current stents are typically made from relatively light stiff metals such as titanium , nitinol , ( 50 % ti , 50 % ni ) or stainless steel , which do not produce an adequate x - ray image in a fluoroscope device during the angioplasty procedure . a gold coating of approximately ten to fifteen microns thick on the stent structural material may enhance the x - ray image significantly . gold is a very soft metal , and a thickness of ten to fifteen microns should not contribute additional structural stiffness to the stent . the structural material of the stent should have considerable stiffness in order to hold open the elastic artery . in order to effect good adhesion of the gold coating to the stent , it is desirable to first coat the structure with a thin coating of chromium or titanium about 3000 angstroms thick before depositing the thicker gold coating . chromium has been found to promote adhesion of gold to stainless steel stents and titanium has been found to promote adhesion to nitinol stents . both the adhesion promoting layer and the gold coating can be deposited using an unbalanced magnetron sputtering processing in vacuum . the non - structural gold coating , however , may also be used as a host for the radioisotope . the radioisotope may be ion implanted , carrier - free , into the gold coating about 100 to 3000 angstroms below the gold outer surface . the reverse configuration , i . e . ion implanting the radioisotope in the structural material of the stent then coating the structural material with ten to fifteen microns of gold , would not be preferred because the beta radiation kinetic energy and particle flux exiting the coating would be reduced due to the high atomic number ( 79 ) and high density of gold ( 19 . 3 g / cm 3 ). in addition , the process used to coat the radioactive stent with gold includes a sputter etch step , which would be used to clean and prepare the surface for the two subsequent coatings . this sputter etch cleaning step could remove the surface radioactivity and distribute it throughout the inside walls of the process chamber . one of the significant advantages of the unique configuration of the present invention is that the stent may be both radiopaque and radioactive with a beta emitting radioisotope . a preferred process for fabricating the stent would be to form a cylindrical stent or tubular mesh stent from a non - radioactive structural material such as titanium , stainless steel , nitinol alloy or any other stiff alloy , sputter clean the alloy to remove the native oxides and about 100 angstroms of metal , and then coat the structural material with approximately 3000 angstroms of chromium or titanium to promote good adhesion , then coat the adhesion layer with approximately twelve microns of pure gold in a vacuum using an unbalanced magnetron sputter process ( equipment available from aja international , scituate , mass .). the gold coating may then be ion implanted with the pure beta ray emitting radioisotope p 32 to a depth of 800 å at the peak of its concentration . fig2 shows the detail of a single wire in the stent . for a one microcurie stent , the peak p 32 concentration at 800 angstroms below the gold outer surface would be about 0 . 4 parts per million . fig3 shows the depth distribution of p 32 atoms in the gold coating when implanted at 180 kev with a dose of 3 × 10 9 ions / cm 2 , which produces one microcurie of radioactivity at the end of the implantation process . the process for ion implantation of a radioisotope , such as phosphorous - 32 , can be done using a semiconductor ion implanter such as is readily available from eaton corp ., beverly , mass . or varian corp ., gloucester , mass . the radioactive starting material may be a gas that includes some phosphorous - 32 radioisotope and is then fed into the gas inlet on the ion source . this process , however , generally is impractical for mass production because of the safety challenges involved in generating a radioactive ion beam in conventional semiconductor equipment using radioactive gases . ion sources in conventional ion implantation equipment need daily maintenance to replace consumed filaments and insulators . if the parts were also radioactive with phosphorous - 32 containing gases , the operators could be exposed to toxic levels of radiation within several weeks of operation . it is therefore desirable , for practical manufacture of radioactive stents using this invention , to design and fabricate a special - purpose dedicated ion implanter to practice this invention . such an ion implanter could have a specially designed ion source so that the operator could be shielded from radiation exposure during routine maintenance . in addition , the ion implanter could have a specially designed vacuum system to minimize the generation of radioactive pump oils . preferably , a custom made ion implanter could be used . the customized implanter could include a specially designed ion source with vacuum locks that permit the operator to change a filament or the radioactive charge without exposing the operator to excessive radiation or venting the vacuum chamber . an example of such a special ion source is described below . the components of the ion source that routinely require maintenance may be affixed onto extensible probes that can be passed into the ion source vacuum system and positioned into their appropriate locations in the source . when service is required , the components may be removed . typical ion source components include a cathode , a vaporizer , a sputter target , an electrostatic electron reflector , an anode , and a plasma chamber . these components need not all be present in a given implementation of an ion source . a cathode is a source of electrons and is commonly formed from a hot filament composed of tungsten or tantalum metal , although a so - called hollow cathode may also be employed . a vaporizer is a heated oven in which the radioactive feedstock may be placed . there is typically a connection between the vaporizer and the plasma chamber of the ion source to permit passage of gas created by heating the feedstock . the vaporizer may also be located within the plasma chamber and use a variety of heating methods to heat the feedstock . electrical resistance heating is typically employed when the vaporizer is external to the plasma chamber of the ion source while waste heat from operation of the source or heat from ion bombardment may be employed when the source of feedstock vapor is within the plasma chamber . a sputter target is an alternate source of feedstock vapor . excess ions fill the plasma chamber and are made to bombard the sputter target because of an applied or induced voltage . sputtering liberates surface atoms from the sputter target , effectively creating a vapor of the feedstock . an electrostatic electron reflector is a surface that is isolated by electrical insulation so it is not directly connected electrically to the anode or cathode . however , plasma bombardment may indirectly induce a voltage relative to the anode or cathode . the anode may be the plasma chamber itself or an independent electrode in the plasma chamber or ion source structure . the plasma chamber is a container in which the plasma created by the ion source is maintained prior to extraction and acceleration . fig4 illustrates an embodiment of a customized ion implanter ion source 10 . the source 10 includes a vacuum chamber 30 , a hot tungsten filament cathode 1000 that may become eroded with use , an electrostatic electron reflector 3000 having insulators 511c , 512c , 513c , 514c that may also become coated with conducting material , a vaporizer 2000 for a radioactive elemental solid phosphorus 70b , and a plasma chamber 4000 . the cathode 1000 is on an extensible probe 24c . the vaporizer 2000 is on an extensible probe 24b . the electron reflector 3000 is on an extensible probe 24c . three sealable transfer containers 22a - c , each having sealable openings 28a - c , provide the capacity for containing radiation and radioactive particulates in addition to maintaining an inert gas atmosphere during transfer to a service area . other radiation shielding 41a , 42a , 41b , 42b , 43b , 41c , 42c may be used to protect individuals while transferring the transfer containers 22a - c . three valved openings 38a - c on the vacuum chamber 30 seal the vacuum chamber 30 from air after the extensible probes 24a - c are retracted . all of the extensible probes 24a - c in fig4 are shown in the retracted position . preferably , the valved openings 38a - c on the vacuum chamber 30 can be sealed adequately to maintain the vacuum in the system . the ion source 10 also contains three bellows 27a - c surrounding the extensible probes 24a - c . joints 60a - c may be used to fasten the sealable openings 28a - c to the valved openings 38a - c . a magnetic field may be superimposed on the plasma chamber 4000 , emanating from ferrous material poles 51 , 52 . hand - operated valves 61a - c may be connected to vacuum and inert gas venting connections 63a - c , which could connect to a combined external pumping / venting assembly ( not shown ). preferably , the removable enclosures 20a - c will have a minimum of extra hardware attached so they will be easier to lift . the customized ion source 10 may be used in the following manner . first , the component 1000 may be mounted on the end of the extensible probe 24a . then , the extensible probe 24a may be retracted into the vacuum compatible radiation shielded transfer container 22a and the transfer container seal in the sealable opening 28a may be closed . the transfer container 22a may be transferred to the ion source vacuum chamber 30 and attached onto the valved opening 38a . the vacuum and inert gas venting connection 63a may be attached to the valve 61a on the transfer container 22a to evacuate the transfer container 22a to a pressure similar to that of the ion source vacuum chamber 30 . the transfer container sealable opening 28a and the valved opening 38a may then be opened . the extensible probe 24a is extended until it is in the correct position in the ion source 10 . other services that may be required by the component , such as cooling fluid or electrical lines , are then connected in a conventional manner . if appropriate , other components of the ion source may be connected and the ion source may be operated . maintenance of the component 1000 may be provided by first retracting the extensible probe 24a into the transfer container 22a and closing the valved opening 38a . services may then be disconnected and the transfer container 22a may be vented with inert gas . the sealable opening 28a on the transfer container 22a may then be closed . the vacuum and inert gas line 63a may be disconnected from the valve 61a . the transfer container 22a may be disengaged from the valved opening 38a and the transfer container 22a may be transferred to a service area where an inert atmosphere is provided and / or where suitable radiation shielding and remote manipulation hardware is available . also , the transfer container 22a may be opened to either air or to dry nitrogen , depending on whether the component 1000 is moisture sensitive . the other extensible probes 24b - c , transfer containers 22b - c , and components 2000 , 3000 may be operated in a manner similar to that described above for the extensible probe 24a , transfer container 22a , and component 1000 . the ion source vacuum chamber 30 may be connected to a vacuum chamber assembly for a mass filter ( not shown ). fig5 shows the ion source 10 of fig4 in an operational position with the extensible probes 24a - c extended to connect with the plasma chamber 4000 . in addition , the sealable openings 28a - c and the valved openings 38a - c are shown in an open position to facilitate extending the extensible probes 24a - c . the bellows 27a - c have been compressed and three connections 25a , 26a , 25b for services are shown . a baffle 34 also is shown in the ion source vacuum chamber 30 . the shape of the baffle 34 and its location and placement within the ion source vacuum chamber 30 downstream of an orifice on the plasma chamber 4000 may help minimize leakage of radioactive phosphorus gas into areas of the ion source vacuum chamber 30 other than the zones where the ion beam must be transported . the ion source 10 may be operated in a conventional manner with a vacuum varying from approximately 10 - 5 torr where the ion beam hits the work piece ( not shown ) to approximately 10 - 2 torr in the plasma chamber 4000 . fig6 shows an interior portion of an ion source 10 &# 39 ; that uses a hot filament cathode 1000 &# 39 ; with a plasma chamber 4000 &# 39 ; acting as an anode . a vaporizer oven 2000 &# 39 ; may contain a solid phosphorus - containing compound 70b &# 39 ; which may be elemental phosphorus . a heater 90b may be used to raise the temperature of the phosphorus material 70b &# 39 ; until a sufficient vapor pressure and gas flow of phosphorus is obtained to operate the ion source plasma chamber 4000 &# 39 ;. phosphorus vapor may be passed into the plasma chamber 4000 &# 39 ; through a tube 100b . the vaporizer 2000 &# 39 ; may be attached to an extensible probe 24b &# 39 ; and extended towards the plasma chamber 4000 &# 39 ;. alignment may be facilitated by a pair of guides 201b , 202b . the vaporizer 2000 &# 39 ; may preferably be unioned , or temporarily joined , to the plasma chamber 4000 &# 39 ; using tapered joint 102b , which may make a substantially gas - tight seal and may be self - aligning . a cathode 1000 &# 39 ; may be placed on the extensible probe 24a &# 39 ; and an electrostatic reflector 3000 &# 39 ; may be placed on the extensible probe 24c &# 39 ;. the cathode 1000 &# 39 ; and the electrostatic reflector 3000 &# 39 ; may be mounted on taper joint platforms 601a , 601c &# 39 ; and may be electrically insulated with ceramic insulators 511a , 512a , 513a , 514a , 511c &# 39 ;, 512c &# 39 ;, 513c &# 39 ;, 514c &# 39 ;. a pair of guides 201a , 201c also may be included to assist in the positioning of the extensible probes 24a &# 39 ;, 24c &# 39 ;. the guides 201a , 201c preferably may have beveled edges where needed to avoid accidentally entrapping the extensible probes . it is desirable to avoid leaking radioactive phosphorus gas into areas of the ion source vacuum chamber 30 other than the zones where an ion beam 900 is transported in order to minimize possible contamination to workers during maintenance of the extensible components . therefore , the vacuum chamber 30 may preferably be separated into two largely isolated volumes , one volume being the zone where the ion beam 900 is located and the second volume being the zone where the extensible probes 24a &# 39 ;- c &# 39 ; enter the vacuum chamber 30 . fig6 shows an example in which an extraction electrode 301 and a ground electrode 302 are connected to the plasma chamber 4000 &# 39 ; downstream of the plasma chamber 4000 &# 39 ;. the detailed method of preparing the preferred embodiment of the radiopaque , radioactive stent of this invention would be as follows . first , an ordinary non - radioactive , non - radiopaque coronary stent made of stainless steel with dimensions of approximately 2 mm in diameter , 1 . 5 cm in length may be placed in a vacuum chamber of an unbalanced magnetron sputter coating apparatus . the apparatus may have two sputter sources , one for chromium and one for gold . the chamber may also contain a low energy &# 34 ; kaufman &# 34 ; type ion source for sputter cleaning parts using an argon ion beam . while the stent rotates about its long axis , an ion source with an argon ion beam current density of approximately ten microamps per cm 2 at two kev may be directed at the rotating stent for approximately eight to ten minutes to remove the native oxide and to remove approximately 100 to 500 angstroms of stainless steel from the stent &# 39 ; s surface for the purpose of making the surface atomically clean . the stent may then be coated with 3000 angstroms of chromium using the first sputter gun for approximately 10 minutes . the stent may then be coated with approximately 12 microns of pure gold using the second sputter gun in a one hour deposition period . during these coating runs , the stent may be biased with 100 volts of d . c ., which generally produces better adhesion of each coating . after these coatings , the stent may be removed from the coating apparatus and placed in the end station vacuum chamber of a special - purpose radioactive ion implanter similar to the implanter described above . while rotating , the stent may be exposed to a fluence of 6 × 10 9 p 32 / cm 2 times pi ( 3 . 14159 ) ( to account for the circumference of the stent ) at a kinetic energy of 180 kev . the implantation process , done at an ion beam current density of approximately one picoampere per cm 2 , may take approximately 50 minutes to complete . at the conclusion of the implantation process , the stent may have an activity of approximately two microcuries . the stent may then be shipped to a hospital and , after approximately two weeks ( one half - life ) on the shelf , it may have an activity of one microcurie and be ready for an angioplasty procedure . while the invention has been disclosed in connection with the preferred embodiments shown and described in detail , various modifications and improvements thereon will become readily apparent to those skilled in the art . accordingly , the spirit and scope of the present invention is to be limited only by the following claims .
a stent according to the systems and methods described herein may include a body formed from a non - radioactive structural material , a radiopaque material coating the body , and a beta - emitting radioisotope ion implanted into the radiopaque material . optionally , an adhesion layer , such as titanium , vanadium , chromium , iron , cobalt , nickel , or some combination or alloy thereof , may be applied to the body to facilitate adhesion of the radiopaque material . the radiopaque material may include platinum , iridium , rhenium , gold , tantalum , or some combination or alloy thereof . the beta - emitting radioisotope may include sulfur - 35 or phosphorous - 32 and may be ion implanted into the radiopaque material .