Tanks in the British Army

This article on military tanks deals with the history and development of tanks of the British Army from their first use in World War I, the interwar period, during World War II, the Cold War and modern era.
Overview.
Tanks first appeared on the battlefield as a solution to trench warfare. They were large, heavy, slow moving vehicles capable of driving right over the top of enemy trenches; thereby eliminating the need to send soldiers "over the top" only to be blasted to pieces by enemies. The British Army was the first to use them, who built them in secret to begin with. To keep the enemy from finding out about this new solution, the public were informed that the vehicles were large water carriers, or tanks, and the name stuck.
World War I established the validity of the tank concept. After the war, many nations needed to have tanks, but only a few had the industrial resources to design and build them. During and after World War I, Britain and France were the intellectual leaders in tank design, with other countries generally following and adopting their designs. This early lead would be gradually lost during the course of the 1930s to the Soviet Union who with Germany began to design and build their own tanks.
While World War I saw the first use of the tank as a weapon of war, it was during World War II that the tank soon became a dominant force on the battlefield. The British, American, German and Soviet armies all had different approaches to tanks and tank warfare, each with their fair share of successes and failures. The infantry tank was a concept developed by the British and French in the years leading up to World War II. Infantry tanks were tanks designed to support the infantry in the attack. To achieve this they were generally heavily armoured compared to the cruiser tanks, to allow them to operate in close concert with infantry even under heavy gun fire. The extra armouring came at the expense of speed, which was not an issue when supporting relatively slow moving infantry.
Once the infantry tank-supported attack had broken through heavily defended areas in the enemy lines, other tanks such as cruisers, or light tanks, were expected to exploit their higher speed and longer range to operate far behind the front in order to cut lines of supply and communications.
Background.
No one individual was responsible for the development of the tank. Rather, a number of gradual technological developments brought the development of the tank as we know it closer until its eventual form was unveiled out of necessity by the British Army. The British Army designs were forced by the trench warfare in which neither side could achieve more than small incremental gains without heavy loss of soldiers lives, but tanks changed that. They were made to cross the trenches and quickly break into the enemy rear, while other tanks supported the main attack. The development between the infantry tank and the cruiser tanks had its origins in the World War I division between the first British heavy tanks which supported the infantry and the faster Whippet Medium Mark A and its successors the Medium Mark B and Medium Mark C. During the interbellum British tank experiments generally followed these basic classifications, which were made part of the overall doctrine with the work of Percy Hobart and Captain B. H. Liddell Hart. The next development of the more heavily armoured and upgunned tanks was brought about by the tank on tank battles in World War II German Blitzkrieg. This continued throughout the war, and led to heavy tanks which became the basis of the current Main Battle Tanks seen throughout the armies today.
British development.
The Landship Committee commissioned Lieutenant Walter Gordon Wilson of the Royal Naval Air Service and William Tritton of William Foster & Co. of Lincoln, to produce a small landship. Constructed in great secrecy, the machine was given the code-name tank by Swinton.
The "Number 1 Lincoln Machine", nicknamed "Little Willie" weighed 14 tons and could carry a crew of three, at speeds of less than 2 mph over rough ground. Trench-crossing ability was deemed insufficient however, leading to the development of a rhomboidal design, which became known as "HMLS "Centipede"" and later "Mother", the first of the British heavy tanks. After completion on 29 January 1916 very successful trials were made, and an order was placed by the War Office for 100 units to be used on the Western Front in France, on 12 February 1916, and a second order for 50 additional units was placed in April 1916.
The great secrecy surrounding tank development, coupled with the skepticism of infantry commanders, often meant that infantry at first had little training to cooperate with tanks.
The first use of the British tanks on the battlefield was the use of 49 Mark I tanks during the Battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916, with mixed, but still impressive results. Many broke down but nearly a third succeeded in breaking through. Finally, in a preview of later developments, the British developed the lighter Whippet. This tank was specifically designed to exploit breaches in the enemy front. The Whippet was faster than most other tanks, although it carried only machinegun armament. Postwar tank designs would reflect this trend towards greater tactical mobility.
While the British took the lead in tank development, the French were not far behind and fielded their first tanks in 1917. The Germans, on the other hand, were slower to develop tanks, concentrating on anti-tank weapons.
Following the Great War, many experiments involving armoured vehicles were conducted in the United Kingdom. Particularly many advances were made in the areas of suspensions, tracks, communications, and the organization of these vehicles on the battlefield. Britain continued its technical dominance of tank design from 1915 through to at least the early 1930s. British designs, particularly those from Vickers-Armstrong, formed the basis for many of the most common tanks of the 1930s and early WWII. The Vickers 6-Ton, which was arguably the most influential design of the late 1920s, was not adopted by the British Army.
The Carden Loyd tankettes (two-man vehicles with machine guns) influenced the tankette concept through export and similar designs such as the Soviet T-27, Italian CV-33, German Panzer I and other copies. Another notable design was the Vickers Medium Mk II, a pivotal design which combined some of the best traits of WWI tanks into a much faster tank. Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and policy and their strategic situation led to a tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser, and infantry. The infantry tanks were intended to support dismounted infantry. The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman, and the armour on these tanks was expected to be heavy enough to provide immunity to towed anti-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy machine gun positions and bunkers as well as enemy tanks. Cruiser tanks were to carry out the traditional cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs requiring greater speed. To achieve this they were unable to carry as much armour as the infantry tanks, and tended to carry anti-tank armament. In practice both cruiser and infantry tanks entered the Second World War with the same gun. The light tanks were tasked with reconnaissance and constabulary-type colonial roles, with cost the major design factor.
An outstanding achievement of the British Army had been the creation of the Experimental Mechanised Force in the late 1920s. This was a small Brigade-sized unit developed to field-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The unit pioneered the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was short-lived, however. However even though the British in the 1930s continued the design and development of tanks themselves, the Germans began to further develop tank strategy and incorporate them into their tactical employment more than the British. This doctrine of deployment led armies to equip their tanks with radios, to provide unmatched command and control, Germany along with the USSR also led the way with welding, although the US followed closely. Riveting and bolting remained in use in British designs.
Infantry tanks were a continuation of the Great War tanks, heavily armoured and designed to accompany an advancing infantry unit and hence slow. Once the infantry tanks had punched through an enemy line, lighter and faster cruiser tanks would be let loose to disrupt supply lines.
The main problem with this strategy however, was that the British infantry tanks were just too slow and the cruisers of the time were vulnerable, and often mechanically unreliable. Come 1940, most of the British armour had been abandoned in France when the British Expeditionary Force was evacuated from Dunkirk, but this encouraged new designs. By the end of the war the increase in speed of the infantry tanks, and the increased armour of the cruisers, meant that there was little difference between the two classes of British tank. However, the British had to quickly build more reliable and more heavily armoured designs from the experienced gained in the early battles or acquire US designs to meet the needs.
At the start of the war most British tanks were equipped with the Ordnance QF 2-pounder (40mm) gun which was able to penetrate contemporary German armour. The trend towards bigger guns and thicker armour which resulted in heavier tanks, made itself felt as the Second World War progressed, and some tanks began to show weakness' in design.
In 1939, most tanks had maximum armour of 30 mm or less, with guns no heavier than 37–47 mm. Medium tanks of 1939 weighed around 20 tons. Also if the tank's gun was to be used to engage both unarmoured and armoured targets, then it needed to be as large and powerful as possible, making one large gun with an all-round field of fire vital. Also, mounting the gun in a turret ensured that the tank could fire from behind some cover. Hull-mounted guns required that most of the vehicle be exposed to enemy fire. Multiple-turreted or multi-gun designs such as the British A9 Cruiser Mk I slowly became less common.
British tanks armament and use in the battles also had to change as German Blitzkrieg tactics and doctrine shifted towards faster medium and heavy tanks fighting large multi-tank battles, with the role of the infantry tank in assaults taken by simpler self-propelled artillery. In British practice, the main armament of the infantry tank went in three phases. The pre-Dunkirk British Army Matilda I infantry tank had only a single Vickers machine gun, a compromise forced by the low cost to which they had been built. The Matilda II had a capable anti-tank gun with the 40mm 2 pounder but these were only issued with solid-shot (i.e. non-explosive) for anti-tank use and was of little use for artillery close-support of infantry. The follow-up gun to the 2pdr was already in development but the need to rapidly replace the losses in France delayed its production. Eventually QF 6-pounder (57mm) guns were put into the British tanks, and these could deal with pretty much anything but head on attacks on the German Tiger and Panther tanks - thanks to their special armour piercing rounds. As the war progressed many British tanks were equipped with a gun firing the same 75mm ammunition as American Sherman tanks. These had better performance using high explosive or smoke ammunition, but could not match the 6-pounder against armour. Then the 17-pounder (76.2 mm) was developed, becoming the best British gun of the war - able to deal with almost any armour put up against it.
Operational use.
World War I.
The British Mark I was the world's first combat tank, entering service in August 1916, and first used in action on the morning of 15 September 1916. It was developed to be able to cross trenches, resist small-arms fire, travel over difficult terrain, carry supplies, and be able to capture fortified enemy positions. The Mark I was a development of "Little Willie", the experimental tank built for the Landships Committee by Lieutenant Walter Wilson and William Tritton in the summer of 1915. A small number of Mark I tanks took part in the battle of the Somme during the Battle of Flers-Courcelette in September 1916. They were used to cut through barbed wire to clear the way for infantry, and were even driven through houses to destroy machine gunner's emplacements. Although many broke down or became stuck, almost a third that attacked made it across no mans land, and their effect on the enemy was noted, leading to a request by the British C-in-C Douglas Haig for a thousand more. The Mark II and Mark III incorporated minor improvements and changes over the Mark I with the Mark II used in the Battle of Arras in April 1917 because of delays in the production of the Mark I tank. The Mk IV incorporated thicker armour to resist German armour-piercing bullets. The Mark V had more power (150 bhp) and could be steered by one man, thanks to the epicyclic gear system created by Walter Wilson. It was first used in the Battle of Hamel on 4 July 1918 when 60 tanks contributed to a successful assault by Australian units on the German lines. During the Battle of Amiens in August 1918, several hundred of the Mark V and the lengthened Mk V* tanks, together with the new Whippet tanks, penetrated the German lines in a foretaste of modern armoured warfare.
The Mark VI did not progress past the stage of a wooden mock-up; the project was cancelled in December 1917 in order that a tank co-developed with the US (the Mark VIII) could go forward. Because of technical troubles the Mark VII, almost identical to Mks I to V, had only three produced out of an order for 74 when war ended. The Mark VIII was a cooperative design between the Allies and was also known as "Liberty," "International," or Anglo-American tank. It did not see combat in the war but was used and upgraded until the 1930s when given to Canada for training. The Mark IX was designed in 1917 as the world's first specialised Armoured Personnel Carrier (APC). Thirty-four were completed, but none saw service. One was experimentally equipped as an armoured ambulance, and another rebuilt as an amphibious tank by the staff of the test base at Dollis Hill. There is photographic evidence that some Mk IX were used post-WWI as Infantry Carriers, but no record of their peacetime service is known to exist. The Mark X, a further improvement on the Mk V, was planned but never built.
The Medium Mark A Whippet was a British tank of the First World War. It was intended to complement the slower British heavy tanks by using its relative mobility and speed in exploiting any break in the enemy lines.
The Whippet tanks arrived late in the First World War, and went into action in March 1918. Alongside Mark V and V* tanks, they took part in the Amiens offensive (8 August 1918) where they broke through into the German rear areas causing the loss of the artillery in an entire front sector.
A first offensive using 49 Mark I tanks took place on 15 September 1916, during the Battle of the Somme, under Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig, with limited success. Not until 20 November 1917, at Cambrai, did the British Tank Corps get the conditions it needed for success. Around 400 tanks penetrated almost six miles on a 7-mile front. This was their first large-scale deployment in combat. Unfortunately, success was not complete because the infantry failed to exploit and secure the tanks' gains. The British scored another victory the following year, on 8 August 1918, with 600 tanks in the Amiens salient. General Erich Ludendorff referred to that date as the "Black Day" of the German Army.
The German response to the Cambrai assault was to develop its own armoured program. Soon the massive A7V appeared. The A7V was a clumsy monster, weighing 30 tons with a crew of eighteen. By the end of the war, only twenty had been built. Although other tanks were on the drawing board, material shortages limited the German tank corps to these A7Vs and some captured Mark IVs. The A7V would be involved in the first tank "vs". tank battle of the war on 24 April 1918 at Villers-Bretonneux—a battle in which there was no clear winner.
Parallel to the British development, France designed its own tanks. The first two, the medium Schneider CA and heavy Saint-Chamond, were not well-conceived, though produced in large numbers and showing technical innovations, as for the latter type a petro-electrical transmission and a long 75 mm gun. The later Renault FT was the first operational tank with a "modern" configuration: a revolving turret on top and an engine compartment in the back; it would be the most numerous tank of the war. A last development was the superheavy Char 2C, the largest tank ever built, be it some years after the armistice.
Numerous mechanical failures and the inability of the British and French to mount any sustained drives in the early tank actions cast doubt on their usefulness—and by 1918, tanks were extremely vulnerable unless accompanied by infantry and ground-attack aircraft, both of which worked to locate and suppress anti-tank defenses.
The first American-produced heavy tank was the 43.5-ton Mark VIII, a US-British development of the successful British heavy tank design. Armed with two 6-pounder cannon and five .30-caliber machine guns, it was operated by an 11-man crew, had a maximum speed of 6.5 miles per hour, and a range of 50 miles. Production difficulties meant that none was produced before the War ended.
Between the wars.
After the Great War, General Erich Ludendorff of the German High Command praised the Allied tanks as being a principal factor in Germany's defeat. The Germans had been too late in recognizing their value to consider them in their own plans.
At a time when most soldiers regarded the tank as a specialized infantry-support weapon for crossing trenches, a significant number of officers in the Royal Tank Corps had gone on to envision much broader roles for mechanized organizations. In May 1918, Colonel J.F.C. Fuller, the acknowledged father of tank doctrine, had used the example of German infiltration tactics to refine what he called "Plan 1919". This was an elaborate concept for a large-scale armoured offensive in 1919.
An outstanding achievement of the British Army was the creation of the Experimental Mechanised Force in the late 1920s. This was a small Brigade-sized unit developed to field-test the use of tanks and other vehicles. The Experimental Mechanized Force formed by the British demonstrated a mobile force with its own motor transport infantry and self-propelled guns. The unit pioneered the extensive use of radio to control widely separated small units. The unit was short-lived, however.
In 1920 the Infantry had plans to acquire a Light Infantry Tank. Colonel Johnson of the Tank Design Department derived such a type from the Medium Mark D. In competition Vickers built the Vickers Light Tank.but the project was abandoned in 1922 in favour of a generally more conventional design: the Vickers Light Tank Mark I, that would be renamed to Vickers Medium Tank Mark I in 1924 . The first prototypes were sent to Bovington for trial in 1923.
The Medium Mark I replaced some of the Mark V heavy tanks; and served in the Royal Tank Regiments, being the first type of in total 200 tanks to be phased out in 1938.
The Medium Mark I was the first tank to see "mass" production since the last of the ten Char 2C's had been finished in 1921. As of the next tank, the Renault NC27, only about thirty were built, the British Mediums represented most of the world tank production during the Twenties.
The Medium Mark I successor, the Vickers Medium Mk II combined some of the best traits of WWI tanks into a much faster tank. It was derived from the Vickers Medium Mark I, and was developed to replace the last of the Medium Mark Cs still in use. It had a fully rotating turret on top like the FT, but mounted a dual-use 3-pounder gun (that could fire both high-explosive and anti-tank shells) with a coaxial machine gun.
The Medium Mark III was ordered in 1928 and was reliable and provided a good gun platform. However, it suffered from a bad suspension design: even though road speed increased to thirty miles per hour, during cross-country rides the bogies were often overloaded. Three Mark IIIs were built, one by Vickers and two by the Royal Ordnance Factory at Woolwich: Medium III E1, E2 and E3. The third had an improved suspension and the vehicles were in 1934 taken into use by the HQ of the Tank Brigade. One of the Mark IIIs was fitted as a command vehicle with an extra radio aerial around the turret. This was used by Brigadier Percy Hobart for the Salisbury Plain exercises during 1934.
Both the cavalry and the Royal Tank Corps wanted fast, lightly armoured, mobile vehicles for reconnaissance and raiding—the light and medium (or "cruiser") tanks. In practice the "light tanks" were often small armoured personnel carriers. On the other hand, the "army tank battalions" performing the traditional infantry-support role required extremely heavy armoured protection. As a consequence of these two doctrinal roles, firepower was neglected in tank design.
After World War I, the British began to produce a series of similar light tanks and developed them right up to World War II; the Light Tanks Mk II through to the Mk V. Eventually, by the 1930s, British experiments and their strategic situation led to a tank development programme with three main types of tank: light, cruiser, and infantry. The Infantry tanks were tasked with the support of dismounted infantry. The maximum speed requirement matched the walking pace of a rifleman, and the armour on these tanks was expected to be heavy enough to provide immunity to towed anti-tank guns. Armament had to be sufficient to suppress or destroy enemy machine gun positions and bunkers. Cruiser tanks were tasked with the traditional cavalry roles of pursuit and exploitation, working relatively independently of the infantry. This led to cruiser tank designs having great speed. To achieve this they were lightly armoured, and tended to carry anti-tank armament.
The light tanks were tasked with reconnaissance and constabulary-type colonial roles, with cheapness the major design factor. They were not expected to fight anything other than other light tanks nor need a gun for fighting heavier tanks. They saw use in training, and in limited engagements with British Empire units such as the South African Army during the East African Campaign against forces of the Italian Empire. Up until the Mk V, they had a crew of two: a driver/commander and gunner. The Mk V had a crew of three: a driver, a gunner, and the commander helping on the gun. The light tanks were kept in use for training until around 1942. Some saw active use in the Western Desert Campaign or Abyssinia. They were followed by the Light Tank Mk VI from 1936.
The Mk VI Light Tank, was the sixth in the line of light tanks built by Vickers-Armstrongs for the British Army during the interwar period. The company had achieved a degree of standardization with their previous five models, and the Mark VI was identical in all but a few respects. Production of the Mk VI began in 1936 and ended in 1940 with approximately 1,000 Mark VI tanks having been built.
When the Mk VI was first produced in 1936, the Imperial General Staff considered the tank to be superior to any light tank produced by other nations, and well suited to the dual roles of reconnaissance and colonial warfare. Like many of its predecessors, the Mark VI was used by the British Army to perform imperial policing duties in British India and other colonies in the British Empire, a role for which it and the other Vickers-Armstrongs light tanks were found to be well suited. When the British government began its rearmament process in 1937, the Mk VI was the only tank with which the War Office was ready to proceed with manufacturing; the development of a medium tank for the Army had hit severe problems after the cancellation of the proposed "Sixteen Tonner" medium tank in 1932 due to the costs involved, and cheaper models only existed as prototypes with a number of mechanical problems. As a result of this, when the Second World War began in September 1939, the vast majority of the tanks available to the British Army were Mk VIs - there were 1,002 Mk VI Light Tanks. The British and Commonwealth forces employed a relatively small number of these light tanks and armoured vehicles in East Africa against the forces of the Italian Empire from June 1940 to November 1941. For the most part, an assortment of armoured cars was used. However, B Squadron 4th Royal Tank Regiment did include small number of Matilda II infantry tanks.
In 1934 the best features of the earlier Mk III light tank were incorporated into a cruiser tank design. Sir John Carden of Vickers-Armstrong produced this new tank, to General Staff specification A9, which was subsequently accepted as the Cruiser Tank Mark I. A prototype was tested in 1936 and it went into production the following year, 125 examples being produced in 1937 and 1938. The follow-up to the A9, the A10, was also designed by Carden. Designated as a "heavy cruiser" tank, it was put into production in July 1938. It resembled the Cruiser Mk I, but had heavier armour, and was one of the first British tanks with Spaced armour and the first to be equipped with the Besa machine gun.
Orders for the Mk I and Mk II Cruisers were restricted, since the British Army had already decided to produce a more advanced and faster cruiser tank which would incorporate the Christie suspension acquired from the American inventor J. Walter Christie and have better armour. In 1936, General Martel, a pioneer in tank design who had published works on armoured warfare and pioneered the lightly armoured "tankette" to enhance infantry mobility, became Assistant Director of Mechanization at the War Office. Earlier that year Martel had witnessed demonstrations of Soviet tank designs including the BT tank, which had been influenced by Christie's work. He urged the adoption of a tank that would use the suspension system and also follow Christie's practice of using a lightweight aircraft engine such as the Liberty Engine. The government authorized purchase and licensing of a Christie design via the newly formed Nuffield Mechanisation and Aero.
The vehicle obtained from Christie became the basis of the Cruiser Mk III (General Staff number A13 Mk 1) though Christie's tank required extensive redesign as it was too small. Following testing of two prototypes, the A13 was ordered into production and a total of 65 were manufactured. The Mk III weighed `14 long tons (14.2 metric tonnes), had a crew of four, a 340 hp engine which gave a top speed of and was armed with a 2 pounder gun and a machine gun. However, when it was introduced into service in 1937, the Army still lacked a formal tank division. The Cruiser Mk IV (A13 Mk II) was a more heavily armoured version of the Mk III and was used in some of the early campaigns of the war.
World War II.
Fall of France.
By the time World War Two had come around, the design of the tank had shifted from its uses as a terrain covering vehicle, and the full potential of the tank as an armoured, combat vehicle had been realised.
Since the infantry tanks were to work at the pace of the infantry units, which would be attacking on foot, high speed was not a requirement and they were able to carry heavier armour. The Infantry Tank came about as a result of a 1934 requirement by the General Staff for a tank that would directly support an infantry attack. Armament would consist of a machine gun and an overall speed of a walking man when moving. Vickers designed an inexpensive (cost was a serious consideration) pilot which was delivered and accepted in 1936. Although heavily armoured it was slow and under-armed. Most would be lost or left behind in France.
The first purpose-designed infantry tanks were the Matilda I armed with a machine-gun and Matilda II, which was armed with a machine gun and a QF 2 pounder anti-tank gun. It was quickly seen that the Matilda I, with only a machine gun, was inadequate for its intended role. The second Matilda was ordered directly off the drawing board in 1937. During its production years of 1940 to 1943, 2,987 of these sturdy tanks were built. Though small, the tank presented a massive appearance due to its armoured skirts and cast armour. The Matilda 2 totally dominated all Italian armour and could claim title to "Queen of the Desert" until the arrival of German tanks in North Africa.
The British Army were pioneers in tank combat but by 1939 it could be argued they were behind the times in terms of strategy and tactics, their methods based on the trench warfare of World War I. The British Army entered World War II with an array of poor designs and hobbled by poor doctrine. According to the theories of Captain BH Liddell Hart and Major-General Sir Percy Hobart, they split their tank force into two groups; Infantry tanks and Cruiser tanks. British tank use focused on cavalry-type missions and infantry support without the focus on the combined-arms tactics that dominated German and later Soviet thinking.
The result was a series of under-armed, mechanically unreliable designs such as the A9 which Sir John Carden of Vickers-Armstrong produced in 1934 and A10 and Crusader (A15) cruiser tanks, and the Matilda (A11) also by Vickers-Armstrongs Ltd, began in 1935 and Matilda II (A12) infantry tanks, and a series of deathtrap light tanks, the Light Tank Mk I built earlier by Vickers Armstrong from 1929, up to the Light Tank Mk V produced during 1936, that were suitable for reconnaissance work only.
The Matilda Mk I, (A11) and Matilda II (A12) infantry tanks fought together in France as part of the 1st Army Tank Brigade of the British Expeditionary Force in the Battle of France. They participated in the defence and counter-attack operation at Arras against the invasion by Nazi Germany in May 1940, temporarily discomfiting the 7th Panzer Division under Rommel. In the battle, elements of motorized SS regiment "Totenkopf" (later to be expanded into SS-Division "Totenkopf")—were overrun, their standard PaK 36/37 anti-tank guns proving ineffective against the heavily armoured British Matilda tank. Rommel committed some of his armour to local counterattacks, only to find the guns of the "Panzer" II and Panzer 38(t) tanks could not penetrate the Matildas' armour. Desperate to prevent a British breakthrough, Rommel ordered the division's FlaK 18 anti-aircraft guns and field guns be formed into a defensive line and fire anti-tank and HE rounds in a last-ditch effort to stop the Matildas, and this stopped the British tanks. The attack made the German commanders nervous, and the battle is historically credited with shaking the confidence of the German High Command (OKW) and it may have been one of the factors for the surprise German halt on 24 May that gave the BEF the slimmest of opportunities to begin evacuation from Dunkirk. The main British force consisted of only 58 machine gun armed Matilda Is and 16 QF 2-pounder gun armed Matilda IIs supported by a few lighter armoured vehicles.
Secondary Campaigns.
The Mk I (A9) cruiser was used in the French, Greek and early North African campaigns. Sixty British Cruiser Mk II's went to Greece with the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment and fought against the German tanks, but over 90% suffered mechanical breakdowns as opposed to enemy action. The Cruiser Mk III saw action in Greece and early North African campaigns where they equipped units of the 7th Armoured Division. The Cruiser Mk IV tank saw action in the French and early North African campaigns.
The Cruiser tank Mk V Covenanter was first cruiser tank design to be given a name, and never deployed outside the British Isles. They first were used to re-equip the British 1st Armoured Division after the Fall of France.
The Crusader tanks became the main British tank, the A15 Crusader Mark I and II variants had QF 2 pounder (40mm) main gun, but the 'Crusader III' was fitted with an Ordnance QF 6 pounder (57mm) main gun. It used the same main turret as the A13 Mk III Covenanter designs, and over 5,000 tanks were manufactured. The A15 Crusader Mark 111 and Mark IV finally replaced most tanks in the British forces after the fall of France and was used extensively during the North African Campaign.
Desert Campaign.
When the BEF returned to the United Kingdom, nearly all their armour was left behind and the remaining Matilda Mk Is were withdrawn. The Matilda II was used up to early 1942, in the war in North Africa, the Matilda II proved highly effective against Italian tanks, although vulnerable again to the larger calibre and medium calibre anti-tank guns. When the German Afrika Korps arrived in North Africa, the anti-aircraft gun was again pressed into the anti-tank role against the Matilda, causing heavy losses, and, by the time of the Second Battle of El Alamein in October 1942, few Matildas were still in service.
Combat experience against the Germans in the Western Desert Campaign demonstrated to the British many shortcomings with their cruiser tanks. The Cruiser Mk I was an effective tank in the French, Greek and early North African campaigns. The 2-pdr gun was lethal against the primitive Italian tanks encountered first during the North African campaign, but was, at best, a mediocre weapon against the modern German armour of the Afrika Korps. The heavier Cruiser, Mk II (A10), were part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) sent to France in the early stages of World War II. Their cross-country performance was initially recorded as poor but they were still used later in North Africa at the defence of Tobruk in 1941, where reliability and suspension performance in the desert conditions was praised.
Hence a request was made in 1941 to the Nuffield Organization's subsidiary and Leyland Motors for a new heavy cruiser tank that could achieve battle superiority over German models. With the A34 Specification later called "Comet" the tank designers were to use a new gun, the "77mm HV". This gun used the same calibre (76.2 mm) projectiles as the 17-pounder but the shell casing was from the older QF 3 inch 20 cwt gun (loaded to higher pressures) permitting a smaller gun that could be readily fitted into a tank. The A34 Comet began to be delivered by September 1944. Intended to be in service by December 1944, crew training was delayed by the German Ardennes Offensive. By the end of the war, 1,200 had been produced.
They were followed by the Valentine tank (Infantry Tank Mk III) and Churchill tank (Infantry Tank Mk IV). Designed using the interior and chassis layout of the experimental A10, the Valentine met an emergency 1938 requirement for a tank to supplement the Matilda. Ordered "off the drawing board" in 1939, by the time production ceased in 1944, some 8,275 of these sturdy tanks had been built. Considered stable and reliable by its crews, the tank was only hampered by its small size. Unlike the Matilda tanks, this model allowed the later fitting of a larger main gun but at the expense of operating a two-man turret. The initial riveted construction soon was replaced by welding. The Valentine proved to be difficult to develop further but the Churchill went through successive variants and served up to the end of the war. The early Churchills were fraught with mechanical defects and required many changes before they were considered sound. The army had this machine designed to meet a possible need for a tank to operate in a "shelled area" on the Western Front which in 1939 was expected to eventually look like 1918. The initial A20 design was not successful which caused Vauxhall to take over from Harland and Wolff. The Vauxhall design was called the A22 and the first production vehicles were delivered around the middle of 1941. Eventually, the teething problems were resolved and the tank went on to become one of the best tanks in the army. The tank was refined into many special roles, mostly with the Royal Engineers. The tank had excellent weight distribution and was considered very stable in movement.
As British cruiser tank designs developed into larger tanks with more powerful engines, they could carry larger guns and more armour yet still achieved high speeds. At the end of the war the cruiser tank lineage led to the "universal tank" in the form of the Centurion.
In practice the British did not operate only infantry and cruiser tanks. Lack of production capacity meant the large scale adoption of US medium tanks.
The Cruiser Mk I was an effective tank in the French, Greek and early North African campaigns. The 2 pdr gun was lethal against the primitive Italian tanks encountered during the North African campaign, but was, at best, a mediocre weapon against the modern German armour of the Afrika Korps. Engaging the more thinly armoured flanks and rear of German tanks was generally the only way to have any effect. The minimal armour made the A9 an easy kill for most German anti-tank weapons. Also problematic was the lack of High Explosive shells for the 2 pdr gun and even worse the lack of AP for the 95 mm gun on the Close Support version. Another issue was that the areas around the front machine gun turrets created a frontal surface that was more vulnerable to enemy fire than it would have been had it been a flat plate, let alone a sloped glacis.
A number of Cruiser Mark IIs were part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF) sent to France in the early stages of World War II. The A10 cross country performance was recorded as poor, but they were still used later in North Africa at the defence of Tobruk in 1941, where reliability and suspension performance in the desert conditions was praised. Sixty worn out examples were taken to Greece, by the 3rd Royal Tank Regiment and although they performed well against the German tanks, over 90% were lost due to mechanical breakdowns as opposed to enemy action (mainly tracks). (See "A Tankie's Travels" By Robert Watt )
The bright spots of British tank design included the Valentine, Churchill (A22), Cromwell (A27M), and Comet I (A34), which together made up a little over half of total British tank production during WWII. The Valentine was a reliable, heavily armoured infantry-support tank used successfully in the desert and by the Red Army as a light tank. The Churchill had heavy armour and good off-road capability. The Cromwell was in most respects the equal of the early model Sherman of the United States or the German Panzer IV, though by the time of its first major deployment in France in the summer of 1944, it was unremarkable compared to many other vehicles being fielded by then, its best advantage being its speed and mobility. The Comet was a design that improved on the Cromwell, fielded in the final months of the war with a modified, slightly less powerful, variant of the 17pdr, known as the 77mm QF. As a stop-gap, the Challenger (A30) Cruiser Tank, mounted a 17 Pounder gun on a lengthened Cromwell chassis with an extra road wheel each side and a widened hull centre section. From June 1944, it added heavier anti-tank firepower to cruiser tank reconnaissance units until the Comet became widely available.
US imports.
Beginning about 1942, most British tank units were equipped with vehicles supplied from the United States, such as the Stuart light tank, the Lee (or the Grant variant thereof) and the Lee's/Grant's replacement, the Sherman. The Stuart tanks were the first to come in with the 8th Hussars, and were part of the force of the 1st Armoured Division and also were part of the 4th Armoured Brigade and used for Operation Crusader.
D-Day.
Immediately before and during the war, the British produced an enormous array of prototype tanks and modified tanks for a variety of specialist tasks (see Hobart's Funnies). For example, the Churchill AVRE mounted a 290 mm (11.4") direct-fire mortar which was used for destroying buildings and clearing obstacles. Responsibility for the buildup of vehicles and the training of crews to use them was given to armoured warfare expert Percy Hobart after whom the collection was named.
Many of the ideas had already been tried, tested or were in experimental development both by Britain and other nations. For example, the Scorpion flail tank (a modified Matilda tank) had already been used during the North African campaign to clear paths through German minefields. Soviet T-34 tanks had been modified with mine-rollers. Close-support tanks, bridgelayers, and fascine carriers had been developed elsewhere also. However, the Funnies were the largest and most elaborate collection of engineering vehicles available.
By early 1944, Hobart could demonstrate to Eisenhower and Montgomery a brigade each of swimming DD tanks, Crab mine clearers, and AVRE (Engineer) tanks along with a regiment of Crocodile flamethrowing tanks.
Montgomery considered that the U.S. forces should use them, and offered them a half-share of all the vehicles available, but take-up was minimal. Eisenhower was in favour of the amphibious tanks but left the decision on the others to Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, then commanding the U.S. First Army. Bradley requested 25 flail tanks and 100 Churchill Crocodiles and the British War Office agreed to supply them as well as British-crewed AVREs. In the event though there was insufficient time to produce the vehicles and train the crews so on the day American forces were limited to DD tanks and their own Sherman bulldozer tanks and armoured bulldozers.
The British at Normandy were re-equipped with some of the newer British and American tanks and a few days after D-Day, the Armoured Reconnaissance regiment of the 7th Armoured Division landed at Le Hamel on Gold Beach with Cromwell tanks and began going into action almost immediately in the fighting around Villers-Bocage. The tanks were used in the advance through the Bocage with the 22nd Armoured Brigade. They were involved in action against the 2nd Panzer Division, with the tanks leading the way out of the bridgehead.
Early Cold War.
During the Cold War (1945–1990), the two opposing forces in Europe were the Warsaw Pact countries on the one side, and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) countries on the other side. Soviet domination of the Warsaw Pact led to effective standardization on a few tank designs. In comparison, the main NATO countries, Britain, France, Germany, and the USA, developed their own tank designs with little in common, and the smaller counties generally adopted one or more of these designs.
For the UK regiments, the Centurion was the primary British tank of the post-World War II period. Development of the tank began in 1943 and manufacture of the Centurion, began in January 1945. With the 20-pounder gun it first entered combat with the British Army in the Korean War in 1950, in support of the UN forces. It was noted for its high mobility, able to climb to the top of hills that were considered difficult for infantry, let alone tanks. Upgraded to mount the 105 mm L7 gun, it became the UK's first main battle tank. Between 1946 and 1962, 4,423 Centurions were produced, consisting of 13 basic marks and numerous variants.
At first, the Centurion was not considered capable of dealing with all Soviet tanks and it was joined by a traditional heavy tank design, the Conqueror. This design was almost as heavy as the German WWII King Tiger and was tasked with dealing with the heavy Soviet designs like the Joseph Stalin IS-3. They were issued at nine for each regiment in Germany; usually grouped in three tank troops. It used the American 120 mm gun and was expected to give long range firepower and support to the Centurion tanks that made up the bulk of British tank force. To provide even more firepower for the British Army of the Rhine tank units, Charioteer, a variant of the Cromwell tank with a 20 pounder gun, was deployed; it was a defensive weapon, in practice more a self-propelled anti-tank gun.
This hodge-podge of designs was far from ideal, and there were efforts to improve the Centurion. When equipped with the L7 105 mm gun, along with greatly improved shells, the Centurion was able to penetrate even the heaviest Soviet designs. It became the truly "Universal tank" it had originally been intended and began to displace other designs in service. With future combat thought to be dominated by nuclear weapons, rendering armour as ineffective as infantry, development of newer tank designs began to wane. Instead, designs like the Centurion continued to be improved with the addition of better fire control, stabilization and NBC protection. The Centurion would go on to be one of the most widely used tank designs, equipping armies around the world. Between 1946 and 1962, 4,423 Centurions were produced, consisting of 13 basic marks and numerous variants. As recently as the 2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict the Israel Defense Forces employed modified Centurions as armoured personnel carriers and combat engineering vehicles. South Africa still employs over 200 Centurions.
Later cold war to today.
While the L7 equipped Centurion was an excellent tank, improvements in gunnery and especially drivetrain made it possible to equip a tank with the protection and firepower of the Conqueror with the mobility of Centurion. Leyland began experiments on such a design as early as 1956 with early prototypes in 1959. This emerged as the Chieftain, one of the most heavily armed and armoured tanks of its era, and one of the most modern designs in any force of the era. From this point the Army forces relied on single designs, adopting the main battle tank concept whole heartedly.
Iranian orders for an improved Chieftain led to what were initially relatively minor upgrades, but the development of Chobham armour in the 1960s led to the design of a new tank combining a wide variety of improvements, the Challenger. Among its many improvements, the Challenger used a laser rangefinder in a highly automated fire control system, an improved engine, a greatly improved suspension that offered far better off-road performance. Entering service in 1983, it was beaten into NATO service by the M-1 Abrams, which also used Chobham armour.
Almost immediately after the Chieftain entered development, the West German government began collaborating with the British on a new tank design combining features of the Chieftain with a number of new concepts. Development officially began in September 1978 with the aim of introducing a new design in the late 1980s that would replace both British and German designs. This project fell apart, but a number of experimental design concepts were then worked into the Challenger 2, which first entered service in July 1994. The Challenger 2 forms the core of the Army's heavy tank units today.
The Challenger 2 is the main tank currently being used today by the British military in combat situations. It is renowned for its durability and endurance. Only one has ever been recorded as destroyed, of which was due to a friendly fire incident involving another Challenger 2 tank. This is possibly due to the use of Chobham armour for the Challenger's outer armour. Chobham armour is an incredibly tough armour, the details of which still remain secret to the developers. It uses layers of ceramics and other materials, combined in such a way as to withstand extreme heat and impact.
In May 2021 the Ministry of Defence announced that 148 Challenger 3 tanks would be produced by upgrading current Challenger tanks with fully-digitised systems and a smoothbore gun. The contract costing £800 million to be carried out by Rheinmetall BAE Systems Land (RBSL) to be delivered 2027-2030.
Recent and current conflicts.
Gulf War.
The headquarters of the 1st Armoured Division was deployed to Saudi Arabia in 1990 to command British land forces. It had two brigades under its command, 4th and 7th Armoured Brigade. During the war, it came under the US VII Corps and was part of the great armoured left-hook that destroyed many Iraqi Republican Guard formations. The two brigades in the division alternated heading the advance. The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards saw active service during the Gulf War in 1991 deploying 57 Challenger tanks.
The Army contributed 50,000 troops to the coalition force that fought Iraq in the Persian Gulf War. This included Challenger tank units within the 1st Armoured Division
Balkans conflicts.
The British Army was deployed to Yugoslavia in 1992; initially this force formed part of the United Nations Protection Force. Units of the 1st Armoured Division were deployed as part of the Implementation Force (IFOR) in 1995.
War in Afghanistan.
In November 2001 the United Kingdom, as a part of Operation Enduring Freedom with the United States, invaded Afghanistan to topple the Taliban. The 3rd Division were deployed in Kabul, to assist in the liberation of the troubled capital. The British Army is today concentrating on fighting Taliban forces and bringing security to Helmand province. Combat operations ended in 2014, although there are some small units that operate in a non combat role to protect healthcare staff and foreign diplomats, as well as a select few who still help train the Afghan National Army.
Iraq War.
The United Kingdom participated in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, sending a force that would reach 46,000 military personnel. The 7th Armoured Brigade, consisting of 112 Challenger 2 tanks, 140 Warriors and 32 AS-90 155 mm self-propelled howitzers, entered Iraq on 21 March and advanced towards Iraq's second largest city, Basra and helped encircle and isolate it. The brigade, led by the 1st Fusiliers Battlegroup, made a rapid advance towards the city and soon reached its outskirts, securing Basra Airport and the bridges across the Shatt al-Arab. The advance by the brigade met sporadic though fierce resistance, with The Queen's Royal Irish Hussars, including an engagement between 14 Challenger 2s of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards and 14 Iraqi tanks, all of the Iraqi tanks being destroyed; it was the largest tank engagement by the British Army since WWII.
The 1st Armoured Division, including 7th Brigade, raided the city several times and the Desert Rats, led by Challenger 2s of the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, Queen's Royal Lancers and 2nd Royal Tank Regiment with Warriors of the 1st Fusiliers, Irish Guards and Black Watch pushed into the city on 6 April and stayed. For the most part, Basra was controlled by 1st Division, though further engagements took place. The war was officially declared over on 1 May. The Desert Rats remained in Iraq after the war, acting as peacekeepers and helping to rebuild the country while based in the British sector in the south of Iraq. The brigade began to leave in late June, being replaced by 19th Mechanised Brigade. The remaining British troops were withdrawn from Iraq after the Iraqi government refused to extend their mandate.


USCGC Harold Miller

USCGC "Harold Miller" (WPC-1138) is the United States Coast Guard's 38th cutter.
Like her sister ships she was built in the Bollinger Shipyards, in Lockport, Louisiana.
Design.
Like her sister ships, "Harold Miller" is designed to perform search and rescue missions, port security, and the interception of smugglers. She is armed with a remotely-controlled, gyro-stabilized 25 mm autocannon, four crew served M2 Browning machine guns, and light arms. She is equipped with a stern launching ramp, that allows her to launch or retrieve a water-jet propelled high-speed auxiliary boat, without first coming to a stop. Her high-speed boat has over-the-horizon capability, and is useful for inspecting other vessels, and deploying boarding parties.
The crew's drinking water needs are met through a desalination unit. The crew mess is equipped with a television with satellite reception.
Operational career.
"Harold Miller" was delivered for her pre-commissioning sea trials on April 2, 2020. She was commissioned on July 15, 2020 at her homeport of Galveston, Texas.
Namesake.
In 2010, Charles "Skip" W. Bowen, who was then the United States Coast Guard's most senior non-commissioned officer, proposed that all 58 cutters in the Sentinel class should be named after enlisted sailors in the Coast Guard, or one of its precursor services, who were recognized for their heroism. The Coast Guard chose Harold Miller as the namesake of the 38th cutter. Miller, and three other Coast Guard sailors, piloted the first landing craft during the United States's first amphibious landing, in the Pacific Theater, in World War II. Miller and his three colleagues were each awarded a Silver Star medal for this task. His colleague Daniel Tarr has a Sentinel-class cutter named after him, as will his other colleagues Glen Harris and William Sparling.


Archibald Cameron Macdonell

Lieutenant General Sir Archibald Cameron Macdonell, (6 October 1864 – 23 December 1941) was a Canadian police officer and soldier.
Education.
He was born in Windsor, Canada West. He was educated at Trinity College School, Port Hope, Ontario, and graduated from the Royal Military College of Canada in 1886, student number 151. He received a commission in the Royal Artillery but resigned for family reasons without actually joining.
Military service.
Macdonell became a lieutenant in the Canadian Militia on 26 June 1886. He joined the Regular Canadian Army as a lieutenant in the Canadian Mounted Infantry, Permanent Corps of Canada, on 6 April 1888.
He exchanged into the North-West Mounted Police in September 1889, and was Adjutant of the whole force. He was in command of C Division and the Battleford District. He volunteered into the 2nd Battalion Canadian Mounted Rifles for service in South Africa during the Second Boer War in January 1900, as captain, and was promoted major in May 1900. He was awarded a DSO for his actions with 2nd Canadian Mounted Rifles in South Africa. After returning to Canada, he was in April 1902 appointed to command the Western Regiment of the fourth Canadian contingent which left for service in South Africa the following month.
He fought with the 2nd Battalion, Canadian Mounted Rifles and was commander of the 5th Battalion Canadian Mounted Rifles.
Macdonell was Commanding Officer of the Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians) regiment, during the periods March 1907 to April 1910 and April 1912 to December 1915.
He was the Commander 7th Canadian Infantry Brigade and 1st Canadian Division during the First World War. Sir Archie had been awarded the Order- Knight Commander, The Most Honourable Order of the Bath (military division) [hence the post-nominals, KCB] for his service in the First World War. This grade of the Order conferred Knighthood and the right to bear the title, "Sir". He was awarded the neck badge and the Breast Star of a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath.
After being promoted to brigadier-general, he commanded the 7th Infantry Brigade, 3rd Canadian Infantry Division, and in June 1917 the 1st Canadian Division. Pierre Berton described MacDonnell in the book Vimy:
A Presentation General Officer sword, which he was awarded in May 1919 by the officers of the 1st Canadian Division, 'The Older Patch' is in the collection of the Royal Military College of Canada virtual museum
From 1919 to 1925, he was appointed commandant of the RMC. He was the first Canadian commandant at the college. When the Prince of Wales's Leinster Regiment was disbanded in 1922, they gave their silver plate, in trust, to the Government of Canada, which in turn, placed the collection, in trust, with then Commandant Archibald Macdonell. Some pieces are on display in the college's Senior Staff Mess, and other select pieces are on display at the Royal Military College of Canada Museum. A plaque in the Senior Staff Mess, enumerates Regiment's locations of service.
On his retirement from the Army in 1925, he was promoted to Lieut-General in recognition of his years of service. From 8 May 1922 until his death in January 1942, he was Honorary Colonel to Lord Strathcona's Horse.
He was placed on the Reserve of Officers as a lieutenant general.
He died in 1942 and was buried in Catarqui Cemetery in Kingston, Ontario.
Legacy.
The Sir Archibald Macdonell Athletic Centre or SAM Centre, which opened in 1974, at the RMC in Kingston, Ontario is named after Lieutenant-General, Sir A.C. Macdonell, KCB, CMG, DSO, C de G. His cocked bi-corn hat, a form of headdress worn by Colonels, General Officers and Staff Officers, with red and white feathers for Generals, is on display at the Kingston Military Community Sports Centre.
The personal Coat of Arms of Lt Gen Sir Archibald Cameron Macdonell were carved on the Currie Building at the Royal Military College of Canada.


USCGC Yamacraw

Two ships of the United States Coast Guard were named Yamacraw:


National Guard Day (Russia)

National Guard Day () is an official holiday that honors the National Guard of Russia on 27 March.
History.
On 16 January 2017, by decree of President Vladimir Putin established 27 March as the Day of the National Guard. From 1996 to 2016, this day was celebrated as the Day of Internal Troops of Russia. The Day of Internal Troops was established by President Boris Yeltsin on 19 March 1996. The celebration of the Day of Internal Troops is historically associated with several decrees of Tsar Alexander I on the reorganization of the garrison units of the army and the creation of the Internal Guard. One of the final decrees, dated 27 March (8 April), 1811, marked the organization of the first of the internal guard.
Traditions.
On this day, the command of the Russian Guard gives military personnel, employees with special police ranks and civilian personnel awards, gives thanks, assigns military and special ranks. Greetings are extended by the President of Russia.
Celebrations.
Every year on 27 March in Moscow, the Commander-in-Chief of the National Guard lays a wreath at the monument to Alexander I. In Moscow, on Krasnokazarmennaya Street, generals and officers of the Rosgvardia lay flowers at the monument to the Internal Troops. The same ceremonial events take place in other cities, where military units guard are deployed. During a gala concert in the Grand Kremlin Palace in 2017, President Vladimir Putin handed the banner of the National Guard to the Director of the National Guard, Army General Viktor Zolotov.


Peary Polar Expedition Medal

The Peary Polar Expedition Medal was a commemorative medal awarded to six of the participants of the 1908-1909 Expedition to the North Pole, led by Robert Peary. Authorized by Congress in 1944, the silver medals were presented by the Secretary of the Navy.
Establishment.
The medal was established by Private Law 78-166 on January 28, 1944. The law was entitled, "An act to provide for the presentation of silver medals to certain members of the Peary Polar Expedition of 1908-1909." The law authorized the Secretary of the Navy to have made at the United States Mint, silver medals with which to reward six individuals for their service to the expedition. The medals were to be presented in the name of Congress. Absent from the list of recipients was Peary himself.
Appearance.
The medal is 1 1/2 inches in diameter. The obverse depicts a figure of Peary in a fur hooded parka, holding the tip of a walking pole in his right hand. Below the figure of Peary are the words in three lines: "PEARY POLAR EXPEDITION 1908-09". Around the outside are the points of a compass rose with north being indicated at the top by a fleur-de-lis.
The reverse bears the eight line inscription: "PRESENTED IN THE NAME OF CONGRESS IN RECOGNITION OF HIS EFFORTS AND SERVICES AS A MEMBER OF THE PEARY POLAR EXPEDITION OF 1908-09 IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE AND FOR THE CAUSE OF POLAR EXPLORATION BY AIDING IN THE DISCOVERY OF THE NORTH POLE BY ADMIRAL PEARY". Above the inscription is an American flag with a sled dog on either side. Below the inscription is a space to engrave the recipient's name resting on the depiction of snowshoes at the bottom.
The medal is suspended from a white ribbon with an ice-blue 1/4 inch stripe toward each edge.
Recipients.
The six recipients of the medal, specified in the authorizing act of Congress, are as follows:
Note - Although eligible, for unknown reasons, Admiral Peary was not awarded the medal.


Quasar (Wendell Vaughn)

Quasar (Wendell Elvis Vaughn) is a fictional superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He is one of Marvel's cosmic heroes, a character whose adventures frequently take him into outer space or other dimensions. However, Quasar deviates from the archetype of the noble, dauntless alien set by such Silver Age cosmic heroes as the Silver Surfer, Adam Warlock and Captain Marvel (Mar-Vell) in that he is an everyman. He starred in an eponymous monthly ongoing series written by Mark Gruenwald that ran for sixty issues beginning in 1989 and has served as a member of The Avengers. In 2012, Quasar was ranked 36th in IGN's list of "The Top 50 Avengers".
Publication history.
The character first appeared as Marvel Boy in "Captain America" #217 (January, 1978). He continued to make guest appearances in "Captain America", "The Incredible Hulk", "Marvel Two-in-One", and "Avengers". He was revamped as Quasar by Mark Gruenwald, and first appeared under this new name in "The Incredible Hulk" #234 (April 1979).
Quasar received an eponymous series in October 1989, written by Mark Gruenwald and illustrated by Paul Ryan and Danny Bulanadi. The title crossed over with "Infinity Gauntlet", "", and "The Infinity War".
Later, the New Universe's Star Brand was introduced into the Marvel Universe. Its presence precipitated into the "Starblast" storyline, which was intended to stir up interest in Quasar's solo series or a prospective cosmic team series starring Quasar, but it failed to do so. "Quasar" was cancelled at issue #60.
He would appear sporadically over the next several years. The character appeared in the 1996 "Star Masters" miniseries (as well as "Cosmic Powers Unlimited" & "Silver Surfer" vol 3 #123) as part of a team of cosmic heroes with the Silver Surfer and Beta Ray Bill. He also appeared in the "" miniseries, "Maximum Security" (2000), and "Fantastic Four" #521-524 (2006).
Quasar appeared and died in the four-issue mini-series "Annihilation: Nova" (June-Sept. 2006). He appeared as a spirit in ": Quasar" #1-4 (Sept.-Dec. 2007), by writer Christos Gage and penciller Mike Lilly. An astral form of Quasar had a recurring role in "Nova" vol 4 beginning with issue #17, as the writers Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning (known collectively as DnA) thought he was too useful a character to stay dead:
The character regained a physical form in the "Realm of Kings" one-shot (2009) and played a role in "The Thanos Imperative" (2010). Quasar assumed the leadership role of the titular team in "Annihilators" #1-4 (2011) and "Annihilators: Earthfall" (2011).
Fictional character biography.
Origin and early career.
Wendell Vaughn was born in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin. He graduated from S.H.I.E.L.D. Academy. Although considered highly capable by his superiors, they nonetheless deem him unfit for field work, sensing that Vaughn lacked the necessary "killer instinct"—the will to win at all costs.
His first assignment is security detail for a research facility where a team of scientists were performing experiments on the Quantum Bands taken from the deceased Crusader. A test pilot selected to wear the bands proves spectacularly successful at wielding them, but he perishes when the energy output reaches a critical mass beyond his control. Vaughn dons the bands when the criminal scientists A.I.M. launch a full-scale assault on the facility. Using the bands' power to generate solid energy constructs, he repulses the attack. When the energy buildup begins to overwhelm him, he decides to simply relax and "go with the flow". To his surprise, the buildup abruptly dissipates. Vaughn realizes the key to wielding the bands is a flexible will, rather than an indomitable, uncompromising one. Ultimately, his lack of a killer instinct makes him a more suitable wielder of the bands.
Wendell Vaughn becomes a superhero, using the codename Marvel Boy in his first appearance alongside S.H.I.E.L.D.'s superhuman Super-Agents. He later becomes Marvel Man, and finally settles on Quasar.
Alongside Captain America, the Falcon, and Hulk, he battles Moonstone and the Corporation. Later, as security chief of Project: Pegasus, he battles the original Deathlok, Nuklo, the Grapplers, and the Nth Man when they attack the facility. Quasar later journeys with the Thing into an alternate reality. His mind is temporarily taken over by the Serpent Crown.
Protector of the Universe.
Quasar journeys to Uranus, where the original Marvel Boy had received the bands. The bands' true nature and origins are revealed to him by the cosmic entity called Eon. Eon explains the bands were intended to be worn by his agent, the Protector of the Universe (previously the late Captain Mar-Vell). Quasar is offered the role and accepts. As a result, his mind is opened to the true extent of the bands' power, including how to use the bands to teleport via a dimension called the Quantum Zone. He also battles Deathurge. After returning to Earth, he resumes his role as a superhero and assists the Avengers in battle against Super-Nova. He is inducted into the Avengers shortly after.
Quasar meets Uatu the Watcher. He encounters the Stranger, and solves the Watcher's "Oblivion Plague".
After a falling-out with both his estranged father and Eon, he quits his role as Protector of the Universe. During this time Maelstrom, the "Cosmic Assassin", kills both Quasar and Eon. However, Quasar is recreated in an energy form by the cosmic being Infinity and battles Maelstrom and Oblivion. Quasar saves the universe from collapse. Maelstrom is destroyed by the Quantum-bands and Quasar resurrects himself. Quasar fights Thanos at Eon's funeral. Eon is reincarnated in the form of its newborn offspring Epoch.
When a stargate being used by the Shi'ar during the threatens to destroy Earth's sun, Quasar is able to undo the damage with the help of Binary.
During the 1992 storyline "Infinity War", Quasar travels to the Dimension of Manifestations to gather intelligence. With the aid of the Contemplator, he discovers the cosmic being Eternity in a catatonic state. He leaves the dimension to join with his fellow superheroes. Quasar attempts to use the near-omnipotent Ultimate Nullifier against the god-like villain Magus, but Magus uses the Infinity Gauntlet to turn the weapon against Quasar, wiping him from existence.
He is briefly replaced by a supervillain who claims his Quantum Bands for himself but Quasar is able to resurrect himself through means of the Star Brand, which he had acquired during a trip to the New Universe prior to the Infinity War. He saves the Living Tribunal from power-hungry Deviant Ereshkigal and stops Skeletron and The Black Fleet from acquiring the Star Brand for themselves. When the Presence threatens to kill his loved ones, Quasar fakes his death and leaves Earth.
Avengers Deep-Space/Annihilation.
Quasar helps defend the universe from aliens called Infinites. When Earth is threatened by Ego the Living Planet, Quasar absorbs Ego's essence and exiles himself into space, for fear of Ego expanding to planet-size.
Quasar helps to operate an Avengers deep-space sensing station with the support of Living Lightning and Monica Rambeau, and then becomes involved in Kang's War. He later assists the Fantastic Four in a battle with Galactus. When the Annihilation Wave strikes, Quasar and Nova try to stop it. Quasar is killed by Annihilus.
Wendell is restored to life in a Quantum Energy form thanks to the scientists of Project Pegasus.
Realm of Kings.
Wendell volunteers to scout the rip in spacetime that occurs during the 2009 "War of Kings" storyline. During the trip, he regains physical form and discovers an alternate universe planning to invade his universe. Trying to return to his reality, Quasar encounters an Imperial Guard exploration ship. Quasar joins Nova's team to resist the invasion.
In an effort to prevent further galactic catastrophes, Quasar joins the Annihilators. The team protects Galador from an invasion of the Dire Wraiths and brings an end to the generations long war between the two worlds. The Annihilators learn of an attempt to revive the Magus by the Universal Church of Truth, and they prevent his resurrection with the aid of the Avengers. Quasar and the other Annihilators later confront Thanos and Adam Warlock while the two are on a cosmic crusade, and are defeated.
Pleasant Hill.
During the "" storyline, Vaughn begins to lose control of the Quantum Bands and willingly allows his memories and appearance to be altered by Kobik in Pleasant Hill, a secret S.H.I.E.L.D. prison disguised as a gated community run by Maria Hill, who poses as its mayor. During this time, he works as the curator of the Pleasant Hill museum. When Wendell's memories are restored during Baron Helmut Zemo's prison revolt, he bequeaths the Quantum Bands to a young S.H.I.E.L.D. agent named Avril Kincaid and agrees to mentor her so she can become the next Quasar.
Powers and abilities.
Wendell Vaughn is an athletic man with no inherent superhuman powers. He received extensive training in hand-to-hand combat, and moderate experience in the same. He is an expert in all basic espionage skills, as a S.H.I.E.L.D. Academy graduate.
Star Brand.
While he possessed the power of the Star Brand, Quasar gained the abilities of flight, superhuman strength and resilience. He also was able to regenerate his entire body from minute remains and did not need to eat, drink or breathe. However, virtually all of the energy derived from the Star Brand was depleted not long after he gave it away. The Living Tribunal later stated that Quasar's body retains only an insignificant trace amount of energy.
Cosmic awareness.
Quasar also briefly possessed the same powers of cosmic awareness that Eon granted to Kree soldier Mar-Vell (later known as the original Captain Marvel). By simply concentrating for a moment, he could gain complete knowledge about virtually anything in the universe.
Standard Operating Procedure.
While Quasar's powers are quite powerful and diverse, since he doesn't make it a habit of using all of his power to destroy his opponent, it is important to note his standard operating procedure:
Other versions.
Captain Universe Quasar.
After a failed war with the Elder God Set and the deaths of every hero on Earth save the Silver Surfer, Quasar is merged with Captain Universe to form a super-being capable of capturing and defeating Set. Using the Eye of Agamotto, Quasar traps himself and Set within its pocket dimension.
Once, during a trip through alternate realities, the Earth-616 version of Quasar viewed his Captain Universe-enhanced counterpart and Set battling each other.
Guardians of the Galaxy.
Tricked by Eon's evil "child" Era, Quasar jumps to a sentient nexus of energy and is killed. He ends up in the 'White Room', where all Quantum Band wielders go after death. Eon is entrapped with him, in the form of a centerpiece on the Room's table.
Her, now called Kismet, teams up with the long-lost son she had with Quasar, Starhawk. They visit Quasar's grave and learn what Era has done. With the aid of the Hawk-God Starhawk worships, the two vow to stop Era.
House of M Quasar.
Wendell Vaughn briefly appears as a scientist in the alternate timeline. There is no indication that he possesses the quantum bands in this universe.
Last Avengers Story.
Quasar is briefly mentioned as having gone insane in "Last Avengers Story" #1, but does not appear.
Marvel Zombies.
In ' #1, Quasar is one of the heroes attending the briefing given by Nick Fury about defending their world from the zombie plague. A zombified Quasar is featured in the 2009 limited series "Marvel Zombies Return", part of a super-powered zombie force including the Super-Skrull, Namor, Moon Knight, and Thundra. The group destroys many of the somewhat heroic zombies featured in "Marvel Zombies 2". Quasar murders his reality's human Kitty Pryde, holding her underwater until she is forced to turn solid, upon which it is implied that Namor eats her. Quasar and his zombie cohorts are killed at the end of the series.
Ultimate Marvel.
S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Wendell Vaughn is the head of security for the top secret Project Pegasus in Devil's Point, Wyoming. He first appears in "Ultimate Power" #1, when Project Pegasus is attacked by the Serpent Squad.


John Denvir (soldier)

John Denvir, DCM (5 May 1913 – 11 March 1973) was a New Zealand soldier who fought in the Second World War with the Yugoslav partisans. He was a recipient of the Soviet Medal for Valor, the only New Zealand soldier of the Second World War to be honoured in this way.
Born in Scotland, Denvir's family emigrated to New Zealand when he was a boy. On the outbreak of the war, he enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF) for service in the conflict. Made a prisoner of war during the Battle of Greece, he was held in a camp in Yugoslavia from April 1941. He escaped in December and linked up with Yugoslav partisans. He became a leader in the partisans' activities against the occupying German forces and was later awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal for his actions during an attack on a train. His services with the partisans resulted in him being awarded the Soviet Medal for Valor. Wounded several times during his service with the partisans, he was repatriated to New Zealand in June 1944. He was discharged from the 2NZEF in September 1944. He later operated a taxi business and died in 1973.
Early life.
John Denvir was born on 5 May 1913 in Glasgow, Scotland, to Michael Joseph Denvir, a dock worker, and his wife Jeanie . The Denvir family moved in New Zealand in 1925 and he completed his education at a Marist Brothers school in Christchurch. He then became a farm worker but was later employed as a storeman in Christchurch. In June 1934, he married Edna ; the couple had four children.
Second World War.
On the outbreak of the Second World War, Denvir enlisted in the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force (2NZEF), being raised for service aboard. He was posted to the 20th Battalion which was being formed at Burnham Military Camp in Christchurch. In January 1940 the battalion left New Zealand as part of the 1st Echelon of the 2nd New Zealand Division. The next several months were spent training in Egypt but in March 1941, the division was one of a number of Allied formations sent to Greece to assist in the defence of the country. By this time Denvir had been promoted to corporal.
Following the commencement of the Battle of Greece in April 1941, the Allies soon found themselves outclassed and in retreat. Within days, it was decided to evacuate the New Zealanders from beaches in the Peloponnese peninsula. However, the 20th Battalion's route to the beaches were cut off. While most were eventually evacuated from alternative sites to the west of Athens, Denvir was among those who were captured and made prisoners of war.
Denvir was taken to occupied Yugoslavia where he was held in a prisoner of war camp at Maribor. In September 1941, he managed to escape with two others and made his way to Zagreb, where he was recaptured a week later. As punishment, he received three weeks of solitary confinement. This did not deter him from further escape attempts, and in December he again was able to get away from his captors. This time, he made his way to Ljubljana, in Slovenia. Initially intending to make their way to Turkey, a neutral power, he and another escapee decided to link up with Yugoslav partisans (National Liberation Army and Partisan Detachments of Yugoslavia) the following month instead.
Service with the Yugoslav partisans.
Initially, he served as a machine-gunner but soon raised a group of 60 mounted infantry. By October 1942, he was serving with the 1st (Ljubo Sercer) Battalion, Krimski Odred, and later was commander of the 2nd Battalion of the 4th Slovenian National Freedom Shock (Ljubo Sercer) Brigade. Earlier in the year, it had been reported in New Zealand that Denvir had died and as a result, a death certificate had been issued. His employer had been making regular payments into a bank account set up for him while he was on active service and this paid out £100 to his wife on the announcement of his death. By January 1943, it had become known that he was alive and serving with the partisans; his employer resumed making payments into his bank account.
Wounded for the fourth time in September 1943, Denvir was promoted to honorary lieutenant in the partisans the following month. In December, he was given command of a partisan brigade. Early the following year, he was evacuated to Italy to receive medical treatment. On his recovery, he worked with a British organisation providing equipment and supplies to the partisans before rejoining the 2nd New Zealand Division. He was promoted to sergeant, with effect from the date of his capture during the Battle of Greece, and then received a commission as a second lieutenant.
For his actions during an attack mounted by the partisans on a train in August the previous year, Denvir was recommended for the Distinguished Service Medal (DCM) by a British liaison officer working with the Yugoslavs. The DCM was published in the "London Gazette" on 27 April 1944, in recognition of "gallant and distinguished services in the field". The same month, he was awarded the Soviet Medal for Valour. The recommendation, based on his service in Yugoslavia with the partisans, was made by Soviet liaison officers attached to the headquarters of Marshal Josip Tito. Denvir was the first and only New Zealand soldier of the war to be recognised with this award.
He was sent back to New Zealand on furlough, arriving in June 1944. Initially passed as fit for a return to duty with the 2nd New Zealand Division, his status was later downgraded and he was considered unfit for active service. In September he was discharged from the 2NZEF. He was invested with the Soviet Medal for Valour by Brigadier E. Rowlings, the commander of the Southern Military District, in a ceremony at Burnham Military Camp on 14 December.
Later life.
Returning to civilian life, he went into partnership in a taxi business, operating in Temuka. He later lived in Christchurch and then Blenheim. He made at least two visits to Eastern Europe; one in 1955 to Slovenia during which he was invested with a number of Yugoslav awards for his war service there and received an honorary promotion to major in the Yugoslav Army. On this trip, Marshal Tito presented him with a sporting rifle. The second visit was in 1967, for a reunion of the battalion he led during the war. He died on 11 March 1973 in Blenheim, survived by his wife and children.


Nick Charles (politician)

Nick Charles (born December 16, 1982) is an American politician, elected to the Maryland House of Delegates in 2018 to represent District 25, which includes major landmarks such as Andrew's Air Force Base and Prince George's Community College. The district is located in Prince George's County and comprises two municipalities, The City of District Heights, Maryland the Town of Morningside, Maryland, and multiple unincorporated communities Forestville, Capitol Heights, Suitland, Largo, Kettering, Clinton, Temple Hills, and Upper Marlboro.
Early Years.
Delegate Nick Charles was born in Washington, D.C., on December 16, 1982 to Marie Beresford, a retired 30+ year United States Navy budget analyst, and Major Nicholas Charles, a decorated retired United States Army Officer. As a lifelong resident of Prince Georges County, Maryland, he attended Benjamin D. Foulois Elementary School of Morningside, Maryland in District 25, Eugene Burroughs Middle School of Accokeek, and Largo Senior High School of Upper Marlboro, Maryland also of District 25 where he graduated.
Military Service.
Delegate Charles enlisted into the United States Air Force on September 4, 2001 leaving The Pentagon where he worked as a government employee for 3 years, just before 9/11. His AFSC was 1C502, an Aviation Resource Manager. On active duty his meritorious service with the 60th Fighter Squadron during Operation Noble Eagle for Air Patrol Missions over the Washington Metropolitan Area and Air Force One escorts, following 9/11 garnered him recognition with the presentation of the Air Force Achievement Medal. He then enlisted into the DC Air National Guard located on Andrews Air Force Base until he received an Honorable Discharge after six years of honorable military service.
Duty Stations.
Eglin Air Force Base, Florida – 60th Fighter Squadron of the 33rd Fighter Wing
Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada – 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron of the 53rd Wing
Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland – 121st Fighter Squadron of the 113th Wing (DC ANG)
Education.
After graduating from Largo Senior High School, he attended Prince Georges Community College prior to enlisting into the United States Air Force. He earned an associate degree in Applied Science (AAS) in Aviation Management from the Community College of the Air Force and a Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) in Procurement and Public Contracting from the University of the District of Columbia.
Career.
Delegate Charles started his career with the Department of Defense as an intern during the summer of his 11th grade year. He has over 20 years of experience providing acquisition, program management, and administrative support to the Department of Defense at various levels. He has worked ACAT Level 1 programs and Non ACAT programs working through Milestones B, C, and FRP. His work effort in the 422nd Test and Evaluation Squadron was instrumental in the declaration of the F-22A Initial Operational Capability resulting in a presentation of the Air Force Achievement Medal. While supporting the Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Research, Development, and Acquisition Chief System Engineer's Office, he was recognized as one of Naval Sea Systems Command 21st Century Leaders in the NAVSEA publication On Watch. He was additionally recognized for superior service PEO IWS 2.0 Program Manager now PEO Integrated Warfare Systems Rear Admiral Douglas Small with a Certificate of Appreciation.
In the legislature.
Delegate Charles was elected in Nov 2018 and sworn in Jan 2019 to represent Maryland's Legislative District 25.
-Member of the Health & Government Operations Committee (HGO)
-Member of Insurance and Pharmaceutical Subcommittee
-Member of Health Occupations and Long Term Care Subcommittee
-Vice Chairman of the Law Enforcement Sub-committee of the Prince George's County House Delegation
-Member of the Black Caucus
-Member of the Veterans Caucus


Gatluak Gai

Gatluak Gai (died 23 July 2011) was a member of the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) who rebelled after the April 2010 elections and led a renegade militia in the volatile Unity state of South Sudan.
Gatluak was of Nuer origin, from Koch County.
He was a relatively junior SPLA officer on the payroll of the Unity state prisons department.
He was said to have wanted to become the Koch county commissioner, but lost this opportunity when Taban Deng Gai was appointed governor of Unity state in 2008.
In the April 2010 general elections, Taban Deng Gai successfully defended his governorship against challenger Angelina Teny, wife of South Sudan vice president Riek Machar. Gatluak Gai did not accept the election results, which were widely seen as flawed.
Although Angelina Teny disputed the election results, she disclaimed any connection with Gatluak Gai's rebellion.
In late May 2010, Gatluak Gai's forces attacked an SPLA base at Awarping in Abiemnom County.
It was suspected that Gatluak Gai led the forces responsible for attacks that killed over 35 people, including many civilians, in Koch County. Gai was residing in Khartoum at this time.
There were conflicting rumors about the sources of Gai's forces and arms.
As of January 2011 talks were in progress with different people who claimed to represent Gai, but the situation was extremely obscure.
Gai signed a peace agreement with the SPLA on 20 July 2011. He would have rejoined the SPLA as a lieutenant general. Three days later he was shot to death in Koch county.
At first the SPLA was blamed for the death. However, on 24 July, Marko Chuol Ruei, second in command of the rebel South Sudan Liberation Army (SSLA), said he had killed Gai.
Ruei claimed that Gai had told his forces to ignore the peace agreement, to not join the SPLA but instead to join forces from North Sudan.
Ruei said the SSLA had been negotiating with Khartoum for supply of munitions, but had been told they would first have to join the rebel militias led by Peter Gadet and Bapiny Monytuel.
At the time of his death, Gatluak Gai was in his 50s.
He had an imposing, physical presence.
Another rebel leader, General Peter Gadet, was married to one of Gai's daughters.


Coast Guard Station Cape Cod Canal

United States Coast Guard Station Cape Cod Canal is a United States Coast Guard station located in Sandwich, Massachusetts. It operates patrol boats along the coast of Cape Cod, the Cape Cod Canal, and the treacherous waters of Buzzards Bay.


Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center

Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (FNMOC) provides the highest quality, most relevant and timely worldwide meteorological and oceanographic support, to U.S. and coalition forces, based out of Monterey, California and Stennis Space Center, Mississippi. FNMOC produces and disseminates assured meteorological and oceanographic products and services that enable fleet safety and the effective exploitation of the predicted environment.
FNMOC provides Global and Regional Weather Prediction Charts (WXMAP) and Global Ensemble Weather Prediction Charts (EFS). WxMAP depictions of NAVGEM predictions for side-by-side comparison with NCEP global NWS models (GFS) are also available. FNMOC provides Global and Regional Ocean Wave Prediction Charts (WW3), Global Ensemble Ocean Wave Prediction Charts (WW3 Ensemble), and Global Sea Surface Temperature and Sea Surface Anomaly Charts (NCODA). FNMOC provides links to satellite imagery of tropical cyclones (TCWEB) and current tropical storm forecast tracks.
FNMOC is composed of military and civilian personnel. The team consists of specialists in meteorology, oceanography, computer science, and Fleet operations. The team's efforts provide computerized weather and ocean prediction products, weather satellite imagery products, and related tactical decision aids and data, supporting virtually every combat platform and weapons system operated by the U.S. Navy.
History.
In 1958, the Navy Numerical Weather Problems (NANWEP) group was established in Suitland, MD. NANWEP was later moved to Naval Postgraduate School (NPS) in 1959. Fleet Numerical Weather Facility was established in 1961. In 1974, Fleet Numerical Weather Facility moved from NPS to its current location. In 1993, the current title Fleet Numerical Meteorology and Oceanography Center (FNMOC) was adopted. In 2005, Fleet Numerical was realigned under Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command (NMOC). In 2011, Fleet Numerical completed a new Computer Operations Center.
FNMOC is one of the DoD's primary central production site for worldwide computer-generated operational meteorological and oceanographic analysis and forecast products.
Organization.
FNMOC is an echelon IV command aligned under the Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command (COMNAVMETOCCOM) or CNMOC. FNMOC is co-located with Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) Marine Meteorology Division, a representation of successful transition of research into operations. FNMOC maintains close ties with the nearby Naval Postgraduate School (NPS).
Numerical Weather Prediction.
Central to FNMOC modeling capability is a global numerical weather model called the Navy Global Environmental Model (NAVGEM) and a global ocean prediction model called the Hybrid Coordinate Ocean Model (HYCOM). FNMOC models a variety of global, regional, sub-regional areas and specialized ocean and atmospheric environments as the DOD's premier Numerical Weather Prediction Center.


Abraham J. Multer

Abraham Jacob Multer (December 24, 1900 – November 4, 1986) was a Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives from New York. Born in New York City, he graduated from City College of New York in 1921 and Brooklyn Law School in 1922. He served in the United States Coast Guard from 1943 until 1945. He was elected to Congress in 1947 to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Leo F. Rayfiel and served from November 4, 1947, until his resignation on December 31, 1967 after election to the New York Supreme Court on November 7, 1967, where he served from January 1, 1968, until January 1, 1977. He then served as special referee in the Brooklyn Appellate Division, from 1979–1984. He died in West Hartford, Connecticut.
References.
 Retrieved on 2009-03-12


Front mobile group

A front mobile group is a grouping of several tank armies as a primary armoured force of the Front commander for use in developing breakthroughs during an offensive, particularly in achieving strategic goals. Usually forming the second echelon, and employing from one to three tank armies, these were used with great success by the Red Army during the fighting on the Eastern Front of the Second World War. On occasion when either the tank army was unavailable, or the terrain was not suitable for the employment of large number of tanks and self-propelled artillery, only a cavalry mechanized group was used. The Front mobile group was usually used to deepen the penetration of the enemy front 70–100 km or more. The organisation of the Front mobile group was retained by the Soviet Army during the Cold War in the Group of Soviet Forces in Germany known as second echelon tank forces. The employment of the tank armies is intended to create a local numerical superiority on a narrow front of 3-5:1 in manpower, 6-8:1 in tanks and artillery, and 3-5:1 in Combat aircraft.