Monitoring build-up of fouling deposits on surfaces of fluid handling systems
SUMMARY 
     In many kinds of liquid handling systems, such as heat exchangers, the surfaces exposed to the liquid can become fouled with deposits to such an extent that the deposits interfere with proper operation. This is particularly true of cooling towers, in which aerated water cascades over the heat exchange surfaces. The build-up is largely biological, as by growth of adherent algae and slime, and may also be partly chemical, as by accretion of calcium deposits. 
     Monitoring of such fouling deposits is achieved by the herein disclosed system. It comprises an annular fouling cell in which a continuous and controlled flow of cooling water passes through a cylindrical casing in which a concentric rotor is driven. As the rotor surfaces and the adjacent casing surfaces become fouled, the drag on the rotor is increased in proportion to the fouling. This drag is sensed by a torque transducer located in the mechanical drive between an electric motor and the concentric rotor of the annular fouling cell. 
     The torque sensor emits a binary signal which is interpreted by a computer interface and central computer, to derive information on both the rotary velocity of and the torque required to drive the cylindrical rotor of the annular fouling reactor. 
     The data thusly collected is stored as digital information on inexpensive cassette tapes. Thus the tedious task, often error-prone, of manual transcription of data is eliminated. The information stored in the cassettes is adapted for further computer analysis, useful in devising control strategies for the expansion of the system for control applications, including automatic feedback control. 
    
    
     VIEWS OF DRAWING 
     FIG. 1 is a general view of the overall biological fouling monitor. 
     FIGS. 2 and 3 are, respectively, longitudinal and radial cross sectional views of the annular fouling reactor, as viewed on the sections 2--2 and 3--3, respectively. 
     FIGS. 4a and 4b are, respectively, top and side views of the removable slide. 
     FIGS. 5a and 5b are, respectively, views of the torque transducer and a torsional spring rod used therein. 
     FIG. 6 is a top view of the torque transducer. 
     FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating the operation of the sectored disks of the torque transducer. 
     FIG. 8 is a schematic of the torque transducer, multiplexing unit and computer interface while 
     FIG. 9 is a table of bias voltages therefor. 
     FIG. 10 is a flow diagram for the basic program. 
     FIG. 11 is a flow diagram for the machine language subroutine used to monitor status of the torque transducer window. 
     FIG. 12 is a schematic of the clock-interrupt circuit used with the Apple microcomputer, while 
     FIG. 13 is a table of bias voltages therefor 
     FIG. 14 is a schematic of the interface between the Apple computer and a tape recorder, enabling the computers output to be automatically recorded, while 
     FIG. 15 is a table of bias voltages therefor. 
    
    
     DETAILED DESCRIPTION 
     Referring to FIG. 1, which is a simplified showing of the overall deposit-build-up monitoring system 10, several major elements thereof can be identified. The annular fouling cell 20 comprises a region, indicated by a legend, through which fluid circulates. This fluid gradually fouls the facing surfaces of rotor 21 and cylindrical casing 22 by build-up of deposits, causing an increasing drag on the rotor shaft. The drag is a measure of the build-up, and is sensed by a torque transducer 30, which is located in the mechanical drive between drive motor 31 and rotor 21. The same drive motor 31 may drive rotors in other annular fouling cells, not shown, each having individual torque transducers, two of which, 30b and 30h are briefly indicated. 
     The electrical output from torque transducer 30 is indicative, by its frequency, of the rotation rate of the rotor 21, and by its duty cycle, of the torque required to drive rotor 21 at that rotation rate. 
     The electrical outputs of all the torque transducers are applied to a time division multiplexing unit 45, which takes the information from each torque transducer and, seriatim, feeds the corresponding individual pieces of information to the computer interface 50. 
     The computer interface 50 controls the sequencing of the multiplexing unit 45 by &#34;polling&#34; it, that is, by indicating to the multiplexing unit 45 which particular piece of information it wants at a particular time, at which time it accepts the information and feeds it to the microcomputer 60. In the prototype embodiment the well known &#34;Apple II Plus&#34; computer was used, but any other general use type computer may be used. 
     The computer 60 has a number of the customary peripherals, adapting the monitoring system for different purposes. 
     Low cost cassette storage 61 and high speed disk storage 62 are provided, permitting information or data to be retained and operated upon. A video monitor 63 is provided for visual read out of data and a printer 64 for hard-copy print-out out of data. An alarm 65 sounds if any of the data indicates an abnormal condition, such as excessive build-up or zero rotation rate for rotor 21. Finally, a time-sharing computer link 65, for manipulation and storage of data beyond the capacity of the low cost system illustrated, is provided. 
     The various portions of the deposit build-up monitoring system 10 of FIG. 1 are explained below, under headings, in greater detail. 
     Annular Fouling Cell 
     The construction of the annular fouling cell 20 is illustrated in FIGS. 2 through 4b. The rotor 21 rotates within cylindrical casing 22. Rotor 21 has four impeller blades 23 which are bridged by an impeller disk 24, and has four longitudinal draft tubes 25. It will be evident that, during rotation of rotor 21, the impellers 23 will act by centrifugal force to propel fluid rapidly outwardly. The propelled fluid then travels upwardly, between the rotor 21 and casing 22 to enter circulating fluid region 26. The draft tubes 25 draw fluid from region 26 to supply the flow to the impellers 23. 
     The fluid circulating region 26 is shown as a region with indefininite boundaries, partly to simplify the presentation. In practice, the annular fouling cell 20 would usually be separate from, say, the cooling tower with which is used, and would be connected to that tower by plastic tubing and a motor driven pump, not shown, to supply a sample of the cooling tower circulating water to inlet nipple 27. The excess circulating water would be returned to the cooling tower from outlet nipple 28. However, the annular fouling cell 20 could also be incorporated integrally into the cooling tower, and, in that case, could operate directly in the pool of cooling tower circulating water. A slide 29 is provided so that a sample of the deposit can be removed for observation of film thickness and density. Slide 29 fits flush into a shallow groove in the inner wall of casing 22, so that the radial annular spacing remains unchanged in the presence of the slide. Thus, growth of deposits is not ununiformly affected by localized variation in circulation. Slide 29 is seen in two views in FIGS. 4a and 4b, and needs no further explanation. 
     It will be noted that there are no concentration gradients in the fluid in the annular fouling cell 10 or in its sampling supply system, not illustrated, due to complete mixing. This simplifies mathematical description and sampling. Since the sample supply to inlet nipple 27 can be independently varied (as by varying the speed of the pump supplying the fluid sample) and since the speed of drive motor 31 can be independently varied, it follows that the mean residence time of fluid in annular fouling cell 20 can be varied independently of the fluid sheer stress in the annular space therein. 
     The following table presents relevant data about a prototype annular reactor which has been tested and found to be satisfactory: 
     
         ______________________________________                                    
RELEVANT CHARACTERISTICS AND DIMENSIONS                                   
OF ANNULAR FOULING CELL                                                   
______________________________________                                    
Liquid Volume          570     cm.sup.3                                   
Total Wetted Surface Area                                                 
                       2000    cm.sup.2                                   
(including draft tubes and                                                
impeller assembly)                                                        
Inner Cylinder Wetted Surface Area                                        
                       1069    cm.sup.2                                   
(including draft tubes and                                                
impeller assembly)                                                        
Outer Cylinder Wetted Surface Area                                        
                       931     cm.sup.2                                   
Diamer of Inner Cylinder                                                  
                       10.5    cm                                         
Width of Annular Gap   0.45    cm                                         
Wetted Height of Inner Cylinder                                           
                       17.4    cm                                         
Wetted Height of Outer Cylinder                                           
                       20.3    cm                                         
Volumetric Flow Rate*  57      cm.sup.3 /min                              
(nutrients plus dilution water)                                           
Mean Fluid Residence Time*                                                
                       10      min                                        
Wetted Surface Area of removable slide                                    
                       60.9    cm.sup.2                                   
Longitudinal dimension of slide                                           
                       22.5    cm                                         
Face dimension of slide                                                   
                       2.9     cm                                         
______________________________________                                    
 *Typical rate used with instant cell. Other rates available and useable. 
 
    
     Torque Transducer 
     The torque transducer 30 and its operation is described with the aid of FIGS. 5a, 5b, 6 and 7. The drive motor 31 of FIG. 1 is coupled to drive shaft 32, which is hollow in the region illustrated in FIG. 5a. Drive shaft 32 is supported by bearings 33, mounted in frame 34. Driven shaft 35, which turns rotor 21 of the annular fouling cell 20 is also hollow in the region illustrated and is supported by bearings 36 in such manner that the shafts 32 and 35 are in accurate alignment. 
     The two shafts 32 and 35 are connected together by torsion bar 39, which consists of a long thin easily twistable spindle having enlarged stub portions at each end. The two stubs respectively fit tightly into the hollows of shafts 32 and 35, and are firmly fixed to their respective said shafts, thereby connecting shafts. The fixing of the stub portions to their respective shafts 32 or 35 can be effected by cement, a low temperature braze, or by swaging or locally indenting the shaft. The torsion bar 39 will drive driven shaft 35 with the rotation of drive shaft 32, but the spindle portion of torsion bar will twist when the driven shaft 35 offers resistance to rotation. The amount of twist, which is a measure of the drag on driven shaft 35, is measured by upper and lower slotted disks 37 and 38, mounted respectively on drive and driven shafts 32 and 35, and optical sensing system 40. 
     The construction of the upper and lower slotted disks 37 and 38 is best seen in FIG. 6, where the lower disk 38 has been shown as slightly larger than the upper disk 37, so that the overlap of lower disk 38 by upper disk 37 will not hide any edges. It will be realized that in practice, the two disks would be constructed alike. From FIGS. 5a and 6 it will be evident that the optical sensing system 40 will be obstructed during most of the time when the disks are rotating, but that an angular window of varying width, depending on the torque being measured, will permit the optical sensing system 40 to be periodically unobstructed. The optical sensing system 40 consists of a light source on one side of the slotted disks 37 and 38 and a photocell on the other side thereof. The photocell current is in the form of a pulse train and is plotted as a function of time, in FIG. 7. This is an idealized plot which does not show the rounding of edges and noise found in real plots. The computer, to be described below, interprets this pulse train as torque and as rotational speed. 
     As the torque varies, the sector slot window opens and closes correspondingly, because the torsion bar 39 twists and untwists. This correspondingly varies the width of the pulse t 1 , as seen in FIG. 7. As the speed varies, the repetition rate of the pulse train, t 2 , correspondingly varies. 
     The following relations hold on this just described system: 
     
         t.sub.1 =θ/Ω 
    
     
         t.sub.2 =360°/Ω 
    
     where θ is the angular width in degrees of the &#34;window&#34; formed by the overlapping slots, and Ω is the rotational speed. θ is proportional to torque, τ. 
     
         θ=kτ 
    
     
         t.sub.1 =kτ/Ω 
    
     
         t.sub.2 =360°/Ω 
    
     and the ratio t 1  /t 2  is proportional to the torque alone: 
     
         t.sub.1 /t.sub.2 =kτ/360° 
    
     Thus, torque can be accurately measured over a wide range of rotational speeds. The constant, k, is determined by static measurement of θ and τ for a range of torques between 0 and 10 inch-ounces. 
     The constant k is stored in the computer, described below, and used to convert the pulse width data to torque. 
     A three-conductor cable, consisting of ground, +7.5 volts, and a signal line connects each torque transducer 30, 30b-30h (FIG. 1) to the multiplexing unit 45. 
     Multiplexing Unit 
     The Multiplexing Unit 45 allows the computer to select and monitor one of 16 torque transducers, and conditions incoming signals to give clean TTL logic level transitions. A schematic of the unit is shown in FIG. 8. 
     The 74LS14 Schmitt trigger-inverters accepts the relatively weak, erratic-pulse trains from the torque transducers and forms therefrom output pulses with well defined edges. These pulse trains are fed to the 74LS150 multiplexer which selects data to be transmitted to the computer. Selection is accomplished by decoding four latched address lines from the computer interface. 
     Computer Interface 
     The Computer Interface 50 consists of an address latch and an input data buffer. 
     The 74LS75 latch &#34;remembers&#34; the last torque transducer polled by the computer and transmits this address to the multiplexing unit. 
     The 74LS367 is a 3-state buffer which gates the pulse data onto the computer data buss when requested by computer software. 
     FIG. 9 is a table of bias voltages used in the circuitry of FIG. 8. 
     Computer Software 
     Computer Software handles the bulk of data manipulation. The main program, which is interactive through keyboard input is written in basic. Machine language subroutines handle the monitoring of build-up of fouling and real-time clock interrupts. A flow diagram of the software is shown in FIG. 10 while a complete listing is contained in the appendix. 
     On power-up the program is entered into memory from disk and starts running. 
     The entry is by a procedure known as booting, in which a few instructions, initially loaded, control further loading of the entire routine. 
     A machine language subroutine, as diagramed in FIG. 11, is called on to measure the pulse rate and pulse width generated by the variable gap &#34;window&#34; from a single torque transducer. This is accomplished by rapidly looping through a program which scans the memory location assigned to the &#34;window&#34; and senses its status. When a fresh &#34;open&#34; status or set condition is sensed, a counter starts incrementing. When a fresh &#34;closed&#34; status is sensed a second counter starts incrementing. When a new &#34;open&#34; status is sensed the subroutine returns control to the Basic Program. 
     The value left in the open status counter is then divided by the sum of the values in the open status counter and closed status counter and multiplied by a calibration factor stored in memory to obtain torque. The sum of the values in the open and closed status counters is multiplied by a second factor to obtain RPM. A zero torque value, either set by default at power-up, or determined experimentally at the beginning of the experiment, is subtracted from the current value to obtain actual torque. 
     A menu of subprogram options may be called up at any time by pressing the &#34;escape&#34; key. These include: 
     (1) Instantaneous RPM display for single annular fouling cells. 
     (2) Automatic zeroing of individual annular fouling cells. 
     (3) The main monitoring, display, and data recording program. 
     (4) Resetting data recording interval. 
     (5) Dump data from tape to printer. 
     (6) Dump data from tape to central computer. 
     Clock Interrupt System 
     Run time display and data recording are controlled by a clock interrupt system. A hardware schematic for the clock is shown in FIG. 12. It consists of a signal conditioner which converts the 60 hertz line signal into 60 hertz TTL logic level pulses with well defined edges, and a frequency divider chain. Finally, a one-shot multivibrator insures that a pulse of approximately 1 msec duration is applied to the interrupt line of the Apple Computer. The clock can be switched to interrupt every second, minute, or every 4 minutes. 
     The clock interrupt servicing routine sets a flag which is periodically checked and reset by the basic program. A time-update subroutine is called if a set flag is encountered. 
     The main program displays the current time and checks the recording interval value to see if it is time to save data. 
     Unlike some computers, the Apple does not automatically start the recorder when it writes to tape. An interface was constructed which accomplishes this. A schematic is shown in FIG. 14. The 311 comparator senses the low level train of sync pulses first transmitted by the Apple. It amplifies these to about +5 V. The 555 timer serves as a retriggerable monostable multivibrator with a pulse width of about one second. As long as the Apple sends data to the recorder, the 555 is on. When data transmission ceases, there is a one second delay before the 555 turns off. The 555 activates a reed relay which is connected to the &#34;Remote&#34; input of the cassette recorder. Thus, whenever information is being transmitted to the tape recorder, the recorder is turned on via the &#34;Remote&#34; switch. 
     Data is stored as a two dimensional array with the cell number as the first dimension and the measured variable as the second dimension. The measured variables are: 
     (1) Identification number of annular fouling cell 
     (2) RPM 
     (3) Average Torque 
     (4) Standard deviation of the average torque 
     (5) Time 
     This amount of data requires an 8 by 5 or 40 element array in storage. 
     Operation 
     To operate the system, the following procedures should be followed: 
     (1) Set sample water flow rate. 
     (2) Switch variable speed motor on and set rotational direction to &#34;reverse&#34;. 
     (3) Make sure overflow is high enough to completely fill the annular fouling cell. 
     (4) Insert blank audio tape in recorder, set to record, and set recorder interface to &#34;Auto&#34;. 
     (5) Insert annular fouling cell monitor disk into disk drive and close door. 
     (6) Turn on Apple Computer-the monitor screen format should appear, and RPM and torque data soon after that. 
     (7) Push &#34;ESC&#34; key to call menu. 
     (8) Select RPM display. 
     (9) Set each pair of annular fouling cells to optimal RPM by adjusting the speed of variable speed motor 31 while watching RPM display. Since two annular fouling cells are driven by a single motor, the speeds will probably be only approximate. 
     (10) Return to the menu. 
     (11) Select torque monitor zeroing. 
     (12) Select experimental zeroing. 
     (13) Zero each torque monitor. 
     (14) Return to the menu and then to &#34;Measure, Display, and Record&#34;. 
     (15) The RPM indications should all be reasonably close to desired set values and the torques should be close to zero with a very low (0.2) standard deviation. 
     (16) Allow zero time data to be recorded. This should occur within one minute. 
     (17) If a recording interval of other than 60 minutes is required, return to the menu and select recording interval change. 
     (18) Return to &#34;Measure, Display, Record&#34;. ##SPC1##