the bdds described herein consists of macrospheres , which include at least a therapeutic , diagnostic or prophylactic agent to be delivered , bioadhesive elements ( which may be polymers , metal oxides , or ligands for specific mucosal components ), and release controlling materials , which may effect release by degradation , diffusion , ph , or a combination thereof the macrospheres are typically in the range of from 0 . 1 to 3 mm in diameter , preferably greater than 0 . 2 mm , most preferably greater than 0 . 5 mm . they typically contain one or more agents to be delivered and one or more rate controlling materials , for example , rate controlling membranes . in some embodiments there are multiple therapeutic agents released at different times . in other embodiments , therapeutic agent is released from the rate controlling membrane as well as from the core of the macrosphere , where the therapeutic agent in the membrane may be the same or different from the agent in the core . macrospheres can be administered as a powder , encapsulated within a gelatin or enteric coating , or compressed into a tablet . macrospheres of the same or different carrier composition or active agent can be mixed together in a single formulation . the macrospheres can contain between 10 and 70 % of therapeutic , diagnostic or prophylactic agent ( referred to hereafter as “ active ”) by weight of macrosphere , or between 30 and 90 % by weight of the core of a coated macrosphere , where each coating makes up between 1 - 10 % , preferably 5 - 6 %, by weight of the macrosphere , up to a total of about 30 % by weight of the macrosphere . the coating can include active , in ratios of between 5 and 50 % by weight of the coating , preferably between 20 and 40 % by weight of the coating , while still retaining rate control . suitable polymers that can be used to form bioadhesive particles include soluble and insoluble , biodegradable and nonbiodegradable polymers . these can be hydrogels or thermoplastics , homopolymers , copolymers or blends , natural or synthetic . the preferred polymers are synthetic polymers , with controlled synthesis and degradation characteristics . most preferred polymers are copolymers of fumaric acid and sebacic acid , which have unusually good bioadhesive properties when administered to the gastrointestinal tract . other preferred polymers suitable for use in these systems include degradable polymers : polyesters such as poly - lactic acid ( pla ), poly ( lactide - co - glycolide ) or plga , polycaprylactone ( pcl ); polyanhydrides such as poly ( fumaric - co - sebacic ) in molar ratios of 20 : 80 to 90 : 10 , poly ( carboxyphenoxypropane - co - sebacic acid ( pcpp : sa ); polyorthoesters ; polyamides ; and polyamides . other suitable polymers include hydrogel based polymers such as agarose , alginate , chitosan etc . and non - degradable polymers such as polystyrene , polyvinylphenol , polymethylmethacrylates ( eudragits ®). rapidly bioerodible polymers such as poly [ lactide - co - glycolide ], polyanhydrides , and polyorthoesters , whose carboxylic groups are exposed on the external surface as their smooth surface erodes , are excellent candidates for bioadhesive drug delivery systems . in addition , polymers containing labile bonds , such as polyanhydrides and polyesters , are well known for their hydrolytic reactivity . their hydrolytic degradation rates can generally be altered by simple changes in the polymer backbone . representative natural polymers include proteins , such as zein , modified zein , casein , gelatin , gluten , serum albumin , or collagen , and polysaccharides , such as cellulose , dextrans , polyhyaluronic acid , polymers of acrylic and methacrylic esters and alginic acid . synthetically modified natural polymers include alkyl celluloses , hydroxyalkyl celluloses , cellulose ethers , cellulose esters , and nitrocelluloses . representative synthetic polymers include polyphosphazines , poly ( vinyl alcohols ), polyamides , polycarbonates , polyalkylenes , polyacrylamides , polyalkylene glycols , polyalkylene oxides , polyalkylene terephthalates , polyvinyl ethers , polyvinyl esters , polyvinyl halides , polyvinylpyrrolidone , polyglycolides , polysiloxanes , polyurethanes and copolymers thereof . representative bioerodible polymers include polylactides , polyglycolides and copolymers thereof , poly ( ethylene terephthalate ), poly ( butic acid ), poly ( valeric acid ), poly ( lactide - co - caprolactone ), poly [ lactide - co - glycolide ], polyanhydrides , polyorthoesters , blends and copolymers thereof . these polymers can be obtained from sources such as sigma chemical co ., st . louis , mo ., polysciences , warrenton , pa ., aldrich , milwaukee , wis ., fluka , ronkonkoma , n . y ., and biorad , richmond , calif . or else synthesized from monomers obtained from these suppliers using standard techniques . polymers can be selected for or chemically modified to increase bioadhesion . for example , the polymers can be modified by increasing the number of carboxylic groups accessible during biodegradation , or on the polymer surface . the polymers can also be modified by binding amino groups to the polymer . the polymers can also be modified using any of a number of different coupling chemistries that covalently attach ligand molecules with bioadhesive properties to the surface - exposed molecules of the polymeric particles . one useful protocol involves the “ activation ” of hydroxyl groups on polymer chains with the agent , carbonyldiimidazole ( cdi ) in aprotic solvents such as dmso , acetone , or thf . cdi forms an imidazolyl carbamate complex with the hydroxyl group which may be displaced by binding the free amino group of a ligand such as a protein . the reaction is an n - nucleophilic substitution and results in a stable n - alkylcarbamate linkage of the ligand to the polymer . the “ coupling ” of the ligand to the “ activated ” polymer matrix is maximal in the ph range of 9 - 10 and normally requires at least 24 hrs . the resulting ligand - polymer complex is stable and resists hydrolysis for extended periods of time . another coupling method involves the use of 1 - ethyl - 3 -( 3 - dimethylaminopropyl ) carbodiimide ( edac ) or “ water - soluble cdi ” in conjunction with n - hydroxylsulfosuccimide ( sulfo nhs ) to couple the exposed carboxylic groups of polymers to the free amino groups of ligands in a totally aqueous environment at the physiological ph of 7 . 0 . briefly , edac and sulfo - nhs form an activated ester with the carboxylic acid groups of the polymer which react with the amine end of a ligand to form a peptide bond . the resulting peptide bond is resistant to hydrolysis . the use of sulfo - nhs in the reaction increases the efficiency of the edac coupling by a factor of ten - fold and provides for exceptionally gentle conditions that ensure the viability of the ligand - polymer complex . by using either of these protocols it is possible to “ activate ” almost all polymers containing either hydroxyl or carboxyl groups in a suitable solvent system that will not dissolve the polymer matrix . a useful coupling procedure for attaching ligands with free hydroxyl and carboxyl groups to polymers involves the use of the cross - linking agent , divinylsulfone . this method would be useful for attaching sugars or other hydroxylic compounds with bioadhesive properties to hydroxylic matrices . briefly , the activation involves the reaction of divinylsulfone to the hydroxyl groups of the polymer , forming the vinylsulfonyl ethyl ether of the polymer . the vinyl groups will couple to alcohols , phenols and even amines . activation and coupling take place at ph 11 . the linkage is stable in the ph range from 1 - 8 and is suitable for transit through the intestine . any suitable coupling method known to those skilled in the art for the coupling of ligands and polymers with double bonds , including the use of uv crosslinking , may be used for attachment of bioadhesive ligands to the polymeric particles described herein . any polymer that can be modified through the attachment of lectins can be used as a bioadhesive polymer for purposes of drug delivery or imaging . lectins that can be covalently attached to particles to render them target specific to the mucin and mucosal cell layer could be used as bioadhesives . useful lectin ligands include lectins isolated from : abrus precatroius , agaricus bisporus , anguilla anguilla , arachis hypogaea , pandeiraea simplicifolia , bauhinia purpurea , caragan arobrescens , cicer arietinum , codium fragile , datura stramonium , dolichos biflorus , erythrina corallodendron , erythrina cristagalli , euonymus europaeus , glycine max , helix aspersa , helix pomatia , lathyrus odoratus , lens culinaris , limulus polyphemus , lysopersicon esculentum , maclurapomifera , momordica charantia , mycoplasma gallisepticum , naja mocambique , as well as the lectins concanavalin a , succinyl - concanavalin a , triticum vulgaris , ulex europaeus i , ii and iii , sambucus nigra , maackia amurensis , limaxfluvus , homarus americanus , cancer antennarius , and lotus tetragonolobus . the attachment of any positively charged ligand , such as polyethyleneimine or polylysine , to any particle may improve bioadhesion due to the electrostatic attraction of the cationic groups coating the beads to the net negative charge of the mucus . the mucopolysaccharides and mucoproteins of the mucin layer , especially the sialic acid residues , are responsible for the negative charge coating . any ligand with a high binding affinity for mucin could also be covalently linked to most particles with the appropriate chemistry , such as cdi , and be expected to influence the binding of particles to the gut . for example , polyclonal antibodies raised against components of mucin or else intact mucin , when covalently coupled to particles , would provide for increased bioadhesion . similarly , antibodies directed against specific cell surface receptors exposed on the lumenal surface of the intestinal tract would increase the residence time of beads , when coupled to particles using the appropriate chemistry . the ligand affinity need not be based only on electrostatic charge , but other useful physical parameters such as solubility in mucin or else specific affinity to carbohydrate groups . the covalent attachment of any of the natural components of mucin in either pure or partially purified form to the particles would decrease the surface tension of the bead - gut interface and increase the penetration of the bead into the mucin layer . the list of useful ligands would include but not be limited to the following : sialic acid , neuraminic acid , n - acetyl - neurarminic acid , n - glycolylneuraminic acid , 4 - acetyl - n - acetylneuraminic acid , diacetyl - n - acetylneuraminic acid , glucuronic acid , iduronic acid , galactose , glucose , mannose , fucose , any of the partially purified fractions prepared by chemical treatment of naturally occurring mucin , e . g ., mucoproteins , mucopolysaccharides and mucopolysaccharide - protein complexes , and antibodies immunoreactive against proteins or sugar structure on the mucosal surface . the attachment of polyamino acids containing extra pendant carboxylic acid side groups , e . g ., polyaspartic acid and polyglutamic acid , should also provide a useful means of increasing bioadhesiveness . using polyamino acids in the 15 , 000 to 50 , 000 kda molecular weight range would yield chains of 120 to 425 amino acid residues attached to the surface of the particles . the polyamino chains would increase bioadhesion by means of chain entanglement in mucin strands as well as by increased carboxylic charge . the bioadhesive properties of a polymer are enhanced by incorporating a metal compound into the polymer to enhance the ability of the polymer to adhere to a tissue surface such as a mucosal membrane . metal compounds which enhance the bioadhesive properties of a polymer preferably are water - insoluble metal compounds , such as water - insoluble metal oxides and hydroxides , including oxides of calcium , iron , copper and zinc . the metal compounds can be incorporated within a wide range of hydrophilic and hydrophobic polymers including proteins , polysaccharides and synthetic biocompatible polymers . in one embodiment , metal oxides can be incorporated within polymers used to form or coat drug delivery devices , such as microspheres , which contain a drug or diagnostic agent . the metal compounds can be provided in the form of a fine dispersion of particles on the surface of a polymer that coats or forms the devices , which enhances the ability of the devices to bind to mucosal membranes . as defined herein , a water - insoluble metal compound is defined as a metal compound with little or no solubility in water , for example , less than about 0 . 9 mg / ml . the water - insoluble metal compounds , such as metal oxides , can be incorporated by one of the following mechanisms : ( a ) physical mixtures which result in entrapment of the metal compound ; ( b ) ionic interaction between metal compound and polymer ; ( c ) surface modification of the polymers which would result in exposed metal compound on the surface ; and ( d ) coating techniques such as fluidized bead , pan coating or any similar methods known to those skilled in the art , which produce a metal compound enriched layer on the surface of the device . preferred properties defining the metal compound include : ( a ) substantial insolubility in aqueous environments , such as acidic or basic aqueous environments ( such as those present in the gastric lumen ); and ( b ) ionizable surface charge at the ph of the aqueous environment . the water - insoluble metal compounds can be derived from metals including calcium , iron , copper , zinc , cadmium , zirconium and titanium . for example , a variety of water - insoluble metal oxide powders may be used to improve the bioadhesive properties of polymers such as ferric oxide , zinc oxide , titanium oxide , copper oxide , barium hydroxide , stannic oxide , aluminum oxide , nickel oxide , zirconium oxide and cadmium oxide . the incorporation of water - insoluble metal compounds such as ferric oxide , copper oxide and zinc oxide can tremendously improve adhesion of the polymer to tissue surfaces such as mucosal membranes , for example in the gastrointestinal system . polymers with enhanced bioadhesive properties can also be obtained by incorporating into the polymer anhydride monomers or oligomers . the polymers may be used to form drug delivery systems which have improved ability to adhere to tissue surfaces , such as mucosal membranes . the anhydride oligomers are formed from organic diacid monomers , preferably the diacids normally found in the krebs glycolysis cycle . anhydride oligomers which enhance the bioadhesive properties of a polymer have a molecular weight of about 5000 or less , typically between about 100 and 5000 daltons , or include 20 or fewer diacid units linked by anhydride linkages and terminating in an anhydride linkage with a carboxylic acid monomer . the oligomer excipients can be blended or incorporated into a wide range of hydrophilic and hydrophobic polymers including proteins , polysaccharides and synthetic biocompatible polymers . in one embodiment , oligomers can be incorporated within polymers used to form or coat drug delivery systems , such as microspheres , which contain a drug or diagnostic agent . in another embodiment , oligomers with suitable molecular weight may be used alone to encapsulate therapeutic or diagnostic agents . in yet another embodiment , anhydride oligomers may be combined with metal oxide particles to improve bioadhesion even more than with the organic additives alone . organic dyes because of their electronic charge and hydrophobicity / hydrophilicity can either increase or decrease the bioadhesive properties of polymers when incorporated into the polymers . a . solvent evaporation . in this method the polymer is dissolved in a volatile organic solvent , such as methylene chloride . the drug ( either soluble or dispersed as fine particles ) is added to the solution , and the mixture is suspended in an aqueous solution that contains a surface active agent such as poly ( vinyl alcohol ). the resulting emulsion is stirred until most of the organic solvent evaporated , leaving solid particles . several different polymer concentrations can be used , including concentrations ranging from 0 . 05 to 0 . 20 g / ml . the solution is loaded with a drug and suspended in 200 ml of vigorously stirred distilled water containing 1 % ( w / v ) poly ( vinyl alcohol ) ( sigma ). after 4 hours of stirring , the organic solvent evaporates from the polymer , and the resulting particles are washed with water and dried overnight in a lyophilizer . particles with different sizes ( 1 - 1000 microns ) and morphologies can be obtained by this method . this method is useful for relatively stable polymers like polyesters and polystyrene . however , labile polymers , such as polyanhydrides , may degrade during the fabrication process due to the presence of water . for these polymers , the following two methods , which are performed in completely anhydrous organic solvents , are more useful . b . hot melt microencapsulation . in this method , the polymer is first melted and then mixed with the solid particles of dye or drug that have been sieved to less than 50 microns . the mixture is suspended in a non - miscible solvent ( like silicon oil ), and , with continuous stirring , heated to 5 ° c . above the melting point of the polymer . once the emulsion is stabilized , it is cooled until the polymer particles solidify . the resulting particles are washed by decantation with petroleum ether to give a free - flowing powder . particles with sizes between one to 1000 microns are obtained with this method . the external surfaces of spheres prepared with this technique are usually smooth and dense . this procedure is used to prepare particles made of polyesters and polyanhydrides . however , this method is limited to polymers with molecular weights between 1000 - 50 , 000 . c . solvent removal . this technique is primarily designed for polyanhydrides . in this method , the drug is dispersed or dissolved in a solution of the selected polymer in a volatile organic solvent like methylene chloride . this mixture is suspended by stirring in an organic oil ( such as silicon oil ) to form an emulsion . unlike solvent evaporation , this method can be used to make particles from polymers with high melting points and different molecular weights . particles that range between 1 - 300 microns can be obtained by this procedure . the external morphology of spheres produced with this technique is highly dependent on the type of polymer used . d . hydrogel particles . particles made of gel - type polymers , such as alginate , are produced through traditional ionic gelation techniques . the polymers are first dissolved in an aqueous solution , mixed with barium sulfate or some bioactive agent , and then extruded through a microdroplet forming device , which in some instances employs a flow of nitrogen gas to break off the droplet . a slowly stirred ( approximately 100 - 170 rpm ) ionic hardening bath is positioned below the extruding device to catch the forming microdroplets . the particles are left to incubate in the bath for twenty to thirty minutes in order to allow sufficient time for gelation to occur . particle size is controlled by using various size extruders or varying either the nitrogen gas or polymer solution flow rates . chitosan particles can be prepared by dissolving the polymer in acidic solution and crosslinking it with tripolyphosphate . carboxymethyl cellulose ( cmc ) particles were prepared by dissolving the polymer in acid solution and precipitating the particle with lead ions . alginate / polyethylene imide ( pei ) were prepared in order to reduce the amount of carboxylic groups on the alginate microcapsule . the advantage of these systems is the ability to further modify their surface properties by the use of different chemistries . in the case of negatively charged polymers ( e . g ., alginate , cmc ), positively charged ligands ( e . g ., polylysine , polyethyleneimine ) of different molecular weights can be ionically attached . e . extrusion - spheronization . core particles may be prepared by the process of granulation - extrusion - spheronization . in this process , micronized drug is mixed with microcrystalline cellulose , binders , diluents and water and extruded as a wet mass through a screen . the result is rods with diameters equal to the opening of the extrusion screen , typically in the size range of 0 . 1 to 5 mm . the rods are then cut into segments of approximately equal length with a rotating blade and transferred to a spheronizer . the spheronizer consists of a rapidly rotating , textured plate which propels rod segments against the stationary walls of the apparatus . over the course of 1 - 10 minutes of spheronization , the rods are slowly transformed into spherical shapes by abrasion . the resulting spheroid cores are then discharged from the machine and dried at 40 - 50 ° c . for 2448 hours using tray - driers or fluidized bed dryers . the cores may then be coated with rate - releasing , enteric or bioadhesive polymers using either pan - coating or fluidized - bed coating devices . the macrospheres can include other materials , such as hydrophilic binders . examples include any of the pharmaceutically accepted hydrogels , e . g ., alginate , chitosan , methylmethacrylates ( e . g . eudragit ®), celluloses ( especially microcrystalline cellulose , hydroxypropylmethylcellulose , ethylcellulose etc . ), agarose , providone ™. examples of other excipients include diluents such as lactose , microcrystalline cellulose , kaolin , starch or magnesium stearate , density - controlling agents such as barium sulfate or oils , and rate - controlling agents such as magnesium stearate , oils , ion - exchange resins . macrospheres can be incorporated into standard pharmaceutical dosage forms such as gelatin capsules and tablets . gelatin capsules , available in sizes 000 , 00 , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , and 5 , from manufactures such as capsugel ®, may be filled with macrospheres and administered orally . similarly , macrospheres may be dry blended or wet - granulated with diluents such as microcrystalline cellulose , lactose , cabosil and binders such as hydroxypropylmethylcellulose , hydroxypropylcellulose , carboxymethylcellulose and directly compressed to form tablets . the dimensions of the tablets are limited only by the engineering of dies available for tabletting machines . dies to form tablets in round , oblong , convex , flat , and bullet designs in sizes ranging from 1 to 20 mm are available . the resulting tablets may weigh from 1 to 5 , 000 mg and carry macrospheres at loadings of 1 to 80 % w / w . the resulting tablets may be coated with sugars , enteric polymers or gelatin to alter dissolution of the tablet and release of the macrospheres into the gi tract . alternately , tablet diluents may include gas generating elements such as tartaric acid , citric acid and sodium bicarbonate , as examples . exposure of the tablet to water or gastric fluids facilitates reaction of the weak acid with bicarbonate , resulting in evolution of carbon dioxide . evolution of gas disrupts the mechanical integrity of the tablet , facilitating release of incorporated macrospheres . premature dissolution of the tablet in the mouth may be prevented by coating with hydrophilic polymers , such as hydroxypropylmethylcellulose or gelatin , resulting in dissolution in the stomach . rate control can be achieved by the use of a membrane or diffusion - limiting coating ( s ), by controlling the rate of degradation of the polymer , and / or the porosity of the macrosphere . further rate control can be achieved through the use of a capsule such as a gelatin capsule , an enteric coating , and / or tablet size and compression techniques . the membrane or diffusion - limiting coating can be formed from a variety of different materials including pharmaceutically - accepted polymeric coating materials such as methylmethacrylates ( e . g . eudragit ®, rohm and haas and kollicoat ®, basf ), zein , cellulose , acetate , cellulose phthalate , hydroxylpropylmethylcellulose , etc . the coatings may be applied using a variety of techniques including fluidized - bed coating , pan - coating and dip - coating . in the preferred embodiment , the coating is applied as a fluidized - bed coating . therapeutic agents to be encapsulated include antivirals such as acyclovir and protease inhibitors alone or in combination with nucleosides for treatment of hiv or hepatitis b or c , anti - parasites ( helminths , protozoans ), anti - cancer agents ( referred to herein as “ chemotherapeutic ”, including cytotoxic drugs such as cisplatin and carboplatin , bcnu , 5fu , methotrexate , adriamycin , camptothecin , and taxol ), antibodies and bioactive fragments thereof ( including humanized , single chain , and chimeric antibodies ), antigen and vaccine formulations , peptide drugs , anti - inflammatories , oligonucleotide drugs ( including antisense , aptamers , ribozymes , external guide sequences for ribonuclease p , and triplex forming agents ), antibiotics , antiinflammatories including non - steroidal antiinflammatories (“ nsaids ”) such as methyl salicylate , antiulcerative agents such as bismuth subsalicylate , digestive supplements and cofactors , and vitamins , especially those that are not normally absorbed in the colon . examples of other useful drugs include ulcer treatments such as carafate ® from marion pharmaceuticals , neurotransmitters such as l - dopa , antihypertensives or saluretics such as metolazone from searle pharmaceuticals , carbonic anhydrase inhibitors such as acetazolamide from lederle pharmaceuticals , insulin like drugs such as glyburide , a blood glucose lowering drug of the sulfonylurea class , synthetic hormones such as android f from brown pharmaceuticals and testred ( methyltestosterone ) from icn pharmaceuticals , and antiparasitics such as mebendzole ( vermox ®, jannsen pharmaceutical ). other drugs for application to the vaginal lining or other mucosal membrane lined orifices such as the rectum include spermacides , yeast or trichomonas treatments and anti - hemorrhoidal treatments . antigens can be encapsulated in one or more types of bioadhesive polymer to provide a vaccine . the vaccines can be produced to have different retention times in the gastrointestinal tract . the different retention times , among other factors , can stimulate production of more than one type ( igg , igm , iga , ige , etc .) of antibody . multiple drug formulations can be prepared either ( 1 ) by encapsulating different drugs in coatings / cores or ( 2 ) by simply mixing separate batches of particles each containing a single drug to make a new batch containing multiple drugs , as demonstrated by example 2 , in which a model drug , sodium salicylate , is prepared in an outer eudragit ® rl100 coating and a second drug , acyclovir , is prepared in the core . the sodium salicylate is quickly released within 3 hours while the acyclovir has sustained release over the course of 24 hrs . in a preferred method for imaging , a radio - opaque material such as barium is coated with polymer . other radioactive materials or magnetic materials could be used in place of , or in addition to , the radio - opaque materials . examples of other materials include gases or gas - emitting compounds , which are radioopaque . barium sulfate suspension is the universal contrast medium used for examination of the upper gastrointestinal tract , as described by d . sutton , ed ., a textbook of radiology and imaging , vol . 2 , churchill livingstone , london ( 1980 ), even though it has undesirable properties , such as unpalatability and a tendency to precipitate out of solution . several properties are critical : ( a ) particle size : the rate of sedimentation is proportional to particle size ( i . e ., the finer the particle , the more stable the suspension ); ( b ) non - ionic medium : charges on the barium sulfate particles influence the rate of aggregation of the particles , and aggregation is enhanced in the presence of the gastric contents ; and ( c ) solution ph : suspension stability is best at ph 5 . 3 , however , as the suspension passes through the stomach , it is inevitably acidified and tends to precipitate . the encapsulation of barium sulfate in particles of appropriate size provides a good separation of individual contrast elements and may , if the polymer displays bioadhesive properties , help in coating , preferentially , the gastric mucosa in the presence of excessive gastric fluid . with bioadhesiveness targeted to more distal segments of the gastrointestinal tract , it may also provide a kind of wall imaging not easily obtained otherwise . the double contrast technique , which utilizes both gas and barium sulfate to enhance the imaging process , especially requires a proper coating of the mucosal surface . to achieve a double contrast , air or carbon dioxide must be introduced into the patient &# 39 ; s gastrointestinal tract . this is typically achieved via a nasogastric tube to provoke a controlled degree of gastric distension . studies indicate that comparable results may be obtained by the release of individual gas bubbles in a large number of individual adhesive particles and that this imaging process may apply to intestinal segments beyond the stomach . the macrosphere particles are administered to the mucosal membranes , typically via the nose , mouth , rectum , or vagina . in the preferred embodiment , the macrospheres are administered orally . pharmaceutically acceptable carriers for oral or topical administration are known and can be determined based on compatibility with the polymeric material . other carriers include bulking agents , such as metamucil ®. macrospheres are typically administered in an effective amount based on the agent to be delivered . this amount will be determined based on the known properties and pharmacokinetics of the drugs to be delivered , although this may be adjusted as appropriate in view of the increased residence time , which may enhance the percent uptake of the drug into the gastrointestinal tract . an in vivo method for evaluating bioadhesion uses encapsulation of a radio - opaque material , such as barium sulfate , or both a radio - opaque material and a gas - evolving agent , such as sodium carbonate , within a bioadhesive polymer . after oral administration of the radio - opaque material , its distribution in the gastric and intestinal areas is examined using image analysis . the present invention will be further understood by reference to the following non - limiting examples . macrospheres with acyclovir in the cores in an amount of 80 % and 90 % w / w were made using the wet - granulation / extrusion / spheronization process . the overall yield of the process was 90 %, and 90 % of the spheronized cores were within the size range of 1 . 4 - 2 . 36 mm . fig1 is a graph of the granulating and spheronization process used to make the macrospheres . five unit operations are involved in this process . they are ( 1 ) wet granulation ( making the dough ), ( 2 ) extrusion of the granulation or “ dough ” into cylinders , ( 3 ) spheronization of the cylinders into spheres , ( 4 ) drying , and ( 5 ) film coating . release kinetics were obtained from macrospheres with the following compositions : ( 1 ) naked drug cores ; ( 2 ) eudragit ® rl100 - coated ( diffusion controlling layer ) cores and ( 3 ) fasa / fapp / cao ( bioadhesive )- rl100 - drug cores . by incorporating drug into the outer bioadhesive coating , nearly first order release kinetics were obtained . the ability to tailor and optimize drug release is achieved by encapsulating drug in either the bioadhesive ( composition # 3 ) or rate - limiting ( compositions # 2 ) coating or combinations of the two . it is also possible to spray pure drug onto the surface of the outer coating to achieve a quick burst of available drug . the latter can be demonstrated by spraying rl 100 as a 5 % coating over 40 % drug - loaded cores . the drug in the coating is sodium salicylate (“ drug 1 ”); the drug in the core is acyclovir ( acv ) (” drug 2 ”). this example demonstrates production of a rate - limiting membrane over the 40 % acv cores . eudragits ® are traditionally used to control release properties of drug - loaded spheres . spraying rl 100 in the correct concentration gives the desired drug release properties . materials / controls : a 200 . 4 g lot of beads , 40 % w / w acyclovir ( 1 . 4 - 2 . 36 mm ) was used as the cores for the coatings . the beads were fluidized at 200 fps with an inlet air temperature of 86 ° f . using the wurster setup . the 10 ″ wurster tube was used , and set 1 ″ from the top of the spray nozzle . the coatings were sprayed at an atomization pressure of 10 psi . the formulation exhibited a weight gain of 12 . 3 g ( 6 . 1 %). the beads were dried in the fluidized bed for 5 min . the coatings appeared thin and uniform . macrospheres containing 30 % acyclovir cores were also manufactured . the macrospheres were separated by sieving and the weight of cores ( in grams ) in a size range was measured . the weight percentage of cores was calculated with respect to the total mass of cores that were sieved . the size ranges ( mm ), along with their corresponding weight percentages are : greater than 2 . 36 mm comprised 1 % w / w ; 1 . 7 - 2 . 36 mm comprised 70 % w / w ; and less than 1 . 4 mm comprised 9 % w / w . the total recovery of the sieved macrospheres comprised 80 % w / w . macrospheres containing 30 % acyclovir cores were prepared as described in example 1 , with a rate - limiting membrane as described in example 2 , and further coated with a bioadhesive membrane including eudragit ®, calcium oxide , fapp ( anhydride oligomer ), and polymer ( polyfumaric acid : sebacic acid ). the bioadhesive coating is preferably approximately 50 microns in thickness , although coatings can be between 5 and 20 microns , and 5 - 20 % w / w . the bioadhesive coating was applied by fluidized bed coating . alternatively the coating may be applied by pan coating . macrospheres prepared as in example 3 were administered to dogs and the dogs were x - rayed . the beads contained barium sulfate so that they could be imaged . the cores of the beads were prepared by extrusion / spheronization , with a size range between 1 . 4 and 2 . 36 mm , and contained 50 % w / w barium sulfate . control macrospheres were formed with the same composition , but without the bioadhesive coatings . four preparations were compared : a , the control macrospheres ; b , macrospheres with a coating of fumaric acid pre - polymer (“ fapp ”), with molecular weight less than 500 da and fe 3 o 4 ; c , macrospheres with a coating of fumaric acid - sebacic acid copolymer (“ fa : sa ”) 20 : 80 , with a molecular weight less than 20 , 000 da , and fapp ; d , macrospheres with a coating of fa : sa , fapp and cao . 3 . 0 grams of macrospheres dry compressed ( 2000 psi for 10 seconds in a stokes ds - 3 manual tabletting die ) with inert tabletting excipients ( 1 . 5 g macrospheres / tablets , 1 gram of lactose , 0 . 5 g tartaric acid , and 0 . 5 g sodium bicarbonate ) into tablets were administered orally to dogs fasted for 18 hours . water was given ad libitum . the animals were x - rayed every thirty minutes . fig2 is a graph comparing the residence times of the bioadhesive macrospheres with the residence times of the control macrospheres . after 30 minutes , the control and bioadhesive macrospheres were just entering the small intestine . after 1 . 5 hours , the control macrospheres were distributed throughout the small intestine , but the bioadhesive macrospheres were still in the upper portion of the small intestine . after 2 . 5 hours , the control macrospheres were in the lower portion of the small intestine , while the bioadhesive macrospheres were still in the upper portion of the small intestine . animals were fed 3 . 5 hours after dosing . after 6 . 5 hours , the control macrospheres were passing through the lower portion of the lower intestine , while the bioadhesive macrospheres were just beginning to descend through the small intestine . after 8 . 5 hours , the bioadhesive macrospheres were distributed throughout the small intestine . after 24 hours , no control macrospheres were detected by x - ray , while the bioadhesive macrospheres were beginning passage through the lower intestine . the release properties of two macrosphere formulations in simulated gastric fluid at 37 ° c . are shown in fig3 . formulation # 1 had 5 % of the total drug loading incorporated in the bioadhesive coating , while formulation # 2 had drug only in the core . the formulations released 40 - 50 % of their load in 6 - 8 hrs and 100 % of the loading in 24 hrs . the formulations in example 5 were filled into # 000 gel caps and orally administered to beagles that had been fasted for 18 hrs . the dose was equivalent to 1 . 0 gm of acyclovir / dog (˜ 80 - 90 mg / kg ). blood samples were obtained by venipuncture at 1 . 5 , 3 , 4 . 5 , 6 , 7 . 5 , 9 , 10 . 5 , 12 , 13 . 5 , 15 , 16 . 5 , 18 and 24 hours post - dosing and analyzed for acyclvoir concentration by hplc . the animals were x - rayed at each time point to track the transit of macrospheres . the maximum serum concentration ( cmax ) for formulation 1 was 20 . 5 ± 3 . 6 μg / ml ( mean ± sem , n = 14 ) and the cmax for formulation 2 was 26 . 7 ± 7 . 1 μg / ml ( mean ± sem , n = 12 ). the maximum serum concentration was reached between 3 - 4 . 5 hrs post - dosing ( tmax ) for both formulations . therapeutic serum concentrations were maintained for a minimum of 15 hrs post - dosing . the “ area under the serum concentration versus time curves ” ( auc ) displayed in fig4 were calculated using prism software . formulation 1 had an auc of 107 ± 11 μg / ml * hr ( mean ± sem , n = 14 ) and formulation 2 had a similar auc of 111 ± 13 μg / ml * hr ( mean ± sem , n = 12 ). the residence time of macrospheres in the “ upper gi ” of dogs ( stomach and small intestine ) was determined by analysis of x - rays . the results are shown in fig5 . formulation . 1 had an upper gi residence time of 14 . 2 ± 1 . 5 hr ( mean ± sem , n = 14 ) and formulation 2 had a similar residence time of 16 . 2 ± 1 . 8 hrs ( mean ± sem , n = 12 ). fluidized bed spraying of 5 % rl 100 - coated 40 % acyclovir ( acv ) loaded cores with 25 % sodium salicylate w / w in a 10 % rl 100 - coating was then used to produce multi - drug macrospheres . the starting material was the product of example 2 ( 5 % w / w rl 100 coated 40 % acv cores and overcoat with 10 % rl 100 coating containing 25 % w / w sodium salicylate ). overcoating with a 10 % w / w coating of rl100 containing 25 % w / w salicylate was used to produce a biphasic drug system . sodium salicylate should be quickly delivered followed by acyclovir release . a 176 . 0 g lot of beads , 40 % w / w acyclovir ( 1 . 4 - 2 . 36 mm ) was used as the cores for the coatings . the beads were fluidized at 200 fps with an inlet air temperature of 89 ° f . using the wurster setup . the 10 ″ wurster tube was used ; and set 1 ″ from the top of the spray nozzle . the coatings were sprayed at an atomization pressure of 10 psi . the formulation exhibited a weight gain of 17 . 4 g ( 9 . 9 %). the beads were dried in the fluidized bed for 5 min . the coatings appeared thin and uniform . multiple attempts were made to spray this formulation , all of which failed . the beads coalesced after a few minutes of spraying and could not be fluidized . it was determined that sodium salicylate was partially soluble in ipa and acted as a plasticizer . to counteract this phenomenon , dbs and ipa were omitted and the amount of talc was increased by 4 fold . the resulting improved formulation sprayed perfectly . the release kinetics of the two drugs from the macrospheres of example 6 were then determined . fig6 is a graph of release of acyclovir ( acv ) and salicylate as a function of percent total acyclovir loading , over time ( in hours ), from macrospheres wherein the salicylate is encapsulated in an outer eudragit ® rl 100 coating and the acyclovir is encapsulated in the core . the outer drug loading is used to achieve rapid release ( three hours ) as compared to more long term release of the core drug ( 24 hours ). this example demonstrates the production of 40 % drug - loaded sphere cores of mcc / hpc / baso 4 and lactose with a diameter size distribution between 1 . 4 mm and 2 . 36 mm , and establishes that a procedure which can be increased in scale . materials / controls : fresh extrusion mix was prepared . the dry solids listed below in table 5 were combined in the hobart mixer and mixed for 5 min at speed setting # 1 . water was poured in and the mixture was stirred for 10 minutes on the low gear . the resulting mixture was free flowing and grainy . the granulation was stored in a sealed plastic bag at 4 ° c . overnight ( 16 hrs ) and extruded in the morning . the bulk mixture was extruded on a caleva model 25 extruder with a 2 mm screen at 7 rpm . the bulk mixture appeared to be nearly optimal . the bulk mixture was spheronized in 2 batches on a caleva model 250 spheronizer using the coarse plate ( pitch size 4 . 5 mm ) at 1000 rpm for 10 minutes . the spheronized extrudate was separated based on size . the fines content (& lt ; 0 . 5 mm ) was 1 . 8 μg ( 0 . 2 %). the spheronized extrudate was tray - dried in a conventional oven at 50 ° c . overnight . the dry spheres were separated based on size ( mm ), weight ( gm ), and yield (% w / w ): ( a ) & lt ; 0 . 5 , 1 . 8 , 0 . 18 %; ( b ) 0 . 5 - 1 . 4 , 150 . 5 , 14 . 96 %; ( c ) 1 . 4 - 2 . 36 , 769 . 6 , 76 . 51 %; and ( d ) & gt ; 2 . 36 , 27 . 2 , 2 . 70 %. the total recovery from raw materials was 949 . 1 g ( 94 . 4 %).
bioadhesive macrosphere delivery systems having prolonged gastric retention time due to bioadhesion rather than physical density or size are described . in general , the macrospheres have diameters that are greater than 200 microns , more preferably greater than 500 microns . the bioadhesive macrospheres are released in the stomach where they reside in close proximity to the gastric mucosa for a prolonged period of time . increased residence of bdds in the upper gi can lead to increased systemic absorption of drug in the preferred site of systemic absorption , namely the upper gi tract . the bdds may be engineered either as a capsule with drug delivery controlled by a diffusion - limited membrane or degradable shell , or as a solid matrix system with drug delivery controlled by a combination of diffusion and polymer degradation kinetics .