Preventing halo bias in grading the work of university students

Abstract Experts have advocated anonymous marking as a means of minimizing bias in subjective student assessment. In the present study, 159 faculty members or teaching assistants across disciplines were randomly assigned (1) to grade a poor oral presentation of a university student, (2) to grade a good oral presentation of the same student, or (3) not to grade any oral presentation of the student. All graders then assessed the same written work by the student. A linear-contrasts analysis showed that, as hypothesized, the graders assigned significantly higher scores to written work following the better oral presentation than following the poor oral presentation, with intermediate scores for the written work of the student whose oral presentation was not seen by the graders. The results provide evidence of a halo effect in that prior experience with a student biased the grading of written work completed by the student. The findings suggest that keeping students anonymous, as in the condition with no knowledge of the student’s performance in the oral presentation, helps prevent bias in grading.

Introduction
Equitable assessment is important to both educators and students (Brennan, 2008;Houston & Bettencourt, 1999). Biases in grading can reduce equity, unfairly helping some students and unfairly harming others. One type of bias, sometimes conscious and sometimes not, involves the halo effect (see Cooper, 1981), in which prior knowledge of a person creates a positive or negative view of the

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
Experts have advocated anonymous marking as a means of minimizing bias in subjective student assessment. In the present study, 159 faculty members or teaching assistants were randomly assigned (1) to grade a poor oral presentation of a university student, (2) to grade a good oral presentation of the same student, or (3) not to grade any oral presentation of the student. All graders then assessed the same written work by the student. Statistical analysis showed that the graders assigned significantly higher scores to written work following the better oral presentation than following the poor oral presentation, with intermediate scores for the written work of the student whose oral presentation was not seen by the graders. The results provide evidence of a halo bias effect in grading and suggest that keeping students anonymous helps prevent bias in grading.
person. For instance, a student who has appeared intelligent, pleasant, and helpful in class sessions may create a positive halo. A student who has submitted poor work for a prior assessment task may create a negative halo. Bias occurs when these halos influence the grading of student work.
To reduce bias in grading, student groups and some academics advocate that instructors keep students anonymous during subjective grading (e.g. National Union of Students, 2008;Warren Piper, Nulty, & O'Grady, 1996). Although a few universities require instructors to keep students anonymous when possible during grading of some types of work (see e.g. Brennan, 2008;La Trobe University, 2014), keeping students anonymous during subjective grading is not common.
Various studies have produced evidence relating to halo-based bias in student evaluation. See Malouff, Emmerton, and Schutte (2013) for a review. This meta-analysis focuses on experimental studies.
However, not every experimental study looking for bias finds it. For instance, Batten, Batey, Shafe, Gubby, and Birch (2013) found no significant evidence of grading bias resulting from written reports given to academics on the reputation of university students. Fogel and Nelson (1983) found no significant evidence of marking bias against primary students identified as having learning disabilities. It is possible that at least some of the graders in these studies saw through the experimental design, identified the research hypothesis, and intentionally assigned higher grades than they might have otherwise to students who had some negative characteristic associated with them. However, there is no empirical support for this possible explanation. Many other explanations might be as likely.
One experimental study (Malouff et al., 2013) examined bias in psychology academics and their teaching assistants and found that they assigned higher grades for written work to a university student if she appeared more competent and well-groomed while giving an oral presentation on another topic. That was the first experiment-based finding of bias in university graders. However, the results left unclear whether the halo-based bias would generalize to graders in other disciplines and whether keeping the student anonymous would prevent bias from influencing the grading.
The purpose of the present study was to fill these gaps. The hypothesis was that, across university disciplines, good and poor performances in a prior assessment would lead to biased high and low scores in marking of unrelated written work, with graders who had no prior knowledge about the student assigning intermediate scores. The bias could be based on expectations from appearance, manner, or prior performance.

Overview
We randomly assigned graders to one of three conditions: (1) grade the oral video presentation of a student who gives a poor presentation and is not well-groomed; (2) grade no oral presentation of the student; and (3) grade the oral video presentation of a student giving a good oral presentation and looking well-groomed. The student was the same person in both oral presentation videos. Then, all graders assessed unrelated written work of the same student. The written work was the same for all graders. The aim of the method was to determine whether scores on the written work would be biased by performance on the oral presentation, such that the student who gave the better oral presentation received higher scores on the written work than the student who gave the poorer oral presentation, with scores intermediate for the student whose oral presentation was not seen by the graders. We did not tell the graders the aim of the study or that different graders might grade different oral presentations or no oral presentation.

Participants
We recruited participants by sending emails, some individual and some en masse, to academics and graduate students to invite them to participate in a study of grading, with a reward of $15 for completing the study. Almost all the persons invited were affiliated with one of three universities in Australia or one in New Zealand. The invitation stated that participants previously must have graded at least 20 written works of university students. We set that minimum standard to help ensure that participants were actual graders. The 159 participants included 92 women and 67 men, with a total mean age of 39.40, SD = 12.13. Among the graders were 95 academics, 48 higher degree research (graduate) students, 5 fellows, and 10 individuals who described themselves as "other." The participants stated the discipline in which they did most of their grading, with the top discipline, psychology, including 26 individuals, followed by education with 14, and chemistry/biochemistry with 10. Other participants mentioned a total of 60 other disciplines, ranging from accounting to zoology, usually with one or two representatives. The graders had previously graded a mean of 152 oral presentations, with a range from 0 to 3,000, and a mean of 1,328 written assignments, with a range from 20 to 10,000.

Bias manipulation videos
We used for the study two three-minute videos, originally created for the study by Malouff et al. (2013), one to create a more positive image of the student's ability, effort, and attractiveness, and the other to create a less positive image of these factors. We chose these differences to maximize bias, on the basis of earlier findings that prior experience with a student and the physical attractiveness of a student can lead to assessment bias in non-professionals (Babad et al., 1975;Landy & Sigall, 1974). The two videos each showed the same student giving a three-minute presentation in answer to this question: "Suppose that you attended a counseling agency meeting and you were invited to give suggestions about what to do to help a developmentally delayed man who intentionally swallows sharp objects such as tacks and thorns. You have 3 to 5 min to speak." In the poorer-performance video, the student had her hair in a pony tail and wore casual clothes and no makeup. The content of her answer was unsophisticated, and her presentation did not flow well and tended to be repetitive. In the better-performance video, the student had her hair down and wore dressier clothes and makeup. She gave a presentation that provided detailed information while making good eye contact and using more varied speech tones and fewer filler sounds such as "um."

Written material for grading as a dependent variable
We used the same written material as used in the study of Malouff et al. (2013). Graders saw the following question and answer described as being provided by the same person as in the video: Question: Suppose that you work for a counseling agency and you receive the following email. Please respond within 5 minutes, using good writing style.
Hi Cathy. I have a new client coming to see me in a few minutes. This is a young woman who is terrified of contracting meningococcal disease. Every time she sees something new on her skin, such as a bruise, she fears that she has the disease and rushes home 60 kms away to her mother (a nurse) or her father to be reassured that it is nothing. What do you suggest that I do in the first session with her?
Cathy's written response, an email exactly as she wrote it: In the first session it is most omportant to build rapport so that the client knows she can trust you. Firstly I'd start with training for maladaptive cognitions. Ash her wahat the value is in her worrying about contracting the disease. She will likely say that she wishes to avoid the disease in which case you could point out that this will only be effective if the symptoms she identifies are actually those of meingococcal. You could provide her with specific information on the signs and symptoms of the disease so that she will know which marks on her skin and so on, to just ignore and which may indicate a real problem. Also help her to develop more effective ways to deal with fear of the disease such as self talk. For instance if she sees a mark on her skin and becomes fearfull she could say to herself, "It's just a mark. This is not a symptom of the disease." The most important thing would be to ensure she does not let the fear affect her life.

Procedure
Using online research materials, we randomly assigned graders to view one of two video oral presentations of "Cathy" or to a condition in which they were informed that Cathy had submitted a video oral presentation that had been graded by someone else. Participants in the two video conditions assigned a grade for the oral presentation. The grading instructions stated that the student gave the oral presentation as part of a third-year undergraduate psychology course and had three minutes to prepare before beginning. After completing assessment of the oral presentation or learning that someone else had graded the presentation, graders assigned a score for the written answer, following these instructions: "Assume for the sake of marking that the content is fine. Assign a mark on the basis of writing quality, including clarity, sentence structure, paragraph structure, punctuation, and spelling, in the context of having 5 min to answer by email in class." All participants graded the same writing. We wanted graders to focus on writing quality rather than correctness of the response to avoid variance relating to differing levels of grader knowledge relating to the question. Written instructions for each assessment task indicated that grades could range from 0 to 100, with letter grades equal to below 50 = fail, 50 to under 65 = pass, 65 to under 75 = credit, 75 to under 85 = distinction, and 85 and over = high distinction. This is a common grading scale in Australian universities.

Grader assignment to condition
Random assignment led to 57 graders viewing the student give the poor oral presentation, 54 not viewing any oral presentation, and 67 graders viewing the student give the good presentation. The numbers were not equal because some individuals who accessed the study web site and who were thus assigned to condition did not complete the study.

Comparison of graders in the three conditions
The graders assigned to the three conditions had no significant differences, as shown by χ 2 or ANOVA, with regard to age, sex, number of oral presentations previously graded, number of written assignments previously graded, or whether they were in psychology or not. Table 1 shows the characteristics of the three groups and the results of statistical comparisons of the groups.

Manipulation check
The distribution of assigned oral presentation scores was within the limits of normality, with no outliers. Table 2 shows the mean scores assigned to the student in the two conditions in which participants graded an oral presentation. The good student oral presentation received a significantly higher mean oral presentation score than that of the other student, t(96) = 5.76, p < 0.001. The mean difference was greater than one standard deviation, indicating that the graders found the "good" presentation much better than the other one.

Halo bias results
To test for the existence of a halo-based grading bias, we used a one-tailed linear-contrasts analysis. That test examined whether there was a linear progression in mean writing-task scores from the condition with the poor oral presentation to no viewed oral presentation to the good oral presentation. We used a linear-contrasts analysis because our hypothesis involved linear effects from a negative bias situation to no bias to positive bias. We used a one-tailed test because our hypothesis met the standards of Kimmel (1957) for use of a one-tailed test in that (1) the hypothesis was a unidirectional application of a theory, that of halo effects, with no theory suggesting findings in the opposite direction, (2) differences in the opposite direction would be meaningless, and (3) under no circumstances would findings in the opposite direction be used as a basis for a course of action.
The assigned writing-task scores created a roughly normal distribution by visual inspection of the graphed data, but we found three outliers in the scores. We identified outliers by using a box plot of scores showing the 25th and 75th percentiles. The difference between these two percentiles is called the interquartile range (IQR). Following standard criteria (Dawson, 2011), we considered scores farther than 1.5 IQR from the nearest edge of the IQR to be outliers. We completed the main analysis first with the assigned scores winsorized (changed to the nearest non-outlier score), and then with the scores unwinsorized. Following the suggestion of Field (2013), we winsorized the scores because they seemed to be real scores more extreme than one would expect in a normal distribution. With both winsorized and unwinsorized data-sets, the linear-contrasts analysis was statistically significant.
With the winsorized data, the linear-contrasts analysis showed a significant effect, t(156) = 1.90, p = 0.03, indicating that mean scores for the written work rose linearly from the condition of poor prior experience with the student to no prior experience to positive prior experience. Table 2 shows the means for each group with the winsorized and unwinsorized data. Partial η 2 was 0.02.
The linear contrasts with the unwinsorized data also showed a significant effect, t(156) = 1.67, p = 0.049. Partial η 2 was 0.02. We examined differences between pairs of the three individual conditions by using one-tailed t tests. With the winsorized data, only the difference between the condition with the poor oral presentation and the condition with the good oral presentation was significant, t(103) = 1.85, p = 0.04, d = 0.36. With the unwinsorized data, this same comparison was not significant, t(103) = 1.57, p = 0.06, d = 0.31, and the other comparisons of conditions with the unwinsorized data were nonsignificant.

Table 2. Means and standard deviations of conditions on grades assigned for oral presentation (manipulation-check variable) and written task (dependent variable)
The grading content pertained to psychology, and some of the graders were psychologists. In order to evaluate whether the above results applied to graders who were not psychologists, we repeated the above analyses with a reduced sample of 130 non-psychologists. The pattern of results was essentially the same as with the full sample. Table 2 shows the means for each non-psychologist group with the winsorized and unwinsorized data. With the winsorized data, the linear-contrasts analysis showed a significant bias effect, t(127) = 1.68, p = 0.048. Partial η 2 was 0.02. The linear contrasts with the unwinsorized data did not show a significant effect, t(127) = 1.42, p = 0.08. Partial η 2 was 0.02. Using just the non-psychologist graders, we examined differences between pairs of the three individual conditions by using one-tailed t tests. With the winsorized data, only the difference between the condition with the poor oral presentation and the condition with the good oral presentation was significant, t(84) = 1.69, p = 0.048, d = 0.36. With the unwinsorized data, this same comparison was not significant, t(84) = 1.39, p = 0.048, d = 0.30, and the other comparisons of conditions with the unwinsorized data were nonsignificant.

Discussion
In support of the research hypothesis, the results provide experiment-based evidence of bias across disciplines in academics and their grading assistants assessing university-student work. The finding of a significant linear-contrasts analysis indicates that bias occurred linearly from prior negative experience with the student to no experience to positive prior experience. The bias generated by the good and poor oral presentations resulted in a 3.4-point mean difference in scores on the written work, with the condition of no prior experience with the student showing an intermediate mean score for the written work. The differences between no prior experience and each prior-experience condition were not significant, but they were in the expected direction, as indicated by the significant linear-contrasts result.
The partial η 2 of 0.02 for the linear-contrasts analysis indicates that the linear-contrasts effect size was small. The lack of a statistically significant difference between no prior experience with a student and either good or poor prior experience also suggests that the bias effect was small. The results do not clearly show either positive or negative bias occurring from prior knowledge compared to no prior knowledge. Rather, the results show the potential for positive prior-experience bias compared to negative prior-experience bias.
The pattern of results was essentially the same with the full sample and with only the nonpsychologist graders. That is important because the grading content pertained to psychology, and a prior similar study (Malouff et al., 2013) used only psychologists for grading. The present results suggest that bias occurred with non-psychologists, as well as with a mixed sample of graders from over 60 disciplines, including psychology.
The gap (3.4 points) in the winsorized data between mean writing-task scores for the two conditions in which graders first evaluated an oral presentation was somewhat smaller than that in the study of Malouff et al. (2013) that used only these two conditions and used only graders in the discipline of psychology (4.2 points). This difference might reflect a difference in grading standards in the two study samples or something else about the multidisciplinary grader sample of the present study. Nevertheless, the pattern of differences was the same in both studies.
The results of the present study add to prior findings showing a halo effect influencing judgments of various sorts (Cooper, 1981). The results suggest that keeping students anonymous, as in the condition of no prior grading of work by the student, can help prevent bias in grading. Hence, the present findings provide additional empirical support for recommendations of university-student groups and education experts that instructors keep students anonymous during grading (e.g. National Union of Students, 2008;Warren Piper et al., 1996).
The results are consistent with findings of prior studies with high school and primary students using experimental designs that showed bias relating to sex (Martin, 1972;Roen, 1992;Spear, 1984), race (Fajardo, 1985;Piche′ et al., 1977), liking of a student (Cardy & Dobbins, 1986), liking of a student's surname (Erwin & Calev, 1984;Harari & McDavid, 1973), physical attractiveness (Landy & Sigall, 1974), and thinking that a student is gifted (Babad, 1980;Babad et al., 1975). The present results extend these prior findings of bias to university grading across disciplines by individuals with, on average, extensive grading experience. On average, the graders in the study had assessed 1,328 written assignments of university students prior to the study.
The present study explored the effects of a single prior assessment of a student's performance. In actual courses, instructors might have several prior assessments of a student's work, possibly leading to a cumulative bias.
Keeping students anonymous, when feasible, in subjective grading need not create a great deal of extra work for the instructor or reduce any feedback the students receive. Students can simply put their student number in place of their name on their work. Alternatively, graders can cover each student name until grading is complete. Any feedback the grader wants to add specific to that individual student can be added after entering the grade.
In some types of subjective assessment, such as of in-person performances, keeping students anonymous is not feasible. However, with most subjectively scored assessment tasks, such as written answers on exams and most student papers, it is feasible to keep students anonymous during grading.
It remains unclear what specific differences between the two oral presentations produced the biased grading of the writing. The graders may have perceived, consciously or not, differences in appearance, competence, and effort. The purpose of the present study was to determine whether a halo bias would occur rather than to determine the precise factors leading to the bias. Future studies could systematically vary factors in order to identify which ones have a biasing effect.
The participants asked to grade the oral presentation had to enter a grade for the oral presentation before they went on to grade the written work, but that does not mean they actually watched the oral presentation. One of the limitations of the research method used was that it did not assess whether the participants asked to grade the oral presentation actually watched it in its entirety.
The present study focused on the writing quality of work of one female undergraduate student. It is possible that the results would not generalize to other students, other assessment tasks, or other levels of study. Future research could test whether bias affects assessment results in other situations. Further research could also examine whether multiple consistent prior experiences with a student create a larger bias effect than a single experience.
In sum, the results of the present study, in combination with prior findings of bias in grading, support keeping students anonymous during subjective grading when that is feasible.


How journalism escorts daily life from Oltenia in years 1920-1930

The research is situated in the domain of the thematic history of the press. It approaches the topic of living, of the mundane existence of citizen's middle standard. Related to authorized views on this topic, the paper highlights: a) imagological inductions in everyday life, b) living in America of years 1920-1930 and Danish journalists’ living analyzed at 1930 journalists from Oltenia, and c) the Romanian villagers life (in the range 1881-1937).

INRODUCTION
Imagological valences of the newspapers contributed to prediction of what is happening in the world. Looking into the magazines, regardless of the period in which they appeared, we will find out the attention that, only in a corner of the page, the editors have given a life from abroad. They caught in reviews, of what it was in other countries, the common points of their vision and ultimately, with the publication where they were employed.
The contacts with the other are shown as if they had occurred in his own language of I. We have to mention that still are relatively numerous foreignness linguistic influences of some Romanian texts in the first part of the nineteenth century (Dascălu, 2006, p. 22). For example, the newspaper "Mozaikul" was printed with "semichirilic alphabet" (Firan, 2007, p. 55). In postwar conditions, in which people want to take peace advantage and if cannot travel to places of which heard, then, to open a book, the market would need travel books, but the models were pressing and insurmountable: travel notes and memorials (Dinicu Golescu, Nicolae Filimon, Ion Codru Drăguşanu, Dimitrie Cantemir), journals (Titu Maiorescu, to whom the diary includes also the letters, Iacob Negruzzi, Liviu Rebreanu, Martha Bibescu), memoirs (Ioan Slavici, Nicolae Iorga, Sextil Puşcariu Matila Ghyka), correspondence (I.L. Caragiale, Ion Barbu, Tudor Vianu, to whom were considered also the journalistic pages) and, in the case of Mihai Eminescu, journalistic writings (Dascălu, 2006, p. 106).
More learned editors have developed a literature at the border between information and emotion, initiating comforting story, both for themselves, as they knew that, while they could not overcome the paradigm, still they served the faithfully public of the reportage, and for the readers eager of journey, but without financial capacity to carry out it, then a newspaper was the best guide. Later, in the eighties, the writer Radu Tudoran, seaman, had built a boat, with the intention to navigate. Not having received the right to leave the country, he began to sail on paper, to imagine adventures on the sea, thus to write the best novel for children in Romanian literature, "All sails above!"

JOURNALISTIC REVEALING OF DAILY LIVING
In the twenties of the last century, it was written about the reorganization of public reading in France: "Around every library, should organize conferences cycles to awake the taste of reading for the visitors" (Velicu, 1924, p. 380) (V. Velicu (1924). Cronica. Lamura. Revistă de cultură generală, 7-8, 380-382). Paris had "83 popular libraries maintained by the Municipality. Bucharest has none. During the war, curiously, the number of readers was two times higher than normal years. Even in those years has increased the number of libraries. People need consolation, a forgetfulness of encouragement in suffering. The soul shall find support in books, which was not to us " (Velicu, 1924, p. 380). The source of information is a booklet signed by Marcel Clavié, successful in era and translated into Romanian.
These view angles come after a war unprecedented destruction and express the moment curiosity on the changes of the world. The articles are like peeking over the fence, to neighbors, to see what they do to get better or, to have a justification in your business, find to others that they have done the same as you and neither not fail. Inevitable looking toward America led to the idea that was thought: "It will not be long and we will have also in big cities the schoolyard ... on the roof". Although commonplace today the idea has yet not found application to us, probably because different vision on how to do education (Smarandach & Vlăduţescu, 2014).
How far seems America, its image. The newspapers were like a telescope (of Gulliver) toward the land of giants: "In New York where are skyscrapers houses with dozens of floors, it is understandable to climb the children on roofs to play between wire bars, like bears in the menagerie. But to us where is so much space, would be tolerable here such innovation required by needs? However, it is not far that day" (Mardan, 1924, p. 377) (Traian Mardan (1924). Cronica. Lamura. Revistă de cultură generală, 7-8, 377-378). He laments the lack of space in the great American city. From innocence of that unfortunately, the Americans would have not space and set up nursery blocks, it derive an implicit comparison that disadvantage us, but also the opinion about "The effects of alcohol prohibition in the United States" that at first seemed positive: "Drinking alcohol in all forms decreased at 2 %. The drunkenness offences from 1916 in New York reached the number of 16 355; in 1922, dropped to half, at 8765. Insanity of alcoholism decreased from 10 % to 2-3 %. Tuberculosis and crime also decreased also with significant percentages. Those who benefit most are the children . For they are saved more money, they are healthy and their home is happier" (Mardan, 1924, p. 381).
"The Danish life" was still full of tradition and marked by two events, leaving on the sea, at fishing, where "they stay 7-8 months" (Modiga, 1934, p. 265), of men and sons, and returning to a such of our transhumance, but of which danger is not coming from the partner in activity, but the putties and sea storms.
Those left home, "cry them even soft, because fishing job is not easy. They fight with the terrible winds, the rage of waves and with the ringing frosts and many in place to hunt, they are swallowed by fishes". Periodically, the myth of Jonah displays Danish life and if the Bible would not be recorded, it would be appeared as one of the major myths of this northern country. The joyousness is revived in the sedentary part of the community, at returning home of fishermen: "They spend several days, visiting each other and wonder health, as all of them would be brothers" (Modiga, 1934, p. 266). The thought of those lost on the sea, even if they 58 Volume 23 would not be related, retain them to be enthusiastic: "Their parties are not noisy as ours: it is a joy and gentle gladness. The organ is not missing from any home. When it was time for living, they greet the host and leave all, as a command. All parties are in family. Carousing with scandals are not mentioned" (Modiga, 1934, p. 266). Also their nature, is contrasting with physical appearance, "People tall, stout, blue-eyed, blond-haired, rough countenance, speaking of few words" (Modiga, 1934, p. 266), is special, quite balanced: "They are very polite people and they are balancing the words to not upset anyone. There, rich, poor, all are respected" (Modiga, 1934, p. 267). They are not telling exaggerated fishery stories, although some accidents on the sea, resulted tragic, exceeds the imagination. Culinary palette is specific: "buttery and fatty foods" (Modiga, 1934, p. 267) (D. Modiga (1934). Traiul danezilor. Naționalul Vâlcii, 81-82, 265-267).
The harmony in community is fortified by common law custom, as sons, even if they are married, to live in the same house with the elders. In addition to be revered and surrounded by love, to seniors are distributed also enough activities, of those they can do, as well children's supervision: "At them children's care to be man of the right sort of timber, not anyway" (Modiga, 1934, p. 267).
The grange is well established and determines the envy even a "leader in from us detaining 10 hectares" (Modiga, 1934, p. 26). In 1934, in Denmark, a family having "2 hectares of sand area detains: 4 healthy horses for work, 8 cows -but cows, not like us -, 10 pigs, 300 chickens of great variety, beautiful and good, 100 geese and 80 ducks. And how much brings in!" (Modiga, 1934, p. 267). Efficiency remained a feature of the Danish people, but this way described here may lack him; in his own introspection, it would never have seen thus. Religious life is captured in its simple aspects: "On Sunday morning everybody goes to church, (...) The church is great, but is not decorated like us. It has not separated altar. Priest is serving openly. People sit on benches, read each one the missal in thought that each one brings it from home. Sometimes they stay in knees in banks, 3 to 4 times and all of them sings. Their organ plays nice, slower or louder, creepy. How sweet are they in the church: silence, calmness and listening! Nobody even looked up from the book even to look at neighborhood. All on time and nobody leaves early. The Pastor preaches long and beautiful. Even the preach is the most important of the church service and all the people listen to it in great peace" (Modiga, 1934, p. 266).
The relationship with the world, with the discovery in technical or fashion in music, in art generally, occurs in Volkkultur: "In the afternoon, all are going to Volkkultur (House of people culture, n.n.), which is a large palace even it is in a village, with a large theater hall, with seats where people stand comfortable, with several rooms around, some of them with books -library -others kinds of way of old and new things, exhibition, museum" (Modiga, 1934, p. 267). The teacher or another literate "makes a speech, and then they sing the chorus 3-4 voices, singing music, it gives an educational film by cinema, all of these having the goal of teaching and spending the soul uplifting. No one is forced to go there, but cannot someone missing, though is paying an entrance fee. Everyone goes there to learn, for reading and have fun at the same time. For them the highest duty is to learn. It is not written in any law that debt, but it's in their nature, cannot live without learning" (Modiga, 1934, p. 267).
Denmark, the country of cooperatives, of universities of the popular village "where the Grundtvig teacher was a propeller of today welfare, has the richest and most flourishing export homestead (Siminică & Traistaru, 2013;Dima & Vlăduţescu, 2012). Undoubtedly is the country with the most literate peasants. Nearly a quarter of students are in secondary schools and technical. This share did not have any country in the world, second only England has 5%. They learn high school and then this young come back in the most natural, to field International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences Vol. 23 59 work" (Velicu, 1924, p. 379). In the Romanian village, the most important commitment, as it is reflected in the novel "Ion", by Liviu Rebreanu, they had the teacher and the priest, who has often disputed the primacy of the village, with attracted adherents by turns, with specific precepts of their profession. It catalogues in Denmark case, the difference attenuation between urban and rural: "The village, which may have up to 10 000 inhabitants and are others much more, has paved streets, clean sidewalks and 2-4 rows of fruit trees on edges. Most of houses are two floors, with many chambers and small because there the wind is terrible humming and they love the heat. Also in stables and birds they have stoves. The village seems a nice little town. There are 4 schools and 4 kindergartens, the school is clean and warm, the children wear only flannel all the same" (Modiga, 1934, p. 267).
The report, as many of the category, is written with the idea that many, authentic fact to that time when the TV was utopia, have the opportunity to know, maybe through the radio, but concise, more so, on the ground, Denmark. The focus is on inconsistent facts with what we knew, inhabitants of a space undulatory: "Denmark is a miniature country, surrounded only by water. As you look with your eyes it's sandy plain" (Modiga, 1934, p. 265). For most of the Romanian, accustomed to plan and to judge everything in harmony with the firm specific of each of the four seasons, boreal climate would have been a curiosity, today certainly diminished of Internet or other information multiple ways, but then, in 1934, exacerbated by the attitude of editor who takes as good everything that seems unusual, to impress the readers. Alternation: "There the winter takes eight months and summer four" and intensity: "In winter, snow and more rain and frost that you slip into the house, in summer enough large heat, but the sun does not burn like us, does not beat down" (Modiga, 1934, p. 265) today are more specific to Canada.
Here the livelihood of the villagers, whose basic occupation was agriculture, technically, looks something like this. Drinking water, almost in all villages of the plain, was got "from the watershed wells and a bucket. These wells are cheaper and easier to do, but not enough clean, as are those with wheel and two buckets because many of those who come to get water does not have clean hands or neither are healthy" (Daniilescu, 1937, p. 15). The water in villages "between of hills and mountains is healthy, already taken from the fountains where water flows continuously, it coming on further or closer on tile or tubes from several sources gathered in a covered water treasury and so protected of dust and dirt". The culverts were fashionable. To protect the water from them, it were proposing all sorts of methods, such as paving. There was an excessive fear, but justified, to some contagious diseases as scarlet fever, and even syphilis; it were done surveys on rural crossing diseases.
The next detail, although unlikely today, is revealing for the town opening of the Romanian village at that time, regarding the desire for individualization of consumption: "There are many villages that have the water so far brought in pipes and every householder pays annually -as city -a sum of money for maintenance of the treasury and pipes through which comes water into the village" (Daniilescu, 1937, p. 16).
The parallel with the city highlights the rapid postwar progress (after WWI) of the city beside the village: "When the houses in the cities are large, of wall and large windows through which to enter the sun, because they are made by municipalities approved plans, to villages are almost all from the way before the war: small rooms and short windows 60 on 40 cm with iron lattice and often unopened for months, with the ground floor of brick or beaten earth and long beds and bedding only by one blanket or rug or mats. Few of the villagers, especially those who are part of village officials and intellectuals make their homes with high and large rooms, with windows that open for ventilation and cleaning, with floor of washed planks several times 60 Volume 23 throughout the year and particularly the home kitchen separated of the house where they live, work and sleep" (Daniilescu, 1937, p. 16). The task of progressive change, the villagers living, to give them advices was carried out by the teachers and the doctors; in conferences and popular lectures, they talked about the benefits "sleeping of a few in room" (Daniilescu, 1937, p. 16) and about the danger to human health, when they "keep in the house young animals, clucking hen under the beds, you they do not paved chambers when not whitewashing the walls on the inside and outside of 2-4 times per year" (Daniilescu, 1937, p. 17). The perspective: "Through the work and diligence he (the villager, n.n.) can live as a city dweller, the only difference is that the city dweller maintains the good life with great expense" (Daniilescu, 1937, p. 17) (C. Daniilescu (1937). Traiul săteanului. Naționalul Vâlcii, 109-110, 15-19 is still valid today.
Always there is the opinion that it was better before. Confessions about the life inside of the community made more writers. They had a strong nostalgia for the old living in cottage: "The father's cottage was not made quite of diligent man, but it was the good stuff. It had the hallway (sometimes called the cottage porch, entrance houses, n.n.) wide and tall -not like of the grandfather or Stancu Jianu crone, in shack, it breaks your spine when you enter it (Stavre, 2012;. The cottage had no porch, but it had wide and gross beams to sustain the cottage or house rafters: the eight beams compose the eaves of house, strong and of oak. Poles on cottage, braced with poles, broad beech, well carved over her cane and above ground. The pillars of cottage, broad and of beech well bulged on them raupo and above earth. On the pillars, mother had limed, she made a kind of flowers that we the children compared them with wolves, greyhounds, stallions and other creatures (Drămescu, 2013, Postmodern Society and Individual Alienation. Journal of Experiential Psychotherapy / Revista de PSIHOterapie Experientiala. 16(3), p. 55-58.). The cottage had also cellar -a small spaces between hearth and stove -where were preserved food as in a pantry. Hearth was in the room at the entrance, which is called pad, and back room, which served the living and sleeping and which had also glass window and was called stove. People really need, instead of glass to the window, sticked paper (Bobeanu, 1931, p. 211). The cottages were lighted by gas lamps. Most "lighted by shard: -a bowl in which put pork fat; in the fat floated a rag that lights at the top, which we cast out on the shard edge. It lighted rather weak in lickers and snapping" (Bobeanu, 1931, p. 212).
The cottage as it rises on 1881, when it was believed very much in the newspapers, of what they conveyed, and the auxiliary invention of domestic labor was not yet prepared to industrial scale. Some children saw a creature in the newspaper: "Lie of predators -endowed with an imagination of the richest -tells us, the children, that gazette it's a large frog, as a bushel with many legs. When it move the legs, by signs that they do show that at Easter, earth is sinking" (Bobeanu, 1931, p. 211). A news about the end of the world was able to mess up an entire village, whose individuals developed in their households, a veritable textile industry, but feared of fatalistic posts or only pretended, to initiate in folklore, new themes, modern, inspired from the enthusiasm of science (Bărbulescu, Ţâţu & Ţâţu, 2007). Extravagant information awaited breathless, opened breaches between people. On the "beginning of March 1881 it was rumored in the village that on the approaching Easter, Earth will sink. All those who were enemies of a lifetime, now reunited, they have forgiven between them, all of them entertained, in faith that the end of the world was near" (Bobeanu, 1931, p. 213). Naivety that coagulates was not primordial, not because of it people cames together. They were tolerant of disposition and were characterized of the wisdom that life, also without calamity, is short.
Children have suffered the most because of the possible end of the world because they really would have lost a heaven: "We had cut it all joys at the thought that no longer we will International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences Vol. 23 not stay at the sun on mats, not going to catch butterflies with wormwood field, it will not play birds in the grandfather's garden, will not walk to spring flowers on the grass field, we will never cry in unison to mention, when we have drunken wine from small hods, in an old woman advice, who arranged the tables on mentions: God will forgive whom he commemorates!" (Bobeanu, 1931, p. 214) (I. Bobeanu (1931). Viața de la 1880. Gazeta Școalei, [9][10][211][212][213].
In winter, with snow drift such as the house, the stuffiness in the village did not take long. The peddlers, "with merchandise quiver on his back," filled the streets with the cry: "Mart, Mart. From them, we the kids bought, either buck or with bristles flutes, and cotton rings and girls, earrings and cestoids" (strips of silk made in factory and that are used as ornament in female clothing, men's hats, sustained chest decorations and so on) (Bobeanu, 1931, p. 214).

CONCLUSIONS
From the comparison with former times I do not know if we today, are in advantage. In dialogue with a local archaeologist, I expressed our sympathy to the ascending of Cucuteni civilization or others, how difficult it will be to endure the manifestation of nature, so cold, winter, or so hot in the summer, and what will be eaten, poor of them! Archaeologist changed my point of view. "Digging, he said, I found homes, solid stoves to which they heated and made press bread. Look, He showed me a painted clay pot, the paint that burns them is thousands of years old and it is not taken.
Do you realize what sunrises or sunsets have got them? The sun will never go back to the blue that it went up in the sky then ... The forests swarmed with buffalo. As they entered in the forest, they found buffalos and hunt hunted them. They feasted of fresh meat. An entire village eats a buffalo, a hearty". The only dangers, we set both, would be the discords between them and other nations invasion over their settlement".
The author himself of above article inserts some of the disadvantages of time that he lived, the thirties of last century, beside to that of his childhood spent in 1880 or so: "But winter! God what a beauty of birds: tufted skylark, goldfinch with blue feathers and finch with yellow wings with green spots and red throat, that we dragged to bran with snares made of horsehair. Today all the birds have almost disappeared. There are not hens, wild fowls, field duck, who swarmed on the sprawling plains in that time" (Bobeanu, 1931, p. 212).
It remains to be investigated the villagers living from us, in the spiritual side and to understand why philosophers and thinkers of the time, including Constantin Radulescu-Motru who holds leading position, were supporters of the traditional village, to keep in it, things resulting from concepts.


extfieldsofstudy: Psychology Medicine

text:
Students' perception of the learning environment at Xavier University School of Medicine, Aruba: a follow-up study

Xavier University School of Medicine admits students mainly from the United States and Canada to the undergraduate medical program. A previous study conducted in June 2013 used the Dundee Ready Educational Environment Measure to measure the educational environment and impact of different teaching and learning methods in the program. The present study aims to obtain information about students' perceptions of changes in the educational environment, which underwent modifications in teaching and learning, in January 2014. Information was collected about the participants' semester of study, gender, nationality, and age. Students' perceptions of the educational environment were documented by noting their degree of agreement with a set of 50 statements grouped into five categories. Average scores were compared among different groups. The mean total and category scores were compared to those of the 2013 study. Sixty of the sixty-nine students (86.9%) who enrolled in the undergraduate medical program participated in the survey. The majority were male, aged 20-25 years, and of American nationality. The mean±SD total score was 151.32±18.3. The mean scores for students' perception in the survey categories were perception of teaching/learning (38.45), perception of teachers (33.90), academic self-perceptions (22.95), perception of atmosphere (36.32), and social self-perception (19.70). There were no significant differences in these scores among the different groups. All scores except those for academic self-perception were significantly higher in the present study compared to the previous one (P<0.05). The above results will be of particular interest to schools that plan to transition to an integrated curriculum.

The Dundee Ready Educational Environment Measure (DREEM) has been widely used to evaluate the educational environment in medical schools [1,2]. Xavier University School of Medicine is a private medical school in Aruba that admits students mainly from the United States of America and Canada to the undergraduate medical (MD) course. Students take the first five semesters of the course in Aruba and then complete their clinical rotations in the United States of America. A number of modifications to the MD program have been carried out since January 2013 [2,3]. The basic science subjects were partially integrated according to organ systems with normal human structure and function (Anatomy, Physiology, and Biochemistry) and are now covered in the first two semesters; structure and function in disease (Pathology, Microbiology, Pharmacology, and Introduction to Clinical Medicine) are covered in the third and fourth semesters. Problem-based learning (PBL) sessions and sessions on the critical appraisal of scientific literature (CASL) were introduced in May 2013. An online module on patient safety and health management provided by the Institute for Healthcare Improvement (http:// www.ihi.org/) has also been offered as of September 2013. Fur- ther, the assessment system was modified to include formative assessment and assessment of attitudes and behavior. From the January 2014 semester, all basic science subjects (Anatomy, Physiology, Biochemistry, Pathology, Pharmacology, Microbiology, and Epidemiology) are taught in a fully integrated organ system-based manner, and family health visits have been introduced. Given students' difficulty in coping with the tight course schedule, an additional semester of study was introduced to allow them more study and preparation time. The institution's educational environment was previously studied using DREEM in June 2013. The present study was conducted to obtain further information about students' perceptions of the recent changes, including the curriculum integration, changes to student assessment, and introduction of activity-based, small group learning sessions.
Students' DREEM scores were compared among different groups of respondents as well as against those obtained in a previous study [2]. The study was carried out among first-to fourth-semester MD students during the last week of January 2014 using a validated instrument, DREEM [1]. The aims and objectives of the study were explained to the students, and their written informed consent was obtained. A semester of study consists of 15 weeks. Students are admitted three times a year -in January, May, and September. Information was collected about the participating students' semester of study, gender, nationality, and age. Their perceptions of the institution's educational environment were documented by noting their degree of agreement with a set of 50 statements using a modified Likert-type scale. The statements were grouped into five categories: perception of teaching/learning; perception of teachers, academic self-perception, perception of atmosphere, and social self-perception. Certain statements were negative, and their scores were reversed in the calculation of the category scores. The total score was obtained by adding together the scores of all the categories. The data were analyzed using IBM SPSS ver. 20 (IBM Co., Armonk, NY, USA). The scores of individual statements were noted. The average scores were compared among different groups of respondents using appropriate statistical tests (P < 0.05). The mean total score and category scores were also compared to those obtained in the previous study [2].The present third-and fourth-semester MD students were in their first and second semester, respectively, at the time of the previous survey. Their scores in the previous and present study were compared using a paired t-test. Sixty of the 69 students (86.9%) in the undergraduate medical program participated in the study. Table 1 shows the demographic characteristics of the student respondents. The majority of respondents (66.7%) were male, aged 20 to 25 years, and of American nationality. The mean ± SD total score was 151.32 ± 18.3. The mean ± SD scores for perception of teaching/learning and perception of teachers were 38.45 ± 4.40 and 33.90 ± 4.77, respectively. The mean± SD scores for academic self-perception, perception of atmosphere, and social self-perception were 22.95 ± 5.07, 36.32 ± 5.53, and 19.70 ± 3.57, respectively. Table 2 shows the category and total scores according to the gender of the respondents. There was no significant difference in the scores according to gender. Table 3 shows the category scores and total scores according to the respondents' semester of study. There were no significant differences in the scores of students of different semesters. Table 4 shows the category scores and total scores of students by nationality. Among the scores of individual statements, the scores of the following statements (i.e., those with scores of less than 2.5) were areas of concern: I seldom feel lonely (2.35), I am rarely bored in this course (2.28), There is a good support system for students who

30), and
The teaching overemphasizes factual learning (reversed score; 2.00). All scores except those for the category of acade mic selfperception were significantly higher in the present study compared to the 2013 investigation [2]. The mean score for perception of teaching/learning was 38.45 in the present study, whereas it was 31.97 (P< 0.001) in the previous one. The mean score for perception of teachers was 33.90, compared to 30.05 (P < 0.001) in June 2013. Then, the mean score for perception of atmosphere increased from 30.92 in June 2013 to 36.32 in January 2014 (P < 0.001), while the mean score for social selfperception increased from 16.96 to 19.70 (P < 0.001) and the mean total score increased from 131.79 in to 151.32 (P< 0.001).
The mean scores of the present third-semester students were compared to the same scores reported in the previous study when the students were in their first semester ( Table 5). The scores for perception of teaching/learning and perception of teachers, and the total score, were significantly higher compared to those reported previously. The mean scores of the present fourth-semester students were compared to those ob-tained previously ( Table 6). The score for perception of teaching/learning and the total score were significantly higher.
In the free comments section, the students wrote as follows: "The sporadic changes in the timetable are confusing and at times frustrating, " "Group studying after school hours seems to be discouraged because classrooms are not allowed to be used by separate groups, " "Students need to conduct themselves properly outside of school, " "Studying at school is impossible, and study carousels are needed, " "I think we need to have relaxation time after integrated quizzes and exams, because we are often sleep deprived, " and "There needs to be better communication between teachers and students as well as among teachers. " Each of these statements was only menhttp://jeehp.org J Educ Eval Health Prof 2014, 11: 9 • http://dx.doi.org/10.3352/jeehp.2014.11.9 tioned by a single student.
There was a significant improvement in all category scores and in the total score when the results of this study were compared to those of the previous one. Other previous studies have compared DREEM scores in schools over a period of time. For example, a school in Saudi Arabia saw a significant improvement in scores in 2010/2011 compared to 2007/2008 [4]. In a medical school in the United Arab Emirates, mean total scores were significantly higher for second-year students who participated in an integrated curriculum than for second-year students who had learned under a discipline-based curriculum the previous year [5]. Kuwait University Medical School underwent a curricular transition from a traditional to a problem-based curriculum in 2006/2007. Following the transition, students' academic self-perception deteriorated while their perception of the atmosphere improved [6]. The authors postulate that this may be because conventional learning strategies were perceived as being no longer useful. In our study, there was no significant change in academic self-perception. The amount of PBL has increased, but lectures continue to be the predominant learning method at Xavier University School of Medicine. In addition, there was an improvement in certain areas of concern noted during the previous study. Among these were "The teaching is too teacher centered, " "I am too tired to enjoy this course, " "The teachers ridicule the students, " "The teachers are authoritarian, " and "The atmosphere is relaxed during the teaching. " We are working towards creating areas in the school where students can learn together in groups. With the increased emphasis on small group learning during PBL sessions and other activities, the students seem to have discovered the benefits of working in a group where group work and cooperative learning are encouraged. We are also working towards streamlining the timetable and have fortnightly meetings to finalize the integrated timetable for the next two weeks; however, sometimes faculties request changes even after the timetable is finalized, which creates confusion. As the course of study is accelerated and completed over a 15-week period, it is difficult to provide free time to the students both before and after the exam.
In conclusion, there were significant improvements in the category scores and the overall score compared to the results from June 2013. The results of this investigation will be of particular interest to schools that are in the process of transitioning to an integrated curriculum or those that have recently transitioned, as the issues and challenges they face may be similar to those mentioned in this study.


Role of Motivation in Learning Course on Human Resources Management Student Achievement Program Management Studies, Faculty of Economics Unipa Surabaya

Motivating role in the repair process of studying the subject management Department, University of Surabaya BUANA PGRI ADI carried on half anomalies Human Resource Management academic year 2010/2011. This learning process improvement tool is to improve student achievement that took HRM subjects, by providing motivation to learn by trial and discussions at the beginning of the treatment course. The method developed in this learning process improvement to take medication or to motivate students to learn in a group. The first in the second group of students (class of parallel) are not given treatment motivated. The results of the quantitative evaluation of the treatment given to motivate students are students with an A (25%), B (75 %), and assess the C, D and E as well (0%). While a student at the value obtained parallel class A (8.35%), B (41.66%), C (50%) and also assess the D and E (0%). Statistically by using t-test assessing student learning motivation given by the reality of the level of 95% to the value given by the students who are not motivated to learn. Citation: Priyono PI (2014) Role of Motivation in Learning Course on Human Resources Management Student Achievement Program Management Studies, Faculty of Economics Unipa Surabaya. Int J Econ Manag Sci 3: 195. doi: 10.4172/2162-6359.1000195

Introduction
In the learning process , attention to students is a major factor that influence, if learners have a great concern about what the students learned to accept and choose the relevant stimulus for further processing of the many stimuli that come from outside. Edward Lee Thorndike [1] describes the interaction between stimulus and response (which might be thought, feeling or movement). Clearly the behavior change intervention students need motivation. Motivation means moving. Hereinafter under [2], motivation is a condition that causes or poses a particular behavior, and that gives direction and resilience on the behavior (behaviorism). Meanwhile, according to [3], describes motivation as goals to be achieved through certain behaviors. In this sense the students will strive to achieve a goal because the benefits will be stimulated by the benefits to be obtained.
Motivation is a factor that influenced the process and achievement of students. This is consistent with the results conducted by Walberg [4] concluded that motivation contributes between 11 to 20 percent of the learning achievements of students, while the results of the study Cipto Utomo [5] concluded that motivation has contributed 36 percent of the student learning achievement Motivation is a process that gives the spirit, direction and persistence of behavior [6] motivated behavior is behavior that is full of energy, focus and can last a long time.
Motivation to learn is the conditions that gave impetus to the individual in learning to achieve better results than ever before. According Wlodkowski students' motivation is influenced by several factors, among others: a. Culture, b. Family, c. School, d. Private students.

Measurement of Motivation
According to Rahman Measurement of motivation is related to effectiveness in influencing the attitudes and motivation of human behavior. Motivation becomes effective and on target, when conducted in accordance with the theory and be adapted on the right object.
Motivation measurements can be seen in the example case raised in the journal, "Improving Motivation and Performance Through Learning Basic Chemistry II Direct Teaching Model (MPL) with Problem Posing Approach "by ACENG Haetami and La Thus Siharis. Where in the research, explains that: the rise evenly learning outcomes of each cycle, caused by several factors including the lack of student motivation to learn gradually is eroded by new learning model applied [7]. System centered teaching institution or faculty cannot always be said to be less good because in addition to having the weaknesses also has advantages, it is proved to the present system of higher education administration is designed to support this pattern. At the Faculty of Economics, Management courses, teaching and learning methods like this are still much in demand by the lecturers. Lecturers as teachers tend to be the source, whereas the students tend to just accept. It can be seen from the level of activity in both the student and ask very little discussion. On the other hand, the institution/faculty as teachers are required to be a manager in the classroom, so that a teacher should make the planning process of teaching and learning. This plan set out in detail in the Outline of Teaching Program (GBPP) Lectures and Events Unit (SAP) or Cours Out Line (COL), which should be used by lecturers as a guide in the learning process. Howard L. Kingsley in Dantes argues that ' learning is a process not a product. The process by which the nature and behavior generated and transformed through practice and training". Hilgard in Nasution says that learning is "the The method developed in this learning process improvement to take medication or to motivate students to learn in a group. The first in the second group of students (class of parallel) are not given treatment motivated. The results of the quantitative evaluation of the treatment given to motivate students are students with an A (25%), B (75 %), and assess the C, D and E as well (0%). While a student at the value obtained parallel class A (8.35%), B (41.66%), C (50%) and also assess the D and E (0%). Statistically by using t-test assessing student learning motivation given by the reality of the level of 95% to the value given by the students who are not motivated to learn. process of giving birth or modify an activity through its action as distinguished from changes by factors that do not include exercise". Jauhari says that learning is "a process for obtaining a change of conscious, active, dynamic, systematic, continuous, integrative and clear goals". Fontana in Khoir study focused on three things, namely learning is to change behavior, change is the result of experience, and changes occur in the behavior of individuals. So, in essence learning is any process or uasaha conscious, deliberate, active, and systematic and integrative to make changes in her life moving towards perfection.
Skinner in Syamsudin argues that the learning process involves three stages, namely the stimulation, the birth of the behavior and the strength. Munsterberg and Taylor in Nasution conduct scientific research on the ways good study, of 517 a good way of learning, there are some very important points, including: a. Healthy physical state, b. Social and economic circumstances are stable, c. Optimistic mental state, d. Using the best time, e. keep a diary.
The changes that occurred from the study should refer to the awareness, intention, learning objectives, continues over time and lead to positive changes in morality, mental, knowledge, and skills of students. It will happen when it is supported by four things: a. Have the willingness and readiness to learn. This relates to the intention and motivation of students., B. The desire to achievement. It is concerned with the spirit and ethos of student learning, C. Having the ability and positive intellectual traditions associated with intelligence, attitudes, and behaviors in learning, D. Trying to create a conducive learning atmosphere, which is associated with physical and psychological condition.
Almost all human behavior is the result of a learning process, so it can be said that the learning process is the maturation process of a person. To be able to enter into the process of learning, need encouragement or motivation to learn. Without motivation to learn it's not going to happen. Motivation was incurred related to one's needs. If the student feels the need to learn, he would automatically be motivated. In the meantime, every lecturer must be able to foster the needs of the students themselves in the form of knowledge needs or wants to have the skills. Such needs will also foster motivation to learn.
The learning process has shown good results on the students themselves if they meet the principles of learning [8], namely: 1. The principle of readiness. The success rate of learning depends on the readiness of student learning. Students are said to be ready to learn when he was able to concentrate the mind towards the material being studied. It also concerns the readiness of the student's physical condition, including physical fitness and spiritual. In relation to the principle that teachers should strive to help students to be ready to receive lessons in the classroom.
2. The principle of association. The success rate also depends on the ability to learn to associate the students what is being studied. Present in their memories that are prior knowledge, experience, upcoming assignments, problems ever faced, and so forth. For that lecturers need to help connect the material being studied with the knowledge and experience already possessed by students.
3. Principles of exercise. Basically anything that needs to be studied over and over again, both to learn knowledge and skills. The more often repeated the better learning results. Repeat no means in the same way, but can be done in different ways. 4. The principle effect (effect). Emotional situation when learning will affect learning outcomes. Emotional situations can conclude sense of excitement for learning. When students learn with happy results tend to be better than he learned with displeasure. For that a teacher should be able to create an atmosphere that is fun classes.
Every professor who teaches in a college course, always willing to do a good learning process or quality. To achieve quality learning process that needs to note three principal components [9], namely : 1) Planning the curriculum and course material based on market needs (students and the world of work); 2) Presentation of the material that has been planned with engineering-techniques are effective and efficient, and 3) Evaluation of the ability of students and the entire college . In addition to the evaluation of the student's ability level is found also the weaknesses of students that need to be repaired. Because it is also an effort to control the evaluation and quality improvement. Evaluation should be viewed as an attempt to improve the quality of the overall activity. The first purpose of evaluation is to improve the quality in the lecture course. To make decisions about improving the quality of the lectures is required three types of data from the lectures that have been completed or are underway, namely 1) the success of the data, 2) the data weakness; 3) new data . Since the evaluation is performed continuously, the so-called continuous quality improvement.
Conditions encountered in Management Studies Program, can be said of all lecturers to follow these rules. However, the majority of lecturers have had SAP, but new as a guide in teaching, not given to students. So in this case the student has not been fully involved in the planning of the learning process This method can be seen that the achievement of students on the final value of student learning outcomes using the reference Benchmark Assessment (PAP) is still low, as long as the student whose grades A ± 10%, ± 20% B grades, a grade of C ± 40%, the value of D ± 20%, and the value of E ± 10%. Picture of student achievement of the learning process, it is expected to provide SAP to students and motivate students to learn at home are based on the SAP provided a way to test and discussion at the beginning of each lecture on the material that will be discussed on the day, the students learn achievement will increase the assessed from the final results of student learning. The expected increase is the determination of the benchmark value A (>76.0), B (65 to 76.0), C (55 to 64.9), D (45 to 54.9) and E (<45.0), than that expected of students who got an A and B can reach 70%.
The problems of this research are how the role of motivation in the learning process improvement course humans the Resource Management Program Management? The purpose of the improvement of the learning process is to look at the role of motivation (handouts, tests and discussions at the beginning of each lecture) to the improvement of student achievement in the study of Human Resource Management in Management Studies Program.
The benefits of providing motivation for the improvement of this learning process is to: 1. facilitate mastery of the material for students 2. improve the achievement of students in the evaluation of learning outcomes 3. expected percentage of students who received grades of A and B will increase to 70%. 4. increase the absorptive capacity of students in problem solving learning courses in Human Resource Management. The hypothesis used in this study is to give students the motivation to learn to be able to improve the achievement of students in a course in Human Resource Management at the Faculty of Economics, University of Adi Buana Surabaya PGRI

Methods
Location conduct of research in the Faculty of Economics, University Studies Program PGRI Adi Buana Surabaya and implemented in the first semester of 2010/2011, the value of taking a pretest conducted early in the semester before the course begins. Treatment (treatment) is given for a semester or during the learning process until the end of the semester.
The samples in this study were taken in the census (the whole class) for students taking courses in Human Resource Management (as given class treatment) as many as 20 students and whole classes in Management Studies Program (class B) as a treatment to control class given a number of 12 students. By using SAP administration and conduct tests and discussions at the beginning of the course it is expected that students will be motivated to prepare for each lecture will be made, and thus the expected student achievement will increase.
The variables studied were giving treatment (treatment) test and discussion at the beginning of each lecture on the material to be conveyed used as the dependent variable, while the learning achievement of students who see the end of the course (end of the semester) is an independent variable (final value) is the value student obtained after a treatment process by providing treatment (treatment) is. Instrument used in this study is the improvement motivate student to study at home in order to prepare themselves to face each meeting in the lecture. Motivation is performed by means of tests and discussions at the beginning of each lecture on the material that will be given on that day in accordance with SAP that has been made.
Measurement of the instrument is: 1. Conducting a pretest at the beginning of the semester for class research and classroom control, it is intended to determine student mastery of the material, before the lecture begins.
2. Questionnaire/questionnaire, intended to obtain information on matters related to student learning, student socioeconomic circumstances, the learning process is performed in Management Studies Program (treatment). The study design details can be seen in the following Figure 1.

Data analysis
The experimental study was conducted using a pretest method, past test, the control group, two parallel classes (class A and B). Where class A (class study) treatment given motivation to learn by providing SAP and test the beginning of each lecture and discussion on the materials provided on the day, while grade B (grade control) was not given treatment, but SAP still be given.
Difference in value of pretest and posttest two sample groups (A and B) used as the basis for drawing conclusions comparison between a given class and class treatment is not given treatment. Then the pretest results significant tested by t-test, whether the motivation to learn the real impact on student learning achievement

Results and Discussion
The learning process in universities in Indonesia are generally still follow the old pattern, which only focused on the institution (faculty), where a professor teaches a group of students with material that has been outlined in the syllabus.
Such learning pattern needs to be changed to enable the students as the students. Through the learning process improvements that have been made in the Course of Human Resource Management, the Faculty of Economics, Management courses PGRI Adi Buana University of Surabaya where the provision of treatment to the student motivation to learn. Motivation to perform tests and discussions at the beginning of each lecture very large influence on the willingness of students to prepare for class lectures on the way home study before the face-to -face in the classroom begins.
To further enable the student to learn at home in order to prepare for each lecture meeting, has been supported by the provision of SAP (Unit Class Events) and Instructional Materials for the course at the beginning of the lecture starts at the beginning of the semester. Thus the student has had a picture of the material that will be covered in each lecture session.
Giving the initial test of this study is one way to motivate students to be more motivated desire to learn the lecture material that will be discussed on a particular day face to face. The questions given are taken from the material that will be discussed at the meeting in question in accordance with SAP that has been made. This gift is intended solely to provide motivation while its value is not a component of the final assessment. Based on daily observations on the initial test administration classroom lectures have made more active student learning at home. This can be seen by the results of the test are given 80% of the questions that can be answered by the students are given.
Discussion prior to the beginning of college professors discuss material is also intended to provide motivation for students to learn. The results obtained showed on every face-to-face lectures students are very active in discussing the topic of the day. This call indicates that the student has to learn the material before the lecture begins.
Thus qualitatively explained that the motivation to learn has been able to improve student achievement, when compared with students who are not given motivation study, the same term in a parallel class.
The results of the learning process improvement by providing motivation for students to learn the subject Human Resource Management in the semester of the school year 2010/2011, found to be better than the students who are not given the motivation to learn on the same course.
Values obtained showed that in the group given the motivation to learn the value obtained A (25 percent), the value of B (75 per cent), the value of C (0 percent), the value of D (0 percent) and the value of E (0 percent). While student the parallel class is not given the motivation   Table 1 shows that the groups of students who are given the motivation to learn obtain an average value of 76.55 classes or category A, according to the reference benchmark assessment standards that have been set. While the students are not given the value of learning motivation can be seen in Table 2. Table 2  In Table 2 shows that the average value of students who are not given the motivation to learn is 64.75 meaning that the class gets in general category C with the same scoring system. From the comparison of students' final grades given better motivation academic achievement when compared to students who are not given the motivation to learn. Different test analysis using t-test, showed that the t value is statistically the two groups is 2.8402 with degrees of freedom (df) 30, the value of t table 1.960 at 95% confidence level means that a given group of students learning motivation statistically significantly different. Components of this assessment is based on the value of students' final grades include attendance, assignments, quizzes, mid-term grades and semester grades.

Findings
From the comparison of students' final grades given better motivation academic achievement when compared to students who are not given the motivation to learn. Different test analysis using t-test, showed that the t value is statistically the two groups is 2.8402 with degrees of freedom (df) 30, the value of t table 1.960 at 95% confidence level means that a given group of students learning motivation statistically significantly different. Components of this assessment is based on the value of students' final grades include attendance, assignments, quizzes, mid-term grades and semester grades.

Implications
From previous research and theory put forward above, and after doing research it was found that the implications of motivation to learn to students which include culture family, schools, private students and objectives result students have a higher value.
value is the value of A (8.33%), the value of B (41.66%), the value of C (50%), the value of D (0%) and the value of E (0%). c. Statistically by t-test at the level of 95%, given the achievements of students learning motivation significantly different when compared with students who are not given the motivation to learn. Suggestion a. To further motivate the students should learn in lecture classes using a tool that is more appropriate, in addition to continue to provide SAP and Instructional Materials courses in question.
b. Implementation practicum courses in Human Resource Management needs to be held next semester so that students better understand the theory given in the classroom, so that students not only have cognitive abilities (understanding) but also has psychomotor ability (able to apply Human Resource Management). It is intended also to better prepare graduates who have the ability to pitch better.
c. Giving motivation to learn is expected to also be given to all existing courses at the Faculty of Economics, University of Adi Buana Surabaya PGRI.


Challenges and prospects of food science and technology education: Nepal's perspective

Food science and technology education has been running since four decades in Nepal. There is a very slow improvement in the profession. The job opportunities have always been threatened by insiders and outsiders. Academic institutions, government agencies, and food industries themselves are responsible for the quality of food science professionals. Novel and practical methods of teaching should be followed. The government and private organizations should facilitate the recruitment of food technologists. Constant prodding needs to be done for the establishment of a Council with more authority that could monitor all bodies associated with food science professionals.

Introduction
The study which consists of the physical, biological, and chemical makeup of food is called food science. It covers the concepts underlying food processing and preservation. Various scientific disciplines inclusive of chemistry, engineering, microbiology, and nutrition are applied so that the safety, nutrition, wholesomeness, and availability of food are improved. The application of these scientific disciplines to the selection, preservation, processing, packaging, distribution, and consumption is the food technology. It includes analytical chemistry, biotechnology, engineering, nutrition, quality control, and food safety management too (IFT 2014).
Cooking is believed to be the original form of food processing, which was discovered about 2 million years ago by a distant ancestor (Wrangham 2009). Human beings thus first learned how to cook food, then how to transform, preserve, and store it safely. The experience-based technology of cooking food, transforming one food to another, its preservation, and storage led to modern food processing (Hall 1989;Floros 2008). Later, humans started the domestication of plants and land cultivation; and at the end of the last Ice Age, humans started eating meat by domesticating animals for food (Floros et al. 2010).
There has been a drastic change in the production-toconsumption food system. These days the food is largely safe, tasty, nutritious, abundant, diverse, convenient, and less costly and more readily accessible than ever before. Present-day food science and technology has contributed greatly to the success of this modern food system by including all of the sciences, viz. physics, chemistry, biology, materials science and engineering, biotechnology, microbiology, nutrition, toxicology, computer science, etc. to resolve nutritional deficiencies and enhance food safety. Nutrients can be preserved, essential vitamins and minerals can be supplemented, toxic principles can be removed, and foods can be designed to optimize health and reduce the risk of disease. Similarly, product loss and wastage can be reduced, and the global distribution can be expedited to allow seasonal availability of many foods (Floros et al. 2010).
At a time when the world was ready to celebrate IFT's 75th anniversary on 21-24 June 2014 at New Orleans, US, Nepalese food scientists and professionals gathered for the 7th National Conference on Food Science and Technology (Food Conference-2014, 13-14 June 2014. This clearly depicts the position of Nepal. However, this should not be taken as a discouragement as history tells it needed a lot of effort and dedication to bring the status to this stage. Different seminars and conferences were held in the past, namely Rice Milling Conference, 1969, National Seminar on Food Industries and Food Technology-I (NASOFIFT-I), 1984 (2041 BS), NASOFIFT-II, 1988(2044BS), National Food Convention, 1991, NASO-FIFT-III, 1993(2050, and Food Conference, 2012. A resolution was passed in Food Conference, 2012 that Nepal Food Scientists and Technologists Association (NEFOSTA) should organize a national level conference in every 2 years. Hence, the continuation of this conference should be taken as a positive sign in the development of food science and technology.

History of Food Science and Technology Education in Nepal
Food technology education was introduced in Nepal in 1973 (2030 BS). The program was started in Dharan with a certificate level course in food technology under the aegis of Institute of Applied Science and Technology of Tribhuvan University. The objective of this course was to produce middle-level manpower in food technology. This program was terminated after completing four academic years in 1979 (2036 BS), and in the same year the bachelor degree program B.Sc. Food Technology (three academic years) was started, and later changed to 4 years B. Tech. (Food) under the Institute of Science and Technology, Tribhuvan University (Katawal 2012;KC 2012). After 26 years of the establishment of the college in the public sector (Tribhuvan University), a college was opened in the private sector to run Tribhuvan University's B. Tech.  Table 1.
As of 2012, the numbers of persons who received different degrees within the country are: PhD-2, M. Tech.-51, M.Sc.-18, B. Tech.-544, Diploma-48, and PCL-80. About 20 students have been already awarded PhD degree and 10 students are doing their PhD in different universities abroad. Ten PhD students are either  (Subba et al. 2013). Till date, almost all graduates are job holders in good positions.

Opportunities
Food science and technology ensures the delivery of a safe, nutritious, and abundant food globally. It helps us to advance the food system, minimize risks, and maximize benefits. It can address specific issues throughout the food system. Many raw food materials and ingredients are transformed into consumable and safe foods that are available all round the year. Developments in food science and technology have enhanced food safety and have kept the quality consistent; provided reduction in nutrient deficiency-related diseases; reduced food waste; decreased home food-preparation time; lower household food costs; products specifically formulated to meet the nutritional needs of specific subpopulations; and efficient global food distribution (Floros et al. 2010). Food science and technology is one of the very few courses in Nepal that promotes interactive learning methods. During the graduation phase, students get chances to broaden their knowledge and explore their possibilities. The course includes local field visits, industrial tour, and in-plant (industrial) training, aside from routine theory and practical classes. Local field visits increase interests and create more positive feelings toward that topic. Industrial tour across the country and industrial trainings provide opportunities to learn practically through interaction. During the in-plant training period, the students visit the industry and get insights regarding the working environment. The training which lasts more than a month improves their entrepreneurial ability, helps to come across real problems, and to find proper solutions. The training will provide industrial exposure to the students as well as help them to develop their career in high-tech industrial requirements. Toward the end of the study period, each student is required to do a dissertation independently. This will help to deepen and extend the knowledge of the chosen topic, helps to solve problems with confidence, and strengthens the student for large and complex research projects.
Consumers are increasingly demanding healthy foods. Hence, food science has better job prospects than any other industry. Worldwide, the areas of good job prospects are product development, quality control, and nutrition and food safety (Katsnelson 2012). In Nepal, most of the graduates are employed in food processing industries. They have joined services of universities, colleges, schools, food industry, government and semigov-ernment sectors, UN agencies, nongovernment organizations, projects, marketing companies, consultancy firms, etc. and their services include teaching, research, training, production, business management, quality control, nutrition-related studies, diet planning, quality audit, consultancy, industrial quality standards management, provide technical expertise, marketing, and so on. Some are working independently in their own industry and business and some do freelance jobs. Food technology graduates have largely fulfilled the needs of different food and nutrition-related sectors (KC 2012; Subba et al. 2013). A recent report on the status of food technology graduates (Guragain 2014) shows that the majority of the Nepalese graduates (33%) are absorbed by the food industries, followed by academic institutions (11%) and government sectors (10%). About 21% of the graduates are abroad, either pursuing their higher studies or working in food-related sectors. Very few (3%) are involved in development organizations, about 2% are in marketing sectors, and roughly 2% have established their own business. The remaining ones remain hidden in the profession due to either of the reasons as shift in profession, out of contact, joblessness, retirement, or death.
The right of every Nepalese to adequate food has been included in the Interim Constitution of Nepal, 2007 and clarified by the interim order of the Supreme Court of Nepal in September 2008. The Supreme Court published a key decision in April 2011 regarding the right to food in the country. The Interim Constitution recognizes food sovereignty and food security as a basic right (FAO 2014). As per P. Koirala, the spokesperson of Department of Food Technology and Quality Control (DFTQC) under Ministry of Agricultural Development, a proposal has been submitted to the Government of Nepal to recruit at least one food technologist in all of the 75 districts (P. Koirala, pers. comm., 4 July 2014). People have become more conscious about food safety due to the routine inspection of eateries, hotels, and industries, and awareness programs run by DFTQC, and other professional organizations like NEFOSTA and Food and Nutrition Awareness Centre Nepal (FONAC). This has demanded and created more opportunities to food science graduates.
The World Summit on Food Security (2009) recognized that by 2050, the global food production must increase by about 70% to feed the estimated 9 billion people (FAO 2009). This projection is expected to increase the annual consumption of nearly 1 billion metric tons of cereals for food and feed and 200 million metric tons of meat. This can be possible only by sciencebased improvements in the production of agricultural goods, application of food science and technology, and improvement in food supply systems (Floros et al. 2010). This, of course, certainly demands food scientists and technologists. Hence, the scope of food science graduates is increasing day by day.

Challenges
With great opportunities, challenges come along. The developments in food science and technology have always been thwarted by both insiders and outsiders. To begin with, the need of amendments in syllabus has been the greatest challenge. There have been minor changes in the curriculum since the inception of the course. Since four decades the world food science has changed a lot and we are still in the same course designed in the 1970s. Important changes are necessary in the current curricula to meet new challenges for educating the future students in food science. Although the language of instruction and assessment for the course is English, the students find it difficult when it comes to speaking and writing. This is because English is not included as a subject in the curriculum. The syllabus is more theory oriented. The university has been very flexible in distributing license/affiliation to academic institutions without fulfilling criteria about physical infrastructures and sustainability. Many colleges are operating without proper and complete set of faculties, classroom, and laboratories. The teaching methodologies in many institutions are of the spoon-fed type. Students totally rely on lecture notes. Research culture is lagging in academic institutions. There are many traditional foods that await research and promotion but hindrances are the lack qualified manpower and well-structured laboratories. Lack of cooperation among academia and industries makes it difficult when it comes to conducting in-plant trainings and internships. This might be due to the flooding of interns from all academic backgrounds, be it science based or others. Postgraduation, lack of uniformity in pay scale motivates the mobility of fresh graduates from industries. This turnover has been a headache for industrialists. Time and again, the government claims that it has shortage of food technology manpower to fight the food safety and food security problems, but is reluctant to open vacancies for food research officers. Unlike other professions such as medicine, engineering, veterinary science, etc., food science and technology is devoid of Food Technology Council which could ease many of the aforementioned challenges.

What Next
The government should develop and introduce a course about Food Science for Secondary and Postsecondary education. Important changes that are necessary in the current curricula of undergraduate and postgraduate courses should be amended to meet new challenges for educating the future students in food science. The curriculum should be at par with those of developed nations so that Nepalese graduates could be familiar with the global trends. Timely update of the curriculum should be done with rigorous discussions with industries, government authorities, and academics. More credit should be given to practical classes than the previous 75-25 approach. There should be regular monitoring of academic institutions to check if the operation of pilot plants, laboratories, and faculties are in place. Each institution should have a separate research unit for its faculties, and should encourage them to participate in research and publication process. Research can be done in a collaborative manner too. After completing preliminary studies here in Nepal, the sample may be microanalyzed in sophisticated laboratories of foreign universities. This will help to upgrade the research status of both the institutions.
Students should develop the habit of consulting different reliable sources to deepen their knowledge. Teaching faculties should encourage the use of student journals, motivate students for writing-to-learn assignments, practice cooperative and collaborative learning techniques, accommodation of varying learning styles, and methods to enhance problem-solving abilities and critical-thinking skills (Iwaoka et al. 1996). Interteaching may also be initiated. In a study, interteaching has been found as a novel approach to facilitate students of food science and nutrition. It is a 20-to 30-min student-to-student discussion which includes reciprocal peer tutoring, cooperative learning, and problem-based learning (Goto and Schneider 2010). Lectures should be accompanied by hands-on or visual explanations as described by Schmidt (2009). More emphasis should be given to practical demonstrations and that may be performed in food industries itself. But there must be mutual understanding among them.
Fresh graduates should keep in mind that experience, rather than money, counts. They should develop other skills such as communication, teamwork, honesty, sincerity, and flexibility, to name a few. NEFOSTA should work together with the likes of the Institute of Food Technologists to build bridges between food scientists around the world. Food science and technology professionals must work together with others-the food industry, research institutions, and those in the regulatory and public policy communities. A Council must be established that could monitor academic institutions, persuade government agencies, and poke industries for the betterment of food science professionals. There must be huge investment in basic and applied research, education, and extension.