13.  The applicant, Mr Nikolay Mikhaylovich Rantsev, is a Russian national who was born in 1938 and lives in Svetlogorsk, Russia. He is the father of Ms Oxana Rantseva, also a Russian national, born in 1980. 14.  The facts of the case, as established by the submissions of the parties and the material submitted by them, in particular the witness statements taken by the Cypriot police, may be summarised as follows. 15.  Oxana Rantseva arrived in Cyprus on 5 March 2001. On 13 February 2001, X.A., the owner of a cabaret in Limassol, had applied for an “artiste” visa and work permit for Ms Rantseva to allow her to work as an artiste in his cabaret (see further paragraph 115 below). The application was accompanied by a copy of Ms Rantseva’s passport, a medical certificate, a copy of an employment contract (apparently not yet signed by Ms Rantseva) and a bond, signed by [X.A.] Agencies, in the following terms (original in English):
“KNOW ALL MEN BY THESE PRESENTS that I [X.A.] of L/SSOL Am bound to the Minister of the Interior of the Republic of Cyprus in the sum of £150 to be paid to the said Minister of the Interior or other the [sic] Minister of Interior for the time being or his attorney or attorneys.
Sealed with my seal.
Dated the 13th day of February 2001
WHEREAS Ms Oxana RANTSEVA of RUSSIA
Hereinafter called the immigrant, (which expression shall where the context so admits be deemed to include his heirs, executors, administrators and assigns) is entering Cyprus and I have undertaken that the immigrant shall not become in need of relief in Cyprus during a period of five years from the date hereof and I have undertaken to replay [sic] to the Republic of Cyprus any sum which the Republic of Cyprus may pay for the relief or support of the immigrant (the necessity for which relief and support the Minister shall be the sole judge) or for the axpenses [sic] of repatriating the immigrant from Cyprus within a period of five years from the date hereof.
NOW THE CONDITION OF THE ABOVE WRITTEN BOND is such that if the immigrant or myself, my heirs, executors, administrators and assigns shall repay to the Republic of Cyprus on demand any sum which the Republic of Cyprus may have paid as aforesaid for the relief or Support of the immigrant or for the expenses of repatriation of the immigrant from Cyprus then the above written bond shall be void but otherwise shall remain in full force.” 16.  Ms Rantseva was granted a temporary residence permit as a visitor until 9 March 2001. She stayed in an apartment with other young women working in X.A.’s cabaret. On 12 March 2001 she was granted a permit to work until 8 June 2001 as an artiste in a cabaret owned by X.A. and managed by his brother, M.A. She began work on 16 March 2001. 17.  On 19 March 2001, at around 11a.m., M.A. was informed by the other women living with Ms Rantseva that she had left the apartment and taken all her belongings with her. The women told him that she had left a note in Russian saying that she was tired and wanted to return to Russia. On the same date M.A. informed the Immigration Office in Limassol that Ms Rantseva had abandoned her place of work and residence. According to M.A.’s subsequent witness statement, he wanted Ms Rantseva to be arrested and expelled from Cyprus so that he could bring another girl to work in the cabaret. However, Ms Rantseva’s name was not entered on the list of persons wanted by the police. 18.  On 28 March 2001, at around 4 a.m., Ms Rantseva was seen in a discotheque in Limassol by another cabaret artiste. Upon being advised by the cabaret artiste that Ms Rantseva was in the discotheque, M.A. called the police and asked them to arrest her. He then went to the discotheque together with a security guard from his cabaret. An employee of the discotheque brought Ms Rantseva to him. In his subsequent witness statement, M.A. said (translation):
“When [Ms Rantseva] got in to my car, she did not complain at all or do anything else. She looked drunk and I just told her to come with me. Because of the fact that she looked drunk, we didn’t have a conversation and she didn’t talk to me at all.” 19.  M.A. took Ms Rantseva to Limassol Central Police Station, where two police officers were on duty. He made a brief statement in which he set out the circumstances of Ms Rantseva’s arrival in Cyprus, her employment and her subsequent disappearance from the apartment on 19 March 2001. According to the statement of the police officer in charge when they arrived (translation):
 “On 28 March 2001, slightly before 4a.m., [M.A.] found [Ms Rantseva] in the nightclub Titanic ... he took her and led her to the police station stating that Ms Rantseva was illegal and that we should place her in the cells. He ([M.A.]) then left the place (police station).” 20.  The police officers then contacted the duty passport officer at his home and asked him to look into whether Ms Rantseva was illegal. After investigating, he advised them that her name was not in the database of wanted persons. He further advised that there was no record of M.A.’s complaint of 19 March 2001 and that, in any case, a person did not become illegal until 15 days after a complaint was made. The passport officer contacted the person in charge of the AIS (Police Aliens and Immigration Service), who gave instructions that Ms Rantseva was not to be detained and that her employer, who was responsible for her, was to pick her up and take her to their Limassol Office for further investigation at 7 a.m. that day. The police officers contacted M.A. to ask him to collect Ms Rantseva. M.A. was upset that the police would not detain her and refused to come and collect her. The police officers told him that their instructions were that if he did not take her they were to allow her to leave. M.A. became angry and asked to speak to their superior. The police officers provided a telephone number to M.A. The officers were subsequently advised by their superior that M.A. would come and collect Ms Rantseva. Both officers, in their witness statements, said that Ms Rantseva did not appear drunk. The officer in charge said (translation):
“Ms Rantseva remained with us ... She was applying her make-up and did not look drunk ... At around 5.20a.m. ... I was ... informed that [M.A.] had come and picked her up...” 21.  According to M.A.’s witness statement, when he collected Ms Rantseva from the police station, he also collected her passport and the other documents which he had handed to the police when they had arrived. He then took Ms Rantseva to the apartment of M.P., a male employee at his cabaret. The apartment M.P. lived in with his wife, D.P., was a split-level apartment with the entrance located on the fifth floor of a block of flats. According to M.A., they placed Ms Rantseva in a room on the second floor of the apartment. In his police statement, he said:
“She just looked drunk and did not seem to have any intention to do anything. I did not do anything to prevent her from leaving the room in [the] flat where I had taken her.” 22.  M.A. said that M.P. and his wife went to sleep in their bedroom on the second floor and that he stayed in the living room of the apartment where he fell asleep. The apartment was arranged in such a way that in order to leave the apartment by the front door, it would be necessary to pass through the living room. 23.  M.P. stated that he left his work at the cabaret “Zygos” in Limassol at around 3.30 a.m. and went to the “Titanic” discotheque for a drink. Upon his arrival there he was informed that the girl they had been looking for, of Russian origin, was in the discotheque. Then M.A. arrived, accompanied by a security guard from the cabaret, and asked the employees of “Titanic” to bring the girl to the entrance. M.A., Ms Rantseva and the security guard then all got into M.A.’s car and left. At around 4.30 a.m. M.P. returned to his house and went to sleep. At around 6 a.m. his wife woke him up and informed him that M.A. had arrived together with Ms Rantseva and that they would stay until the Immigration Office opened. He then fell asleep. 24.  D.P. stated that M.A. brought Ms Rantseva to the apartment at around 5.45 a.m.. She made coffee and M.A. spoke with her husband in the living room. M.A. then asked D.P. to provide Ms Rantseva with a bedroom so that she could get some rest. D.P. stated that Ms Rantseva looked drunk and did not want to drink or eat anything. According to D.P., she and her husband went to sleep at around 6 a.m. while M.A. stayed in the living room. Having made her statement, D.P. revised her initial description of events, now asserting that her husband had been asleep when M.A. arrived at their apartment with Ms Rantseva. She stated that she had been scared to admit that she had opened the door of the apartment on her own and had had coffee with M.A.. 25.  At around 6.30 a.m. on 28 March 2001, Ms Rantseva was found dead on the street below the apartment. Her handbag was over her shoulder. The police found a bedspread looped through the railing of the smaller balcony adjoining the room in which Ms Rantseva had been staying on the upper floor of the apartment, below which the larger balcony on the fifth floor was located. 26.  M.A. claimed that he woke at 7 a.m. in order to take Ms Rantseva to the Immigration Office. He called to D.P. and M.P. and heard D.P. saying that the police were in the street in front of the apartment building. They looked in the bedroom but Ms Rantseva was not there. They looked out from the balcony and saw a body in the street. He later discovered that it was Ms Rantseva. 27.  D.P. claimed that she was woken by M.A. knocking on her door to tell her that Ms Rantseva was not in her room and that they should look for her. She looked for her all over the apartment and then noticed that the balcony door in the bedroom was open. She went out onto the balcony and saw the bedspread and realised what Ms Rantseva had done. She went onto another balcony and saw a body lying on the street, covered by a white sheet and surrounded by police officers. 28.  M.P. stated that he was woken up by noise at around 7 a.m. and saw his wife in a state of shock; she told him that Ms Rantseva had fallen from the balcony. He went into the living room where he saw M.A. and some police officers. 29.  In his testimony of 28 March 2001, G.A. stated that on 28 March 2001, around 6.30 a.m., he was smoking on his balcony, located on the first floor of M.P. and D.P.’s building. He said:
“I saw something resembling a shadow fall from above and pass directly in front of me. Immediately afterwards I heard a noise like something was breaking ... I told my wife to call the police ... I had heard nothing before the fall and immediately afterwards I did not hear any voices. She did not scream during the fall. She just fell as if she were unconscious ... Even if there had been a fight (in the apartment on the fifth floor) I would not have been able to hear it.” 30.  The Cypriot Government advised the Court that the original investigation file had been destroyed in light of the internal policy to destroy files after a period of five years in cases where it was concluded that death was not attributable to a criminal act. A duplicate file, containing all the relevant documents with the exception of memo sheets, has been provided to the Court by the Government. 31.  The file contains a report by the officer in charge of the investigation. The report sets out the background facts, as ascertained by forensic and crime scene evidence, and identifies 17 witnesses: M.A., M.P. D.P., G.A., the two police officers on duty at Limassol Police Station, the duty passport officer, eight police officers who attended the scene after Ms Rantseva’s fall, the forensic examiner and the laboratory technician who analysed blood and urine samples. 32.  The report indicates that minutes after receiving the call from G.A.’s wife, shortly after 6.30 a.m., the police arrived at the apartment building. They sealed off the scene at 6.40 a.m. and began an investigation into the cause of Ms Rantseva’s fall. They took photographs of the scene, including photographs of the room in the apartment where Ms Rantseva had stayed and photographs of the balconies. The forensic examiner arrived at 9.30 a.m. and certified death. An initial forensic examination took place at the scene 33.  On the same day, the police interviewed M.A., M.P. and D.P. as well as G.A.. They also interviewed the two police officers who had seen M.A. and Ms Rantseva at Limassol Police Station shortly before Ms Rantseva’s death and the duty passport officer (relevant extracts and summaries of the statements given is included in the facts set out above at paragraphs 17 to 29). Of the eight police officers who attended the scene, the investigation file includes statements made by six of them, including the officer placed in charge of the investigation. There is no record of any statements being taken either from other employees of the cabaret where Ms Rantseva worked or from the women with whom she briefly shared an apartment. 34.  When he made his witness statement on 28 March 2001, M.A. handed Ms Rantseva’s passport and other documents to the police. After the conclusion and signature of his statement, he added a clarification regarding the passport, indicating that Ms Rantseva had taken her passport and documents when she left the apartment on 19 March 2001. 35.  On 29 March 2001 an autopsy was carried out by the Cypriot authorities. The autopsy found a number of injuries on Ms Rantseva’s body and to her internal organs. It concluded that these injuries resulted from her fall and that the fall was the cause of her death. It is not clear when the applicant was informed of the results of the autopsy. According to the applicant, he was not provided with a copy of the autopsy report and it is unclear whether he was informed in any detail of the conclusions of the report, which were briefly summarised in the findings of the subsequent inquest. 36.  On 5 August 2001 the applicant visited Limassol Police Station together with a lawyer and spoke to the police officer who had received Ms Rantseva and M.A. on 28 March 2001. The applicant asked to attend the inquest. According to a later statement by the police officer, dated 8 July 2002, the applicant was told by the police during the visit that his lawyer would be informed of the date of the inquest hearing before the District Court of Limassol. 37.  On 10 October 2001 the applicant sent an application to the District Court of Limassol, copied to the General Procurator’s Office of the Republic of Cyprus and the Russian Consulate in the Republic of Cyprus. He referred to a request of 8 October 2001 of the Procurator’s Office of the Chelyabinsk region concerning legal assistance (see paragraph 48 below) and asked to exercise his right to familiarise himself with the materials of the case before the inquest hearing, to be present at the hearing and to be notified in due time of the date of the hearing. He also advised that he wished to present additional documents to the court in due course. 38.  The inquest proceedings were fixed for 30 October 2001 and, according to the police officer’s statement of 8 July 2002 (see paragraph 36 above), the applicant’s lawyer was promptly informed. However, neither she nor the applicant appeared before the District Court. The case was adjourned to 11 December 2001 and an order was made that the Russian Embassy be notified of the new date so as to inform the applicant. 39.  In a facsimile dated 20 October 2001 and sent on 31 October 2001 to the District Court of Limassol, copied to the General Procurator’s Office of the Republic of Cyprus and the Russian Consulate in the Republic of Cyprus, the applicant asked for information regarding the inquest date to be sent to his new place of residence. 40.  On 11 December 2001 the applicant did not appear before the District Court and the inquest was adjourned until 27 December 2001. 41.  On 27 December 2001 the inquest took place before the Limassol District Court in the absence of the applicant. The court’s verdict of the same date stated, inter alia (translation):
 “At around 6.30 a.m. on [28 March 2001] the deceased, in an attempt to escape from the afore-mentioned apartment and in strange circumstances, jumped into the void as a result of which she was fatally injured...
My verdict is that MS OXANA RANTSEVA died on 28 March 2001, in circumstances resembling an accident, in an attempt to escape from the apartment in which she was a guest (εφιλοξενείτο).
There is no evidence before me that suggests criminal liability of a third person for her death”. 42.  Ms Rantseva’s body was transferred to Russia on 8 April 2001. 43.  On 9 April 2001 the applicant requested the Chelyabinsk Regional Bureau of Medical Examinations (“the Chelyabinsk Bureau”) to perform an autopsy of the body. He further requested the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation and the General Prosecutor’s Office to investigate Ms Rantseva’s death in Cyprus. On 10 May 2001 the Chelyabinsk Bureau issued its report on the autopsy. 44.  In particular the following was reported in the forensic diagnosis (translation provided):
“It is a trauma from falling down from a large height, the falling on a plane of various levels, politrauma of the body, open cranial trauma: multiple fragmentary comminuted fracture of the facial and brain skull, multiple breeches of the brain membrane on the side of the brain vault and the base of the skull in the front brain pit, haemorrhages under the soft brain membranes, haemorrhages into the soft tissues, multiple bruises, large bruises and wounds on the skin, expressed deformation of the head in the front-to-back direction, closed dull trauma of the thorax with injuries of the thorax organs..., contusion of the lungs along the back surface, fracture of the spine in the thorax section with the complete breach of the marrow and its displacement along and across ...
Alcohol intoxication of the medium degree: the presence of ethyl alcohol in the blood 1,8%, in the urine -2,5%.” 45.  The report’s conclusions included the following:
“The color and the look of bruises, breaches and wounds as well as hemorrhages with the morphological changes of the same type in the injured tissues indicates, without any doubt, that the traumas happened while she was alive, as well as the fact, that they happened not very long before death, within a very short time period, one after another.
During the forensic examination of the corpse of Rantseva O.N. no injuries resulting from external violence, connected with the use of various firearms, various sharp objects and weapons, influence of physical and chemical reagents or natural factors have been established. ... During the forensic chemical examination of the blood and urine, internal organs of the corpse no narcotic, strong or toxic substances are found. Said circumstances exclude the possibility of the death of Rantseva O.N. from firearms, cold steel, physical, chemical and natural factors as well as poisoning and diseases of various organs and systems. ...
Considering the location of the injuries, their morphological peculiarities, as well as certain differences, discovered during the morphological and histological analysis and the response of the injured tissues we believe that in this particular case a trauma from falling down from the great height took place, and it was the result of the so-called staged/bi-moment fall on the planes of various levels during which the primary contact of the body with an obstacle in the final phase of the fall from the great height was by the back surface of the body with a possible sliding and secondary contact by the front surface of the body, mainly the face with the expressed deformation of the head in the front-to-back direction due to shock-compressive impact...
During the forensic chemical examination of the corpse of Rantseva O.N. in her blood and urine we found ethyl spirits 1,8 and 2,5 correspondingly, which during her life might correspond to medium alcohol intoxication which is clinically characterized by a considerable emotional instability, breaches in mentality and orientation in space in time.” 46.  On 9 August 2001 the Russian Embassy in Cyprus requested from the chief of Limassol police station copies of the investigation files relating to Ms Rantseva’s death. 47.  On 13 September 2001 the applicant applied to the Public Prosecutor of the Chelyabinsk region requesting the Prosecutor to apply on his behalf to the Public Prosecutor of Cyprus for legal assistance free of charge as well as an exemption from court expenses for additional investigation into the death of his daughter on the territory of Cyprus. 48.  By letter dated 11 December 2001 the Deputy General Prosecutor of the Russian Federation advised the Minister of Justice of the Republic of Cyprus that the Public Prosecutor’s Office of the Chelyabinsk region had conducted an examination in respect of Ms Rantseva’s death, including a forensic medical examination. He forwarded a request, dated 8 October 2001, under the European Convention on Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters (“the Mutual Assistance Convention” – see paragraphs 175 to 178 below) and the Treaty between the USSR and the Republic of Cyprus on Civil and Criminal Matters 1984 (“the Legal Assistance Treaty” – see paragraphs 179 to 185 below), for legal assistance for the purposes of establishing all the circumstances of Ms Rantseva’s death and bringing to justice guilty parties, under Cypriot legislation. The request included the findings of the Russian authorities as to the background circumstances; it is not clear how the findings were reached and what, if any, investigation was conducted independently by the Russian authorities. 49.  The findings stated, inter alia, as follows (translation provided):
“The police officers refused to arrest Rantseva O.N. due to her right to stay on the territory of Cyprus without the right to work for 14 days, i.e. until April 2, 2001. Then Mr [M.A.] suggested to detain Rantseva O.N. till the morning as a drunken person. He was refused, since, following the explanations provided by the police officers Rantseva O.N. looked like a sober person, behaved decently, was calm, was laying make-up. M.A., together with an unestablished person, at 5.30a.m. on March 28, 2001 took Rantseva O.N. from the regional police precinct and brought her to the apartment of [D.P.] ... where [they] organised a meal, and then, at 6.30a.m. locked Rantseva O.N. in a room of the attic of the 7th floor of said house.” 50.  The request highlighted the conclusion of the experts at the Chelyabinsk Bureau of Forensic Medicine that there had been two stages in Ms Rantseva’s fall, first on her back and then on her front. The request noted that this conclusion contradicted the findings made in the Cypriot forensic examination that Ms Rantseva’s death had resulted from a fall face-down.  It further noted:
“It is possible to suppose, that at the moment of her falling down the victim could cry from horror. However, it contradicts the materials of the investigation, which contain the evidence of an inhabitant of the 2nd floor of this row of loggias, saying that a silent body fell down on the asphalt ...” 51.  The report concluded:
“Judging by the report of the investigator to Mr Rantsev N.M., the investigation ends with the conclusion that the death of Rantseva O.N. took place under strange and un-established circumstances, demanding additional investigation.” 52.  The Prosecutor of the Chelyabinsk region therefore requested, in accordance with the Legal Assistance Treaty, that further investigation be carried out into the circumstances of Ms Rantseva’s death in order to identify the cause of death and eliminate the contradictions in the available evidence; that persons having any information concerning the circumstances of the death be identified and interviewed; that the conduct of the various parties be considered from the perspective of bringing murder and/or kidnapping and unlawful deprivation of freedom charges, and in particular that M.A. be investigated; that the applicant be informed of the materials of the investigation; that the Russian authorities be provided with a copy of the final decisions of judicial authorities as regards Ms Rantseva’s death; and that the applicant be granted legal assistance free of charge and be exempted from paying court expenses. 53.  On 27 December 2001 the Russian Federation wrote to the Cypriot Ministry of Justice requesting, on behalf of the applicant, that criminal proceedings be instituted in respect of Ms Rantseva’s death, that the applicant be joined as a victim in the proceedings and that he be granted free legal assistance. 54.  On 16 April 2002 the Russian Embassy in Cyprus conveyed to the Cypriot Ministry of Justice and Public Order the requests dated 11 December and 27 December 2001 of the General Prosecutor’s Office of the Russian Federation, made under the Legal Assistance Treaty, for legal assistance concerning Ms Rantseva’s death. 55.  On 25 April 2002 the Office of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation reiterated its request for the institution of criminal proceedings in connection with Ms Rantseva’s death and the applicant’s request to be added as a victim to the proceedings in order to submit his further evidence, as well as his request for legal aid. It requested the Cypriot Government to provide an update and advise of any decisions that had been taken. 56.  On 25 November 2002, the applicant applied to the Russian authorities to be recognised as a victim in the proceedings concerning his daughter’s death and reiterated his request for legal assistance. The request was forwarded by the Office of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation to the Cypriot Ministry of Justice. 57.  By letter of 27 December 2002 the Assistant to the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation wrote to the Cypriot Ministry of Justice referring to the detailed request made by the applicant for the initiation of criminal proceedings in connection with the death of his daughter and for legal aid in Cyprus, which had previously been forwarded to the Cypriot authorities pursuant to the Mutual Assistance Convention and the Legal Assistance Treaty. The letter noted that no information had been received and requested that a response be provided. 58.  On 13 January 2003 the Russian Embassy wrote to the Cypriot Ministry of Foreign Affairs requesting an expedited response to its request for legal assistance in respect of Ms Rantseva’s death. 59.  By letters of 17 and 31 January 2003 the Office of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation noted that it had received no response from the Cypriot authorities in relation to its requests for legal assistance, the contents of which it repeated. 60.  On 4 March 2003 the Cypriot Ministry of Justice informed the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation that its request had been duly executed by the Cypriot police. A letter from the Chief of Police, and the police report of 8 July 2002 recording the applicant’s visit to Limassol Police Station in August 2001 were enclosed. 61.  On 19 May 2003 the Russian Embassy wrote to the Cypriot Ministry of Foreign Affairs requesting an expedited response to its request for legal assistance in respect of Ms Rantseva’s death. 62.  On 5 June 2003 the Office of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation submitted a further request pursuant to the Legal Assistance Treaty. It requested that a further investigation be conducted into the circumstances of Ms Rantseva’s death as the verdict of 27 December 2001 was unsatisfactory. In particular, it noted that despite the strange circumstances of the incident and the acknowledgment that Ms Rantseva was trying to escape from the flat where she was held, the verdict did not make any reference to the inconsistent testimonies of the relevant witnesses or contain any detailed description of the findings of the autopsy carried out by the Cypriot authorities. 63.  On 8 July 2003 the Russian Embassy wrote to the Cypriot Ministry of Foreign Affairs requesting a reply to its previous requests as a matter of urgency. 64.  On 4 December 2003 the Commissioner for Human Rights of the Russian Federation forwarded the applicant’s complaint about the inadequate reply from the Cypriot authorities to the Cypriot Ombudsman. 65.  On 17 December 2003, in reply to the Russian authorities’ request (see paragraph 52 above), the Cypriot Ministry of Justice forwarded to the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation a further report prepared by the Cypriot police and dated 17 November 2003. The report was prepared by one of the officers who had attended the scene on 28 March 2001 and provided brief responses to the questions posed by the Russian authorities. The report reiterated that witnesses had been interviewed and statements taken. It emphasised that all the evidence was taken into consideration by the inquest. It continued as follows (translation):
 “At about 6.30a.m. on 28 March 2001 the deceased went out onto the balcony of her room through the balcony door, climbed down to the balcony of the first floor of the apartment with the assistance of a bedspread which she tied to the protective railing of the balcony. She carried on her shoulder her personal bag. From that point, she clung to the aluminium protective railing of the balcony so as to climb down to the balcony of the apartment on the floor below in order to escape. Under unknown circumstances, she fell into the street, as a result of which she was fatally injured.” 66.  The report observed that it was not known why Ms Rantseva left the apartment on 19 March 2001 but on the basis of the investigation (translation):
“... it is concluded that the deceased did not want to be expelled from Cyprus and because her employer was at the entrance of the flat where she was a guest, she decided to take the risk of trying to climb over the balcony, as a result of which she fell to the ground and died instantaneously.” 67.  As to the criticism of the Cypriot autopsy and alleged inconsistencies in the forensic evidence between the Cypriot and Russian authorities, the report advised that these remarks had been forwarded to the Cypriot forensic examiner who had carried out the autopsy. His response was that his own conclusions were sufficient and that no supplementary information was required. Finally, the report reiterated that the inquest had concluded that there was no indication of any criminal liability for Ms Rantseva’s death. 68.  By letter of 17 August 2005 the Russian Ambassador to Cyprus requested further information about a hearing concerning the case apparently scheduled for 14 October 2005 and reiterated the applicant’s request for free legal assistance. The Cypriot Ministry of Justice responded by facsimile of 21 September 2005 indicating that Limassol District Court had been unable to find any reference to a hearing in the case fixed for 14 October 2005 and requesting clarification from the Russian authorities. 69.  On 28 October 2005 the applicant asked the Russian authorities to obtain testimonies from two young Russian women, now resident in Russia, who had been working with Ms Rantseva at the cabaret in Limassol and could testify about sexual exploitation taking place there. He reiterated his request on 11 November 2005. The Russian authorities replied that they could only obtain such testimonies upon receipt of a request by the Cypriot authorities. 70.  By letter of 22 December 2005 the Office of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation wrote to the Cypriot Ministry of Justice seeking an update on the new inquest into Ms Rantseva’s death and requesting information on how to appeal Cypriot court decisions. The letter indicated that, according to information available, the hearing set for 14 October 2005 had been suspended due to the absence of evidence from the Russian nationals who had worked in the cabaret with Ms Rantseva. The letter concluded with an undertaking to assist in any request for legal assistance by Cyprus aimed at the collection of further evidence. 71.  In January 2006, according to the applicant, the Attorney-General of Cyprus confirmed to the applicant’s lawyer that he was willing to order the re-opening of the investigation upon receipt of further evidence showing any criminal activity. 72.  On 26 January 2006 the Russian Embassy wrote to the Cypriot Ministry of Justice requesting an update on the suspended hearing of 14 October 2005. The Ministry of Justice replied by facsimile on 30 January 2006 confirming that neither the District Court of Limassol nor the Supreme Court of Cyprus had any record of such a hearing and requesting further clarification of the details of the alleged hearing. 73.  On 11 April 2006 the Office of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation wrote to the Cypriot Ministry of Justice requesting an update on the suspended hearing and reiterating its query regarding the appeals procedure in Cyprus. 74.  On 14 April 2006, by letter to the Russian authorities, the Attorney-General of Cyprus advised that he saw no reason to request the Russian authorities to obtain the testimonies of the two Russian citizens identified by the applicant. If the said persons were in the Republic of Cyprus their testimonies could be obtained by the Cypriot police and if they were in Russia, the Russian authorities did not need the consent of the Cypriot authorities to obtain their statements. 75.  On 26 April 2006 the Cypriot Ministry of Justice replied to the Office of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation reiterating its request for more information about the alleged suspended hearing. 76.  On 17 June 2006 the Office of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation wrote to the Attorney-General of Cyprus reminding him of the outstanding requests for renewal of investigations into Ms Rantseva’s death and for information on the progress of judicial proceedings. 77.  On 22 June and 15 August 2006 the applicant reiterated his request to the Russian authorities that statements be taken from the two Russian women. 78.  On 17 October 2006 the Cypriot Ministry of Justice confirmed to the Office of the Prosecutor General of the Russian Federation that the inquest into Ms Rantseva’s death was completed on 27 December 2001 and that it found that her death was the result of an accident. The letter noted:
“No appeal was filed against the decision, because of the lack of additional evidence”. 79.  On 25 October 2006, 27 October 2006, 3 October 2007 and 6 November 2007 the applicant reiterated his request to the Russian authorities that statements be taken from the two Russian women.
II.  REPORTS ON THE SITUATION OF “ARTISTES” IN CYPRUS A.Ex Officio report of the Cypriot Ombudsman on the regime regarding entry and employment of alien women as artistes in entertainment places in Cyprus, 24 November 2003 80.  In November 2003, the Cypriot Ombudsman published a report on “artistes” in Cyprus. In her introduction, she explained the reasons for her report as follows (all quotes are from a translation of the report provided by the Cypriot Government):
“Given the circumstances under which [Oxana] Rantseva had lost her life and in the light of similar cases which have been brought into publicity regarding violence or demises of alien women who arrives in Cyprus to work as ‘artistes’, I have decided to undertake an ex officio investigation ...” 81.  As to the particular facts of Ms Rantseva’s case, she noted the following:
“After formal immigration procedures, she started working on 16 March 2001. Three days later she abandoned the cabaret and the place where she had been staying for reasons which have never been clarified. The employer reported the fact to the Aliens and Immigration Department in Limassol. However, [Oxana] Rantseva’s name was not inserted on the list comprising people wanted by the Police, for unknown reasons, as well.” 82.  She further noted that:
“The reason for which [Oxana] Rantseva was surrendered by the police to her employer, instead of setting her free, since there were [neither] arrest warrant [nor] expulsion decree against her, remained unknown.” 83.  The Ombudsman’s report considered the history of the employment of young foreign women as cabaret artistes, noting that the word “artiste” in Cyprus has become synonymous with “prostitute”. Her report explained that since the mid-1970s, thousands of young women had legally entered Cyprus to work as artistes but had in fact worked as prostitutes in one of the many cabarets in Cyprus. Since the beginning of the 1980s, efforts had been made by the authorities to introduce a stricter regime in order to guarantee effective immigration monitoring and to limit the “well-known and commonly acknowledged phenomenon of women who arrived in Cyprus to work as artistes”. However, a number of the measures proposed had not been implemented due to objections from cabaret managers and artistic agents. 84.  The Ombudsman’s report noted that in the 1990s, the prostitution market in Cyprus started to be served by women coming mainly from former States of the Soviet Union. She concluded that:
“During the same period, one could observe a certain improvement regarding the implementation of those measures and the policy being adopted. However, there was not improvement regarding sexual exploitation, trafficking and mobility of women under a regime of modern slavery.” 85.  As regards the living and working conditions of artistes, the report stated:
“The majority of the women entering the country to work as artistes come from poor families of the post socialist countries. Most of them are educated ... Few are the real artistes. Usually they are aware that they will be compelled to prostitute themselves. However, they do not always know about the working conditions under which they will exercise this job. There are also cases of alien women who come to Cyprus, having the impression that they will work as waitresses or dancers and that they will only have drinks with clients (‘consomation’). They are made by force and threats to comply with the real terms of their work ...
Alien women who do not succumb to this pressure are forced by their employers to appear at the District Aliens and Immigration Branch to declare their wish to terminate their contract and to leave Cyprus on ostensible grounds ... Consequently, the employers can replace them quickly with other artistes ...
The alien artistes from the moment of their entry into the Republic of Cyprus to their departure are under constant surveillance and guard of their employers. After finishing their work, they are not allowed to go wherever they want. There are serious complaints even about cases of artistes who remain locked in their residence place. Moreover, their passports and other personal documents are retained by their employers or artistic agents. Those who refuse to obey are punished by means of violence or by being imposed fees which usually consist in deducting percentages of drinks, ‘consommation’ or commercial sex. Of course these amounts are included in the contracts signed by the artistes.
...
Generally, artistes stay at one or zero star hotels, flats or guest-houses situated near or above the cabarets, whose owners are the artistic agents or the cabaret owners. These places are constantly guarded. Three or four women sleep in each room. According to reports given by the Police, many of these buildings are inappropriate and lack sufficient sanitation facilities.
...Finally, it is noted that at the point of their arrival in Cyprus alien artistes are charged with debts, for instance with traveling expenses, commissions deducted by the artistic agent who brought them in Cyprus or with commissions deducted by the agent who located them in their country etc. Therefore, they are obliged to work under whichever conditions to pay off at least their debts.” (footnotes omitted) 86. Concerning the recruitment of women in their countries of origin, the report noted:
“Locating women who come to work in Cyprus is usually undertaken by local artistic agents in cooperation with their homologues in different countries and arrangements are made between both of them. After having worked for six months maximum in Cyprus, a number of these artistes are sent to Lebanon, Syria, Greece or Germany.” (footnotes omitted) 87.  The Ombudsman observed that the police received few complaints from trafficking victims:
“The police explain that the small number of complaints filed is due to the fear that artistes feel, since they receive threats against their lives on the part of their procurer.” 88.  She further noted that protection measures for victims who had filed complaints were insufficient. Although they were permitted to work elsewhere, they were required to continue working in similar employment. They could therefore be easily located by their former employers. 89.  The Ombudsman concluded:
“The phenomenon of trafficking in person has so tremendously grown worldwide. Trafficking in persons concerns not only sexual exploitation of others but also exploitation of their employment under conditions of slavery and servitude ...
From the data of this report it is observed that over the last two decades Cyprus has not been only a destination country but a transit country where women are systematically promoted to the prostitution market. It follows also that this is also due to a great extent to the tolerance on the part of the immigration authorities, which are fully aware of what really happens.
On the basis of the policy followed as for the issue of entry and employment permits to entertainment and show places, thousands of alien women, with no safety valve, have entered by law the country to work as artistes unlawfully. In various forms of pressure and coercion most of these women are forced by their employers to prostitution under cruel conditions, which infringe upon the fundamental human rights, such as individual freedom and human dignity.” (footnotes omitted) 90.  Although she considered the existing legislative framework to combat trafficking and sexual exploitation satisfactory, she noted that no practical measures had been taken to implement the policies outlined, observing that:
“...The various departments and services dealing with this problem, are often unaware of the matter and have not been properly trained or ignore those obligations enshrined in the Law ...” B.Extracts of report of 12 February 2004 by the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights on his visit to Cyprus in June 2003 (CommDH(2004)2) 91.  The Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights visited Cyprus in June 2003 and in his subsequent report of 12 February 2004, he referred to issues in Cyprus regarding trafficking of women. The report noted, inter alia, that:
“29. It is not at all difficult to understand how Cyprus, given its remarkable economic and tourist development, has come to be a major destination for this traffic in the Eastern Mediterranean region. The absence of an immigration policy and the legislative shortcomings in that respect have merely encouraged the phenomenon.” 92.  As regards the legal framework in place in Cyprus (see paragraphs 127 to 131 below), the Commissioner observed:
“30. The authorities have responded at the normative level. The Act of 2000 (number 3(I), 2000) has established a suitable framework for suppression of trafficking in human beings and sexual exploitation of children. Under the Act, any action identifiable as trafficking in human beings in the light of the Convention for the Suppression of Trafficking in Persons and of the Exploitation and Prostitution of Others, together with other acts of a similar nature specified by law, are an offence punishable by 10 years’ imprisonment, the penalty being increased to 15 years where the victim is under 18 years of age. The offence of sexual exploitation carries a 15 year prison sentence. If committed by persons in the victim’s entourage or persons wielding authority or influence over the victim, the penalty is 20 years in prison. According to the provisions of Article 4, using children for the production and sale of pornographic material is an offence. Article 7 grants State aid, within reasonable limits, to victims of exploitation; such aid comprises subsistence allowance, temporary accommodation, medical care and psychiatric support. Article 8 reaffirms the right to redress by stressing the power of the court to award punitive damages justified by the degree of exploitation or the degree of the accused person’s constraint over the victim. A foreign worker lawfully present in Cyprus who is a victim of exploitation can approach the authorities to find other employment up until the expiry of the initial work permit (Article 9). Lastly, the Council of Ministers, under Article 10, appoints a guardian for victims with the principal duties of counselling and assisting them, examining complaints of exploitation, and having the culprits prosecuted, as well as for pinpointing any deficiency or loophole in the law and for making recommendations with a view to their removal.” 93.  Concerning practical measures, the Commissioner noted:
“31. At a practical level, the Government has made efforts to protect women who have laid a complaint against their employers by permitting them to remain in the country in order to substantiate the charges. In certain cases, the women have remained in Cyprus at government expense during the investigation.” 94.  However, he criticised the failure of the authorities to tackle the problem of the excessive number of young foreign women coming to work in Cypriot cabarets:
“32. However, apart from punitive procedures, preventive control measures could be introduced. By the authorities’ own admission, the number of young women migrating to Cyprus as nightclub artistes is well out of proportion to the population of the island.” C.Extracts of follow-up report of 26 March 2006 by the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights on the progress made in implementing his recommendations (CommDH(2006)12) 95.  On 26 March 2006, the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights published a follow-up report in which he assessed the progress of the Cypriot Government in implementing the recommendations of his previous report. As regards the issue of trafficking, the report observed that:
“48. The Commissioner noted in his 2003 report that the number of young women migrating to Cyprus as nightclub artistes was well out of proportion to the population of the island, and that the authorities should consider introducing preventive control measures to deal with this phenomenon, in conjunction with legislative safeguards. In particular, the Commissioner recommended that the authorities adopt and implement a plan of action against trafficking in human beings.” 96.  The report continued:
“49. The so called ‘cabaret artiste’ visas are in fact permits to enter and work in nightclubs and bars. These permits are valid for 3 months and can be extended for a further 3 months. The permit is applied for by the establishment owner on behalf of the woman in question. Approximately 4,000 permits are issued each year, with 1,200 women working at a given time and most women originating from Eastern Europe. A special information leaflet has been prepared by the Migration Service and translated into four languages. The leaflet is given to women entering the country on such permits, is also available on the website of the Ministry of the Interior and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and copies of the leaflet are sent to the consulates in Russia, Bulgaria, the Ukraine and Romania in order for women to be informed before they enter Cyprus. The leaflet sets out the rights of the women and the responsibilities of their employers. The authorities are aware that many of the women who enter Cyprus on these artistes visas will in fact work in prostitution.” 97.  The Commissioner’s report highlighted recent and pending developments in Cyprus:
“50. A new Law on Trafficking in Human Beings is currently being discussed. The new law will include other forms of exploitation such as labour trafficking as well as trafficking for sexual exploitation. Cyprus has signed but not ratified the Council of Europe Convention on Action Against Trafficking in Human Beings. 51. The Attorney General’s Office has prepared a National Action Plan for the Combating of Human Trafficking. The Action Plan was presented and approved by the Council of Ministers in April 2005. Some NGOs complained of their lack of involvement in the consultation process. The Ministry of the Interior is responsible for the implementation of the Action Plan. According to the Action Plan, women involved in cases of sexual exploitation or procuring are not arrested or charged with any offence, but are considered as victims and are under the care of the Ministry of Labour and Social Security. Victims who will act as witnesses in court trials can reside in Cyprus until the end of the case. They have the possibility of working, or if they do not wish to work, the Ministry will cover all their residential, health and other needs. A special procedures manual has been drafted for the treatment of victims of trafficking, and has been circulated to all ministries and government departments, as well as NGOs for consultation. 52. There is no specific shelter for victims of trafficking at present, although victims may be accommodated by the authorities in two rooms in state-owned retirement homes, which are available in each major town. A shelter in Limassol is due to be opened soon, which will provide accommodation for 15 women, as well as providing the services of a social worker, lawyer, and vocational advisor.” 98.  As regards steps taken to improve information collection and research into trafficking, he noted:
“53. An Office for the Prevention and Combating of Human Trafficking was set up by the police in April 2004. The office’s role is to collect and evaluate intelligence regarding trafficking in human beings, to co-ordinate operations of all police divisions and departments, to organise and participate in operations, and to follow-up on cases that are under investigation, pending trial or presented to the courts. The office also prepares reports on trafficking and investigates child pornography on the Internet. In addition, the office organises educational seminars carried out at the Cyprus Police Academy. 54. According to statistical information provided by the police from 2000 to 2005, there is a clear increase in the number of cases reported concerning offences of sexual exploitation, procuring, and living on the earnings of prostitution, etc. NGOs confirm that awareness about issues relating to trafficking has increased.” 99.  Finally, in respect of preventative measures, the Commissioner highlighted recent positive developments:
“55. Preventive and suppressive measures are also undertaken by the police, such as raids in cabarets, inspections, interviews with women, co-operation with mass media, and control of advertisements found in different newspapers. The police provide an anonymous toll-free hotline where anybody can call to seek help or give information. Cabarets which are under investigation are put on a black list and are unable to apply for new visas. 56. Some efforts have been made by the Cypriot authorities to improve victim identification and referral, and in particular, 150 police officers have been trained on this issue. However, according to NGOs a culture still prevails in which women are seen by the police to have ‘consented’ to their predicament and victim identification remains inadequate.” 100. The report reached the following conclusions:
“57. Trafficking in human beings is one of the most pressing and complex Human Rights issues faced by Council of Europe member states, including Cyprus. There is obviously a risk that the young women who enter Cyprus on artiste visas may be victims of trafficking in human beings or later become victims of abuse or coercion. These women are officially recruited as cabaret dancers but are nevertheless often expected also to work as prostitutes. They are usually from countries with inferior income levels to those in Cyprus and may find themselves in a vulnerable position to refuse demands from their employers or clients. The system itself, whereby the establishment owner applies for the permit on behalf of the woman, often renders the woman dependent on her employer or agent, and increases the risk of her falling into the hands of trafficking networks. 58. The Commissioner urges the Cypriot authorities to be especially vigilant about monitoring the situation and ensuring that the system of artiste visas is not used for facilitating trafficking or forced prostitution. In this context, the Commissioner recalls the exemplary reaction of the Luxembourg authorities to similar concerns expressed in his report on the country and their withdrawal of the cabaret artiste visa regime. Changes to the current practice might, at the very least, include women having to apply for the visa themselves, and the information leaflet being given to the women, if possible, before they enter the country. 59. The Commissioner welcomes the new National Action Plan for the Combating of Human Trafficking as a first step in addressing this issue and encourages the Ministry of the Interior to ensure its full implementation. The new law on trafficking, once enacted, will also play an important role. The variety of police activities in response to this phenomenon, such as the setting up of the Office for the Prevention and Combating of Human Trafficking, should also be welcomed. 60. In order to respect the human rights of trafficked persons, the authorities need to be able to identify victims and refer them to specialised agencies which can offer shelter and protection, as well as support services. The Commissioner urges the Cypriot authorities to continue with the training of police officers in victim identification and referral, and encourages the authorities to include women police officers in this area. More effective partnerships with NGOs and other civil society actors should also be developed. The Commissioner expresses his hope that the shelter in Limassol will be put into operation as soon as possible.” D.Extracts of report of 12 December 2008 by the Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights on his visit to Cyprus on 7‑10 July 2008 (CommDH(2008)36) 101.  The Commissioner of Human Rights has recently published a further report following a visit to Cyprus in July 2008. The report comments on the developments in respect of issues relating to trafficking of human beings, emphasising at the outset that trafficking of women for exploitation was a major problem in many European countries, including Cyprus. The report continued as follows:
“33. Already in 2003, the Commissioner for Administration (Ombudswoman) stated that Cyprus had been associated with trafficking both as a country of destination and transit, the majority of women being blackmailed and forced to provide sexual services. In 2008, the island still is a destination country for a large number of women trafficked from the Philippines, Russia, Moldova, Hungary, Ukraine, Greece, Vietnam, Uzbekistan and the Dominican Republic for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation ... Women are reportedly denied part or all of their salaries, forced to surrender their passports, and pressed into providing sexual services for clients. Most of these women are unable to move freely, are forced to work far above normal working hours, and live in desperate conditions, isolated and under strict surveillance. 34. Victims of trafficking are recruited to Cyprus mainly on three-month so-called ‘artiste’ or ‘entertainment’ visas to work in the cabaret industry including night clubs and bars or on tourist visas to work in massage parlours disguised as private apartments ... The permit is sought by the owner of the establishment, in most cases so-called ‘cabarets’, for the women in question. 35. The study conducted by the Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies (MIGS) led to a report on trafficking in human beings published in October 2007. It shows that an estimated 2 000 foreign women enter the island every year with short term ‘artiste’ or ‘entertainment’ work permits. Over the 20-year period 1982-2002, there was a dramatic increase of 111% in the number of cabarets operating on the island ... 36. During his visit the Commissioner learned that there are now approximately 120 cabaret establishments in the Republic of Cyprus, each of them employing around 10 to 15 women ...” (footnotes omitted) 102.  The Commissioner noted that the Government had passed comprehensive anti-trafficking legislation criminalising all forms of trafficking, prescribing up to 20 years’ imprisonment for sexual exploitation and providing for protection and support measures for victims (see paragraphs 127 to 131 below). He also visited the new government-run shelter in operation since November 2007 and was impressed by the facility and the commitment shown by staff. As regards allegations of corruption in the police force, and the report noted as follows:
“42. The Commissioner was assured that allegations of trafficking-related corruption within the police force were isolated cases. The authorities informed the Commissioner that so far, three disciplinary cases involving human trafficking/prostitution have been investigated: one resulted in an acquittal and two are still under investigation. In addition, in 2006, a member of the police force was sentenced to 14 months imprisonment and was subsequently dismissed from service following trafficking related charges.” 103.  The report drew the following conclusions in respect of the artiste permit regime in Cyprus:
“45. The Commissioner reiterates that trafficking in women for the purposes of sexual exploitation is a pressing and complex human rights issues faced by a number of Council of Europe member States, including Cyprus. A paradox certainly exists that while the Cypriot government has made legislative efforts to fight trafficking in human beings and expressed its willingness through their National Action Plan 2005, it continues to issue work permits for so-called cabaret artistes and licences for the cabaret establishments. While on paper the permits are issued to those women who will engage in some type of artistic performance, the reality is that many, if not most, of these women are expected to work as prostitutes. 46. The existence of the ‘artiste’ work permit leads to a situation which makes it very difficult for law enforcement authorities to prove coercion and trafficking and effectively combat it. This type of permit could thus be perceived as contradicting the measures taken against trafficking or at least as rendering them ineffective. 47. For these reasons, the Commissioner regrets that the ‘artiste’ work permit is still in place today despite the fact that the government has previously expressed its commitment to abolish it. It seems that the special information leaflet given to women entering the country on such a permit is of little effect, even though the woman needs to have read and signed the leaflet in the presence of an official. 104.  The Commissioner also reiterated the importance of a well-trained and motivated police force in the fight against trafficking in human beings and encouraged the authorities to ensure adequate and timely victim identification. 105.  In its 2008 report on trafficking, the U.S. State Department noted that:
“Cyprus is a destination country for a large number of women trafficked from the Philippines, Russia, Moldova, Hungary, Ukraine, Greece, Vietnam, Uzbekistan, and the Dominican Republic for the purpose of commercial sexual exploitation ... Most victims of trafficking are fraudulently recruited to Cyprus on three-month ‘artiste’ work permits to work in the cabaret industry or on tourist visas to work in massage parlors disguised as private apartments.” 106.  The report found that Cyprus had failed to provide evidence that it had increased its efforts to combat severe forms of trafficking in persons from the previous year. 107.  The report recommended that the Cypriot Government:
“Follow through with plans to abolish, or greatly restrict use of the artiste work permit—a well-known conduit for trafficking; establish standard operating procedures to protect and assist victims in its new trafficking shelter; develop and launch a comprehensive demand reduction campaign specifically aimed at clients and the larger public to reduce wide-spread misconceptions about trafficking and the cabaret industry; dedicate more resources to its anti-trafficking unit; and improve the quality of trafficking prosecutions to secure convictions and appropriate punishments for traffickers.”