USCGC Ingham (WHEC-35)

USCGC "Ingham" (WPG/WAGC/WHEC-35) is one of only two preserved s. Originally Samuel D. Ingham, she was the fourth cutter to be named for Treasury Secretary Samuel D. Ingham. She was the most decorated vessel in the Coast Guard fleet and was the only cutter to ever be awarded two Presidential Unit Citations.
History 1934–1988.
"Ingham" was built at the Philadelphia Navy Yard. The Treasury Department awarded her contract on 30 January 1934. Her keel was laid on 1 May 1935, and she was launched on 3 June 1936, along with her sisters "William J. Duane", "Roger B. Taney" and the "George W. Campbell". "Ingham" was christened by Ms. Katherine Ingham Brush on that date and the new cutter was formally commissioned on 12 September 1936.
"Ingham" served with distinction during World War II on convoy duty. Protecting ships ferrying vital supplies to Britain, "Ingham" battled stormy weather, German U-boats, and enemy aircraft. On 15 December 1942, during one crossing, "Ingham" engaged and sank the enemy submarine "U-626". After 1944, "Ingham" served as an amphibious flagship and she would later take part in three campaigns in the Pacific Theater. "Ingham" was the last active warship in the US fleet with a U-Boat kill.
Post-war service.
In August 1966, "Ingham" rescued lone sailor William Willis off the US eastern seabord, landing him at the Argentia Coast Guard station.
"Ingham" earned two Presidential Unit Citations for her service in Operation SEA LORDS and Operation SWIFT RAIDER during the Vietnam War on a deployment from 3 August 1968 to 28 February 1969.
On completion of her deployment to Vietnam, "Ingham" returned to regular Coast Guard duties, serving until 1988, when she was decommissioned. At that time, "Ingham" was the second oldest commissioned U.S. warship afloat, second only to in Boston, Massachusetts.
Museum Ship and Memorial.
Acquired by Patriot's Point (located near Charleston, South Carolina) in 1989, "Ingham" was displayed along with the aircraft carrier , the destroyer , and the submarine until 20 August 2009.
On 20 August 2009 "Ingham" was towed to the Coast Guard piers in North Charleston, South Carolina for minor repairs and to await dry docking. She underwent a short dry docking period at Detyen's Shipyard in North Charleston and was then towed to Key West, Florida arriving there on 24 November 2009. She is now a member of Key West Maritime Memorial Museum.
The Commandant of the Coast Guard has declared "Ingham" the National Memorial to Coast Guardsmen Killed in Action in World War II and Vietnam. These 912 casualties are identified on a memorial plaque on Ingham's quarterdeck.
"Ingham" was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1992.


VMF-452

Marine Fighting Squadron 452 (VMF-452) was a fighter squadron of the United States Marine Corps that was commissioned and fought during World War II. Known as the “Sky Raiders”, they flew the F4U Corsair, and the Grumman TBF Avenger, fell under the command of Marine Carrier Group 5 (MCVG-5) and fought in the Battle of Okinawa. The squadron is best known for being aboard the USS Franklin (CV-13) when she was severely damaged by Japanese kamikaze planes of the coast of Okinawa on March 19, 1945. VMF-452 was deactivated on December 31, 1949 and has remained in an inactive status since.
History.
VMF-452 was commissioned at Marine Corps Air Station Mojave, California.
On February 7, 1945, the squadron departed San Francisco on board the aircraft carrier USS Franklin (CV-13). From there they sailed to Pearl Harbor and then moved west to join up with Task Force 58 which was heading to support the invasion of Okinawa. On March 18 they flew their first combat missions against airfields on Kyūshū Island. The following day, the Franklin was attacked by a Japanese Yokosuka D4Y Judy dive bomber. Both of its two 500-pound bombs stuck the Franklin. 33 members of VMF-452 were killed in the ensuing devastation and the squadron was no longer combat effective. They transferred to the USS Bunker Hill and set sail for the United States.
Upon returning to the California, the squadron was sent to Marine Corps Air Station El Centro to refit and rearm in April 1945. They remained there until the end of the war.
Unit awards.
A unit citation or commendation is an award bestowed upon an organization for the action cited. Members of the unit who participated in said actions are allowed to wear on their uniforms the awarded unit citation. VMF-452 was presented with the following awards:


Albert L. Smith Jr.

Albert Lee Smith Jr. (August 31, 1931 – August 12, 1997) was an Alabama politician who represented the 6th district in the United States House of Representatives during the 97th Congress (1981–1983).
Early life.
Smith was born in 1931 in Birmingham, Alabama. He attended public schools in Jefferson County and graduated from Ramsay High School before he enrolled at Auburn University in Auburn, Alabama. He graduated from Auburn in 1954 and entered the United States Navy. He worked thereafter as an insurance agent before entering political life.
Politics.
Smith was elected as a delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1968, 1972, and 1984. In 1978, Smith challenged 12-term Republican John Hall Buchanan, Jr. in the primary for the Birmingham-based 6th District. Buchanan was one of the more moderate Republicans in the House, and Smith ran well to his right. Smith lost fairly handily, but took another run at Buchanan in 1980. With support from conservative Christian activists, Smith defeated Buchanan by a surprising 10-point margin. He then narrowly defeated Democrat Pete Clifford by three points.
Smith served only one term before being defeated by Democratic Jefferson County commissioner Ben Erdreich. To date, Smith is the last Republican congressman to be unseated by a Democrat in Alabama.
In 1984, Smith unsuccessfully ran for the United States Senate against incumbent Democrat Howell Heflin.
Private life.
With his wife Eunie, Smith had three children and six grandchildren. In 2016, following the death of Phyllis Schlafly, his widow Eunie Smith became President of the conservative campaign group Eagle Forum.
Later life.
Smith remained active in a variety of conservative political causes until his death in 1997 at the age of sixty-five. He is buried at Elmwood Cemetery in Birmingham.


United Panhellenic Organization of Youth

The United Panhellenic Organization of Youth, abbreviated EPON (), was a Greek resistance organization
that was active during the Axis Occupation of Greece in World War II. EPON was the youth wing of the National Liberation Front (EAM) organization, and was established on 23 February 1943 after the merger of ten earlier political and resistance youth organizations. Along with EAM and its other affiliates, EPON was dissolved judicially at the beginning of the Greek Civil War but continued to operate illegally until 1958.


United States Marine Corps Squad Advanced Marksman Rifle

The Squad Advanced Marksman Rifle (SAM-R) was a semi-automatic designated marksman rifle developed and used by the United States Marine Corps. It gave users the capability to provide precision fire in support of a rifle squad, providing precision fire in support of an assault, and aid in observation and adjusting of supporting arms. The SAM-R was retired by the U.S. military in the mid-2010s and thus is no longer in service, having been replaced by the M27 IAR.
Background.
The Squad Advanced Marksman and his weapon, the Squad Advanced Marksman Rifle, was the product of extensive experimentation by the Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory (MCWL) of the addition of a designated marksman to a Marine squad. The concept of a designated marksman was already in use by the 4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade (Anti-Terrorism) and Marine Corps Security Force Regiment. In exercises, a Marine with a scoped rifle and additional training provided immense benefit to small units. An optic provides information-gathering abilities as well as aiding aiming of support weapons such as machine guns and mortars.
The armorers at the MCWL decided to use the M16 rifle in order to maintain a certain level of commonality in both weapon and ammunition. There was some talk of adopting a weapon such along the same lines as the Mk 11 Mod 0, but instead that transferred over to a possible replacement for USMC personnel now using the Designated Marksman Rifle (DMR), a variant of the M14.
The SAM-Rs were assembled by the Precision Weapons Section of the Weapons Training Battalion at Marine Corps Base Quantico. For the War on Terrorism, the approximately 100 assembled SAM-Rs were sent to the 22nd, 24th, and 26th Marine Expeditionary Units (MEU) of II Marine Expeditionary Force (MEF), which is located at Camp Lejeune, North Carolina. Squad Advanced Marksmen of I MEF, which is based at Camp Pendleton, California, made do with M16A4s with KAC M5 RAS forearms and TA31F ACOGs. They were nicknamed "West Coast SAM-Rs" though they are simply M16A4s with optics and bipods, and not an 'accurized' rifle like the SAM-R used by the Marines of II MEF.
Specifications.
The original test weapon was a modified M16A4 rifle with a free-floated 1:7 stainless steel match grade heavy barrel, a "Mil-Std-1913 modular rail system" (this most likely implies the use of the Knight's Armament Company Free-Floating Rail Adapter System) and an M16A1 trigger assembly (semi and full-auto functioning). A number of day optics were used initially, which included Hensoldt Blitz, Leupold CQ/T, ACOG, Leupold TS-30A1 and ultimately the Leupold TS-30A2. The test night optic was the AN/PVS-17B, apparently now being fielded with USMC combat units though the AN/PVS-22 is preferred.
The later SAM-R was roughly a modified M16A4 pattern rifle:
M38 Designated Marksman Rifle.
After a lengthy period of debate over the role of accuracy "vs." suppressive fire in the Marines, they adopted a new doctrine and weapon in the more accurate M27 Infantry Automatic Rifle for their service rifle in 2018 and it will replace most of the M4 Carbine for the infantry.
Certain M27s are selected for accuracy; when provided with scopes and suppressors they are designated as the: M38 Designated Marksman Rifle, and distributed one per squad.


M76 Otter

The M76 Otter was an amphibious cargo carrier used by the United States Marine Corps (USMC).
History.
It was designed and built by Pontiac Motor Division in the late 1940s and intended as a replacement for the M29 Weasel. It entered service with the USMC in the early 1950s and many saw action in the Vietnam War. It was replaced in USMC service by the M116 Husky.
Preserved vehicles on display.
There are Otters on display at the following locations:


Order of battle of the French invasion of Russia

This is the order of battle of the French invasion of Russia.
"Grande Armée".
Napoleon organized the "Grande Armée" into 685,000 men, the largest army assembled up to that point in European history. On June 24, 1812 almost half a million men from this multinational army crossed the river Neman and headed towards Moscow.
Commander-in-Chief: Emperor Napoleon
Chief of Staff: Marshal Louis-Alexandre Berthier
In addition, National Guard units had been conscripted for full military service defending the frontier of the Duchy of Warsaw. With these included total forces on the Russian border and in Russia came to around 685,000 men. This vast commitment of manpower severely strained the French Empire — especially considering that there were a further 220,000 French troops fighting in Iberia and over 100,000 more in Germany and Italy.
The army consisted of:
Anthony Joes in "Journal of Conflict Studies " wrote that:
M. Minard's infographic (see below) depicts the march ingeniously by showing the size of the advancing army, overlaid on a rough map, as well as the retreating soldiers together with temperatures recorded (as much as 30 below zero on the Réaumur scale) on their return. The numbers on this chart have 422,000 crossing the Neman with Napoleon, 22,000 taking a side trip early on in the campaign, 100,000 surviving the battles en route to Moscow and returning from there; only 4,000 survive the march back, to be joined by 6,000 that survived that initial 22,000 in the feint attack northward; in the end, only 10,000 cross the Neman back out of the initial 422,000.
Adam Zamoyski estimated that between 550,000 and 600,000 French and allied troops (including reinforcements) operated beyond the Niemen, of which as many as 400,000 troops died.
Russian Imperial Army.
The forces immediately facing Napoleon consisted of three armies comprising 175,000 Russians and 15,000 Cossacks, with 938 guns as follows:
General of Infantry Mikhail Bogdanovich Barclay de Tolly served as the Commander in Chief of the Russian Armies, a field commander of the First Western Army and Minister of War until replaced by Mikhail Kutuzov who assumed the role of Commander-in-chief during the retreat after the Battle of Smolensk.
There also were forces gathered in several places:
These forces, however, could count on reinforcements from the second line, which totaled 129,000 men and 8,000 Cossacks, with 434 guns and 433 rounds of ammo.
Of these about 105,000 men were actually available for the defense against the invasion. In the third line were the 36 recruit depots and militias, which came to the total of approximately 161,000 men of various and highly disparate military values, of which about 133,000 actually took part in the defense.
Thus, the grand total of all Russian forces was 488,000 men, of which about 428,000 gradually came into action against the Grand Armee. This bottom line, however, includes more than 80,000 Cossacks and militiamen, as well as about 20,000 men who garrisoned the fortresses in the operational area.
Sweden, Russia's only ally, did not send supporting troops. But the alliance made it possible to withdraw part troops from the 45,000 man Russian corps Steinheil from Finland and use it in the later battles (20,000 men were sent to Riga).


Chief of Space Operations

The chief of space operations (CSO) is a statutory office () held by a general in the United States Space Force, and is the principal military adviser to the secretary of the Air Force for Space Force operations; and is in a separate capacity a member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and thereby a military adviser to the National Security Council, the secretary of defense, and the president. The chief of space operations is typically the highest-ranking officer on active duty in the Space Force unless the chairman or the vice chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff are Space Force officers.
The chief of space operations is an administrative position based in the Pentagon, and while they do not have operational command authority over Space Force forces, the chief of space operations does exercise supervision of Space Force units and organizations as the designee of the secretary of the Air Force.
History.
The post of Chief of Space Operations was created, along with the United States Space Force, on 20 December 2019. General John W. Raymond, the commander of US Space Command and Air Force Space Command, was announced as the first chief of space operations on that same day. On 14 January 2020, Raymond was sworn in as the first chief of space operations by Vice President Mike Pence.
Responsibilities.
Department of the Air Force.
Under the authority, direction and control of the secretary of the Air Force, the chief of space operations presides over the Space Staff, acts as the secretary's executive agent in carrying out approved plans, and exercises supervision over organizations and members of the Space Force as determined by the secretary. The chief of space operations may also perform other duties as assigned by either the president, the secretary of defense or the secretary of the Air Force.
Member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
The chief of space operations became a statutory member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff on 20 December 2020. When performing duties as a member of the Joint Chiefs, the chief of space operations is responsible directly to the secretary of defense. Like the other members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the CSO is an administrative position, with no operational command authority over Space Force forces.
Space Staff.
The Space Staff is the headquarters for the Space Force. It is responsible for organizing, training, and equipping of the Space Force cooperating with the Air Staff on support issues. It is headed by the Chief of Space Operations and the Vice Chief of space Operations are both generals, and the Chief Master Sergeant of the Space Force. There is also a director of staff who oversees the staff action group, protocol, information technology and administration, resources, and total force integration groups. The chief of space operations also have three deputy chiefs of space operations.


Malcolm Club


Feneos executions

The Feneos Executions (alternative known as the Feneos Massacres, Σφαγές του Φενεού) is the name given to a series of killings committed by the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) resistance group, and especially by its secret police (heavily controlled by the Communist Party) OPLA, in the Feneos area of Corinthia, Greece, during the first stages of the Greek Civil War, while the country was still occupied by the Axis Powers.
History.
In 1943 heavy fighting occurred between the partly communist-led EAM and the centrist/republican (EKKA, EDES) and right-wing/monarchist (PAO, ESEA) resistance groups. The main reason for this conflict was a series of activities of EAM, which attempted to put all other groups under its control. There were also ideology issues that created hostile sentiments. The EAM promoted the establishment of a socialist state, while the others preferred a state with free market and a multi-party parliament. The EAM also accused all other groups (without exception) for being traitorous and collaborating with the Germans. Local low-intensity clashes escalated to full civil war, with the ELAS (Greek People's Liberation Army, armed branch of EAM) attacking the other partisans who were supported by the Greek government-in-exile.
In the Peloponnese ELAS was the strongest partisan army compared to a few nationalist groups active in Elis, Messenia and Laconia. These small organisations were, sooner or later, either absorbed by ELAS or destroyed. Several thousands of nationalist partisans and their supporters were captured, along with actual collaborators of the Germans from the Security Battalions. It was common practice for ELAS and the OPLA (communist secret police) to arrest not only the opponent partisans, but their families too. In communist-controlled mountainous regions (such as districts of Achaia, Argolis and Messenia) small concentration camps were established.
One of the most notorious concentrations camps was the Monastery of Saint George, near the village of Kalivia Feneou in Corinthia. The ELAS partisans killed the 6 monks and turned the monastery cellars into a prison (March 1943). Unlike other camps, hostages did not stay for long there as after a few days they were taken to several nearby cliffs and other isolated sites, where they were executed. The executions were supervised by Vaggelis Zegos (nicknamed "Stathes" or "Triantafyllos"), representative of the Peloponesian Office of the EAM. Zegos was also in charge of all operations against anticommunists and non-communists in Argolis, Corinthia and northern Arcadia. In order to terrorise the rural populations, he used to arrest 5-10% of the inhabitants of each village. Killings in Feneos carried on until June 1944.
When ELAS was defeated by joint Greek and British troops in the December 1944 clashes in Athens, all communist organisations were disarmed (though several thousands of firearms were kept hidden and used in the "third round" of the war 1946-1949) and the newly created National Guard restored government control in most of the countryside, including Feneos.
Rumors before civil war.
Rumors spread by locals and right-wing newspapers claimed that ELAS had arrested and executed 5-7,000 or even 13,000 people. In fact, less than 4,000 bodies were found in the area (400 in the infamous "Hole of Feneos" and the rest in the ravine of Prophet Elias, Saint Nicolas in the White Rock, near the Hadrian aqueduct of Stymphalia etc.), out of whom 1,800 were recognised. The government built a monument, while the names of the recognised victims were written on the walls of the monastery. Ceremonies in memory are held every year with the presence of local authorities.


Women in the United States Space Force

There have been women in the United States Space Force since it became a branch of the United States military in 2019. It is the only branch of the United States military where women have always had equal roles.
On 23 July 2020 the Space Force obtained its first all-female space operations crew. On 17 August of that year Nina M. Armagno became the first female Air Force general officer to transfer to the Space Force and the first female general officer in the Space Force. On 1 October of the same year Taryn Stys and Karmann-Monique Pogue were each promoted to chief master sergeant, making them the first women in the Space Force to be so promoted.
Air Force Major General Clinton Crosier, who is also the United States Space Force’s director of planning, has stated that the Space Force is looking for new policies to create a culture of equality and inclusion.


USA-292

USA-292, also known as Advanced Extremely High Frequency 5 or AEHF-5, is a military communications satellite operated by the United States Air Force. It is the fifth of six satellite to be launched as part of the Advanced Extremely High Frequency program, which replaced the earlier Milstar system.
Satellite description.
The USA-292 satellite was constructed by Lockheed Martin Space, and is based on the A2100 satellite bus. The satellite has a mass of and a design life of 14 years. It will be used to provide super high frequency (SHF) and extremely high frequency (EHF) communications for the United States Armed Forces, as well as those of the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Canada.
Launch.
USA-292 was launched by United Launch Alliance, aboard an Atlas V 551 flying from SLC-41 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station (CCAFS). The launch occurred at 10:13 UTC on 8 August 2019, placing the satellite into a Geostationary transfer orbit (GTO) with a perigee of , an apogee of , and 9.95° inclination. The satellite was successfully deployed in this orbit about five and a half hours after launch.
TDO-1 satellite.
Alongside AEHF-5, the U.S. Air Force Space and Missile Systems Center launched an experimental 12U cubesat known as TDO-1 (Technology Demonstration Orbiter). The satellite was deployed prior to AEHF-5, from a dispenser on the aft of the Centaur upper stage into an orbit with a perigee of and an apogee of .


United States Lighthouse Board

The United States Lighthouse Board was the second agency of the US Federal Government, under the Department of Treasury, responsible for the construction and maintenance of all lighthouses and navigation aids in the United States, between 1852 and 1910. The new agency was created following complaints of the shipping industry of the previous administration of lighthouses under the Treasury's Lighthouse Establishment, which had had jurisdiction since 1791, and since 1820, been under the control of Stephen Pleasonton. The quasi-military board first met on April 28, 1851, and with its establishment, the administration of lighthouses and other aids to navigation would take their largest leap toward modernization since the inception of federal government control. In 1910, the Lighthouse Board was disestablished in favor of a more civilian Lighthouse Service, under the Department of Commerce; later the Lighthouse Service was merged into the United States Coast Guard in 1939.
Establishment of the board.
By 1847, the United States Congress became serious about reforming the Lighthouse Establishment which had been in existence since 1791 and in response to a number of complaints, the U.S. Congress removed the responsibility for the construction of six new light stations from the U.S. Treasury Department's Fifth Auditor (Stephen Pleasonton), and transferred it to the supervision of the United States Army's, long-time construction agency, the Corps of Engineers. When it became clear that this would not alleviate the underlying problems in the Lighthouse Establishment, Congress then felt compelled to deal the final blow to Pleasanton's administration. The ensuing congressional investigation took more than four years to effect a change in the administration of navigation aids along the American coasts. During that time, congressional appointee, Lt. Jenkins of the U.S. Coast Survey conducted interviews with pilots and mariners, engaged in domestic and foreign research, and was involved in a number of hearings into existing navigational aids administration.
On March 3, 1851, the U.S. Congress passed "An Act Making Appropriations for Light House, Light Boats, Buoys, &c." Section 8 of the act stated:
The Secretary of the Treasury is authorized and required to cause a board to be convened at as early a day as may be practical after the passage of that act to be two officers of the Navy of high rank, two officers of Engineers of the Army, and such civil officers of scientific attainments as may be under the orders or at the disposition of the Treasury Department, and a junior officer of the Navy to act as Secretary to said board, whose duty it shall be under instructions from the Treasury Department to inquire into the condition of the Lighthouse Establishment of the United States, and make a general detailed report and programme to guide legislation in extending and improving our present system of construction, illumination, inspection, and superintendence.
The Lighthouse Board resulted from this mandate, and its original members consisted of William B. Shubrick, and Samuel F. Du Pont, U.S. Navy; James Kearney, U.S. Topographical Engineers; civilian academics Alexander Dallas Bache, Superintendent of the U.S. Coast Survey and Joseph Henry, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution,; and Lt. Thornton Jenkins, U.S. Navy, who acted as Secretary.
Later developments.
These men attracted others of similar quality to lighthouse duty, both on the board and in district offices. The country was organized into 12 lighthouse districts, each having an inspector (a naval officer) who was charged with building the lighthouses and seeing that they remained in good condition and that the lens was in operation. After a few years the inspectors became overloaded with work and an engineer (an army officer) was appointed to each district to tend to the construction and maintenance of lighthouses.
The Lighthouse Board moved quickly in applying new technology, particularly in purchasing and installing new Fresnel lenses and constructing screw-pile lighthouses. The Board also oversaw the construction of the first lighthouses on the west coast. By the time of the Civil War, all lighthouses had Fresnel lenses.
Previously, under the Establishment, the local collectors of customs were in charge of the lighthouses and other aids to navigation. In time, all duties regarding aids to navigation were taken from them. The Board demanded that only those who could read were to be appointed as keepers in order that they be able to read their written instructions. These instructions were detailed and covered everything possible about the operation of lighthouses, leaving little discretion to the keeper. The Board struggled to eliminate politics from its activities, and slowly the organization became a professional career agency, helped greatly by the Civil Service Reform Acts of 1871 and 1883. Keepers became civil service employees in 1896. Most important, the Board was constantly mindful of advancing technology and took advantage of new types of lighthouses, buoys, or fog signals, as well as improvement in lighthouse optics. Over the next five decades several advances in lighthouse construction technology took place including the development of the exposed screwpile lighthouses, exoskeleton lighthouses, waveswept interlocking stone lighthouses, iron caisson lighthouses, and breakwater lighthouses.
In the 1850s the Board prescribed color schemes for the buoys, as well as range lights and day markers; and the buoy system was standardized. Classification systems were also developed to mark the nation's waterways. Iron buoys were introduced to replace the more expensive copper-clad wooden buoys. The Lighthouse Board also began printing changes made in aids to navigation as a Notice to Mariners.
Several advances in the technology of fog signals were made during the 1850s. In 1851, an experimental air fog whistle and reed horn was installed at Beavertail Lighthouse at the entrance to Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. At first this sound signal was powered by a horse-operated treadmill and later by an internal combustion steam engine. Around 1851, mechanically rung fog bells were introduced. The striking mechanism was governed by a weight attached to a flywheel, and later internally run by clockworks. The strokes of the fog signals were timed deliberately to afford each signal a unique sound characteristic. The bell signal was gradually replaced by three variations of that instrument. The first was an ordinary locomotive whistle, enlarged and modified and blown by steam from a high-pressure tubular boiler. The second was a reed-trumpet, and in 1866 the third variation, a siren-trumpet. Although the fog bell signal was still used for warning vessels over short distances, other fog signals started to supersede the smaller bell signal. Bells were also used on buoys; later whistling buoys were invented by J. M. Courtenay and were first in use in 1876. The first gas-lighted buoy was installed in 1882. The gong buoy was invented in 1923.
In 1886, a new technology was tested in the illumination of the Statue of Liberty—electricity. The electrical lighting of the statue, under the Lighthouse Board's care from 1886 to 1902, marks the beginning of the "modern age" in lighthouse illumination. In 1900, the Lighthouse Board began converting lighthouses to electric service; however, because of the lack of direct access to power lines, the conversion came about slowly.
References.
"This article contains information created by the US Federal Government and is in the "public domain"."


USCGC Cypress

USCGC "Cypress" (WLB-210) is a United States Coast Guard cutter and the tenth "Juniper"-class seagoing buoy tender. She is outfitted with advanced technological and navigational capabilities that allow her to be positioned correctly for exact placement of buoys through the use of controllable-pitch propellers and stern and bow thrusters.
Etymology.
The first was one of eight "Manzanita"-class buoy tenders constructed for the U.S. Lighthouse Service. The ship was commissioned on 21 July 1908, decommissioned 20 August 1946 and sold on 18 March 1947.
History.
2000s.
The advances made from the vintage seagoing buoytenders to the current "Juniper"-class are all-encompassing. The current "Cypress" is much larger at and 2000 tons, and was the first cutter to implement technological advances such as electronic charting, position keeping, and remote engineering monitoring and control. "Cypress" is also designed to skim and recover oil in the event of an oil spill. "Cypress's" Integrated Ship Control System has an Electronic Charting Display and Information System (ECDIS) which enables the fixing of her position to within five meters every second. Her Dynamic Positioning System (DPS) uses this positioning information, the ship's controllable-pitch propeller, and the stern and bow thrusters to keep the ship on station without any human input. "Cypress's" Machinery Plant Control and Monitoring System (MPCMS) has over 1000 sensors throughout the ship. This system makes it possible for one person in the engine room control center to monitor the ship's plant while underway.
"Cypress"' main area of operation stretches along of the Gulf Coast, from Apalachicola, Florida to the Mexican border at Brownsville, Texas, where she is responsible for the maintenance of 120 floating aids-to-navigation. She participated in hurricane recovery operations after Ivan, Katrina, and Rita, recovering and re-establishing buoys that were up to off station, and re-establishing critical Gulf Coast channels including Pensacola, Florida, Mobile, Alabama, Gulfport and Pascagoula, Mississippi New Orleans, Louisiana Sabine and Corpus Christi, Texas.
In 2004, "Cypress" successfully recovered a sunken “Blue Angels” F/A-18A Hornet from of water in the Gulf of Mexico, and has since served as the center point for the annual Blue Angels’ air show at Pensacola Beach, Florida. In 2005, "Cypress" contributed to the re-build and extension of the Houston Ship Channel entrance, the portal to the busy Houston-Galveston area and used by more than 6,000 large vessels annually. In spring 2007, "Cypress" completed her first extended Alien Migration Interdiction Operations (AMIO) patrol for Coast Guard District Seven. During this patrol, she intercepted two go-fast smuggler vessels and seven suspected smugglers, as well as processing over 75 illegal migrants. In addition to routine and emergency servicing of approximately 120 federal aids-to- navigation, "Cypress" also assists the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the National Data Buoy Center (NDBC) by servicing approximately twenty weather buoys throughout the Gulf of Mexico, critical to assisting professional mariners with voyage planning as well as tracking and predicting hurricanes. "Cypress" has also operated in support of her secondary missions, engaging in Maritime Law Enforcement patrols and conducting search and rescue (SAR). In one recent SAR case, "Cypress" rescued 8 people from their recreational boat just minutes before it sank.
2010s.
"Cypress" responded to the "Deepwater Horizon" oil spill impacting the Gulf of Mexico, conducting oil recovery operations and support of the operational commander’s goals.
From April to May 2012 "Cypress" underwent a drydock period at Tampa Shipbuilding Company. In 2012 and 2013, USCGC "Cypress" was a recipient of the Forrest O. Rednour Award for Medium Afloat "Galley of the Year."
In March 2019, USCGC "Cypress" collided with the Algiers Ferry dock at Woldenberg Park in New Orlean's French Quarter. The ship was carrying the Zulu king and queen to Lundi Gras festivities. Officials said that the ship's onboard computer system failed and propulsion kicked in, speeding her up and into the dock. Though the bow sustained damage, there were no reported injuries.


Marine Air Support Squadron 4

Marine Air Support Squadron 4 (MASS-4) was a reserve United States Marine Corps aviation command and control unit that provided the Direct Air Support Center (DASC) capability from 1962 through the early 1990s. MASS-4 was headquartered at Naval Air Station Los Alamitos, California, and was part of Marine Air Control Group 48 (MACG-48) and the 4th Marine Aircraft Wing (4th MAW).
Mission.
The squadron was responsible for the planning, receiving, coordination and processing of requests for direct or close air support. It provided this through the DASC. The DASC is the principal Marine air command and control system agency, responsible for the direction of air operations directly supporting ground forces. It functions in a decentralized mode of operation, but is directly supervised by the Marine or Navy Tactical Air Command Center. During amphibious or expeditionary operations, the DASC is normally the first air command & control agency ashore and usually lands in the same serial (i.e., scheduled wave or on-call wave) as the Ground Combat Element's senior Fire Support Coordination Center.
History.
MASS-4 was commissioned 1 July 1962 at NAS Alamitos with personnel being provided by the recently decommissioned Marine Ground Control Intercept Squadron 18 (MGCIS-18). They regularly participated in exercises at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro, the Marine Corps Air Ground Combat Center Twentynine Palms, Chocolate Mountain Aerial Gunnery Range and Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton.
The 1967 summer maneuvers saw MASS-4 participate in EXERCISE Golden Slipper at MCB Camp Pendleton. The exercise was the largest reserve-regular exercise in Marine Corps history up to that point. In 1975 and 1976 MASS-4 was awarded the "Herman Ridder Award" as the outstanding air control squadron in 4th MAW. The squadron was also the recipient of the "High Intercept Trophy" and the title of "4th Marine Aircraft Wing Air Control Squadron of the Year" for 1982. In 1985 the squadron participated in EXERCISE Port Call a large mobilization exercise.
Unit awards.
A unit citation or commendation is an award bestowed upon an organization for the action cited. Members of the unit who participated in said actions are allowed to wear on their uniforms the awarded unit citation. MASS-4 was presented with the following awards:


Battle of Barrosa order of battle

Below is the order of battle for the Battle of Barrosa, also known in Spain as the Battle of "Chiclana". The battle took place on 5 March 1811 during the Peninsular War between the Allied Army of Sir Thomas Graham and Manuel Lapeña against the French I Corps of the "Armée du Sud" (Army of the South) of Marshal Perrin.


Sri Lanka Army

The Sri Lankan Army (SLA) (; ) is the oldest and largest of the Sri Lanka Armed Forces. Established as the Ceylon Army in 1949, it was renamed when Sri Lanka became a republic in 1972. In 2010, the Army had approximately 200,000 regular personnel, between 20,000 and 40,000 reserve (volunteer) personnel and 18,000 National Guardsmen and comprises 13 operational divisions, one air-mobile brigade, one commando brigade, one special forces brigade, one independent armored brigade, three mechanized infantry brigades and over 40 infantry brigades. From the 1980s to 2009 the army was engaged in the Sri Lankan Civil War.
The professional head of the Sri Lanka Army is the Commander of the Army, currently General Shavendra Silva. The Commander-in-Chief of the Sri Lankan Military is the President of Sri Lanka, who heads the National Security Council through the Ministry of Defence, which is the highest level of military command charged with formulating, executing defence policy and procurements for the armed forces. However operations of the Sri Lanka Army are coordinated by the Joint Operations Command, with other two armed forces.
Background.
Pre Anuradhapura period to the Transitional period.
The first military engagements in Sri Lankan history were marked by the advent of Prince Vijaya, a prince from the Bengal region who landed along with his followers on the beaches of northwestern Sri Lanka around 543 BC. Prince Vijaya and his followers occupied the lands of the native Vedda people. Repeated incursions by South Indians, particularly the Cholas, into Sri Lankan territory occurred throughout the next few centuries and led to the engagement of the rival forces in battle. In one famous encounter, Sinhalese King Dutugamunu (161-37 BC) raised an army of eleven thousand in his battle against the Chola invader Elara, whom he eventually defeated. Dutugemunu's organisational skills, bravery and chivalry are famous and his battles have gone down in history as outstanding offensive operations.
Other Sri Lankan monarchs whose military achievements stand out include Gajabahu I (113-35), who sailed to India to bring back his captured soldiers, and Dhatusena (463-79) who is credited with repulsing numerous Indian invasions and for organising a naval build-up to deter seaborne attacks. He also had the foresight to cover his defences with artillery. Vijayabahu I (1055–1110) was another warrior king who dislodged Indian invaders and united the country. Parakramabahu the Great (1153–86) was an outstanding monarch of the Polonnaruwa period, and his accomplishments as a military leader and a great administrator are noteworthy. His reign included a military expedition to Burma in retaliation for indignities inflicted on his envoys and Burmese interference in the elephant trade. This marked the first overseas expedition in Sri Lankan military history. It is also reported that Parakramabahu's fame was such that his assistance was sought by South Indian rulers who were involved in internecine struggles. Another strong ruler in the Transitional period of Sri Lanka was Parakramabahu VI, who defeated Indian invaders, united the island and ruled it from capital Kotte. Although the known epigraphical records do not indicate that the Sri Lankan rulers had a full-time standing army at their disposal, there is evidence supported by legend, designation, name, place and tradition that prove there were 'stand-by' equestrian, elephant, and infantry divisions to ensure royal authority at all times. Militias were raised as the necessity arose, and the soldiers returned to their pursuits, mainly for farming, after their spell of military duty.
Transitional period.
Parts of Sri Lanka came under the control of three colonial European powers, namely the Portuguese in the 16th century, the Dutch in the 17th century and the British in the 18th century. Yet, until the entire island was ceded to the British in 1815, regional kingdoms maintained most of their independent defense forces and were able to successfully repulse repeated thrusts by the European armies. However the British, unlike their counterparts, were not primarily restricted to maritime power, and thus had the capability to bring the entire island under their control and to integrate locals into the British defense forces.
At the beginning of the 16th century, modern Europe first came in contact with Sri Lanka. In 1505 a Portuguese fleet, while operating in the Indian seas against Arab traders, was blown off course and landed at Galle, on the southern coast of the island. In 1517 the Portuguese re-appeared, and with the consent of the Sinhalese King established a trading post in Colombo. Having initiated contact with Sri Lanka as traders, the Portuguese soon made themselves political masters of the western seaboard. Numerous forts were soon established, and features of European civilisation was introduced.
The Portuguese are credited with the introduction of European-style fortresses to Sri Lanka during this era. Although some locals already possessed military training and fighting experience, there is no evidence that the Portuguese employed local inhabitants into their own forces. Thus the Portuguese were forced to restrict their presence in the island due to their small numbers and their efforts were more focused toward projecting maritime power.
In 1602 Dutch explorers first landed in Sri Lanka. By 1658 they had completely ousted the Portuguese from the coastal regions of the island. Much like the Portuguese, they did not employ locals in their military and preferred to live in isolation, pursuing their interests in trade and commerce. Like the Portuguese, they defended their forts with their own forces, but unlike the Portuguese, Dutch forces employed Swiss and Malay mercenaries. The Dutch Forts in Jaffna, Galle, Matara, Batticaloa and Trincomalee were sturdily built and are considered a tribute to their military engineering skills. Also, like the Portuguese, the Dutch focussed on maritime power and although they had the capability to develop and use local forces, they chose to isolate themselves from the local population.
Kandyan period.
The British Empire then ousted the Dutch from the coastal areas of the country, and sought to conquer the independent Kandyan Kingdom. In the face of repeated British assaults, the Kandyans were forced into a degree of guerilla warfare and fared well against their superior British adversaries.
Initially the British stationed their forces, which included naval vessels, artillery troops and infantry, to defend the island nation from other foreign powers, using the natural harbor of Trincomalee as their headquarters in Sri Lanka. In 1796, the Swiss and Malay mercenaries who were previously in the service of the Dutch were transferred to the British East India Company. While the Swiss Regiment de Meuron left in 1806 and was eventually disbanded in Canada in 1822, the Malays, who initially formed a Malay Corps, were converted into the 1st Ceylon Regiment in 1802 and placed under a British commanding officer. In the same year, the British became the first foreign power to raise a Sinhalese unit, which was named the 2nd Ceylon Regiment, also known as the Sepoy Corps.
In 1803 the 3rd Ceylon Regiment was created with Moluccans and recruits from Penang. All these regiments fought alongside British troops in the Kandyan Wars which began in 1803. Throughout the following years, more Sinhalese and Malays were recruited to these regiments, and in 1814 the 4th Regiment was raised, which was composed entirely of African troops. It was later renamed as the Ceylon Rifle Regiment. Eventually, the Kandyan Kingdom was ceded to the British in 1815, and with that they gained control over the whole island. Resistance to British occupation cropped up almost instantly. During the first half-century of occupation, the British faced a number of uprisings, and were forced to maintain a sizable army in order to guarantee their control over the island. After the Matale Rebellion led by Puran Appu in 1848, in which a number of Sinhalese recruits defected to the side of the rebels, the recruitment of Sinhalese to the British forces was temporarily halted.
History.
British Ceylon period.
The second phase in the employment of non-British personnel commenced in 1881 after the enactment of an ordinance designed to authorise the creation of a Volunteer Corps in the island. It was designated the Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers (CLIV). This move compensated for the disbandment of the Ceylon Rifle Regiment in 1874. The Ceylon Light Infantry Volunteers was originally administered as a single unit. However, over the years various sections of the volunteers grew large enough to become independent from their parent unit. The different units that emerged from the Volunteer Force were the
In 1910 the name of the military was formally changed to the Ceylon Defence Force (CDF). It continued to grow throughout the early period of the 20th century. The CDF saw active service when a contingent of the Ceylon Mounted Infantry (CMI) in 1900, and a contingent of the Ceylon Planters Rifle Corps (CPRC) in 1902, took part in the Second Boer War in South Africa. Their services were recognised by the presentation in 1902 of a colour to the CMI, and a presentation in 1904 of a banner to the CPRC. In 1922, the CDF was honoured by the presentation of the King's and Regimental colours to the Ceylon Light Infantry (CLI).
During the First World War, many volunteers from the Defence Force travelled to Great Britain and joined the British Army, and many of them were killed in action. One of them mentioned by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle was Private Jacotine of the CLI, who was the last man left alive in his unit at the Battle of Lys, and who continued to fight for 20 minutes before he was killed.
In 1939, the CDF was mobilised and an enormous expansion took place which required the raising of new units such as the Ceylon Signals Corps, the Auxiliary Territorial Service (Ceylon) and also the Colombo Town Guard, which had been previously disbanded, but was later re-formed to meet military requirements. During the Second World War, Britain assumed direct control over the Armed Forces of Ceylon.
Contemporary Sri Lanka.
At the end of World War II, CDF which had increased in size during the war began demobilisation. In 1948 Sri Lanka gained independence from Britain, becoming a Dominion within the Commonwealth and a year earlier Ceylon entered into the bi-lateral Anglo-Ceylonese Defence Agreement of 1947. This was followed by the Army Act No. 17 of 1949 which was passed by Parliament on April 11, 1949 and formalised in Gazette Extraordinary No. 10028 of October 10, 1949 marked the creation of the Ceylon Army, consisting of a regular and a volunteer force, the later being the successor of the disbanded CDF. Therefore, October 10, 1949 is considered the day the Ceylon Army was raised, and as such October 10 is celebrated annually as Army Day. Brigadier James Sinclair, Earl of Caithness was appointed as Commandant of the Ceylon Army. The Defence Agreement of 1947 provided the assurance that British would come to the aid of Ceylon in the event it was attacked by a foreign power and provided British military advisers to build up the country's military. In November, a Ceylon Army Guard takes over duties at Echelon Barracks from the Guard of the British Army.
The Army Headquarters, Ceylon was established in Colombo, with a General Staff Branch, an Adjutant General Branch, a Quartermaster General Branch and a Pay and Records Branch. Soon after the Headquarters, Ceylon Volunteer Force was established. The initial requirement was to raise an artillery regiment, an engineer squadron, an infantry battalion, a medical unit, and a service corps company. For much of the 1950s the army was preoccupied with the task of building itself and training existing and new personal. To this aim the British Army Training Team (BATT) advisory group carried out training for ex-members of the CDF within the Ceylon Army, field rank officers were sent to the British Army Staff College, Camberley and some attached to units of the British Army of the Rhine to gain field experience. Newly recruited officer cadets were sent for training at Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, stating with 10 officer cadets in 1950, which continued until the 1968 and both officers and other ranks were sent to specialist training courses in Britain, India, Pakistan and Malaya. There were no formations and all units were structured to directly function under the Army Headquarters. However temporary field headquarters were to be formed at the time requirement arose.
Due to a lack of any major external threats, the growth of the army was slow, and the primary duties of the army quickly moved towards internal security by the mid-1950s, the same time as the first Ceylonese Army Commander Major General Anton Muttukumaru took command of the army. The first internal security operation of the Ceylon Army began in 1952, code named "Operation Monty" to counter the influx of illegal South Indian immigrants brought in by smugglers on the north-western coast, in support of Royal Ceylon Navy coastal patrols and police operations. This was expanded and renamed as Task Force Anti Illicit Immigration (TaFII) in 1963 and continued up to 1981 when it was disbanded. The Army was mobilised to help the police to restore peace under provincial emergency regulations during the 1953 hartal, the 1956 Gal Oya Valley riots and in 1958 it was deployed for the first time under emergency regulations throughout the island during the 1958 Riots.
During the 1950s and 1960s the army was called upon to carry to essential services when the workers went on strike which were organised by the left-wing parties and trade unions for various reasons, the most notable was the 1961 Colombo Port strike, during which ships threatened to bypass Colombo port and the country almost starved. To counter these common strikes several units were formed, who were employed in development work when there were no strikes. New regiments were formed, which included the Ceylon Armoured Corps, Ceylon Sinha Regiment and the Ceylon Pioneer Corps.
In 1962 several senior officers attempted a military coup, which was stopped hours before it was launched. Thereafter the government mistrusted the military and reduced the size and growth of the army, especially the volunteer force, disbanding several units and forming the Gemunu Watch.
In 1971, the Army found itself facing a full blown insurgency, when the JVP Insurrection broke out in April 1971. Having been caught by surprise, as a result of failure to comprehend the magnitude of the insurgency from intelligence reports. Although completely ill-prepared to deal with an insurgency, lacking weapons, ammunition, equipment and training; the army responded quickly and successfully defeated the insurgency by the Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna by mid 1971.
In May 1972, when Ceylon was proclaimed a republic and changed its name from the Dominion of Ceylon to the Republic of Sri Lanka, all Army units were renamed accordingly.
By the late 1970s the army was confronted with a new conflict, this time with Tamil militant groups in the north of the island. The Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) emerged as the prominent of these Tamil militant groups. The war escalated to the point where India intervened as a peacekeeping force. This was later seen as a tactical error, as the Indian Peace Keeping Force united nationalist elements such as the JVP to politically support the LTTE in their call to evict the IPKF. This led to a second insurgency by the JVP, forcing the army to deploy its forces in the south of the island and to fight on two fronts between 1987 and 1989. The 1980s saw a massive expiation of the army from 15,000 personal to over 30,000 and more. New regiments were raised, while others were expanded with new battalions. New weapons and equipment were introduced as the war shifted from counter-insurgency to conventional warfare tactics, with multi battalion, brigade and division scale operations. New regiments were formed which included the Commando Regiment, Special Forces Regiment, Mechanized Infantry Regiment, Gajaba Regiment, Vijayabahu Infantry Regiment, Military Intelligence Corps, Sri Lanka Army Women's Corps, Sri Lanka Rifle Corps and the Sri Lanka National Guard.
The war with the LTTE was halted several times for peace negotiations, the last of which following the signing of a ceasefire agreement in 2002 with the help of international mediation. However, renewed violence broke out in December 2005 and following the collapse of peace talks, the Army has been involved in the heavy fighting that has resumed in the north and east of the country.
Since 1980 the army has undertaken many operations against the LTTE rebels. The major operations conducted by the army eventually led to the recapture of Jaffna and other rebel strongholds. On 19 May 2009 Sri Lankan army declare the victory of war as they found the dead body of LTTE leader Velupillai Prabhakaran. This marked the end of the war, with the LTTE ceasing to exist in Sri Lanka as a result of prolonged military offensives conducted by Sri Lanka army. The Sri Lankan Armed Forces, including the army, have been accused of committing war crimes during the war, particularly during the final stages. A panel of experts appointed by UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon to advise him on the issue of accountability with regard to any alleged violations of international human rights and humanitarian law during the final stages of the civil war found "credible allegations" which, if proven, indicated that war crimes and crimes against humanity were committed by the Sri Lankan Armed Forces and the Tamil Tigers.
Deployments.
As of present, the bulk of the Sri Lankan Army is deployed for domestic defensive and combat operations, while a sizable foreign deployment is maintained.
Domestic.
Due to the Sri Lankan Civil War the army has been on a constant mobilized (including reservist) state since the 1980s. The majority of the army has been deployed in the North and Eastern provinces of the country, which includes 14 Divisions coming under six operational headquarters and 2 independent Divisions and several independent Brigades. The army is also based in other parts of the island for internal security including a Division for the defence of the capital.
Foreign.
The Sri Lanka Army currently participates in several major overseas deployments:
Peacekeeping.
The Sri Lanka Army has taken part in two peacekeeping missions with United Nations over the course of its history. First assignment was in the Congo (ONUC) (1960–1963). Most recently, following the signing of a ceasefire agreement was signed between the government and the LTTE in 2002, Sri Lankan forces were invited by the United Nations to be part of the UN peacekeeping force in Haiti. In the process of the peacekeeping operations, two soldiers were killed in a raid in Petit-Goave.<ref name="sdut-3/21/05"></ref> After over 6 months of service, the first contingent of the peacekeeping force returned to Sri Lanka on May 17, 2005. In December 2007, 7th rotation of the Sri Lankan contingent had been deployed with a force of 991 officers and other ranks, many of those deployed have been awarded the United Nations Medal for their services. In November 2007, 114 members of the 108 of the 950 member Sri Lankan Army peacekeeping mission in Haiti was accused of sexual misconduct and abuse after buying sex for money and valuables including from minors. In January 2019, a Sri Lankan army officer and trooper on peace keeping duty in Mali were killed and three more wounded when their convoy came under an IED attack. The incident prompted the army to accelerate its Avalon program.
Sri Lanka Army’s newest contingent of 243 Army personnel in the Combat Convoy Company (CCC), well-prepared to serve in the United Nations (UN) Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA) left the island on the 21st of April 2021 .
Organization structure.
The professional head of the army is the Commander of the Army, at present General Shavendra Silva. He is assisted by the Chief of Staff of the Sri Lanka Army and a Deputy Chief of Staff. The Commandant of the Volunteer Force is head of the Army Volunteer Force and is responsible for the administration and recruitment of all reserve units and personal. The Army Headquarters, housed in the Defence Headquarters Complex in Sri Jayawardenapura Kotte is the main administrative and the operational headquarters of the Sri Lanka Army.
Administrative.
The Army Headquarters is divided into a number of branches, namely the General Staff (GS) branch responsible for coordination of operations and training and the Adjutant General's (AGs) branch responsible for personal administration, welfare, medical services, and rehabilitation. The Quarter Master General's (QMGs) branch is responsible for feeding, transport, movement, and construction and maintenance. The Master General of Ordnance's (MGOs) branch is responsible for procurement and maintenance of vehicles and special equipment. The Military Secretary's Branch is responsible for handling all matters pertaining to officers such as promotions, postings and discipline. Each branch is headed by an officer in the rank of Major General who is directly responsible to the Commander of the Army for the smooth functioning of the Branch. Under each Branch, there are several Directorates, each headed by a Brigadier.
The headquarters of field formations each have its own staff. For instance a divisional headquarters is divided into a GS branch as an AQ branch, each headed by a Colonel and is responsible for operations & training and administration & logistics respectively. Similarly, a Brigade Major and Major AQ is responsible for operations and administration in a brigade.
Like the Indian Army, the Sri Lanka Army has largely retained the British-style regimental system that it inherited upon independence. The individual regiments (such as the Sri Lanka Light Infantry and the Sri Lanka Sinha Regiment) operate independently and recruit their own members. Officers tend to remain in a single battalion throughout their careers. The infantry battalion, the basic unit of organization in field operations, includes five companies of four platoons each. Typical platoon has three squads (sections) of ten personnel each. In addition to the basic infantry forces, a commando regiment was also established in 1986. Support for the infantry is provided by an armoured regiment, five reconnaissance regiments, three mechanized infantry regiments, five field artillery regiments, a rocket artillery regiment, three commando regiments, three special forces regiments, six field engineering regiments, five signals battalions, a medical corps, and a variety of logistics units.
Operational command.
Organized and controlled by the Army General Staff at Army HQ, various formations are raised from time to time to suit various security requirements and operations in the country and overseas. The Army at present has deployed 12 Divisions, 7 task forces and several independent brigades. Except for the 11 Division based at the Panagoda Cantonment which is responsible for the maintenance of capability for the defense of the capital, all other divisions, task forces and brigades are deployed for operations in the Northern and Eastern provinces of Sri Lanka, coming under six regional commands known as "Security Forces Headquarters", which are the Security Forces Headquarters Jaffna (SFHQ-J), Wanni (SFHQ-W), East (SFHQ-E), Kilinochchi (SFHQ-KLN), Mullaittivu (SFHQ-MLT), West (SFHQ-W) and Central (SFHQ-C)
Each SFHQ and most divisions are commanded by a General Officer Commanding in the rank of Major General. A SFHQ has several divisions under its command and each division is further divided into brigades. Each brigade is commanded by an officer in the rank of Brigadier and has a number of Infantry battalions, support arms (Artillery, Engineers and Signals) and support services (Service Corps, Engineering Services, Ordnance Corps, Electrical and Mechanical Engineers) under assigned to it. There are also several independent brigade (Air Mobile Brigade, Armored Brigade, etc.)
In other parts of the country, there are Area and Sub-Area Headquarters. Armour, Artillery, Engineers and Signals Units are grouped under Brigade Headquarters of their own arm; Armored Brigade, Artillery Brigade and so on.
Training.
The Army Training Command (ARTRAC) with its headquarters at Diyatalawa formulates all training doctrine of the army and all its training centers. ARTRAC directs all army training establishments, regimental training establishments and battalion training schools.
General Sir John Kotelawala Defence University (KDU) formed in 1981 and situated in Ratmalana, fourteen kilometers south of Colombo, is Sri Lanka's only university specializing in defence studies. Each year, approximately fifty cadets from all three services are admitted to the university (aged 18–22) to participate in a three-year programme of academic work and basic training.
Junior field officers of the army and their counterparts in the Navy and Air Force follow the Command and Staff Course at the Defence Services Command and Staff College (DSCSC) at Batalanda, Makola which was established in 1997 as the Army Command and Staff College and the Junior Staff Course at the Officer Career Development Centre. While the Logistics Staff Course is conducted at the Army School of Logistics which was established in 2011. In addition KDU conducts Masters Of Science (Defence Studies) degree for the officers of army. The army continuous to send its senior officers for overseas training, specially for defense college.
Basic officer training is carried out at the Sri Lanka Military Academy (SLMA) (formally the Army Training Centre) situated in Diyatalawa, in the Badulla District. The officer cadets graduating from the academy are commissioned as officers in the regular and volunteer forces. The course for officer cadets runs for ninety weeks and includes training in tactics and administration which helps prepare the cadets to take up the positions of platoon commanders. The course consisted of military and academic subjects and also trained the cadets physically. The course helps to promote leadership qualities and the understanding of each one's role as an officer and a servant of the state. Due to the lack of officers within the lower levels, the training process was sped up in the 1980s by developing a short commission course. The cadets were given a training of fifty-six weeks and devoted themselves to continue their careers in the military with the ten years of service for regular army officers and five years of service for volunteer officers.
Training for the new recruits are carried out by the Army Training School in Maduru Oya and at several locations by training battalions, followed by additional specialized training (both officers and other ranks) at the Infantry Training Centre in Minneriya, the Combat Training School in Ampara, while non-commissioned officers receive training at the Non-commissioned Officers Training School at Kala Oya. All these establishments come under the control of the Directorate of Training, Army Headquarters. Specialist and additional training is given by specialist training schools, regimental training centres and individual field units.
At its formation the armed forces of Sri Lanka had limited indigenous training facilities, especially in technical and advanced roles, they have depended greatly on military training provided by foreign countries. The United Kingdom played a major role in the early years following independence and have continued to be an important source of military expertise to the Sri Lankan military. Other sources include India, Pakistan, the United States, Australia and Malaysia. Additionally, in an agreement reached in 1984, Israeli security personnel (reportedly from Shin Bet, the Israeli counterespionage and internal security organisation) trained army officers in counterinsurgency techniques. With the rapid expansion of the army, in recent years it has expanded its training facilities locally.
The Sri Lankan Army has also provided special training to the United States Army on their request as well as many other countries in military education regarding civilian rescue, jungle combat, and guerilla warfare etc.
Training establishments.
Training Centres
Regimental Training Centers
Personnel.
The Sri Lanka Army presently stands at 200,000 strong including 2,960 women plus and 58,000 reservists.
In late 1987, the army had a total estimated strength of up to 40,000 troops, about evenly divided between regular army personnel and reservists on active duty. The approximately 20,000 regular army troops represented a significant increase over the 1983 strength of only 12,000. Aggressive recruitment campaigns following the 1983 riots raised this number to 16,000 by early 1985. By 1990 the army had expanded to over 90,000 personnel and by 2007, it had expanded to over 120,000.
Since the Sri Lankan armed forces are all volunteer services, all personal in the Sri Lanka Army have volunteered as regular personnel or reservists. This should not be confused with the traditional term "volunteers" used for reservists or reservist units. Recruitment of the personal are carried island wide with a restrictions in the northern and eastern provinces during the civil war in those areas. The Rifle Corps is the only territorial unit that carries out recruitment from a specific area. In June 2009, Sri Lanka announced plans to create a "Tamil regiment" to promote integration in the army.
Parama Weera Vibhushanaya recipients.
The Parama Weera Vibhushanaya is the highest award for valour awarded in the Sri Lankan armed forces. Army recipients include;
Notable fallen members.
Over 23,790 Sri Lankan armed forces personnel were killed since begin of the civil war in 1981 to its end in 2009, this includes 12 general officers killed in active duty or assassinated. 659 service personnel were killed due to the second JVP insurrection from 1987 to 1990. 53 service personnel were killed and 323 were wounded in the first JVP insurrection from 1971 to 1972. Notable fallen members includes;
Directorate of Rehabilitation.
The Directorate of Rehabilitation was established with the intention and focus towards the rehabilitation of Officers and Other Ranks Wounded in Action. However, with the increase of a number of casualties due to the operations, the Sri Lanka Army proceeded to utilize the services of battle casualties with the view of obtaining a productive service from these individuals. As a result, under mentioned institutes had been established.
Women in the Sri Lanka Army.
Making a corps for women was dreamed by former Commander of the Army General Denis Perera who became commander in October 1977. Gen. Perera sought help from the WRAC of British Army and in 1978 three females were sent to Britain for officer training. They returned to Sri Lanka in August 1979 after completion of eight months of training. The corps was officially formed on September 14, 1979 with one battalion (the 1st regular battalion).
The first three female cadets to enroll the army were K.C. Jayaweera, M.P Wijegunawardena and V.P. Senevitathna (trained in Britain) and the first batch of female cadets to be trained in Sri Lanka was commissioned from the Sri Lanka Military Academy on 18 August 1984. On 16 October 1980, ten women were recruited for N.C.O. training and were given the basic Army training at the Army Training Centre, Diyatalawa. These N.C.O.s passed out in November 1980. The three officers and ten N.C.O.s participated at the Independence Day celebrations held at the Galle Face Green for the first time in 1981 and Women's Corps has been a part of the country's Independence celebrations ever since. Lieutenant Colonel (later Brigadier) A.W. Thambiraja (male) was the first Commanding Officer of the 1st regular battalion (1 SLAWC) and Major K.C. Weerasekara was promoted to Lt. Col. in 1993; she was the first woman to be promoted to this rank from this corps and was also the first woman to be appointed as the commanding officer of the 1 SLAWC in 1989 in the rank of Major.
The regimental centre of the corps was established on 17 November 1997 at Borella. Male Major General W.A.A. de Silva RSP USP was the first Colonel Commandant of the Regiment and female Lieutenant Colonel M.H.P.S. Perera, USP was the first Centre Commandant. Major General H.I.G. Wijerathna, USP was the first female colonel commandant of this regiment who served from 2008 to 2010 and Brigadier D.T.N. Munasinghe was the second female to be appointed as the colonel commandant in 2016.
The primary aim of raising Women's Corps was to provide telephone operators, computer operators, nurses and clerks, to release the male counterparts to the battle field. However, women soldiers were also employed on field duties later. Six more battalions were created in the 1990s and 2000s and till now the corps has seven battalions in total.
Originally limited to Women's Corps, today women serve in Engineers, Signals Corps, Military Intelligence Corps, Engineer Services Regiment, Corps of Military Police, Medical Corps and the General Service Corps. Over 25 female soldiers have been killed in action with the first in 1997.
Rank of Field Marshal.
In the year 2015, Sri Lanka Army got is 1st Rank of Field Marshal, when President Maithripala Sirisena promoted General Sarath Fonseka to the post. Field Marshal Fonseka is well known for leading the 30-year-old war to an end.
Equipment.
In the 1980s, the army expanded its range of weapons from the original stock of World War II-era British Lee–Enfield rifles, Sten Submachine guns, Vickers machine guns, Bren machine guns, 6-inch coastal guns, Daimler Armoured Cars, Bren Gun Carriers, 40 mm anti-aircraft guns, 3.7-inch heavy anti-aircraft guns and 4.2-inch heavy mortars as well as post war Alvis Saladins, Alvis Saracen, Ferrets and Shorland S55s. New sources of weaponry in the mid-to-late 1970s included the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, and China – countries with which the leftist Bandaranaike government had close ties.
To meet the threat posed by predominantly the LTTE, Army purchased modern military hardware including 50-caliber heavy machine guns, rocket-propelled grenade (RPG) launchers, Night Vision Devices, 106 mm recoilless rifles, 60 mm and 81 mm mortars, 40 mm grenade launchers and some sniper rifles. Refurbished armored personnel carriers were added to the 'A' vehicle fleet of the 1st Reconnaissance Regiment, Sri Lanka Armoured Corps. These APCs enabled the Armoured Corps to have their own assault troops to provide close contact protection to their Alvis Saladin and Ferret Scout Cars which were vulnerable to anti-tank weapons. The capability of the Sri Lanka Artillery was enhanced with the introduction of Ordnance QF 25 pounders. Chinese-made 122 mm, 130 mm and 152 mm howitzers were introduced to the Sri Lankan Army in 1995 and 1998 whilst 122 mm Multi Barrel Rocket Launchers (MBRL), were first used in 2000 by the Sri Lanka Army.
Though the weapons were obsolete at the time of purchase, security forces found them to be successful in combat. Land mines proved to be the most lethal threat to personnel, as a number of mines were deployed against unprotected trucks and buses by the LTTE in the northern and eastern Provinces. These land mines weighed approximately 50 – 100 kg, against which no armoured vehicle that the SLA possessed was able to withstand the blast effect. Consequently, Armscor Buffels – South African armoured personnel carriers constructed on a Unimog chassis – were imported in quantity. By 1987 Sri Lanka's indigenous Unicorn APC had been engineered from the Buffel, followed by the improved Unibuffel class. Both the Unicorn and the Unibuffel are assembled by the Sri Lanka Electrical & Mechanical Engineers (SLEME).
In recent years, Sri Lanka has become increasingly reliant on China for weapons. This is due to most European nations and the United States Governments passing regulations about the selling of weaponry to nations which are suffering from internal conflict. However the United States has expressed its intent to maintain military training assistance. Recently the Sri Lankan Army started to produce locally weapons such as a new multiple rocket launcher, with 10 barrels and a firing range of 20 km. The SLEME is also producing vehicles for transport, the UniCOLT series trucks, and landmine-resistant vehicles, the UniAIMOVs and the UniAVALONs. In 2020, the Army shipped several modernized Unibuffels to the Sri Lankan forces who are serving in a peacekeeping mission in Mali.
Sri Lanka also continues to receive a variety of weapons from Britain, India, Japan, Pakistan, Israel and other former suppliers.
Welfare.
Sri Lanka Army Seva Vanitha Unit.
Inaugurated on 12 July 1984, Sri Lanka Army Seva Vanitha Unit functions with the main objective of providing welfare facilities to the next of kin of war heroes who have sacrificed their lives, gone missing in action or injured whilst defending the sovereignty and territorial integrity of their motherland while also empowering the families of the serving Army personnel. Traditionally the organization functions under the leadership of the wife of the serving Commander of the Army, and the members are the spouses of Army Officers as well as Lady Officers. The organization extends to 22 Regimental branches functioning under the patronage of the wives of the respective Regimental Commanders.
Sri Lanka Army Seva Vanitha Unit conducts various welfare projects such as Viru Kekulu pre-schools, day care centres, welfare shops, bakeries and salons, with the committed contribution of the dedicated membership. Construction of houses, giving away of educational scholarships and assisting in times of natural disasters, are done at both organizational and Regimental levels. The volunteer service extended by the spouses of the Army Officers whilst multitasking at their roles as wives, mothers and professionals, is an immense strength to Sri Lanka Army.


Naval Aviation Ordnance Test Station

The Naval Aviation Ordnance Test Station (NAOTS) was a United States Navy base located at , near Chincoteague, VA, that was used as a suborbital launch site. In 1955, research rockets of the Rockair type were launched from F2H-2 planes based there. An altitude of 54,864 m (180,000 ft) was reached with a 70mm (2.75-in.) folded-fin aerial rocket (FFAR) of Korean vintage. In spite of successful tests, the rockair concept never achieved the popularity of the rockoon. Apparently no important scientific rocket research was carried out with rockaires, in contrast to the hundreds of rockoons fired during the 1950s.
In 1959, NASA acquired NAOTS and parts of the station were incorporated into the Wallops Island facility, later named Wallops Flight Facility.


Gunnery sergeant

Gunnery Sergeant (GySgt) is the seventh enlisted rank in the United States Marine Corps, above staff sergeant and below master sergeant and first sergeant, and is a senior staff non-commissioned officer (SNCO). It has a pay grade of E-7.
The gunnery sergeant insignia consists of two M1 Garands centered vertically between three chevrons and two rockers.
Responsibilities.
Gunnery sergeants in infantry units typically serve in the billet of "company gunnery sergeant" or as the platoon sergeant of 23–69 Marines in a reconnaissance platoon or a crew-served weapons platoon (i.e., machine guns, mortars, assault weapons/rockets, and anti-tank missiles). In artillery batteries, gunnery sergeants serve as the "battery gunnery sergeant" in the headquarters section of the firing battery's 94-member firing platoon. In tank and assault amphibian units gunnery sergeants may serve as a platoon sergeant of a 16-member platoon of four tanks or a 39-member platoon of 12 amphibious assault vehicles (AAVs), respectively. Tank and assault amphibian gunnery sergeants are also assigned as section leaders, in charge of either two tanks and 8 Marines or three AAVs and 9 Marines. Gunnery sergeants serving as platoon sergeants perform essentially the same duties as staff sergeant platoon sergeants, with the additional responsibility of supervising other staff non-commissioned officers (i.e., the gunnery/staff sergeants leading the organic sections of the platoon).
The company/battery gunnery sergeant serves as the unit's operations chief and works with the executive officer to plan and coordinate unit training and operations. In combat, as a member of the unit's command group, he/she serves as a tactical adviser to the commanding officer/battery commander regarding employment of the unit and assists in operating the command post or tactical operations center. In garrison, he/she is responsible to the company/battery commander for supervising and coordinating individual training for the enlisted members of the company or battery and may assist the company/battery first sergeant in the administration and non-tactical leadership of the unit and by supervising the property (logistics) NCO, advising the officers, mentoring subordinate ranking Marines, and performing other duties as assigned. The company/battery gunnery sergeant has been described as a "hands on disciplinarian". An approximate former equivalent in the United States Army would have been "field first sergeant".
Gunnery sergeants also serve as senior staff non-commissioned officers in military staff sections and headquarters and service companies and headquarters batteries at battalion/squadron, regiment/group, and division/wing headquarters levels. Typical gunnery sergeant billets in combat support companies and battalion, regiment, and division headquarters are: Personnel Administration Chief, Staff Secretary Personnel/Administration Clerk, Administration Assistance Chief, Division Reproduction NCO, Equal Opportunity Advisor, Human Affairs NCO, Career Planner, Intelligence Chief, Operations Chief, Operations Assistant, Watch Team NCOIC, Schools Coordinator, MAGTF Plans Chief, Cinematography Specialist, Logistics Chief, Embarkation Chief, Infantry Weapons Chief, Analyst and Review Fiscal Chief, Information Systems Maintenance Chief, Public Affairs Chief, Communications-Electronics Maintenance Section Chief, Radio Chief, Wire Chief, Motor Transport Chief, Battery Motor Transport Chief, Roadmaster, Assistant Roadmaster, Maintenance Chief, Assistant Maintenance Chief, Management Team Inspector, Engineer Equipment Chief, and Mess Manager.
In Command Element, Combat Logistics Element, and Aviation Combat Element organizations, gunnery sergeants serve in basically similar positions of responsibility, authority, and accountability as their Ground Combat Element counterparts, with perhaps slightly different titles, such as Division/Branch Chief/NCOIC or Department SNCOIC (Staff Non-Commissioned Officer-In-Charge) in the aircraft maintenance department of a Marine aircraft squadron. Non Fleet Marine Force (or other operating forces) assignments may include supervisory or staff positions in recruiting, drill instructor, Marine Security Guard, Naval ROTC instructor or service school instructor, and major/joint/combined headquarters commands.
History and insignia.
The rank of gunnery sergeant in the Marine Corps was established by the Navy personnel act of March 3, 1899 () reflecting the duties of Marines in ship's detachments. The original insignia was three chevrons point up with three straight "ties" with an insignia of a bursting bomb over a crossed rifle and naval gun. From 1904 to 1929 the insignia went to three stripes only over a bursting bomb on top of crossed rifles. In 1929, like the rank of first sergeant, two "rockers" were added beneath the stripes with the same insignia in the middle. In 1937 the middle insignia was dropped. The rank was replaced by technical sergeant in 1946 until restored in 1959, when the crossed rifles insignia were added to Marine chevrons.
Qualifications.
The qualifications and selection of gunnery sergeants in the "Old Corps" was explained in congressional testimony in 1912:
The following qualifications are required for appointment to the rank of gunnery sergeant:
A candidate for appointment as gunnery sergeant in the United States Marine Corps should be sufficiently proficient in the drill regulations to thoroughly drill recruits and to drill the squad and company. They should be thoroughly conversant with the nomenclature of the rapid-fire and machine guns used in the naval service and be sufficiently acquainted with their drill to be able to act as gun captains and to instruct the enlisted in their duties at such guns. They should have knowledge of the kinds and quantities of ammunition used in those guns. They should have a thorough knowledge of the instructions pertaining to target practice. They should have sufficient knowledge of the system of accountability of the United States Marine Corps to take charge of and properly render the accounts of a guard aboard ship, and should be competent in all respects to perform the duties of a first sergeant in charge of a guard on ship to which no marine officer is attached; also a knowledge of the duties involved in the subsistence of Marines ordered on detached duty, as well as the duties of an officer in command of a part of a landing party on shore.
Gunnery sergeants are selected from the sergeants of the corps on account of superior intelligence, reliability, and mechanical knowledge. The grade was provided with the idea that they should be somewhat higher in standard than first sergeants; that their knowledge of ordnance and of gunnery should be such that they would be able to make minor repairs to guns—to supervise all work in connection with guns; to command detachments which were of such size as not to warrant a commissioned officer being assigned to them. They are at present in command of marine detachments at naval magazines; are performing duty as first sergeants of regularly organized companies at various posts; in connection with the repair of guns at various Marine Corps stations; in connection with the training of recruits; and, in general, performing duties that require the utmost reliability. For a number of years candidates for promotion to this grade were required to take a special course of instruction before receiving their warrants, but recently, because of the lack of first sergeants and the numerous small detachments organized, it has been necessary to detail many of them for duty as first sergeants. As soon as there are a sufficient number of first sergeants available, it is intended to reestablish the school and to give gunnery sergeants a thorough course of instruction prior to their permanent appointment to this grade, in order that they may be experts in all matters pertaining to the care and preservation of naval ordnance.
At the time of this congressional testimony there were 82 gunnery sergeants in the USMC.
Culture.
Gunnery sergeants are commonly referred to by the informal abbreviation "gunny". This nickname, which is usually regarded as a title of both esteem and camaraderie, is generally acceptable for use in all but formal and ceremonial situations. Use of the term by lower-ranking personnel, however, remains at the gunnery sergeant's discretion.


Navy Civilian Service Achievement Medal

The Navy Civilian Service Achievement Medal is awarded to Department of the Navy and U.S. Marine Corps civilians who, while serving in a capacity within the Navy or Maine Corps, are to be recognized for sustained performance or specific achievement of a superlative nature at the equivalent level of the Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal awarded to military personnel.
The award consists of a certificate and citation signed by the activity head, the medal on a suspension ribbon, and a lapel emblem. The award is the fifth highest Navy civilian award, ranking just behind the Navy Civilian Service Commendation Medal, and before the Navy Certificate of Achievement. The approval authority for the award is commanders in the rank of O-5 and above and civilians in equivalent positions and above. The first known presentations were to Sara Givens and Kaitlyn Owens at Naval Support Activity Naples, Italy, Jan. 16, 2019
Medal and ribbon description.
The medal's overall shape is that of a bronze circle, but laurel leaves extend slightly from the sides of both the obverse and revers. In the center of the bronze laurel wreath on the obverse is a fouled anchor. This anchor is adapted from the United States Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal. This is to denote the award as being presented on behalf of the Navy or Marine Corps, and to parallel the equivalent award for military service members. The laurel wreaths is emblematic of achievement and honor.
Within the laurel wreath border on the reverse, arched across the top, are the words "Honor Courage Commitment." In the lower center is the stacked inscription "Department of the Navy Civilian Service Achievement"
The colors of the ribbon are myrtle green with three orange stripes. These colors are consistent with the equivalent award for military service members (the Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal).


USCGC Cobb

USCGC "Cobb" (WPG-181) was a United States Coast Guard cutter commissioned during World War II. A conversion of the 1906 coastal steamboat , USCGC "Cobb" in the hands of the Coast Guard became the first US helicopter carrier.
Background.
The U.S. government became interested in the potential of the helicopter during the 1930s. In 1938, the government allocated two million dollars toward development of the machine, and an inter-agency board—which included a representative from the U.S. Coast Guard, Commander William J. Kossler—was established to oversee the program. Kossler had difficulty persuading the U.S. Navy of the utility of the helicopter and eventually enlisted the aid of Executive Officer Lieutenant Commander Frank Erickson of Coast Guard Air Station Brooklyn.
Erickson, who had helplessly watched sailors burn to death in oil slicks with no hope of rescue during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, immediately saw the utility of the helicopter in a search-and-rescue role. However, as the Navy showed little interest at this time in development of improved search-and-rescue methods, Erickson promoted the helicopter's usefulness as an anti-submarine warfare (ASW) weapon instead. This proposal met with the approval of the Navy, and on 19 February 1943, the Coast Guard was formally assigned the task of developing the helicopter for the ASW role.
Acquisition and refit.
As part of its ASW program, the Coast Guard began experimenting with ship-based helicopter operations. Initially, a series of flights was conducted from the deck of a ship at anchor, "Bunker Hill". When these trials proved successful, the Coast Guard moved to open sea trials.
For the sea trials, the Coast Guard acquired an ageing passenger steamer, , from the War Shipping Administration. The Coast Guard carried out major modifications to the ship, including removal of much of the ship's superstructure for the installation of a 38 × 63 foot flight deck for the use of helicopters, plus the addition of armor and weaponry. Following these modifications, the ship was commissioned on 20 July 1943 as USCGC "Cobb" (WPG-181)—the first US helicopter carrier.
Service history.
In January 1944, the ship was ordered to Groton, Connecticut for sound and radar training. In April, the ship was assigned to New York City to train for helicopter landings on board its flight deck. The first such landing occurred on 15 June. On 29 July 1944, the first take-off took place in Long Island Sound from "Cobb" flight deck.
With the threat from submarines greatly diminished by early 1945, the Coast Guard turned its attention to development of the helicopter in the search-and-rescue role. USCGC "Cobb" also played a role in this program when helicopters from its flight deck performed some of the earliest air-sea rescues.
In spite of her historic achievements, USCGC "Cobb" proved an unsatisfactory acquisition. Originally America's first turbine-powered steamship, the aging 37-year-old vessel proved a liability to the Coast Guard with her excessive maintenance costs. During the first 115 days of the ship's service, "Cobb" was absent from the repair yard for a total of only nine days. Thereafter she managed operational duties an average of only one week out of four.
USCGC "Cobb" was decommissioned by the Coast Guard on 31 January 1946. She was sold on 6 March 1947, and scrapped a short time later.


USCGC Absecon (WAVP-374)