Oligodactyly

Oligodactyly (from the Ancient Greek "oligos" meaning "few" and δάκτυλος "daktylos" meaning "finger") is the presence of fewer than five fingers or toes on a hand or foot.
It is quite often incorrectly called "hypodactyly", but the Greek prefixes hypo- and hyper- are used for continuous scales (e.g. in hypoglycaemia and hyperthermia). This as opposed to discrete or countable scales, where oligo- and poly- should be used (e.g. in oligarchy and polygamy). Oligodactyly is therefore the opposite of polydactyly. Very rare, this medical condition usually has a genetic or familial cause.
Oligodactyly is sometimes a sign or symptom of several syndromes including Poland syndrome and Weyer Ulnar Ray Syndrome. It is a type of dysmelia.
Ectrodactyly is an extreme instance of oligodactyly, involving the absence of one or more central digits of the hand or foot and is also known as split hand/split foot malformation (SHFM). The hands and feet of people with ectrodactyly are often described as "claw-like" and may include only the thumb and one finger (usually either the little finger, ring finger, or a syndactyly of the two) with similar abnormalities of the feet.
People with oligodactyly often have full use of the remaining digits and adapt well to their condition. They are not greatly hindered in their daily activities, if at all. Even those with the most extreme forms are known to engage in tasks that require fine control, such as writing and bootmaking as well as working as a cab driver.
The Northern People of Zimbabwe have a high frequency of oligodactyly.


Cap snatching

The first step of transcription for some negative, single-stranded RNA viruses is cap snatching, in which the first 10 to 20 residues of a host cell RNA are removed (snatched) and used as the 5′ cap and primer to initiate the synthesis of the nascent viral mRNA. The viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) can then proceed to replicate the negative-sense genome from the positive-sense template. Cap-snatching also explains why some viral mRNA have 5’ terminal extensions of 10-20 nucleotides that are not encoded for in the genome. Examples of viruses that engage in cap-snatching include influenza viruses ("Orthomyxoviridae"), Lassa virus ("Arenaviridae"), hantaan virus ("Hantaviridae") and rift valley fever virus ("Phenuiviridae"). Most viruses snatch 15-20 nucleotides except for the families "Arenaviridae" and "Nairoviridae" and the genus Thogotovirus ("Orthomyxoviridae") which use a shorter strand.
In the influenza virus, cap snatching occurs in the nucleus of the cell. The cap snatching endonuclease function is contained in the PA subunit of the RNA polymerase.
In "Arenaviridae" and "Bunyavirales", cap-snatching takes place in the cytoplasm.
Steps of cap snatching.
Cap-snatching occurs in three general steps:
1) The viral RdRp or N protein binds to the host mRNA 5’-methylated cap-1 or cap-2 structure.
2) Viral endonuclease cleaves mRNA several nucleotides downstream of the cap.
3) Capped RNA utilized as a primer to initiate viral mRNA synthesis carried out by the RdRp.
Cap snatching and transcription in influenza.
Cap snatching is best described in influenza viruses, especially influenza A. In "Orthomyxoviridae", the viral family of influenza, the RdRp is divided into three subunits: PA, PB1 and P2.
           PB1 first binds the 5’ end of the viral RNA (vRNA), activating PB2 and causing the 3’ end of the vRNA to form a double-stranded zone with the 5’ end. The PB2 proceeds to bind cellular mRNA at the N7-methyl guanosine (m7G) capped 5’ end. The PA subunit subsequently cleaves the sequence 10-13 nucleotides from the cap structure via endonuclease activity at the N terminus. The exact cleavage location is dependent both on the distance between the PB2 and the PA of the RdRp (around 50 angstroms or 10-13 nucleotides) and also the sequence of the mRNA. Then, the PB1 subunit, which contains the polymerase activity, initially adds on two new nucleotides. The cap snatched primer moves through the product exit tunnel in the PB1 domain to serve as the primer for transcription. The vRNA 3’-UCGUUUU nucleotides are not bound to the polymerase but rather are free for complementary binding with the capped RNA primer to confer stability. Transcription then begins with G or C residue on the 3’ end of the capped primer. Finally, the PB1 subunit completes chain elongation in the canonical 5’ to 3’ direction, releasing the cap, but keeping the 5’ end bound. The viral 3’ poly-A tail is added at the end of transcription by polymerase stuttering from the steric hindrance of the vRNA loop. The resulting viral mRNA looks is identical to host mRNA, allowing endogenous cellular machinery to carry out processing and nuclear export.
The de-capped host mRNAs are targeted degradation, which lead to the downregulation of cellular mRNA. Influenza RdRp also interacts with the cell Polymerase II (Pol II) C terminal domain, which potentially promotes viral transcription by changing the conformation of the RdRp. Additionally, by reducing Pol II abundance, influenza can begin to shut off critical host transcription.
Cap snatching is not used during replication. Instead, the RdRp performs a “prime and realign” step ensure that the genome is fully copied. In this mechanism, the RdRp sets down a primer internally, then the vRNA is realigned to continue replication.
Influenza's PB2 cap-binding domain has a unique fold, but it uses aromatic stacking to execute m7G cap-binding similar to other cap-binding proteins. PA is a member of the PD(D/E)XK nuclease family, which uses divalent metal ions to cleave nucleic acid. However, it has a peculiar active site histidine residue which ligates the Mn2+ ion used for cleavage.
Influenza drug therapy.
In October 2018, the United States FDA approved baloxavir marboxil for treatment of acute uncomplicated influenza, marking the first new influenza anti-viral drug class in over two decades. The drug utilizes knowledge about cap snatching by targeting and inhibiting the endonuclease function of the PA subunit, which will prevent the virus from initiating transcription. Baloxavir marboxil (Xofluza) is effective against both influenza A and B.
Cap snatching in "Arenaviridae" and "Bunyavirales".
The family "Arenaviridae" and order "Bunyavirales" are also segmented negative, single-stranded RNA viruses. A verified Mn2+ dependent endonuclease is located at the N-terminus of the L protein. TN-terminal domain is conserved between various families, suggesting evolutionary similarity. However, the cap-binding domain is not confirmed for every virus family, but it is believed to be located in the L or nucleocapsid (N or NP) protein.[1] In the bunyavirales, endonuclease cleavage and nucleotide motif preferences vary between families, genera and species. This variation occurs because of a need to some base pairing with the 3’ end of the viral genome.
The nucleoprotein structure in Lassa virus ("Arenaviridae") contains a second nuclease. Researchers propose that it is involved in attenuating interferon response, but it also contains a dTTP-binding site which may be used for cap-snatching. In this model, the L and N proteins cooperate in the cap-snatching process. The two-domain model has also been prosed for hantaviruses, but the N protein in the rift valley fever virus ("Phenuiviridae") does not possess the same features.
Cap snatching in "Hantaviridae".
Cap snatching has also been investigated in depth for the family "Hantaviridae" ("Bunyavirales"). There is evidence that the N protein binds to the 5’ cap and protects them from degradation by cellular machinery. The N protein accumulates in cytoplasmic cellular processing bodies (P bodies), sequestering the protected 5’ caps as a pool of available primers for the RdRp to begin viral mRNA synthesis. There are four nucleotides on the vRNA that are adjacent the 5’ cap for binding. The virus preferentially cleaves mRNA cap at a G residue 14 nucleotides downstream from the cap. Additionally, it usually cleaves caps from nonsense mRNA instead of actively translated mRNA. The N protein can guard host mRNA caps without P-bodies, but they are not used as efficiently by the RdRp.
The "Hantaviridae" RdRp can also engage in a “prime and realign” mechanism: The host oligonucleotide primes mRNA transcription and initiates transcription with a terminal G residue. After several nucleotides are added, the nascent RNA realigns by moving two nucleotides backwards on the repeated terminal sequence (AUCAUCAUC) so that the host G is once again the first nucleotide, creating a 5’ end extension.


Georges Guillain

Georges Charles Guillain () (3 March 1876 – 29 June 1961) was a French neurologist born in Rouen.
He studied medicine in Rouen and Paris, where he learned clinical education at several hospitals. He developed an interest in neurology, and his first important scientific work involved lesions of the plexus brachialis. He earned his medical doctorate at Paris in 1898.
He later became "chef de clinique" for nervous disease, and in 1910 acquired his agrégation. After the end of World War I, he worked at Charité Hospital in Paris, followed by a professorship of neurology at the Salpêtrière (1923).
Guillain was a prolific writer. In 1920 with his friend Jean Barré (1880-1967), he published a major work titled "Travaux neurologiques de guerre", a book that described the two doctors' clinical experiences during wartime. He was a member of French, American and Japanese academies of science, and in 1949 was appointed commander of the Légion d'honneur. He died in Paris.
His daughter, Andrée, married the aircraft manufacturer Claude de Cambronne.


Desert Valley Charitable Foundation

The Desert Valley Charitable Foundation was founded in 1989. The Foundation was established by Prem Reddy, MD, a cardiologist and philanthropist with an initial gift of $1 million. Since that time, he has contributed over $5 million to the Foundation.
The Desert Valley Charitable Foundation is a 501(c)(3) not-for-profit charitable organization that serves the health care needs of the High Desert communities in many ways, including a free public health library, a scholarship program for students in the health care field, and the support of other health care related charities.


Kerley lines

Kerley lines are a sign seen on chest radiographs with interstitial pulmonary edema. They are thin linear pulmonary opacities caused by fluid or cellular infiltration into the interstitium of the lungs. They are named after Irish neurologist and radiologist Peter Kerley.
Associated conditions.
They are suggestive for the diagnosis of congestive heart failure, but are also seen in various non-cardiac conditions such as pulmonary fibrosis, interstitial deposition of heavy metal particles or carcinomatosis of the lung. Chronic Kerley B lines may be caused by fibrosis or hemosiderin deposition caused by recurrent pulmonary oedema.


Vineeta Foundation

The Vineeta Foundation was founded in 1995 by Vineeta Rastogi. She and her husband, Brian Hennessey, learned that Ms. Rastogi had terminal cancer in the same year and decided to start a foundation to continue her public health and human rights work, with a particular focus on HIV/AIDS pandemic.
Part of the foundation's innovative work involves extensive overland travel to discover the health and human rights issues in a region, seeking formal and informal organizations that are successfully dealing with these problems and their cultural context. The foundation then implements a pilot program involving as many of these players as possible and then presents the findings at the International AIDS Conference.
The foundation is chaired by Radia Daoussi, a Fulbright Scholar and Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation Scholar trained at Johns Hopkins School of Public Health.


Charles Boxton

Charles Boxton (April 24, 1860 in Shasta County, California – August 29, 1927 in San Mateo, California) served as the 27th mayor of San Francisco for seven days, from July 9 to July 16, 1907.
He attended the San Francisco public schools and then entered a dental apprenticeship. Afterwards he entered the University of California, where he earned a D.D.S. degree, and then entered private practice in San Francisco.
Boxton soon left his dental practice to fight in the Philippine–American War. After returning home, he entered politics and was elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors as a Republican in 1899. He also became dean of the Dental Department at San Francisco's College of Physicians and Surgeons.
Mayor of San Francisco.
After the conviction of mayor Eugene Schmitz on bribery charges in July 1907, Boxton was selected by Board of Supervisors to serve as mayor temporarily until a new mayor could be elected at a convention later that same month.
One day after his election as mayor, Boxton was called as the first witness in the trial of Louis Glass, an executive with the Pacific States Telephone and Telegraph Company, from whom Boxton and 10 other supervisors had admitted taking bribes of $5,000 each. Boxton spent much of his week as a mayor shuttling between court and his official duties, and admitted – in addition to the bribery – to having lied under oath, signing a false affidavit in 1906.
Boxton's tenure as mayor was marked by the additional confusion of former mayor Schmitz refusing to concede he had vacated the office, despite having been convicted and imprisoned for bribery. Insisting he would be exonerated upon appeal and reelected, Schmitz's supporters blockaded the mayor's office, forcing Boxton to relocate his offices.
The convention called to replace Boxton quickly fell apart amid conflicts between business and labor interests. Subsequently, a trio of prosecutors involved in the Schmitz bribery case – including District Attorney William H. Langdon – selected the next mayor, Edward Robeson Taylor, a respected lawyer and physician then serving as dean of the Hastings College of Law. Boxton subsequently resigned as mayor on July 16, allowing the Board of Supervisors to elect Taylor before resigning en masse themselves, thus allowing Taylor to appoint new supervisors.
Later life.
A month after his resignation as mayor in 1907, Boxton was removed as Dean of Dental Department of the College of Physicians and Surgeons. Boxton would later return the school's board of trustees in 1913 and was reappointed Dean in 1915. The College of Physicians and Surgeons would later be absorbed by the University of the Pacific in 1962, and is today known as the Arthur A. Dugoni School of Dentistry.
Boxton died August 29, 1927 in Redwood City.


Gurdip Singh (professor)

Gurdip Singh is a professor from Karnataka, India. He is a senior professor of Ayurveda and the Director of Post Graduate Studies at the SDM College of Ayurveda and Hospital in Hassan, Karnataka. He is considered an authority on the Ayurveda work "Charaka Samhita".
He was awarded the Padma Shri, the fourth highest civilian award of India, in 2020 under Gujarat state for contribution in the field of medicine.


Lawrence Whalley

Lawrence J. Whalley MB, BS, MD, DPM, FRCP(E), FRC Psych was formerly the Crombie Ross Professor of Mental Health in the University of Aberdeen, Scotland, UK from 1992 to 2008. He is professor emeritus at the University of Aberdeen and from 2010 part-time professor of research at the University of the Highlands and Islands.
Whalley is best known for follow-up studies of 757 Aberdeen City and Shire residents who took part at age 11 years in the Scottish Mental Surveys of 1932 and 1947. He has authored or co-authored more than 300 scientific publications (Google H-index = 67 in 2019), seven books and has contributed to many TV and radio programs mostly about the dementias of old age. Notably, he co-authored "A lifetime of Intelligence" with Deary & Starr (published by the American Psychological Association in 2009) and "Dementia" with John Breitner (Montreal) in 2002 and 2010. He was among the most highly cited academic staff members at the University of Aberdeen.
Whalley's popular science account of "The Ageing Brain" (Phoenix Press, 2004, published in the USA and translated into Spanish, Italian and Japanese) describes some of his research findings on brain structural and functional magnetic resonance imaging, nutrition, genetics and physical health and how these explain differences in individual rates of aging of some mental abilities while others are relatively preserved. His work "Understanding brain aging and dementia: a life course approach" was published in 2015 by Columbia University Press . He is currently Crombie Ross Professor emeritus at the University of Aberdeen (2008-2022)and research professor at the University of the Highlands & Islands (2010-2020). He has lectured widely in UK, USA, South Africa, Canada, and Australia mostly about dementia and severe forms of mental illness. He was a member of the senior clinical scientific staff at the MRC Brain Metabolism Unit, Edinburgh University(1978-1986), senior lecturer in psychiatry (Edinburgh University, 1986-1991) and honorary consultant psychiatrist Lothian Health Board (1978-1991). With George Fink in Edinburgh University Whalley investigated the role of oxytocin in severe mental illness and the benefits of ECT. He detected abnormalities of oxytocinergic function in schizoaffective mania, post-partum psychosis and how ECT modified oxytocin release.
Whalley was born on 12 March 1946. He went to school at St Joseph's College, Blackpool (now St Mary's Catholic Academy), 1954–64, graduated in Medicine from the University of Newcastle upon Tyne in 1969. Whalley trained in neuroendocrinology, geriatrics, neurology, and psychiatry in Oxford and then in Edinburgh where he studied epidemiology, psychometrics, and psychoneuroendocrinology before beginning cytogenetic-environment studies in early-onset Alzheimer’s Disease (EOAD). In the University of Edinburgh with MRC support, he studied the epidemiology of EOAD in Scotland (1974–1988), found non-random urban "clusters" of EOAD and identified childhood environmental factors which increased risk and reduced survival after dementia onset. Using kinship analysis he showed ancestral genes could only partly explain some "clusters" and these genes were of small effect at a population level.
Together with Ian Deary and John Starr, he began prospective studies of cognitive decline and vascular risk factors in 1300 healthy old people in Edinburgh (the Healthy Old People in Edinburgh HOPE studies). In 1997, with the assistance of the Scottish Council for Research in Education, he was granted access to a unique national archive of childhood IQ data (N~160,000) that could be used to estimate lifelong cognitive variation. No other country has ever IQ tested a total population sample in this way. In 1998, he devised a strategy to recruit 285 Aberdeen survivors all born in 1921 of the Scottish Mental Survey of 1932 (subjects by then aged 77) and next, from 1999, he recruited 506 survivors all born in 1936 from a second 1947 Survey (subjects by then aged 63–64 years). These groundbreaking studies were capitalized upon by Ian Deary in Edinburgh who followed up with much more intensive subsequent studies that formed "The Disconnected Mind Project" of adults by then aged 69 years and also born in 1936. Deary consolidated this research program into the internationally renowned Edinburgh University Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology.
With the support from a Wellcome Professorial Senior Fellowship (2001–2006), Whalley extended his Aberdeen database and followed up these cohorts biennially over 5 years. He showed that dementia incidence is greater in those of lower childhood IQ, that lifetime variation in cognitive performance is linked to specific genetic factors, smoking, nutritional factors, childhood intelligence, and education.
His research colleagues led by Dr. Roger Staff developed advanced statistical models of longitudinal changes in cognitive performance in Whalley's cohorts that include findings from longitudinal brain MRI studies and measures of information processing efficiency. With Deary and Starr, parallel follow-up studies were begun at Edinburgh University.
He took early retirement from the University of Aberdeen in 2008 to focus exclusively on his research and after spending a period in the University of Southern California (curtailed by illness) he returned to Edinburgh, where he has remained. In 2010 he was appointed until 2020 to the part-time staff of the University of the Highlands and Islands with the remit to develop a community-based dementia research program relevant to a rural community.
References.
https://web.archive.org/web/20070503180404/http://www.abdn.ac.uk/alzheimers/biographies/whalley.shtml


Murray Barr

Murray Llewellyn Barr (June 20, 1908 – May 4, 1995) was a Canadian physician and medical researcher who discovered with graduate student Ewart George Bertram, in 1948, an important cell structure, the "Barr body".
Born in Belmont, Ontario, he was educated at the University of Western Ontario, where he received his Bachelor of Arts in 1930, M.D. in 1933, and Master of Science in 1938. He was an RCAF wing commander between 1939 and 1945. From 1936 to 1977, he served as a faculty member at the University of Western Ontario. He was a member of The Harvey Club of London, the oldest medical club in Canada, which consisted of other noteworthy physicians in southwestern Ontario, and was loosely associated with the University of Western Ontario.
In 1955, he collaborated with K.L. Moore to introduce a buccal smear test. This test used cells rubbed from the lining of the mouth to identify individuals with abnormal numbers of sex-chromosome bodies, thereby determining whether they had errors in their sex-chromosome complex. Karyotyping and chromosome studies were then used to study these errors further. This research provided a major advancement in understanding the cause of various congenital syndromes.
Murray Barr published two books, "The Human Nervous System" and A "Century of Medicine at Western". "The Human Nervous System" was used as the primary neuroanatomy textbook by medical students for several years.
He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.
In 1968, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada. In 1959, he received the Royal Society of Canada's Flavelle Medal. In 1962, he won a Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. Foundation Award for his contributions to the understanding of the causes of mental retardation. In 1963, he received the Gairdner Foundation International Award and in 1972 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London. In 1998, he was posthumously inducted into Canadian Medical Hall of Fame.


Aelianus Meccius

Aelianus Meccius (Gr. ) was an ancient physician, who must have lived in the 2nd century AD, as he is mentioned by Galen as the oldest of his tutors. His father is supposed to have also been a physician, as Aelianus is said by Galen to have made an epitome of his father's anatomical writings. Galen speaks of that part of his work which treated of the Dissection of the Muscles as being held in some repute in his time, and he always mentions his tutor with respect. During the prevalence of an epidemic in Italy, Aelianus is said by Galen to have used the Theriaca with great success, both as a means of cure and also as a preservative against the disease. He must have been a person of some celebrity, as this same anecdote is mentioned by the Arabic historian Abu al-Faraj, with exactly the same circumstances except that he makes the epidemic to have broken out at Antioch instead of in Italy. None of his works are now extant.


Pierre-Victor Galtier

Pierre-Victor or Pierre Victor Galtier ( – ) was a veterinarian and professor at the , specialising in pathology of infectious diseases, health surveillance and commercial and medical legislation. He developed a rabies vaccine which had some experimental success in laboratory animals.
Early life and studies.
Galtier was born on 15 October 1846 in Langogne, Lozère to a farmer's family. In 1853, he was entrusted to the nuns who ran the local school. He escaped from this school twice, only to be placed with his grandmother who lived in Langogne. There, he attended secondary school, leaving after the tenth grade.
He read Greco-Roman studies at La Chapelle-Saint-Mesmin in the "Petit Séminaire", the famous ecclesiastical secondary school of Bishop Felix Dupanloup, an outpost of the Seminar d'Orléans. He received his bachelor's degree with honours.
He studied for his master's degree and his veterinary license at Marvejols college. Around this time Lozère created a scholarship to help poor students to study to become veterinarians, which Galtier received and used to study at the . He came top of the class for four consecutive years, and graduated in 1873 as a valedictorian, receiving the "".
Career.
Galtier began his professional career as an associate of Monsieur Delorme, a veterinarian in Arles, whose daughter he married. He began teaching veterinary pathology and eventually became the Chair of Infectious Diseases. Aged 33, he began his work on rabies.
In 1876, he was appointed the Chair of Pathology and Internal Medicine in the veterinary science department at Lyon. In 1877, his department began to carry out studies on microbial pathology and microbiology. This led to the school supporting the idea of contagious diseases such as tuberculosis, the common cold, and rabies, as opposed to the National Veterinary School of Alfort which supported the idea of spontaneous generation.
In 1878 he was appointed professor of pathology of infectious diseases, animal health, trade and medical law. In the same year, Mr. Bouley, Inspector General of veterinary schools, created a new department that would separate the teaching of general pathology from that of communicable diseases. Pierre Victor Galtier was appointed to the department chair and held the position for 30 years.
In 1879, he made important discoveries about two deadly diseases: common cold and rabies. In 1883, he obtained a law degree.
For his work on rabies, Galtier was considered for the 1908 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. However, he died in La Mulatière on 24 April 1908, thereby preventing his nomination.
Work on rabies.
Pierre Galtier was notable for his work on rabies; he was the first to develop a vaccine for rabies. He also made important advances in the study of the common cold and on the infectiousness of viruses.
Galtier assumed that, because of the incubation period of rabies, the development of a vaccine could be used as curative for a disease like this.
1879.
His first publication on rabies was a thesis entitled "Studies on rabies" published in two veterinary journals and whose findings are published in the Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences.
On 25 April 1879, the Academy of Sciences published his notes on rabies.
The article made clear his conclusions about rabies:
Galtier also had a brilliant idea: he began experiments to find an agent capable of neutralizing rabies virus. He thought that the discovery of an effective preventive was almost equivalent to the discovery of a cure, especially if it was effective when administered within a day or two of an infected bite. It is this 'genius idea which is the basis of preventive treatment for rabies by vaccination'.
1880.
In 1880, Galtier published a "Treaty of contagious diseases" which contains a chapter on rabies.
In this book, he wrote this sentence summarizing his first observations on immunity to rabies: "Rabies virus injected directly into the blood stream is ineffective, at least this is what I found in several experiences where I had injected into the jugular vein of the sheep a large amount of rabid drool". His experiments were published in several articles the following year.
Also in 1880, Louis Pasteur became interested in rabies and took note of Galtier's work, regarding him with a certain disdain, stating that these experiments "do not make it possible to reconicle, let alone identify the disease […] as rabies". Pasteur often denigrated his predecessors before taking over their work, and the credit for it; he also did this with Henri Toussaint and Antoine Béchamp.
1881.
In August 1881, Galtier sent a note to the Academy of Sciences. He noted his experiences of the intravenous inoculation of the rabies virus in the bloodstream.
He wrote:
The findings that emerge from these facts are the following:
This method provided immunity against rabies in sheep. In the Bulletin of the Academy of Medicine, he wrote: "I injected the rabies saliva into the jugular vein of sheep seven times, and never saw rabies, one of my test subjects was successively inoculated with saliva from a rabid dog, four months after this inoculation, the animal is alive and well; he seems to have acquired immunity. I inoculated him for another fortnight by putting eight cubic centimeters of rabid saliva in the peritoneum; it always went very well; then I would administer him another inoculation."
According to the science historian Jean Théodoridès, this is the first time in the history of medicine that the idea of immunization against rabies was supported by convincing experimental results.
1882.
Galtier remarked "intravenous inoculation is ineffective. [But] immunity follows this inoculation in sheep", and he noted the absence of virus in the nerve centers.
This last point drew the attention of Louis Pasteur who saw a lack of sensitivity due to the subcutaneous inoculation technique. With his student Émile Roux, Pasteur developed an intracranial inoculation, by trepanning the skull of a dog. This isolated the virus in the nerve centers, and supported the idea that rabies is neurotropic, meaning that the virus preferentially develops in nerve cells, and spreads through nerve pathways from the peripheral inoculation point to the brain.
1883.
In 1883, Émile Roux published his medical doctorate thesis on "New acquisitions on rabies." According to Jean Théodoridès, the most striking thing about Roux's thesis is the frequent mention of the work of Galtier, whereas Pasteur referred to Galtier only incidentally.
1886.
In 1886, Galtier published an important book on rabies, "Rabies considered in animals and humans from the point of view of its character and its prophylaxis" (). It discussed:
It reviewed Galtier's research of 1879–1881, and reported that research was continuing as of 1886 (the date of publication of the book).
The book also dealt with health measures and forensics, dog control measures (wearing the collar, a muzzle, leash).
1887.
In 1887, Galtier received the Barbier Prize ("") from the for his work on rabies.
In its report on awarding the Barbier Prize to Galtier, Edmond Nocard wrote: "The discovery of Mr. Galtier, therefore, has a high importance not only from the scientific point of view but also in practical point of view; it is hoped that it will soon lead to the establishment of a simple, practical and effective treatment, saving the largest number of bitten animals."
The same year, he received the Bréant Price of the Academy of Sciences (December 1887) for his book on rabies. Bouchard, on behalf of the Commission consisting of Marey, Charcot, Brown- Séquard and Verneuil emphasized the importance of the work of several years preceding those of Louis Pasteur.
1888.
On 30 January 1888, Galtier published an article in the Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences. He insisted that "the rabies virus retains its activity in buried corpses, so that when doubts arise afterwards about the nature of the disease that caused the death, exhumation, and inoculation of the bulb are naturally indicated".
For Galtier (a veterinary professor, qualified in medical law and contagious diseases), the consequence of the persistence of the rabies virus meant that, in cases of question of the liability of animal owners, corpses could be exhumed to confirm a diagnosis of rabies.
On 16 April 1888, he again sent a note. He recalled his experiences in 1880–1881 showing that injection of the rabies virus in the veins of sheep and goats did not cause rabies, but instead conferred immunity. He noted that research in 1884 by Edmond Nocard and Emile Roux confirmed the validity of these deductions. These authors noted that intravenous injection can prevent rabies after inoculation into the eye, and after the bite of a rabid animal.
In his article, Galtier also related his experiments on sheep.
1891.
The second edition of Galtier's "On Contagious Diseases" was published in 1891. Galtier was disappointed, to the point of physical pain, by the negative remarks from Louis Pasteur about his research. Pateur stated that dogs did not acquire immunity, as Galtier found in sheep and goats, following intravenous injection of rabies. However, Edmond Nocard and Emile Roux had already confirmed in 1888 that their experiments of 1884 had confirmed Galtier's experiments of 1881.
1904.
In 1904, Galtier lost four of his eight children and his wife, and was strongly discouraged.
He published an article entitled "Pages of history" in which he wrote: "… I had studied first, from 1879-80-81, the effects of intravenous injection of the rabies virus. I was the first to demonstrate, in the most peremptory manner, its safety in herbivorous animals, and immunizing action. I established this first, before there was any thought of vaccination Pasteur or any others, that immunity against deadly rabies could be granted to certain animals by a particular method of inoculation … From 1881 onward, I had shown that virus injected into the veins of sheep and goats does not cause rabies, but confers immunity".
In this article, he promoted is pioneering rabies immunizations, stressing that the results achieved in small ruminants (sheep and goats) were confirmed by Edmond Nocard and Emile Roux in 1888.
1907.
In 1907, Galtier received a significant token of esteem from the Karolinska Institute of Stockholm, who asked him to send all his work on rabies to offer his candidacy Nobel Prize of physiology and medicine for the year 1908. However, Galtier was never nominated for a Nobel Prize; as his death most likely interrupted the nomination process.
Other work.
Galtier also wrote several works on the intimate nature of the tissues on the infectiousness of the virus.
He wrote two books on "Health regulation and legislation of its relationship with the pet trade" and on "The Treaty of contagious diseases and animal health."
Galtier focused mainly on infectious diseases of domestic animals: rabies, the common cold, tuberculosis, anthrax, and pneumococcal enteritis.


Leon Goldman

Leon Goldman (1906–1997) was an American dermatologist and a pioneer in laser medicine. His research areas included the application of lasers in dermatology, cancer photodynamic therapy (PDT) and the use of organic dyes in PDT.
In his honor, The American Society for Laser Medicine and Surgery (ASLMS) gives the yearly recognition named "Leon Goldman Memorial Award". The Academy of Laser Dentistry also gives an award in recognition of Dr. Goldman. It is called, "The Leon Goldman Award" for Clinical Excellence.


Luc Chikhani

Luc Chikhani is a French oral and maxillofacial surgeon best known for reconstructing the face of Trevor Rees-Jones, the former bodyguard of Dodi Fayed, after the car crash that killed Diana, Princess of Wales, Dodi Fayed, and their driver, Henri Paul. He was interviewed in Rees-Jones's book "The Bodyguard's Story".
He is currently Consultant Maxillofacial Surgeon, Department of Maxillofacial Surgery, Teaching Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Paris, France.
He has performed research on sialorrhea (excessive salivation),
and has written about cosmetic use of botulinum toxin.
He was interviewed in April 2014 by Paris Match, about cosmetic surgery to improve one's smile.


Institute of Cancer Research

The Institute of Cancer Research (the ICR) is a public research institute and a constituent college of the University of London in London, United Kingdom, specialising in oncology. It was founded in 1909 as a research department of the Royal Marsden Hospital and joined the University of London in 2003. It has been responsible for a number of breakthrough discoveries, including that the basic cause of cancer is damage to DNA.
The ICR occupies sites in Chelsea, Central London and Sutton, southwest London. The ICR provides both taught postgraduate degree programmes and research degrees and currently has around 340 students. Together with the Royal Marsden Hospital the ICR forms the largest comprehensive cancer centre in Europe, and was ranked first amongst all British higher education institutions in the "Times Higher Education" 2014 Research Excellence Framework Table of Excellence. In clinical medicine, 83% and in biological sciences, 96% of the ICR’s academic research was assessed to be world leading or internationally excellent (4* or 3*).
The annual income of the institution for 2015–16 was £162.1 million of which £61.7 million was from research grants and contracts, with an expenditure of £110.2 million. The ICR receives its external grant funding from the government body the Higher Education Funding Council for England, from government research council bodies and from charities including the Wellcome Trust, Cancer Research UK, Breast Cancer Now and Bloodwise. It also receives voluntary income from legacies and from public and corporate donations. The ICR also runs a number of fundraising appeals and campaigns which help support a variety of cancer research projects.
Sites.
The ICR occupies two sites in Chelsea, Central London which include the Chester Beatty Laboratories and the ICR corporate offices. A third site in Sutton, Southwest London, houses more research facilities.
Research.
The ICR pursues its research focused into three main research themes: genetic epidemiology, molecular pathology, and therapeutic development. These areas of research are essential for the development of personalised cancer medicine.
Towards this aim, the ICR and The Royal Marsden have completed a dedicated £17 million Centre for Molecular Pathology (CMP) which opened on the Sutton site on 20 November 2012. The centre exploits the increasing availability of information about the genetic make-up of different cancer types, in order to design new "personalised" treatments that target cancers' specific molecular defects. The CMP also aims to develop molecular diagnostic techniques that will accurately predict who will benefit most from a treatment, ensuring a patient receives the optimum drug(s) for the best possible outcome. The CMP will build on the organisations' existing expertise in breast, prostate and paediatric cancers, while providing opportunities for new developments in other cancers such as gastrointestinal, renal, gynaecological, melanoma, head & neck cancers and sarcomas.
In March 2016, the ICR opened a £20 million Centre for Cancer Imaging that brings together experts in a range of different imaging techniques working together to develop better cancer diagnostic and treatment techniques.
The organisation’s research direction is set out in the ICR Scientific Strategy 2010–2015, which aims to develop key research areas while enhancing partnership affiliations. Its four objectives are to maintain, develop and exploit the unique relationship with the Marsden; to ensure a balanced portfolio of basic and applied research; to develop treatment regimes to the genetic makeup of patient and tumour (personalised medicine) and to recruit, retain and motivate the best staff.
Teaching.
The ICR runs an MSc in Oncology programme, which is a modular course aimed primarily at Specialist Registrars in Clinical and Medical Oncology. The course has exit points at Certificate, Diploma and MSc degree level.
History.
1909 to 1970.
The ICR was founded in 1909, when a new laboratory building adjoining The Cancer Hospital (later named the Royal Marsden Hospital) was established with Alexander Paine as its first Director. In 1910 Robert Knox was appointed to head the Electrical and Radio-therapeutic Department at The Cancer Hospital and established the first professionally designed X-ray Department for treatment and diagnosis in Britain. The Cancer Hospital Research Institute was officially opened by Prince Arthur, the Duke of Connaught in 1911. In 1921 Professor Archibald Leitch was appointed Director of The Cancer Hospital Research Institute. The Institute became a postgraduate School of the University of London in 1927. In 1931 Professor Sir Ernest Kennaway FRS became Director of the Institute. In 1932 a research team led by Professor Kennaway fractionated coal tar and isolated benzo[a]pyrene, which he identified as one of the chemical constituents that induced cancer in mice. These were the first research findings to show that a pure chemical substance can cause cancer. In 1936 Professor Kennaway proposed the potential of a link between smoking and lung cancer. The Cancer Hospital Research Institute moved to a new site on Fulham Road in Chelsea in 1939 and was renamed the Chester Beatty Research Institute.
In 1946 Professor Sir Alexander Haddow FRS FRSE (1907-1976) became the Director of the Chester Beatty Research Institute. He remained in the role until 1969,
In 1947, while conducting research at the Institute, Professor David Galton became the first physician in the world to use aminopterin (the forerunner of the methotrexate drug) in the treatment of adult leukaemia, producing remission in some cancer patients.
During the 1940s Haddow established a Clinical Chemotherapy Research Unit – the first such unit in Europe – in partnership with the Royal Marsden Hospital and under Galton's leadership. The partnership was unique at the time in being able to take the drug discoveries directly into a partner hospital for clinical trials in cancer patients. The unit led to the Institute's discovery of three successful chemotherapy drugs in the 1950s: busulphan (Myleran), chlorambucil (Leukeran) and melphalan (Alkeran).
In 1952 the ICR's Eric Boyland had proposed that certain chemicals that cause cancer (carcinogens) react with DNA through an alkylation mechanism that damaged the DNA molecule. In follow-up research at the ICR in 1964, Professors Peter Brookes and Philip Lawley proved that chemical carcinogens act by damaging DNA, leading to mutations and the formation of tumours, proving that cancer is a genetic disease based on mutational events.
In 1954 the Institute was officially renamed The Institute of Cancer Research (ICR). The ICR established a second campus in Sutton, Surrey in 1956. Whilst working at the ICR in 1961, Professor Jacques Miller discovered the immunological role of the thymus, as the repository of a special class of lymphocytes (T cells) essential for the mounting of an immune response.
1970 to 2000.
Scientists at the ICR were instrumental in the development of one of the world's most widely used anti-cancer drugs, carboplatin (Paraplatin). Carboplatin’s development began in 1970 after scientists in the United States discovered that the platinum-based compound cisplatin was effective against many tumours – but had serious side-effects. A team of ICR and RMH scientists and clinicians including Professors Kenneth Harrap and Tom Connors, Hilary Calvert and Hospital Consultant Eve Wiltshaw recognised its potential but also the need for a less toxic alternative. In collaboration with the chemical and precious metal company Johnson Matthey plc the ICR scientists evaluated some 300 different platinum-containing molecules and developed a series of second-generation compounds, of which carboplatin was selected as the lead. The first clinical trial of carboplatin was carried out in 1981 and it was launched commercially as Parplatin (manufactured by Bristol-Myers) in 1986. As of 2012 carboplatin is in use for a range of cancers including ovarian and lung. For the development of these platinum-based anticancer drugs the ICR, together with The Royal Marsden Hospital and Johnson Matthey plc, received the Queen’s Award for Technological Achievement in 1991.
During the 1980s ICR scientists including Professors Hilary Calvert, and Ken Harrap and Ann Jackman developed raltitrexed (Tomudex) at the ICR, a drug active for the treatment of colon and other cancers. In 1983 research teams at the Chester Beatty Laboratory of the ICR led by Professors Chris Marshall FRS and Alan Hall FRS discovered N-RAS, one of the first human cancer transforming genes (oncogenes). Professor Alan Hall went on in 1992 to discover that the molecular mechanism for the motility behaviour of animal cells (cell to cell attachment and cell movement) is through control of cytoskeletal assembly by specific GTPase-proteins, known as Rho and Rac. The discovery is of fundamental significance in cancer research since cell motility is a key feature of cancer cell behaviour during metastasis (the spread of tumours around the human body).
In 1994 an ICR team led by Michael Stratton discovered the gene BRCA2, which has been linked to breast cancer, prostate cancer and ovarian cancer. Alan Ashworth's team in the Breakthrough Breast Cancer Research Centre at the ICR established the connection between mutations in the BRCA2 gene and the operation of DNA repair pathways in cancer cells. This later led to the development of a PARP inhibitor drug, olaparib, which targets the DNA repair pathways of cancer cells. A Phase I trial of olaparib found in June 2009 that tumours shrank or stabilised for more than half of patients with BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations. It is believed that the drug may also be useful in other patients whose cancer it is linked to an error in their DNA repair pathway.
In 1999 the Chester Beatty Laboratory in Chelsea was redeveloped and extended to incorporate the Breakthrough Toby Robins Breast Cancer Research Centre, which was opened by the Prince of Wales in 1999.
2000 to present.
In 2000 Professor Michael Stratton at the ICR initiated the Cancer Genome Project, which was aimed at capitalizing on the knowledge from the Human Genome sequence to screen all human genes in cancer cells to identify those genes responsible for specific cancers. The project was established at the genome sequencing facilities of the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute near Cambridge, of which Professor Stratton is now the Director. One of the first major achievements of the Cancer Genome Project has been the characterisation of the cancer gene BRAF in collaboration with ICR scientists Professors Chris Marshall and Richard Marais. The research by the ICR team, published in June 2002, revealed that damage to the BRAF gene could cause up to 70 per cent of melanoma skin cancers. This has been instrumental in speeding up the development of new drugs for the treatment of malignant melanoma. Since 2002 the ICR has been working to develop drugs that inhibit BRAF in melanoma and other cancers where the gene is defective.
In the five years from 2004/05, the ICR developed on average two drug development candidates per year. Since 2006, it has licensed three novel series of anti-cancer drugs to major pharmaceutical companies: Hsp90 inhibitors to Novartis, PKB inhibitors to AstraZeneca and PI3Kinase inhibitors to Genentech. The PIl3Kinase inhibitor GDC-0941, licensed to Genentech by Piramed, is thought to have potential in a range of human cancers. In laboratory experiments, ICR scientists found that the drug reduced the growth of glioblastoma (the most common form of brain tumour), it decreased the growth of ovarian tumours and in other studies, it was active against cell lines derived from other human cancers.
In conjunction with The Royal Marsden NHS Foundation Trust, the ICR tested a promising new prostate cancer drug called abiraterone, which it discovered and developed. A randomised placebo-controlled Phase III trial reported in October 2010 that abiraterone could extend survival in some men with late stage prostate cancer. The trial, funded by Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies, included 1,195 patients from 13 countries whose advanced prostate cancer had stopped responding to standard therapies. Abiraterone extended the average overall survival of patients from 10.9 months to 14.8 months compared to a placebo, without many of the unpleasant side-effects associated with conventional chemotherapy. The FDA in April 2011 approved the drug for sale in the US under the trade name Zytiga.


Portuguese Red Cross Decorations

The Portuguese Red Cross Decorations is a special set of decorations recognized under Portuguese Law, through the Ministry of Defense, and is intended to distinguish those who have rendered services to the Portuguese Red Cross of to Humanity.
The current legal framework establishes an eight-tier system, whose titles are awarded under specific conditions.
According to Law it is incumbent upon the Portuguese Red Cross's Honorary Committee to collect of awarding decorations, to prepare and study the respective processes and, prior to the decision of the national president, to issue an opinion on them.
Grades.
The Decorations includes several classes; in decreasing order of seniority, these are:
Awarding Criteria and Restrictions.
Grand Cross of Honour.
The Grand Cross of Honour is conferred by right to the honorary presidents of the Portuguese Red Cross and may also be conferred on natural or legal persons who render high and relevant services to the work of the Red Cross, or through it, to Humanity. This class is only award once to by the Portuguese Red Cross's national directorship upon advice of the regional delegations' directorships.
Medal for Distinguished Services.
The Medal for Distinguished Services is exclusively award to the employees of Portuguese Red Cross, or to those at its services, and aims to reward the acts practiced in the removal, transport or treatment of patients or injured persons, in situations of armed conflict or in any of the situations related to the prevention and remedying of damage caused by accidents, catastrophes, public calamities, social scourges, epidemics and diseases of high incidence and other disasters or similar accidents and events, as well as the protection and relief of victims affected by them, in accordance with the corresponding national or regional laws and plans.
The awarding of such medal implies that those who practiced the acts above have put their lives at risk in order to save others.
The Medal for Distinguished Services is granted by the national directorship, on its own initiative, or by means of a reasoned proposal issued by the voluntaries units' command.
I Class - Gold Medal for Distinguished Services.
The awarding of the Gold Medal for Distinguished Services is destined for those who, in the exercise of their duties of direction or leadership, act with such heroism, self-denial or high merit, in any of the situations mentioned in the preceding paragraph, that the honor, prestige and good name of the Red Cross be recognized as exalted.
II Class - Silver Medal for Distinguished Services.
The awarding of the Silver Medal for Distinguished Services is for the other staff of the Portuguese Red Cross, those at its service, for the practice of the same acts and in the same circumstances.
Red Cross of Benefaction.
This grade of the Portuguese Red Cross Decorations is award to natural or legal persons that for the relevant supports and services rendered to the institution deserve to be considered benevolent.
The Red Cross of Benefaction is granted by the national directorship, on its own initiative or by means of a well-founded proposal from the other management bodies, from the command of the corps of relief units or from the directorates of other voluntary bodies. This grade can be only awarded once.
Red Cross of Merit.
The Red Cross of Merit is granted to natural or legal persons who in a different way collaborate in the work of the Red Cross, spreading the humanitarian principles that characterize it and making them effective.
Like the Red Cross of Benefaction, the Red Cross of Merit is granted by the national directorship, on its own initiative or by means of a well-founded proposal from the other management bodies, from the command of the corps of relief units or from the directorates of other voluntary bodies and can be only awarded once.
Red Cross of Dedication.
The Red Cross of Dedication is attributed to natural or legal persons who provide to the institution, on an ongoing basis, services and supports that involve the voluntary donation of their leisure time or whose measure clearly exceeds the mere fulfillment of their duties.
Such medal is to be awarded by the national directorship, on its own initiative or on a proposal from the other management bodies, of the command of the corps of relief units, of the other directorates of the volunteer corps or of those responsible for the services and sectors.
Cross of Exemplary Behavior.
The Cross of Exemplary Behavior distinguishes the exemplary behavior of the special staff belonging to the emergency relief units. The decoration is awarded by the national directorship, upon proposal of the commands of the relief units.
I Class - Gold Cross of Exemplary Behavior.
The Gold Cross of Exemplary Behavior is to be awarded to those with, at least, 20 years of service
II Class - Silver Cross of Exemplary Behavior.
The Silver Cross of Exemplary Behavior is to be awarded to those with, at least, 10 years of continuous service, or 12 years of interrupted service.
III Class - Copper Cross of Exemplary Behavior.
The Copper class of this award is to those with, at least, 4 years of continuous service, or 6 years of interrupted service.
Medal of Honour.
The Portuguese Red Cross's Medal of Honour is awarded by right to natural or legal persons who have been given a written commendation by the national president or the national directorship, on his own initiative or on a reasoned proposal from his members, from command of the corps of relief units, volunteering, delegation or core departments or for those responsible for services and sectors.
Each recipient may only use a medal of praise, but may, in a ribbon bar, include the number of these decorations awarded to him/her.
Medal of Appreciation.
The Medal of Appreciation is granted to natural or legal persons who spontaneously and unselfishly render meritorious service to the Red Cross or, through it, to Humanity.
This decoration is granted by the national directorship, on its own initiative or on a reasoned proposal from his members, from command of the corps of relief units, volunteering, delegation or core departments or for those responsible for services and sectors.
Like with the Medal of Honour, each recipient of the Medal of Appreciation may only use a medal of praise, but may, in a ribbon bar, include the number of these decorations awarded to him/her.


Donald Walter Gordon Murray

Donald Walter Gordon Murray, (May 29, 1894 – January 7, 1976), also known as "Gordon Murray", was a Canadian cardiac surgeon.
Born in Ontario, he enrolled at the University of Toronto to study medicine in 1914. During World War I, he enlisted as an artilleryman and rose to the rank of sergeant. After the war, he graduated in 1921. In 1927, he started work at the Toronto General Hospital.
In 1967, he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada "for his contribution to the development of new surgical procedures and achievements in the field of medical research".


First Aid Africa

First Aid Africa is humanitarian charity that works in rural parts of south eastern Africa to provide sustainable equipment and education in first aid. The charity explains that 'a small amount of medical knowledge and equipment' can make a difference. Volunteers and students receive some training before travelling to Africa to teach first aid and survival skills in settings such as local communities, schools, orphanages and villages.
History.
The organisation was set up in 2008 at Heriot-Watt University by Sam Abrahams, originally as a student society. Later that year Abrahams was selected as one of three contenders for the Endsleigh Student of the Year award. It in 2010 the organisation was part of "The Big Training Project".
Abrahams sought volunteers from several UK universities, including: Robert Gordon University, Queen Margaret University, the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh Napier University, Heriot Watt University, Stirling University, Birmingham City University, the University of Nottingham, and Brunel University.
First Aid Africa registered with the Office of the Scottish Charity Regulator as a charity in 2014, but it has not filed any details relating to financial activity. It received Small Grants Funding from the Scottish Government in 2015 and 2016
It has run First Aid training in Malawi since 2009. It also operates in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda. Each partner country has a member of full-time staff who are paid to carry out the vital training and support their communities in-between expeditions. In 2015 four volunteers from St. Andrew's First Aid were involved. St Andrew's First Aid have also donated personal protective equipment.
Abrahams described some of the work of First Aid Africa at a TedX event in Spain in 2012.


Philippine Nurses Association of United Kingdom

The Philippine Nurses Association of United Kingdom (PNA-UK) is the only professional nursing organization of Filipino nurses in the United Kingdom, accredited by the Philippine Nurses Association National Head Office in Manila, Philippines.
The Philippine Nurses Association of United Kingdom (PNA-UK) is a non-profit professional organization of Filipino nurses currently in the United Kingdom.
The association was created in response to the growing number of Filipino nurses in the UK.
The Philippine Nursing Association of United Kingdom has laid out a set of vision, mission, and goals, as well as a statement of core values, strategic directions and key outcomes in accordance with the PNA National Office in Manila, Philippines. These statements serve as the Association's foundation for setting priorities and making decisions.
PNA-UK is managed and governed by Filipino nurses in the United Kingdom who are elected by the General Members. The administrative functions are delegated among the members as duly approved and appointed by the elected set of officers, governors and a board of directors.
The Philippine Nurses Association of United Kingdom is the official professional nursing association of Filipino nurses in the United Kingdom, managed and run by Filipino nurses, for Filipino nurses in the United Kingdom.
Constitution and bylaws.
The Association is governed by legal and guiding documents, including charitable constitutional documents, a constitution, and by-laws.


List of medical schools in Malaysia

Medical Schools in Malaysia generally offer a five-year undergraduate program for future doctors. It is compulsory for newly graduated students to work in governmental hospitals under the housemanship program (also called internship) for a duration of at least two years that combines service and training roles. Internship may be longer at the discretion of each trainee supervisor regarding their knowledge, skills,
competency and attitude in each particular discipline, but the total duration of the internship training should not exceed six years At the end of their internship and upon being given full registration as a doctor, every practitioner has to serve a minimum continuous period of two years within the public services upon according to section 40 of the Malaysian Medical Act 1971. As defined under Article 132 of the Federal Constitution, this service may be completed in a government healthcare facility, the Ministry of Health, or other government agencies as determined by the Director General of Health.
Admissions.
Entry to the public medical schools is very competitive. Courses last five or six years. Two years of pre-clinical training in an academic environment and three years clinical training at a teaching hospital. The medical program is usually divided into 3 phases. Phase 1 consists of the first two years of the programme involving integrated teaching and learning of the relevant basic medical sciences. Phase II (Year 3) and Phase III (Year 4 and Year 5) involve clinical skills development and subsequently consolidation of clinical clerkship in the various clinical disciplines.
Medical schools and teaching hospitals are closely integrated. Entry requirements are basically based on Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia (STPM), Malaysian Matriculation Programme, GCE A Level, International Baccalaureate (IB), Foundation in Science programme, Diploma in Health Sciences or Unified Examination Certificate.


Naji Abumrad

Naji N. Abumrad (born 1944) is a Lebanese-American surgeon, currently the John L. Sawyers Professor of Surgery, and formerly the Paul W. Sanger Professor from 1984 to 1992, at Vanderbilt University Medical Center. Abumrad graduated with a B.S. in Biology and an M.D. in Medicine at the American University of Beirut in 1971. In 2014, he was elected to the American Association for the Advancement of Science.
In 2020, the singer Dolly Parton donated $1million towards research into a COVID-19 vaccine, in honor of Abumrad - the pair having become friends after she was treated at Vanderbilt for minor injuries resulting from an October 2013 automobile accident.
He is the father of public radio host Jad Abumrad.


Martin Bernhardt

Martin Bernhardt (10 April 1844 – 17 March 1915) was a noted German neuropathologist.
Bernhardt was a native of Potsdam. His family was Jewish. In 1867 he received his medical doctorate at the University of Berlin, where he was a student of Rudolf Virchow (1821-1902) and Ludwig Traube (1818-1878). Subsequently, he became an assistant to Ernst Viktor von Leyden (1832-1910) at the university clinic at Königsberg, and afterwards worked at the Berlin-Charité under Carl Friedrich Otto Westphal (1833-1890). After military service in the Franco-Prussian War, he returned to Berlin as a specialist in neuropathology, and in 1882 attained the title of "professor extraordinarius".
Bernhardt published several treatises on neurological diseases and electrotherapy, and in 1885 became editor-in-chief of the "Centralblatt für die Medizinischen Wissenschaften". With Russian neuropathologist Vladimir Karlovich Roth (1848-1916), the eponymous "Bernhardt-Roth paraesthesia" is named. This condition is also referred to as "meralgia paraesthetica", and is characterized by numbness or pain in the outer thigh that is caused by injury to the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve.
Associated eponym:


Osteopathia striata

Osteopathia striata is a rare entity characterized by fine linear striations about 2- to 3-mm-thick, visible by radiographic examination, in the metaphyses and diaphyses of long or flat bones. It is often asymptomatic, and is often discovered incidentally.


George Jessen

George Jessen (1916–1987) was an optometrist who was an early pioneer of the contact lens. He is credited with being one of the first to employ the concept of orthokeratology, a direct attempt to reduce refractive error with the use of a contact lens, under the term "orthofocus".
Career.
Jessen received his training at the Chicago College of Optometry, now called the Illinois College of Optometry. In 1976, the Contact Lens Manufacturers Association awarded him The Dr. Josef Dallos Award for "outstanding contribution to the development and advancement of the contact lens industry and for service to humanity".
Jessen worked closely with his mentor and partner, Newton K. Wesley. In Uptown Chicago, in the basement of Jessen's mother's apartment building, the two began researching a solution to Dr. Wesley's vision problems. Wesley suffered from keratoconus, a degenerative disease of the cornea that defies correction with glasses, and he had also been told by experts that he'd eventually lose his sight completely. Wesley believed that contact lenses could help him to see and possibly save his vision. But, the lenses that were available in the 1940s, known as scleral lenses, couldn't be worn for long periods of time. Besides this disadvantage, scleral contact lenses, at the time, mostly came from Germany and were made of hand-blown glass. Due to the war, contact lenses were unavailable to be shipped from Germany. During this time plastics such as methyl methacrylate were coming into the marketplace. Methyl methacrylate was used mostly in the windshields of fighter planes. Doctors were finding that when the windshields broke, and the plastic flew into the pilot's eyes, their eyes did not react the same way an eye usually did to a foreign body. This is because methyl methacrylate is proved to be an inert substance like glass, and did not create a rejection response from the eyes.
Using methyl methacrylate, the partners pioneered a new type of contact lens. Wesley and Jessen worked to develop the plastic lenses known as the rigid corneal contact lens. The corneal lens fit floated on the cornea, unlike its scleral predecessor, which rested on the sclera or white of the eye and bridged the cornea. The end product was a lens that was smaller, thinner and longer-wearing than the scleral lens. This vast difference in wearing duration between the scleral and corneal lenses was due to the fact that the corneal lens allowed for a vast increase in the circulation of tears. The tears carried oxygen to the cornea. Oxygen was needed to keep the cornea from experiencing edema, which temporarily clouded the cornea. Also, the scleral lenses required a mold of each patient's eye while the corneal lenses did not. This made corneal lens better suited to the methods of mass production. Because of the ease of production, corneal contact lenses created a market for cosmetic contact lenses in addition to therapeutic contact lenses.
The two founded The Plastic Contact Lens Company, with the goal of making contact lenses easier to manufacture, accessible to more people, and lenses that could be worn for long periods of time.
In 1978 the pair gained Food and Drug Administration approval of their hydrogel soft contact lenses. Besides founding the Wesley-Jessen Corporation, they also created the National Eye Research Foundation, which presents the Dr. George N. Jessen Award for Clinical Excellence each year at its annual meeting. Wesley-Jessen was acquired by Schering Plough in 1980, and by CIBA Vision by 2001.


Postorbital bone

The postorbital is one of the bones in vertebrate skulls which forms a portion of the dermal skull roof and, sometimes, a ring about the orbit. Generally, it is located behind the postfrontal and posteriorly to the orbital fenestra. In some vertebrates, the postorbital is fused with the postfrontal to create a postorbitofrontal. Birds have a separate postorbital as an embryo, but the bone fuses with the frontal before it hatches.


Nathan Alcock

Nathan Alcock (September 1707 – 8 December 1779) was an English physician.
Early life and education.
Nathan Alcock was born at Aston, near Runcorn, Cheshire, England, the second son of David Alcock and his wife Mary née Breck. David Alcock was a descendant of Bishop John Alcock, the founder of Jesus College, Cambridge. He was educated initially by his parents and then at a local school but he left this school, probably because of his dislike of the schoolmaster. He promised his father that he would qualify in medicine in return for a small estate in Wirral, Cheshire, which was worth about £50 a year. He went to medical school at Edinburgh, and then to Leiden where he was taught by Boerhaave and his contemporaries, Gaubius, Albinus, and Gravesand. He graduated M.D. in 1737.
Medical career.
He returned to England and went to Oxford University. Here he found that one of the professors in the medical faculty gave no lectures and the other did not reside there. He therefore began to give unauthorised lectures in anatomy and chemistry. This led to opposition from the professors who argued that his theological opinions were unsound. However his lectures were popular with the students and he was supported by eminent people including William Blackstone and Robert Lowth (who was later Bishop of London). In 1741 he was granted the degree of M.A. and was incorporated from Jesus College. He graduated B.M. in 1744, and M.D. in 1749. Also in 1749 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society and in 1754 was made Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, London.
He built up a large practice in Oxford and became very wealthy. However, possibly because of ill health, or following the death of a woman he intended to marry, he returned to Runcorn. Here he built up a practice as large as his practice had been in Oxford. He died from a stroke in Runcorn in 1779 and was buried in the parish church there.
Politically he was a whig and theologically he was a follower of Bishop Hoadly. His Leiden thesis was on pneumonia. He published nothing during his lifetime but his brother Thomas, vicar of Runcorn, edited and published his "The Rise of Mahomet, Accounted for on Natural and Civil Principles" in 1796. Also after Nathan's death, in 1780, Thomas Alcock published his biography entitled "Some Memoirs of the Life of Dr. Nathan Alcock".


Interventional pulmonology

Interventional pulmonology (IP, also called interventional pulmonary medicine) is a maturing medical sub-specialty from its parent specialty of pulmonary medicine. It deals specifically with minimally invasive endoscopic and percutaneous procedures for diagnosis and treatment of neoplastic as well as non-neoplastic diseases of the airways, lungs, and pleura. Many IP procedures constitute efficacious yet less invasive alternatives to thoracic surgery.
History.
Before the advent of optical fibers and advances in anesthesiology, interventional pulmonary procedures were mostly limited to foreign body retrieval via rigid bronchoscopy. Gustav Killian (June 2, 1860 – February 24, 1921), a German laryngologist, performed foreign body retrievals from bronchial passages using a rigid laryngoscope/bronchoscope whereas in the United States, Chevalier Jackson (1865 – 1958) was the first to use the rigid bronchoscope. Later, Swedish internist Hans-Christian Jacobaeus first introduced thoracoscopy in a 1910 paper published in the journal "Münch med Wochenschr", before Japanese thoracic surgeon Shiketo Ikeda (1925 – 2001) introduced the fiberoptic bronchoscope in the late 20th century. Jean-Francois Dumon from France is credited with modernizing rigid bronchoscopy in the late 20th century by introducing a novel non-metallic airway stent made of silicone, appropriately named the Dumon stent. Together, these developments laid the foundation for most of today’s interventional pulmonary techniques.
In 1978, Kopen Wang and colleagues at Johns Hopkins Hospital described the use of transbronchial needle aspiration (TBNA) through a rigid bronchoscope to diagnose a paratracheal mediastinal mass. Following the advent of endobronchial ultrasound (EBUS), which first became available in the early 21st century, EBUS-TBNA swiftly replaced mediastinoscopy as the first-line in mediastinal staging for lung cancer. With these developments, interventional pulmonology became much more firmly established on the map of distinct subspecialties.
In 1992, the Association for Bronchology and Interventional Pulmonology (AABIP) was formed as a representative society of interventional pulmonologists based in North America. This organization also publishes a journal, namely the "Journal of Bronchology and Interventional Pulmonology". The World Association for Bronchology was founded by Dr. Ikeda in 1978 and renamed as the World Association for Bronchology and Interventional Pulmonology (WABIP) in 2010. It holds a biennial scientific meeting known as the World Congress for Bronchology and Interventional Pulmonology. The Association for Interventional Pulmonology Program Directors (AIPPD), dedicated to the advancement of IP education in the United States, was created in 2012.
Procedures.
In addition to basic bronchoscopic and pleural procedures that are performed by a general pulmonologist, an interventional pulmonologist may perform the following advanced procedures:
Training and certification.
For purposes of formal training in interventional pulmonology, dedicated training programs only became available in the early 21st century. The first dedicated program was a 12-month advanced fellowship offered by Dr. Beamis at Lahey Clinic in Boston. Currently, there are over 30 IP fellowship programs across the country. However, training programs have varied considerably in terms of the breadth and depth of procedural training that they offer.
To address the issue of inconsistent IP training across fellowship programs, representative members from five professional organizations (AABIP, AIPPD, ACCP, ATS, and APCCMPD) jointly published a list of minimum standards required by July 2019 in order for IP fellowship programs to receive formal accreditation from the AABIP and AIPPD.
To be eligible for this fellowship, applicants must first complete a three-year fellowship in pulmonary & critical care medicine. Most of these programs select one to two fellow(s) per year, applying though the Interventional Pulmonary Fellow Application Service (IPFAS©). As with most other medical specialties and subspecialties across the United States, applicants are matched to programs through the National Resident Matching Program (NRMP, or the “Match”).


Wilhelm Alexander Freund

Wilhelm Alexander Freund (August 26, 1833 - December 24, 1917) was a German gynecologist who was a native of Krappitz, Silesia.
Born into a Jewish family, in 1855 he earned his medical degree at the University of Breslau, afterwards practicing gynecology in the same city. In 1874 he became an associate professor at Breslau. In 1879 he relocated to Strasbourg, where he served as a professor of gynecology and obstetrics. He died in Berlin.
In January 1878, Freund performed the first abdominal extirpation of a cancerous uterus. Twenty years later in 1898, Austrian gynecologist Ernst Wertheim (1864-1920) became the first physician to completely extirpate the uterus via the abdomen.
The eponymous "Freund's anomaly" is a narrowing of the upper thoracic aperture caused by a shortening of the first rib and associated cartilage.


Roy Geronemus

Roy G. Geronemus (born March 5, 1953) is an American dermatologist in the field of laser treatment of skin disorders.
Career.
Geronemus is the director of the Laser & Skin Surgery Center of New York. He is also Clinical Professor of Dermatology at the New York University Medical Center.
Geronemus has contributed to the clinical development of laser and technology systems for devices for the treatment of skin problems including the pulsed dye laser and the Picosecond laser.
Geronemus' publications have covered treatments for port wine stains, hemangiomas, sun damaged skin, wrinkles, telangiectases, birthmarks, skin laxity, hair removal, tattoo removal and Nevus of Ota removal. Geronemus has advocated the early intervention of vascular birthmarks, encouraging treatment during early infancy.
Awards and service.
Geronemus is a past President of the American Society for Dermatologic Surgery and the American Society for Laser Medicine and Surgery.
Geronemus received the 2001 Ellet Drake Memorial Award from the American Society for Laser Medicine and Surgery.
He received the 2013 Samuel J. Stegman Award for Distinguished Service by the American Society for Dermatologic Surgery.


Kathleen Bell

Kathleen Bell is an American physician, currently the Kimberly-Clark Distinguished Chair in Mobility Research.