Tire-pressure monitoring system

A tire-pressure monitoring system (TPMS) is an electronic system designed to monitor the air pressure inside the pneumatic tires on various types of vehicles. A TPMS reports real-time tire-pressure information to the driver of the vehicle, either via a gauge, a pictogram display, or a simple low-pressure warning light. TPMS can be divided into two different types – direct (dTPMS) and indirect (iTPMS). TPMS are provided both at an OEM (factory) level as well as an aftermarket solution. The goal of a TPMS is avoiding traffic accidents, poor fuel economy, and increased tire wear due to under-inflated tires through early recognition of a hazardous state of the tires. This functionality first appeared in luxury vehicles in Europe in the 1980s, while mass-market adoption followed the USA passing the 2000 TREAD Act after the Firestone and Ford tire controversy. Mandates for TPMS technology in new cars have continued to proliferate in the 21st century in Russia, the EU, Japan, South Korea and many other Asian countries. As of November 2014, fitment rate stands at 54% of passenger cars.
History.
Initial adoption.
Due to the influence tire pressure has on vehicle safety and efficiency, tire-pressure monitoring (TPM) was first adopted by the European market as an optional feature for luxury passenger vehicles in the 1980s. The first passenger vehicle to adopt TPM was the Porsche 959 in 1986, using a hollow spoke wheel system developed by PSK. In 1996 Renault used the Michelin PAX system for the Scenic and in 1999 the PSA Peugeot Citroën decided to adopt TPM as a standard feature on the Peugeot 607. The following year (2000), Renault launched the Laguna II, the first high volume mid-size passenger vehicle in the world to be equipped with TPM as a standard feature. In the United States, TPM was introduced by General Motors for the 1991 model year for the Corvette in conjunction with Goodyear run-flat tires. The system uses sensors in the wheels and a driver display which can show tire pressure at any wheel, plus warnings for both high and low pressure. It has been standard on Corvettes ever since.
Firestone recall and legal mandates.
The Firestone recall in the late 1990s (which was linked to more than 100 deaths from rollovers following tire tread-separation), pushed the United States Congress to legislate the TREAD Act. The Act mandated the use of a suitable TPMS technology in all light motor vehicles (under 10,000 pounds), to help alert drivers of under-inflation events. This act affects all light motor vehicles sold after September 1, 2007. Phase-in started in October 2005 at 20%, and reached 100% for models produced after September 2007. In the United States, as of 2008 and the European Union, as of November 1, 2012, all new passenger car models (M1) released must be equipped with a TPMS. From November 1, 2014, all new passenger cars sold in the European Union must be equipped with a TPMS. For N1 vehicles, TPMS are not mandatory, but if a TPMS is fitted, it must comply with the regulation.
On July 13, 2010, the South Korean Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs announced a pending partial-revision to the Korea Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (KMVSS), specifying that "TPMS shall be installed to passenger vehicles and vehicles of GVW 3.5 tons or less, ... [effective] on January 1, 2013 for new models and on June 30, 2014 for existing models". Japan is expected to adopt European Union legislation approximately one year after European Union implementation. Further countries to make TPMS mandatory include Russia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Israel, Malaysia and Turkey.
After the TREAD Act was passed, many companies responded to the market opportunity by releasing TPMS products using battery-powered radio transmitter wheel modules.
Run-flat tires.
The introduction of run-flat tires and emergency spare tires by several tire and vehicle manufacturers has motivated to make at least some basic TPMS mandatory when using run-flat tires. With run-flat tires, the driver will most likely not notice that a tire is running flat, hence the so-called "run-flat warning systems" were introduced. These are most often first generation, purely roll-radius based iTPMS, which ensure that run-flat tires are not used beyond their limitations, usually 80 km/h (50 mph) and 80 km (50 miles) driving distance. The iTPMS market has progressed as well. Indirect TPMS are able to detect under-inflation through combined use of roll radius and spectrum analysis and hence four-wheel monitoring has become feasible. With this breakthrough, meeting the legal requirements is possible also with iTPMS.
Direct versus indirect.
Indirect TPMS.
Indirect TPMS do not use physical pressure sensors but measure air pressures using software-based systems, which by evaluating and combining existing sensor signals like wheel speeds, accelerometers, driveline data, etc. estimate and monitor the tire pressure without physical pressure sensors in the wheels. First-generation iTPMS systems are based on the principle that under-inflated tires have a slightly smaller diameter (and hence higher angular velocity) than a correctly inflated one. These differences are measurable through the wheel speed sensors of ABS/ESC systems. Second generation iTPMS can also detect simultaneous under-inflation in up to all four tires using spectrum analysis of individual wheels, which can be realized in software using advanced signal processing techniques.
iTPMS cannot measure or display absolute pressure values; they are relative by nature and have to be reset by the driver once the tires are checked and all pressures adjusted correctly. The reset is normally done either by a physical button or in a menu of the on-board computer. iTPMS are, compared to dTPMS, more sensitive to the influences of different tires and external influences like road surfaces and driving speed or style. The reset procedure, followed by an automatic learning phase of typically 20 to 60 minutes of driving under which the iTPMS learns and stores the reference parameters before it becomes fully active, cancels out many, but not all of these. As iTPMS do not involve any additional hardware, spare parts, electronic/toxic waste, or service (beyond the regular reset), they are regarded as easy to handle and customer friendly.
Since factory installation of TPMS became mandatory in November 2014 for all new passenger vehicles in the EU, various iTPMS have been type-approved according to UN Regulation R64. Examples for this are most of the VW group models, but also numerous Honda, Volvo, Opel, Ford, Mazda, PSA, FIAT and Renault models. iTPMS are quickly gaining market shares in the EU and are expected to become the dominating TPMS technology in the near future.
iTPMS are regarded as less accurate by some due to their nature—given that simple ambient temperature variations can lead to pressure variations of the same magnitude as the legal detection thresholds— but many vehicle manufacturers and customers value the ease of use.
Direct TPMS.
Direct TPMS directly measures tire pressure using hardware sensors. In each wheel, most often on the inside of the valve, there is a battery-driven pressure sensor which keeps track of the pressure levels and transfers pressure information to a central control unit which reports it to the vehicle's onboard computer. Some units also measure and alert temperatures of the tire as well. These systems can identify under-inflation for each individual tire. Although the systems vary in transmitting options, many TPMS products (both OEM and aftermarket) can display realtime, individual tire pressures whether the vehicle is moving or parked. There are many different solutions, but all of them have to face the problems of exposure to hostile environments. The majority are powered by batteries which limit their useful life. Some sensors utilise a wireless power system similar to that used in RFID tag reading which solves the problem of limited battery life. This also increases the frequency of data transmission up to 40 Hz and reduces the sensor weight which can be important in motorsport applications. If the sensors are mounted on the outside of the wheel, as are some aftermarket systems, they are subject to mechanical damage, aggressive fluids, as well as theft. When mounted on the inside of the rim, they are no longer easily accessible for battery change and the RF link must overcome the attenuating effects of the tire which increases the energy need.
A direct TPMS sensor consists of the following main functions requiring only a few external components — "e.g." battery, housing, PCB — to get the sensor module that is mounted to the valve stem inside the tire:
Most originally fitted dTPMS have the sensor mounted on the inside of the rim and the batteries are not exchangeable. A discharged battery means that the tire must be dismounted in order to replace it, so long battery life is desirable. To save energy and prolong battery life, many dTPMS sensors do not transmit information when parked (which eliminates spare tire monitoring) or apply a more expensive two-way communication which enables wake-up of the sensor. For OEM auto dTPMS units to work properly, they need to recognize the sensor positions and must ignore the signals from other vehicles. 
Aftermarket dTPMS units not only transmit while vehicles are moving or parked, but also provide users with some advanced monitoring options including data logging, remote monitoring options and more. They are available for all types of vehicles, from motorcycles to heavy equipment, and can monitor up to 64 tires at a time, which is important for commercial vehicles. Many aftermarket dTPMS units do not require specialized tools to program or reset, making them much simpler to use.
Maintenance issues.
Valve-stem corrosion.
First-generation of TPMS sensors that are integral with the valve stem have suffered from corrosion. Metallic valve caps can become seized to the valve stem because of galvanic corrosion of dissimilar metals, and efforts to remove it can break the stem, destroying the sensor. A similar fate may befall an after-market brass valve core inside the stem that may have been installed by unwary technician, replacing the original specialized nickel-coated cores. (They can be distinguished by the yellowish colour of the brass.) Seizure of the valve can complicate repair of a tire leak, possibly requiring replacement of the entire sensor.
Tire sealant compatibility.
There is controversy regarding the compatibility of after-market tire sealants with dTPMS that employ sensors mounted inside the tire. Some manufacturers of sealants assert that their products are indeed compatible, but others warned that the "sealant may come in contact with the sensor in a way that renders the sensor TEMPORARILY inoperable until it is properly cleaned, inspected and re-installed by a tire care professional". Such doubts are also reported by others. Use of such sealants may void the TPMS sensor warranty.
Benefits of TPMS.
The dynamic behavior of a pneumatic tire is closely connected to its inflation pressure. Key factors like braking distance and lateral stability require the inflation pressures to be adjusted and kept as specified by the vehicle manufacturer. Extreme under-inflation can even lead to thermal and mechanical overload caused by overheating and subsequent, sudden destruction of the tire itself. Additionally, fuel efficiency and tire wear are severely affected by under-inflation. Tires do not only leak air if punctured, they also leak air naturally, and over a year, even a typical new, properly mounted tire can lose from 20 to 60 kPa (3 to 9 psi), roughly 10% or even more of its initial pressure.
The significant advantages of TPMS are summarized as follows:
Further statistics include:
The French Sécurité Routière, a road safety organization, estimates that 9% of all road accidents involving fatalities are attributable to tire under-inflation, and the German DEKRA, a product safety organization, estimated that 41% of accidents with physical injuries are linked to tire problems.
The European Union reports that an average under-inflation of 40 kPa produces an increase of fuel consumption of 2% and a decrease of tire life of 25%. The European Union concludes that tire under-inflation today is responsible for over 20 million liters of unnecessarily-burned fuel, dumping over 2 million tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere, and for 200 million tires being prematurely wasted worldwide.
In 2018, a field study on TPMS and tire inflation pressure was published on the UN ECE Working Party on Brakes and Running Gear (GRRF) homepage. It covered 1,470 randomly selected vehicles in three EU countries with dTPMS, iTPMS and without TPMS. Main findings are that TPMS fitment reliably prevents severe and dangerous underinflation and hence yields the desired effects for traffic safety, fuel consumption and emissions. The study also showed that there is no difference in effectiveness between dTPMS and iTPMS and that the TPMS reset function does not present a safety risk.
Privacy concerns with direct TPMS.
Because each tire transmits a unique identifier, vehicles may be easily tracked using existing sensors along the roadway. This concern could be addressed by encrypting the radio communications from the sensors but such privacy provisions were not stipulated by the NHTSA.
Heavy-duty vehicles.
U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration regulations only apply to vehicles under 10,000 pounds. For heavy-duty vehicles (Classes 7 and 8, gross vehicle weight greater than 26,000 pounds), most of the above-mentioned systems don't work well, requiring the development of other systems.
The US Department of Transportation has commissioned several studies to find systems that work on the heavy-duty market specifying some goals that were needed in this market.
The SAE has tried to disseminate best practices since legal regulations for heavy vehicles has been lagging.
One problem is lack of standardization. Tires are often purchased in bulk and moved between tractors over time, so a given TPMS system can only work with compatible sensors in the tires, creating logistic problems. RF systems for these units must also work over much longer ranges, which may force repeater systems to be installed on the tractor or trailer. It is expected that battery lives on these systems should be in the five- to seven-year range, since the cost of breaking down a tire can be so much more expensive. The U.S. Department of Transportation's maximum-loading requirements force trailer manufacturers to spread loads over multiple axles, giving rise to trailers with typically 8 to 12 tires, but as many as 96 tires on specialty haulers. 
Tire casings can have typical lifetimes of ten or more years, through multiple retreading processes. This has given rise to a specialized industry that focuses solely on issues found in the trucking industry. 
Central inflation systems originally claimed to eliminate the need for pressure-monitoring systems. Some major inflation systems are Meritor PSI, Hendrickson International, Stemco AERIS and Vagia (used mostly in South America). They have not yielded a complete solution, since they do not solve all the issues (i.e., no support for the steerable axle), and they bring new issues with maintenance of the rotary couplings in the hub caps. Inflation systems can sometimes shorten the life of tires by concealing slow leaks caused by embedded objects, which drivers would otherwise remove after inspecting the problem tire.
For a tire-pressure sensor to be completely effective, it must have several capabilities to allow for the various maintenance personnel groups to use them.
First, each driver is required to do a pre-trip inspection, so it is beneficial if the tire-pressure monitor has an indicator that can be read without tools.
Second, it usually should have the ability to cover dual sets of tires in some fashion. It is also beneficial if the fill points can be centralized so that inflation can be accomplished easily without reaching through the small hand holes in the rims. 
Third, it needs to have a wireless communication system that has an appropriate range and battery life. It is important that sensors regularly communicate an "I'm alive" condition, since having a dead sensor can be worse than having no sensor at all. 
Fourth, these systems should have the capability to adapt to the changing of tires and trailers with minimal operator intervention. It is important to use a system having a longer range, since a repeater increases cost. 
These requirements can be met by systems with external pressure sensors that connect to the valve stem on each tire. When tires are replaced, the sensor is moved to the new tire.
Although these systems can alert a driver to a hazardous blowout condition, they may not help fleets deal with slow-leaking tires, unless the driver reports them to fleet-maintenance personnel before it is too late. This has given rise in recent years to monitoring solutions that track the tire condition and send alerts to fleet-maintenance personnel. This allows them to schedule maintenance on a slow-leaking tire on an exception basis, instead of having to check each tire manually. Many fleets today admit that tire-pressure checking is a major problem in enforcement. Most have policies in place requiring the regular check of every tire, however, the practice is not terribly effective because of the sheer scope of the issue, and the fact that it is hard to get a complete record of all tire checking.
Today, the best systems employ automated data collection. Some of these use gate readers that automate the collection of tire data to a database, or to a web portal, that allows maintenance operators to see data for the entire fleet at a glance. For long-haul fleets that may not see their vehicles for long periods of time, a centralized reading system may not work, but there are emerging systems that aggregate the tire-pressure-sensor data back to the asset-tracking system so that alerts can be sent back to the main office when an issue arises. For small fleets, handheld devices exist that allow a person checking tires to simply walk around vehicles and collect data for downloading to a central database, allowing enforcement and trending to be done without errors.
Some automotive manufacturers have attempted to broaden their scope into the heavy-duty markets, a few manufacturers have focused solely on this market.