human perception depends on the classical five senses of hearing , sight , smell , taste and touch . along with these there are at least four other senses : equilibrioception ( balance ), proprioception ( body awareness ), thermoception ( heat ) and nociception ( pain ). referring to fig1 and 2 , the auditory system is the sensory system for the sense of hearing . on its path from the outside world to the forebrain , sound information is preserved and modified in many ways . it changes media twice , first from air to fluid , then from fluid to “ action potentials ”. together with the cochlea and numerous liquid containing vesicles , the vestibular labyrinth forms the membranous labyrinth of the inner ear . it contains five separate specialized sensory receptors : three semicircular canals , and two otolith organs that complement each other in function . the semicircular canals ( horizontal , anterior , and posterior ) transduce rotational head movements ( angular accelerations ). the otolith organs ( utricle and saccule ) respond to translational head movements ( linear accelerations ) or to the orientation of the head relative to gravity . each semicircular canal and otolith organ is spatially aligned to be most sensitive to movements in specific planes in three - dimensional space . the vestibular system sends signals primarily to the neural structures that control our eye movements , and to the muscles that keep us upright . the projections to the former provide the anatomical basis of the vestibulo - ocular reflex , which is required for clear vision ; and the projections to the muscles that control our posture are necessary to keep us upright . as shown schematically in fig3 , 5 and 6 , “ hair cells ” are the sensory receptor cells of the auditory system in all vertebrates . in mammals , the hair cells are located within the cochlea &# 39 ; s organ of corti ( fig . 3 ). they derive their name from the tufts of stereocilia that protrude from the apical surface of the cell , a structure known as the hair bundle . each hair cell contains 60 to 100 hexagonally arranged stereocilia and a single longer kinocilium ( fig4 ). mammalian hair cells come in two anatomically and functionally distinct types : the outer and inner hair cells ( fig . 3 ). damage to these hair cells results in decreased hearing sensitivity , i . e . sensorineural hearing loss . research of the past decades has shown that outer hair cells are motile and mechanically amplify low - level sound that enters the cochlea . the inner hair cells transform the sound vibrations in the fluids of the cochlea into electrical signals that are then relayed via the auditory nerve to the auditory brainstem and to the auditory cortex . in the utricle and saccule hair cells , the otolithic membrane covers the stereocilia and its displacement excites the hair cells in unison . in the semicircular canals , the stereocilia are embedded in the gelatinous cupula that helps translate the motion of the endolymph that fills the canals into the unified motion of the hair cells residing in the cupula . in normal circumstances , the motion of the membranes will lag the head movements , creating a shearing distortion upon the underlying gel with cilia embedded in it . as described above , the stereocilia are coupled to nerves . excitation of these hairs activates nerve impulses that the brain interprets as sound or position relative to gravity . the nerves that connect the hairs and produce electrical impulses to the brain operate on the exchange of ionized calcium ( ca ) and potassium ( k ) through semi - permeable cell membranes . random and / or simultaneous excitation of all the hair / nerve combinations and the upset of the normal ionic chemistry produce sensations of intense wideband sound and complete disorientation which the brain has little or no hope of decoding . the hair cell transduction mechanism is depicted schematically in fig5 and 6 . the deflection of the ciliary ( hair ) bundle towards or away from the kinocilium causes change in conductivity of the cilia . variation of ciliary current in turn causes change in the membrane potential of the hair cell , which leads to variation in the firing rate of the neuron , associated with this hair cell . the axis along which the motion has the most effect is a polarization line . to disrupt the vestibular function , the present electromagnetic wave ( described in greater detail hereinafter ) impinges on the vestibular organs . interaction of the alternating magnetic field with the current in hair bundles perpendicular to wave propagation will create an alternating sideways force on the cilia containing the current , and therefore on the entire ciliary bundle . swaying of the bundle will produce periodic hyperpolarization - depolarization pattern at the cellular membrane leading to the increased decreased - increased firing rate of the cells . the generic action and the representation of the electromagnetic wave ( emw ) are illustrated schematically in fig6 and 7 . the emw has the electric field ( heavier dark sinusoid ) and the magnetic field ( lighter sinusoid ) alternating in phase in mutually perpendicular directions that are also perpendicular to the direction of the wave propagation . to begin , let us assume for an instant that magnetic field b is constant , and directed away from the reader , into the page . positive potassium k + and calcium ca 2 + ions flow down from outer end of the cilia towards cell body , and ciliary current j is also directed downwards according to the convention that current is directed along the motion of the positive charges . with the current directed down , and the magnetic field b directed into the page , the lorentz force on the cilium f points to the right . now , if the field changes the direction , the force will change the sign , too , pushing the cilium to the left . this will happen if the wave approaches the ciliary bundle from the right . the electric field now alternates in the vertical direction , whereas magnetic component sinusoidally oscillates in the direction perpendicular to the page , exerting horizontal ( sideways ) lorentz force on the bundle . depending on the polarization and direction of the electromagnetic wave ( emw ), different vestibular organs will be affected . the three cupulae , stretched across the ampullated end of each of the semicircular canals that act as transducers of angular accelerations , will be affected in their entirely . the sensory membranes in the saccule and utricle that transduce linear accelerations and static displacements have complex topology with several distinct excitation regions that are thought to be instrumental in distinguishing acceleration from head tilt by distinguishing the excitation patterns . whatever is the excitation area , the stimulation will produce coherent input from the affected region , similar to what happens in normal circumstances . the effect of partial stimulation of either vestibular organ would be twofold : ( 1 ) as a result from the mismatch between the visual and vestibular sensory clues presented to the brain ( vestibular system reports extraneous acceleration or motion that the eyes do not perceive ); and ( 2 ) as a result of the unusual nature of the stimulus experienced by the vestibular system . the first action mechanism plays an up tight interconnection between visual and vestibular functions . vestibular system inputs are used to steady the gaze during walking — a problem in early camcorders that lacked image stabilization filtration , when jumpy movies caused nausea in the viewers . this relation is amply demonstrated by the nausea associated with motion sickness when the brain cannot cope with mismatch between the visual clues of rest ( no motion ) and the vestibular clues of acceleration as happen on a ship or an airplane . the second action mechanism borrows from the clinical observation of patients with benign ( paroxysmal ) positional vertigo ( bppv or bpv ). vertigo and syncope are the most common symptoms of bppv , which are brought on by the contamination of the endolymph ( liquid that fills semicircular canals responsible for detection of the angular accelerations ) with otoconia crystals that have separated from otolith . presence of the otoconia in the affected semicircular canal makes it gravity - sensitive , which results in the inappropriate input from the aforesaid semicircular canals . it is believed that it is the novelty of the stimulus that causes debilitating loss of balance that lasts from 30 to 60 seconds . relaxation time is most probably a result of the viscous deceleration of the otoconia by surrounding endolymph liquid , rather than an indication of brain &# 39 ; s capability for adaptation . therefore , the system mimicking symptoms associated with bppv would be a very satisfactory means of temporary incapacitation . the present electromagnetic personnel interdiction control ( epic ) system and method seeks affect changes at the cellular level by applying a lorentz force to the bundles with the aim to overdrive the hair bundle oscillating under a normal stimulus or to excite an oscillation of the hair bundle producing in both cases an extraneous , unanticipated signal that is not matched by any other senses . the external motion of the hair bundles causes a hair cell to generate corresponding ciliary current that results in the change of membrane potential . in their animal studies of the cilia motion under transepithelial ( through the membrane ) electrical stimulation , hudspeth et al . found that at the frequencies above the hair bundle &# 39 ; s natural frequency ( 35 and 8 hz for two saccular hair cell bundles of the bullfrog studied ), the bundles &# 39 ; oscillations were a superposition of the driving and natural frequencies . bozovic d , hudspeth , a . j ., “ hair - bundle movements elicited by transepithelial electrical stimulation of hair cells in the sacculus of the bullfrog ”, proc natl acad sci usa . 2003 feb 4 ; 100 ( 3 ): 958 - 63 . these findings show the reciprocal nature of the mechano - chemical properties of the hair cells : the stimulation of the bundle causes changes on the membrane and vice versa . in the present system , we reciprocate these findings to conclude that if the ciliary bundle is driven at some frequency , there will be a response at the membrane , creating the desired neuronal activity that will be presented to the vestibular center in the brain . current knowledge of bppv supports long - term effectiveness of the system . the fact that patients suffering from bppv are usually instructed to relieve the symptoms by a series of controlled movements and absence of reports about the familiarization with the stimulus corroborate the argument that brain cannot learn and adapt to the stimulus within the timeframe of weapon usage and frequency of exposure . moreover , from the chronic nature of the affliction , we deduce the potential to use the system repeatedly without losing its effectiveness . the present system can also be modified to act at a more complex level . the vestibular system does not have the dynamic feedback of the cochlea , which lends so much complexity to the latter . there is no active processing and no continuous adaptation that makes our hearing so versatile . on the contrary , for secure functioning of the balance system , the vestibular inputs must always be the same , predictable and repeatable . the only “ vestibular adaptation ” is observed under continuous or frequent exposure to a stimulus . researchers have described it as a “ semi - premanent change of perception or perceptual - motor coordination that serves to reduce or eliminate a registered discrepancy between or within sensory modalities or the errors in behavior induced by this discrepancy ”. return to original environment causes a renewed error , or aftereffect . thus , repeated exposures to altered environment generally result in faster “ adaptation ”. however , the learning applies only to that particular kind of stimulus . therefore , the present system can act either by creating unusual sensations or by using more typical excitation in an on - off scheme . the responses from all the hair cells in a cupula or a macula are coherent , and the brain has learned to recognize excitation patterns for various parts of the membrane , thus , varying the excitation patterns by only few hair cells may sufficient by itself to create a “ panic ” reaction in the brain , incapacitating the normal function . the hair cell design is an amazing sensing mechanism with incredible dynamic range and equally incredible resolution throughout most of the dynamic range . the fundamental design of a hair cell has proven to be evolutionary stable . the hair cells of frogs , turtles and mammals are all very similar . most easily observable differences between the hair cells of different species are the geometric factors ( size , overall bundle height , step height , number of cilia , and packing of cilia ) of the bundle . there are also differences in the adaptation process timescales as well as the magnitude of the adaptation observed in various species . this divergence is a result of evolutionary adjustment to the stimuli experienced by a given species . fig8 is a graph illustrating an example of a signal modulation scheme that was tested which fully utilizes the mechanical properties of the ciliary bundle . for the baseline power level estimate , we chose the average parameters for the hair cells measured and reported in published studies of various animal species . it is assumed that parameters of the mouse and human vestibular hair cells will not vary so much as to affect the power estimates by more than one order of magnitude . a higher radio frequency carrier is non - symmetrically modulated by a slower driving frequency for the hair bundles . this modulation scheme provides necessary permeability through most obstacles while maintaining good signal range . displacement step and force step measurements show that the hair bundle acts as a low - pass filter integrating over high frequencies present in the input . therefore , the hair bundle will act as an integrator for the higher frequency carrier , while fully responding to the modulation signal . testing has shown that a carrier frequency in the 900 mhz industrial , scientific and medical ( ism ) band as defined by federal communications commission , which is safely used by cellular phone operators , can reduce expected ( non - existent ) health concerns , and a driving frequency selected to be above most of the known natural frequencies of individual hair bundles ( few to tens of hz ), and below the frequency of the utricular or saccular sensory system as a whole ( few hundreds hz ), would avoid damage to the hair bundles by avoiding resonance where the bundle may be driven into too great an oscillation , and thereby maintain the non - lethal nature of the present system . every other half - wave portion may be inverted to maximize the force on , and thus the displacement of , the hair bundle . this also lessens the signal power needed to achieve the same effect on the bundle . bundle modeling and rf power level current research indicates that the mechanical properties of the ciliary bundles yield similar order of magnitude figures for the dynamic properties of the hair bundles of outer hair cells of various species . the major source of differences can be ascribed to the evolutionary differences ( i . e . frequency selectivity ) in the hair cell morphology between the species . moreover , most of the current research concentrates on the outer hair cells of the cochlea , as spontaneous activity of the latter is thought to give rise to spontaneous acoustic emissions from human ears . two types of adaptation that alter dynamic properties of the hair bundles upon the stimulus have been observed ; fast and slow . slow adaptation happens within the time scales for neuronal processes , whereas fast adaptation occurs before the cellular membrane has changed polarization . fast adaptation is believed to be meditated by the molecular motors involved in the mechano - transduction process . most interestingly , it not only causes undesirable decrease in transduction current ( at constant deflection ), it also causes decrease in dynamic stiffness of the ciliary bundles . although a decrease in the transduction current , occurring in the millisecond time scales ( well below the intended stimulus ) may hinder the influence of the present system ; a decrease in dynamic stiffness after initial stimulation may contribute to the efficacy of present system . the following equations are a simplified model of the hair bundle that has been used for the estimates of the frequency and the field strength of the electromagnetic wave ( emw ) required to achieve certain displacement of the hair bundle . in this model , the hair bundle is treated as one point mass at the center of mass of the bundle , and idealization of the bundle was manifest in the equal spacing between the bundles , equal density distribution among the cilia and along the length of each individual cilium . this model also assumes equal relative transducer efficiency at each cilium , and equal lorentz force density among the cilia .
an electromagnetic personnel interdiction control non - destructive stun type weapon system and method utilizes beamed rf energy to disrupt the normal mechanical transduction process and / or the chemical engine by which sound , position and other sensory input are converted to messages by nerve cells and processed by the brain to produce complete disorientation , confusion , and temporary incapacitation sufficient to temporarily and remotely render a human powerless to resist arrest or subjugation . removal of the rf electromagnetic energy will leave the nerve cells and surrounding tissues with no damage and the second order effects of severe motion sickness and the psychological effects of “ helplessness ” remains until the body chemistry returns to normal .