11.  The applicant and her husband have always lived in the Netherlands. By a decision of 7 August 1984, the applicant's husband was granted a married man's old-age pension under the General Old Age Pensions Act (Algemene Ouderdomswet) commencing on 1 August 1984. However, pursuant to the then section 10 of the Act, his pension was reduced by 38% as neither he nor the applicant had been insured under the Act during nine periods between 1 February 1957 and 1 August 1977 when he had worked in Germany and had an old-age insurance under the German social-security legislation. These nine periods amounted in total to nineteen years. No appeal was filed against this decision. 12.  After the applicant reached the age of 65 in 1989, the Board of the Social Insurance Bank (Sociale Verzekeringsbank), by a decision of 14 February 1989, granted the applicant an old-age pension under the General Old Age Pensions Act commencing on 1 March 1989. As had occurred with her husband's pension, her pension was also reduced by 38%. The applicant filed an appeal with the Arnhem Appeals Tribunal (Raad van Beroep), as it was then known, complaining that this reduction in her old-age pension constituted discriminatory treatment. 13.  In its decision of 10 January 1990 the Appeals Tribunal noted that, under sections 7 and 9 of the General Old Age Pensions Act, a married person – like the applicant – who had been insured under this Act and had reached the age of 65 was entitled to an old-age pension amounting to 50% of the net minimum wage per month. 14.  However, under the terms of section 13 of the Act, this amount could be reduced by 2% for each full year in which the person concerned had not been insured between the ages of 15 and 65. The Appeals Tribunal further noted that, according to section 6(1) of the Act, those insured were persons between the ages of 15 and 65 who were either resident in the Netherlands or, if not, were liable to payment of salaries tax (loonbelasting) in respect of work carried out in the Netherlands under a contract of employment. Under the present subsection 2 of section 6 of the Act, it was possible, by way of an Order in Council (Algemene Maatregel van Bestuur), to extend or limit the group of insured persons as an exception to the general rule contained in section 6(1). 15.  The Appeals Tribunal referred to the case-law of the Central Appeals Tribunal (Centrale Raad van Beroep) to the effect that the question whether or not a person was insured under the General Old Age Pensions Act fell to be determined on the basis of the rules in force at the relevant time. 16.  It further noted that, by virtue of five consecutive royal decrees on the extension and limitation of the group of insured persons (Koninklijke Besluiten Uitbreiding en Beperking van de kring der verzekerden) that had been issued under section 6(1) of the Act and had remained in force until 1 April 1985, persons residing in the Netherlands but working abroad under a contract of employment and insured under a foreign social-security scheme by virtue of that employment were not insured under the Act. That limitation also applied to a woman married to a person who, pursuant to those royal decrees, was not insured under the Act. 17.  The Appeals Tribunal noted that it was not in dispute that, during the relevant periods, the applicant's husband had been working in Germany and had been subject to German social-security legislation in accordance with Ordinance no. 3 of the Council of Ministers of the European Communities (until 1 October 1972) and subsequently Ordinance 1408/71. 18.  It found that, in these circumstances, the Social Insurance Bank had correctly concluded that the applicant was not insured under the General Old Age Pensions Act for the period her husband had worked in Germany. 19.  However, as regards the question whether that situation was compatible with the principle of equality, in particular the prohibition on discrimination between men and women, the Appeals Tribunal noted that there was a provision in the royal decrees which rendered the insurance of married women under the Act dependent on their husbands being insured, whereas the decrees did not contain a comparable provision in respect of married men. 20.  The Appeals Tribunal examined the applicant's situation in the light of Article 26 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). It referred to the case-law of the Central Appeals Tribunal according to which, from 23 December 1984, this provision was also directly applicable in the Netherlands legal order in the field of social security. The Appeals Tribunal found that this implied that rights could be derived directly from this provision in so far as an application, after 23 December 1984, of statutory rules created a difference in treatment between men and women without any objective and reasonable justification, and led to a more unfavourable result than would have existed had there not been such a difference. It considered that the applicant had found herself in that situation as she had been awarded an old-age pension on 1 March 1989 from which 38% was deducted on the basis of rules which made an unjustified distinction between married men and women. 21.  The Appeals Tribunal noted that, from 1 April 1985 onwards, the principle of equal treatment between men and women had been incorporated in the General Old Age Pensions Act, and that this had resulted in the introduction of a system in which the entitlement to full benefits was made solely dependent on the question whether or not the person concerned had personally completed the qualifying years under the Act. It concluded, therefore, that married women, like the applicant, who had fully complied with the conditions for insurance under the Act, could not be regarded as having been uninsured during a certain period solely on grounds of marital status. 22.  Consequently, the Appeals Tribunal quashed the decision of 14 February 1989, in so far as the applicant's pension was reduced by 38%, upheld the remainder of the decision and ruled that the applicant was entitled to a full pension under the Act. The Board of the Social Insurance Bank filed an appeal with the Central Appeals Tribunal. 23.  In its judgment of 26 November 1993, following a hearing held on 15 October 1993, the Central Appeals Tribunal quashed the decision of 10 January 1990 and dismissed the applicant's appeal as ill-founded. 24.  The Central Appeals Tribunal noted at the outset that it was not in dispute between the parties that the applicant did not belong to the group of persons as defined in Article 2 of Directive 79/7/EEC on the gradual implementation of the principle of equal treatment of men and women in the field of social security. It considered that view to be correct and, consequently, held that the question of the reduction in the applicant's pension could not be examined in the light of the prohibition on discrimination set out in Article 4 § 1 of this directive. 25.  As regards the question whether the reduction in the applicant's pension was compatible with Article 26 of the ICCPR, the Central Appeals Tribunal considered that, from 23 December 1984 onwards, that provision could also be directly relied on in the field of social security. It also referred to the case-law according to which this implied that Contracting States to the ICCPR were obliged to ensure that their statutory rules were free of any form of discrimination prohibited by that provision. However, it said that a difference in treatment was not contrary to that provision where there were objective and reasonable grounds for the difference. 26.  In the light of those considerations, the Central Appeals Tribunal held that Article 26 of the ICCPR could not deprive a national statutory rule of its effect, according to which the level of benefits under a statutory insurance scheme – like the General Old Age Pensions Act – was made dependent on the question of whether the periods of insurance had been completed. It held that this was no different where it could be established that the disqualification of certain periods of insurance before 23 December 1984 was based on a domestic rule which made a difference in treatment on the basis of sex, as that rule had been in operation during a period in which Article 26 of the ICCPR was not yet directly applicable and could not, therefore, deprive the domestic rule of its earlier effect. 27.  The applicant's subsequent appeal on points of law to the Supreme Court (Hoge Raad) was dismissed on 29 May 1996. As to the applicant's argument that the Central Appeals Tribunal had failed to examine whether or not there was an objective and reasonable justification for the difference in treatment, the Supreme Court held that the Central Appeals Tribunal had correctly found that, as regards the periods in which the applicant had not been insured under the General Old Age Pensions Act, she could not rely on Article 26 of the ICCPR, as those periods predated the entry into force of that international instrument. 28.  In so far as the applicant complained that the Central Appeals Tribunal had unjustly failed to deprive the discriminatory rule at issue of its effect on grounds of incompatibility with the prohibition on discrimination contained in Article 1 of the Constitution (Grondwet), the Supreme Court held that the periods during which the applicant had not been insured under the Act predated the entry into force of Article 1 of the Constitution. 29.  In so far as the applicant relied on unwritten general principles of law (algemene rechtsbeginselen), in particular the principle of equality, the Supreme Court considered that, according to the explanatory memorandum (Nota van Toelichting) to the first royal decree on the extension and limitation of the group of insured persons of 20 December 1956, the exclusion was aimed at preventing an undesirable accumulation of benefits. According to the explanatory memorandum, the pension rights accrued by the man abroad were also considered to be intended to benefit his spouse. 30.  The Supreme Court held that in view of the social attitudes prevailing at the relevant time, that is to say the periods during which the applicant had not been insured under the General Old Age Pensions Act, the government of the time could have taken the view that in practically all cases it was the man who was the “breadwinner” so that it could, accordingly, exclude married women and did not have to make a separate provision for cases where the woman was the “breadwinner”. The Supreme Court held, therefore, that there was an objective and reasonable justification for the difference in treatment on grounds of sex which the exclusion entailed. 31.  The Supreme Court further rejected the applicant's argument based on the principle of equality contained in Article 4 § 1 of Directive 79/7/EEC on the gradual implementation of the principle of equal treatment of men and women in the field of social security, as the applicant fell outside the scope of Article 2 of the directive, which defined the group of persons to whom the directive applied.