Allied naval bombardments of Japan during World War II

During the last weeks of World War II, warships of the United States Navy, the Royal Navy and the Royal New Zealand Navy bombarded industrial and military facilities in Japan. Most of these bombardments were conducted by battleships and cruisers, and caused heavy damage to several of the targeted factories, as well as nearby civilian areas. A major goal of the attacks was to provoke the Japanese military into committing some of its reserve force of aircraft into battle. However, the Japanese did not attempt to attack the Allied bombardment forces, and none of the involved warships suffered any damage.
The major bombardments began on 14 and 15 July 1945, when US Navy warships attacked the cities of Kamaishi and Muroran. The next attack was made by a joint American and British force against the city of Hitachi during the night of 17/18 July. Groups of cruisers and destroyers subsequently shelled the Nojima Saki area on 18 July, and Shionomisaki on the night of 24/25 July. On 29 July, American and British warships attacked Hamamatsu, and on the night of 30/31 several American destroyers shelled Shimizu. The final bombardment took place on 9 August, when Kamaishi was attacked again by American, British and New Zealand warships. Two US Navy submarines conducted small-scale attacks during June and July 1945; one of the submarines also landed a small raiding party.
The Allied naval bombardments disrupted industrial production in the cities targeted, and convinced many Japanese civilians that the war was lost. Up to 1,739 Japanese were killed in the attacks, and about 1,497 were wounded. The only Allied casualties were 32 Allied prisoners of war killed in the bombardments of Kamaishi.
Background.
By mid-1945, during the last weeks of World War II, cities and industrial facilities in the Japanese home islands were under sustained attack from United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) B-29 Superfortress heavy bombers based in the Mariana Islands. Attacks by Allied submarines and surface ships had also cut most of the country's trade routes, and US Navy aircraft carrier task groups had raided locations in the home islands on several occasions. Shortages of fuel had confined most of the Imperial Japanese Navy's surviving ships to port and forced them and the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service to hold its air units in reserve against the Allied invasion that was expected late in the year. Prior to the war, the Japanese military had assessed that coastal artillery was no longer suited to the country's circumstances. As a result, only a few strategic ports were protected by artillery capable of engaging enemy warships, and most of these guns were of relatively small caliber.
During the Pacific War, the US Navy's fast battleships had mainly been used to escort the groups of aircraft carriers that formed the United States Pacific Fleet's main striking force. They had also occasionally bombarded Japanese positions near the shore and had fought some actions with Japanese warships.
Allied naval commanders decided to use battleships to conduct a series of attacks against Japanese coastal cities in mid-1945. It was hoped that the Japanese military would respond to these bombardments by attacking the Allied forces with the aircraft that were being held in reserve to respond to the planned invasion of Japan, thereby exposing these aircraft to destruction by Allied fighter aircraft. However, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters had anticipated that the Allies would conduct bombardments and other operations with this goal and decided to not attack naval forces operating off Japan. Instead, the aircraft would remain in reserve until Allied landing operations in the home islands began.
Bombardments.
First attack on Kamaishi.
On 1 July 1945, the United States Third Fleet sortied from Leyte Gulf in the Philippines under the command of Admiral William Halsey to attack the Japanese home islands. Halsey's plans included the use of battleships and cruisers to bombard military facilities and factories. To prepare for these attacks, US Navy submarines sailed into Japan's inshore waters to search for naval mines. USAAF B-29 Superfortress and B-24 Liberator aircraft also conducted photo reconnaissance flights over much of Japan in search of airfields and facilities which could be attacked by the Third Fleet.
The Third Fleet's main component, Task Force 38 (TF 38), began striking targets in Japan on 10 July under the command of Vice Admiral John S. McCain. On this day, aircraft flying from the Task Force's aircraft carriers attacked facilities around Tokyo. Task Force 38 sailed north, and on 14 July began raids on Hokkaido and northern Honshu. These areas were outside the range of the B-29 Superfortress bombers, and had at that point not been attacked in the war. The American aircraft met little opposition, and sank 11 warships and 20 merchant ships. A further eight warships and 21 merchant ships were damaged, and the carrier aviators claimed to have destroyed 25 Japanese aircraft.
The first Allied bombardment of a Japanese coastal town was conducted on 14 July in conjunction with the air attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu. A bombardment group commanded by Rear Admiral John F. Shafroth Jr. designated Task Unit 34.8.1 (TU 34.8.1) was detached from TF 38 to attack the ironworks at Kamaishi in northern Honshu. At the time the city had a population of 40,000 and the ironworks was among the largest in Japan. However, due to shortages of coking coal and other raw materials, the ironworks was running at less than half its capacity. Allied prisoners of war had been assigned to work at the Nippon Steel Company, and were housed in two camps in Kamaishi. TU 34.8.1 comprised the battleships , and as well as the heavy cruisers and and nine destroyers.
The bombardment group opened fire on the ironworks at 12:10p.m. from a range of . The ships then moved closer to the city, but did not cross the 100-fathom line as no minesweepers were available to clear the area of mines. The bombardment lasted for over two hours, during which time the force made six passes across the mouth of Kamaishi's harbor and fired 802 shells, 728 shells and 825 shells. While most of the shells landed within the grounds of the ironworks, the concussion from their explosions caused kitchen fires to break out across Kamaishi. The resulting smoke prevented US Navy aircraft from being able to support or spot for the warships, which continued to fire accurately on predetermined targets. No Japanese aircraft or coastal guns responded to this bombardment. Allied aircraft photographed the ironworks following the attack, but photo interpreters underestimated the extent to which they had been damaged. This was one of the first times that the Americans had used aerial photography to assess damage from a naval bombardment, and the interpreters placed too much weight on the fact that none of the ironworks' buildings had been destroyed. The Allies learned after the war that the ironworks had been extensively damaged and forced to cease production for a period. This resulted in a loss of the equivalent of four weeks of pig iron production and two-and-a-half months of coke production. The attack destroyed 1460 houses in the city, and killed 424 civilians. A total of 28 Japanese naval personnel also perished when their Type 28 submarine chaser was sunk in Kamaishi harbor by shellfire. Five Allied prisoners of war were killed by the bombardment.
Muroran.
On the night of 14/15 July, another bombardment unit—TU 34.8.2—was detached from TF 38 to attack Muroran on the south-east coast of Hokkaido. TU 34.8.2 was commanded by Rear Admiral Oscar C. Badger and comprised the battleships , and , the light cruisers and , and eight destroyers. Admiral Halsey accompanied this force on board "Missouri". The targets of this attack were the Japan Steel Company's facilities and the Wanishi Iron Works. Also that night, a force of four cruisers and six destroyers cruised along the east coast of Honshu seeking to attack Japanese shipping, but did not locate any targets.
TU 34.8.2's bombardment began at dawn on 15 July. The three battleships fired 860 shells at the city from a range of . Aerial observation and spotting of damage was made difficult by hazy conditions, and only 170 shells landed within the grounds of the two plants. Nevertheless, considerable damage was inflicted on the industrial facilities, resulting in the loss of two-and-a-half months of coke production and slightly less pig iron production. Damage to buildings across the city was also extensive. As with the bombardment of Kamaishi, photo interpreters underestimated the scale of the damage. TU 34.8.2 was highly vulnerable to air attack throughout the more than six hour period in which it was visible from the shore of Hokkaido, and Halsey later wrote that these were the longest hours of his life. The failure of the Japanese to attack his ships convinced Halsey that they were preserving aircraft for use against the Allied invasion force. On 15 July, aircraft flying from TF 38's aircraft carriers struck again at Hokkaido and northern Honshu, devastating the fleet of ships that carried coal between the two islands.
Hitachi.
The attacks on Hokkaido and northern Honshu ended on 15 July, and TF 38 sailed away from the Japanese coast to refuel and rendezvous with the main body of the British Pacific Fleet, which was designated Task Force 37 (TF 37). On the morning of 17 July, the British and American carriers attacked targets to the north of Tokyo. Later that day, TU 34.8.2 detached from the carrier force to bombard targets around the city of Hitachi, about northeast of Tokyo. This force was commanded by Rear Admiral Badger and comprised the battleships "Iowa", "Missouri", "Wisconsin", , , and , light cruisers "Atlanta" and "Dayton", and eight American and two British destroyers. "King George V" and her two escorts sailed astern of the American force, and operated independently. Halsey again accompanied this force on board "Missouri".
The bombardment of the Hitachi area took place on the night of 17/18 July. Rain and fog made locating the targets difficult and prevented spotting aircraft from flying, but several carrier aircraft flew protective patrols over the bombardment force. The Allied warships opened fire at 11:10p.m., and aimed at their targets using radar and LORAN. The attackers targeted nine industrial facilities, and "King George V" was assigned similar targets to those engaged by the American battleships. By the time the bombardment ceased at about 1:10a.m., the American battleships had fired 1,238 shells, and the British battleship 267 shells. The two light cruisers also fired 292 shells at radar and electronics installations south of Hitachi. All firing was conducted at a range of .
The attack on Hitachi had mixed results. Only three of the bombardment's nine targets were hit, and the overall damage to the city's industrial area was assessed as "slight". However, the attack inflicted considerable damage on the city's urban area and essential services. This damage was greatly increased by a B-29 raid on Hitachi on the night of 18/19 July that destroyed or damaged 79 percent of the city's urban area. The official history of the US Navy in World War II states that "individual Japanese" considered the naval bombardment to have been more terrifying than the air attack.
Nojima Saki and Shionomisaki.
On 18 July TFs 37 and 38 conducted further air strikes in the Tokyo area, with the American force's main effort being an attempt to sink the Japanese battleship at Yokosuka Naval Base. That night, Cruiser Division 17 (CruDiv 17), which comprised the light cruisers , , , and and six destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral J. Cary Jones, fired 240 shells at a radar station on over a five-minute period, but did not hit it.
After completing its strikes on the Tokyo region, the Allied fleet conducted an at-sea replenishment from 21 to 23 July before attacking Kure and the Inland Sea from the 24th to the 28th of the month. On the night of 24–25 July, CruDiv 17 patrolled the Kii Channel and bombarded the naval seaplane base at Kushimoto, a landing field near Cape Shionomisaki, and a radio station. This attack lasted for only four minutes and caused little damage.
Hamamatsu.
On 29 July, a group of warships was detached from the main body of the Allied fleet to bombard the city of Hamamatsu, which lies on the south coast of Honshu between Nagoya and Tokyo. This force comprised the same ships which had attacked Kamaishi on 14 July with the addition of "King George V" and the destroyers , and ; the four British ships were designated Task Unit 37.1.2 (TU 37.1.2). The Task unit was again under command of Rear admiral John F. Shafroth Jr. The city had previously suffered extensive damage from air attacks.
The British and American ships engaged their targets independently. "King George V" opened fire at the Japan Musical Instrument Company's Plant No. 2 (which was being used to manufacture aircraft propellers) at 11:19 p.m. from a range of . The battleship fired 265 rounds at the plant in 27 minutes and was able to make use of artillery spotting aircraft, with visibility being good. Even so, little damage was inflicted on the facility. "Massachusetts" fired at Plant No. 1 but scored only a few hits. Despite the limited physical damage, the shelling caused increased labor absenteeism and disruption to vital services that caused the factory to cease production. The American ships also shelled the Imperial Government Railway locomotive works and three other industrial facilities.
Of these targets, the locomotive works ceased operations for about three months due to damage, but two of the other facilities had almost ceased production before the attack and the third was not damaged. Two bridges on the important Tōkaidō Main Line were fired upon but not hit, though damage to rail infrastructure in Hamamatsu closed the line for 66 hours. During the bombardment "Undine" twice opened fire on small groups of ships that were probably fishing boats. No Japanese aircraft or shore batteries responded to the Allied attack. The bombardment of Hamamatsu was the last time a British battleship fired its guns in anger.
Shimizu.
The next bombardment of Japan took place on the night of 30/31 July. On that night Destroyer Squadron 25 (DesRon 25), which was commanded by Captain J.W. Ludewig aboard , searched the Suruga Gulf for Japanese shipping to attack. No ships were located, and in the early hours of 31 July the squadron sailed deep into the gulf and fired 1,100 rounds of shells during seven minutes at a railway yard and aluminum plant in Shimizu. The aluminum plant was hit, but this was of little importance as it had almost ceased production due to a shortage of raw materials. No damage was caused to the rail yard.
Second attack on Kamaishi.
During the last days of July and into early August, the Allied fleet sailed away from the Japanese coast to avoid a typhoon and allow the ships to replenish their stocks of fuel and ammunition. The fleet then sailed north and, on both 9 and 10 August, the carrier aircraft attacked a large concentration of Japanese aircraft on airfields in northern Honshu. The carrier pilots claimed the destruction of 720 Japanese aircraft in this operation.
As part of these operations off northern Japan, Kamaishi was bombarded again on 9 August in the mistaken belief that the ironworks had not been badly damaged. TU 34.8.1 conducted this attack, and comprised the ships that had bombarded the city in July with the addition of the heavy cruisers and , British light cruiser , Royal New Zealand Navy light cruiser HMNZS "Gambia", and destroyers , , and . "King George V" did not participate in this action as mechanical problems affecting two of her propeller shafts meant that she was unable to sail at the speed specified for the bombardment force.
The Allied ships opened fire on the ironworks and docks in Kamaishi at 12:54p.m. The bombardment was conducted from an average range of and lasted for almost two hours. During this time, the ships made 4 passes across Kamaishi harbor and fired 803 shells, 1,383 shells, and 733 shells. "Gambia" fired the final shots of the attack. During the bombardment, several Japanese aircraft approached the Allied ships and two were shot down by Allied naval fighters. This bombardment caused more damage than the attack conducted in July, and large quantities of pig iron were destroyed. The attack was also directed against housing areas near the ironworks, destroying total of 1471 houses and killing 281 civilians. The sounds of this bombardment were broadcast live on radio in the United States via a radio relay on board "Iowa". One of the prisoner of war camps in Kamaishi was destroyed by this second Allied attack, resulting in the deaths of 27 Allied prisoners.
A further bombardment by "King George V", three light cruisers, and escorting destroyers was planned to be conducted against an unspecified Japanese target on 13 August. This attack was cancelled for both the battleship's mechanical problems and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The Allied fleet did not conduct any other bombardments, as Japan surrendered on 15 August.
Submarine attacks.
Two US Navy submarines attacked locations in the Japanese home islands during June and July 1945. On 20 June arrived off Japan's northern islands under the command of Commander Gene Fluckey. For this patrol the submarine had been fitted with an experimental rocket launcher intended for shore bombardments. Shortly after midnight on 22 June the submarine fired 12 rockets at Shari in north-east Hokkaido. "Barb" then proceeded north, and on 2 July bombarded Kaiyo in south-east Sakhalin with its deck gun. This attack destroyed three sampans docked in the town, damaged a seal rookery and caused several fires to break out. The next day the submarine fired more rockets at Shisuka. A party of eight men from "Barb" was landed on the east coast of Sakhalin on 23 July and planted demolition charges on a railroad track. Shortly after the men began rowing back to the submarine the charges were triggered by a passing train; 150 people, including civilians, were killed. On 24 July, "Barb" fired 32 rockets at Shirutoru () and 12 rockets at Kashiho, Motodomari (). As the submarine returned to base it shelled Chiri on 25 July and Shibetoro the next day. The attack on Shibetoro targeted a shipyard building sampans, and destroyed 35 newly built vessels.
The other submarine bombardment took place during the morning of 24 June, when fired some shells at the island of Hirado Shima in the Tsushima Strait between Japan and Korea. This attack sought to convince the Japanese that a force of American submarines that had been operating in the Sea of Japan would attempt to depart via the Tsushima Strait, instead of their actual route far to the north through the La Pérouse Strait between Hokkaido and Sakhalin.
Results.
Although the naval bombardments did not result in the reaction the Allies were hoping for from the Japanese military, they disrupted the country's steel industry. While several of the factories attacked were operating at reduced capacity, the important Kamaishi and Wanishi Iron Works suffered heavy damage when they were bombarded in July and August. During both these attacks, the Allied gunnery was accurate and focused on the factories' coke batteries, which were critical to continued production. Post-war assessments found that the damage caused to industrial buildings by even the approximately naval shells was less than that which could be inflicted by the and general-purpose bombs that were used by Allied naval aircraft. While this supported a view put forward by Vice Admiral McCain that the aircraft assigned to protect the bombardment forces could have caused more damage than the ships themselves, the post-war United States Strategic Bombing Survey judged that the naval bombardments were justified as there had been little risk to the ships involved.
The bombardments also affected Japanese morale. Japanese civilians who experienced both air and naval bombardment found the naval attacks to be more terrifying due to their unpredictability and longer duration. Several of the industrial facilities that suffered little damage in bombardments incurred a significant loss in production due to absenteeism and reduced productivity. This was not the case for all facilities that were attacked though, and the morale among workers in two of the bombarded factories was reported to have increased. The appearance of Allied warships just off the coast also convinced many Japanese that the war had been lost. However, such attitudes did not contribute to bringing the war to an end as the views of civilians had little influence on the Japanese Government's decision to surrender.
In 1949, the Japanese Economic Stabilization Agency calculated that the Allied naval bombardments and other forms of attack other than bombing had caused 3,282 casualties, representing 0.5 percent of all casualties inflicted by the Allies in the Japanese home islands. The casualties attributed to naval bombardments and other causes included 1,739 fatalities, 46 persons who were still classified as missing and 1,497 people who were wounded.


Seventh Fleet Band

The United States Seventh Fleet Band is a United States Navy military Band located in Yokosuka, Japan. It is composed of professional navy musicians who operates under the direct control and supervision of Fleet Band Activities, the official navy music program. It serves aboard the Seventh Fleet flagship, the USS "Blue Ridge". It was created upon the renaming of the Southwest Pacific Force on 7 March 1943. The Seventh Fleet Band is today composed of six professional ensembles, all of which have performed for millions of people throughout the Western Pacific Ocean. Countries it ha performed in have included Japan, the Philippines, South Korea, Australia, Thailand, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, as well as many other cities and countries of the Far East.
The band has used the traditional costumes of these countries in its routines. One of its more notable members was Ralph M. Gambone, who later served as officer in charge of the United States Navy Band from 1998 to 2007.
Composition.
The band leadership consists of the Fleet Bandmaster and the Senior Enlisted Leader. The band has the following ensembles:
Far East Edition.
It was established in 1974 and is a popular music ensemble known for its transforming itself from a brass band to a rock band to a jazz combo. It can be heard playing traditional New Orleans-style jazz, classic rock, and local regional favorites. It has been featured at major events throughout the Indo-Asia Pacific region and have entertained hundreds of thousands of people over the years.
Orient Express.
The Orient Express is a nine-member group of professional rock musicians performing live examples of English-language rock, including covers of songs ranging from Stevie Wonder or Journey, to Avril Lavigne to Katy Perry. Orient Express also performs as a Smooth Jazz ensemble, as well as a full-range Dixieland Band. Leadership of this group is coordinated on a talent and personnel level.
Pacific Ambassadors.
The Pacific Ambassadors is a 20-piece show band operating in a variety of musical styles, ranging from traditional to contemporary Jazz, Big Band, Latin, and other popular music genres of today. It has been featured as a main attraction at major international cultural events throughout Australia and the Far East, covering more mileage squared than any other navy band operating today.
Ceremonial Marching Band.
Marching band performs for official military and civic ceremonies, as well as providing official representation of the Commander, Seventh Fleet during musical performance at public concerts throughout the Western Pacific & Asian areas. In 2012, the band began to attend the "International Military Tattoo" in Hong Kong to replace the United States 8th Army Band.


Frank Chee Willeto

Frank Chee Willeto (June 6, 1925 – June 23, 2012) was an American politician and Navajo code talker during World War II. Willeto served as the vice president of the Navajo Nation under President Milton Bluehouse, Sr. from his appointment in August 1998 until January 1999, when the Begaye administration took office.
Early life.
Willeto was born in Crownpoint, New Mexico, on June 6, 1925. According to the "Navajo Times", Willeto was "Bit'ahnii (Folded Arms Clan), born for Tódích'íi'nii (Bitter Water Clan). His chei [mother's grandfather] was Ta'neeszahnii (Tangle Clan) and his nálí (paternal family) was Naakai dine'é (Mexican People Clan)."
Code talker.
He enlisted in the U.S. Marine Corps in January 1944 during World War II. Willeto joined the 6th Marine Division, serving in the Pacific Theater in Saipan and Okinawa as a Navajo code talker. The code talkers’ role in the war was not disclosed until 1968, when documents on the talkers were declassified. Willeto and other surviving Navajo code talkers were awarded the Congressional Silver Medal in 2001.
Career.
He returned to the Navajo Nation following the end of World War II. He was employed in the roads department of the Bureau of Indian Affairs from 1946 until 1974. Willeto then joined the United States Department of Education.
Willeto was elected to the Navajo Nation Council in 1974. He remained on the council until 1986, when he was elected as the president of the Pueblo Pintado Chapter. Willeto also served as a judge on the former Navajo Supreme Judicial Council, a precursor to the present-day Supreme Court of the Navajo Nation.
On July 23, 1998, Navajo Nation President Thomas Atcitty was removed from office by the Navajo Nation Council for ethics violations. Atcitty was succeeded by Milton Bluehouse, Sr., Atcitty's vice president, as interim president one day later. Bluehouse appointed Willeto as vice president of the Navajo Nation in August 1998. Together, Bluehouse and Willeto ran as running mates for a full, four-year term in the November 1998 presidential election. Kelsey Begaye won the general election and was inaugurated on January 12, 1999. Willeto remained vice president within the Bluehouse administration until Begaye took office.
Later life.
He remained active in public life. Willeto was a proponent of the new Tsé Yi’ Gai High School in Pueblo Pintado and the construction of a new bridge between the high school and Navajo Route 9.
Willeto was a frequent visitor to the eastern United States, especially Washington, D.C. In 2008, Willeto gave the blessing to mark the start of construction on the USS New Mexico (SSN-779) nuclear submarine in Newport News, Virginia. He was also invited to the White House to witness the signing of the Omnibus Public Land Management Act of 2009 by U.S. President Barack Obama. Most recently, Willeto appeared as a panelist for the United States Senate Committee on Indian Affairs' "The Way of the Warrior: Native Americans' Commitment to Country, Community, and Communication" panel on November 16, 2011, as part of National American Indian and Alaska Native Heritage Month.
Willeto died at his home in Pueblo Pintado, New Mexico, on June 23, 2012, at the age of 87. New Mexico Governor Susana Martinez ordered flags to be flown at half-mast in Willeto's honor. Navajo Nation President Ben Shelly also offered all Navajo flags to be flown at half staff from June 25 until June 28. His funeral was held at the Tseဴ Yi’ Gai High School in Pueblo Pintado. Willeto was buried at Santa Fe National Cemetery in Santa Fe, New Mexico, June 29, 2012, at a ceremony attended by 150 people, including Governor Martinez.
Further reading.
Frank Willeto
Code Talkers


Catalonia and World War II

When, in 1939, World War II erupted in Europe, Catalonia was part of the Spanish State led by the "caudillo" Francisco Franco, who declared Spain neutral in the conflict. The country was devastated by the recently finished Spanish Civil War, which resulted in the defeat of the Second Spanish Republic and the creation of the Spanish State, and Catalonia, who was an autonomous region under the Republican government (1931-1939) lost the whole of its self-government when the Nationalist army occupied the area.
However, despite the fact that Spain was officially neutral in World War II, the conflict affected Catalan territory and Catalans who lived outside, as well its institutions in exile, in different degrees.
Prelude.
The industrialized land of Catalonia in Spain became autonomous shortly after the proclamation of Second Spanish Republic (14 April 1931). It established its own government, the Generalitat de Catalunya, and received and Statute of Autonomy in 1932. The Parliament and Government of Catalonia were dominated by the Republican Left of Catalonia (ERC) after its first election in November 1932. Under the presidency of Francesc Macià (1931-1933) and his successor Lluís Companys (1933-1940), both members of ERC, the Generalitat tried to implement an advanced social program, despite the internal difficulties. This period was marked by political unrest, the effects of the economic crisis and its social repercussions.
As for the workers' movement, the anarchist trade union CNT (the greatest in Catalonia at the time) had been active throughout the period, realizing demonstrations, general strikes and some proclamations of the libertarian communism, while the marxist parties were progressively unified with the formation of the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (, POUM) in September 1935 and the pro-soviet Unified Socialist Party of Catalonia (Catalan: "Partit Socialista Unificat de Catalunya", PSUC) in July 1936.
The defeat of the military rebellion against the Republican government in Barcelona placed Catalonia firmly in the Republican side of the Spanish Civil War. During the war, there were two rival powers in Catalonia: the de jure power of the Generalitat and the de facto power of the armed popular militias. Violent confrontations between the workers' parties (CNT-FAI and POUM against the PSUC) culminated in the defeat of the first ones in 1937. The situation resolved itself progressively in favor of the Generalitat, but at the same time the Generalitat was partially losing its autonomous power within Republican Spain. In 1938 Nationalist troops broke the Republican territory in two, isolating Catalonia from the rest of the Republic. The defeat of the Republican army in the Battle of the Ebro led in 1938 and 1939 to the final defeat of the Catalonian Republican forces in the Catalonia Offensive, who abolished the Catalan autonomy and brought it into Spain proper.
Exile.
After the fall of Barcelona, on 26 January 1939, Catalan and Spanish Republican governments marched to the north and, shortly after the fall of Girona, they crossed the French border; the President of Catalonia, Lluís Companys made it on 5 February, alongside thousands of refugees who tried to escape from Nationalist advance. The Generalitat de Catalunya began the exile with many troubles, among them, the lack of economic resources and the disputes between sectors of Catalan nationalism. The Republican Left of Catalonia, the most relevant political party during the Republican era, lost many of its militants during the war and the Francoist repression, and its institutional structure almost disappeared.
Due to this problems, Companys, established in Paris, was unable to constitute a Catalan government in exile. Also the Parliament couldn't meet, as a result, the presidency was the only effective representation of the Generalitat, so Companys decided create the National Council of Catalonia. It had to be a national representative body in exile, formed by five five cultural personalities, under the presidency of Pompeu Fabra.
Axis presence in Catalonia.
Before the War of Spain, Catalonia attracted some interest of Italy and the Third Reich. After the establishment of Catalan self-government in 1931, the Italian consulate in Barcelona increased its activities in order to explore the possibility to create a fascist movement in Catalonia from Catalan nationalism, as the Fascist Italy saw the Spanish Republic a rival for its hegemony around the Mediterranean. However, the approach to Catalan nationalism was unsuccessful, while the Italian government showed more interest in to the Falange and the conspirational elements of the Spanish Army. The Italian bombers helped to the Nationalist faction in the Civil War bombing Barcelona and other Catalan places.
Barcelona was the residence of a relevant German colony during the 1930s.
During his visit in Spain, SS leader Heinrich Himmler visited Barcelona and the Monastery of Montserrat between 23 and 24 October 1940. It was received by General Orgaz (chief of the Spanish Army in Catalonia) and the other authorities of the city.
Catalan participation in Allied side.
Doctor Josep Trueta, exiled in the United Kingdom, helped to organize medical emergency services. He denounced the situation of Catalonia in Francoist Spain, and wrote "The Spirit of Catalonia", a book explaining Catalan history to English-speaking society.
Catalans were also found in the Eastern Front fighting in the Soviet side. The militant of the PSUC Sebastià Piera fought in Moscow, Leningrad, Stalingrad and the Caucasus, and performed commando actions behind the German lines.
In 1944, Catalan double agent Joan Pujol Garcia (codename "Garbo" by the British) had a key role in the success of Operation Fortitude, the deception operation intended to mislead the Germans about the timing and location of the invasion of Normandy in 1944. The false information Pujol supplied to the Germans helped persuade them that the main attack would be in the Pas de Calais, so that they kept large forces there before the invasion. He was condecorated by Britain and Germany, as the Germans never realised they had been fooled, becoming the only known person to receive decorations from both sides during World War II.
Resistance.
In 1944, while the liberation France from German occupation was a fact, the Communist Party of Spain promoted the Operación Reconquista, consisting on the invasion of the Aran Valley, in northwestern Catalonia, as the first step of defeating the Spanish State. The Maquis took control of several villages of the valley until 27 October 1944 but were forced to retreat back into France after Franco sent reinforcements to defend Vielha, the Aranese capital.


Fortress Crete

Fortress Crete () was the term used during World War II by the German occupation forces to refer to the garrison and fortification of Crete.
The Greek island of Crete was seized by the Axis after a fierce battle at the end of May 1941. The Germans occupied the western three prefectures of the island (the prefectures of Chania, Heraklion and Rethymno) with their headquarters in Chania, whilst the Italians occupied the easternmost prefecture of Lasithi until the Italian capitulation in September 1943.
The first German garrison unit was the 5th Mountain Division, which had seen combat during the capture of Crete. In late autumn 1941, the 5th Mountain Division was replaced by the 713th and 164th Infantry Divisions, which in early 1942 were reorganised as Fortress Division Crete (). In the summer of 1942, FDK was split to form the smaller Fortress Brigade Kreta () and the 164th Light Afrika Division () which was sent to North Africa. The 164th was succeeded in 1943-1944 by the 22nd Infantry Division. In autumn 1944, after the 22nd Division withdrew from Crete, the remaining German units on the island were consolidated under the 133th Fortress Division (). The Italian garrison unit was the 51st Infantry Division "Siena" which surrendered to the Germans after the Italian armistice of 1943.
The garrison's strength rose and fell considerably, depending on the progress of the North African and Russian campaigns, and the perceived threat for invasion. Its peak was 75,000 men in 1943 and its nadir 10,000 at its surrender of 12 May 1945.
After the general retreat from Greece in October 1944, the Germans, along with some Italian battalions, remained in Crete and in the Dodecanese islands. They were cut off, possessed no air power or naval forces, with only some small patrol vessels and landing barges to maintain the links among the islands. The food problem was a serious one both for them and the inhabitants. Links were maintained (mainly mail) with some captured B-24 bombers under Luftwaffe colours which made flights at night from Austria.
The eastern part of Crete was evacuated during the winter by the Axis forces and "occupied" by a very weak mixed British and Greek garrison. There was, then, an unofficial truce between the two parties until the final surrender order issued by the OKW in May 1945 after the unconditional surrender on 8 May. The same order of surrender was valid for Rhodes and the other minor islands still in Axis hands.
Commanders of the German forces on Crete.
Until the Italian armistice of 1943, the Italian occupation forces were commanded by General Angelico Carta.


Robin Fontes

Robin Louise Fontes is a retired United States Army major general who last served as deputy commanding general (operations) of the United States Army Cyber Command (ARCYBER). In July 2017 she took command of Combined Security Transition Command – Afghanistan, becoming the highest-ranking female military officer in Afghanistan since the American invasion of that country in 2001. A mustang officer, Fontes was commissioned in 1986 and focused on Central Asia, eventually serving in Tajikistan, Pakistan, and India, including a few years in Afghanistan. She assumed her final position after the resignation of Michael Flynn from the Trump Administration ended her announced role as senior director for India, Pakistan and Central Asian Affairs on the United States National Security Council.
Military career.
Early career.
Fontes grew up in Treasure Valley and reports that she sought a military career ever since she was 12 years-old. Enlisting in the United States Army Reserve in 1981, she graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1986 and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Military Police Corps. She served as a platoon leader in Germany, later returning to West Point to serve as a company commander. While a first lieutenant, she wrote two articles for "Military Police", the official publication of her branch. The first article (in July 1988) was entitled "The 1987 BG Jeremiah P. Holland Award and
the MP Company that Earned It." Her second (in June 1991) was called "MP Role in the Opening of the Berlin Wall." She was selected for the Foreign Area Officer program in 1993, resulting in her attendance at the Defense Language Institute, where she learned Russian. She also learned Dari and Persian. She would later also graduate from both the University of Washington (where she earned her Master's degree in International Studies) and the George C. Marshall European Center for Security Studies. In the late 1990s, Fontes served as a military liaison in Minsk. She spent a few years in Tajikistan serving first as a United States military representative and later as the United States Defense Attaché just as the Tajikistani Civil War was ending.
As a field grade officer.
Early in the Global War on Terror, Fontes served at United States Central Command J5 overseeing issues of political-military cooperation in Afghanistan. In June 2004, she was moved to Combined Forces Command - Afghanistan headquarters in Kabul and served under David Barno as the head of the CJ5 staff for political-military coordination. Her staff was responsible for keeping General Barno "on message", overseeing the policies impacting military operations, and performing liaison work with both the Afghan Ministry of Defense and United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan. At the end of her first year in Afghanistan and following Karl Eikenberry's assumption of command from Barno, Fontes volunteered to lead the Provincial Reconstruction Team (PRT) in Tarinkot. Daniel Green, the political adviser for the PRT, reported that though some Soldiers at the PRT had initial concerns due to her gender, those worries were shortly put to rest. She had been active in engaging with the Afghan people. Green said that Fontes, then a Lieutenant Colonel, pitched in a few hundred dollars of her own money to host a lunch on the PRT for local Afghan leaders. An article in "Vanity Fair" relates a story that she once refused to depart a meeting with Afghan elders in Chora District under threat of small arms fire, for fear of appearing weak in the face of the Taliban. Green asserts that in early 2006, she survived the first suicide vehicle-borne improvised explosive device attack in Urozgan Province due in part to the device's failure to detonate all of the mortar shells of which it was comprised. She departed Afghanistan in May 2006 to attend the US War College, graduating in 2007. She had been promoted that year to colonel. She was subsequently assigned as the chief of the American Security Assistance Office in Pakistan.
In July 2011, Fontes began a one-year tour at Mazar-i-Sharif in charge of Regional Command North, the NATO command of occupation forces in Northern Afghanistan. From 2012 to 2013, she was one of fifteen fellows at the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs.
Career as a general officer.
The United States Senate approved Fontes's promotion to brigadier general in 2014. Following her 2014 graduation from the Defense Intelligence Agency's Joint Military Attaché School (where she was class leader), she was assigned as the United States Defense Attaché to India. She was the first American general officer sent to India since the 1960s. She was also the first woman to hold that position.
In February 2017, then-National Security Advisor Michael Flynn named Fontes, a colleague from his tenure as Director of the Defense Intelligence Agency, to be the next senior director for India, Pakistan and Central Asian Affairs at United States National Security Council (NSC). Anonymous sources within the Government of India told "The Telegraph" that they were hopeful Fontes's appointment in the White House would help convey New Delhi's concerns. Senior officials familiar with Fontes commented upon her understanding of India's security concerns vis-à-vis China and Pakistan; that she would be a friendly face among a Trump Administration cabinet mostly unknown to India. With Flynn's subsequent ouster, Fontes's assignment to the NSC was cancelled and the position was filled by Lisa Curtis (a former CIA analyst and fellow at The Heritage Foundation) at the behest of Flynn's replacement, H. R. McMaster.
In July 2017, Fontes took command of Combined Security Transition Command – Afghanistan, replacing Richard Kaiser. Concurrently, she also serves as a deputy chief of staff in charge of security assistance for the Resolute Support Mission. Fontes is the highest-ranking female military officer in Afghanistan since the American invasion of that country in 2001. Asked in November 2017 about her assignment, Fontes replied to "Stars and Stripes" that she hoped the public would judge her performance as an Army officer regardless of her gender. Despite the flood of negative comments "Stars and Stripes" reported they received in response to her appointment to CSTC-A, Fontes stated that she was not surprised. She said "if I worried about that, I wouldn't have time to do anything else."
As of June 8, 2019 Fontes serves as senior defense official and defense attaché, United States Defense Attaché Office, India. On June 9, 2019, Fontes was named as senior defense official and defense attaché, United States Defense Attaché Office, Egypt. In December 2019, her next assignment was instead changed to Deputy Commanding General for Operations, United States Army Cyber Command.
Fontes is a founding lifetime member of the Foreign Area Officer Association. She has said she plans to retire to Lowman, Idaho at the end of her military career.


Japanese submarines in the Pacific War

Japanese submarines in the Pacific War consisted of 169 boats of the Imperial Japanese Navy. During the war Japanese submarines sank two US aircraft carriers, a cruiser and numerous other warships. Later they became used to resupply isolated island garrisons. The Japanese began the war with an advanced submarine torpedo design, the Type 95.
Operations.
Midget submarines.
Japanese midget submarines were involved many actions during the Pacific war including the attacks on Pearl Harbor and Sydney Harbour.
Attacks on the American mainland.
Japanese submarines shelled and carried out reconnaissance on the continental United States. There were plans for a four boat, 10-airplane attack on the Panama Canal using the I-400 class submarine.
USS Indianapolis.
The sank the heavy cruiser shortly after it delivered parts for the atomic bomb Little Boy to the island of Tinian. The loss of the "Indianapolis" was not noticed for four days, which resulted in the deaths of hundreds of American sailors at sea, and constituted the greatest loss of life at sea in a single incident in the history of the United States Navy (the sinking of the USS Arizona at Pearl Harbor resulted in greater deaths).
Yanagi Missions.
After 1942, submarines became the only remaining supply link between Nazi Germany and Japan, and trade was focused on strategic materials, technical plans and blueprints. Only a small number of submarines managed to reach either destination and only four Japanese submarines succeeded in these "Yanagi" attempts: (April 1942), (June 1943), (October 1943) and (December 1943).
Before "I-29" embarked on her voyage to German-occupied France in December 1943, she had previously rendezvoused with the during an earlier mission to the Indian Ocean. During this meeting on 28 April 1943, Indian nationalist Subhas Chandra Bose was transferred to "I-29" to become the only civilian exchanged between two submarines of two different navies in World War II.


Merril Sandoval

Merril Sandoval (April 18, 1925 – February 9, 2008) was an American Navajo World War II veteran and a member of the Navajo Code Talkers, a group of United States Marines who transmitted important messages in their native Navajo language in order to stop the Japanese from intercepting sensitive material. Sandoval took part in every Marine landing in the Pacific Ocean theater of World War II from 1943 until 1945.
Early life.
Merril Sandoval was born on April 18, 1925, in Nageezi, New Mexico. His first language was Navajo. He was later enrolled at Farmington Methodist Mission School in Farmington, New Mexico, where he was taught English and other subjects meant to Americanize himself and other Navajos.
Sandoval's maternal, or first, clan was Zuni Edgewater clan (Naashtʼézhí Tábąąhá), and his paternal, or second, clan was Red Bottom People clan (Tl'aashchi'l).
Navajo Code Talkers.
Sandoval was only a freshman in high school when he was first approached by United States Marine recruiters. His brother, Samuel Sandoval, enlisted. However, Sandoval's father, Julian Sandoval, insisted that Sandoval, who was then sixteen years old, was too young to join the Marines. Sandoval was allowed to join the Marines by his father one year later. He never worked with his brother, Samuel, who was also a code talker during the war.
Sandoval boarded a train to Santa Fe, New Mexico, when he was 17 years old, where he enlisted in the United States Marine Corps in 1943. He completed boot camp in San Diego before being transferred to Camp Pendleton's Radio Communication School, where he was trained to become a code talker.
He was initially sent to Hawaii by the Marines. Throughout World War II, Sandoval served with both the 2nd and 5th Marine Divisions. Sandoval's main mission was to remain behind the front lines in order to translate reports from two-man code talker teams in other parts of the battlefield. He then sent the messages, which were encoded in Navajo, back to United States commanders who were based on Hawaii. He also had the responsibility of passing orders to Marines on the front lines.
Sandoval saw action in Iwo Jima, Saipan and Allied occupied Japan. During the Battle of Iwo Jima, Sandoval's landing craft was hit by enemy fire. He and his radio company were thrown into the Pacific Ocean. He managed to swim approximately 100 yards to the Iwo Jima beach, where he survived a constant barrage of shelling by the Japanese for the next twenty-four hours.
Sandoval was honorably discharged from the military in March 1946 as a U.S. Marine corporal. He returned to the United States in order to finish high school. Sandoval and other Code Talkers were ordered to keep their work in the Pacific a secret following the war. His own family did not learn about the importance of his missions until information concerning the Navajo Code Talkers was declassified in 1968.
Post World War II.
Sandoval married Lorraine Humetewa Shingoitewa in July 1951. They had five children.
Soon after his marriage, he took a job as a machinist at the Garrett AiResearch facility in Phoenix, Arizona, where he worked for 15 years. He and his family moved to Lorraine's hometown of Tuba City, Arizona, on the Navajo Nation in 1963, where he joined the Navajo Tribal Police Force, which he served in for three years. He then became a legal advocate for D.N.A. Legal Services, a nonprofit law firm. He retired from the organization after 23 years. Sandoval then worked as an interpreter for the Navajo legal courts for an additional sixteen years.
Traveling Years.
As an elderly man, Merril traveled across the country to share his personal story and experiences as a Navajo Code Talker with the US Marine Corps. He continued to travel up until Fall 2007.
Death.
Merril Sandoval died on February 9, 2008, at the age of 82 at St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center in Phoenix. He had been in failing health for the preceding year. He and his wife of 56 years, Lorraine, had been residents of Tuba City, Arizona, for many years. He was survived by his wife and four of their five children. He had 17 grandchildren, 22 great-grandchildren and one great-great grandchild.
Sandoval received a full military burial in Flagstaff, Arizona. Navajo President Joe Shirley, Jr. ordered flags to be flown at half staff from February 13 to 16 in his honor.


Battle of the Standard

The Battle of the Standard, sometimes called the Battle of Northallerton, took place on 22 August 1138 on Cowton Moor near Northallerton in Yorkshire. English forces under William of Aumale repelled a Scottish army led by King David I of Scotland.
King Stephen of England, fighting rebel barons in the south, had sent a small force (largely mercenaries), but the English army was mainly local militia and baronial retinues from Yorkshire and the north Midlands. Archbishop Thurstan of York had exerted himself greatly to raise the army, preaching that to withstand the Scots was to do God's work. The centre of the English position was therefore marked by a mast (mounted upon a cart) bearing a pyx carrying the consecrated host and from which were flown the consecrated banners of the minsters of Durham, York, Beverley and Ripon: hence the name of the battle. This cart-mounted standard was a very northerly example of a type of standard common in contemporary Italy, where it was known as a carroccio.
King David had entered England for two declared reasons:
David's forces had already taken much of Northumberland apart from castles at Wark and Bamburgh.
Advancing beyond the Tees towards York, early on 22 August the Scots found the English army drawn up on open fields north of Northallerton; they formed up in four 'lines' to attack it. The first attack, by unarmoured spearmen against armoured men (including dismounted knights) supported by telling fire from archers failed. Within three hours, the Scots army disintegrated, apart from small bodies of knights and men-at-arms around David and his son Henry. At this point, Henry led a spirited attack with mounted knights; he and David then withdrew separately with their immediate companions in relatively good order. Heavy Scots losses are claimed, in battle and in flight.
The English did not pursue far; David fell back to Carlisle and reassembled an army. Within a month, a truce was negotiated which left the Scots free to continue the siege of Wark castle, which eventually fell. Despite losing the battle, David was subsequently given most of the territorial concessions he had been seeking (which the chronicles say he had been offered before he crossed the Tees). David held these throughout the Anarchy, but on the death of David, his successor Malcolm IV of Scotland was soon forced to surrender David's gains to Henry II of England.
Some chronicle accounts of the battle include an invented pre-battle speech on the glorious deeds of the Normans, occasionally quoted as good contemporary evidence of the high opinion the Normans held of themselves.
Background.
David had gained the Scottish throne largely because of the support of his brother-in-law Henry I of England, and he had attempted to remodel Scotland to be more like Henry's England. He had carried out peaceful changes in the areas of Scotland over which he had effective control and had conducted military campaigns against semi-autonomous regional rulers to reassert his authority; in administration, in warfare, and in the settling of regained territory, he had drawn on the talent and resources of the Anglo-Norman lands. The death of Henry I in 1135, weakening England, made David more reliant on his native subjects, and allowed him to contemplate winning control over substantial areas of northern England.
Henry I had wished his inheritance to pass to his daughter Matilda, and in 1127 made his notables swear an oath to uphold the succession of Matilda (David was the first layman to do so). Many of the English and Norman magnates and barons were against Matilda because she was married to Geoffrey V, count of Anjou. On Henry's death, Stephen, younger brother of Theobald, count of Blois, seized the throne instead.
When Stephen was crowned on 22 December, David went to war. After two months of campaigning in northern England, a peace treaty ceding Cumberland to David was agreed. Additionally, David's son Henry was made Earl of Huntingdon, David declining to swear the required oath of loyalty to Stephen, since he had already sworn allegiance to Matilda.
In spring 1137, David again invaded England: a truce was quickly agreed. In November, the truce expired; David demanded to be made earl of the whole of the old earldom of Northumberland. Stephen refused and in January 1138 David invaded for a third time.
Campaigning in 1138 before the battle.
David invades Northumberland.
David first moved against English castles on the Tweed frontier. Norham Castle belonged to the Bishop of Durham and its garrison was under-strength; it quickly fell. Having failed to rapidly seize the castle at Wark on Tweed, David detached forces to besiege it and moved deeper into Northumberland, demanding contributions from settlements and religious establishments to be spared plunder and burning.
Scots slave-raiding and Anglo-Norman alarm.
The actions of the army that invaded England in early 1138 shocked the English chroniclers, Richard of Hexham records
"an execrable army, more atrocious than the pagans, neither fearing God nor regarding man, spread desolation over the whole province and slaughtered everywhere people of either sex, of every age and rank, destroying, pillaging and burning towns, churches and houses". Monastic chroniclers often deplore depredations made by foreign armies and sometimes even those of their own rulers but some Scots forces were going beyond normal Norman 'harrying' by systematically carrying off women and children as slaves. In the contemporary Celtic world this was regarded as a useful source of revenue, like (and not significantly more reprehensible than) cattle-raiding. "Then (horrible to relate) they carried off, like so much booty, the noble matrons and chaste virgins, together with other women. These naked, fettered, herded together; by whips and thongs they drove before them, goading them with their spears and other weapons. This took place in other wars, but in this to a far greater extent."
 The practicalities of this would support the chroniclers’ tales of sexual abuse of the slaves and casual slaughter of unsalable encumbrances: "For the sick on their couches, women pregnant and in childbed, infants in the womb, innocents at the breast, or on the mother's knee, with the mothers themselves, decrepit old men and worn-out old women, and persons debilitated from whatever cause, wherever they met with them, they put to the edge of the sword, and transfixed with their spears; and by how much more horrible a death they could dispatch them, so much the more did they rejoice."
In February, King Stephen marched north with an army to deal with David. David successfully evaded him, and Stephen returned south.
Scots raid into Craven and the Battle of Clitheroe.
In the summer, David's nephew William fitz Duncan marched into Yorkshire and harried Craven; on 10 June, he met and defeated an English force of knights and men-at-arms at the battle of Clitheroe. He also destroyed the recently founded Calder Abbey in Copeland. The choice of targets has no obvious strategic logic; it may be pertinent that William eventually inherited both the Honour of Skipton in Craven, and the Lordship of Copeland, previously held by his father-in-law William de Meschines and which should have passed to him on the death of William de Meschines' son Ranulph Meschin, the founder of Calder.
Peace feelers fail; David enters Yorkshire.
By late July David had crossed the river Tyne and was in "St Cuthbert's land" (the lands of the Bishop of Durham). With him were contingents from most of the separate regions of his kingdom, amounting to more than 26,000 men (many sources say this is wrong, that it was more like 16,000). Eustace fitz John had declared for David and handed over to him Alnwick Castle in Northumberland. The garrison of Eustace's castle at Malton to the North East of York began to raid surrounding areas in support of David (or Matilda).
The magnates of Yorkshire gathered in York to discuss the worsening crisis: Archbishop Thurstan of York (who, as will presently appear, greatly exerted himself in this emergency), William of Aumale, Walter de Gant, Robert de Brus, Roger de Mowbray, Walter Espec, Ilbert de Lacy, William de Percy, Richard de Courcy, William Fossard, Robert de Stuteville
Much irresolution was caused by distrust of each other, arising from suspicions of treachery, by the absence of a chief and leader of the war (for their sovereign, king Stephen, encompassed by equal difficulties in the south of England, was just then unable to join them), and by their dread of encountering, with an inadequate force, so great a host However, urged by the 70-year-old Thurstan ('Lieutenant of the North' in addition to his ecclesiastical duties; Walter Espec was High Sheriff of Yorkshire), to stand and fight and if needs be die in a holy cause, they agreed to gather their forces and return to York, where they were joined by reinforcements from Nottinghamshire under William Peverel and Geoffrey Halsalin, and from Derbyshire led by Robert de Ferrers. They advanced to Thirsk, from where they sent Robert de Brus and Bernard de Balliol (recently arrived with a few mercenaries sent by King Stephen) on an embassy to David, whose army was now approaching the River Tees and North Yorkshire.
The emissaries promised to obtain the earldom of Northumberland for Henry, if the Scots army withdrew. Ailred of Rievaulx gives de Brus a speech in which he tells David that the English and the Normans have always been his true friends (against the Gaels), and without their help he may not be able to keep his kingdom together. Whatever was initially said, it ended in hard words being exchanged. Having failed to persuade David to withdraw, the emissaries returned to Thirsk, with de Brus angrily withdrawing his homage to David. David's forces crossed the Tees and moved south. The English forces moved northwards and took up a defensive position to the north of Northallerton.
Battlefield and English dispositions.
Moving south from the Tees David's army would have had the high ground of the North Yorkshire Moors on its left, and the River Swale on its right. Nearing Northallerton, the distance between hills and river is about , much of it low-lying and (then) poorly drained. The road to Northallerton from the Tees (the Great North Road) therefore approaches the town along a ridge of slightly higher ground running north-south. Minor ups and downs break the line of sight along the ridge, but the 'ups' are hills only in relation to the low ground on either side of the ridge. The English army deployed across this ridge about north of Northallerton in a single solid formation with the armoured men and most of the knights (who had dismounted, and sent their horses to the rear) to the front supported by the archers and the more lightly equipped men of the local levies. The barons stood with the remaining dismounted knights at the centre of the line around the standard. Their left is thought to have straddled the road, with its flank protected by a marsh; it is not known if the low ground to the east of the ridge was similarly boggy, or if the English formation extended that far.
Scots arrive and deploy.
John of Worcester says that David intended to take the English by surprise, there being a very close mist that day. Richard of Hexham says simply that the Scots became aware of the standard (and by implication the army underneath it) at no great distance.
"In front of the battle were the Picts [ie the Galwegians]; in the centre, the king with his knights and English; the rest of the barbarian host poured roaring around them. The king and almost all his followers were on foot, their horses being kept at a distance."
Ailred of Rievaulx gives the eventual deployment of the Scots as being in four 'lines'. The Galwegians [from Galloway in South-West Scotland] – described by a later chronicler as " men agile, unclothed, remarkable for much baldness [shaven heads?]; arming their left side with knives formidable to any armed men, having a hand most skillful at throwing spears and directing them from a distance; raising their long lance as a standard when they advance into battle" – were in the first line. "The second line the King's son Prince Henry arranged with great wisdom; with himself the knights and archers, adding to their number the Cumbrians and Teviotdalesmen ... The men of Lothian formed the third rank, with the islanders and the men of Lorne [in the South-West Highlands]. The King kept in his own line the Scots and Moravians [men from Moray in North-East Scotland]; several also of the English and French knights he appointed as his bodyguard."
Henry of Huntingdon's account of the battle would imply that the men of Lothian with their 'long spears' were in the first line; however, the generally accepted view is that the long spears were those of the Galwegians.
Scots argue.
Ailred says (but this may be a literary device) that this order of battle was decided at the last minute; David had intended to attack first with his knights and armoured men-at-arms, but had faced strong protests from the Galwegians that they should be given the honour of attacking first, since they had already demonstrated at Clitheroe that the vigour of their attack was sufficient to rout Normans in armour. David, however, paid more attention to the counter-argument of his Normans; that if the Galwegians failed the rest of the army would lose heart. The Galwegians resumed their protest, and the debate was not aided by a "mormaer" (one of David's native 'great lords') asking why David listened to 'foreigners' when none of those with armour on would this day outdo the mormaer who wore no armour. And Alan de Percy, base-born son of the great Alan – a most vigorous knight, and in military matters highly distinguished – took these words ill; and turning to the earl he said, 'A great word hast thou spoken, and one which for thy life thou canst not make good this day.'
Then the king, restraining both, lest a disturbance should suddenly arise out of this altercation, yielded to the will of the Galwegians.
Anglo-Normans orate.
Both Ailred and Henry of Huntingdon report a speech made to the Anglo-Normans before battle was joined. The speech may well be a literary device of the chroniclers, to present the reasons why it was fit and proper that the Normans should win, rather than accurate reportage of an actual speech. Ailred of Rievaulx says the speech was made by Walter Espec, Sheriff of York (and founder of Rievaulx). Henry of Huntingdon and after him Roger of Hoveden say the speech was made by Radulf Novell Bishop of Orkney as the representative of Thurstan.
The speaker first reminds the Normans of the military prowess of their race (especially when compared to the Scots): "Most illustrious nobles of England, Normans by birth, ... consider who you are, and against whom, and where it is, you are waging war; for then no one shall with impunity resist your prowess. Bold France, taught by experience, has quailed beneath your valour, fierce England, led captive, has submitted to you; rich Apulia, on having you for her masters, has flourished once again; Jerusalem so famed, and illustrious Antioch, have bowed themselves before you; and now Scotland, which of right is subject to you, attempts to show resistance, displaying a temerity not warranted by her arms, more fitted indeed for rioting than for battle. These are people, in fact, who have no knowledge of military matters, no skill in fighting, no moderation in ruling. There is no room then left for fear, but rather for shame, that those whom we have always sought on their own soil and overcome ..have ...come flocking into our country."
He next assures them that God has chosen them to punish the Scots: "This .. has been brought about by Divine Providence; in order that those who have in this country violated the temples of God, stained the altars with blood, slain his priests, spared neither children nor pregnant women, may on the same spot receive the condign punishment of their crimes; and this most just resolve of the Divine will, God will this day put in execution by means of your hands. Arouse your spirits then, ye civilized warriors, and, firmly relying on the valour of your country, nay, rather on the presence of God, arise against these most unrighteous foes"
Any keenness of the Scots to attack is because they don't understand the superiority of Norman equipment: "And let not their rashness move you, because so many insignia of your valour cause no alarm to them. They know not how to arm themselves for battle; whereas you, during the time of peace, prepare yourselves for war, in order that in battle you may not experience the doubtful contingencies of warfare. Cover your heads then with the helmet, your breasts with the coat of mail, your legs with the greaves, and your bodies with the shield, that so the foeman may not find where to strike at you, on seeing you thus surrounded on every side with iron."
Furthermore, the Scots' advantage in numbers is no advantage at all, especially when they are up against properly trained Norman knights:"[I]t is not so much the numbers of the many as the valour of the few that gains the battle. For a multitude unused to discipline is a hindrance to itself, when successful, in completing the victory, when routed, in taking to flight. Besides your forefathers, when but few in number, have many a time conquered multitudes; what then is the natural consequence of the glories of your ancestry, your constant exercises, your military discipline, but that though fewer in number, you should overcome multitudes?" These preliminaries over, the battle began.
Battle.
Galwegian attack is held and fails.
The battle began with a charge by the Galwegian spearmen who"after their custom gave vent thrice to a yell of horrible sound, and attacked the southerns in such an onslaught that they compelled the first spearmen to forsake their post; but they were driven off again by the strength of the knights, and [the spearmen] recovered their courage and strength against the foe. And when the frailty of the Scottish lances was mocked by the denseness of iron and wood they drew their swords and attempted to contend at close quarters" The English archery caused disorganisation and heavy casualties in the Scottish ranks. Ailred records the bravery and determination of the Galwegians, together with its ineffectiveness: "like a hedgehog with its quill, so would you see a Galwegian bristling all round with arrows, and nonetheless brandishing his sword, and in blind madness rushing forward now smite a foe, now lash the air with useless strokes".
The Galwegians finally fled after the death of two of their leaders (Domnall and Ulgric); the men of Lothian similarly broke after the earl of Lothian was killed by an arrow
The King retreats; Prince Henry attacks.
David wished to stand and fight, but was forced onto his horse and compelled to retire by his friends. Ailred simply says that the English were advancing; Henry of Huntingdon says that David's 'line' had been progressively melting away.
Prince Henry led mounted men in a charge on the Anglo-Norman position, as or just after the Scots foot broke. According to Ailred, Henry successfully broke through and attacked the horse-holders in the rear of the Anglo-Norman position; the 'unarmed men' (i.e. unarmoured men) were dispersed, and only rallied by a claim that the Scottish king was dead. Since Prince Henry was unsupported and the rest of the army was withdrawing, for the most part in great disorder, he hid any banners showing his party to be Scottish, and retreated towards David by joining the English pursuing him. Henry of Huntingdon is keener to stress Henry's inability to shake the armoured men; again the attack ends in flight
Scots rout and casualties.
The battle lasted no longer than between prime and terce, i.e. between daybreak and mid-morning. In Northern England at the end of August sunrise is roughly 6 a.m. and hence the battle lasted no more than 3½ hours; by not long after 9 a.m. all elements of the Scottish army were in retreat or flight. No numbers are given for total English losses but they are said to have been light; of the knights present, only one was killed. Scottish casualties during the battle proper cannot be separated from losses whilst fleeing in the 10 or so hours of daylight remaining. The chroniclers talk variously of the fugitives scattering in all directions, of their attempting to cross the Tees where there was no ford and drowning, of their being found and killed in cornfields and woods, and of fighting between the various contingents. Richard of Hexham says that of the army which came forth from Scotland, more than ten thousand were "missing" from the re-mustered survivors. Later chroniclers built upon this to claim 10–12,000 Scots "killed". John of Worcester gives more details on the fortunes of the Scots knights "But of [David's] army nearly ten thousand fell in different places, and as many as fifty were captured of his picked men. But the king's son came on foot with one knight only to Carlisle, while his father scarce escaped through woods and passes to Roxburgh. Of two hundred mailed knights whom [David] had, only nineteen brought back their hauberks; because each had abandoned as booty to the foe almost everything that he had. And thus very great spoils were taken from his army, as well of horses and arms and raiment as of very many other things".
Aftermath.
End of the campaign.
David regrouped his forces at Carlisle; the nobles of Yorkshire did not move North against him, and their local levies dispersed to their homes rejoicing at the victory. Thus, although militarily the battle was a "shattering defeat", it did not reverse David's previous gains. David had the only army still under arms and was left to consolidate his hold on Cumberland and Northumberland.
On 26 September Cardinal Alberic, bishop of Ostia, arrived at Carlisle where David had called together his kingdom's nobles, abbots and bishops. Alberic was there as a papal legate to resolve a long-running dispute as to whether the bishop of Glasgow was subordinate to the archbishop of York. However, Alberic also addressed more temporal matters: he persuaded David to refrain from further offensive action until Martinmas (11 November) whilst continuing to blockade Wark to starve it into submission, and the 'Picts' to (also by Martinmas) return their captives to Carlisle and free them there. At Martinmas, the garrison of Wark surrendered on the orders of the castle's owner (Walter Espec), conveyed by the abbot of Rievaulx. The garrison had eaten all but two of their horses; King David rehorsed them and allowed them to depart with their arms.
Another peace agreement.
Negotiations between David and Stephen continued over the winter months, and on 9 April David's son Henry and Stephen's wife Matilda of Boulogne met each other at Durham and agreed a settlement. Henry was given the earldom of Northumberland and was restored to the earldom of Huntingdon and lordship of Doncaster; David himself was allowed to keep Carlisle and Cumberland. However, King Stephen was to retain possession of the strategically vital castles of Bamburgh and Newcastle, and Prince Henry was to perform homage for his English lands, while David himself was to promise to "remain loyal" to Stephen at all times. Stephen released those who held fiefs in the lands Henry now held to do homage to Henry, saving only their fealty to Stephen.
Northern England under Scottish rule.
This arrangement lasted for nearly 20 years, and would appear to have been beneficial to both sides. David was able to benefit from the resources of Northern England (for example, the lead mines of the northern Pennines gave him silver from which he was able to strike his own coinage). Northern England did not become involved in the civil war between supporters of Stephen and those of Matilda, although magnates with holdings further south were drawn in. This included David, who despite his promise to Stephen was a loyal supporter of Matilda, but he did not go South with a Scottish army.
The new southern border of David's realm appeared to be permanently secured in 1149, when Matilda's son Henry was knighted by David at Carlisle he having first given an oath that, if he became king of England, he would give to [David] Newcastle and all Northumbria, and would permit him and his heirs to possess in peace without counter-claim for ever the whole land which lies from the river Tweed to the river Tyne.
Status quo restored.
However, Prince Henry died in 1152, King David in 1153, and King Stephen in 1154. This brought to the throne of Scotland a 14-year-old Malcolm IV of Scotland now facing a young Henry II of England who had at his command the resources not only of an England free from civil war, but also of much of Western France. In 1157, Malcolm travelled to Chester to do homage to Henry who declared that "the king of England ought not to be defrauded of so great a part of his kingdom, nor could he patiently be deprived of it ...""And [Malcolm] prudently considering that in this matter the king of England was superior to the merits of the case by the authority of might ..restored to him the .. territories in their entirety, and received from him in return the earldom of Huntingdon, which belonged to him by ancient right. Things being so arranged, England enjoyed for a time her ease and security in all her borders. And the king ruled more widely than all who were known to have ruled in England till that time, that is from the furthest bounds of Scotland as far as to the Pyrenees".
Significance of the battle.
The Battle did not stop David achieving his declared war aims. We now know that achieving those aims while England was in turmoil did not prevent all David's gains having to be surrendered when Henry II made the Scottish monarch an offer he could not refuse. Unless David had other undeclared aims and ambitions which defeat at the Standard thwarted, therefore, the battle had no long-term significance.


Francis Vinton Greene

Francis Vinton Greene (1850–1921) was a United States Army officer who fought in the Spanish–American War. He came from the Greene family of Rhode Island, noted for its long line of participants in American military history.
Biography.
Greene was born in Providence, Rhode Island, on June 27, 1850. He attended the United States Military Academy at West Point and graduated in 1870. He first served in the U.S. artillery and then transferred to the Corps of Engineers in 1872. He next served as an attaché from the War Department to the U.S. legation in St. Petersburg, Russia. While there he served in the Russian army during its war with Turkey. He was promoted to first lieutenant in 1874 and captain in 1883. He returned to the U.S. and was a civil engineer to the city of Washington, D.C. and was a professor of artillery at West Point before resigning from the Army on December 31, 1886. He published multiple articles on the development of modern warfare and U.S. military policy.
When the Spanish–American War broke out he raised the 71st New York Volunteer Infantry and was commissioned as its colonel on May 2, 1898. He was quickly promoted to brigadier general of Volunteers on May 27, 1898. He commanded the second Philippine Expeditionary Force which became the 2nd Brigade, 2nd Division, VIII Corps. Greene took a prominent part in the Battle of Manila in 1898. He assisted in the surrender negotiations for Manila. In August 1898 he was promoted major general of Volunteers and resigned on February 28, 1899. During his service, he was put in charge of the finances of the preliminary Philippine administration. In September 1898, he briefed President McKinley on the Philippine situation and recommended the annexation of the entire archipelago.
After the war, he pursued a variety of occupations. He was a delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1900. He served as the New York City Police Commissioner from 1903 to 1904. He was president of the Niagara-Lockport and Ontario Power Company, along with other business ventures with Buffalo businessman John J. Albright. He died on May 13, 1921, in New York City.
Legacy.
Greene's family holds a distinguished place in American military history. His father was Civil War general, George Sears Greene, famous for his defense of Culp's Hill at the Battle of Gettysburg. His older brother, Samuel Dana Greene, was the executive officer of the USS "Monitor" during the Battle of Hampton Roads. All were from Rhode Island.
Publications.
His publications include a series of works on military campaigns, including:


Mission Rogers

Mission Rogers was a World War II Special Operations Executive (SOE) medical and military expedition to Yugoslav Partisans in Dalmatia, western Bosnia and Slovenia. The group was led by Major Lindsay Rogers and included Sergeant William (Bill) Gillanders RAMC and an RAF Sergeant Ian McGregor. Codenamed "Vaseline" the mission left southern Italy in a Royal Navy submarine and reached the island of Vis in late November 1943.
Background.
After the Allied victory in North Africa, and their advancement in southern Italy, it became logistically easier to assist anti-Axis fighters throughout the Balkans. By this time, Yugoslav Partisans led by Marshall Tito made significant wins and territory gains against both Italian and German war machine. British Government, although initially hesitant, decided to send their first expedition led by William Deakin in May 1943, and the second one four months later, led by Brigadier Fitzroy Maclean.
The partisan warfare demanded agility and near-constant movement of troops which made medical provisioning very difficult. At the same time - frostbite, typhoid, scurvy, serious shrapnel and gunshot wounds required surgery, patient isolation and periods of hospitalisation, almost impossible to provide in such a volatile situation.
The Partisans desperately needed medical materiel, medicament and equipment, as well as experienced medical professionals to triage, operate and monitor recovering fighters and civilians. As General Kosta Nađ, one of their most senior officers confirmed:
Major Ian Mackenzie (RAMC), an experienced surgeon, joined Deakin's mission after parachuting to Petrovo Polje on 15 August 1943. Working with Olga Humo as his interpreter, he was able to operate on the wounded fighters under continuous enemy action. He met and developed a "warm and close understanding" with the Partisan Chief of Medical Staff General Gojko Nikoliš. Deakin realised the significant "moral credit" that the British mission received for Mackenzie's presence, and the importance of the care for the wounded:
On Vis.
Upon arrival on the island, the three medics engaged with local doctors and converted an empty villa into a hospital settling for the winter, although under daily Stuka bombardments. The wounded kept coming, now with frostbites and gangrenous injuries. At the same time, stories of even greater medical needs of Partisans in Lika started circulating. The trio asked to be relieved, so they could move inland towards them. They carried their stores and left Vis in the dead of night on a small fishing boat, heading north while trying to avoid German E-boats. They passed the Kornati and Dugi Otok until they finally reached Dalmatian mainland.
Mainland.
After some time wandering in the frozen landscapes of Lika, the group reached Plitvice, and the regional Partisan HQ lead by General Ivan Gošnjak. They were briefed by the local British Liaison Officer (BLO), Captain Owen Reed, who took them to see the general. They started assisting the local doctors immediately, and a few days later, they were invited to a medical conference in Glina, some 100km further north, a two days' journey. The conference, attended by Gojko Nikoliš, was interrupted by a German incursion, and the delegates moved to Topusko, and later to Slunj. The conference nevertheless continued and was addressed by Vladimir Nazor, a poet and politician who talked about medical staff sacrifices that he saw during the fighting.
Onto Bosnia.
Shortly after returning to Lika, Rogers got an invitation from Marshall Tito to come and see him at his Bosnian HQ at Drvar. The journey took a few days, combining a captured German car, horse riding and long marches on foot through deep snow. Rogers and his escorts passed through Babin Potok, Korenica, Udbina, Mazin and Martin Brod before reaching Drvar. Here, Rogers reported to the British Military Mission and met Brigadier Maclean, Randolph Churchill, Andrew Maxwell, Major John Clarke and a Signals officer called King.
The following day, together with Colonel , he reported to Marshall Tito, who wanted him to relocate to Bosnia and establish field hospitals there. Tito asked him how the Partisans could improve their medical situation. Speaking through an interpreter, (most likely Olga Humo), Rogers responded: "I told him the main needs were three. First, better food for the wounded. Second, evacuation to Italy where they could rest in peace and without the constant fear of attack and murder. And third, the wider dissemination of modern knowledge in the treatment of war wounds." Tito agreed and replied: "There are three things that I want you to do. Help our wounded here in Bosnia; ask, as only you can ask, that our wounded be evacuated from all over the country to Italy, and tell the world of our suffering."
Shortly afterwards, Maclean had told Rogers to take charge of a Military Mission at Petrovac relieving its American commander Linn "Slim" Farrish who had to go to Italy. Soon after Farrish left, some thirty downed American airmen, exhausted and sickly, arrived asking for evacuation via the nearby airfield, which was organised sometime later.
Rogers returned to his medical work and started operating both on wounded soldiers and local civilians at an improvised hospital at Ataševac. Ian McGregor left to join the Balkan Air Force and was replaced by Stanley Cameron. One day, they were visited by Gojko Nikoliš who told them that they would be running a "three-week course in surgery" for a group of Partisan doctors and nursing staff, picked from nearby brigades. The hospital was also visited by John Talbot, a Reuters correspondent, who told Rogers about the about to take place at Drvar. Rogers attended the Congress and listened to speeches by Tito, General Koča Popović and Randolph Churchill.
The area came under a frequent aerial bombardment as the Germans looked for Partisan convoys, field hospitals and a locomotive used to clear the local railway track with a snowplough. The hospital itself was bombed and all the patients, including the one "mid-operation" and unconscious, had to be dispersed in the surrounding forest. The following morning Drvar came under a large-scale airborne attack with gliders and parachute troops looking for Tito and his HQ. Unbeknown to Rogers, a meticulously planned and executed Operation Rösselsprung was underway. The following morning, Germans re-supplied their troops by parachuting more ammunition and mortar shells and Drvar fell. Tito and his HQ fled in time, and together with the British and Soviet Missions reached Glamoč, from where they were airlifted to Bari, Italy. Rogers and his team followed the same path.
Back in Italy.
Rogers spent the following few weeks running around between Bari and Naples, and preparing for his next mission. He raised the case for more sick and wounded Partisans to be evacuated to Italy, and a dedicated hospital for tuberculosis sufferers at San Fernando. By coincidence, his Canadian colleague and brother-in-arms, Doctor Colin Dafoe was also there. The two men "fought and operated" together in North Africa, and now they were both being sent to the Balkans, Rogers to Slovenia and Dafoe to Eastern Bosnia. Finally, with all their medical stores prepared and packed Rogers, Gillanders and Stanley boarded a DC-3 aircraft at Brindisi aerodrome on 14 July 1944 and few hours later parachuted to Črnomelj.
In Slovenia.
Rogers reported to the local Allied Mission, made up of a mixture of American and British officers, and waited for his assignment. They moved from Črnomelj to Semič and onto Ajdovec, visiting the field hospitals along the way. The hospitals had to be extremely well concealed as the German troops were never far away:
Finally, the trio got the agreement to open their own hospital in the forest near Ajdovec. Within a few days, Partisan carpenters had built the huts, bunks and shelves, ready to take the first patients. Very soon, a dozen of wounded soldiers arrived and needed to be operated on. The following weeks were spent in organising materiel drop-offs, evacuations of severely wounded and a short visit to Bari looking for more equipment. After his return, Rogers continued with his medical work, hiding from the Germans and arguing with Partisan Commissars. His dedication and competence did not go unnoticed and soon he was invited to meet Josip Vidmar and Boris Kidrič, the two most senior Partisan politicians in Slovenia. He was escorted by a courier into a deep forest and after a long walk arrived at the Slovene National Liberation Committee (SNOS). In addition to Vidmar and Kidrič, he also met Josip Jeras, the painter Božidar Jakac, the sculptor and his ex-wife , Boris Kraigher and a popular Partisan commander called Franc Rozman "Stane". The gathering was also attended by a BBC journalist called Kenneth Mathews.
By November 1944, as the snow started and evacuation flights stopped, Rogers and Gillanders continued with their medical work. The concentration of German troops and Yugoslav quislings in the area continued to grow, as they were withdrawing from the south of the country. This put the field hospitals at an ever greater risk. The evenings were spent with some rest, talks and singing Slovenian songs. The wounded kept coming. Bill Gillanders and their theatre nurse Ivica started a relationship, and were determined to marry. However, the level of distrust towards the "capitalist" army representatives and the "communist" leadership of the country and the army grew. The accusations of espionage, in what was very dangerous and volatile time were common. Sadly, the relationship between Bill and Ivica did not go much further as he was quickly repatriated. One evening, the news broke that the well-liked General Stane was killed while handling a PIAT grenade recently supplied by the British. He was replaced by .
Rogers continued to work, this time alone. As the spring was approaching, he noticed increased German army activity. One Sunday, he decided to visit baths at the nearby Dolenjske Toplice and catch-up with its owner, Anna. Suddenly, Anna's house was visited by Gestapo, who insisted on searching it. She was able to push Rogers into a secret hiding inside the house, from where he could hear the conversation outside:
Epilogue.
In early May 1945, as the war was nearing the end, Lindsay Rogers left Slovenia, his friends, colleagues and patients, who gave him a great send-off party. His work was hugely respected by the Partisans, their commanders and political authorities and he was awarded Order of Bravery of Yugoslavia and Order of Merit of Yugoslavia.
Sources.


Operation Osprey

Operation Osprey ("Unternehmen Fischadler" in German) was a plan conceived by the German Foreign Ministry and Abwehr II. mid-1942. The plan was an enlargement of Operation Whale ("Unternehmen Wal" in German). Planning took place in the context of American troops landing in Northern Ireland 26 January 1942, and Hitler's immediate fears surrounding this.
Figures and groups involved.
Planning for Osprey began after conversations between German Foreign Minister Joachim von Ribbentrop and Führer Adolf Hitler in the weeks following the arrival of a contingent of 4,508 US troops and engineers in Belfast commanded by Major-General Russell P. Hartle, the Commanding General of the 34th Division. The German command feared that these forces could set up bases in neutral Ireland. US forces had already compromised the neutrality of both Iceland and Greenland the previous year and it was known by the Germans that pressure had been placed on Éamon de Valera to cede the port in Cobh, and/or side with the British in World War II. German forces had already considered the occupation of Ireland in "Plan Green", but, with the German failure during the Battle of Britain, the launching of Green alongside Operation Sea Lion was still a distant prospect.
Osprey envisioned the use of volunteer commando troops trained in sabotage and British weaponry to go to Ireland in the event of an American invasion and train "Irish partisans", volunteers of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), and any Irish Army units resisting the invasion. Abwehr II. was to have only technical input into the planning and training of this new unit; the Foreign Ministry was to dominate via the Reich's Security Headquarters (RSHA) and have overall control.
Mission plan and training.
The mission plan and training schedule for Osprey was drawn up by Director of Amt VI, Walther Schellenberg, who held his brief with the Foreign Political Information Service.
Training took place at the Totenkopf Barracks in Berlin-Oranienburg and consisted of the selection of around 100 volunteers from various SS troop sections. The unit was designated Sonder Lehrgang Oranienburg and consisted of seventy NCOs and thirty private soldiers under the command of "Hauptsturmführer" Pieter Van Vessem (reportedly a Dutch national). Brandenburg regiment NCO Helmut Clissmann was to test the suitability of these volunteers against Abwehr set benchmarks of foreign language skills and cultural awareness of Ireland/Britain. Each volunteer was given English language training, and British weaponry, sabotage, and explosives training. Clissmann did believe that on the whole the unit would be able to fulfil its mission of providing close tactical support and training for any parties resisting an American invasion.
The Waffen-SS unit was to be inserted into Ireland by parachute using a Focke-Wulf Fw 200 'Condor' once the American invasion began. In addition, as part of Osprey, consideration was given to using selected regular 'Brandenburgers' and two captured Irish Prisoners of War recruited from Friesack Camp. The unit and plan was not put to the test in Ireland because the feared American invasion of Éire territory did not occur.
Despite being cancelled this mission did mark the first entrance of the SS's intelligence service, the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) into Irish affairs.
Involvement of the IRA.
There was no involvement or prior knowledge of Operation Osprey by the IRA in Ireland, although it is almost certain that Frank Ryan, an ex-IRA volunteer captured by Franco's forces and handed over to the Abwehr, was aware of the mission. His input is thought to have been minimal as ill health on his part had prevented him from taking part in Operation Whale – the precursor to Osprey.