The importance of multimethods and mixed methods research in understanding complexity in leadership

The dominant approach to leadership research has been undergirded by linear epistemology and transcends many discourses, practice, and scholarship in the field of leadership and leadership development. Leadership research has a long history of a quantitative approach, and it remains the most commonly used approach among leadership researchers. Although the application of mixed methods research designs has been examined across many fields and disciplines, it has yet to be specifically addressed in the context of leadership research. There is, however, a rise in research grounded in nonlinear epistemology, although the underlying methodological approaches have not clearly been defined. In a multimethods mixed methods study to identify skill needs for agrifood nanotechnology, a comprehensive methodology was developed for a systems approach research in organisational leadership. In this paper, this multimethods mixed methods research study is used as an illustration to provide a template and an approach that can be adapted in other leadership research.

A different approach to leadership research
The world is operating in a century of complexity, unprecedented interconnectivity, interdependence, radical innovation and transformation, and unforeseen new structures with unexpected new properties (Beinecke, 2009). Complex social problems are prevalent in all forms of organisations and social settings; they seep in and affect individual interactions, as well as organisations and are present worldwide. These problems are characterised by changing requirements and solutions that are difficult to recognise because of complex interdependencies (Connolly and Stanfield, 2006).These call for a different approach to how leadership research is conducted and thus the importance of mixed method research and multimethods approaches. This study is, therefore, a subsequent to this need, necessitating the main research question as follows: What is the relevance of multimethods and mixed methods approaches to leadership research and scholarship?
Researchers have studied leadership from a variety of viewpoints. Leadership theories and explanation of leadership practices either from the epistemological or ontological point of view is fraught with disagreements situated in deep-rooted ideological and paradigmatic positions. There is a battle for the soul of leadership. The dissonance as to whether leadership development, management development, and organisational development are the same or disparate human development approaches can all be traced to this paradigmatic battle within research and practice.
There is a profound divide in philosophical understandings -in the deep meaningsregarding what constitutes the nature of leadership and the research enterprise around it (Uhl-Bien and Ospina, 2014). This is because they have developed from contrasting philosophies of science, that is, contrasting answers to the ontological and epistemological questions that reflect the assumptions researchers bring to their work (Uhl-Bien and Ospina, 2014). The ontological justification of the linear approach to leadership has been the dominant premise on which leadership research has been conducted. However, starting from the early 1990s, there has been an emerging paradigmatic shift to the nonlinear epistemology of practice and the effect on 21st-century organisations. However, the emergence of this nonlinear epistemological approach to leadership research and practice has given rise to other problems. There has been a number of methods, techniques, and methodologies within the broad field of leadership all premised on the nonlinear approach to leadership research from a vast variety of approaches all having very varied characteristics and stemming from various paradigms based on divergent philosophical assumptions (Mingers and Brocklesby, 1997). "Whilst this plenitude can enhance practice, it also poses problems for practitioners who often tend to restrict themselves to one paradigm or even one methodology" (Mingers and Brocklesby, 1997). A review of articles published on leadership between 1990 and June 2012 revealed a slight occurrence of existing application of mixed methods designs to leadership research (Stentz et al., 2012).
It is the contention of this paper that in order to make the most effective contribution to leadership in this century of complexity, unprecedented interconnectivity, interdependence, radical innovation and transformation, and unforeseen new structures with unexpected new properties, it is important to go beyond using a single method to generally using multiple methods and combining several methodologies, in whole or in part, and possibly from different paradigms, and different disciplines. This is the underlying thesis of this paper based both on theoretical/philosophical grounds and on the practical grounds that practitioners are increasingly doing this already. However, as Mingers and Brocklesby (1997, p.490) noted, "mixing methodologies, particularly from different paradigms, does present serious problems -philosophically in terms of paradigm incommensurability, theoretically in terms of effectively fitting methodologies together, and practically in terms of the wide range of knowledge, skills and flexibility required of practitioners".
Research and practice in leadership are deeply seeped in the dynamic issues of individual, organisational and societal change. Leadership as discipline or field of study transcends disparate disciplines with diverse ideas, goals, and even philosophical orientations (Smith, 1988) and encompasses the exercise of influence (Yukl, 2012). Because of this, research and theory building in leadership has not been spared the so-called paradigm wars with a preponderance of empirical research in leadership being quantitative. Professionals and practitioners have either brought or developed their own methods of inquiry and attempted to define them as the mainstay of leadership research depending upon their background and training. However, the dominant epistemology in leadership has been the linear epistemology and transcend many discourses, practice and research in the field (Jayanti, 2011a(Jayanti, , 2011bYawson, 2013b). There is, nonetheless, a rise in research grounded in nonlinear epistemology, although the underlying methodological approaches have not clearly been defined. Mixed methods and multimethods research approaches are therefore becoming important as a result of the epistemological shift. Yet, methodologies and concepts underlying the approach are not very well developed. In this paper, a multimethods mixed methods research (MMR) is described as systems approach research in studying complexity in leadership. A multiphase, multimethod, mixed method study (Yawson and Greiman, 2016) is used as an illustration and a case-in-point to provide a template and an approach that can be adapted in other leadership research.
Leadership is a complex, multi-faceted form of performance that is exhibited and comes into existence only when something happens (Mumford, 2011). It is the very quintessence of leadership as a complex, multi-level, and socially constructed process that makes it a phenomenon of great interest, but also one that is a challenge to study (Stentz et al., 2012). These complexities have generated both positive challenges and overwhelming impossibilities (Stentz et al., 2012). The complexities can be addressed through something more than a single approach, such as the use of multiple methods and mixed methods approaches. Yet, much of what is currently understood about leadership has been developed primarily through the linear epistemological orientation of quantitative, statistical approaches. Stentz et al. (2012Stentz et al. ( , p.1173) have substantiated Bass's (2008) argument that "methodological and substantive issues in leadership research are likely to broaden by presenting the possibility of a new paradigm for leadership that combines the use of both objectivist and subjectivist views toward a better understanding of leadership as a complex phenomenon". Therefore, to best understand critical leadership processes and dynamics, the field of leadership research calls for the application of mixed methods and multiple research approaches. This study attempts to do just that using, as an illustration, an organisational leadership study that employed multiple methodologies including systematic reviews, stakeholder analysis, multicriteria value elicitation, strategic flexibility analysis (SFA), and systems dynamics modelling. The study used as an illustration in this article also used mixed methods through the integration and combination of both qualitative and quantitative data. Mixing in the illustrative study occurred during the research design process, data collection, data analysis, and interpretation. This article follows a logical schema in the attempt to answer the main research question necessitating this study. Narrative literature reviews of both mixed method research and multimethods research approaches are conducted. A brief overview of the illustrative study used as a case in point is provided in an attempt to illustrate evidentially how mixed methods and multimethods can be used in leadership research. The article then discusses the implications of the study for practice and draws the relevant conclusions.
The reason for using the 'skills needs identification study' to illustrate the use of mixed methods in leadership research is that the study has a multidisciplinary focus, and provides a scholarly and applied orientation to meet the varied epistemological and ontological basis for a systems approach research. Thus a perfect template to illustrate the importance of mixed methods in complexity in leadership. It also addresses the epistemological and professional needs of scholar-practitioners of leadership.
Mixed methods and multimethods are two different research approaches but quite often some academics have used the other as the research approach and referred to the research erroneously as the other. In the literature, it is common to find the terms 'mixed methods' and 'multimethods' used interchangeably. However, it is important to distinguish these terms. It must be understood that MMR is not multimethods research and vice versa. Both can be used in concert to the other in the same research as was done in the case under illustration in this paper. Finally, the lessons learned in the use of both mixed methods and multimethods approaches in a single study are discussed and the implications and relevance of the approaches to leadership research and scholarship articulated.

Mixed methods research
Many definitions of mixed methods are available in the literature Johnson et al., 2007). The different definitions come with them different nomenclature or taxonomical tags. The tags include inter alia: blended research, integrative research, multi-method research, multiple methods, triangulated studies, ethnographic residual analysis, and mixed research (Johnson et al., 2007). The disagreements in how it should be defined and named are not necessarily semantic; they reflect substantive differences over the proper way to categorise and understand methods, theoretical and philosophical foundations, and where the mixing occurs (Small, 2011). MMR has become the most popular term used to describe this research approach. Johnson et al. (2007) analysed 19 different definitions from leaders in the field of MMR and offered the following general definition: "Mixed methods research is the type of research in which a researcher or team of researchers combines elements of qualitative and quantitative research approaches (e.g., use of qualitative and quantitative viewpoints, data collection, analysis, inference techniques) for the broad purposes of breadth and depth of understanding and corroboration." (p.123) One of the most popular definitions in the literature was provided by  as research with a methodology involving a philosophical assumption that guide the direction of the design, collection and analysis of data and the mixture of qualitative and quantitative approaches in many phases in the research process. The Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research (OBSSR) of the National Institute of Health (NIH) commissioned a study to come out with Best Practices for Mixed Methods Research in the Health Sciences and the study proposed this definition which was accepted by the NIH as a research approach or methodology , p.4]: • focusing on research questions that call for real-life contextual understandings, multi-level perspectives, and cultural influences • employing rigorous quantitative research assessing magnitude and frequency of constructs and rigorous qualitative research exploring the meaning and understanding of constructs • utilising multiple methods (e.g., intervention trials and in-depth interviews) • intentionally integrating or combining these methods to draw on the strengths of each • framing the investigation within philosophical and theoretical positions.
MMR starts with the assumption that researchers gather evidence based on the nature of the question and theoretical orientation . MMR has been described as "the third methodological movement" [Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, (2004), p.14] -a response to the age-old fruitless debates discussing the superiority and inferiority of quantitative versus qualitative research as a result of what has been termed the 'paradigm wars' [Feilzer, (2009), p.6]. Mixing methods are, however, not new, and one can find mixed methods studies throughout the history of the social sciences. Many commentators, however, trace the origins of the modern work to the 1950s with publications from several different perspectives employing multiple methods in single studies (Small, 2011).
The issue of paradigm wars has, however, not ended with MMR. Within MMR, there are a lot of differences and critiques on mixing of paradigms. The different epistemological and ontological assumptions and paradigms associated with both qualitative and quantitative research have had a major effect on discussions in MMR as to whether the integration of the two is feasible and desirable (Ostlund et al., 2011).
Mixed methods researchers apply and usually tend to make explicit diverse philosophical positions . It has been argued that researchers who hold different philosophical positions may find MMR to be challenging because of the tensions created by their different beliefs (Greene, 2007). Table 1 adapted from Greene (2008) offers one way of portraying the conceptually different stances on these issues in the literature. Some communities of scholars have therefore tended to find a common epistemological foundation for MMR as a standalone or alternative research tradition to quantitative and qualitative research.
In pursuit of that epistemological foundation, authors have increasingly turned to pragmatism (Small, 2011). In more recent years the MMR community has generally seemed to coalesce around a common understanding that the various articulated positions, referred to as dialectal stances, bridge post-positivist, and social constructivist worldviews, pragmatic perspectives, and transformative perspectives to create the opportunity to transform these tensions into new knowledge through a dialectical discovery (Greene, 2007). Table 1 Mixing methods and mixing paradigms/mental models What is the character and value of traditional paradigms or mental models?
What most importantly guides practical inquiry decisions?

Mixed methods 'paradigm stance'
The assumptions of different traditional paradigms are fundamentally incommensurable. Each paradigm represents a coherent whole, which must be respected and preserved.

Paradigmatic assumptions
Because the assumptions of different paradigms are incompatible, it is not possible to mix paradigms in the same study. PURIST STANCE (Lincoln and Guba, 1985) The assumptions of traditional paradigms are not fundamentally incompatible, rather different in important ways. These differences are valuable and should be preserved to maintain methodological integrity while expanding the scope of the study.
Paradigmatic assumptions, as well as context and theory Because the assumptions of different paradigms are importantly different, methods implemented within different paradigms should be kept separate from one another. COMPLEMENTARY STRENGTHS STANCE (Brewer and Hunter, 1989;Morse, 2003) The assumptions of different traditional paradigms are different in important ways and remain valuable, but paradigms themselves are historical and social constructions and so are not inviolate or sacrosanct.
Paradigmatic assumptions, as well as context and theory Engaging dialogically with paradigm differences can generatively yield new insights and understandings. DIALECTIC STANCE (Greene and Caracelli, 1997;Maxwell and Loomis, 2003) Historical, philosophical incommensurabilities among paradigms are reconcilable through new, emergent paradigms, such as pragmatism, scientific realism, or transformation -emancipation.
The assumptions and stances of new paradigms that actively promote the mixing of methods, along with context and theory ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM STANCE (Howe, 2003;Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2004;Mertens, 2003;Teddlie and Tashakkori, 2003; others) The assumptions of various traditional paradigms are logically independent and, therefore, can be mixed and matched in varied combinations.
The practical characteristics and demands of the inquiry context and problem at hand Paradigms help us think better but do not themselves guide practice A-PARADIGMATIC STANCE (Patton, 2002;Reichardt and Cook, 1979) The assumptions of various traditional or emergent paradigms may well be embedded in or intertwined with substantive theories.
The substantive issues and conceptual theories relevant to the study being conducted paradigms help us think better but do not themselves guide practice

SUBSTANTIVE THEORY STANCE
Source: Greene (2008) Trends in mixed data collection indicate that most contemporary empirical mixed methods studies have employed two or more different types of data or data collection techniques (Small, 2011). There are several categorisations of the different types of data collection in the literature e.g. Morse (1991), Fine and Elsbach (2000), Creswell et al. (2003), Johnson and Turner (2003), Leech and Onwuegbuzie (2007), Small (2011). Small (2011, p.63) grouped them into three main categories using the following criteria: "the purported motivations to combine different types of data, the extent of the sequencing of the data collection, and the level of nesting of the multiple data sources".
In an attempt to clearly identify the types of MMR, many authors have developed typologies or classification systems of mixed methods designs (Doyle et al., 2009). It has been contended that the main advantages of having a typology of mixed methods include: conveying rigor regarding the methodology, providing guidance and assisting in the development of language for MMR (Bryman, 2006;Teddlie and Tashakkori, 2006).  have suggested that to evaluate a mixed methods study, the researcher needs to: • collect both quantitative and qualitative data • employ rigorous procedures in the methods of data collection and analysis • integrate or mix (merge, embed, or connect) the two sources of data so that their combined use provides a better understanding of the research problem than one source or the other • use a MMR design and integrate all features of the study with the design • convey research terms consistent with those being used in the mixed method field. These criteria are used by the NIH to evaluate MMR .

The multimethods approach
Multimethods research has its origins from Campbell and Fiske's (1959) groundbreaking article on measurement validation. It is a research approach to systematically employ different types of methods in concert with one another. "Multimethods research, considered in the broadest sense, includes any research that contributes in any way to gaining a multimethods view of social phenomenon" [Brewer and Hunter, (2006), p.14]. Tashakkori and Teddlie (2010, p.11) define multimethods as "research in which more than one method or more than one worldview is used". Mingers and Brocklesby (1997) also describe multimethods as the utilisation of more than one method, or part thereof, possibly from different paradigms, within a single intervention. The relevance of multimethods, be it interpretive, or positivist, or even a plurality of paradigms within the discipline as a whole, or different methods from different disciplines to answer a research question is that research results will be richer and more reliable.
Leadership research as with all social science research is highly diverse in almost its entirety, including methodology. Leadership researchers study countless research problems from a myriad of theoretical perspectives and to some extent different types of research methods. The diversity of methods in social science research, in general, provides a fertile ground for cross-validation and cross-fertilisation of research procedures, findings, and theories (Brewer and Hunter, 2006). However, methods used in multimethods research may not be limited to a single discipline. The beauty of multimethods research approach is its ability to be multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary. This multi-and interdisciplinary approach is predicated on the conception that "disciplinarity is no longer the dominant system for creating and organizing knowledge, and that knowledge creation is now trans-disciplinary, more reflexive, non-linear, complex and hybridized" [Yawson, (2009), p.9]. Lubet (2009) in discussing his pioneering role in the field of disability studies in music described the transdisciplinary multimethods scholarly approach as the tenets of "epistemology of interdisciplinarity" (p.120). In order for leadership researchers to exploit these opportunities, there is the need to develop more cosmopolitan research strategies. "What is needed are approaches that systematically explore the new avenues of research that methodological diversity affords" [Brewer and Hunter, (2006), p.1]. Multimethods research is either single studies or more complex multiphase research which systematically employ various combinations of methods within the same discipline on multiple disciplines to address research questions.

Brief overview and description of the 'skills needs identification study' used as illustration
The reason for using this study to illustrate the importance of mixed methods and multimethods research in understanding complexity in leadership is that the study takes a whole systems approach and uses both mixed methods and multimethods within a single intervention. The 'skill needs identification study' (Yawson and Greiman, 2016) was also predicated on the fact that there is the need for new leadership approaches in managing the future workforce in the face of advances in emerging technologies like nanotechnology. This multimethods mixed methods study which was designed as a systems approach methodology incorporated disparate fields of systems and complexity theories; nanoscience and nanotechnology; science policy; agricultural education; human resource development, and workforce education (Yawson, 2013a;Yawson and Greiman, 2014). The study followed a four-step process involving different methods and approaches. The first phase involved a comprehensive systematic evidence review (SER) and analysis of the literature. A comprehensive stakeholder analysis was done using primary data obtained from experts. The second phase of the study used multi-criteria approaches for value elicitation (which included qualitative and quantitative data) from key stakeholders and experts to identify current and future skill needs in the agrifood nanotechnology sector. The third phase of the study included quantitative analysis, qualitative systems analysis (QSA) and SFA of evidence from the literature review and the multi-criteria value elicitation of experts and stakeholders. The final phase of the study created a generic systems model from the quantitative analysis, QSA and SFA to describe holistically the current and future skill needs for agrifood nanotechnology workers as well as how educational practice and policy can meet these needs. The overall systems approach is as shown in Figure 1. This paper uses this 'skills needs identification study' as an illustration to describe the use of multimethods and the Mixed Method approaches and it implications for leadership research and practice.

Quantitative Data Analysis (3)
The methods and data collection measures were designed to answer the research questions the study set out to address. The main research question that guided the study was: What are the future skill needs in agrifood nanotechnology? The study also addressed the following related questions: 1 Who are the key stakeholders in agrifood nanotechnology workforce development and how do they perceive skills shortages and gaps in the sector?
2 Based on an understanding of skill shortages and gaps, how can educational practice and policy meet these needs?
3 What policies and programmatic intervention points can serve as leverage points for increasing the likelihood of preventing skill gaps and shortages in the agrifood sector?
The research methodology designed to answer these questions was as follows: First, a SER of the literature was done to answer the main research question. A stakeholder analysis was conducted to identify the stakeholders directly affected and responsible for skill needs in agrifood nanotechnology and also to select the stakeholders from whom data will be collected. A multicriteria value elicitation of quantitative and qualitative evidence was then collected from the identified experts and stakeholders. Figure 2 shows the main methods used to answer specific questions.

SER of the literature
The overall approach to the SER for the study was adapted from the guidelines in the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews (Higgins and Green, 2011) and guidelines for systematic reviews in the social sciences (Petticrew and Roberts, 2006). Answering the research question on 'what are the future skill shortages and gaps in agrifood nanotechnology' involved synthesising quantitative and qualitative evidence (Harden and Thomas, 2010). The following steps were followed: search for materials, screen studies, extract data, summarise data, perform analyses, and write up results (CRD, 2009;Dixon-Woods et al., 2005;Pope et al., 2007;Thomas and Harden, 2008).

Stakeholder and expert identification analysis
The second task of the first phase of the study entailed stakeholder and expert identification analysis. From the SER some experts were identified purely based on their publications in peer-reviewed academic journals. Another source of Identification included nanotechnology conferences participants list. The study followed a four-step process of specification, prioritisation, mapping (visualisation) and engagement for the stakeholder analysis.

Multi-criteria value elicitation from key stakeholders and experts
There are a number of methods for stakeholder and expert value elicitation available. The actual methods that were employed in this study relied on a combination of different value elicitation processes. A methodology for the expert elicitation was developed based on Van der Fels-Klerx et al.'s (2002) and Kuzma's (2010a, 2010b) work using formal survey methods. The methodology involved both qualitative and quantitative elicitation. A four-step process: selection of stakeholders (study participants) including experts as described above, development of the elicitation survey instrument, administration of the elicitation survey, and analysis of the survey results was done. The elicitation protocol developed for the study took into account the level of heterogeneity of relevant backgrounds seen in the disparate disciplines involved in agrifood nanotechnology Kuzma, 2010a, 2010b). Interviews to elicit experts' opinions were conducted by telephone following traditional social science interview methodologies. Interviews were recorded (with permission and following Institutional Review Board requirements) and transcribed for analysis.

Sampling and data collection/measures
The study used mixed methods sampling strategy combining the concurrent and sequential collection of quantitative and qualitative data Teddlie and Yu, 2007). Because different communities of stakeholders were surveyed and several of identified stakeholders in the agrifood system who were ready to discuss nanotechnology skill needs were small, the interest in the sampling was more to do with the representation of the stakeholders rather than actual sample sizes. As a result, the quantitative data analysis was limited to descriptive statistics. This multiphase mixed method design combined both sequential and concurrent strands within a particular timeframe . The first phase of the data collection involved both qualitative and quantitative data which were collected through online surveys. Experts were first surveyed as part of the stakeholder analysis and then quantitative, and qualitative data were collected from both experts and stakeholders and analysed. The quantitative data included structured questions on ranking and Likert scales to augment the data obtained from the systematic review in answering the main research question. These quantitative questions were developed for the purposes of this study from evidence obtained from the systematic review of literature in answering the question.
The second phase of data collection involved additional qualitative data. Results of the stakeholder surveys were discussed with the experts through qualitative phone interviews (two local experts were interviewed in person). These semi-structured telephone interviews discussed key issues from phase one of the data collection to elicit opinions of experts on important systems variables that were identified from both the systematic review and the first level data collection to help answer the third and fourth research questions.

Analysis and discussion
The analysis phase of the study included the analysis of the SER, QSA and quantitative (QDA) data analyses; and also a SFA -a scenario analysis method. All the analyses ultimately culminated in the development of a generic systems model. "Scenario construction has been applied to the development of emerging technologies and socio-technical systems, including initial applications to nanotechnology" [Wiek et al., (2009), p.285], however, this study was the first to apply SFA to skill identification for any emerging technology. The use of QSA in the study was very relevant since skill needs identification for an emerging socio-technical system like agrifood nanotechnology is so complex that the analytical basis does not allow for only quantitative modelling (Wiek et al., 2008). Figure 3 shows the various analytical frameworks used and the sources of data that were used.

Systems dynamics modelling
The final phase of the analysis which is the fourth phase of the study was the development of a generic agrifood nanoskills systems dynamics model from the analytical results of the multicriteria elicitation, and the SER.

Implications of study to leadership research and practice
Many research questions and topics of interest in leadership lend themselves to mixed methods and multimethods approaches (Rocco et al., 2003). "Yet, current research training typically lacks the appropriate use of mixed methods in all but the most rudimentary ways (e.g., triangulation)" [Rocco et al., (2003), p.27]. Rocco et al. (2003) have concluded that the preponderance of leadership research reports do not discuss the broader philosophical and political level decisions that ultimately shape research agendas, as most research in leadership confines the discussions concerning research design and data interpretation to the rigidity of either qualitative or quantitative descriptions of technical level decisions about 'methods and procedures'. This study as described seeks to address this gap in leadership scholarship.
Using the 'skills needs identification study' described above as an illustration of the use of multimethods and mixed methods approaches in leadership provides significant implications for leadership research and practice. The nature of the problem the skills needs identification study addressed was such that quantitative approach or qualitative approach, individually, will not be enough to develop multiple perspectives and a complete understanding of the problem. The research questions guiding the study required different methods of analysis from different disciplines. And finally, dialecticism represented the paradigmatic or philosophical orientation in which the research was grounded, a worldview that bridges post-positivist and social constructivist worldviews, pragmatic perspectives, and transformative perspectives (Greene, 2007). The choice of multimethods and mixed methods design for the study was therefore informed by dialecticism and the complex set of theoretical and conceptual orientation.
The multimethods MMR as illustrated provides a template and an approach that can be adapted in other leadership research. The study as presented illustrates a quintessential multimethods and mixed methods study and meets the  criteria for a mixed method study. The illustrative study also shows how multiple methods from different disciplines were used to address a research problem in leadership. The study also used the full spectrum of MMR approach in terms of research design, methods, data collection and sampling, and analysis.
The illustrative study used as case-in-point in this paper collected both quantitative and qualitative data both concurrently and sequentially in a multimethods embedded design framework . Both the quantitative and qualitative data are embedded in combination within a larger design. The methods of data collection and analysis were both very rigorous. Descriptive statistical analysis was used for the quantitative data. Qualitative data consisted of semi-structured stakeholder interviews and multi-criteria value elicitation of experts that were analysed using SFA to develop themes and scenarios.
From the design of the illustrative study, the integration of the multiple sources of data pointed to a clear use of combined data to provide a better understanding of the research problem. The integration of the quantitative and qualitative data in the study occurred between data analysis from one phase and data collection from a subsequent phase while analysing the data, and when reporting the results. The study did use a mixed method research design and clearly integrated all features of the study within this design. The rationale for the use of multimethods and mixed methods based on the need to develop a quantitative hypothesis from the qualitative data and also to converge information to best understand the research problem under study was provided. The integration is seen in the data collection, data analysis and discussion of results.
In terms of contribution to knowledge, the methods and approaches for this research were drawn from existing, and emerging methods within multiple disciplines in mixed methods approach creating a novel research framework.

Conclusions
Mixed methods and multimethods research approaches are uniquely important to leadership. Leadership is a multidisciplinary field of study. Without going into the debate as to whether it is a discipline on its own or a collection of fields of study, it is evidently clear that it is an area of study and practice that is transdisciplinary. Therefore understanding and the use of multimethods and mixed methods approaches and the perspectives from which they are used may help to demystify leadership research and to guard against tendencies toward naïve scientism in the use of business strategies and social science methods and in the interpretation of social science data or business phenomenon (Brewer and Hunter, 2006). Mixed methods and multimethods research approaches appear therefore to offer several merits to leadership scholarship and practice as has been demonstrated in this study. Combining various methods from disparate disciplines to answer a research question mixing both qualitative and quantitative research design and analysis provides a systems approach to an evidential research outcome that satisfies the numbers and nuances. As with many leadership research, the nature of the problem the illustrative study addressed was such that quantitative approach or qualitative approach, individually, or mono-method research would not have been enough to develop multiple perspectives and a complete understanding of the problem. This research also helps to debunk the notion that systems theory and thinking in leadership has been reduced to just aphorisms (Dalton, 2010).
Mixed methods and multimethods research approaches can bring greater sophistication to the leadership research community in the understanding of social phenomena. These research approaches can reach out across divisions in the leadership research community, and they can strengthen the methodological arsenal of leadership researchers when they apply leadership to real-world social problems (Fielding, 2008). The research study used as an illustration in this paper combined mixed methods and multimethods research approaches to understanding a sociotechnical phenomenon -a skill needs identification for an emerging technology with much promise but also with high social and consumer unease in its application.
MMR in leadership is here to stay, and it will become increasingly used by leadership researchers especially those continually trying to innovate, add value and gain greater insights into increasingly complex social, business and leadership phenomena and transdisciplinary-based inquiry of the 21st Century (Cameron and Molina-Azorin, 2011). However, as it is with any form of shift in academic orientation as described by Kuhn (1996), it will be the early adopters who will have the hard task of laying the ground open for those who wish to follow into the brave new world of mixed methods (Cameron and Molina-Azorin, 2011) and multimethods and this paper has attempted to do just that. The use of mixed methods and multimethods research approaches in leadership should not be because they are becoming growing orthodoxy but because used independently or together they more effectively address critical issues leadership research and practice confront in the 21st Century.


A Study on the Preparation of a Safety Audit

Safe jobs are smart constructions since one serious injury can stop the growth of the construction work in its tracks. Safety at the construction site is a very relevant topic that needs to be addressed and given due importance. Everyday construction personnel are exposed to a lot of site perils that could result in injury or even fatality. A complete eradication of these construction site dangers are close to impossibility but, it can be reduced to a considerable extent. A safety audit management system is one step to achieve a better, safe and accident free working environment. An audit is a systematic and wherever possible, independent examination to determine whether activities and related results conform to planned arrangements and whether these arrangements are implemented effectively and are suitable to achieve the organization’s policy and objectives. This paper mainly deals with the preparation of a safety audit that could be implemented at a construction site.

Introduction
This paper is intended to provide a summary of the Safety Audit Management process, along with details of the audit specification. The Audit process involves a comprehensive and thorough examination of an organization"s entire health and safety management system(s) and associated arrangements. It focuses on the key aspects of their approach to managing occupational health and safety in the workplace and offers a structured path for continuous improvement towards best practice. This Audit model has been developed by utilizing extensive worldwide industry experience and acknowledging aspects of internationally recognized occupational health and safety management system frameworks. It objectively evaluates health and safety system(s) and arrangements against current best practice techniques.

Literature Review
John Smallwood [5] has reviewed the elements of their national H&S Audit System, and the author was approached to assist with respect to the review in terms of research to identify where the focus of such an H&S Audit System should be. Although audits focus on the physical aspects of construction, there was a concern that there was too much focus on administration. Furthermore, anecdotal evidence and the findings of audits indicated that there should be more focus on risk management and hazard identification and risk assessment. Regional H&S competition award winners were surveyed using a self-administered questionnaire delivered per email.
K.Stephens and M.T Roszak [2] has studied the role and benefits of third party auditing in ISO 9001:2008 Quality Management Systems. The review considered the perspective of case studies both from manufacturing and service organizations. The paper firstly explained the key principles relating to auditing quality management systems, the global trends relating to their implementation as well as third party auditing. The paper then presents four short case studies relating to a hospital, ceramic tile manufacturer, a heat distribution organization and a gas equipment installation company -describing the benefits of third party auditing of their Quality Management Systems.
Marcelo Fabiano Costella et al., [6] introduced a method for assessing health and safety management systems (MAHS) that has two innovative characteristics: (a) it brings together the three main auditing approaches to health and safety (HS) -the structural approach (which assesses the system prescribed), the operational approach (which assesses what is really happening on the shop-floor) and the performance approach (which assesses the results of performance indicators); (b) it emphasizes the resilience engineering perspective on HS, which takes into consideration four major principles (flexibility, learning, awareness, and top management commitment). Such principles underlie seven major assessment criteria, which in turn are divided into items (e.g. hazard identification from a resilience perspective is an item that belongs to the criteria of production processes). The items are sub-divided into statements, which are the requirements that should be assessed based on interviews, analysis of documents and direct observations. Within the 112 requirements that were proposed, 38 of them had clear links with at least one out of the four resilience engineering principles adopted. The remaining requirements are based on traditional assumptions underlying the so-called best practices of HS management. The results of the assessment for each item were expressed by a score on a scale of compliance with the established requirements, ranging from 0% to 100%. D. Sailendra [3] stated safety audit as a vital tool in the hands of top management to ascertain current status of safety scenario, for improving safety performance and for successful implementation of safety programs in construction organizations in India.

Methodology
The preparation of a safety audit involved the study of various literatures to identify the objectives of the safety audit management system, to learn the relevance of using the safety audit management system on construction worksites, to familiarize with the various elements used for the audit and to incorporate the most relevant elements into the audit.

Steps involved
 To study the literature available in the form of books, journals and certified audit checklists to get a proper understanding of safety audits.  To identify the most relevant elements for the safety audit through literatures and certified checklists.  Preparation of the safety audit on Microsoft Excel.

The Audit Process
The Audit is conducted using the following process of gathering information: The auditor will review key areas of the organization"s health and safety documentation and systems in relation to the requirements of the Client Consultant and will include an inspection of the site(s) and associated buildings. This inspection process is used to determine the effectiveness of the implementation of the organization"s health and safety arrangements. During the audit process, management, staff, safety engineers, safety officers and others involved in addressing the safety at the construction worksite will be interviewed (as agreed) to confidentially discuss aspects of occupational health and safety relevant to their roles and responsibilities. The audit process is intended to ensure all appropriate aspects of occupational health and safety have been considered within an organization"s safety management system(s) and how effectively such arrangements are being implemented. A subsequent report is prepared to identify the strengths and areas for improvement within the organization"s health and safety management systems and also to provide observations and recommendations, together with action planning, for consideration.

Data Analysis Method
There are nineteen check elements in the audit. The checks are prepared in such a way that each check contains further sub-elements. The overall audit grading is as follows: Each element is to be rated on 100% as 0%, 50%, 75% and 100% respectively.

Percent
Compliance and Implementation 0% Evidence of no compliance and/ or no implementation 50% Evidence of partial compliance and/ or no implementation 75% Evidence of full compliance with only minor exceptions in implementation 100% Evidence of full compliance and full implementation NA If the element is not applicable to the audited organisation, it will be left blank within the relevant table   Table 1 indicates the guidelines for conducting the audit.
The possible score would be out of 50. The percentage on 100 would then be converted to the actual score. The actual score for each main check (audit element) will then be found by summing up all the actual scores of the sub-checks. In the summary, the actual and possible score for each of the main checks could be found.
Percentage of compliance (Score) = X100 The percentage score for each audit element can be found. These audit elements could then be ranked according to their criticality (least percentage, most critical).
The audit process focuses on nineteen sections as shown below: Table 2 Sl. No Safety Audit Elements 1.
HSE resources of contractor 2.
Vehicles and mobile equipment"s/ Plants 8.
Tools and equipment 9.
Fire protection and hot works 10.
Permits to work 11.
Traffic safety management 16.
House-keeping site conditions 19.
Amenities/Sanitation Table 2 indicates the nineteen major audit elements.
The nineteen sections of the audit are divided into one hundred and sixty (160) elements which attract a maximum numerical value of 7850 points. Several of these elements are considered as "core" to the relevant section, and some of these core elements are also applicable within more than one section. Wherever an element of the audit is not applicable to the organization, it is withdrawn from the audit. The Maximum Accredited Audit Figure (MAAF) is the maximum total score available when non applicable questions have been removed and the Actual Accredited Audit Figure (AAAF) is the score achieved against such applicable questions. The cumulative scoring for these nineteen sections are then converted into a percentage figure. Based on these figures, the ranks for the audit elements could be given based on their criticality (least percentage, most critical). This aspect of the audit process is designed to encourage organizations to focus upon continually developing their safety management systems and culture through demonstration of commitment and robust leadership at all levels.

Audit Report and Action Plan
Upon completion of the audit process, a detailed report is prepared by the auditor and will be issued within 28 days. The report content will include:  Executive Summary (including graphical performance indicators)  Overall Scoring  Observations  Recommendations for Improvement  Corrective measures

Preparation of the audit
In order for the audit process to be as effective as possible, it is considered important that pre-audit preparations are agreed and completed as required. Once all logistical arrangements have been confirmed with the relevant managing consultancy, the allocated auditor will contact (no later than 10 days before the audit start date) the appropriate person within the organization to discuss and agree the audit details (timings, interviews, site inspections, induction process, etc.). This specification document will outline the various forms of information and documentation that the auditor is likely to request for review, together with personnel who may be requested for interview. It would be advantageous if documentation is readily available (either electronically or hard-copy format) and that some of this material may be retained by the auditor during the audit process. All auditors are mindful of operational demands and requirements and will apply as much flexibility with the audit schedule as is reasonably practicable to accommodate such matters. Table 3 shows the nineteen major audit elements and their sub-elements required for conducting an audit. Excavations clearly marked and barricaded 4.4 Documented inspections conducted at least daily, before entry and after poor weather conditions 4.5 Heavy equipment is kept a minimum of 2m from the edge of excavation dependent on soil type/compaction and angle of repose 4.6 Permit to dig in place for all breaking of ground 5 Scaffolds & ladders / Temporary works & platforms 5.1 Scaffold erected, altered and dismantled by competent people. Scaffold is inspected and tagged and are recertified "fit for use" every 7 days by a competent person. The results of inspections are documented and maintained as a record 5.2 Scaffolding over 10 metres in height to be designed and approved by 3rd party and/or as per client procedures and/or contract requirements.

5.3
Double guard rails and toe boards or other suitable protection is fitted at every edge, to prevent people falling off scaffold and prevent materials falling onto workers below.

5.4
Working platforms are fully boarded and the boards are clipped/fitted to prevent tipping or tripping 5.5 Scaffolding is designed suitable for the weight of materials stored on it and are these materials are evenly distributed 5. 6 Effective barriers or warning notices are fitted to incomplete scaffolding/platforms to prevent people accessing the scaffolding/platforms 5. 7 Tower scaffolds have been erected and inspected and are being used in accordance with suppliers" instructions 5.8 The wheels of tower scaffolds have been locked and outriggers deployed when applicable Correct ladder is provided for the job performed, secured at proper angle of 1:4 ratio and extending 1 metre above landing 5. 10 Ladder access is provided to all scaffolding and mobile scaffolding platforms 6 Hoisting and Lifting Equipment/MEWP 6.1 All plants used for lifting are designed and manufactured for lifting 6.2 Slings, chain falls, shackles, hooks in good condition with current 3rd party certification 6.3 All hooks have working safety catches 6.4 Softeners used as required to protect lifting equipment 6.5 Lift plan in place for all major lifting 6.6 Banks-man/Riggers are trained and certified 6.7 Effective communication in place between banks-man and drivers 6.8 Work & swinging area of the crane properly barricaded & non-essential personnel evacuated 6.9 Tag lines fitted to loads 6.10 All Concrete buckets and skips have SWL and 3rd party certification 6.11 Operators are trained in use of equipment 6.12 Mobile crane Outriggers are fully extended, footpads are placed on hard stable ground/pads 6.13 Crane alarm warning devices installed and working (e.g. Safe Working Load bell, anti-two-blocking device) 6.14 Safe Working Load (SWL) marked on all lifting equipment 7.
Vehicles and Mobile Equipment/Plant 7.1 Machinery and mechanized equipment shall be inspected by the Contractor and inspected for compliance with safety requirements and free of oil/fuel leaks and proper reports, certifications, are maintained 7.2 Seat belts fitted, in good order and are being worn 7.3 All Windows on mobile plant and vehicles are clean and free of damage, and operators to have 360 degree vision at all times 7.4 Firefighting equipment is in place and inspected and functional 7.5 No visible fuel/oil leaks on vehicles 7. 6 Maintenance regime in place for all vehicles and records kept 7.7 Flag person/Banks-man assigned to congested areas 7.8 Licenses or certifications of operator & equipment 7.9 Loads are secured properly, and follow legal requirement for load transportation 7. 10 Drivers have been instructed not to use cell phones or radios while driving or operating equipment 7. 11 Speed limits as per the contractors HSE Plan are followed by all drivers 7.12 Site vehicles are equipped with reversing warning alarms/flashing rotating orange light 8 Tools and Equipment 8.1 Broken handles on hammers, axes and similar equipment are replaced immediately 8.2 Suitable and sufficient tools being used for the task being performed 8.3 Pneumatic/hydraulic hose are properly secured with chains/cables to the compressor to reduce whipping if hoses burst 8.4 Appropriate safety glasses, face shields, etc. are used while using hand tools or equipment, which might produce flying materials or be subject to breakage 8.5 Drip trays provided for portable/transportable machines 8. 6 Bench saws are clear of debris, guard fitted and push stick provided and used 8.7 Explosive actuated tools must have prior written approval of the Contractor"s Safety Manager before delivery. Only trained operatives shall be operating such tools to ensure safe and proper usage. 9 Fire Protection and Hot Works 9.1 Flammable materials and chemicals stored according to the manufacturer"s instructions/MSDS data and the work environment 9.2 Oxygen and combustibles separated 9.3 Fire extinguishers located in accordance with the emergency plan, inspected and tagged for the current month 9.4 Means of raising the alarm in case of a fire are in place and regularly tested -check 9.5 Flashback arrestors installed on cylinders and/or triggers 9. 6 Sparks and slag contained, welding screens used as necessary 9.7 Compressed gas cylinders stored, transported and maintained in accordance with manufacturers recommendations 9. 8 Regulators in place and not damaged 9.9 There is no evidence of smoking on site other than in designated areas 9. 10 Hot work permit in place and recorded 9.11 Emergency evacuation plans are posted at strategic areas around site 9.12 All Workforce are trained for Onsite Emergency Response and Damage Control Action 9. 13 All workforce are familiar with the use of Fire Extinguishers used at a construction site 9.14 Fire extinguishers properly located, visually inspected monthly and tagged as to their serviceability 9. 15 Assembly point is identified for emergency evacuation 9.16 Emergency evacuation drills are carried out at regular intervals and recorded 9. Confined space rescue teams are properly trained by a competent person and exercises (drills) conducted and recorded, including as per client and/or contract requirements 11.4 Atmospheric monitoring are conducted prior to entry, and at hourly intervals 11.5 Supervisor is located at entrance of confined space at all times whilst permit is in place 11.6 Confined spaces are thoroughly emptied of any corrosive or hazardous substances, such as acids, flammable, before entry 11.7 Contractor has installed adequate ventilation system prior to performing any work in confined areas 12 Electrical works 12.1 Electric extension cables and sockets are in good condition as per approved Standards. 3pin plugs are not allowed, construction sockets only 12.2 Electrical circuits are protected with Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) and/or residual current devices (RCDs) 12. 3 Electric distribution boxes are weather proof, locked and circuits properly identified 12.4 Trained and competent persons undertake electrical work and records are maintained. 12.5 Electrical isolations are not to be made without the involvement of "authorised" maintenance persons and signage of isolation is attached 12.6 Process is maintained to ensure "working with Live cables" is strictly forbidden (i.e. tagin and tag out system to be utilised) 12.7 Electrical tools and equipment checked by users, is visually examined on site and regularly inspected and tested by a competent person at monthly intervals 13 Legal requirements/HSE Inspections 13. Reversing of vehicles is kept to a minimum, banks-men provided where necessary to reverse, reverse audible warnings are fitted and working on designated plant 15.4 All loads arriving at site checked before being offloaded that they are secure, and loads will not move when securing straps are removed 15.5 Pedestrian crossing points are safe and clearly designated. There are sufficient crossing pints available 15. 6 Traffic management is as the plan describes, signs are in the correct places and are clean and readable, cones and markers are spaced correctly and are clean, jersey barriers are in place and will be effective in the event of an accident 15.7 Traffic management is being maintained as per the plan, is checked regularly and any problems are dealt with in a timely manner 15.8 Lighting Contractor"s health surveillance programme has identified employees exposed to high levels of noise? 17. 3 Hearing protection zones been identified/utilised and signage posted 17. 4 Suitable hearing protection are provided and worn in high noise areas and employees have undergone training in its use 17. 5 Hearing protection equipment are correctly fitted and maintained in a clean and sanitary condition 17. 6 Have workers had information and training on the health risks from hand-arm vibration (HAV) on site, and what they need to do to avoid those risks? 17. 7 Contractors to assure that employees are not exposed to substances which may affect their health 17. 8 Confirm Contractor has carried out Health assessments on all chemicals on site 18 House-keeping site conditions 18. 1 General housekeeping is conducted at the end of each shift 18. 2 Emergency Exits, Assembly Points and Staircases are marked and free from obstacles 18. 3 Walkways and passageways are clear and free of tripping hazard 18. 4 Exposed Rebar is capped and clearly marked/roped off to prevent penetration injury and tripping 18. 5 Constructions Materials are managed and stored to prevent toppling over, and/or prevent injury to passers-by 19 Amenities Is there any evidence of rodents or animals living on the construction site? Designated food waste bins provided and regularly disposed

Conclusions and Suggestions
The study on the preparation of a safety audit was to determine the elements of a safety audit that could affect the health and safety of the construction personnel, and to prepare a safety audit with all the elements in it. Nineteen major audit elements that could cause accidents at the construction work site were selected for study. A comprehensive and thorough study was done on each element, and further sub-elements were prepared. A safety audit is the most effective method by which the factors that could affect the health and safety at the construction worksite could be addressed. The actual worksite conditions should be taken into account and based on the happenings at the worksite, the suggestive measures could be given.


Production Capacity Planning with Market Share Expansion under Different Procurement Strategies

This paper focuses on the manufacturers who are producing the mature stage products and supplying them to the product market. In order to finish products producing, it is necessary for them to do procurement of key components from the component market. Market share expansion strategy is usually considered by these manufacturers in order to get lower production cost to extend the surviving period in such mature market with intense price competition. To expand market share, it means, manufacturers should plan more production capacity. Price increasing and short supply of components makes the manufacturers worry about low profit achievement and over investment. Especially, while the components are on their fastgrowing stage, high price fluctuation and high supply uncertainty make components procurement risk more serious. For example, like camera manufacturers in Japan, they are under such severe environments. Camera is a mature product in Japan, an image sensor can be considered as the key component of a camera, the sell price of a camera decided by the price of the sensor. Especially, purchasing cost of a high-class sensor occupies a large proportion of the sell price of a high-class camera (Figure 1). Image sensors are also used to produce fast-growing products such as surveillance camera, security systems for automobile and so on.

Introduction
This paper focuses on the manufacturers who are producing the mature stage products and supplying them to the product market. In order to finish products producing, it is necessary for them to do procurement of key components from the component market. Market share expansion strategy is usually considered by these manufacturers in order to get lower production cost to extend the surviving period in such mature market with intense price competition. To expand market share, it means, manufacturers should plan more production capacity. Price increasing and short supply of components makes the manufacturers worry about low profit achievement and over investment. Especially, while the components are on their fastgrowing stage, high price fluctuation and high supply uncertainty make components procurement risk more serious. For example, like camera manufacturers in Japan, they are under such severe environments. Camera is a mature product in Japan, an image sensor can be considered as the key component of a camera, the sell price of a camera decided by the price of the sensor. Especially, purchasing cost of a high-class sensor occupies a large proportion of the sell price of a high-class camera ( Figure 1). Image sensors are also used to produce fast-growing products such as surveillance camera, security systems for automobile and so on. This paper will discuss the component procurement strategies while manufacturers taking market share expansion strategy. Two kinds of procurement strategies of manufacturers were taken into considered. The first one is that manufacturers do procurement from component suppliers with spot contracts. Manufacturers and component suppliers determine the trading volume of components with the market price by negotiation after production capacity planning. They need to decide the production capacity with demand forecasting of the component market and product market and do decision making by themselves. The second one is that manufacturers do procurement from component suppliers with supply chain contracts. Manufacturers and component suppliers should determine the trading volume of components and trading price by negotiation before investment and production capacity planning. Actually, effectiveness of component procurement with both two strategies is verified on previous studies, and they have already widely used by manufacturers in practice. But in order to know the difference between the two strategies by quantification, in this paper, the independent decision making model with spot contract only and collaborate decision making model with supply chain contract were designed.
The purpose of this paper is to reveal the effectiveness of supply chain contract procurement of components while manufacturers planning the production capacity with market-share expansion strategy with the key component on its fast-growing stage. The evaluation items are considered as profit rate and market share of the manufacturer. Furthermore, the effectiveness range such as market condition and characteristics of players are also to be shown in the last part of this paper.

Literature Review
With considering of the uncertainty of trading price in spot market, the decision-making model for each collaboration level of the supplier and the buyer was proposed with using a long-term supply chain contract and a short term sales contract simultaneously. They considered a base stock policy and compared it to single sourcing options, examined the joint effect of demand and spot price uncertainty [1]. Effectiveness of the proposal was proved with comparing with the supply chain total profit. In high-tech industry, it is difficult for component suppliers to expand their production capacities with   constraints of investment capital. As a result, opportunity loss of whole supply chains occur due to buyers cannot get enough volume of components to meet the needs of product demand. A contract called deductible reservation was proposed. Decision making models of players with the contract was designed. Deductible reservation contract was compared with take-or-pay contract by supply chain total profit and profit of each player. The proposed deductible reservation contract was proved as the effectiveness one between the two contracts [2]. The two studies discussed the effectiveness of long-term supply chain contract while doing decision-making of production capacity planning under uncertain market environment.
The effectiveness of contract preconditions was also discussed in many previous studies. Pay-to-delay contract set the trading volume and price to three levels, players will set their production capacity with considering of the preconditions about the level of volume and price [3]. Capacity reservation contracts between a supplier and multiple buyers originated from a project completed at a major telecommunications component manufacturer in US were discussed. Reservation fees which decided by the supplier can be deducted from the purchase price paid at delivery. Contracts between a supplier and a manufacturer involving a fixed trading price (contract price) for further purchases by the manufacturer, and a spot price determined by component market after the demand is realized in the future was discussed. Preconditions make the contract more flexible, and supplier and buyer can decide a fixed price of components by negotiation in the first step, trading volume can be adjusted in a decided range in the second step [4]. Procurement strategies combining spot market purchases with purchases based on a long-term supply chain contract. A three-parameter optimal policy was derived.
Many studies proposed a lot of new contract methods and preconditions of contract to hedge supply chain risks while players planning new production capacity, but few studies concerned the difference of procurement strategies. Uncertainties were taken into consideration in many previous studies, but the difference of uncertainties in mature market and fast growing market has not been revealed before [5][6][7].

Market Model
In this section, the difference of market features and uncertainties between mature product market and fast growing product market is to be discussed. Figure 2 shows the demand transition of mature product market. There is almost no change of the average demand in such market, but demand variation occurs in each period due to the replacement needs. Figure 3 shows the price transition of mature product market. With intense price competition, market price decline occurs significantly. Variation of price also occurs in each period, because of supplydemand unbalance [8][9][10][11][12]. Figure 4 shows the demand transition of fast-growing product market. Average demand grows by time. Demand variation also occurs in each period. Figure 5 shows the price transition of fast-growing product market. Because of demand growing is faster than supply growing, the market price becomes high. Variation of price also occurs in each period because of supply-demand unbalance [13][14][15].

Market uncertainties
There are two kinds of uncertainties are taken into consideration in this paper. Figures 6-9 show the uncertainties in mature product market and fast-growing product market.
The first one is the center price, and the second one is the variation of price range. Market center price is a price decided by the leading t' T t₀ te       manufacturer in a market. Figure 6 shows the uncertainty of center price in a mature product market. Figure 7 shows the uncertainty of variation of price range in a mature product market. The range of (L, H) changes with the fixed average demand. Figure 8 shows the uncertainty of center price in a fast-growing product market. The shadow area shows the total demand with center price which follows a normal distribution. Figure 9 shows the uncertainty of variation of price range in a fast-growing product market. The range of (L, H) changes due to the area of distribution changing with demand expansion. Both max market price H and min market price L follow the normal distributions. This paper a triangle is used to do the calculation instead of demand distribution [16,17].

Decision Making Model
In this section, the decision making model of production capacity planning with both spot contract and supply chain contract is to be discussed.

Production capacity planning with spot contract
Spot contract is a short term contract that a manufacturer does procurement of components with market price and the trading volume is decided by a component supplier and a manufacturer with negotiation. Usually, spot contract is to be connected by players after production capacity planning and investment. In this paper, contract span, contract cycle and contract bucket are set as 3 month.
With the estimated demand distribution of product market and supply distribution of component market, manufacturers do production capacity planning with expected profit and expected loss calculation. Total value of expected profit and expected loss are considered as the evaluation value. The expected loss is considered as the following two cases. (1) Demand is less than the expected supply amount of products. (2) The amount of component is less than the actual demand. Manufacturers should find out the production capacity Q with the max evaluation value. Figure 10 shows the estimated demand price distribution of product market and Figure 10 shows center price.
The range of Q set as (Q min , Q max ). Q min can be calculated with the current share rate and total demand of market. Q max can be calculated with the desired share rate and total demand of market. If the actual center price of product were lower than the estimated one, like P c' in Figure 11, expected share rate becomes low as well as the profit also becomes low. Otherwise, like P c'' in Figure 11, expected share can be achieved. Profit also becomes higher than the expected one.
Relation between demand and price can be showed with formula 1 and formula 2. Angle θ is set as a parameter to show the price elasticity of the market.
Value=Expected profit + Expected loss After the calculation, the manufacturer will set the production capacity for next term as Q with the best value. After production capacity preparation, the manufacturer will make the order Q to the supplier.

Production capacity planning with SC contract
Supply chain contract is a long term contract that a component supplier and a manufacturer decide the trading volume and trading price of components at an early time before production capacity planning and investment by negotiation. In this paper, contract span, contract cycle and contract bucket are set as 48 month, 12 month, and 3 month.
In this paper, supply chain contract parameters are set as max trading volume, min trading volume and the trading (contract) price. The manufacturer decide the min purchasing volume, the component supplier decide the max supply volume. The trading price is to be decided by the two players with negotiation.
The min purchasing volume can be considered as the current production volume Q 0 . So the manufacturer set the min purchasing volume as Q 0 . Besides Q 0 , he also has to inform the supplier the expected supply volume Q of product with the desired market share rate. After achieving Q and Q 0 , with estimated distribution of demand and price, the component supplier will decide the max trading volume.
Max trading volume and min trading volume can be calculated with the formulas as below: With the max trading volume and the min trading volume, supplier and manufacturer will decide the trading price with negotiation. It is necessary for the two players to do profit and loss calculation during the negotiation. In this paper, to simplify the negotiation process, middle price of expected price of the two players are considered as the trading price.
P max : Max price of market P min : Min price of market P': The actual price in the future P c : Center price D max : Average total demand of market Figure 12 shows the relation between supply and price of component market. Figure 13 shows the price rise risk in the component market which occurs by short supply to this product market.
With considering of the risk and return in product market and Value=Expected profit + Expected loss (10) Q: Candidate production capacity Q ∈ (Q min , Q max ) After the calculation, the manufacturer will set the production capacity for next term as Q with the best value. So, the range of order is (Q min , Q).

Experiment
In this section, experiments and results are to be discussed.

Experiment instructions
Firstly, profit rate while the manufacturer taking share up strategy in the mature product market were confirmed. Secondly, spot procurement and supply chain procurement with share rate to confirm the effectiveness of supply chain procurement in this kind of situation were compared. Trading period were set as 4 terms (48 month).

Results
In the following section shows the result of simulation. Figure 14 shows the profit achievement of the manufacturer with spot procurement and supply chain procurement. Profit becomes low in accordance with the time. But, in each term, profit achievement with supply chain procurement is more than spot procurement. There are two reasons. The first one is risk hedging during the decision-making of production planning almost occurs in the first half of the whole period. The second one is the problem of balance carried forward almost occurs in the second half of the period.
It is difficult for the manufacturer to expand share sustainably when deficit occurs due to the problem of balance carried forward. So, the manufacturer is considered that he could not get survived while deficit occurs. During the experiment, probability of deficit with spot procurement is much higher than supply chain procurement. Figure  15 shows the comparison about the rate of failure with these two procurement methods. Once budget deficit occurs, share up expansion failure occurs. In most cases, deficit occurs from term 3 and term 4. In term 3, rate of failure is much lower by decision-making with supply chain procurement. Figure 16 shows the share rate with these two procurement methods in each trading term. It is difficult for spot procurement to expand the desired share rate of manufacturer. Especially, with the price competition of product market becoming heavy, the share rate may become lower than the initial value. The desired share rate can be considered as a characteristic of the manufacturer. An optimistic manufacturer may set a higher desired share rate and do production planning positively. So, it is better for these manufacturers to purchase components with supply chain contract in a high uncertainty market.

Discussion and Conclusions
In this paper, uncertainties in mature market and fast growing market were defined. Also, the model of short-term spot contract and long-term supply chain contract were created. After that, the manufacturer's decision-making models of production capacity planning with both component procurement methods were designed. Do procurement of key components in a fast growing market with high uncertainties and supply the finish product to a mature market with heavy price competition is very difficult to manufacturers. In this kind of situation, in order to get a long survival period in the product market, it is better for the manufacturer to do investment to expand the market share with connecting a long-term supply chain contract with a fixed supplier.
With the market model and the decision making model, evaluation items of profit achievement, failure rate and share rate expansion were taken into consideration to do the comparison between spot procurement and supply chain procurement. The effectiveness of production capacity planning with considering of share rate up strategy was proved by using of the supply chain contract quantitatively.
Preconditions setting such as max trading volume, min trading volume and trading price are considered to improve the supply chain       efficiency. Tasks such as negotiation process improvement, different desired share rate setting with different market situation are to be discussed in our future studies.


The Role of Weak Ties in Diversification Strategy

: This study provides an analysis of the successful diversification process from the perspective of “weak ties.” Weak ties bring about new knowledge that does not overlap existing knowledge and are therefore useful to firms entering new markets. This study analyzes the diversification process using the example of Tokai Buhin Kogyo Co. Ltd., which successfully diversified from automobile components to medical equipment. The company’s president initiated the formation of weak ties, which the company then developed into strong ties so that it could acquire the knowledge and competence needed for entering the medical equipment business. As a result, the company was able to successively overcome three types of critical obstacles—technological, regulatory, and market—to diversifying into the medical equipment business.

Introduction
This study is an analysis of the process of successful diversification from the perspective of "weak ties" (Granovetter, 1973).
Despite increasing pessimism about the competitiveness of the Japanese machinery industry, which has played a leading role in Japanese economic growth, there is growing interest in diversification into the medical industry, which is seen as a next-generation source of growth. This study takes the example of a firm that successfully diversified from the automotive industry into the medical equipment industry, and from the perspective of "weak ties," it observes the process of how the company succeeded in this diversification effort over a moderately long period.
Ties can be classified into "strong ties" and "weak ties" (Granovetter, 1973). There are well-known analyses of the effectiveness of strong ties in the automotive industry. Strong ties between automobile manufacturers and their suppliers have contributed to the competitive advantage of Japan's auto industry (Clark & Fujimoto, 1991;Fujimoto, 1997). At the same time, the effectiveness of weak ties in acquiring useful new information is also well known (Granovetter, 1974). This aspect is known as "the strength of weak ties" (Granovetter, 1973). Strong ties promote incremental innovation, such as quality improvements and finely tuned responses to delicate needs, while weak ties tend to promote radical innovation through new information and revolutionary ideas (Wakabayashi, 2009). Weak ties can thus be useful in diversification in that they bring about new information and raise the potential for entry into new markets.
According to prior research that analyzed the relationship between ties and management performance, it is not enough for a firm to have only strong ties or only weak ties. Moreover, firms having a proper balance of both have the best performance (Uzzi, 1996(Uzzi, , 1997Uzzi & Gillespie, 1999). These studies suggest that both strong and weak ties are necessary for diversified companies to generate good performance.
However, little research has been done on how firms can form weak ties and leverage them in the diversification process, as well as at what point do strong ties become necessary.

Method
The analytical method used in this study is a single case study that examines the process of how a company achieved diversification and what kind of ties were formed in doing so. It has been pointed out that Granovetter's (1973) definitions of strong and weak ties are ambiguous and that there are some logical leaps on his theoretical development (Takahashi & Inamizu, 2014). This study refers to Granovetter (1973) in defining ties as being based on "the amount of time" spent in relationships and engaged in "the reciprocal services," with lots of time spent indicating strong ties and little time spent indicating weak ties.
This study focuses on the following two points. First, how did a company that had grown in the automotive industry, where strong ties were prevalent, form weak ties?

Characteristics of the Medical Equipment Industry
The medical equipment industry is expected to grow globally due to advances in healthcare in developing nations. In addition, Japan is highly dependent on imported medical devices for therapeutic use, so there is room for growth for this business even in Japan if Japanese companies can improve their competitiveness.
The medical equipment business is characterized by research and development in its upstream processes and mass production and sales in its downstream process, which makes it very similar to other manufacturing industries. It differs, however, in that the Pharmaceutical Affairs Law requires that such distinctive processes as "clinical trials," "applications," and "approvals" take place between these upstream and downstream processes. 1

Medical equipment under the Pharmaceutical Affairs Law includes
Class I "general medical devices," which pose the lowest risk to the human body, Class II and Class III "controlled medical devices," and the highest risk Class IV "specially controlled medical devices.

Case Study
Tokai Buhin's diversification process can be divided into the following three stages.
(1) Entering the market for micro screws for hard disk drives (HDDs):

Overcoming technological barriers
The first stage was the company's entry into the HDD micro screws business in 1999, as a means of escaping its reliance on the automotive industry. This formed the technological foundation that enabled them to enter the medical equipment industry and to form new ties with a certain lubricant manufacturer.
The small HDD screws made by the firm for an overseas company, Company Y, were made from special stainless steel that was very hard. Because the stainless steel was so hard, molds could not be used in small-lot processing, so refinements had to be made. While (2) Obtaining a marketing authorization holder license: Overcoming regulatory barriers The second stage was the acquisition of a first-class marketing authorization holder license in 2004. As seen below, this was made possible through ties with healthcare centers and medical-related companies.
One day, an acquaintance, a medical doctor, contacted Tokai Buhin and told them about the difficulty he was having with titanium screws used in finger joints. He asked Tokai Buhin if they could make such a screw, and President Morita decided to work on this, given that the company was then focusing on healthcare and had developed even more advanced technologies for micro screws. At the time, Morita did not have knowledge of medical care, so he started out by discussing the topic with local hospitals and healthcare centers. He was fortunate to have the opportunity to visit the factory of a healthcare company that was a testing facility. Because he was so enthusiastic, the company he was visiting placed an order for Tokai Buhin to build and produce a prototype. Thus began Tokai Buhin's foray into the medical equipment industry.
Tokai Buhin later launched a titanium division at its Amagi factory, and medical-related firms and healthcare centers advised the company to acquire a first-class marketing authorization holder license if it was serious about working in the industry. Morita began working on this immediately, but it was no simple matter, given the regulations on safety controls and quality assurance and the need to create standards. The company took direction from medical industry consultants and the relevant prefectural government departments and expended much time and effort. Its diligence enabled it to obtain this license in six months. Because of the great expense, however, the company ran a deficit for three years before it could secure sales channels and expand its business.

(3) Development of sales channels: Overcoming market obstacles
The third stage was the creation of sales channels starting in 2006. This was made possible by the new ties that Tokai Buhin made with certain distributors.
It started with repeated inquiries from an animal hospital and a client company as to whether Tokai Buhin could make veterinary implants. President Morita hesitated as this would require approval from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forest and Fisheries, but he decided to proceed because the requests were very strong.
All inquiries were actually from the new business development department at Japan's top foreign-affiliated importer and distributor of medical devices used in orthopedic surgery. After Tokai Buhin contacted this company, its representatives started calling on Tokai Buhin every day and soon told Tokai Buhin that they had actually been looking for a company to make implants for Japanese people, not for animals. They knew that foreign-made implants made for non-Japanese people were larger and did not fit the average Japanese physique very well, which placed a burden on the human body. Implants became widespread in Japan after Japanese orthopedic surgeons studied in the West and returned to Japan, resulting in foreign-made products having a market share of 90%. Several

Conclusion
This study analyzed a company's successful diversification into medical equipment based on the concept of weak ties.
First, the actions taken by the company's top management enabled the formation of weak ties, which in turn enabled the company to acquire new knowledge that it needed. Most of the company's ties were strong, but it was able to create weak ties because its top management had created a strong strategy. This suggests that if the top management regards networks as important and leverages these networks in their business, business performance will grow over the long run (Nakano, 2011).
Second, Tokai Buhin turned its weak ties into strong Third, through these ties, Tokai Buhin was able to successfully diversify into the medical equipment industry by gradually overcoming three types of barriers: technological, regulatory, and market.
This study merely shows the possibility of a relationship between diversification and ties. It was not meant to identify the general mechanisms governing successful diversification. This would require further analysis, including the applicability of this concept to other cases.