Economic order quantity

In inventory management, economic order quantity (EOQ) is the order quantity that minimizes the total holding costs and ordering costs. It is one of the oldest classical production scheduling models. The model was developed by Ford W. Harris in 1913, but R. H. Wilson, a consultant who applied it extensively, and K. Andler are given credit for their in-depth analysis.
Overview.
EOQ applies only when demand for a product is constant over the year and each new order is delivered in full when inventory reaches zero. There is a fixed cost for each order placed, regardless of the number of units ordered; an order is assumed to contain only 1 unit. There is also a cost for each unit held in storage, commonly known as holding cost, sometimes expressed as a percentage of the purchase cost of the item. While the EOQ formulation is straightforward there are factors such as transportation rates and quantity discounts to consider in actual application. 
We want to determine the optimal number of units to order so that we minimize the total cost associated with the purchase, delivery, and storage of the product.
The required parameters to the solution are the total demand for the year, the purchase cost for each item, the fixed cost to place the order for a single item and the storage cost for each item per year. Note that the number of times an order is placed will also affect the total cost, though this number can be determined from the other parameters.
The total cost function and derivation of EOQ formula.
The single-item EOQ formula finds the minimum point of the following cost function:
Total Cost = purchase cost or production cost + ordering cost + holding cost
Where:
formula_8.
To determine the minimum point of the total cost curve, calculate the derivative of the total cost with respect to Q (assume all other variables are constant) and set it equal to 0:
formula_9
Solving for Q gives Q* (the optimal order quantity):
formula_10
Therefore:
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Q* is independent of P; it is a function of only K, D, h.
The optimal value Q* may also be found by recognising that
formula_11
where the non-negative quadratic term disappears for formula_12 which provides the cost minimum formula_13
Example.
Economic order quantity = formula_14 formula_15 = 400 units
Number of orders per year (based on EOQ) formula_16
Total cost formula_17
Total cost formula_18
If we check the total cost for any order quantity other than 400(=EOQ), we will see that the cost is higher. For instance, supposing 500 units per order, then
Total cost formula_19
Similarly, if we choose 300 for the order quantity then
Total cost formula_20
This illustrates that the economic order quantity is always in the best interests of the firm.
Extensions of the EOQ model.
Quantity discounts.
An important extension to the EOQ model is to accommodate quantity discounts. There are two main types of quantity discounts: (1) all-units and (2) incremental. Here is a numerical example:
In order to find the optimal order quantity under different quantity discount schemes, one should use algorithms; these algorithms are developed under the assumption that the EOQ policy is still optimal with quantity discounts. Perera et al. (2017) establish this optimality and fully characterize the (s,S) optimality within the EOQ setting under general cost structures.
Design of optimal quantity discount schedules.
In presence of a strategic customer, who responds optimally to discount schedules, the design of an optimal quantity discount scheme by the supplier is complex and has to be done carefully. This is particularly so when the demand at the customer is itself uncertain. An interesting effect called the "reverse bullwhip" takes place where an increase in consumer demand uncertainty actually reduces order quantity uncertainty at the supplier.
Backordering costs and multiple items.
Several extensions can be made to the EOQ model, including backordering costs and multiple items. Additionally, the economic order interval can be determined from the EOQ and the economic production quantity model (which determines the optimal production quantity) can be determined in a similar fashion.
A version of the model, the Baumol-Tobin model, has also been used to determine the money demand function, where a person's holdings of money balances can be seen in a way parallel to a firm's holdings of inventory.
Malakooti (2013) has introduced the multi-criteria EOQ models where the criteria could be minimizing the total cost, Order quantity (inventory), and Shortages.
A version taking the time-value of money into account was developed by Trippi and Lewin.
Imperfect quality.
Another important extension of the EOQ model is to consider items with imperfect quality. Salameh and Jaber (2000) are the first to study the imperfect items in an EOQ model very thoroughly. They consider an inventory problem in which the demand is deterministic and there is a fraction of imperfect items in the lot and are screened by the buyer and sold by them at the end of the circle at discount price.
For improving the fuel economy of internal combustion engines.
In 2016, an interesting similarity between EOQ of Melon picking and fuel injection in Gasoline Direct Injection has been proposed.