5.  The applicant was born in 1958 and lives in Fulda. 6.  From 2001 onwards Mr and Mrs H., a married couple, lived in different places as Mr H. was working in the United Kingdom while Mrs H. remained in Germany. The spouses have a daughter born in 1997. In May 2002 Mrs H. and the applicant entered into a relationship. Mrs H. became pregnant in June 2003. 7.  The applicant claimed that he was the father of the child to be born, and that the birth had been planned by Mrs H. and him. This was contested by the Government and the third party interveners. 8.  In September 2003 Mrs H. left the applicant and subsequently went to live with her husband in the United Kingdom. 9.  On 25 November 2003 the applicant acknowledged paternity of the child to be born before the Heidelberg Youth Office. 10.  On 6 March 2004 Mrs H. gave birth to a boy, F., in the United Kingdom. Mr and Mrs H. have been living in the United Kingdom since then; they raise F. together with their daughter. They acknowledged that the applicant might be F.’s biological father. They claimed, however, that it could just as well be Mr H. as they had also had intimate relations at the relevant time. The latter allegation is contested by the applicant. The spouses preferred not to verify paternity in the interest of their family relationship. 11.  On 20 October 2005 the Fulda District Court dismissed the applicant’s requests of 24 August 2004 for access to F. twice per month and for regular information on the boy’s development. 12.  The District Court noted that the applicant claimed to be F.’s biological father. The applicant had submitted that he and Mrs H. – who at the time was considering a divorce – had planned to have the child. When Mrs H. had become pregnant, the applicant had accompanied her to her medical consultations as the child’s father. Mr and Mrs H., for their part, had not contested that there had been an intimate relationship between the applicant and Mrs H. at the relevant time. However, Mrs H. had not planned to have a child and Mr H. could equally be F.’s biological father. 13.  The District Court found that the applicant, even assuming that he was F.’s biological father, did not fall within the group of persons who had a right of access and information under Article 1684 or Article 1685 of the Civil Code (see paragraphs 32-33 below). He did not have a right of access under Article 1684 of the Civil Code as he was not F.’s legal father. According to Article 1592 of the Civil Code (see paragraph 35 below) the boy’s legal father was Mr H., the husband of the child’s mother. The applicant’s acknowledgement of paternity before the Youth Office was not valid under Article 1594 § 2 of the Civil Code as Mr H.’s paternity prevailed (see paragraph 36 below). Nor was he entitled to challenge Mr H.’s paternity as the conditions of Article 1600 § 2 of the Civil Code (see paragraph 37 below) were not met. He had no right to contest Mr H.’s paternity because there was a social and family relationship between Mr H. and F., who was living with Mr and Mrs H. 14.  The District Court further found that the applicant did not have a right of access under Article 1685 § 2 of the Civil Code either. He claimed to be F.’s biological father, but whether this was in fact the case was unclear. Moreover, he was not a person with whom the child had close ties and there was no social and family relationship between them. The fact that in the applicant’s submission, Mrs H. and he had planned to have the child and had wanted to live together did not alter that conclusion. The applicant had never lived with Mrs H. or the child. The child had lived with Mr and Mrs H., a married couple, since his birth. During that time there had been no possibility for the applicant to build up a social and family relationship with F. 15.  On 9 February 2006 the Frankfurt am Main Court of Appeal, without hearing the parties in person, dismissed the applicant’s appeal as well as his request to be allowed to offer F. presents on special occasions. 16.  The Court of Appeal confirmed the District Court’s finding that the applicant did not have a right of access and information under Article 1684 and Article 1686 of the Civil Code (see paragraph 34 below) as those provisions conferred rights only on a child’s legal parents. Under Article 1592 no. 1 of the Civil Code it was Mr H., who was married to Mrs H. at the time of F.’s birth, who was F.’s legal father. The applicant’s acknowledgement of paternity of F. did not alter that fact as it was not valid (Article 1594 § 2 of the Civil Code). 17.  Furthermore, the applicant did not have a right of access and information under Article 1685 of the Civil Code. There was no social and family relationship between the applicant and F. as the applicant had so far never even seen F., let alone built up a relationship with him. 18.  The Court of Appeal considered that the fundamental right to respect for one’s family life under Article 6 § 1 of the Basic Law (see paragraph 30 below) and Article 8 of the Convention did not afford the applicant more far-reaching rights. It was not even established that the applicant was F.’s biological father. Paternity could, however, only be determined in separate proceedings and under certain conditions, which the applicant was most probably unable to meet. In any event, even assuming that the applicant was F.’s biological father, he would still not have a right of access and information, for lack of a social and family relationship with F. The case of Keenan v. Ireland, in which the European Court of Human Rights had strengthened the rights of biological fathers who had not yet built up a social and family relationship with their child, was not comparable to the present case. The facts of that case, in which the child’s mother had given up the child for adoption, were not comparable to those of the present case as the interests of all persons concerned had to be weighed in the balance. In the present case, the applicant’s right in his position as biological father could not outweigh the protection of the family, the mother and the child under Article 6 § 2 of the Basic Law (see paragraph 30 below). In this conflict of interests, anything which could upset a child’s trust in his family had to be prevented. It was preferable that F. grew up in his family without learning about the problematic circumstances of his origin. 19.  The Court of Appeal’s decision was served on the applicant’s counsel on 14 February 2006. 20.  On 18 April 2006 the Frankfurt am Main Court of Appeal dismissed the applicant’s objection alleging a violation of the right to be heard (Anhörungsrüge). 21.  In his constitutional complaint dated 14 March 2006 the applicant claimed that the decisions of the family courts refusing him contact with and information about the personal circumstances of his child had violated, in particular, his right to respect for his family life under Article 6 of the Basic Law and Article 8 of the Convention and his right to equal treatment under Article 3 §§ 1 and 2 of the Basic Law (see paragraph 29 below) and Articles 8 and 14 of the Convention. He argued that for a biological father to relate closely to his child, so as to have a right of access and information, it was sufficient that the father was willing to take responsibility for the child. Otherwise, the child’s mother would have the right to prevent any contact between father and child. Such contact, and knowledge of his own origins, were in the child’s best interest. The applicant further claimed that the family courts’ refusal to determine whether he was F.’s biological father and their failure to examine, with regard to the circumstances of his case and by taking evidence, whether contact with him would be in F.’s best interest had disproportionately interfered with his right to respect for his family life. Moreover, the domestic courts’ decisions had discriminated against him in his right of access and information compared to fathers of children born in or out of wedlock, mothers, grandparents and siblings. 22.  On 20 September 2006 the Federal Constitutional Court declined to consider the applicant’s constitutional complaint (file no. 1 BvR 1337/06). It held that the complaint had no prospect of success as it was, in any event, ill-founded. 23.  In so far as the applicant had complained about the family courts’ failure to determine paternity of F., his complaint was inadmissible owing to the subsidiarity of a constitutional complaint. The applicant should have contested Mr H.’s paternity in separate proceedings under Article 1600 § 1 of the Civil Code prior to lodging his constitutional complaint. 24.  In so far as the applicant complained about the family courts’ refusal to grant him access to and information about F., his rights under Article 6 §§ 1 or 2 and Article 3 § 1 of the Basic Law had not been breached. 25.  The parental rights guaranteed by Article 6 § 2 of the Basic Law afforded protection to the person having parental responsibility, irrespective of whether that person was the biological or the legal parent of the child. In the present case, this provision thus protected Mr H. and not the applicant. Neither Article 1684 nor Article 1686 of the Civil Code, which provided for rights of access and information only for legal parents, nor the decisions of the family courts which were based on those provisions, were in breach of Article 6 § 2 of the Basic Law. 26.  The family courts’ refusal to grant the applicant access under Article 1685 § 2 of the Civil Code had not violated his rights under Article 6 § 1 of the Basic Law either. Article 6 § 1 protected the relationship between a biological, but not legal, father and his child only where there was a social relationship between them which was based on the fact that the father had borne actual responsibility for the child at least for some time. Conversely, the (presumed) biological father’s wish to take over responsibility or to build up a social and family relationship with the child was not sufficient to attract the protection of Article 6 § 1. As there had never been a social and family relationship between F. and the applicant, the family courts had complied with Article 6 § 1 of the Basic Law in denying the applicant a right of access pursuant to Article 1685 § 2 of the Civil Code. 27.  Furthermore, the fact alone that the presumed biological father, unlike the biological mother, had no right of access to the child did not render the decisions of the family courts arbitrary and thus in breach of Article 3 § 1 of the Basic Law. 28.  The decision was served on the applicant’s counsel on 4 October 2006. 29.  Under Article 3 of the Basic Law, everyone is equal before the law (§ 1); men and women have equal rights (§ 2). 30.  Article 6 of the Basic Law, in so far as relevant, provides:
(1)  Marriage and the family shall enjoy the special protection of the state.
(2)  The care and upbringing of children is the natural right of parents and a duty primarily incumbent upon them. The state shall watch over them in the performance of this duty. 31.  Parental custody includes the right to determine access to the child (Article 1632 § 2 of the Civil Code). 32.  According to Article 1684 § 1 of the Civil Code, a child has a right of access to each parent, and each parent in turn has the right and the duty to have contact with the child. The family courts can determine the scope of the right of access and prescribe more specific rules for its exercise, also with regard to third parties (Article 1684 § 3). They may restrict or suspend that right if such a measure is necessary for the child’s welfare. A decision restricting or suspending that right for a lengthy period or permanently may only be taken if the child’s well-being would otherwise be endangered. The family courts may order that the right of access be exercised in the presence of a third party, such as a Youth Office or an association (Article 1684 § 4). 33.  Under Article 1685 § 1 of the Civil Code, grandparents and siblings have a right of access to the child if this serves the child’s best interest. Article 1685 § 2 of the Civil Code, in its version applicable at the relevant time, further provides for persons with whom the child has close ties (enge Bezugspersonen) to have a right of access to the child if this serves the child’s best interest and if they are bearing actual responsibility for the child or have done so in the past (social and family relationship). It is to be assumed, as a rule, that a person who lived with the child in domestic community for a lengthy period of time has borne such actual responsibility. Article 1684 §§ 3 and 4 apply mutatis mutandis (see Article 1685 § 3 of the Civil Code). 34.  Under Article 1686 of the Civil Code, each parent who has a legitimate interest in obtaining information about the child’s personal circumstances may request such information from the other parent in so far as this is not contrary to the child’s best interest.
(b)  Provisions on paternity 35.  According to Article 1592 of the Civil Code, a child’s father is either the man who at the date of the child’s birth was married to the child’s mother (no. 1), or the man who acknowledged paternity (no. 2) or whose paternity is judicially established under Article 1600d of the Civil Code (no. 3). 36.  An acknowledgement of paternity is not valid as long as the paternity of another man exists (Article 1594 § 2 of the Civil Code). 37.  Paternity may be challenged. Under Article 1600 § 1 of the Civil Code, entitlement to challenge paternity lies with the man whose paternity exists under Article 1592 nos. 1 and 2, with the mother and with the child, and also with the man who makes a statutory declaration that he had sexual intercourse with the child’s mother during the period of conception. However, pursuant to § 2 of Article 1600, this last man has a right to challenge the paternity of the man who is the child’s legal father under Article 1592 nos. 1 or 2 only if he is the child’s biological father and if there is no social and family relationship between the legal father and the child. If there is no paternity under Article 1592 nos. 1 or 2 of the Civil Code, paternity is to be established by the family court (Article 1600d § 1 of the Civil Code). 38.  Research undertaken by the Court in relation to 23 Council of Europe Member States shows that there is no uniform approach in the Member States of the Council of Europe to the question whether, and if so, under what circumstances, a biological father (who is not only a sperm donor) has a right to contact with his child where a different father exists in law. 39.  In a considerable number of States (including Bosnia and Herzegovina, Estonia, France, Ireland, Portugal, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, the United Kingdom and Ukraine), where a child is born to a woman who is living with her husband, a biological father can ensure his contact rights by first challenging the paternity presumption in place, in some cases within a fixed time-limit. In these States, as indeed in all of the countries surveyed, a presumption exists in law to the effect that a child born of a married woman during the subsistence of the marriage is also the child of her husband. Having been recognised as the (legal) father of the child concerned, the biological father then has a right to contact with his child like any other non‑custodial parent, subject to the child’s best interest. 40.  According to an expert report drawn up in March 2010 by the German Institute for Youth Human Services and Family Law (Deutsches Institut für Jugendhilfe und Familienrecht e.V., a registered association and non-governmental organisation), which was submitted by the Government and covered, in addition to Germany, seventeen other Council of Europe Member States, the same applied in Greece. That report, however, interpreted differently the provisions applicable in France and Spain. The applicant submitted that there were several other countries where a biological father could challenge the legal father’s paternity under conditions which were less restrictive than those applicable in Germany, such as Azerbaijan, Lithuania, Moldova, Norway, San Marino and Serbia (see paragraphs 41 and 43 below for the research undertaken by the Court in respect of Azerbaijan). He contested in general terms the comparative law analysis submitted by the Government, arguing that the legal situation in only seventeen of the forty-seven Member States of the Council of Europe was not representative. 41.  In a considerable number of Council of Europe Member States, according to the Court’s research, the biological father of a child would, on the contrary, not be able to challenge the said paternity presumption in circumstances similar to those in the present application (see, in particular, Azerbaijan, Belgium, Croatia, Finland, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Luxembourg, Monaco, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia and Switzerland). Biological fathers in those countries lack standing to bring an action to challenge that presumption, be it in all circumstances or at least in cases in which the mother is still living with her husband (see in this latter regard the law in force in Belgium and Luxembourg). 42.  According to the expert report of the German Institute for Youth Human Services and Family Law submitted by the Government, the same applies in Austria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Liechtenstein, Sweden and Turkey. 43.  In these Member States it is open to the biological father to apply for contact only as a third party, not as a parent. However, in some of these States (Azerbaijan, Croatia, Finland, Hungary, Italy, Luxembourg and Poland) the biological father does not have standing to apply for contact even as a third party, as the law provides a right of contact only to legal parents and (to some extent) to other relatives. 44.  According to the same expert report of the German Institute for Youth Human Services and Family Law, the biological father would also not have standing to apply for contact in Liechtenstein and in the Czech Republic. 45.  In the remaining Member States surveyed by the Court in which the paternity presumption may not be challenged by a biological father (Belgium, Latvia, Monaco, the Netherlands, Slovakia and Switzerland), different preconditions apply for that father to be granted contact if such contact is in the child’s best interest. According to Article 375 bis of the Belgian Civil Code, there has to be “proof of a tie of special affection with the child”; according to Article 181 § 3 of the Latvian Civil Code, the father must have lived together with the child for a long time in the same household. In Monaco a third person can be granted contact by a judge where that would be in the best interest of the child, without additional preconditions having to be met (compare Article 300 of the Monegasque Civil Code). In the Netherlands, third persons (including mere sperm donors) may be granted contact under Articles 1:377f and 1:377a § 3 of the Civil Code of the Netherlands if they have a close personal relationship with the child, unless contacts run counter to the child’s best interest. According to section 25 § 5 of the Slovakian Family Act, the biological father may be granted access if he is regarded as being “close” to the child (according to the expert report submitted by the Government, a similar provision applies in Sweden), and under Article 274a of the Swiss Civil Code, he has a right to contact in exceptional circumstances (according to the expert report submitted by the Government, the same precondition applies in Turkey). 46.  According to the report submitted by the Government, Section 20 of the Danish Act on Parental Responsibility provides that access may be granted only to close relatives having close personal ties with the child concerned and only if the parents have no or hardly any contact with the child. The report further states that under Article 148 § 3 of the Austrian Civil Code, a biological father may be granted access to his child if the child’s welfare is endangered otherwise.