6.  It would appear from the case file that the salient fact in the domestic proceedings was the applicant’s association with the mujahedin in Bosnia and Herzegovina (“BH”)[1]. The term mujahedin has been widely used to refer to foreigners – mainly from the Arab world – who came to BH during the war in support of Bosnian Muslims[2]. However, the same term has been used to describe local Muslims who joined the foreign mujahedin, endorsed their ideology and adjusted to their way of dressing. The phenomenon has been explained by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (“ICTY”) in Hadžihasanović and Kubura, IT-01-47-T, §§ 411‑18, 15 March 2006, and Delić, IT-04-83-T, §§ 166-199, 15 September 2008, as follows. 7.  The first foreign mujahedin arrived in BH in the summer of 1992 via Croatia and with the assistance of the Croatian authorities. It would appear that their arrival was welcomed by the BH authorities. While the presence of at least some foreign mujahedin seems to have been motivated by a desire to provide humanitarian assistance to the Bosnian Muslim population, most of them actively supported the military struggle against the Bosnian Muslims’ adversaries, ready to conduct a jihad or “holy war”. As stated by Ali Hamad, an ICTY witness of Bahraini origin who came to BH in 1992, some of the mujahedin were members of al-Qaeda who had the aim of “creating a base that would allow them to increase their area of operations”. Some of them also came to perform missionary work. 8.  Upon arrival, foreign mujahedin settled in various locations and did not form a homogeneous entity. Towards the end of 1992, Bosnian Muslims started to join the foreign mujahedin. The locals were provided with military training and participated in combat action. They were also given religious instruction. A number of groups comprising foreign and/or local mujahedin were active. Notwithstanding instances of participation in combat alongside each other, it appears that these groups were anxious to maintain their distinct identities. There were religious and ideological differences between them, which resulted in occasional violent clashes. 9.  On 13 August 1993 the foreign mujahedin were organised into a unit within the local ARBH (Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina) forces[3]. The unit, named “El Mujahedin”, was based in Zenica. Following its establishment, the unit significantly grew in size. By 1995, it consisted of around 1,000 fighters. Although the original idea had been to replenish the unit with foreign mujahedin only, locals soon outnumbered its foreign members. The factors that motivated locals to join it included: its stricter regimental discipline; a better degree of organisation; superior equipment and combat morale; its religious dedication; and material benefits. The unit received funds and assistance from many organisations and individuals from the Islamic world, including the Al-Haramain Islamic Foundation[4] and the Benevolence International Foundation[5]. The Islamic Cultural Institute in Milan provided logistical support. 10.  El Mujahedin had a number of features setting it apart from regular ARBH units. It was led by foreign mujahedin who were not appointed by the ARBH. At the top of the hierarchy was an emir, who has been described as the highest-ranking person within the unit. Abu Haris, a Libyan, was its first emir. In December 1993, he was succeeded by an Algerian, Abu Maali, who remained in that position until the end of the war. A different person from the emir, the military commander, headed the military council and was responsible for the conduct of combat operations. In 1993, this post was held by an Egyptian named Vahidin or Wahiuddin. After his death in October 1993, another Egyptian, Muatez, succeeded him. Muatez was killed in September 1995. The unit had a religious council, the shura, which was its supreme decision-making body. It consisted of approximately twenty prominent members of the unit, mostly of Arab origin. The emir was elected by and answerable to the shura. At the end of 1994, Sheikh Shaban joined the leadership of the unit. He was the head of the Islamic Cultural Institute in Milan and known to be an extremist who was well-connected with Islamic fundamentalists all over the world (the ICTY relied in that regard on a judgment of the Milan Criminal Court of 1 January 2006). He facilitated the recruitment of volunteers from Arab countries for the struggle in BH. Although Sheikh Shaban did not hold an official function within the unit, its members considered him to be the political authority and even the real emir within the unit. He could issue binding rulings (fatwa) and his authority was never challenged by the shura. Sheikh Shaban was killed, together with Abu Haris, at an HVO (Croatian Defence Council)[6] military checkpoint on 14 December 1995. 11.  The General Framework Agreement for Peace, which ended the war in BH, was initialled at a military base near Dayton, the United States, on 21 November 1995 and signed in Paris, France, on 14 December 1995. Article III of Annex 1A to that Agreement called for the withdrawal of all foreign forces, including individual advisors, freedom fighters, trainers, volunteers, and personnel from neighbouring and other States, irrespective of whether they were legally and militarily subordinated to any of the local forces. In view of that, on 14 December 1995 the ARBH disbanded El Mujahedin and ordered its foreign members to leave the country by 10 January 1996. Despite initial resistance, the shura accepted that the unit be disbanded. It would appear that awards, such as the “Golden Lily”, were given to its members as an incentive for foreigners to leave. Members of the unit were also provided with ARBH certificates of service, which assisted its foreign members to acquire BH citizenship. Whereas most of the unit’s foreign members left BH, some of them (such as the present applicant) applied for BH citizenship and continue to live in BH to date. 12.  After the attacks of 11 September 2001, the official attitude towards foreign mujahedin changed dramatically. Many lost their BH citizenship or were deported from BH after being declared a threat to national security. 13.  The applicant was born in Iraq in 1960. 14.  He went to Bosnia and Herzegovina to pursue his studies in 1979. He first studied in Sarajevo and in 1983 moved to Zenica. In 1987 the applicant married a citizen of Bosnia and Herzegovina. They have five children together. 15.  During the 1992-95 war in Bosnia and Herzegovina, the applicant joined El Mujahedin unit mentioned above. 16.  The applicant acquired citizenship of Bosnia and Herzegovina (“BH citizenship”) on three occasions: on 23 March 1992, on 12 January 1995 (under the name of Awad Fadhil) and again on 20 February 1995. He has visited Iraq twice since the 1992-95 war, in 2003 and 2004. The applicant possesses an Iraqi passport, issued by the Iraqi Embassy in Vienna on 23 January 2007, which was valid until 22 January 2011. 17. On 30 August 2006 the competent administrative authorities established that the applicant’s BH citizenship had been acquired by means of fraudulent conduct, false information and concealment of some relevant facts (notably, the fact that he already possessed BH citizenship when he lodged the second application for naturalisation and that he had used documents issued in two different names) and quashed the decisions of 23 March 1992 and 20 February 1995. On 12 January 2007 the Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina (“the State Court”) quashed the part of the decision of 30 August 2006 concerning the decision of 20 February 1995 and remitted the case for retrial. 18.  Meanwhile, on 6 June 2007 the applicant filed a request for a temporary residence permit. On 28 September 2007 the Aliens Service suspended those proceedings pending the final resolution of the applicant’s citizenship status. 19.  On 27 November 2008 the competent administrative authorities quashed the decision of 20 February 1995 again. On 3 December 2009 the State Court upheld that decision. On 1 February 2010 the applicant appealed to the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina (“the Constitutional Court”). It appears that those proceedings are still pending. This does not, however, prevent the applicant’s potential deportation, as he became an unlawful resident from the moment of the notification of the decision of 27 November 2008. The applicant, on the other hand, claimed that he still possesses BH citizenship based on a decision of 12 January 1995 (see paragraph 16 above). That decision was, however, issued in the name of another person (Awad Fadhil) and cannot, therefore, confer any rights on the applicant, as was confirmed in the Government’s observations on the admissibility and merits of the case. 20.   On 23 June 2009 the Aliens Service established that the applicant was a threat to national security and placed him in Istočno Sarajevo Immigration Centre. It relied on secret intelligence reports. On 30 June 2009 the State Court, having assessed the secret evidence, upheld that decision. On 17 September 2009 the Constitutional Court dismissed the applicant’s appeal as manifestly ill-founded. The initial detention period had been extended on a monthly basis until April 2011 when the applicant was released (see paragraph 26 below). 21.  After the decision revoking the applicant’s citizenship of 27 November 2008 had become final, the proceedings before the Aliens Service concerning a request for a temporary residence permit were resumed at the applicant’s request (see paragraph 18 above). On 8 January 2010 the Aliens Service refused his request and granted him a period for voluntary departure of fifteen days. On 2 March 2010 the Ministry of Security upheld that decision. On 1 June 2010 the State Court upheld the decision of 2 March 2010. On 21 April 2011 the applicant appealed to the Constitutional Court. It would appear that those proceedings are still pending. 22.  On 17 February 2010 the applicant claimed asylum. He maintained that Iraqi citizens who had joined the foreign mujahedin during the war in Bosnia and Herzegovina were treated in Iraq as suspected terrorists and were subjected to ill-treatment. He added that his friend had informed him that his name was on a “black list” and that his family was subjected to threats and ill-treatment due to their affiliation with the Ba’ath Party. The applicant also claimed that he would be persecuted by Shia Muslims and Kurds upon his return to Iraq (Kirkuk) because he is a Sunni Muslim. 23.  On 23 February 2010 the Asylum Service interviewed the applicant in the presence of his lawyer and a UNHCR representative. It also had regard to reports of the US Department of State, the UNHCR, the International Organization for Migration and the UK Border Agency on Iraq. At the interview the applicant stated that he has visited Iraq twice since the change of regime, in 2003 and 2004. During both visits he stayed with his family in Kirkuk. In 2003 he went to visit his sick father and stayed for one and a half months. He took care of his father and accompanied him to the hospital on several occasions. In 2004 the applicant went to Kirkuk to hold a commemoration for his father and remained there for the whole month of Ramadan and the Bayram holiday. However, he claimed that during these visits he had been forced to hide in fear of the Kurdish authorities as his friend had told him that he was under surveillance and that his name was on a “black list”. The applicant further claimed that in his subsequent contact with his family, after he had returned to Bosnia and Herzegovina, they had told him that the Kurds had searched their home looking for him. On 4 March 2010 the Asylum Service refused the asylum claim and granted him a period for voluntary departure of fifteen days. The Asylum Service held that the applicant’s statements were contradictory and that he had not provided any evidence in support of his claims. 24.  On 26 May 2010 the State Court quashed that decision and remitted the case for a retrial stating that the Asylum Service should make a more thorough assessment of the applicant’s claim. On 21 June 2010 the Asylum Service refused the applicant’s request for asylum and granted him a period for voluntary departure of fifteen days. On 22 September 2010 the Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina upheld that decision. On 19 November 2010 the applicant appealed to the Constitutional Court against that decision. On 9 February 2011 the Constitutional Court dismissed the applicant’s appeal as manifestly ill-founded. It held that, although the general situation in Iraq was insecure and problematic, the applicant had not proved that there was a real risk of treatment contrary to Article 3 of the Convention on account of his personal circumstances. 25.  On 8 November 2010 the Aliens Service issued a deportation order accompanied with an entry ban for a period of five years. It stated, however, that removal directions would not be issued for as long as the Court’s interim measure was in force. On 3 December 2010 the Ministry of Security upheld that decision. On 16 March 2011 the State Court also upheld the deportation order. An appeal is pending before the Constitutional Court. 26.  On 5 April 2011 the State Court ordered the applicant’s immediate release from the immigration centre, quashing the last extension order (of 21 March 2011) as unlawful. It held that the relevant authorities had not provided any new evidence as a basis for the applicant’s continued detention. Furthermore, it prescribed the lesser measure of surveillance limiting the applicant’s freedom of movement to his home address in Zenica with the obligation to report daily to the Aliens Service field office in Zenica. It also ordered the confiscation of the applicant’s Iraqi passport and other personal documents he might use in an attempt to leave the country. The applicant was released from detention on 7 April 2011.