Japanese clothing during the Meiji period

Japanese clothing during the Meiji period was quite different from earlier periods. During this time, Western-style fashion ("yofuku") was introduced into the government, indicating a move to modernity. During the Meiji period, certain jobs required Western-style uniform, starting with the Japanese government in 1872. Western-style dress thus became associated with elitism, modernity, and money. The Western trends adopted by the government were not popular with the public at large. While those in the Imperial court, office jobs, factory workers, or other various job holders might wear them as uniform, many people still chose to wear kimono and other traditional Japanese clothing ("wafuku").
The transition into Western-style clothing came after much resistance. This transition can be separated into three periods: "Bunmei kaika" (1868-1883), the Rokumeikan (1883-1890s), and a period of nativist revival. The "Bunmei kaika" was a period in which Western products were adopted quickly. In this phase, clothing mixed elements of "yofuku" with "wafuku" such a red flannel shirt, cape, shoes, etc. During the "Rokumeikan" era, Western culture grew popular; this was a time of many clothing reforms. By this point, two decades into the Meiji period, it was hard to find men with uncropped hair or women with blackened teeth. Yofuku fashion became more elaborate; no longer could one piece of yofuku fashion distinguish someone. In the last period, during the 1890s, there was a call back to nativism in which the kimono regained popularity and women rejected Western-style clothing. This was not the case for men as Western styles had become too ingrained in Japanese society. So, while women re-adopted the kimono, men still wore their frock coats and business suits. During this time, kimono continued to change in colors, patterns, and shape.
Fashion Trends.
Early on, some women did adopt Western fashion, but these were few. However, all popular fashion early in the Meiji period did come from Western sources. Many in Japan at the time were required to start wearing Western-style uniforms to work. It started with the governmental officials in 1871, but by the end of the decade, students in public universities were required to wear them along with businessmen, teachers, doctors, bankers, nurses, and other jobs. Western-style clothing came to represent elitism or class in the Meiji period. However, those at the bottom of society also started wearing Western uniforms as well. In factory work, kimono sleeves could get trapped in machines, so they moved to Western clothing too. In 1873, uniforms were introduced with "hakama" as well.
In the early Meiji period, "yofuku" clothing was expensive and was reserved for the richest. Wool had to be imported, and tailors were difficult to find. It was more common to wear some pieces of Western-style clothing instead of a whole outfit. "Shappos" (based on "chapeau" in French) or hats along with the Western-style umbrella were easy additions to one's outfit along with flannels as well. For those with more money, leather shoes and watches were stylish contributions too.
In 1877, the Satsuma Rebellion led by Saigo Takamori from the southern domain of Satsuma was winding down. Although Saigo was defeated and branded a traitor to Japan, the people still found him noble. In turn, people started wearing an "ikat"-woven indigo and white pattern named "satsuma kasuri." Additionally, because of Saigo "peasant dress" became popular in Tokyo, and a olive brown color known as "uguisu-cha" was renamed saigo-brown for him.
During this time, wool became popular. In 1898 alone, the consumption of wool reached 3,000,000 yards all imported from England and Germany. Once it entered Japan, it was commonly used as a winter material. This had a large effect on Japan since before the usage of wool, people protected themselves from the cold by wearing more layers. Overcoats worn over kimonos were introduced called "tombi, niuimawashi," and "azumakoto", all commonly made of wool. Also during the winter, women wore blankets over their shoulders, and by the end of the 1880s, red blankets were the fashionable color.
In 1881, a Japanese artisian named Okajima Chiyozo created a technique of printing designs onto muslins. They became increasingly popular and were known as "yuzen" muslins. Often, women used red or violet muslin for their "haori" and "obi" (the sash that ties a kimono together). During the 1880s, wearing Japanese yofuku became more complex. Gone were the days of throwing a single yofuku accessory over one's kimono. Now, it took more effort to impress someone with yofuku. Despite this change, people still continued wearing kimonos at home. This became an important point in society as one's activity and location began to denote what clothing one might wear. Yofuku was considered workwear with chairs and desks whereas wafuku was worn on tatami mats. There was an aphorism that noted if there was a chair (common in more Western-style settings), yofuku was appropriate whereas wafuku was for sitting on the floor. Wafuku became leisurewear with Western styles become standard in the public sphere. However, as this fashion structure developed, women's wear began to revert to Japanese traditional clothing. People were learning that corsets were harmful to women's health, so Japanese women reverted back to the kimono in the 1890s. Outside of geishas, the only women who continued wearing yofuku were high nobility and official's wives who would come to adhere to the Western hourglass figure and leg-of-mutton sleeves of the 90s.
In the 1890s, nativism grew strong in Japan, and yofuku became less popular, and rules for Western-style dress grew lax in public events. The kimono became popular again, and people started wearing Japanese dress to events, but never to parties. During this period, it was considered disdainful for women to wear yofuku. By the end of the Meiji period, it became apparent that Western trends had affected more than the obvious styles. Wafuku had become more similar to Western styles as they could be styled like Western two-piece dresses and people had adjusted to the corseted woman figure. Additionally, ceremonial colors which had once been white, gold, silver, and scarlet for weddings changed to only white. For funerals, close family members previously wore white while others wore black, but now, everyone wore black.
Coats.
As previously mentioned, overcoats were one of the many ways in which a piece of yofuku clothing could be added to an outfit. There were coats previous to the Western influence, but with new textiles, the variety had increased greatly. There were new coats known as "tombi," a sleeveless cloak with an attached cape to be worn over the baggy kimono sleeves, "niuimawashi," and "azumakoto" all made of wool. By the 1880s, women started wearing "azuma" coats, a rising fashionable article.
Scarves.
One popular yofuku article was the "erimaki" (collar-winder), a scarf worn over the kimono. The white "toweru" (towel) was also used as a scarf early on but vanished once people learned it was an article used to dry one's body.
As for men, they specifically liked the white silk crepe "erimaki" which was looped around the neck many times. In the 1880s, square plaid shawls became popular too. Men did wear shawls both over kimonos and business suits.
Hair and Hats.
During this time, "shappos" (hats) became popularized in Japan. In July 1871, haircutting was made voluntary in an effort to convince Japanese to move over to the Western hair styles such as "zangiri atama", cropped hair over the Japanese "sakayaki" (shaved pate). Following this, men started cutting off their topknot as the Emperor did in 1872. Both men and women started with Western-style hair trends, and men started growing mustaches and beards. As they changed their hairstyles, hats became common too. Also around 1872, local governments reinforced their efforts and announced that direct exposure to the head was harmful, so they started advocating for hats to protect oneself. For grand ceremonies, there were hats that were ship-shaped, lesser ceremonies called for silk hats, and if one was wearing a frock coat to a ceremony (usually lower civil workers), they only wore a top hat. Like Western-style clothing at the time, hats also became a symbol of elitism.
Etiquette Books.
It was difficult to know what to wear to an event. Often, there was a code or some notice of what was acceptable to wear. Many relied on etiquette books made during the Edo period and early Meiji period. Others relied on their personal experience from traveling abroad.
"Seiyoishokuji, The Clothing, Food, and Dwellings of the West," was a popular book series published between 1866 and 1870, by Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901). Fukuzawa was a member of the first shogunal delegation that went to both the United States and Europe. It detailed images of Western-style clothing, furniture, and objects. It also described how to wear clothing, but only for men. The first book of this series sold 150,000 copies in the first year.
Women’s Fashion.
A small minority of women adopted Western fashions early on; they were mostly students, geisha, or foreigners' mistresses. Most other women considered "yofuku" as something to accessorize with, not completely wear. In the 1870s, women rarely participated in events including balls and social gatherings. It was not until late 1886 that a Westernized clothing system was designed for women. In September 1886, the reform for the wives of "chokuninkan" was designed, and in November 1886, for the "soninkan". However, despite the clothing reforms being introduced, Western-style clothing was uncomfortable for most, so it took time for women to start wearing it.
For most women, the Western style came by occupation or status instead of general fashion. Female factory workers were required to start wearing Western-style uniforms with "hakama" (trousers) in 1873. Female students and teachers also wore hakama with Western-style shoes occasionally. For those who did wear Western styles outside of a uniform, it was difficult to obtain such clothing. Many women simply left their sizes in Paris to order a new wardrobe each year while others might purchase their clothing in their travels to America or Europe as early adopters were rich. Later on, Western-style clothing was produced in Japan.
Despite Western fashion adoption, not everything was as popular as in the West. For example, Western women were wearing crinolines, yet Japanese women rarely did. Some prostitutes in Nagasaki wore them for exotic impact, but not many others. Also, geisha were some of the first women to adopt these Western-styles for more than just accessories.
After the Empress moved to Western clothing in 1886, imperial married princesses, wives of officials, and ladies-in-waiting had to wear Western clothing. For wives of officials, Western-style clothing was required only if they were in public for official business – as long as their husband was in office. There was an instance in 1893 where the wife of a Belgian minister called on Countess Ito during her reception. During this event, the Japanese women all wore kimonos much to the Belgian woman's surprise.
During the Meiji period, blackened teeth and shaved eyebrows began to cycle out. In 1873, the Empress stopped doing this which implied a governmental demand that all women stop as well. Additionally, despite women's move to Victorian hairstyles, women were asked not to cut their hair short. Those who did were considered oddities. As for specific hairstyles, women wore their hair in the "sokuhatsu" style (for which later listed them as high-collar), a pompadour that resembled chignons the Gibson girls styled. In this style, the farther forward one's hair was, the more daring one's hairstyle was. This hairstyle was considered healthier than other Western hairstyles as it did not require pins, pomade, etc. like similar coiffures. Japanese women in the early Meiji period were far more likely to adopt the sokuhatsu hairstyle over Western dress. Around the same time, many women were starting to wear geta, thonged shoes, with pants or kimonos with shoes. This was a period of hybridization between Japanese and Western fashion for women and men alike.
Between 1876 and 1880, the female bustle had faded out. Now, as Japan transitioned into its "Rokumeikan" era, women started eating up Western fashion. They wore laced corsets to accentuate their waist, bosom, and hips. Their shoes shifted from Japanese soft cloth to Western leather shoes. During the Rokumeikan era, women occasionally fainted. During the early parties of the Rokumeikan, many royal ladies wore scarlet hakama and hakki (kimono shaped over robes) they used for courtly functions. By the third year of the Rokumeikan, it was an even split between yofuku and wafuku clothing styles seen there.
In 1884, there were court ordered regulations on what to wear. For parties and banquets, women were to wear formal court dresses with low necks. For semiformal parties and banquets, they were to wear semiformal court dresses with a demo-low neck. For lunches at the palace, women wore simple court dresses with a high neck and skirt train. The most formal dresses were European models with a cloak and long train. Additionally, despite the Western influence of clothing, some Japanese-made women's clothing did have a Japanese aspect with traditional kimono textiles.
Geisha wore yofuku commonly. They were often depicted as wearing black tafetta gowns with gold earrings and bracelets with their hair parted into "eaves", wearing leather shoes on the tatami mats of teahouses.
By the end of the 1890s, the Japanese ideal female figure was the popular Western "s" shape. Lastly, at the very end of the Meiji period in 1912, women's hairstyle changed drastically, The natural shape of a woman's body grew to be more important (compared to earlier corset-shaped women), and women started to cut their hair short without fear of being outcast.
Kimono.
During this time, the way in which women wore the kimono changed drastically. This affected women much more than men as they continued wearing Western clothing despite the 1890s reform back to nativism. During the early Meiji period, the color preference for kimonos did not change. The colors of choice were still darker, typically blues, grays, browns, and specifically for women, purple. Garments were still monochrome and plain, although if there was a pattern, it was rather simple such as stripes, plaid, lattice, or ikat"."
By mid Meiji, every woman of every class and age started tying her obi in the back. Typically, the front-tied obi meant a girl had passed into adulthood, but now nobody was even wearing it there, except prostitutes. Naturally, the reason for the kimono changes in the late 1880s was political. The new constitution that was being drafted for 20 years was about to come into fruition, so everything was re-assessed, including fashion. By the 1890s, people began to feel that Westernization had gone too far, including fashion, so there was this near recall as people started to revert. Kimono designs such as chrysanthemums (the imperial flower) with the rising sun flag began to demonstrate patriotism. Even haori linings, collars, and children's kimonos changed to this patriotic tune and started sporting cherry blossoms to reflect the samurai. Additionally, grade-school girl uniforms reverted to kimonos too.
Sleeves during the Meiji period were longer than today's counterparts, but also, they were worn differently. During this time, they used a padded hem with contrasting linings, layered sets, and colored collars. The kimonos usually came in layered sets ("o-tsui") in two or three garments. The outermost garment was known as the "uwagi", known as the kimono today. Typically, underneath, there were 1-3 "shitagi" (underlayers) showing slightly at the chest, sleeve, and hem. Formal kimonos always came in coordinated sets of uwagi and shitagi in trios. Even informal kimonos at the time were layered in pairs unless specified.
Also, the detail was different than what it is today. There was a padded lining that showed at the hem and sleeve openings, the "fuki". Often, these were in contrasting colors that referenced aristocratic 11th century aesthetics of layered colors. The fuki was padded more or less depending on the person's age and level of ceremony. A young girl might have less visible lining whereas an older woman would have more. Additionally, a woman might even try to hide her age by shifting her lining, but if it was too much of a difference, people might find her ridiculous.
While not often seen today, trailing kimonos were common as formal dresses for women of high standing. These did eventually phase out and were only used for the highest ceremonies. However, kimonos still never were short enough to fit. During this time, more obi styles existed. However, the most popular was (and still is) the "taiko" style, a boxy pouf. Women's obi used to be longer and larger. Similar to now, a lower taiko meant a woman was more "voluptuous."
As for other parts of the kimono, the underrobe had a detachable piece called the "han-eri." This was the only piece of the undergarment visible when fully dressed. During the Meiji period, the "han-eri" was more colorful and often embroidered and was displayed more prominently.
By the mid-Meiji period, distinct kimono styles to indicate different class was nearly irradiated. Geisha started to model new kimono fashions, and "proper" wives felt comfortable to copy these styles without concern. Now, with class-distinct kimonos gone, a student could wear the same kimono as a high official. The only vast difference now was the type "ryakugi" versus "reiso." Ryakugi was made from a variety of more durable fabrics in dark colors in one of the hundreds of popular striped patterns whereas reiso was meant for ceremonies in a three-layered set of fine silk with the family crest on it. These were generally saved for New Year's and wedding ceremonies. By the end of the Meiji period, a new style of kimono came into being; it was a style in between everyday wear and ceremonial wear named "homongi." This meant "visiting wear", a style of patterend silk to cover any situation in which a woman could make a public, social appearance.
Early Meiji yuzen was dyed in two styles: "edo doki" and "gosho doki". Edo doki was small patterning of flowers and grasses with accented gold embroidery on a plain monochrome background. Gosho doki was grandiose with palace style designs that were florid, depicting birds and butterflies, paulwinas and waterfalls. The goshi doki did in fact reflect the tastes of noblewomen early in the Meiji period.
Later, in the 1890s, brighter pastel colors became popular for the kimono. While they were "bright" in comparison to earlier colors, they were all filtered through ""nezumi" gray": purplish gray, reddish gray, orangish gray, pinkish gray, etc. Now, patterns grew more bold. Crepe silks with a stencilied repeating pattern became popular along with small repeating pattern hemmed kimonos known as "komon". The komon were popular in the early 1880s, but spready quickly. These did not last long as the komon patterns did not show well. By the late 1890s, women were in more social settings. The bottom hem of a kimono was rarely visible, so they turned towards brighter colors and bolder designs, and turns towards the bosom for a new fashion style which would be the "waifuku" fashion. Now, busy designs such as "huge ruffled peonies were dyed on top of stripes, snow-laden bamboo were superimposed on an overall repeat background." "Art nouveau" designs grew popular in 1901 for obi and underrobes which was ironic as the inspiration for art nouveau was Japanese woodblock prints.
Yet again, there was a shift in kimono fashion in 1904. Now, the Russo-Japanese War was on, and this affected the fashion trends in Japan at the time. A dark shade of blue known as 'victory blue' became popular. Additionally, large-scale kimono designs similar to those of the 17th century "kosode" kimono of the Genroku period became popular too. Traditional elements such as oversized checkerboard with nature accents in a minute dapple tie-dye were popular too.
Backstory to Fashion Reform.
February 25, 1868, the System Research Department ("seido torishirabegakari)" was established, and on June 10, 1868, they sent out letters to various people including the aristrocracy, daimyo, and feudal retainers in Kyoto for opinions on dress reform. The following year, they designed a clothing reform with the help of Saga Sanenaru (1820-1909) from the Office of Administration. This new system involved a "headdress-clothing system" in which rank and status were portrayed through usage of colors and specific patterns; however this did not pass as the Japanese government wanted something simpler. Later, in June 1870, Ninagawa Noritane tried a new clothing reform, simpler than Saga's, and still was rejected. Ultimately, the samurai were forced to pick between Western-style clothing or the head-dress clothing system, and so, they picked the Western-style clothing despite its uncomfortable aspects.
Later, on August 4, 1871, "sanpatsu" (loose hair), "datto" (no sword), "ryakufuku" (simplified dress), and the wearing of uniforms became voluntary. Shortly after, August 9, Western dress was allowed for bureaucrats.
Emperor and Empress.
In 1872, the Emperor Meiji decided to cut off his topknot and move to Western-style clothing. In doing so, he established a new era of Japan, one that had become modern. However, despite his Western changes early on, the Empress Shoken did not shift styles until much later in 1886. There was the period of the contrasting couple in which the Emperor looked "modern" while the Empress still wore a kimono. When Empress Haruko (Shoken) liked these high necked gowns and had insets designed for her overly "decollete" French dresses.
However, when the Empress did shift to Western fashion in 1886, it did not imply women all over Japan moved with her. It was mostly those women in the Imperial court (ladies-in-waiting), wives of officials, and married princesses. Younger princesses were exempt, and often, still wore kimonos to events. In contrast, young princes did wear Western-style clothing "perhaps in anticipation of their weighty responsibilities as imperial males." It should also be noted that in the 1890s, when nationalist conservatives rose and "wafuku" became popular again, the Empress still continued wearing Western clothing. The Empress recognized her place in this new society as a nation leader. She gave speeches to arriving diplomats and their wives, and yet in these occasions, she wore "wafuku" instead (but did not blacken her teeth or shave her eyebrows). However, in these meetings, the Emperor still continued with his Western clothing.
Specific Uniforms.
Government Official Uniforms.
When the uniforms were enforced in 1871, finding a uniform took some effort. In the early Meiji period, tailors were quite rare. As kimonos never needed tailoring, there was no pre-existing similar class in Japan. There were foreign suit makers with their Japanese apprentices in Yokohama who were sewing the suits of the future. For the military, in non-ceremonial conditions, such as simply going to work, they only had to wear a simplified military uniform and military hat. However, in ceremonies, they were required to wear grand military outfits with their medals attached. As for lesser officials, the common work attire was a frock coat, and they only had to wear a military uniform to ceremonies.
Also, it was decided that in 1870, the naval cadets would wear British-style uniforms while the army cadets wore French style.
Western-style ceremonial garb and medals were for higher tiered governmental officials. Uniforms for governmental officials denoted different statuses and grades with decorative features on their medals. There were gold embellishments for the "chokuninkan", officials appointed by the Emperor, and "soninkan", officials appointed by the Prime Minister, and then silver embellishments for the "hanninkan", junior officials. The "Chokuninkan" specially had a paulownia grass pattern embroidered on their upper garment whereas the other ranks had nothing in its place.
For those with class but positions, mostly noble families, there were two types of uniforms. One was for those rank fourth or higher (on level with "chokuninkan") called the "chokunin bunkan tai-reifuku", except their uniform lacked the paulownia embellishment. The other uniform was for those ranked fifth or below called the (on the same level as the "soninkan") called the "sonin bunkan tai-reifuku" without the embellishments.
On April 10, 1875, the Japanese government declared a medal system to honor merit. The Order of the Rising Sun, "kyokujitsu-sho," consisted of merit levels one through eight and had rays beaming from a sun.
School Uniforms.
While boys uniforms were modelled on military uniforms, original girl's uniforms during the Meiji period were modelled after Japanese elements. The original girl's uniform included "hakama" worn over their kimono. However, these girls' uniforms disappeared towards the end of the Meiji period during its return to nativism. They did not re-emerge until the 1920s.
Resistance to Clothing Reform.
In 1875, shortly after the clothing reform was decided, there was immediate protest. For instance, Shimazu Hisamitsu (1817-1887) and his 250 vassals all showed up in protest with topknots and swords. He pointed out how important their dress was to separate the low from high classes in Japan, but also Japan from other countries. He also noted that if they were to get rid of their current clothing system, these ideas of social status should be kept in future clothing systems. The government responded in October 1875 by stating that the Emperor's new attire and new Western-styles were adopted for "the beauty and good of European countries" and that other changes such as the hair style and swords were just natural changing customs.
There was more resistance than Shimazu's. In general, those who disliked the change believed the reform emphasized class too much. Anti-government people commented that these Western-style followers were too vain and cared for appearances far too much.
In 1879, Honda Kinkichiro started making fun of the government in pictures. In one issue of "Marumaru chibun" he portrayed the government as monkeys for their imitation of Westerners. There were many comments by critics on how these Western fashion followers dressed using ill-fitting, awkward mimickry of Westerners.
In 1889, journalist Ishikawa Yasuhiro (1872-1925) coined "haikara" from English meaning "high collar" to reference men who cared for Western fashion in a derogatory fashion. By 1902, women were included as "haikara" with their hairstyle called the "haikara hisashigami," "high collar pompadour." Later, schoolgirls were lumped in as well called "haikara jogakusei" for their tied up hair with ribbons in a high-collar style. These schoolgirls also commonly wore maroon ("ebichaI") hakama and rode bikes to school. They popularized the padded, unisex student overcoat known as the "shosei haori".
Also, there was the arrival of the "bankara" (savage class) and the "soshi". Neither cared for the materialistic culture the West had introduced. Both groups thought the government was being shameful, and they began to advocate for the political freedom of people. Most notably, both groups were extremely antifashion. The "bankara" rejected the notion of the high-collar gentleman as the masculine form of Japanese men. The "bankara" expressed a "return to barbarism and celebration of male primitivism." These "bankara" were popular with young students with their action over speech."The" "soshi" commonly wore torn kimonos with their sleeves tucked in, long hair, clogs with thick thongs known as "geta", often wielding clubs. The "soshi" were famous for their anti-government commentary and played songs that criticized the government.