the peptides of the invention bind to the guanylate cyclase ( gc - c ) receptor , a key regulator of fluid and electrolyte balance in the intestine and kidney . when stimulated , this receptor , which is located on the apical membrane of the intestinal epithelial surface , causes an increase in intestinal epithelial cyclic gmp ( cgmp ). this increase in cgmp is believed to cause a decrease in water and sodium absorption and an increase in chloride and potassium ion secretion , leading to changes in intestinal fluid and electrolyte transport and increased intestinal motility . the intestinal gc - c receptor possesses an extracellular ligand binding region , a transmembrane region , an intracellular protein kinase - like region and a cyclase catalytic domain . proposed functions for the gc - c receptor are the fluid and electrolyte homeostasis , the regulation of epithelial cell proliferation and the induction of apoptosis ( shaibhubhai 2002 curr opin drug dis devel 5 : 261 - 268 ). in addition to being expressed in gastrointestinal epithelial cells , gc - c is expressed in extra - intestinal tissues including kidney , lung , pancreas , pituitary , adrenal , developing liver , heart and male and female reproductive tissues ( reviewed in vaandrager 2002 mol cell biochem 230 : 73 - 83 ). this suggests that the gc - c receptor agonists can be used in the treatment of disorders outside the gi tract , for example , congestive heart failure and benign prostatic hyperplasia . ghrelin , a peptide hormone secreted by the stomach , is a key regulator of appetite in humans . ghrelin expression levels are regulated by fasting and by gastric emptying . ( kim et al ., 2003 , neuroreprt 14 : 1317 - 20 ; gualillo et al ., 2003 , febs letts 552 : 105 - 9 ). thus , by increasing gastrointestinal motility , gc - c receptor agonists may also be used to regulate obesity . in humans , the gc - c receptor is activated by guanylin ( gn ) ( u . s . pat . no . 5 , 96 , 097 ), uroguanylin ( ugn ) ( u . s . pat . no . 5 , 140 , 102 ) and lymphoguanylin ( forte et al . 1999 endocrinology 140 : 1800 - 1806 ). many gastrointestinal disorders , including ibs , are associated with abdominal or visceral pain . certain of the peptides of the invention include the analgesic or anti - nociceptive tags such as the carboxy - terminal sequence aspphe immediately following a trp , tyr or phe ( i . e ., a chymotrypsin cleavage site ) or following lys or arg ( a trypsin cleavage site ). chymotrypsin in the intestinal tract will cleave such peptides immediately carboxy terminal to the trp , phe or tyr residue , releasing the dipeptide , aspphe . this dipeptide has been shown to have analgesic activity is animal models ( abdikkahi et al . 2001 fundam clin pharmacol 15 : 117 - 23 ; nikfar et al 1997 , 29 : 583 - 6 ; edmundson et al 1998 clin pharmacol ther 63 : 580 - 93 ). in this manner such peptides can treat both pain and inflammation . other analgesic peptides can be present at the carboxy terminus of the peptide ( following a cleavage site ) including : endomorphin - 1 , endomorphin - 2 , nocistatin , dalargin , lupron , and substance p . as described in greater detail below , various analgesic peptides and compounds can be covalently linked to or used in combination therapy with the therapeutic peptides described herein . in the human body an inactive form of chymotrypsin , chymotrypsinogen is produced in the pancreas . when this inactive enzyme reaches the small intestine it is converted to active chymotrypsin by the excision of two di - peptides . active chymotrypsin will cleave peptides at the peptide bond on the carboxy - terminal side of trp , tyr or phe . the presence of active chymotrypsin in the intestinal tract will lead to cleavage of certain of the peptides of the invention having an appropriately positioned chymotrypsin cleavage site . certain of the peptides of the invention include a trp , tyr or phe immediately followed by a carboxy - terminal analgesic peptide . it is expected that chymotrypsin cleavage will release the analgesic peptide from peptide of the invention having an appropriately positioned chymotrypsin cleavage site as the peptide passes through the intestinal tract . trypsinogen , like chymotrypsin , is a serine protease that is produced in the pancreas and is present in the digestive tract . the active form , trypsin , will cleave peptides having a lys or arg . the presence of active trypsin in the intestinal tract will lead to cleavage of certain of the peptides of the invention having an appropriately positioned trypsin cleavage site . it is expected that chymotrypsin cleavage will release the analgesic peptide from peptide of the invention having an appropriately positioned trypsin cleavage site as the peptide passes through the intestinal tract . in some cases , the peptides of the invention are produced as a prepro protein . the prepro protein can include any suitable prepro sequence , including , for example , mnafllsalc llgawaalag gvtvqdgnfs fslesvkklk dlqepqepry gklrnfapip gepvvpilcs npnfpeelkp lckepnaqei lqrleeiaed ( seq id no :) and mgcraasgll pgvavvllll qstqsvyiq yqgfrvqles mkklsdleaq wapsprlqaq sllpavchhp alpqdlqpvc asqeassifk tlrtia ( seq id no :) or a bacterial leader sequence such as : mkksilfiflsvlsfspfaqdakpvesskekitleskkcniakksnksgpesmn . where the peptide is produced by a bacterial cell , e . g ., e . coli , the forgoing leader sequence will be cleaved and the mature peptide will be efficiently secreted from the bacterial cell . u . s . pat . no . 5 , 395 , 490 describes vectors , expression systems and methods for the efficient production of certain mature peptides having disulfide bonds in bacterial cells and methods for achieving efficient secretion of such mature peptides . the vectors , expression systems and methods described in u . s . pat . no . 5 , 395 , 490 can be used to produce the polypeptides of the present invention . the invention includes variant peptides that can include one , two , three , four , or five or more ( e . g ., 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , or 15 ) amino acid substitutions compared to any of the peptides described above . the substitution ( s ) can be conservative or non - conservative . the naturally - occurring amino acids can be substituted by d - isomers of any amino acid , non - natural amino acids , natural and non - natural amino acid analogs , and other groups . a conservative amino acid substitution results in the alteration of an amino acid for a similar acting amino acid , or amino acid of like charge , polarity , or hydrophobicity . at some positions , even conservative amino acid substitutions can reduce the activity of the peptide . a conservative substitution can substitute a naturally - occurring amino acid for a non - naturally - occurring amino acid . among the naturally occurring amino acid substitutions generally considered conservative are : in some circumstances it can be desirable to treat patients with a variant peptide that binds to and activates intestinal gc - c receptor , but is less active or more active than the non - variant form of the peptide . reduced activity can arise from reduced affinity for the receptor or a reduced ability to activate the receptor once bound or reduced stability of the peptide . increased activity can arise from increased affinity for the receptor or an increased ability to activate the receptor once bound or increased stability of the peptide . in some peptides one or both members of one or both pairs of cys residues which normally form a disulfide bond can be replaced by homocysteine , 3 - mercaptoproline ( kolodziej et al . 1996 int j pept protein res 48 : 274 ); θ , θ dimethylcysteine ( hunt et al . 1993 int j pept protein res 42 : 249 ) or diaminopropionic acid ( smith et al . 1978 j med chem 21 : 117 ) to form alternative internal cross - links at the positions of the normal disulfide bonds . useful peptides can be produced either in bacteria including , without limitation , e . coli , or in other existing systems for peptide or protein production ( e . g ., bacillus subtilis , baculovirus expression systems using drosophila sf9 cells , yeast or filamentous fungal expression systems , mammalian cell expression systems ), or they can be chemically synthesized . if the peptide or variant peptide is to be produced in bacteria , e . g ., e . coli , the nucleic acid molecule encoding the peptide may also encode a leader sequence that permits the secretion of the mature peptide from the cell . thus , the sequence encoding the peptide can include the pre sequence and the pro sequence of , for example , a naturally - occurring bacterial st peptide . the secreted , mature peptide can be purified from the culture medium . the sequence encoding a peptide of the invention is can be inserted into a vector capable of delivering and maintaining the nucleic acid molecule in a bacterial cell . the dna molecule may be inserted into an autonomously replicating vector ( suitable vectors include , for example , pgem3z and pcdna3 , and derivatives thereof ). the vector nucleic acid may be a bacterial or bacteriophage dna such as bacteriophage lambda or m13 and derivatives thereof . construction of a vector containing a nucleic acid described herein can be followed by transformation of a host cell such as a bacterium . suitable bacterial hosts include but are not limited to , e . coli , b subtilis , pseudomonas , salmonella . the genetic construct also includes , in addition to the encoding nucleic acid molecule , elements that allow expression , such as a promoter and regulatory sequences . the expression vectors may contain transcriptional control sequences that control transcriptional initiation , such as promoter , enhancer , operator , and repressor sequences . a variety of transcriptional control sequences are well known to those in the art . the expression vector can also include a translation regulatory sequence ( e . g ., an untranslated 5 ′ sequence , an untranslated 3 ′ sequence , or an internal ribosome entry site ). the vector can be capable of autonomous replication or it can integrate into host dna to ensure stability during peptide production . the protein coding sequence that includes a peptide of the invention can also be fused to a nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide affinity tag , e . g ., glutathione s - transferase ( gst ), maltose e binding protein , protein a , flag tag , hexa - histidine , myc tag or the influenza ha tag , in order to facilitate purification . the affinity tag or reporter fusion joins the reading frame of the peptide of interest to the reading frame of the gene encoding the affinity tag such that a translational fusion is generated . expression of the fusion gene results in translation of a single polypeptide that includes both the peptide of interest and the affinity tag . in some instances where affinity tags are utilized , dna sequence encoding a protease recognition site will be fused between the reading frames for the affinity tag and the peptide of interest . genetic constructs and methods suitable for production of immature and mature forms of the peptides and variants of the invention in protein expression systems other than bacteria , and well known to those skilled in the art , can also be used to produce peptides in a biological system . mature peptides and variants thereof can be synthesized by the solid - phase method using an automated peptide synthesizer . for example , the peptide can be synthesized on cyc ( 4 - ch 2 bxl )- och 2 - 4 -( oxymethyl )- phenylacetamidomethyl resin using a double coupling program . protecting groups must be used appropriately to create the correct disulfide bond pattern . for example , the following protecting groups can be used : t - butyloxycarbonyl ( alpha - amino groups ); acetamidomethyl ( thiol groups of cys residues b and e ); 4 - methylbenyl ( thiol groups of cys residues c and f ); benzyl ( y - carboxyl of glutamic acid and the hydroxyl group of threonine , if present ); and bromobenzyl ( phenolic group of tyrosine , if present ). coupling is effected with symmetrical anhydride of t - butoxylcarbonylamino acids or hydroxybenzotriazole ester ( for asparagine or glutamine residues ), and the peptide is deprotected and cleaved from the solid support in hydrogen fluoride , dimethyl sulfide , anisole , and p - thiocresol using 8 / 1 / 1 / 0 . 5 ratio ( v / v / v / w ) at 0 ° c . for 60 min . after removal of hydrogen fluoride and dimethyl sulfide by reduced pressure and anisole and p - thiocresol by extraction with ethyl ether and ethyl acetate sequentially , crude peptides are extracted with a mixture of 0 . 5m sodium phosphate buffer , ph 8 . 0 and n , n - dimethylformamide using 1 / 1 ratio , v / v . the disulfide bond for cys residues b and e is the formed using dimethyl sulfoxide ( tam et al . ( 1991 ) j . am . chem . soc . 113 : 6657 - 62 ). the resulting peptide is the purified by reverse - phase chromatography . the disulfide bond between cys residues c and f is formed by first dissolving the peptide in 50 % acetic acid in water . saturated iodine solution in glacial acetic acid is added ( 1 ml iodine solution per 100 ml solution ). after incubation at room temperature for 2 days in an enclosed glass container , the solution is diluted five - fold with deionized water and extracted with ethyl ether four times for removal of unreacted iodine . after removal of the residual amount of ethyl ether by rotary evaporation the solution of crude product is lyophilized and purified by successive reverse - phase chromatography . the ability of peptides , variant peptides and other compounds to bind to and activate the intestinal gc - c receptor can be tested using the t84 human colon carcinoma cell line ( american type culture collection ( bethesda , md .). briefly , cells are grown to confluency in 24 - well culture plates with a 1 : 1 mixture of ham &# 39 ; s f12 medium and dulbecco &# 39 ; s modified eagle &# 39 ; s medium ( dmem ), supplemented with 5 % fetal calf serum and are used at between passages 54 and 60 . monolayers of t84 cells in 24 - well plates are washed twice with 1 ml / well dmem , then incubated at 37 ° c . for 10 min with 0 . 45 ml dmem containing 1 mm isobutylmethylxanthine ( ibmx ), a cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterase inhibitor . test peptides ( 50tl ) are then added and incubated for 30 minutes at 37 ° c . the media is aspirated and the reaction is terminated by the addition of ice cold 0 . 5 ml of 0 . 1n hcl . the samples are held on ice for 20 minutes and then evaporated to dryness using a heat gun or vacuum centrifugation . the dried samples are resuspended in 0 . 5 ml of phosphate buffer provided in the cayman chemical cyclic gmp eia kit ( cayman chemical , ann arbor , mich .). cyclic gmp is measured by eia according to procedures outlined in the cayman chemical cyclic gmp eia kit . for the binding assay , t84 cell monolayers in 24 - well plates are washed twice with 1 ml of binding buffer ( dmem containing 0 . 05 % bovine serum albumin and 25 mm hepes , ph 7 . 2 ), then incubated for 30 min at 37 ° c . in the presence of mature radioactively labeled e . coli st peptide and the test material at various concentrations . the cells are then washed 4 times with 1 ml of dmem and solubilized with 0 . 5 ml / well 1n naoh . the level of radioactivity in the solubilized material is then determined using standard methods . in order to determine whether a test compound or a peptide , increases the rate of gastrointestinal transit , the test compound can be tested in the murine gastrointestinal transit ( git ) assay ( moon et al . infection and immunity 25 : 127 , 1979 ). in this assay , charcoal , which can be readily visualized in the gastrointestinal tract is administered to mice after the administration of a test compound . the distance traveled by the charcoal is measured and expressed as a percentage of the total length of the colon . mice are fasted with free access to water for 12 to 16 hours before the treatment with peptide or control buffer . the peptides are orally administered at 1 tg / kg - 1 mg / kg of peptide in buffer ( 20 mm tris ph 7 . 5 ) seven minutes before being given an oral dose of 5 % activated carbon ( aldrich 242276 - 250g ). control mice are administered buffer only before being given a dose of activated carbon . after 15 minutes , the mice are sacrificed and their intestines from the stomach to the cecum are dissected . the total length of the intestine as well as the distance traveled from the stomach to the charcoal front is measured for each animal and the results are expressed as the percent of the total length of the intestine traveled by the charcoal front . results are reported as the average of 10 mice ± standard deviation . a comparison of the distance traveled by the charcoal between the mice treated with peptide versus the mice treated with vehicle alone is performed using a student &# 39 ; s t test and a statistically significant difference is considered for p & lt ; 0 . 05 . positive controls for this assay may include commercially available wild - type st peptide ( sigma - aldrich , st louis , mo .) and zelnorm ®, a drug approved for ibs that is an agonist for the serotonin receptor 5ht4 . the peptides of the invention can be tested for their ability to increase intestinal secretion using a suckling mouse model of intestinal secretion . in this model a test compound is administered to suckling mice that are between seven and nine days old . after the mice are sacrificed , the gastrointestinal tract from the stomach to the cecum is dissected (“ guts ”). the remains (“ carcass ”) as well as the guts are weighed and the ratio of guts to carcass weight is calculated . if the ratio is above 0 . 09 , one can conclude that the test compound increases intestinal secretion . controls for this assay may include wild - type st peptide and zelnorm ® the pbq - induced writhing model can be used to assess pain control activity of the peptides and gc - c receptor agonists of the invention . this model is described by siegmund et al . ( 1957 proc . soc . exp . bio . med . 95 : 729 - 731 ). briefly , one hour after oral dosing with a test compound , e . g ., a peptide , morphine or vehicle , 0 . 02 % phenylbenzoquinone ( pbq ) solution ( 12 . 5 ml / kg ) is injected by intraperitoneal route into the mouse . the number of stretches and writhings are recorded from the 5 th to the 10 th minute after pbq injection , and can also be counted between the 35 th and 40 th minute and between the 60 th and 65 th minute to provide a kinetic assessment . the results are expressed as the number of stretches and writhings ( mean ± sem ) and the percentage of variation of the nociceptive threshold calculated from the mean value of the vehicle - treated group . the statistical significance of any differences between the treated groups and the control group is determined by a dunnett &# 39 ; s test using the residual variance after a one - way analysis of variance ( p & lt ; 0 . 05 ) using sigmastat software . hypersensitivity to colorectal distension is a common feature in patients with ibs and may be responsible for the major symptom of pain . both inflammatory and non - inflammatory animal models of visceral hyperalgesia to distension have been developed to investigate the effect of compounds on visceral pain in ibs . male wistar rats ( 220 - 250 g ) are premedicated with 0 . 5 mg / kg of acepromazine injected intraperitoneally ( ip ) and anesthetized by intramuscular administration of 100 mg / kg of ketamine . pairs of nichrome wire electrodes ( 60 cm in length and 80 μm in diameter ) are implanted in the striated muscle of the abdomen , 2 cm laterally from the white line . the free ends of electrodes are exteriorized on the back of the neck and protected by a plastic tube attached to the skin . electromyographic ( emg ) recordings are started 5 days after surgery . electrical activity of abdominal striated muscle is recorded with an electroencephalograph machine ( mini viii , alvar , paris , france ) using a short time constant ( 0 . 03 sec .) to remove low - frequency signals (& lt ; 3 hz ). ten days post surgical implantation , trinitrobenzenesulphonic acid ( tnbs ) is administered to induce rectal inflammation . tnbs ( 80 mg kg − 1 in 0 . 3 ml 50 % ethanol ) is administered intrarectally through a silicone rubber catheter introduced at 3 cm from the anus under light diethyl - ether anesthesia , as described ( morteau et al . 1994 dig dis sci 39 : 1239 ). following tnbs administration , rats are placed in plastic tunnels where they are severely limited in mobility for several days before colorectal distension ( crd ). experimental compound is administered one hour before crd which is performed by insertion into the rectum , at 1 cm of the anus , a 4 cm long balloon made from a latex condom ( gue et al , 1997 neurogastroenterol . motil . 9 : 271 ). the balloon is fixed on a rigid catheter taken from an embolectomy probe ( fogarty ). the catheter attached balloon is fixed at the base of the tail . the balloon , connected to a barostat is inflated progressively by step of 15 mmhg , from 0 to 60 mmhg , each step of inflation lasting 5 min . evaluation of rectal sensitivity , as measured by emg , is performed before ( 1 - 2 days ) and 3 days following rectal instillation of tnbs . the number of spike bursts that corresponds to abdominal contractions is determined per 5 min periods . statistical analysis of the number of abdominal contractions and evaluation of the dose - effects relationships is performed by a one way analysis of variance ( anova ) followed by a post - hoc ( student or dunnett tests ) and regression analysis for ed50 if appropriate . male wistar rats ( 200 - 250 g ) are surgically implanted with nichrome wire electrodes as in the tnbs model . ten days post surgical implantation , partial restraint stress ( prs ), is performed as described by williams et al . for two hours ( williams et al . 1988 gastroenterology 64 : 611 ). briefly , under light anaesthesia with ethyl - ether , the foreshoulders , upper forelimbs and thoracic trunk are wrapped in a confining harness of paper tape to restrict , but not prevent body movements . control sham - stress animals are anaesthetized but not wrapped . thirty minutes before the end of the prs session , the animals are administered test - compound or vehicle . thirty minutes to one hour after prs completion , the crd distension procedure is performed as described above for the tnbs model with barostat at pressures of 15 , 30 , 45 and 60 mm hg . statistical analysis on the number of bursts is determined and analyzed as in the tnbs model above . for treatment of gastrointestinal disorders , the peptides and agonists of the invention are can be administered orally , e . g ., as a tablet or cachet containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient , pellet , gel , paste , syrup , bolus , electuary , slurry , capsule ; powder ; granules ; as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous liquid or a non - aqueous liquid ; as an oil - in - water liquid emulsion or a water - in - oil liquid emulsion , via a liposomal formulation ( see , e . g ., ep 736299 ) or in some other form . orally administered compositions can include binders , lubricants , inert diluents , lubricating , surface active or dispersing agents , flavoring agents , and humectants . orally administered formulations such as tablets may optionally be coated or scored and may be formulated so as to provide sustained , delayed or controlled release of the active ingredient therein . the peptides and agonists can be co - administered with other agents used to treat gastrointestinal disorders including but not limited to acid suppressing agents such as histamine - 2 receptor agonists ( h2as ) and proton pump inhibitors ( ppis ). the peptides and agonists can also be administered by rectal suppository . for the treatment of disorders outside the gastrointestinal tract such as congestive heart failure and benign prostatic hypertrophy , peptides and agonists can be administered parenterally or orally . the peptides described herein can be used alone or in combination with other agents . for example , the peptides can be administered together with one or more analgesic peptides or compounds . the analgesic peptide and / or compound can be covalently attached to a peptide described herein or it can be a separate agent that is administered together with or sequentially with a peptide described herein in a combination therapy . combination therapy can be achieved by administering two or more agents , e . g ., a peptide described herein and an analgesic peptide or compound , each of which is formulated and administered separately , or by administering two or more agents in a single formulation . other combinations are also encompassed by combination therapy . for example , two agents can be formulated together and administered in conjunction with a separate formulation containing a third agent . while the two or more agents in the combination therapy can be administered simultaneously , they need not be . for example , administration of a first agent ( or combination of agents ) can precede administration of a second agent ( or combination of agents ) by minutes , hours , days , or weeks . thus , the two or more agents can be administered within minutes of each other or within 1 , 2 , 3 , 6 , 9 , 12 , 15 , 18 , or 24 hours of each other or within 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 12 , 14 days of each other or within 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , or 10 weeks of each other . in some cases even longer intervals are possible . while in many cases it is desirable that the two or more agents used in a combination therapy be present in within the patient &# 39 ; s body at the same time , this need not be so . combination therapy can also include two or more administrations of one or more of the agents used in the combination . for example , if agent x and agent y are used in a combination , one could administer them sequentially in any combination one or more times , e . g ., in the order x - y - x , x - x - y , y - x - y , y - y - x , x - x - y - y , etc . the agents , alone or in combination , can be combined with any pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or medium . thus , they can be combined with materials that do not produce an adverse , allergic or otherwise unwanted reaction when administered to a patient . the carriers or mediums used can include solvents , dispersants , coatings , absorption promoting agents , controlled release agents , and one or more inert excipients ( which include starches , polyols , granulating agents , microcrystalline cellulose , diluents , lubricants , binders , disintegrating agents , and the like ), etc . if desired , tablet dosages of the disclosed compositions may be coated by standard aqueous or nonaqueous techniques . compositions of the present invention may also optionally include other therapeutic ingredients , anti - caking agents , preservatives , sweetening agents , colorants , flavors , desiccants , plasticizers , dyes , and the like . any such optional ingredient must be compatible with the compound of the invention to insure the stability of the formulation . the composition may contain other additives as needed , including for example lactose , glucose , fructose , galactose , trehalose , sucrose , maltose , raffinose , maltitol , melezitose , stachyose , lactitol , palatinite , starch , xylitol , mannitol , myoinositol , and the like , and hydrates thereof , and amino acids , for example alanine , glycine and betaine , and peptides and proteins , for example albumen . examples of excipients for use as the pharmaceutically acceptable carriers and the pharmaceutically acceptable inert carriers and the aforementioned additional ingredients include , but are not limited to binders , fillers , disintegrants , lubricants , anti - microbial agents , and coating agents such as : binders : corn starch , potato starch , other starches , gelatin , natural and synthetic gums such as acacia , sodium alginate , alginic acid , other alginates , powdered tragacanth , guar gum , cellulose and its derivatives ( e . g ., ethyl cellulose , cellulose acetate , carboxymethyl cellulose calcium , sodium carboxymethyl cellulose ), polyvinyl pyrrolidone , methyl cellulose , pre - gelatinized starch ( e . g ., starch 1500 ® and starch 1500 lm ®, sold by colorcon , ltd . ), hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose , microcrystalline cellulose ( e . g . avicel ™, such as , avicel - ph - 101 ™, - 103 ™ and - 105 ™, sold by fmc corporation , marcus hook , pa ., usa ), or mixtures thereof , fillers : talc , calcium carbonate ( e . g ., granules or powder ), dibasic calcium phosphate , tribasic calcium phosphate , calcium sulfate ( e . g ., granules or powder ), microcrystalline cellulose , powdered cellulose , dextrates , kaolin , mannitol , silicic acid , sorbitol , starch , pre - gelatinized starch , or mixtures thereof , disintegrants : agar - agar , alginic acid , calcium carbonate , microcrystalline cellulose , croscarmellose sodium , crospovidone , polacrilin potassium , sodium starch glycolate , potato or tapioca starch , other starches , pre - gelatinized starch , clays , other algins , other celluloses , gums , or mixtures thereof , lubricants : calcium stearate , magnesium stearate , mineral oil , light mineral oil , glycerin , sorbitol , mannitol , polyethylene glycol , other glycols , stearic acid , sodium lauryl sulfate , talc , hydrogenated vegetable oil ( e . g ., peanut oil , cottonseed oil , sunflower oil , sesame oil , olive oil , corn oil and soybean oil ), zinc stearate , ethyl oleate , ethyl laurate , agar , syloid silica gel ( aerosil 200 , w . r . grace co ., baltimore , md . usa ), a coagulated aerosol of synthetic silica ( deaussa co ., plano , tex . usa ), a pyrogenic silicon dioxide ( cab - o - sil , cabot co ., boston , mass . usa ), or mixtures thereof , anti - caking agents : calcium silicate , magnesium silicate , silicon dioxide , colloidal silicon dioxide , talc , or mixtures thereof , antimicrobial agents : benzalkonium chloride , benzethonium chloride , benzoic acid , benzyl alcohol , butyl paraben , cetylpyridinium chloride , cresol , chlorobutanol , dehydroacetic acid , ethylparaben , methylparaben , phenol , phenylethyl alcohol , phenoxyethanol , phenylmercuric acetate , phenylmercuric nitrate , potassium sorbate , propylparaben , sodium benzoate , sodium dehydroacetate , sodium propionate , sorbic acid , thimersol , thymo , or mixtures thereof , and coating agents : sodium carboxymethyl cellulose , cellulose acetate phthalate , ethylcellulose , gelatin , pharmaceutical glaze , hydroxypropyl cellulose , hydroxypropyl methylcellulose , hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose phthalate , methylcellulose , polyethylene glycol , polyvinyl acetate phthalate , shellac , sucrose , titanium dioxide , carnauba wax , microcrystalline wax , or mixtures thereof . the agents either in their free form or as a salt can be combined with a polymer such as polylactic - glycoloic acid ( plga ), poly -( i )- lactic - glycolic - tartaric acid ( p ( i ) lgt ) ( wo 01 / 12233 ), polyglycolic acid ( u . s . pat . no . 3 , 773 , 919 ), polylactic acid ( u . s . pat . no . 4 , 767 , 628 ), poly ( m - caprolactone ) and poly ( alkylene oxide ) ( u . s . 20030068384 ) to create a sustained release formulation . such formulations can be used to implants that release a peptide or another agent over a period of a few days , a few weeks or several months depending on the polymer , the particle size of the polymer , and the size of the implant ( see , e . g ., u . s . pat . no . 6 , 620 , 422 ). other sustained release formulations and polymers for use in such formulations are described in ep 0 467 389 a2 , wo 93 / 24150 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 612 , 052 , wo 97 / 40085 , wo 03 / 075887 , wo 01 / 01964a2 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 922 , 356 , wo 94 / 155587 , wo 02 / 074247a2 , wo 98 / 25642 , u . s . 5 , 968 , 895 , u . s . pat . no . 6 , 180 , 608 , u . s . 20030171296 , u . s . 20020176841 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 672 , 659 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 893 , 985 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 134 , 122 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 192 , 741 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 192 , 741 , u . s . pat . no . 4 , 668 , 506 , u . s . pat . no . 4 , 713 , 244 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 445 , 832 u . s . pat . no . 4 , 931 , 279 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 980 , 945 , wo 02 / 058672 , wo 9726015 , wo 97 / 04744 , and . us20020019446 . in such sustained release formulations microparticles of peptide are combined with microparticles of polymer . one or more sustained release implants can be placed in the large intestine , the small intestine or both . u . s . pat . no . 6 , 011 , 011 and wo 94 / 06452 describe a sustained release formulation providing either polyethylene glycols ( i . e . peg 300 and peg 400 ) or triacetin . wo 03 / 053401 describes a formulation which may both enhance bioavailability and provide controlled release of the agent within the gi tract . additional controlled release formulations are described in wo 02 / 38129 , ep 326 151 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 236 , 704 , wo 02 / 30398 , wo 98 / 13029 ; u . s . 20030064105 , u . s . 20030138488a1 , u . s . 20030216307a1 , u . s . pat . no . 6 , 667 , 060 , wo 01 / 49249 , wo 01 / 49311 , wo 01 / 49249 , wo 01 / 49311 , and u . s . pat . no . 5 , 877 , 224 . the agents can be administered , e . g ., by intravenous injection , intramuscular injection , subcutaneous injection , intraperitoneal injection , topical , sublingual , intraarticular ( in the joints ), intradermal , buccal , ophthalmic ( including intraocular ), intranasaly ( including using a cannula ), or by other routes . the agents can be administered orally , e . g ., as a tablet or cachet containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient , gel , pellet , paste , syrup , bolus , electuary , slurry , capsule , powder , granules , as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous liquid or a non - aqueous liquid , as an oil - in - water liquid emulsion or a water - in - oil liquid emulsion , via a micellar formulation ( see , e . g . wo 97 / 11682 ) via a liposomal formulation ( see , e . g ., ep 736299 , wo 99 / 59550 and wo 97 / 13500 ), via formulations described in wo 03 / 094886 or in some other form . orally administered compositions can include binders , lubricants , inert diluents , lubricating , surface active or dispersing agents , flavoring agents , and humectants . orally administered formulations such as tablets may optionally be coated or scored and may be formulated so as to provide sustained , delayed or controlled release of the active ingredient therein . the agents can also be administered transdermally ( i . e . via reservoir - type or matrix - type patches , microneedles , thermal poration , hypodermic needles , iontophoresis , electroporation , ultrasound or other forms of sonophoresis , jet injection , or a combination of any of the preceding methods ( prausnitz et al . 2004 , nature reviews drug discovery 3 : 115 - 124 )). the agents can be administered using high - velocity transdermal particle injection techniques using the hydrogel particle formulation described in u . s . 20020061336 . additional particle formulations are described in wo 00 / 45792 , wo 00 / 53160 , and wo 02 / 19989 . an example of a transdermal formulation containing plaster and the absorption promoter dimethylisosorbide can be found in wo 89 / 04179 . wo 96 / 11705 provides formulations suitable for transdermal administration . the agents can be administered in the form a suppository or by other vaginal or rectal means . the agents can be administered in a transmembrane formulation as described in wo 90 / 07923 . the agents can be administered non - invasively via the dehydrated particles described in u . s . pat . no . 6 , 485 , 706 . the agent can be administered in an enteric - coated drug formulation as described in wo 02 / 49621 . the agents can be administered intranassaly using the formulation described in u . s . pat . no . 5 , 179 , 079 . formulations suitable for parenteral injection are described in wo 00 / 62759 . the agents can be administered using the casein formulation described in u . s . 20030206939 and wo 00 / 06108 . the agents can be administered using the particulate formulations described in u . s . 20020034536 . the agents , alone or in combination with other suitable components , can be administered by pulmonary route utilizing several techniques including but not limited to intratracheal instillation ( delivery of solution into the lungs by syringe ), intratracheal delivery of liposomes , insufflation ( administration of powder formulation by syringe or any other similar device into the lungs ) and aerosol inhalation . aerosols ( e . g ., jet or ultrasonic nebulizers , metered - dose inhalers ( mdis ), and dry - powder inhalers ( dpis )) can also be used in intranasal applications . aerosol formulations are stable dispersions or suspensions of solid material and liquid droplets in a gaseous medium and can be placed into pressurized acceptable propellants , such as hydrofluroalkanes ( hfas , i . e . hfa - 134a and hfa - 227 , or a mixture thereof ), dichlorodifluoromethane ( or other chlorofluocarbon propellants such as a mixture of propellants 11 , 12 , and / or 114 ), propane , nitrogen , and the like . pulmonary formulations may include permeation enhancers such as fatty acids , and saccharides , chelating agents , enzyme inhibitors ( e . g ., protease inhibitors ), adjuvants ( e . g ., glycocholate , surfactin , span 85 , and nafamostat ), preservatives ( e . g ., benzalkonium chloride or chlorobutanol ), and ethanol ( normally up to 5 % but possibly up to 20 %, by weight ). ethanol is commonly included in aerosol compositions as it can improve the function of the metering valve and in some cases also improve the stability of the dispersion . pulmonary formulations may also include surfactants which include but are not limited to bile salts and those described in u . s . pat . no . 6 , 524 , 557 and references therein . the surfactants described in u . s . pat . no . 6 , 524 , 557 , e . g ., a c8 - c16 fatty acid salt , a bile salt , a phospholipid , or alkyl saccaride are advantageous in that some of them also reportedly enhance absorption of the peptide in the formulation . also suitable in the invention are dry powder formulations comprising a therapeutically effective amount of active compound blended with an appropriate carrier and adapted for use in connection with a dry - powder inhaler . absorption enhancers which can be added to dry powder formulations of the present invention include those described in u . s . pat . no . 6 , 632 , 456 . wo 02 / 080884 describes new methods for the surface modification of powders . aerosol formulations may include u . s . pat . no . 5 , 230 , 884 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 292 , 499 , wo 017 / 8694 , wo 01 / 78696 , u . s . 2003019437 , u . s . 20030165436 , and wo 96 / 40089 ( which includes vegetable oil ). sustained release formulations suitable for inhalation are described in u . s . 20010036481a1 , 20030232019a1 , and u . s . 20040018243a1 as well as in wo 01 / 13891 , wo 02 / 067902 , wo 03 / 072080 , and wo 03 / 079885 . pulmonary formulations containing microparticles are described in wo 03 / 015750 , u . s . 20030008013 , and wo 00 / 00176 . pulmonary formulations containing stable glassy state powder are described in u . s . 20020141945 and u . s . pat . no . 6 , 309 , 671 . other aerosol formulations are described in ep 1338272a1 wo 90 / 09781 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 348 , 730 , u . s . pat . no . 6 , 436 , 367 , wo 91 / 04011 , and u . s . pat . no . 6 , 294 , 153 and u . s . pat . no . 6 , 290 , 987 describes a liposomal based formulation that can be administered via aerosol or other means . powder formulations for inhalation are described in u . s . 20030053960 and wo 01 / 60341 . the agents can be administered intranasally as described in u . s . 20010038824 . solutions of medicament in buffered saline and similar vehicles are commonly employed to generate an aerosol in a nebulizer . simple nebulizers operate on bernoulli &# 39 ; s principle and employ a stream of air or oxygen to generate the spray particles . more complex nebulizers employ ultrasound to create the spray particles . both types are well known in the art and are described in standard textbooks of pharmacy such as sprowls &# 39 ; american pharmacy and remington &# 39 ; s the science and practice of pharmacy . other devices for generating aerosols employ compressed gases , usually hydrofluorocarbons and chlorofluorocarbons , which are mixed with the medicament and any necessary excipients in a pressurized container , these devices are likewise described in standard textbooks such as sprowls and remington . the agents can be a free acid or base , or a pharmacologically acceptable salt thereof . solids can be dissolved or dispersed immediately prior to administration or earlier . in some circumstances the preparations include a preservative to prevent the growth of microorganisms . the pharmaceutical forms suitable for injection can include sterile aqueous or organic solutions or dispersions which include , e . g ., water , an alcohol , an organic solvent , an oil or other solvent or dispersant ( e . g ., glycerol , propylene glycol , polyethylene glycol , and vegetable oils ). the formulations may contain antioxidants , buffers , bacteriostats , and solutes that render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient , and aqueous and non - aqueous sterile suspensions that can include suspending agents , solubilizers , thickening agents , stabilizers , and preservatives . pharmaceutical agents can be sterilized by filter sterilization or by other suitable means . the agent can be fused to immunoglobulins or albumin , or incorporated into a lipsome to improve half - life . the agent can also be conjugated to polyethylene glycol ( peg ) chains . methods for pegylation and additional formulations containing peg - conjugates ( i . e . peg - based hydrogels , peg modified liposomes ) can be found in harris and chess , nature reviews drug discovery 2 : 214 - 221 and the references therein . the peptides of the invention may also be conjugated to , for example , alkyl groups ( e . g ., c1 - c20 straight or branched alkyl groups ); fatty acid radicals ; and combinations of peg , alkyl groups and fatty acid radicals ( see u . s . pat . no . 6 , 309 , 633 ; soltero et al ., 2001 innovations in pharmaceutical technology 106 - 110 ). the agent can be administered via a nanocochleate or cochleate delivery vehicle ( biodelivery sciences international ). the agents can be delivered transmucosally ( i . e . across a mucosal surface such as the vagina , eye or nose ) using formulations such as that described in u . s . pat . no . 5 , 204 , 108 . the agents can be formulated in microcapsules as described in wo 88 / 01165 . the agent can be administered intra - orally using the formulations described in u . s . 20020055496 , wo 00 / 47203 , and u . s . pat . no . 6 , 495 , 120 . the agent can be delivered using nanoemulsion formulations described in wo 01 / 91728a2 . suitable pharmaceutical compositions in accordance with the invention will generally include an amount of the active compound ( s ) with an acceptable pharmaceutical diluent or excipient , such as a sterile aqueous solution , to give a range of final concentrations , depending on the intended use . the techniques of preparation are generally well known in the art , as exemplified by remington &# 39 ; s pharmaceutical sciences ( 18th edition , mack publishing company , 1995 ). the agents described herein and combination therapy agents can be packaged as a kit that includes single or multiple doses of two or more agents , each packaged or formulated individually , or single or multiple doses of two or more agents packaged or formulated in combination . thus , one or more agents can be present in first container , and the kit can optionally include one or more agents in a second container . the container or containers are placed within a package , and the package can optionally include administration or dosage instructions . a kit can include additional components such as syringes or other means for administering the agents as well as diluents or other means for formulation . methods to increase chemical and / or physical stability of the agents the described herein are found in u . s . pat . no . 6 , 541 , 606 , u . s . pat . no . 6 , 068 , 850 , u . s . pat . no . 6 , 124 , 261 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 904 , 935 , and wo 00 / 15224 , u . s . 20030069182 ( via the addition of nicotinamide ), u . s . 20030175230a1 , u . s . 20030175230a1 , u . s . 20030175239a1 , u . s . 20020045582 , u . s . 20010031726 , wo 02 / 26248 , wo 03 / 014304 , wo 98 / 00152a1 , wo 98 / 00157a1 , wo 90 / 12029 , wo 00 / 04880 , and wo 91 / 04743 , wo 97 / 04796 and the references cited therein . methods to increase bioavailability of the agents described herein are found in u . s . pat . no . 6 , 008 , 187 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 424 , 289 , u . s . 20030198619 , wo 90 / 01329 , wo 01 / 49268 , wo 00 / 32172 , and wo 02 / 064166 . glycyrrhizinate can also be used as an absorption enhancer ( see , e . g ., ep397447 ). wo 03 / 004062 discusses ulex europaeus i ( ueai ) and ueai mimetics which may be used to target the agents of the invention to the gi tract . the peptides described herein can be used in combination therapy with an analgesic agent , e . g ., an analgesic compound or an analgesic peptide . the analgesic agent can optionally be covalently attached to a peptide described herein . among the useful analgesic agents are : ca channel blockers , 5ht receptor antagonists ( for example 5ht3 , 5ht4 and 5ht1 receptor antagonists ), opioid receptor agonists ( loperamide , fedotozine , and fentanyl ), nk1 receptor antagonists , cck receptor agonists ( e . g ., loxiglumide ), nk1 receptor antagonists , nk3 receptor antagonists , norepinephrine - serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( nsri ), vanilloid and cannabanoid receptor agonists , and sialorphin . analgesics agents in the various classes are described in the literature . among the useful analgesic peptides are sialorphin - related peptides , including those comprising the amino acid sequence qhnpr ( seq id no : 85 ), including : vqhnpr ( seq id no : 86 ); vrqhnpr ( seq id no : 87 ); vrgqhnpr ( seq id no : 88 ); vrgpqhnpr ( seq id no : 89 ); vrgprqhnpr ( seq id no : 90 ); vrgprrqhnpr ( seq id no : 91 ); and rqhnpr ( seq id no : 92 ). sialorphin - related peptides bind to neprilysin and inhibit neprilysin - mediated breakdown of substance p and met - enkephalin . thus , compounds or peptides that are inhibitors of neprilysin are useful analgesic agents which can be administered with the peptides of the invention in a co - therapy or linked to the peptides of the invention , e . g ., by a covalent bond . sialophin and related peptides are described in u . s . pat . no . 6 , 589 , 750 ; u . s . 20030078200 a1 ; and wo 02 / 051435 a2 . opioid receptor antagonists and agonists can be administered with the peptides of the invention in co - therapy or linked to the peptide of the invention , e . g ., by a covalent bond . for example , opioid receptor antagonists such as naloxone , naltrexone , methyl nalozone , nalmefene , cypridime , beta funaltrexamine , naloxonazine , naltrindole , and nor - binaltorphimine are thought to be useful in the treatment of ibs . it can be useful to formulate opioid antagonists of this type is a delayed and sustained release formulation such that initial release of the antagonist is in the mid to distal small intestine and / or ascending colon . such antagonists are described in wo 01 / 32180 a2 . enkephalin pentapeptide ( hoe825 ; tyr - d - lys - gly - phe - l - homoserine ) is an agonist of the mu and delta opioid receptors and is thought to be useful for increasing intestinal motility ( eur . j . pharm . 219 : 445 , 1992 ), and this peptide can be used in conjunction with the peptides of the invention . also useful is trimebutine which is thought to bind to mu / delta / kappa opioid receptors and activate release of motilin and modulate the release of gastrin , vasoactive intestinal peptide , gastrin and glucagons . kappa opioid receptor agonists such as fedotozine , ketocyclazocine , and compounds described in wo 03 / 097051 a2 can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . in addition , mu opioid receptor agonists such as morphine , diphenyloxylate , frakefamide ( h - tyr - d - ala - phe ( f )- phe - nh 2 ; wo 01 / 019849 a1 ) and loperamide can be used . tyr - arg ( kyotorphin ) is a dipeptide that acts by stimulating the release of met - enkephalins to elicit an analgesic effect ( j . biol . chem . 262 : 8165 , 1987 ). kyotorphin can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . cck receptor agonists such as caerulein from amphibians and other species are useful analgesic agents that can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . conotoxin peptides represent a large class of analgesic peptides that act at voltage gated ca channels , nmda receptors or nicotinic receptors . these peptides can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . peptide analogs of thymulin ( fr 2830451 ) can have analgesic activity and can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . cck ( ccka or cckb ) receptor antagonists , including loxiglumide and dexloxiglumide ( the r - isomer of loxiglumide ) ( wo 88 / 05774 ) can have analgesic activity and can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . other useful analgesic agents include 5 - ht4 agonists such as tegaserod / zelnorm and lirexapride . such agonists are described in : ep1321142 a1 , wo 03 / 053432a1 , ep 505322 a1 , ep 505322 b1 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 510 , 353 , ep 507672 a1 , ep 507672 b1 , and u . s . pat . no . 5 , 273 , 983 . calcium channel blockers such as ziconotide and related compounds described in , for example , ep 625162b1 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 364 , 842 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 587 , 454 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 824 , 645 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 859 , 186 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 994 , 305 , u . s . pat . no . 6 , 087 , 091 , u . s . pat . no . 6 , 136 , 786 , wo 93 / 13128 a1 , ep 1336409 a1 , ep 835126 a1 , ep 835126 b1 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 795 , 864 , u . s . pat . no . 5 , 891 , 849 , u . s . pat . no . 6 , 054 , 429 , wo 97 / 01351 a1 , can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . various antagonists of the nk - 1 , nk - 2 , and nk - 3 receptors ( for a review see giardina et al . 2003 drugs 6 : 758 ) can be can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . nk1 receptor antagonists such as : aprepitant ( merck & amp ; co inc ), vofopitant , ezlopitant ( pfizer , inc . ), r - 673 ( hoffmann - la roche ltd ), sr - 14033 and related compounds described in , for example , ep 873753 a1 , u . s . 20010006972 a1 , u . s . 20030109417 a1 , wo 01 / 52844 a1 , can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . nk - 2 receptor antagonists such as nepadutant ( menarini ricerche spa ), saredutant ( sanofi - synthelabo ), sr - 144190 ( sanofi - synthelabo ) and uk - 290795 ( pfizer inc ) can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . nk3 receptor antagonists such as osanetant ( sanofi - synthelabo ), talnetant and related compounds described in , for example , wo 02 / 094187 a2 , ep 876347 a1 , wo 97 / 21680 a1 , u . s . pat . no . 6 , 277 , 862 , wo 98 / 11090 , wo 95 / 28418 , wo 97 / 19927 , and boden et al . ( j med chem . 39 : 1664 - 75 , 1996 ) can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . norepinephrine - serotonin reuptake inhibitors such as milnacipran and related compounds described in wo 03 / 077897 a1 can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . vanilloid receptor antagonists such as arvanil and related compounds described in wo 01 / 64212 a1 can be used with or linked to the peptides of the invention . where the analgesic is a peptide and is covalently linked to a peptide described herein the resulting peptide may also include at least one trypsin or chymotrypsin cleavage site . when present within the peptide , the analgesic peptide may be preceded by ( if it is at the carboxy terminus ) or followed by ( if it is at the amino terminus ) a chymotrypsin or trypsin cleavage site that allows release of the analgesic peptide . in addition to sialorphin - related peptides , analgesic peptides include : aspphe , endomorphin - 1 , endomorphin - 2 , nocistatin , dalargin , lupron , zicnotide , and substance p . the peptides of the invention can be used alone or in combination therapy for the treatment or prevention of cancer , pre - cancerous growths , or metastatic growths . for example , they can be used for the prevention or treatment of : colorectal / local metastasized colorectal cancer , gastrointestinal tract cancer , lung cancer , cancer or pre - cancerous growths or metastatic growths of epithelial cells , polyps , breast , colorectal , lung , ovarian , pancreatic , prostatic , renal , stomach , bladder , liver , esophageal and testicular carcinoma , carcinoma ( e . g ., basal cell , basosquamous , brown - pearce , ductal carcinoma , ehrlich tumor , krebs , merkel cell , small or non - small cell lung , oat cell , papillary , bronchiolar , squamous cell , transitional cell , walker ), leukemia ( e . g ., b - cell , t - cell , htlv , acute or chronic lymphocytic , mast cell , myeloid ), histiocytonia , histiocytosis , hodgkin &# 39 ; s disease , non - hodgkin &# 39 ; s lymphoma , plasmacytoma , reticuloendotheliosis , adenoma , adeno - carcinoma , adenofibroma , adenolymphoma , ameloblastoma , angiokeratoma , angiolymphoid hyperplasia with eosinophilia , sclerosing angioma , angiomatosis , apudoma , branchionia , malignant carcinoid syndrome , carcinoid heart disease , carcinosarcoma , cementoma , cholangioma , cholesteatoma , chondrosarcoma , chondroblastoma , chondrosarcoma , chordoma , choristoma , craniopharyngioma , chrondrorna , cylindroma , cystadenocarcinoma , cystadenoma , cystosarconia phyllodes , dysgenninoma , ependymoma , ewing sarcoma , fibroma , fibrosarcoma , giant cell tumor , ganglioneuroma , glioblastoma , glomangioma , granulosa cell tumor , gynandroblastoma , hamartoma , hemangioendothelioma , hemangioma , hemangio - pericytoma , hemangiosarcoma , hepatoma , islet cell tumor , kaposi sarcoma , leiomyoma , leiomyosarcoma , leukosarcoma , leydig cell tumor , lipoma , liposarcoma , lymphaugioma , lymphangiomyoma , lymphangiosarcoma , medulloblastoma , meningioma , mesenchymoma , mesonephroma , mesothelioma , myoblastoma , myoma , myosarcoma , myxoma , myxosarcoma , neurilemmoma , neuroma , neuroblastoma , neuroepithelioma , neurofibroma , neurofibromatosis , odontoma , osteoma , osteosarcoma , papilloma , paraganglioma , paraganglionia . nonchroinaffin , pinealoma , rhabdomyoma , rhabdomyosarcoma , sertoli cell tumor , teratoma , theca cell tumor , and other diseases in which cells have become dysplastic , immortalized , or transformed . the peptides of the invention can be used alone or in combination therapy for the treatment or prevention of : familial adenomatous polyposis ( fap ) ( autosomal dominant syndrome ) that precedes colon cancer , hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer ( hnpcc ), and inherited autosomal dominant syndrome . for treatment or prevention of cancer , pre - cancerous growths and metastatic growths , the peptides can be used alone or in combination therapy with radiation or chemotherapeutic agents , an inhibitor of a cgmp - dependent phosphodiesterase or a selective cyclooxygenase - 2 inhibitor ( a number of selective cyclooxygenase - 2 inhibitors are described in wo02062369 , hereby incorporated by reference ). the peptides can be for treatment or prevention of inflammation . thus , they can be used alone or in combination with inhibitors of cgmp - dependent phosphodiesterase or a selective cyclooxygenase - 2 inhibitor for treatment of : organ inflammation , ibd ( e . g , crohn &# 39 ; s disease , ulcerative colitis ), asthma , nephritis , hepatitis , pancreatitis , bronchitis , cystic fibrosis , ischemic bowel diseases , intestinal inflammations / allergies , coeliac disease , proctitis , eosnophilic gastroenteritis , mastocytosis , and other inflammatory disorders . the peptides can also be used alone or in combination therapy to treat or prevent insulin - related disorders , for example : ii diabetes mellitus , hyperglycemia , obesity , disorders associated with disturbances in glucose or electrolyte transport and insulin secretion in cells , or endocrine disorders . they can be also used in insulin resistance treatment and post - surgical and non - post surgery decrease in insulin responsiveness . the peptides can be used alone or in combination therapy to prevent or treat respiratory disorders , including , inhalation , ventilation and mucus secretion disorders , pulmonary hypertension , chronic obstruction of vessels and airways , and irreversible obstructions of vessels and bronchi . the peptides can be used in combination therapy with a phosphodiesterase inhibitor ( examples of such inhibitors can be found in u . s . pat . no . 6 , 333 , 354 , hereby incorporated by reference ). the peptides can also be used alone or in combination therapy to prevent or treat : retinopathy , nephropathy , diabetic angiopathy , and edema formation the peptides can also be used alone or in combination therapy to prevent or treat neurological disorders , for example , headache , anxiety , movement disorders , aggression , psychosis , seizures , panic attacks , hysteria , sleep disorders , depression , schizoaffective disorders , sleep apnea , attention deficit syndromes , memory loss , and narcolepsy . they may also be used as a sedative . the peptides and detectabley labeled peptides can be used as markers to identify , detect , stage , or diagnosis diseases and conditions of the small intestine , including : crohn &# 39 ; s disease , colitis , inflammatory bowel disease , tumors , benign tumors , such as benign stromal tumors , adenoma , angioma , adenomatous ( pedunculated and sessile ) polyps , malignant , carcinoid tumors , endocrine cell tumors , lymphoma , adenocarcinoma , foregut , midgut , and hindgut carcinoma , gastroinstestinal stromal tumor ( gist ), such as leiomyoma , cellular leiomyoma , leiomyoblastoma , and leiomyo sarcoma , gastrointestinal autonomic nerve tumor , malabsorption syndromes , celiac diseases , diverticulosis , meckel &# 39 ; s diverticulurn , colonic diverticula , megacolon , hirschsprung &# 39 ; s disease , irritable bowel syndrome , mesenteric ischemia , ischemic colitis , colorectal cancer , colonic polyposis , polyp syndrome , intestinal adenocarcinoma , liddle syndrome , brody myopathy , infantile convulsions , and choreoathetosis the peptides can be conjugated to another molecule ( e . g , a diagnostic or therapeutic molecule ) to target cells bearing the gcc receptor , e . g ., cystic fibrosis lesions and specific cells lining the intestinal tract . thus , they can be used to target radioactive moieties or therapeutic moieties to the intestine to aid in imaging and diagnosing or treating colorectal / metastasized or local colorectal cancer and to deliver normal copies of the p53 tumor suppressor gene to the intestinal tract . the peptides can be used alone or in combination therapy to treat erectile dysfunction . the peptides can be used alone or in combination therapy to treat inner ear disorders , e . g ., to treat meniere &# 39 ; s disease , including symptoms of the disease such as vertigo , hearing loss , tinnitus , sensation of fullness in the ear , and to maintain fluid homeostasis in the inner ear . the peptides can be used alone or in combination therapy to treat disorders associated with fluid and sodium retention , e . g ., diseases of the electrolyte - water / electrolyte transport system within the kidney , gut and urogenital system , congestive heart failure , hypertension , hypotension , liver cirrhosis , and nephrotic syndrome . in addition they can be used to facilitate diuresis or control intestinal fluid . the peptides can be used alone or in combination therapy to treat disorders associated with chloride or bicarbonate secretion , e . g ., cystic fibrosis . the peptides can be used alone or in combination therapy to treat disorders associated with bile secretion . in addition , they can be used to facilitate or control chloride and bile fluid secretion in the gall bladder . the peptides can be used alone or in combination therapy to treat disorders associated with liver cell regeneration .
compositions and related methods for treating ibs and other gastrointestinal disorders and conditions , duodenogastric reflux , crohn &# 39 ; s disease , ulcerative colitis , inflammatory bowel disease , functional heartburn , dyspepsia , gastroparesis , chronic intestinal pseudo - obstruction , and disorders and conditions associated with constipation , e . g ., constipation associated with use of opiate pain killers , post - surgical constipation , and constipation associated with neuropathic disorders as well as other conditions and disorders are described . the compositions feature peptides that activate the guanylate cyclase c receptor .