainsford), and a subsequent relationship with Ethan, which ends following Cal's death. Producers later involved Alicia in a two-part special set in France, followed by a focus on Alicia's career, which saw her become a specialty registrar in pediatric emergency medicine.
Alicia's development continues as she creates an anonymous blog criticising the ED's ongoing problems after becoming disillusioned with the NHS. Producers then explored the topic of rape and sexual consent in a new storyline arc for Alicia after she is raped by F1 doctor Eddie McAllister (Joe Gaminara). Halfpenny decided to leave the drama in 2018 and Alicia departs in the twenty episode of series thirty-three, broadcast on 19 January 2019. The character and her storylines have been well received by critics, with Elaine Reilly of "What's on TV" writing that she arrived in "a puff of pink hair and optimism".
Casting.
Alicia was previewed to viewers through a show trailer released on the show's official website on 15 July 2015. It featured a clip of Halfpenny wearing doctor's scrubs. Halfpenny confirmed her casting in August 2015 via "Twitter", expressing her delight at joining the series. She revealed her first episode would air on 19 September 2015.
Halfpenny had previously appeared on the show as a patient, Karine, in the series eighteen episode "What Parents Do". Derek Thompson, who plays Charlie Fairhead, remembered Halfpenny from her guest appearance because of her "unusual" surname. Halfpenny recalled her guest appearance and praised the cast then and upon her return. She added that she found it easy to make friends within the cast. The character was introduced during the series thirty episode "Cradle to Grave", broadcast on 19 September 2015.
Halfpenny had two auditions for the character and believed that because producers had an idea about the character, she did not have to attend several auditions. She auditioned for the show's casting director in her first audition. Halfpenny described her second audition as "overwhelming" and "so stressful". In her section audition, she screen-tested with Crystal Yu (who portrays Lily) and performed an operation on a mannequin which she said was hard. Halfpenny struggled with the 'operation' and was "squeamish" so the medical advisor and Yu assisted her. Halfpenny struggled to pronounce the medical terminology and was nervous when she had a single line in a scene in case she forgot it. Halfpenny also had to learn how to stitch for the role.
In 2016, Halfpenny shadowed an A&E doctor which she described as "really interesting." She hoped that shadowing a doctor would allow her to make her acting appear more "realistic" and said she was "more confident with things like CPR", but would not be able to perform it in real life.
Development.
Characterisation and introduction.
Alicia is billed as "bright and bubbly" and Halfpenny said that "she's got blonde and pink hair, so people expect her to be a bit ditzy, but she's not." She called Alicia "a bit of a try-hard" because she tries to impress everyone, making her appear naive. She added that Alicia was "a young and kind person". Alicia is a "typical junior doctor" and very talented at her job which shows when she starts working. A BBC Online reporter described her as "effortlessly brilliant and passionate about her chosen subject – medicine". She is a positive person and "a joy to have in the department". Halfpenny was highly publicised for playing Amy Wyatt in the British soap opera "Emmerdale", and she contrasted Alicia's characteristics with that of Amy, stating that whilst Amy "lied quite a lot", Alicia is "very happy-go-lucky". She said she also preferred smiling to being miserable, which Amy was known for being. Halfpenny reflected on Alicia's characterisation in 2018, noting that Alicia joined the show as "a naïve girl" who struggled with serious injuries and found herself getting over involved in patients' lives, but over the course of her time on drama, Alicia has become more "professional".
Alicia's backstory states that she had recently graduated from medical school, which not only made her a brilliant doctor, but also a "genuinely nice person to be around." In an interview with Olivia Heath ("Reveal"), Halfpenny described Alicia as a "clever girl" and "a quick learner" who does not appreciate how hard working in the ED is, but despite that is professional. On-screen, the character Connie Beauchamp (portrayed by Amanda Mealing) described Alicia as "a breath of fresh air". Her positive nature can also cause her to be portrayed as annoying. Alicia's popularity among her colleagues irritated Lily Chao (Crystal Yu), who struggled to connect with them personally. In addition to this, Alicia tried to "have a laugh" with Lily, who had "none of it". Halfpenny opined that because Alicia is kind, she wanted to give Lily a hug and "understand" her.
Halfpenny described Alicia's first shift as "hell on earth" and revealed that Alicia would impress her colleagues, apart from Lily, when she spots a vulnerable patient. Halfpenny hoped fans would like Alicia, but worried that they may be annoyed by her cheerfulness. Halfpenny did not watch any of her scenes before they aired and said that she was "nervous" about watching her first scenes. Of her introduction, Halfpenny said that she was "enjoying this new chapter" of her career.
Workplace bullying and departure.
Halfpenny's initial stint on the show revolved around a storyline which saw her bullied by her mentor Lily. Lily disliked Alicia's popularity and sound medical skills and Halfpenny believed that Lily was "threatened" by someone with both those skills. She began to resent Alicia and started expressing her resentment of her in front of their colleagues. Yu described Lily's actions as bullying, but believed that she bullied her because she was grieving for her father. Lily did not realise that she was bullying Alicia and Yu explained that "Lily says things in the heat of the moment and then regrets them, but she’s too proud to own up or say sorry to Alicia."
Alicia coped well with Lily's treatment of her for several weeks and Halfpenny explained that Alicia has an "outlook on life where she doesn’t take everything to heart", which meant she felt "quite bad for Lily about her father’s death" and wanted to be her friend. When Lily's attitude worsens, Alicia starts to realise how bad their situation is. Halfpenny believed that Alicia's vulnerability made her "even more of a target" for Lily. Alison Graham of "Radio Times" and Elaine Reilly of "What's on TV" both believed Lily was "jealous" of Alicia, with Reilly also describing Lily's constant criticism as a "sustained bullying campaign" against Alicia.
Halfpenny was only signed to appear in eight episodes and departed in the series 30 episode, "Avoidable Harm", broadcast on 14 November 2015. The episode was centric to Alicia and Halfpenny voiceovered the episode. She described it as "high drama" where viewers discover more about Alicia. Halfpenny described it as "the most challenging couple of weeks" of her career because she "had so much to do". The show's executive producer, Oliver Kent, teased the episode before its airing, promising "a huge crisis of conscience" for the character which would make her question "her faith in her career." The episode left Alicia's future "open ended" and Halfpenny speculated whether Lily's constant criticism caused her to end her career as a doctor. Halfpenny described Alicia's departure as "sad", while Reilly described Alicia's final shift as "harrowing".
In the episode, a child in Alicia's care goes missing, but in her search for the child, she is forced to treat a seriously injured man, who is being followed by his partner's violent father, in the back of a van. Halfpenny explained that Alicia realises "the true depths of the job" when in the van. Alicia saves the man's life and when the father gives up, he accidentally runs down his daughter and despite Alicia's best efforts to save her back in the department, she dies. Lily publicly berates Alicia in the department's reception, taking her bullying to a new level. Yu described the scene as "an explosion of all the emotions Lily has been feeling", adding it was "a shame that Alicia is on the receiving end of it!" Alicia struggles to cope with her emotions and Halfpenny said Alicia questioned whether she was "strong enough" to be a doctor. Alicia decided to quit her job at the hospital following Lily's bullying and Halfpenny described her decision as "impulsive". She said that Alicia was under pressure and felt "lonely" because she was lacking support from Lily.
Following Alicia's resignation, Lily's colleagues accused her of bullying Alicia, making her briefly feel guilty. Yu explained that Lily felt guilty, but believed that because of her bad experience being mentored by Martin Ashford (Patrick Robinson), Alicia should receive the same treatment from her. Lily realises that she has made a mistake in her actions towards Alicia, but it is too late and it "gets to the point where she's way beyond saying sorry". Yu disliked filming scenes where she was mean to Halfpenny as they were friends off-screen.
Reflecting on the role, Halfpenny said that the episodes were "really nice" for her and that she "really enjoyed it" and had "a great time", describing it as "action-packed". Her role in "Casualty" had reminded her why she had left "Emmerdale", because she had "wanted to do other things".
Reintroduction.
Following her departure in 2015, Halfpenny teased a possible return for her character. In November 2015, the show's series producer Erika Hossington suggested that Alicia's departure was "an 'au revoir' and not a goodbye", teasing that the character should face Lily. Halfpenny later expressed her desire to return to the show as a regular cast member. She told "Soaplife" that she enjoyed her time on the show and wished it had been more permanent.
The show's Summer 2016 trailer featured a clip of Halfpenny, with "Radio Times" confirming that she had returned to the role of Alicia. Oliver Kent confirmed that Alicia would be returning to the show, with "TV Times" magazine predicting that Alicia's return would be "bound to cause a stir". Halfpenny promised "interesting storylines" for Alicia. Alicia returns as a locum doctor, following her parents' divorce, which would delight Ethan Hardy (George Rainsford) and Louise Tyler (Azuka Oforka). Alicia tries to avoid Lily, but realises she is not as nasty as before and decides to stay at the hospital. Sophie Dainty of "Digital Spy" described the announcement as "good news for "Casualty" fans".
Introduction of parents.
Alicia's parents, Jackie Munroe (Tracey Wilkinson) and Howard Munroe (James Gaddas), were introduced in September 2016, having previously been mentioned on-screen. Jackie was admitted as a patient under Ethan's care and Jackie tries to set Alicia on a date with Ethan. Alicia is left with "the biggest shock of all" when Ethan reveals Jackie is diagnosed with gonorrhea. Alicia believed Jackie had had an affair, but she was devastated when Howard revealed he was having an affair and is leaving Jackie "for good".
The characters were reintroduced in January 2017 for an episode which explored Alicia's backstory. Halfpenny described the episode as "really exciting" and said it would "delve deeper into family issues". She added that it was "great to have an episode that revolves around the personal life of your character" and the episode featured "the affect their marriage split has had on her." Off-screen, Alicia's parents had reconciled, which Alicia disagreed with. In the episode, Howard was revealed to have had an affair with another man, leaving Alicia and Jackie devastated.
In a 2017 interview with "Digital Spy", Hossington discussed Alicia's upbringing, noting that "Alicia came from a very strong family" where she was content and unsuspecting, with her parents separating after she became an adult. She added that the show wanted to explore "what impact that has on you when you are grown up." Halfpenny explained Alicia's family "have fallen apart" which has "made Alicia rethink what she believes love to be" and lose faith in relationships. Hossington supported this view and revealed Alicia "becomes very distrustful of men".
Ethan Hardy and Cal Knight.
During her original stint, Halfpenny revealed that her character would not have a love interest, but suggested a love triangle between Alicia, Ethan and his brother, registrar Caleb "Cal" Knight (Richard Winsor). In July 2016, Winsor revealed to Duncan Lindsay ("Metro") that Ethan and Cal would "end up competing" for the attention of an unnamed woman. He added that there would be "sparring between them, and few misunderstandings". Producers teased a possible romance for Alicia and Ethan when they became trapped together on two occasions. They became trapped in a sinkhole together and when Alicia began having a panic attack, Ethan comforted her. As they were rescued, Alicia tried to kiss him. Lindsay predicted "complications" in their relationship and teased that Cal "may develop a soft spot" for Alicia. He ran a poll asking readers for their opinion on who the character should date: 91% of people who answered said Ethan, while the other 9% opined Cal as the ideal partner for Alicia. A show trailer confirmed a love triangle between the characters.
When Ethan failed to ask Alicia out, she began a relationship with Cal. Halfpenny explained that Alicia "looked to Cal for comfort and thought of him as a kindred spirit", despite knowing she should be with Ethan. She believed that Alicia "made the wrong choice at a time when she was feeling vulnerable." After a date ended because of his feelings for Alicia, Ethan confessed his feelings for her. They had sex, which she "really [tries] to forget about it". Alicia chose to end her relationship with Cal and commit to Ethan, however, she had second thoughts and decided not to damage the brothers' relationship. Halfpenny believed that Alicia chose to stay with Cal because it was "the easiest option for herself" as she has developed feelings for Cal as well. Producers plotted a twist where Cal discovers someone else's cuff-link on her bedroom floor, taking the decision out of her hands. Halfpenny said that Alicia was shocked by Cal's discovery because she was not "expecting to get caught" and he "catches her off guard".
Halfpenny believed that Alicia knew Ethan was the best partner for her because of the character's home life and previous relationships, but opined that Alicia should "go with her heart" and not "the easy option." The three co-stars got along well with each other and had "a real laugh together" on set. They often find it "really hard" to not corpse. Hossington explained that Alicia's distrust in men first occurred as she met Ethan, "the most perfect man she could ever meet". She added that the "emotional turmoil" she is experiencing, as a result of her parents' separation, has left her "stuck" between two "incredibly close" brothers. In January 2017, Halfpenny revealed that the storyline had not been resolved in scenes the show was currently filming, which was five months ahead of transmission and quipped that "Nothing’s ever simple in Holby!" Hossington said the story would "carry on running" into spring 2017.
Cal kept the cufflink and did not tell Alicia about his discovery. He continued to suspect Alicia of having an affair, which she was unaware of. Halfpenny explained that because Cal is "not usually that kind of person", Alicia does not suspect anything. Writers featured scenes of Cal's paranoia instead of scenes featuring the couple together and Halfpenny noted that Cal is not often seen in this respect so it is "fun to watch him squirm on screen for once". Cal finds Alicia's second phone in her locker and believes she "is having a separate life with someone else." Halfpenny said that "Cal’s fears are confirmed in that moment" and he lashes out. She added that Ethan is the "last person" who Cal would suspect and he would be "wounded", "completely surprised and massively hurt" by the news.
When Cal eventually discovers the truth, he kisses another woman. Ethan later requests Cal's permission to date Alicia, which he grants. While they are on their date, Cal is murdered, leaving Ethan and Alicia devastated. Rainsford commented, "It's typical that after a year of ups and downs and procrastinating, they got together on the day that Cal is murdered". In the aftermath of his death, Alicia and Ethan grow close and she comforts him. Rainsford explained that despite Ethan needing Alicia's support, it will be "difficult" for them. Ethan struggles with Cal's death and seeks revenge for his murder, adding strain to his relationship with Alicia. Halfpenny explained that while Alicia has feelings for Ethan, his revenge meant their relationship faltered. She hoped that the couple would reunite, but realised that the timing was not ideal. Rainsford confirmed that Alicia and Ethan's relationship has been "parked for now". In a September 2017 interview with Dainty ("Digital Spy"), producer Lucy Raffety called Alicia and Ethan "the lovely, glowy heart of the show" and expressed hope that the couple would reunite. She stated that within their relationship, they have a close friendship, which would be revisited and challenged. Rainsford reiterated this and confirmed that there was "discussions" to reunite the couple.
Volunteering and career progression.
The serial announced plans to begin their thirty-second series with a two-part special set in Northern France on 30 July 2017. The special, which was filmed in Fishguard and Cardiff, follows Alicia, Louise Tyler (Aforka), Dylan Keogh (William Beck) and David Hide (Jason Durr) as they travel to France to offer their medical services at a refugee camp. After discovering that Cal had an interest in the project, Alicia and Louise decide to volunteer at the refugee camp as a legacy to him. On the journey to the camp, Alicia witnesses refugees attempting to flee their country and seriously injuring themselves in the process. Halfpenny explained that since the hospital environment is still "nerve-wracking" for Alicia, she is left "in pure shock" by the events in France. She added that when Alicia arrives, she goes "straight into doctor mode" and tries to commit to the job. The actress said the events portrayed in the episode are based on real-life situations which producers observed as research for the special.
While in France, Alicia meets "young and good-looking" volunteer doctor Cameron Hamilton (Cian Barry), who has volunteered at the camp for a while. Alicia finds Cameron attractive and uses him as "light relief" for the situation surrounding her. Halfpenny explained that Alicia becomes "distracted" by Cameron and attempts to impress him, which does not happen. Halfpenny liked the special as she felt it build awareness on the issues tackled. She also enjoyed working away from the show's studio and likened it to filming a small film. Following her experience volunteering at the refugee camp, Alicia "develops more of a backbone" and decides to focus on her career. Halfpenny found Alicia's decision "really exciting" because she enjoys the challenge associated with the medical scenes. Alicia also decides to stop drinking and to not have any relationships so she can focus on her career. Halfpenny explained that since focusing on her career, Alicia has taken her job "more seriously" and as a result, she has been promoted to a specialty registrar and passed her exams. While she liked Alicia's promotion, Halfpenny also found it challenging to portray the medic who may often lead Resus. F1 doctors Rash Masum (Neet Mohan) and Bea Kinsella (Michelle Fox) join the drama in series 32. Alicia begins mentoring Rash and Bea; Halfpenny found it surreal that Alicia was mentoring two junior doctors as she was being mentored by Lily only recently. Raffety confirmed that Alicia and Bea would develop a friendship. Halfpenny found Alicia and Bea's friendship enjoyable to film.
Anonymous blog.
On Bea's first day in the ED, the department faces a crisis, which Alicia and other staff struggle to control. Alicia is assigned to be Bea's mentor. Reilly ("What's on TV") revealed that Alicia would face the consequences of Bea's actions after her behaviour becomes unacceptable. During the day, Alicia treats Kam Kainth (Gary Wood) in an ambulance due to a lack of space in the ED. Not being treated in the ED results in Kam being admitted to the Intensive Treatment Unit. On Alicia's feelings towards this, Halfpenny said, "That was the straw that broke the camel's back because Alicia knew it was avoidable." She told Sarah Ellis of "Inside Soap" that she liked that "Casualty" could display what happens in British hospitals. When Halfpenny read the episode's script, she noticed something different about it in comparison to other episodes. She found this was more prominent when filming the episode. For the ED to appear busier, Fiona Walton, the episode's director, included more background artists in the scene. Halfpenny felt that the set was smaller with additional people on-set, but found the experience "fun" and commented, "It keeps you on your toes!" Walton wanted to accurately portray the NHS, which Halfpenny thought was "really important".
Disillusioned with the NHS, Alicia creates an anonymous blog called "Rage in Resus", which outlines the struggles that the emergency department are facing. Halfpenny explained that Alicia finds the blog "important" and believes it is about more than the ED; it is about the NHS. The blog receives a lot of attention from hospital staff and the public, while also upsetting some people. Halfpenny stated that this was never Alicia's goal when she created the blog. As the acting clinical lead of the ED, Ethan is pressurised from his superiors to find out the bloggers' identity. The pressure becomes too much for Ethan and he confides in Alicia about the situation, making Alicia feel guilty about her role in the situation. While comforting him, Alicia and Ethan kiss. Halfpenny said that Alicia believes that Ethan will never know that she is the creator of the blog. The actress hoped that fans of the couple would be pleased by their reconciliation, although she admitted that the weather was cold and windy when they filmed the scenes, which she disliked. After Alicia and Ethan have sex, she hopes that he will share details about the management of the ED with her. Alicia is "fuming" when Ethan warns her that at work, he is her boss and she is under his instruction.
When Jac Naylor (Rosie Marcel) warns Ethan to find the owner of the blog, Alicia begins to struggle with the pressure of maintaining her secret. Ethan reaches "the end of his teather" while trying to find the blog owner and accuses Alicia of being responsible. Halfpenny explained that Alicia did not think that Ethan would accuse her due to their close relationship. She stated that Alicia becomes "more and more panicked" by the popularity of the blog, although she believes that the blog is directed at the ED and its leadership rather than Ethan himself. Alicia denies being responsible for the blog; on Alicia's decision to confess, Halfpenny commented, "It's not the right time for her to confess, because she's doing this blog to make a difference — she's doing it to help people." She also felt that Ethan would be upset when he discovered that Alicia had lied to him. Junior doctor Rash Masum (Neet Mohan) becomes prepared to take the blame for the blog, which makes Alicia question her behaviour. The anonymous blog storyline also helps to progress Ethan and Alicia's relationship, although Halfpenny observed that "something always gets in the way" of their relationship. The actress thought that the audience would not like the couple together after the storyline.
Rape.
The show's spring trailer, released on 16 March 2018, features Alicia looking upset and burning her clothes and collapsing. Dainty ("Digital Spy") confirmed that Alicia would be involved in a new storyline and thought that she could face "a harrowing ordeal". She questioned whether Alicia would be attacked, become ill or become pregnant, and wondered whether new F1 doctor Eddie McAllister (Joe Gaminara) would be involved in the storyline. On 9 May 2018, it was announced that Alicia's new storyline would see her raped by Eddie. The storyline begins in May and continues for six weeks as Alicia struggles with the attack and its aftermath. Alicia experiences flashbacks of a night of drinking with her colleagues, which help her realise that Eddie has raped her. The storyline had previously been teased by producer Lucy Raffety in an interview with "Digital Spy". She dubbed the story "a huge, topical story that could divide the nation". She revealed that the storyline had divided the opinions of the cast and crew and said that the story is contentious and would be "very different in feel". Rafferty confirmed that Alicia's rape would culminate in the series 32 finale, which would be written by Barbara Machin.
Producers spoke with Rape Crisis England and Wales about the storyline and sought their guidance before developing the scripts for the episodes. Halfpenny felt "a distinct sense of responsibility" to portray the storyline accurately and thought it was crucial to use "Casualty" to highlight the issue. She concluded that the drama had portrayed the plot "authentically and respectively" and hoped that it helped some people. Katie Russell, a spokesperson for Rape Crisis, said that "Casualty" is trying to highlight important societal issues and avoiding the stigma that rape is a taboo subject. She explained that Alicia's storyline explores the issue of consent "responsibly and carefully" and hoped that it could raise awareness for the issue. Simon Harper, the show's executive producer, thought it was important to portray a "tough, contemporary" storyline. He praised the show's work on the story and commended Halfpenny for her "stunning, heart breaking performance". He also thanked Rape Crisis for their assistance with the plot.
Departure.
Alicia departed during the thirty-third series on 19 January 2019. Connie informs Alicia that she has been put forward for a paediatric job away from Holby. Halfpenny described the offer as "an amazing opportunity" for Alicia. After accepting the job, Alicia then receives a marriage proposal from Ethan, which leads her to question whether she wants to stay for "the comfort of Ethan and doing the job she knows and loves". Halfpenny explained that she told the show's producer Lucy Raffety about her decision to leave "Casualty" as she was due to film Alicia's rape storyline. They decided that Alicia would not leave straight after that story had concluded, as they did not want it to look like she was running away. Instead, viewers saw Alicia becoming happy again and returning to her old self. Halfpenny said filming her last episode was very emotional and she had to stop filming at one point as it was "too traumatic."
Reception.
For her portrayal of Alicia, Halfpenny won the Best Drama Star accolade at the 2018 "Inside Soap" Awards. At the same ceremony, Alicia's rape plot received a nomination for Best Drama Storyline. Later that year, Halfpenny was nominated for Best Soap Actor (Female) at the "Digital Spy" Reader Awards; she came in ninth place with 4% of the total vote. The rape storyline was also nominated in the Best Soap Storyline category; it came in tenth place with 3.9% of the total vote.
Alison Graham ("Radio Times") labelled Alicia as "a dip-dyed flopsy" and "a cheerful Geordie with an almost supernatural ability to discover the secrets of others, just by looking at them." Her colleague, David Brown, described Alicia as "very upbeat and enthusiastic". Daniel Kilkelly of Digital Spy observed that Alicia's original stint had "a great response". Producer Hossington said that she "loved" the character. While reviewing Alicia's first episode, a contributor to "The Sunday People" stated that she "shows an admirable bedside manner".
Elaine Reilly ("What's on TV") said that Alicia arrived "in a puff of pink hair and optimism". Reilly opined that the workplace bullying storyline made Alicia and Lily "sympathetic characters". Ellis ("Inside Soap") described the storyline as "brutal". TV3 described Alicia's departure as "emotional". Graham said the episode was "charged, tragic and rather good", adding that Halfpenny's voiceover was "unnerving". A reporter from the "Liverpool Echo" included Alicia's departure in a television highlights of the week feature. They said that in the workplace bullying storyline, Alicia was in a position where she has "a boss [she] simply can't please, no matter how hard [she tries]".
A reporter from "Inside Soap" noted that it was obvious that Ethan and Alicia were "secretly carrying a torch for one another". Halfpenny received many tweets from fans of the show, telling her "to stop messing them [Ethan and Cal] both around". She added that fans backed the coupling of Alicia and Ethan and were "so relieved when they finally kissed". She later said that she receives tweets telling her "she's ruining the brothers’ relationship" and said that fans were "worried" since they enjoy Ethan and Cal's pairing. In March 2018, Halfpenny told Ellis of "Inside Soap" that fans of the show liked the pairing of Alicia and Ethan, which she thought was because they enjoyed seeing the relationship "blossom" from a friendship. On the anonymous blog storyline, Ellis observed, "Tongues have been wagging in Holby City ED over the past few weeks, as everyone tries to work out who's behind the explosive Rage in Resus blog that's been publicly blasting the department." Employees of the NHS liked the storyline as they felt they could relate with it, while Halfpenny was told it "realistically" reflected the conditions of the NHS. Reilly of "What's on TV" described the anonymous blog plot as "explosive" and said that "Casualty" developed "a realistic atmosphere on set".


Society of General Internal Medicine

The Society of General Internal Medicine (SGIM) is an American professional society composed of physicians engaged in internal medicine research and teaching. It was originally named "The Society for Research and Education in Primary Care Internal Medicine" (SREPCIM), at its inaugural meeting in 1978. Startup funding was provided by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation awarded to the American College of Physicians. In 1988, it was renamed. SGIM publishes the "Journal of General Internal Medicine". By 2012, SGIM had over 3400 members.


Minerva Foundation

The Minerva Foundation is a US-based non-profit, scientific and charitable foundation. It is headquartered in Berkeley, California. It was established in 1983 by Helen and Elwin Marg. Other than the founders, directors include Richard M. Buxbaum, Lawrence W. Stark, Semir Zeki, Tamia Marg Anderson, Lila S. Crutchfield, and Vero Bollow.
The foundation was named after Minerva, the Roman goddess of, among other things, wisdom and medicine.
Focus.
Minerva Foundation is a not-for-profit, charitable foundation, dedicated to promoting novel approaches to the study of the visual brain. Since its inception in 1983, the foundation has honored exceptional scientists with its Golden Brain award and brought leading research to the general public through its series of conferences and other forums on creativity, perception, and brain science.
Minerva House.
Minerva Foundation maintains a large Victorian building originally built for Charles C. Boudrow (c. 1830–1918), a Massachusetts-born master mariner, in downtown Berkeley near the University of California at Berkeley campus. The house was designated a "City of Berkeley Landmark" on 21 June 1976. It was bought by Frank Leba and Kelly Brown in 1994, who restored and renovated the entire building. They even received a "BAHA Preservation Award" in 2006. The Minerva foundation finally acquired it in 2008.


North Central Cancer Treatment Group

The North Central Cancer Treatment Group (NCCTG) is an international clinical research group sponsored by the National Cancer Institute. The NCCTG consists of a network of cancer specialists at community clinics, hospitals and medical centers in the United States, Canada and Mexico. The research base for NCCTG is located at Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota.


Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire

Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire (16 December 1805 – 10 November 1861) was a French zoologist and an authority on deviation from normal structure. In 1854 he coined the term "éthologie" (ethology).
Biography.
He was born in Paris, the son of Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. In his earlier years he showed an aptitude for mathematics, but eventually he devoted himself to the study of natural history and of medicine, and in 1824 he was appointed assistant naturalist to his father. In 1829 he delivered for his father the second part of a course of lectures on ornithology, and during the following three years he taught zoology at the "Athénée", and teratology at the "École pratique".
He was elected a member of the French Academy of Sciences in 1833, was in 1837 appointed to act as deputy for his father at the faculty of sciences in Paris. During the following year he was sent to Bordeaux to organize a similar faculty there. He became successively; inspector of the academy of Paris (1840), professor of the museum on the retirement of his father (1841), inspector-general of the university (1844), a member of the royal council for public instruction (1845), and on the death of Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville, professor of zoology at the Faculty of Sciences (1850). In 1854 he founded the "Société zoologique d'acclimatation" (Zoological Acclimatization Society), of which he also served as president.
He conducted investigations of omphalosites, celosomia, hermaphroditism, etc., and is credited with introducing the term "teratologie". From 1832 to 1837 he published his great teratological work, "Histoire générale et particulière des anomalies de l’organisation chez l’homme et les animaux".
Legacy.
Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire is commemorated in the scientific name of a species of turtle, "Phrynops hilarii".
Selected works.
Besides the above-mentioned work, he wrote:
He was also the author of various papers on zoology, comparative anatomy and palaeontology.


Pseudodiploid

Pseudodiploid or pseudoploid refers to one of the essential components in viral reproduction. It means having two RNA genomes per virion but giving rise to only one DNA copy in infected cells.
The term is also used to refer to cells that are diploid, but have chromosomal translocations.
Overview.
Retrovirions for example are considered pseudoploid – they have two genomes within each capsid, but in general only one provirus is seen after infection with a single virion.
Retrovirus particles contain two copies of the RNA genome held together by multiple regions of base pairing (strongest pairing at 5’ ends) which is also called 70S complex (dimer of 35S genomes). This gives viruses evolutionary advantages such as the ability to survive extensive damage to their genomes, as at least parts of both genomes are used during the reverse transcription process. It also explains the high rates of genetic recombination in retroviruses. The retroviral genome is coated by a viral nucleocapsid protein that may function like a single stranded binding protein and therefore enhances processivity and facilitates template exchanges. The nucleocapsid first organizes RNA genomes within the virion and then facilitates reverse transcription within the infected cell.


Fred D. Lublin

Fred D. Lublin is an American neurologist and an authority on the treatment of multiple sclerosis. Along with colleagues at the National Multiple Sclerosis Society, his work redefined the clinical course definitions of MS.
Lublin is Director of the Corinne Goldsmith Dickinson Center for Multiple Sclerosis at Mount Sinai Medical Center in New York and Saunders Family Professor of Neurology at Mount Sinai School of Medicine. He sits on the board of directors at both the National Multiple Sclerosis Society and MS Hope for a Cure and has been listed in "Who's Who in Frontiers of Science and Technology" and New York Magazine's "Best Doctors" issue every year since 2000.
According to his employer, in 2004, Lublin secured one of the largest grants ever given for MS research, a $25 million grant from the NIH, to study the benefits of combination drug therapy. He is a consultant to the National Institutes of Health and to pharmaceutical/biotech companies in all phases of drug development in preparation for presentation to the FDA and their advisory panels.
He is the author of numerous scientific publications including "Defining the Clinical Course of Multiple Sclerosis: Results of an International Survey" (Neurology 46:907-911, 1996 ), one of the most frequently cited works in the field of multiple sclerosis.
Biography.
Lublin was born in 1946 in Philadelphia, Pa. He graduated from Temple University in 1968 and Jefferson Medical College in 1972. He completed his internship in internal medicine at the Bronx Municipal Hospital, Albert Einstein Medical Center and his residency at the New York Hospital, Cornell Medical Center.
He joined the staff at Mount Sinai Medical Center in April 2000.
Lublin was among the first in the United States to study Interferon β-1b and its ability to treat the relapsing-remitting form of multiple sclerosis; in 1993, IFN β-1b was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for that very purpose.
He is the author of nineteen chapters, 136 publications and one text, and is a member of dozens of medical societies including: the National Multiple Sclerosis Society; the MSSM General Clinical Research Center Advisory Committee; and the Executive Committee of the International Medical & Scientific Board of the Multiple Sclerosis International Federation.
Grants.
"Partial list:"
Publications.
"Partial list:"


Medical Marijuana Assistance Program of America

The Medical Marijuana Assistance Program of America (MMAPA) was founded in 2009 in Denver, Colorado, and worked to raise awareness and remove the negative social stigma associated with a patient's choice in medicine, namely medical marijuana. MMAPA is the nation's first alternative treatment preferred provider organization (AT-PPO) whose mission is to make alternative treatment accessible and affordable for disabled veterans, hospice patients, and the indigent.
In early 2010, the MMAPA acquired and refurbished a 1968 Airstream Overlander International and launched Mobile Doctors of America to ensure patients had access to affordable physicians willing to recommend patients medical marijuana throughout Colorado. In February 2010, CNN toured with the staff of MMAPA and MDARX to document this first of its kind, controversial service in Salida, Colorado. Later that year, MDARX was covered by "Saturday Night Live"'s "In the News" segment hosted by Seth Meyers.
As of April 30, 2012, the MMAPA has shut down, and is no longer providing benefits or services to its members.


John G. Gunderson

John Gunder Gunderson (June 20, 1942 – January 11, 2019) was a professor of psychiatry at Harvard University and a director at the Borderline center at McLean Hospital.
Education, residencies and fellowships.
Born in Two Rivers, Wisconsin, Gunderson graduated from Johns Hopkins College in 1963, received his MBS from Dartmouth Medical School in 1965 and his MD from Harvard Medical School in 1967. Between 1967 and 1971, he was an Intern in Medicine at Hennepin County General Hospital, Resident in Psychiatry at Massachusetts Mental Health Center, and Chief Resident in Psychiatry at Massachusetts Mental Health Center. Between 1971 and 1973, he was a Visiting Candidate at Washington Psychoanalytic Institute, Research Fellow at the Center for Studies of Schizophrenia, Psychiatric Assessment Section of the National Institute of Mental Health, and at the Chestnut Lodge Sanitarium. He was a Resident at Boston Psychoanalytic Institute between 1969 and 1980.
Career.
Gunderson led extensive studies of borderline personality disorder. He published nearly 250 papers, 100 reviews and 12 books regarding borderline and other personality disorders. According to Massachusetts General Hospital, his success led to him being called the "father" of borderline personality disorder. He led the academic group that described personality disorders in the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). Most recently, he developed a treatment model for borderline personality disorder called Good Psychiatric Management (GPM), intended to guide generalist mental health providers in treating the disorder. In 2009, McLean Hospital named a treatment center in Cambridge, Massachusetts after him, called the “Gunderson Residence”. He died on January 11, 2019 at the age of 76 from prostate cancer in Weston, Massachusetts.
Gunderson, in the latter part of his career, developed a treatment model called 'Good Psychiatric Management'. This involves research which shows that less intensive, easier-to-learn therapies could be nearly as effective as more developed approaches (DBT and MBT), and would cater for continuing unmet needs often seen in the clinical setting.
Personal life.
Gunderson was an accomplished artist, with many of his paintings adorning the walls of the Gunderson Residence and offices in the McLean Hospital. He was an avid golfer, gardener, fly fisherman, and played basketball into his 70s.


Paresh Dandona

Paresh Dandona is an American physician, currently a SUNY Distinguished Professor at University of Buffalo.


Edward Gilbert Abbott

Edward Gilbert Abbott (1825–1855) was the patient upon whom William T. G. Morton first publicly demonstrated the use of ether as a surgical anesthetic. The operation was done in an amphitheater at the Massachusetts General Hospital now known as the Ether Dome on 16 October 1846. After Morton administered the ether, surgeon John Collins Warren removed a portion of a tumor from Abbott's neck. After Warren had finished, and Abbott regained consciousness, Warren asked the patient how he felt. Reportedly, Abbott said, "Feels as if my neck's been scratched." Warren then turned to his medical audience and uttered "Gentlemen, this is no Humbug." This was presumably a reference to the unsuccessful demonstration of nitrous oxide anesthesia by Horace Wells in the same theater the previous year, which was ended by cries of "Humbug!" after the patient groaned with pain.


Centro Caribe Sports

Centro Caribe Sports ("formerly Central American and Caribbean Sports Organization (CACSO)") is a regional sports federation which oversees the Central American and Caribbean Games. It is also known by its Spanish acronym "ODECABE" and/or its name in Spanish: "Organización Deportiva Centroamericana y del Caribe".
Its member countries come from nations in Central America and the Caribbean region. It is affiliated to PASO, the Pan American Sports Organization.


Eileen Shore

Eileen M. Shore is an American medical researcher and geneticist specializing in research of muscoskeletal disorders such as fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva.
Education.
Shore received her bachelor's degree in biology from the University of Notre Dame in 1976. She then earned a Master of Arts in biology at Indiana University in 1978. Subsequently, she received her PhD from the University of Pennsylvania in cell and molecular biology in 1987.
FOP research.
Shore undertakes research into fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva (FOP), a genetic disease that causes bone tissue to form outside the skeleton, known as heterotopic ossification.
In 1992, Shore and Frederick Kaplan initiated the FOP Research Laboratory.
Kaplan hired Shore because of her experience as a geneticist—she researched fruit fly larvae as a graduate student and studied mammalian embryology as a postdoctoral researcher.
In 2006, Shore and Kaplan published their findings on the genetic mutation that causes FOP as a paper entitled "A recurrent mutation in the BMP type I receptor ACVR1 causes inherited and sporadic fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva". The cause of the disease was traced to a single mutation in the activin A receptor, type I gene.
Once the cause of the disease was identified, Shore became involved in efforts to control the disease and its symptoms. In 2016, she was coauthor on a paper that explored the efficacy of a drug on mice with the same genetic mutation. The authors concluded that the drug palovarotene showed promise in preventing heterotopic ossification, stating that there was "clear evidence for its encompassing therapeutic potential".
As of 2015, Kaplan and Shore were the directors of the Center for Research in FOP and Related Disorders. They are considered the "world's foremost experts on FOP".
Awards and honors.
Shore has been the recipient of several awards, including:


Kenneth Prager

Kenneth Prager (born January 3, 1943) is an American physician. He is Professor of Medicine, Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine, Director of Clinical Ethics and Chairman of the Medical Ethics Committee at Columbia University Medical Center.
Prager is a 1964 graduate of Columbia College and a 1968 graduate of Harvard Medical School.
He spent two years in the Indian health Service practicing general medicine on the Cheyenne River Sioux Indian Reservation in South Dakota after his medical internship. Dr. Prager held clandestine medical clinics in the Soviet Union during a visit to Refuseniks in 1986, and later set up the first U.S. - Soviet medical student exchange program between Columbia's medical school and the First Moscow Medical Academy.
Prager is the brother of radio commentator Dennis Prager and the father of former "Wall Street Journal" reporter Joshua Prager.
Prager has occasionally written newspaper op-eds on medical ethics.
Outside sources.
NYP Page


Shimon Glick

Shimon M. Glick (; born 1932) is an American-born Israeli physician.
Personal life.
Glick was born in New Jersey. Married to Brenda, his six children include the rabbi and member of Knesset Yehuda Glick.
Career.
Glick is a graduate of SUNY Downstate Medical Center.


Carl Toldt

Carl Toldt (May 3, 1840 – November 13, 1920) was an Austrian anatomist who was a native of Bruneck, Tyrol.
In 1864 he earned his medical doctorate in Vienna, and was later a professor of anatomy in Prague and Vienna. He was the author of the popular "Anatomischer Atlas für Studirende und Ärzte" ("An atlas of human anatomy for students and physicians"), a work that was later translated into English.
His name is lent to the following four anatomical eponyms:
In 1932 "Karl-Toldt-Weg" in Vienna's District 14 (Penzing) was named in his honor.


Alfred Gordon

Alfred Gordon (1874, Paris – 1953) was a French-born American neurologist remembered for describing Gordon's sign. He studied medicine at the University of Paris, qualifying in 1895. He worked in Paris, Bern and Munich, and emigrated to the United States in 1899. He lived in Philadelphia and was an instructor of neuropathology at the Jefferson Medical College. His best-known work was "On the Study of Reflexes".


Leighton Chan

Leighton Chan is an American medical researcher and rehabilitation physician. He is Chief of the Rehabilitation Medicine Department at the National Institutes of Health Clinical Center.
Career.
Chan received his B.A. degree from Dartmouth College, in Hanover, New Hampshire, with a major in political science. He graduated from the UCLA School of Medicine in 1990. He then completed postgraduate training in Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation at the University of Washington. During his training, he also obtained a Master of Science degree in Rehabilitation Science. Subsequently, he completed a Robert Wood Johnson Clinical Scholar Fellowship, earned a Master of Public Health degree in Health Services at the University of Washington School of Public Health, and was a Congressional Fellow for Jim McDermott (Washington).
From 1994 to 2006, Chan was on the faculty of the Department of Rehabilitation Medicine of the University of Washington (UW). At the UW, he was Medical Director of UWMC's outpatient program, including clinics in Back Pain, EMG and Pulmonary Rehabilitation. He also spent several years as a consultant to a UWMC Sub-Acute Rehabilitation facility. Chan was also deeply involved in training as a member of the UW Residency Training and Admissions Committees, and as the Chair of the Annual UW PM&R Review Course.
He is board certified in physical medicine and rehabilitation and in electrodiagnostic medicine. His research interests include health services research, quality of care given to Medicare beneficiaries, and Medicare payment policy issues. His research has received financial support in excess of $45 million. He has published more than 125 peer reviewed articles, including 10 in "The New England Journal of Medicine", "JAMA", and "The Lancet".
Awards.
Chan’s awards include the Young Academician Award from the Association of Academic Physiatrists, two outstanding teacher awards from the University of Washington School of Medicine, and a Presidential Citation Award for excellence in research by the American Academy of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. In 2007, he was one of the youngest individuals elected to the National Academy of Medicine.
He has also received three NIH Director’s Awards and one NIH Clinical Center Director's Award for his work in Bethesda.


American Medical Association

The American Medical Association (AMA), founded in 1847 and incorporated in 1897, is the largest association and lobby group of physicians—both MDs and DOs—and medical students in the United States.
The AMA's stated mission is "to promote the art and science of medicine and the betterment of public health." The Association also publishes the "Journal of the American Medical Association" (JAMA). The AMA also publishes a list of Physician Specialty Codes which are the standard method in the U.S. for identifying physician and practice specialties.
The American Medical Association is governed by a House of Delegates as well as a board of trustees in addition to executive management. The organization maintains the AMA Code of Medical Ethics that is the guide to ethical practice of medicine and the AMA Physician Masterfile containing data on United States Physicians. The "Current Procedural Terminology" coding system was first published in 1966 and is maintained by the Association. It has also published works such as the "Guides to Evaluation of Permanent Impairment" and established the American Medical Association Foundation and the American Medical Political Action Committee.
Susan R. Bailey, M.D., an allergist and immunologist from Fort Worth, Texas, was sworn in as President in June 2020. The AMA has now, for the first time in its history, had three consecutive female physicians as president. At a Special Meeting of the House of Delegates in 2020, Gerald E. Harmon, M.D. was voted as president-elect, to be inaugurated in 2021.
Russ Kridel, MD, a facial plastic and reconstructive surgeon, currently serves as Chair of the AMA Board of Trustees.
History.
1847–1900.
In 1846, the organization created a committee dedicated to analyzing the methodology of vital records registration. It urged state governments to adopt measures to register births, marriages and deaths within their populations.
In 1847, the American Medical Association was founded in Philadelphia by Nathan Smith Davis as a national professional medical organization. The organization was established not only to advance scientific research and improve medical education standards but to improve public health. The AMA established the world's first national code for ethical medical practice, the AMA Code of Medical Ethics.
The organization educated people about the dangers of patent medicines and called for legislation regulating their production and sale. One resulting legislation was the Drug Importation Act of 1848.
In 1848, the AMA began publishing "Transactions of the American Medical Association", which included lists and reports of cases of physiological effects of ether and chloroform at the Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, the New York Hospital and the clinics of the University of Pennsylvania and Jefferson Medical College.
At the organization's second meeting in 1849, Thomas Wood suggested a committee on medical science to establish a board to analyze quack remedies and nostrums to be published in order to inform the public about the dangers of such remedies. The AMA's attempts to expose quack remedies aided the passage of the first Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906.
The AMA Committee on Ethics advocated for recognition of qualified female physicians in 1869, and the AMA inducted its first female member, Sarah Hackett Stevenson, as an Illinois State Medical Society delegate in 1876.
The "Journal of the American Medical Association" was launched in 1883. The organization's founder, Nathan Smith Davis, served as the first editor of the publication.
In 1897, the AMA was incorporated in the state of Illinois.
AMA pushed for laws requiring compulsory smallpox vaccinations in 1899.
In 1899, the AMA appointed a committee to report on tuberculosis, including on its communicability and prevention. The Committee on Tuberculosis presented its report in October 1900.
1901–1920.
In 1901, the AMA was reorganized with its central authority shifted to a House of Delegates, a board of trustees, and executive offices. The House of Delegates was modeled after the United States House of Representatives and included representatives from medical organizations across the United States as a formal, reform-minded legislative body. The organization's new President appointed a Committee on Medical Education in order to evaluate medical education in the United States and make recommendations for its improvement.
The AMA's Committee on National Legislation established the Committee on Medical Legislation in 1901.
AMA created the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry in 1905 to set standards for drug manufacturing and advertising. That same year, the AMA began a voluntary program of drug approval, which would remain in effect until 1955. Drug companies were required to show proof of the effectiveness of their drugs to advertise them in AMA's journal.
In 1906, the AMA established a Physician Masterfile designed to contain data on physicians in the United States as well as graduates of American medical schools and international graduates who are in the United States. Each file is established when an individual either enters medical schools or enters the United States.
The AMA established the Council for the Defense of Medical Research in 1908.
AMA's Council on Medical Education and Hospitals first published its annual list of hospitals approved for internships in 1914.
The AMA established a policy of opposition to compulsory health insurance by state or federal government in 1920.
1921–1960.
In May 1922, the Woman's Auxiliary to the AMA was organized. The following year, the AMA established standards for medical specialty training residency programs. The AMA later published its first list of hospitals approved for residency training in 1927.
In 1927, Congress passed the Caustic Poison Act, lobbied for by the AMA, which required product labels to include warnings if they included lye or 10 other caustic chemicals.
"The Normal Diet", a comprehensive listing of what Americans should be eating, was published by the AMA in 1938.
A formal partnership between the AMA and the Association of American Medical Colleges formed the Liaison Committee on Medical Education in 1942 in order to establish requirements for certification of medical schools. In 1951, the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Hospitals was created through merging the Hospital Standardization Program with quality standards from the American College of Physicians, the American Hospital Association, and the American Medical Association. The Commission, established for evaluation and accreditation of healthcare organizations in the United States, governed by a board of commissioners including physicians, consumers and administrators.
The AMA publicly endorsed the principle of fluoridation of community water supplies in 1951.
The Physicians Advisory Committee on Television, Radio and Motion Pictures was established by the AMA in 1955 in order to maintain medical accuracy in media.
The AMA's Committee on Alcoholism issued a statement in 1956 calling alcoholism an illness and encouraging medical personnel and institutions to admit and treat alcoholic patients.
1961–1980.
In 1961, the AMA opposed the King-Anderson bill proposing Medicare legislation and took out advertisements in newspapers, radio and television against government health insurance. The AMA established the American Medical Political Action Committee, which was separate from AMA though the Association nominated its board of directors. The AMA's efforts to defeat Medicare legislation was called Operation Coffee Cup and included secretive meetings in which the vinyl LP "Ronald Reagan Speaks Out Against Socialized Medicine" was played. The AMA created an "Eldercare" proposal rather than hospital insurance through Social Security.
The AMA first published the Current Procedural Terminology (CPT) coding system in 1966. The system was created for uniform reporting of outpatient physician services. The first manual was 163 pages and contained only four-digit codes with descriptions of each. A second edition of the book was published in 1970 with a fifth digit added.
In 1969, AMA proposed the Medicredit program. The program was created to be flexible so that all people had an option for health insurance.
The AMA published the first "Guides to the Evaluation of Permanent Impairment" in 1971. The guides were later republished in 1977 before the AMA Council on Scientific Affairs created 12 committees to review the guides before the second edition was published in 1984.
In the 1970s, the AMA spoke out against gender discrimination in medical institutions.
In 1972, the AMA launched a "war on smoking" and supported legislation that would prohibit tobacco sample disbursement.
The following year, in 1973, the AMA urged physicians to combat hypertension through a national program.
In 1975, the AMA adopted a policy stating that "discrimination based on sexual orientation is improper and unacceptable by any part of the federation of medicine." It adopted a resolution to repeal all state sodomy laws.
In 1976, the AMA began encouraging all public facilities to have handicap access.
1981–2000.
The AMA released a survey in 1981 that found two short-term effects of dioxin on humans and recommended further studies. By 1983, the AMA accused the news media of conducting a "witch hunt" against the toxic chemical and launched a public information campaign to counter media hysteria.
In the early 1980s, the AMA advocated for raising the national legal drinking age to 21.
The Supreme Court of the United States upheld Federal Trade Commission order that allowed doctors and dentists to advertise without professional associations interfering in 1982. The order restrained the AMA from obstructing agreements between physicians and health maintenance organizations.
In May 1983, the "Journal of the American Medical Association" published a report that reviewed cases of childhood AIDS.
The AMA called for a ban on advertising and promotion of all tobacco products in any form of media. The AMA also proposed declaring snuff and chewing tobacco a health hazard, increasing the tax on cigarettes, prohibiting smoking on public transportation and urged medical facilities to ban smoking on their premises.
A Federal district judge ruled that the AMA had violated the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1987 by depriving chiropractors of access to the Association. The lawsuit, filed by four chiropractors, accused AMA of conspiring to prevent chiropractors from practicing in the United States.
In 1990, AMA published "Health Access America", which proposed improved access to affordable health care for citizens without healthcare insurance.
The Journal of the American Medical Association first documented that Joe Camel cartoons reached more children than adults in December 1991. The Association called for the R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company to stop using the Joe Camel character in its advertising because of its appeal to youth.
In 1995, Lonnie R. Bristow became the first African-American president of the American Medical Association. Before he became president, Bristow was the first African-American member of the Board of Trustees and first African-American chairman of the Board.
The AMA campaigned against health plan "gag clauses" in 1996, stating that the stipulations inhibit the communication of information and restrict the care doctors can give their patients. The clauses were removed from 5 leading providers, and laws prohibiting such clauses were passed in 16 states.
In 1997, the AMA established the National Patient Safety Foundation as an independent, nonprofit research and education organization focused on patient safety.
Nancy W. Dickey was named president of the American Medical Association in June 1998. She was the first woman to head the organization and had been part of AMA's leadership since 1977.
2000–present.
In 2002, the American Medical Association released a report that found a medical liability insurance crisis in at least a dozen states was forcing physicians to either close practices or limit services. The association called for Congress to take action and campaigned for national reform.
The American Medical Association launched the "Voice for the Uninsured" campaign in 2007 to promote coverage for uninsured citizens.
In 2007, AMA called for state and federal agencies to investigate potential conflicts of interest between the retail clinics and pharmacy chains.
The American Medical Association issued a formal apology for previous policies that excluded African-Americans from the organization and announced increased efforts to increase minority physician participation in the AMA in 2008.
In 2009, the American Medical Association released a public letter to the United States Congress and President Barack Obama endorsing his proposed overhaul to the public health care system, including universal health coverage. The following year, it offered "qualified support" for the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.
The AMA officially recognized obesity as a disease in 2013 in an attempt to change how the medical community approaches the issue. In 2014, the Association created the AMA Opioid Task Force to evaluate prescription opioid use and abuse. The American Medical Association supported the Medicare Access and CHIP Reauthorization Act of 2015, which introduced Medicare reforms and replaced the SGR formula with increased Medicare physician reimbursement.
In 2015, the AMA declared there is no medically valid reason to exclude transgender individuals from serving in the U.S. military. The Human Rights Campaign lauded the decision.
The Association announced its opposition to replacing the federal health care law in March 2017, claiming millions of Americans would lose health care coverage.
Patrice A. Harris, MD, MA, a psychiatrist from Atlanta, became the AMA’s 174th president in June 2019, the organization's first African-American woman to hold this position.
Policy positions.
The AMA has one of the largest political lobbying budgets of any organization in the United States. Its political positions throughout its history have often been controversial. In the 1930s, the AMA attempted to prohibit its members from working for the health maintenance organizations established during the Great Depression, which violated the Sherman Antitrust Act and resulted in a conviction ultimately affirmed by the US Supreme Court. In the 1940s, the AMA opposed President Truman's proposed healthcare reforms, which would have expanded healthcare facilities in low-income and rural communities, bolstered public health services, increased investments in medical research and education, and provided a national health insurance plan to help relieve the burden of excessive healthcare bills from sick persons. The AMA condemned Truman's plan as "socialized medicine."
The American Medical Association's vehement campaign against Medicare in the 1950s and 1960s included Operation Coffee Cup, supported by Ronald Reagan. Since the enactment of Medicare, the AMA reversed its position and now opposes any "cut to Medicare funding or shift [of] increased costs to beneficiaries at the expense of the quality or accessibility of care". However, the AMA remains opposed to any single-payer health care plan, such as the United States National Health Care Act. In the 1990s, the organization was part of the coalition that defeated the health care reform advanced by Hillary and Bill Clinton.
The AMA has also supported changes in medical malpractice law to limit damage awards, which, it contends, makes it difficult for patients to find appropriate medical care. In many states, high risk specialists have moved to other states that have enacted reform. For example, in 2004, all neurosurgeons had relocated out of the entire southern half of Illinois. The main legislative emphasis in multiple states has been to effect caps on the amount that patients can receive for pain and suffering. These costs for pain and suffering are only those that exceed the actual costs of healthcare and lost income. At the same time however, states without caps also experienced similar results, suggesting that other market factors may have contributed to the decreases. Some economic studies have found that caps have historically had an uncertain effect on premium rates. Nevertheless, the AMA believes the caps may alleviate what is often perceived as an excessively litigious environment for many doctors. A recent report by the AMA found that, in a 12-month period, five percent of physicians had claims filed against them.
The AMA sponsors the Specialty Society Relative Value Scale Update Committee, which is an influential group of 29 physicians, mostly specialists, who help determine the value of different physicians' labor in Medicare prices.
Collections of the association's papers dating from the late 1860s to the late 1960s are held at the National Library of Medicine.
Criticism.
The American Medical Association is accused of acting like a cartel, deliberately keeping high the prices paid to physicians by purposefully limiting the licensing of physicians and the admittance into medical schools.
During the Civil Rights Movement, the American Medical Association's policy of allowing its constituent groups to be racially segregated in areas with widespread prejudice faced opposition from doctors as well as other healthcare professionals. Pressure from organizations such as the Medical Committee for Human Rights (MCHR) resulted in changed policies by the late 1960s.
Nobel Memorial Prize-winning economist Milton Friedman as well as his wife, Rose Friedman, have claimed that the organization acts as a guild and has attempted to increase physicians' wages and fees by influencing limitations on the supply of physicians and competition from non-physicians. In the book "Free to Choose", the Friedmans stated that "the AMA has engaged in extensive litigation charging chiropractors and osteopathic physicians with the unlicensed practice of medicine, in an attempt to restrict them to as narrow an area as possible." The AMA was also criticized for holding up licensing of foreign-trained medical professionals after Adolf Hitler came to power, who were fleeing to the U.S. from Nazi-controlled Germany and adjacent nations."Profession and Monopoly" also criticized the AMA for limiting the supply of physicians and inflating the cost of medical care in the U.S as well as its influence on hospital regulation. In a 1987 antitrust court case, a federal district judge called the AMA's behavior toward chiropractors "systematic, long-term wrongdoing". The AMA was accused of limiting the associations between physicians and chiropractors. In the 1960s and 1970s, the association's Committee on Quackery was said to have targeted the chiropractic profession, and for many years the AMA held that it was unethical for physicians to refer patients to chiropractors or to receive referrals from chiropractors.
Structure.
The AMA is composed of various internal groups that discuss policy twice a year. There is an annual meeting, always held in Chicago, and an Interim meeting held at different locations rotating by schedule. Within the AMA, there are sections that can make up the total AMA. These sections include Medical Students, Resident and Fellows, Academic physicians, Medical School Deans and Faculty, Physicians in group practice setting, Retired and Senior Physicians, International Medical graduates, Woman physicians, Physician Diversity and Minority health, GLBT, USAN, AMA board of Trustees, Foundation and Council. Externally to the AMA, there are organizations that come to these meetings by sending representatives. These representatives meet two a year in the House of Delegates at the Interim and/or annual meeting. Representatives come from medical societies that are either from a state, specialty or the federal services/government services. These organizations are called AMA member organizations.
Charitable activities.
The AMA Foundation provides approximately $1,000,000 annually in tuition assistance to financially needy students. This has to be seen against the background that, in 2007, graduating medical students carried a mean debt load of $140,000, which rose to $220,000 after four years of negative amortization during residency. Medical student debt has increased by 7% each successive year.


John Mitchell Bruce

John Mitchell Bruce (1846–1929) was a British physician, pathologist, and physiologist.
Biography.
After education at Aberdeen Grammar School, J. Mitchell Bruce matriculated at the University of Aberdeen, where he graduated MA in 1866. He studied medicine at the Middlesex Hospital, graduating MB (Lond.) in 1870. He undertook postgraduate study in pathology at Vienna and at London's Brown Animal Sanatory Institution under John Burdon-Sanderson and Edward Emanuel Klein. Bruce briefly held a junior appointment at Aberdeen Royal Infirmary before he was appointed in 1871 lecturer in physiology at Charing Cross Hospital. There he became in 1873 assistant physician, in 1882 full physician, and in 1904 consulting physician upon his retirement. He relinquished his physiological lectureship in 1877, taught materia medica from 1877 to 1890, and medicine from 1890 to 1901.
Bruce was dean of the Charing Cross Hospital Medical School from 1883 to 1890. He was physician to Royal Brompton Hospital for twenty years.
Bruce was married and had one son.


Sydney Copeman

Sydney Arthur Monckton Copeman K.St.J FRS FRCP (21 February 1862 – 11 April 1947) was a British medical doctor and senior medical officer in the Ministry of Health.
He was the eldest son of Rev Arthur Charles Copeman, Vicar of St Andrew's Norwich. He was educated at Norwich School and Corpus Christi College, Cambridge from which he graduated in 1882. He went on to undergo medical training at St Thomas' Hospital, London, qualifying in 1886. He obtained a post-graduate MD at Cambridge University in 1890.
In 1891 he became a medical inspector with the Local Government Board. In 1898, he was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh. When the Ministry of Health replaced the board in 1919, Copeman became a medical officer with the ministry, retiring in 1925. He was an authority on vaccination, and is credited with the development of glycerinated lymph. In 1898 he delivered the Milroy Lecture on "Vaccination – Its Natural History and Pathology", published as a book in the following year. and was elected a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians in 1899. In 1903 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1925 was awarded the Edward Jenner Medal of the Royal Society of Medicine.
Following his retirement from the Ministry of Health, Copeman entered local government. He was a member of Hampstead Borough Council, where he was chairman of the public health committee, and was elected to the London County Council as a Municipal Reform Party councillor representing Hampstead in 1934.
He died in Hove, Sussex, in April 1947, aged 85. Copeman's son W. S. C. Copeman became a prominent rheumatologist and medical historian. He had married Ethel Margaret Boord, daughter of Sir Thomas William Boord. They had one son and two daughters.


Vineeta Rastogi

Vineeta Rastogi (August 4, 1968, in Silver Spring, Maryland – December 6, 1995) was an American AIDS activist, public health worker and Peace Corps Volunteer in Democratic Republic of the Congo.
She attended University of Maryland, Harvard School of Public Health and had been accepted at Johns Hopkins School of Public Health for a Ph.D when she was diagnosed with cancer. When the disease was terminal she started the Vineeta Foundation to continue her life's work.
She was a delegate to Cairo's International Conference on Population and Development, Yokohama's International AIDS Conference and Asian-American Conference at White House. She was Co-Chair of the "Violence and Human Rights" Conference and a founding member of Young Indian-American Forum. She was an Albert Schweitzer Urban Fellow and Award-winner (for outstanding Public Health student).
Legacy.
Today the foundation that bears Rastogi's name is a major force in public health and human rights, both domestically and globally.


Gail Forrest Kentucky

Gail Forrest is an associate director of Human Performance and Engineering Research at Kessler Foundation and an associate professor in the Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation at Rudgers New Jersey Medical School.
Education.
Gail Forrest Kentucky got her Ph.D from Temple University in 2001.
Career.
As a postdoctoral fellow at Kessler Foundation Research Center in 2002, Gail Forrest received a grant funding by the New Jersey Commission on Spinal Cord Injury (SCI) Research to evaluate independent walking after incomplete spinal cord injury through body weight support treadmill training.
Gail Forrest received state and federal funded grants to research on neuroplasticity, improvement in secondary consequences and restoration of function for individuals after SCI. She has published extensively in the area of neuroplasticity and the use of exoskeleton on posture and walking after SCI.


Peter Furness

Peter Norman Furness (born 2 Sept 1955) is a British pathologist, professor of pathology at the University of Leicester, and president of the Royal College of Pathologists 2008–2011.


Hyderabad Chloroform Commission

The Hyderabad Chloroform Commission was commissioned in Hyderabad by the then ruler of Hyderabad State, Mir Mahbub Ali Khan. The first Chloroform Commission was gathered in the year 1888 to assess the toxicity of chloroform when used in humans to allow for painless operations. The second commission was formed in the year 1891. Thus making Hyderabad the first to use the chloroform in a medical field.
Famous Scottish surgeon, Dr Edward Lawrie, Residency Surgeon in Hyderabad, pioneered a technique that he claimed permitted safe and painless operations. The first commission formed at Dr. Lawrie's request to evaluate his technique. The commision's findings were published in The Lancet in 1890. In 1891, the book Report of the Hyderabad Chloroform Commission was published by the Nizam’s government.
In 1988, Osmania General Hospital celebrated the centenary of the Hyderabad Chloroform Commissions.


American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine

The American Congress of Rehabilitation Medicine (ACRM) is an organization of rehabilitation professionals dedicated to serving people with disabling conditions by supporting research that promotes health, independence, productivity, and quality of life; and meets the needs of rehabilitation clinicians and people with disabilities.
In order to enhance current and future research and knowledge translation, ACRM assists researchers in improving their investigations and dissemination of findings; educates providers to use evidence generated by research and deliver best practices, and advocates for funding of rehabilitation research.
The ACRM is a global community of both researchers and consumers of research, in the field of rehabilitation. ACRM is the only United States-based professional association representing all members of the interdisciplinary medical rehabilitation team, including: physicians, psychologists, rehabilitation nurses, occupational therapists, physical therapists, chiropractors, speech-language pathologists, recreation specialists, case managers, rehabilitation counselors, vocational counselors, and disability management specialists.
Organization.
The ACRM is led by elected members organized into the Board of Governors. Supporting the Board of Governors are volunteer standing committees as well as a business team led by the Chief Executive Officer.
Special interest and networking groups.
Participation in ACRM is organized around diagnostic specialties and other interests in rehabilitation. The organization has the following special interest and networking groups:
Membership.
ACRM welcomes as members all stakeholders in the field of rehabilitation, including clinicians, researchers, administrators, consultants, consumers, educators, research funders, insurers, and policymakers. Students and new entrants to the field are especially encouraged to join; a “young investigators” course offered each year as part of the annual meeting helps them to become productive rehabilitation researchers and well-connected ACRM members.
Members meet colleagues from around the world, engage with experts and mentors, learn new research strategies, access the latest clinical guidelines, advance academic and research careers, and gain opportunities to shape and lead the field of rehabilitation.
Members represent various disciplines, including:
Awards.
The ACRM annually honors individuals who make significant contributions to the field of rehabilitation and research in this area. These six prestigious awards are presented at the Henry B. Betts Awards Gala during the annual conference.
Coulter Lecturer Award.
This distinguished lectureship honors John Stanley Coulter, MD, a past president and treasurer of the ACRM, and former editor-in-chief of the "Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation". Award winners are recognized for achievements that significantly advance the field of rehabilitation.
Distinguished Member Award.
Established in 1988, this award honors ACRM members who have significantly contributed to the development of ACRM, demonstrating leadership skills, organizational abilities, and public service.
Gold Key Award.
This award was established in 1932 as a certificate of merit for members of the medical and allied health professions who have rendered extraordinary service to the cause of rehabilitation. It is the highest honor given by ACRM.
Licht Award.
The Elizabeth and Sidney Licht award, named for a husband-wife duo that published key textbooks in rehabilitation medicine, recognizes excellence in scientific writing in rehabilitation. The award is given for the best scientific article published in the "Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation" in the previous year.
Lowman Award.
This award was established in 1989 in honor of Edward Lowman, MD, who recognized the importance of multidisciplinary teams in rehabilitation. ACRM members whose careers reflect an energetic promotion of the spirit of interdisciplinary rehabilitation are eligible for this award.
Wilkerson Early Career Award.
ACRM established the Deborah L. Wilkerson Memorial Fund in honor of this beloved member, past president, and ACRM Fellow. Deborah was devoted to improving the quality of rehabilitation and independent living services and was an advocate for individuals with disabilities. The Deborah L. Wilkerson Early Career Award is given each year during the ACRM annual conference to the most promising member early in his/her rehabilitation research career.
History.
Content for this timeline was obtained from historical records, conference proceedings, and other documents of ACRM. This is in no way intended to reflect the comprehensive history, and therefore, it is highly likely that many significant events are not included. It is a summary of those events and markers that reflect the evolution of ACRM.


Orbitomeatal line

Orbitomeatal line is a positioning line used in radiography of the skull. It passes through the outer canthus of the eye and the center of the external auditory meatus. It is used for positioning the patient for different radiographic views including Water's view, Perorbital view, Lateral view, and others.


Eily Elaine Gurr

Eily Elaine Gurr (8 November 1896 – 12 December 1996) was a New Zealand doctor and medical administrator. She was born in Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand on 8 November 1896.


Frank Angell

Frank Angell (July 8, 1857 – November 2, 1939) was an early American psychologist and the former athletic director at Stanford University.
Biography.
Angell was born in 1857 in Scituate, Rhode Island. He graduated from the University of Vermont with an undergraduate degree in 1878. Angell spent several years teaching high school physics in Washington, DC. He earned his PhD in the Leipzig laboratory of Wilhelm Wundt. He then founded the experimental psychology laboratories at Cornell University (1891) and Stanford University (1892). He remained at Stanford for the rest of his career, working primarily on psychophysics and as director of athletics. A track stadium at Stanford was named after him.
He was the nephew of University of Michigan president James B. Angell, and cousin of Yale University president James R. Angell.
Angell in 1891 married Louise Lee Bayard (died 1944), daughter of Secretary of State Thomas F. Bayard. Mrs. Bayard entered into a Hollywood acting career in the 1920s after bearing three children: Charles (died 1949), Thomas Bayard Angell, and daughter Mabel.


Joel Elkes

Joel Elkes (pronounced el' kez) (12 November 1913, Königsberg – 30 October 2015, Sarasota) was a leading medical researcher specialising in the chemistry of the brain. He qualified as a physician in London and later became a medical researcher who published the first double-blind scientific trial on chlorpromazine to treat schizophrenia. He is regarded as the father of modern neuropsychopharmacology and directed the first experimental psychiatric Uffculme Clinic in Birmingham, UK. He was responsible for the setting up of international organisations and university departments to further the investigation of the effects of psychopharmacy. He spent the latter part of his career endeavouring to bring higher levels of humanity, compassion and ethics to medical training.
Early life.
Elkes was born of Jewish parents Elkhanan and Miriam in the city of Königsberg (now Kaliningrad).(BB) His father served in the Russian Army as a medical officer during the Russian Revolution of 1905 and World War I. The family fled to Kovno (now Kaunas) in the newly formed Lithuanian Republic. Elkes attended Schwabe's Gymnasium, a Hebrew Jewish high school, with a Zionist orientation. Elkes was an outstanding student graduating with honours and developing an interest in chemistry. He hoped to become a "scientist serving medicine". This was born from the fact that he had a close relationship with his father whom he viewed as a great example of physicianship and a good person.
Following his education at the Gymnasium he spent a year in a German language school in Königsberg where he graduated at the top of his class. This was followed by four months at Lausanne University Hospital attending lectures as a run-up to medical training. At this time Elkes' father was physician to the British Ambassador in Lithuania and the ambassador encouraged Elkes to go to England to undertake medical training, providing a letter of recommendation for him. In 2011 in a talk to the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology Elkes identified three people who had inspired him: Einstein in physics, Erlich for his work on neuro-receptors, and Goethe for his rare combination of humanism, scientific creativity and spirit.
Career.
In 1930 Elkes enrolled in the St Mary's Hospital Medical School, Paddington in London where he was tutored by such medical luminaries as Charles Wilson, 1st Baron Moran, Almroth Wright, Alexander Fleming and Aleck Bourne, whose daughter Elkes would later marry. Here he met Professor Alistair Frazer and in 1939 he, Frazer and Steward (a student colleague) had a paper on fat absorption published in The Journal of Physiology.
The Second World War broke off his family connections and support. He found it difficult to support himself and his sister Sara but was offered a post by Alistair Frazer in the newly formed Transfusion Service where he met Charmian Bourne. Elkes graduated in 1941 and was invited by Frazer to join him as a research fellow in pharmacology at Birmingham University. In 1945 he was promoted to lecturer and in 1948 to senior lecturer and acting director of the department. His research output at this time was considerable, resulting in 16 publications. Elkes' experimental work involved the investigation of the physical chemistry, constitution and structure of biological membranes, the lipoproteins.
Suddenly I realised the nervous system was full of lipoproteins. It was myelin, a beautiful paracrystalline structure ubiquitously distributed throughout the nervous system.
Elkes work continued with a collaboration with a Ph.D crystallography student, Bryan Finean. Together they developed a technique for the X-ray diffraction of a living frog's sciatic nerve in response to temperature and chemicals. This led Elkes to study the anticholinesterases and the action of acetylcholine.
Concurrent with his laboratory work Elkes, together with his wife Charmian, (a general practitioner) started training at the City Hospital, Birmingham and carrying out trials on patients with catatonic schizophrenia using amobarbital, amphetamines and mephenesin. The results showed different responses and demonstrated the possible distribution of different controlling cells with the brain. This work, carried out between 1945 and 1950, brought the Elkes to the attention of the mental health milieu in the UK.
In the early 1950s Elkes researched LSD and remained interested in the substance for some time, forming a friendship with pioneering LSD therapist Ronald Sandison in the mid 1950s, and in 1965 inviting Czech LSD therapist Stanislav Grof to come to Baltimore to research LSD as a clinical and research fellow at the Henry Phipps Clinic and in the Research Unit of Spring Grove State Hospital.
In 1950 Elkes was awarded a Fulbright Travelling Fellowship in America where he worked at the New England Baptist Hospital in Boston and at Norwich State Hospital, Connecticut. On his return to Birmingham he was appointed chairman and professor of a new mental health department which he called The Department for Experimental Psychiatry. Elkes continued his work on anticholinesterase, acetylcholine blockers and amphetamines and their action on the activity of the brain and thus behaviour. At this time there was a chance discovery in France of a drug called chlorpromazine and in a double blind trial Elkes demonstrated the efficacy of this drug in controlling the symptoms of schizophrenia.
By the mid-1950s Elkes had established himself as the leader in the developing field of psychopharmacology. In 1954 he instigated the first international Neurochemical Symposium in Oxford, England, and in 1957 he arranged the first World Health Organization group on psychotropic drugs. In the same year he was invited to set up an experimental psychiatry programme, the first Clinical Neuropharmacology Research Centre for the National Institute of Mental Health in Washington, D.C. He published a collection of academic papers and became one of the first to suggest the important role of chemicals in the functioning of the brain. Following his move to Washington he resided permanently in the United States. Elkes regarded the centre as an academic "greenhouse" in which he toiled as "a good gardener". In 2011 he described those time thus:
It was a wonderful heady time in the middle of a very chronic mental hospital. There were people coming from virtually all over the world and there were talks and discussions and excitement. At the same time there was always and always, which is what we had hoped, the presence of the patient. For example, you go to the canteen and there's a patient with schizophrenia hallucinating under a tree. You're never very far from the problem that bought you here. And, gradually there developed a sense of place, of belonging. Gradually, I realised that, my God, together we created something pretty wonderful.
In 1963 Elkes took a post as chairman of psychiatry at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland. He renamed his department the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences and worked toward integrating psychiatry with the physical medicine disciplines. His educational innovations attracted a number of other medical luminaries to his department. Among them were Sol Snyder, Joseph Coyle, Ross Baldessarini and Joseph V. Brady. Elkes was the founder and first Chairman of the Board of Fellowship House, a residential intermediate-care rehabilitation facility for people with mental illness which still exists in a developed form to the modern day.
Elkes left Johns Hopkins in 1974 and took a named professorship in McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, where he developed ideas about the need for self-awareness in physicians and the necessity to humanise medical education and training.
He was also Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry at the University of Louisville, Kentucky, where he continued to develop his ideas of incorporating social, ethical and psychological dimensions with the biological foundation he had already created. He married Josephine Rhodes, and while living in Canada he returned to painting, a long-standing hobby. His summer home in Prince Edward Island, Canada, offered plenty of opportunity for this. It was also in their summer home on Prince Edward Island he completed his memoir on his father, Elkhanan Elkes.
Awards and honours.
And others.
Family life.
His father, Elkhanan Elkes, an eminent Lithuanian physician, was interned in 1941 in Kovno's ghettos where the Nazi military appointed him leader of the Jewish internees. In 1944 the ghetto was attacked and the occupants shipped to concentration camps where Elkhanan, three uncles, an aunt and nieces and nephews all died. Elkes' mother survived the Landsberg-Dachau concentration camp and came to London. She later emigrated to Israel with her daughter, Sara, where she died in the 70s.
In December 1944 Elkes married Charmian Bourne. They had a daughter, Anna and later a granddaughter, Laura. Towards the end of his tenure in Johns Hopkins University (about 1974) he and Charmian divorced. Charmian died in 1996.
He married his second wife Josephine Rhodes in December 1975, she died in 1999 During his time in Ontario Elkes wrote a memoir about his father.
At his death he was married to Sally Lucke Elkes, an arts educator of Sarasota who encouraged him in his later water colour art work and arranged exhibitions of his work.
Throughout his life Elkes was an active supporter of his Jewish faith. He was a member of the Board of Trustees of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, and chair of the Israeli Centre for Psychobiology. In 1989, together with Abba Eban, Zubin Mehta, and Daniel Inouye, he received an honorary degree from the Hebrew University.
In 1991 Elkes's sister, Sara, initiated a series of holocaust lectures in memory of their parents and using his memoir of his father Elkes delivered the inaugural address at the Stanley Burton Centre for Holocaust Studies in Leicester, England and in 1999 published the material.


Charles William Mayo

Charles William Mayo (July 28, 1898 – July 28, 1968) was an American surgeon and a member of the board of governors of the Mayo Clinic beginning in 1933. He was the son of Mayo Clinic co-founder Charles Horace Mayo and Edith (Graham) Mayo.
Life.
In addition to his skill as a surgeon, he was also known as a medical administrator whose work was key in the development of group medical practice. He chaired the Mayo Foundation, and the board of regents at the University of Minnesota. He also had a role in the United Nations, appointed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower, and was elected president of the American Association for the United Nations in February 1954.
Born in Rochester, Minnesota, Mayo graduated from Princeton University in 1921. He then received his medical degree from University of Pennsylvania in 1926 and his master's degree in surgery from University of Minnesota in 1931. He (and his son) trained at Robert Packer Hospital in Sayre, Pennsylvania. Mayo taught at University of Minnesota and was a professor of surgery. During World War II, Mayo served in the United States Army Medical Corps with the rank of colonel. He and his wife Alice had six children. He died in a motor vehicle accident on his 70th birthday, near Rochester, Minnesota.