the present invention is directed to implants having a nanometer scale surface topography consisting of irregular shaped pitting and methods of making the same . an implant in the context of the present invention means a device intended to be placed within a human body such as to connect skeletal structures ( e . g ., a hip implant ) or to serve as a fixture for a body part ( e . g ., a fixture for an artificial tooth ). although the remainder of this application is directed to a dental implant , it is contemplated that the present invention may also be applied to other ( e . g ., medical ) implants . fig1 shows a standard dental implant 10 that includes an head portion 12 , a lowermost end 14 , and a threaded bottom portion 16 . the implant 10 may , for example , be made of titanium , tantalum , cobalt , chromium , stainless steel , or alloys thereof . fig2 a - c , 3 a - c , and 4 a - b , which are discussed below , describe alternative implant designs that may also be used with the present invention . in the implant 10 of fig1 , the head portion 12 includes a non - rotational feature . in the embodiment shown , the non - rotational feature includes a polygonal boss 20 that may be engageable with a tool that screws the implant 10 into bone tissue . in the illustrated embodiment , the polygonal boss 20 is hexagonal . the polygonal boss 20 may also be used for non - rotationally engaging a correspondingly shaped socket on a restorative or prosthetic component that is attached to the implant 10 . the exterior of the threaded bottom portion 16 facilitates bonding with bone or gingiva . the threaded bottom section 16 includes a thread 18 that makes a plurality of turns around the implant 10 . the threaded bottom portion 16 may further include a self - tapping region with incremental cutting edges 17 that allows the implant 10 to be installed without the need for a bone tap . these incremental cutting edges 17 are described in detail in u . s . pat . no . 5 , 727 , 943 , entitled “ self - tapping , screw - type dental implant ,” which is incorporated by reference in its entirety . fig2 a - c disclose an implant 36 that differs from the implant 10 of fig1 in the details of the cutting edges 17 ′ and the contours of the threads defining the exterior of the threaded bottom portion 16 ′. when viewed in the cross - section ( see fig1 b ), the threaded outer surface 16 ′ is non - circular in the region of the threads and / or the troughs between the threads . this type of thread structure is described in detail in u . s . pat . no . 5 , 902 , 109 , entitled “ reduced friction , screw - type dental implant ,” which is incorporated by reference in its entirety . in fig3 a - c , an implant 41 having a wide diameter in the region of the threaded bottom portion 42 is illustrated . the diameter is in the range of from about 4 . 5 mm to about 6 . 0 mm with the diameter of 5 . 0 mm being a fairly common dimension for a wide diameter implant . such an implant 41 is useful to engage one or both cortical bones to provide enhanced stability , especially during the period of time after installation . fig4 a - b illustrate an implant 110 according to another embodiment that may be used with the present invention . the implant 110 includes a middle section 114 designed to extend through the gingiva . preferably , it is a smooth surface that includes a titanium nitride coating so the underlying titanium or titanium alloy is not readily seen through the gingiva . the implant 110 also includes a threaded portion 120 that may include various thread structures and is preferably roughened to increase the osseointegration process . it is contemplated that implants other than those illustrated in fig1 - 4 may be used with the present invention . according to embodiments of the present invention , a nanoscale roughened surface is superimposed onto a microscale roughened surface on at least a portion ( e . g ., the threaded bottom portion ) of the surface of an implant . in one embodiment , the nanoscale roughened surface is created by immersing the microscale roughened surface into a solution containing hydrogen peroxide and a basic solution . non - limiting examples of suitable basic solutions include potassium hydroxide solutions and sodium hydroxide solutions . turning now to fig5 , a general method of producing a nanoscale roughened surface on an implant is set forth according to one embodiment of the present invention . at step 500 , an implant is provided . at least a portion of the implant surface is roughened to a microscale roughness at step 501 , for example , by machining , acid etching and / or grit blasting the implant surface . as an example , fig6 shows the implant 10 of fig1 having a roughened surface 630 . nanopitting is then created on the microscale roughened surface by immersion into a solution containing hydrogen peroxide and a basic solution , to produce a nanoscale roughened surface on the implant at step 502 . referring now to fig7 a , another general method of forming an implant according to another embodiment of the present invention is illustrated . an implant comprised of titanium , a titanium alloy ( e . g . titanium 6al - 4v eli alloy ), stainless steel , or the like is provided at step 750 . at step 754 , nanopitting is created on a microscale roughened surface to produce a nanoscale roughened surface on the implant . at step 756 , the implant is passivated with nitric acid . the implant may then be rinsed in reverse osmosis / deionized ( ro / di ) water to remove residual solvents and hydroxyapatite at step 758 . the implant is then dried at step 764 and sterilized at step 766 using , for example , gamma sterilization techniques . referring to fig7 b , a more detailed method of producing a nanoscale roughened surface on an implant is illustrated according to another embodiment of the present invention . a threaded dental implant comprised of titanium , a titanium alloy ( e . g . titanium 6al - 4v eli alloy ), stainless steel , or the like is provided at step 700 . the surface of the implant is generally clean and dry . a threaded bottom portion of the implant is etched to remove a native oxide layer from the implant surface at step 701 . the native oxide layer may be removed by a first acid solution , which may include aqueous hydrofluoric acid . the threaded bottom portion is then acid etched form a microscale roughened surface at step 702 . “ microscale ,” as used herein , should be understood to describe an article or feature generally measured in microns such as , for example , 1 micron to 100 microns . acid etching may result from immersion in a mixture of sulfuric and hydrochloric acids , creating peak - to - peak and peak - to - valley irregularity distances in the microscale roughened surface of about 1 micron to 3 microns . this type of roughening method utilized on commercially pure ( cp ) titanium is described in detail in u . s . pat . no . 5 , 876 , 453 , entitled “ implant surface preparation ,” which is incorporated by reference in its entirety . an additional roughening method utilized on titanium 6al - 4v eli alloy is described in detail in u . s . pat . app . pub . no . 2004 / 0265780 , entitled “ surface treatment process for implants made of titanium alloy ,” which is also incorporated by reference in its entirety . it is contemplated that other surface roughening techniques including , but not limited to , grit blasting , titanium plasma spraying , and combinations thereof , may be used . grit blasting the threaded bottom portion to form a microscale roughened surface generally results in peak - to - peak and peak - to - valley irregularity distances of about 10 microns to 30 microns . grit blasting and acid etching the threaded bottom portion to form the microscale roughened surface generally results in both levels of topographies , i . e ., with about 1 micron to 3 microns peak - to - peak and peak - to - valley irregularity distances superimposed on 10 microns to 30 microns peak - to - peak and peak - to - valley irregularity distances on the microscale roughened surface . at step 703 , the microscale roughened surface is immersed into a solution containing hydrogen peroxide and a basic solution to produce a nanoscale roughened surface consisting of nanopitting superimposed on the microscale roughened surface . the basic solution can be any base with a ph in the range of about 7 to about 14 , and preferably about 14 , such as potassium hydroxide or sodium hydroxide . “ nanoscale ,” as used herein , should be understood to describe an article or feature generally measured in nanometers such as , for example , 1 nanometer to 500 nanometers . generally , immersion into the hydrogen peroxide / basic solution results in nanopitting of about 1 nanometer to about 100 nanometers . immersion time , hydrogen peroxide concentration , and basic solution concentration are among several factors that affect the rate and amount of nanopitting superimposed onto the microscale roughness of the implant surface . for example , immersing a commercially pure titanium implant in a solution of 3 - 5 % potassium hydroxide and 13 - 22 % hydrogen peroxide for 1 minute at 50 degrees celsius typically results in an acceptable nanoscale roughness of the implant surface . longer immersion times may impact the micron level topographies , while potassium hydroxide concentrations of less than 3 % and / or hydrogen peroxide concentrations of less than 13 % may result in the nano - topography not being adequately formed . another factor affecting the rate and amount of nanopitting onto the microscale roughness of the implant surface is the processing temperature . at temperatures of higher than about 60 degrees celsius , for example , the etching is accelerated and can begin to impact the micron level topographies . thus , it may be desirable for the processing temperature to be maintained at or below about 60 degrees celsius . processing temperature , immersion time , and / or chemical concentration may be adjusted to compensate for one or more of these variables being within an otherwise unacceptable range , in order to nevertheless produce acceptable nano - topography . for example , potassium hydroxide concentrations of less than 3 % may be adjusted by increasing immersion time and / or processing temperature in order to produce an acceptable amount of nanopitting on the microscale roughness of the implant surface . post - processing , the implant is passivated with nitric acid at step 704 . at step 705 , the implant is rinsed in hot deionized water ( e . g . 70 degrees celsius to 100 degrees celsius ) to remove any acid residuals and to potentially enhance titanium hydroxide groups on the surface . hydroxyapatite ( ha ) nanocrystals may then optionally be deposited on the nanoscale roughened surface of the implant at step 706 . the ha nanocrystals may be introduced onto the nanoscale roughened surface of the implant in the form of a colloid . a representative amount of ha in the colloid is typically in the range of about 0 . 01 weight percent to about 1 weight percent ( e . g ., 0 . 10 weight percent ). to form the colloid , ha nanocrystals may be combined in solution with a 2 - methoxyethanol solvent and ultrasonically dispersed and deagglomerated . the ph of the colloidal solution may be adjusted with sodium hydroxide , ammonium hydroxide , or the like on the other of about 7 to about 13 . as such , the colloidal solution may include ha nanocrystals , 2 - methoxyethanol , and a ph adjuster ( e . g . ammonium hydroxide , and / or sodium hydroxide ). this type of ha deposition is described in detail in u . s . pat . app . pub . nos . 2007 / 0110890 and 2007 / 0112353 , both entitled “ deposition of discrete nanoparticles on an implant surface ,” which are incorporated by reference in their entireties . the implant may then be rinsed in reverse osmosis / deionized ( ro / di ) water to remove residual solvent and ha at step 708 . alternatively or in addition to the acts of depositing ha nanocrystals at step 706 and rinsing at step 708 , a sodium lactate coating may be applied on the nanoscale roughened surface of the implant at step 707 and the implant rinsed at step 708 . in either embodiment , the implant may then be dried ( e . g ., oven dried ), at step 714 , and sterilized at step 716 using , for example , gamma sterilization . the implant surface may be characterized utilizing field emission scanning electron microscopy ( fesem ). depending upon the resolution of the instrument , the nanopitting may typically be witnessed at magnifications of 30kx or higher . as discussed above , the nanopitting generally has a distribution in the range of about 1 nanometer to about 500 nanometers , and typically between about 1 nanometer and about 100 nanometers . fig8 a and 8 b are scanning electron microscope images showing a micron - level roughness imparted by an acid etching process on a commercially pure titanium implant . the image of fig8 a was taken at 2kx utilizing an sem . the image of fig8 b was taken at 30kx utilizing an fesem . the implant shown in fig8 a and 8 b was machined , cleaned , and acid etched to impart a microscale roughness on the surface of the implant using a process similar to that described in u . s . pat . no . 5 , 603 , 338 , herein incorporated by reference in its entirety . the native oxide layer of the implant was removed via immersion in a hydrofluoric acid solution of about 5 % v / v ( about 8 . 5 % w / w ) for about 60 seconds at about 20 - 25 degrees celsius . the acid etching was accomplished by immersion in an h 2 so 4 / hcl solution for about 7 minutes at about 60 - 70 degrees celsius . fig8 a demonstrates the micron - level topography imparted by this acid etching at a magnification of 2kx . characteristic 1 - 3 micron peak - to - peak micropitting is clearly defined . fig8 b , which is an fesem image of the surface at a magnification of 30kx , demonstrates the general lack of nanometer - scale surface roughness features after this level of processing . the implant was then immersed in about 4 % w / w potassium hydroxide and about 16 % w / w hydrogen peroxide at a starting temperature of about 50 degrees celsius for about 1 minute , according to one embodiment of the invention . post - processing , the implant was thoroughly rinsed in de - ionized water , then passivated through 40 khz ultrasonic immersion in about 22 % w / w nitric acid for about 10 minutes at about 60 degrees celsius , followed by additional rinsing in de - ionized water , and oven drying at about 100 - 150 degrees celsius . the additional processing imparted a nanometer level topography , as demonstrated in the fesem images of fig9 a - c . fig9 a , which is an fesem image at a magnification of 2kx , demonstrates the micron - level roughness imparted by the acid etching remains on the implant , including the characteristic 1 - 3 micron peak - to - peak micropitting . the nanoscale roughness cannot be witnessed at this magnification . fig9 b , which shows the surface of fig9 a at a magnification of 30kx , demonstrates the nanoscale roughness features of the implant surface . nanopitting in the 1 - 100 nanometer range can be witnessed at this magnification . fig9 c , which is a magnification of the surface of fig9 a and 9 b at 100kx , more clearly demonstrates the resultant nanoscale roughness . the implant shown in fig9 a - c was then evaluated for surface chemistry utilizing electron dispersion spectroscopy . a spot size of approximately 275 × 375 microns was analyzed for chemistry . the freshly processed and passivated sample demonstrated a 100 % titanium surface chemistry , indicating that no residuals were present at the detection limit of the instrument . all of the solutions containing the concentrations of koh and h 2 o 2 provided in table 1 below resulted in acceptable nano - topography on commercially pure titanium with about 1 minute exposure to a hydrogen peroxide and potassium hydroxide solution at about 50 degrees celsius : a solution having about 4 % w / w koh and about 16 % w / w h 2 o 2 resulted in acceptable nano - topography on titanium 6al - 4v eli with 1 minute exposure to a hydrogen peroxide and potassium hydroxide solution at about 50 degrees celsius . a solution having about 4 % w / w naoh and about 16 % w / w h 2 o 2 resulted in acceptable nano - topography on titanium 6al - 4v eli with about 1 minute exposure to a hydrogen peroxide and sodium hydroxide solution at about 50 degrees celsius . all of the solutions containing the concentrations of koh and h 2 o 2 provided in table 2 below , with koh and h 2 o 2 concentrations ranging from about 1 % w / w to about 6 % w / w resulted in acceptable nano - topography on grit - blasted and acid - etched commercially pure titanium with about 4 minute exposure to a hydrogen peroxide and potassium hydroxide solution at about 33 degrees celsius . the solutions containing the concentrations of koh and h 2 o 2 provided in table 2 slow down the method of forming acceptable nano - topography , thus improving process control in the production environment . as the base or peroxide concentration approached 0 % w / w , the desired surface topography was not formed . it is contemplated that various combinations of variables ( e . g ., concentration of basic solution , concentration of hydrogen peroxide , exposure times , temperatures ) may be used to forms the desired surface attributes . according to one non - limiting example , the desired surface may be obtained using 4 . 1 % koh , 3 . 85 % h 2 o 2 , 3 minute exposure time , and 31 degrees celsius . while the present invention has been generally described relative to the part of the implant contacting bone tissue , it is contemplated that the acts of etching , acid etching , roughening , nanopitting , and depositing herein described may be performed on the entire implant . while the present invention has been described with reference to one or more particular embodiments , those skilled in the art will recognize that many changes may be made thereto without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention . each of these embodiments and obvious variations thereof is contemplated as falling within the spirit and scope of the claimed invention , which is set forth in the following claims .
a method of forming an implant to be implanted into living bone is disclosed . the method comprises the act of roughening at least a portion of the implant surface to produce a microscale roughened surface . the method further comprises the act of immersing the microscale roughened surface into a solution containing hydrogen peroxide and a basic solution to produce a nanoscale roughened surface consisting of nanopitting superimposed on the microscale roughened surface . the nanoscale roughened surface has a property that promotes osseointegration .