according to certain embodiments of the invention , the refrigeration system may be a two stage joule - thomson system with a closed loop precool circuit and either an open loop or a closed loop primary circuit . a typical refrigerant for the primary circuit would be r - 508 b , and a typical refrigerant for the precool circuit would be r - 410 a . in the ablation mode , the system may be capable of performing tissue ablation at or below minus 70 . degree . c . while in contact with the tissue and circulating blood . in the mapping mode , the system may be capable of mapping by stunning the tissue at a temperature between minus 10 . degree . c . and minus 18 . degree . c . while in contact with the tissue and circulating blood . these performance levels may be achieved while maintaining the catheter tip pressure at or below a sub - diastolic pressure of 14 psia . as shown in fig1 , one embodiment of the apparatus 10 of the present invention is an open loop system using a pressure bottle for the refrigerant source . such a system can include a primary refrigerant supply bottle 200 , a primary refrigerant fluid controller 208 , a catheter 300 , a primary refrigerant recovery bottle 512 , a secondary refrigerant compressor 100 , a precool heat exchanger 114 , and various sensors . in certain embodiments , all but the catheter 300 and the precool heat exchanger 114 may be located in a cooling console housing . the precool heat exchanger 114 is connected to the console by flexible lines 121 , 221 . pressure of the refrigerant in the primary refrigerant supply bottle 200 is monitored by a primary refrigerant supply pressure sensor 202 . output of primary refrigerant from the supply bottle 200 is regulated by a pressure regulator 204 , which , in certain embodiments , can receive refrigerant from the bottle 200 at a pressure above 350 psia and regulate it to less than 350 psia . a primary refrigerant relief valve 206 is provided to prevent over pressurization of the primary system downstream of the pressure regulator 204 , for example , above 400 psia . the flow rate of primary refrigerant is controlled by the fluid controller 208 , which can be either a pressure controller or a flow controller . a feedback loop may be provided to control the operation of the fluid controller 208 . the feedback signal for the fluid controller 208 can come from a pressure sensor 310 or a flow sensor 311 , on the effluent side of the catheter 300 , discussed below . a primary refrigerant high pressure sensor 210 is provided downstream of the fluid controller 208 , to monitor the primary refrigerant pressure applied to the precool heat exchanger 114 . the high pressure side 212 of the primary loop passes through the primary side of the cooling coil of the precool heat exchanger 114 , then connects to a quick connect fitting 304 on the precool heat exchanger 114 . similarly , the low side quick connect fitting 304 on the precool heat exchanger 114 is connected to the low pressure side 412 of the primary loop , which passes back through the housing of the precool heat exchanger 114 , without passing through the cooling coil , and then through the flow sensor 311 . the catheter tip pressure sensor 310 monitors catheter effluent pressure in the tip of the catheter 300 . the control system maintains catheter tip pressure at a sub - diastolic level at all times . the low pressure side 412 of the primary loop can be connected to the inlet 402 of a vacuum pump 400 . a primary refrigerant low pressure sensor 410 monitors pressure in the low side 412 of the primary loop downstream of the precool heat exchanger 114 . the outlet 404 of the vacuum pump 400 can be connected to the inlet 502 of a recovery pump 500 . a 3 way , solenoid operated , recovery valve 506 is located between the vacuum pump 400 and the recovery pump 500 . the outlet 504 of the recovery pump 500 is connected to the primary refrigerant recovery bottle 512 via a check valve 508 . a primary refrigerant recovery pressure sensor 510 monitors the pressure in the recovery bottle 512 . a 2 way , solenoid operated , bypass valve 406 is located in a bypass loop 407 between the low side 412 of the primary loop upstream of the vacuum pump 400 and the high side 212 of the primary loop downstream of the fluid controller 208 . a solenoid operated bypass loop vent valve 408 is connected to the bypass loop 407 . in the catheter 300 , the high pressure primary refrigerant flows through an impedance device such as a capillary tube 306 , then expands into the distal portion of the catheter 300 , where the resultant cooling is applied to surrounding tissues . a catheter tip temperature sensor 307 , such as a thermocouple , monitors the temperature of the distal portion of the catheter 300 . a catheter return line 308 returns the effluent refrigerant from the catheter 300 to the precool heat exchanger 114 . the high and low pressure sides of the catheter 300 are connected to the heat exchanger quick connects 304 by a pair of catheter quick connects 302 . as an alternative to pairs of quick connects 302 , 304 , coaxial quick connects can be used . in either case , the quick connects may carry both refrigerant flow and electrical signals . in the precool loop , compressed secondary refrigerant is supplied by a precool compressor 100 . an after cooler 106 can be connected to the outlet 104 of the precool compressor 100 to cool and condense the secondary refrigerant . an oil separator 108 can be connected in the high side 117 of the precool loop , with an oil return line 110 returning oil to the precool compressor 100 . a high pressure precooler pressure sensor 112 senses pressure in the high side 117 of the precool loop . the high side 117 of the precool loop is connected to an impedance device such as a capillary tube 116 within the housing of the precool heat exchanger 114 . high pressure secondary refrigerant flows through the capillary tube 116 , then expands into the secondary side of the cooling coil of the precool heat exchanger 114 , where it cools the high pressure primary refrigerant . the effluent of the secondary side of the precool heat exchanger 114 returns via the low side 118 of the precool loop to the inlet 102 of the precool compressor 100 . a low pressure precooler pressure sensor 120 senses pressure in the low side 118 of the precool loop . instead of using primary refrigerant supply and return bottles , the apparatus can use one or more primary compressors in a closed loop system . fig2 shows a second embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention , with a single compressor system . this embodiment would be appropriate in applications where the high side and low side pressures can be adequately controlled with a single compressor . in the apparatus 10 ′ of this type of system , the low side 622 of the primary loop conducts the effluent of the catheter 300 to the inlet 602 of a primary refrigerant compressor 600 . the compressor 600 compresses the primary refrigerant , and returns it from the compressor outlet 604 via the high side 612 of the primary loop to the primary side of the precool heat exchanger 114 . a primary refrigerant high pressure sensor 614 is provided in the high side 612 of the primary loop , to monitor the primary refrigerant pressure applied to the precool heat exchanger 114 . a primary refrigerant high pressure flow sensor 312 can be provided in the high side 612 of the primary loop . a primary refrigerant low pressure sensor 610 monitors pressure in the low side 622 of the primary loop downstream of the precool heat exchanger 114 . a primary loop filter 608 can be provided in the low side 622 of the primary loop . a 2 way , solenoid operated , primary refrigerant charge valve 626 and a primary refrigerant reservoir 628 can be provided in the low side 622 of the primary loop . a high pressure after - cooler 605 can be provided downstream of the primary refrigerant compressor 600 . as further shown in fig2 , a 2 way , solenoid operated , primary loop bypass valve 606 is located in a bypass loop 607 between the low side 622 of the primary loop upstream of the compressor 600 and the high side 612 of the primary loop downstream of the compressor 600 . opening of the primary loop bypass valve 606 can facilitate startup of the primary compressor 600 . a precool loop filter 101 can be provided in the low side 118 of the precool loop . further , a 2 way , solenoid operated , precool loop bypass valve 111 is located in a bypass loop 119 between the low side 118 of the precool loop upstream of the compressor 100 and the high side 117 of the precool loop downstream of the compressor 100 . opening of the precool loop bypass valve 111 can facilitate startup of the precool compressor 100 . a purification system 900 can be provided for removing contaminants from the primary refrigerant and the secondary refrigerant . solenoid operated 3 way purification valves 609 , 611 are provided in the high side and low side , respectively , of the primary loop , for selectively directing the primary refrigerant through the purification system 900 . similarly , solenoid operated 3 way purification valves 115 , 113 are provided in the high side and low side , respectively , of the precool loop , for selectively directing the secondary refrigerant through the purification system 900 . the remainder of the precool loop , the precool heat exchanger 114 , and the catheter 300 are the same as discussed above for the first embodiment . in applications where separate low side and high side pressure control is required , but where a closed loop system is desired , a two compressor primary system may be used . fig3 shows a third embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention , with a dual compressor system . in the apparatus 10 ″ of this type of system , the low side 622 of the primary loop conducts the effluent of the catheter 300 to the inlet 616 of a low side primary refrigerant compressor 618 . the low side compressor 618 compresses the primary refrigerant , and provides it via its outlet 620 to the inlet 602 of a high side primary refrigerant compressor 600 . a low pressure after - cooler 623 can be provided downstream of the low side compressor 618 . the high side compressor 600 further compresses the primary refrigerant to a higher pressure and returns it via its outlet 604 and via the high side 612 of the primary loop to the primary side of the precool heat exchanger 114 . a primary refrigerant high pressure sensor 614 is provided in the high side 612 of the primary loop , to monitor the high side primary refrigerant pressure upstream of the precool heat exchanger 114 . a primary refrigerant low pressure sensor 610 monitors pressure in the low side 622 of the primary loop downstream of the precool heat exchanger 114 . a primary refrigerant intermediate pressure sensor 624 monitors pressure between the outlet 620 of the low side compressor 618 and the inlet 602 of the high side compressor 600 . the high side compressor 600 and the low side compressor 618 are separately controlled , using feedback from the catheter tip pressure sensor 310 and / or the flow sensors 311 , 312 . as further shown in fig3 , a 3 way , solenoid operated , bypass valve 606 ′ is located in a bypass loop 607 between the low side 622 of the primary loop upstream of the low side compressor 618 and the high side 612 of the primary loop downstream of the high side compressor 600 . a third port is connected between the high side and low side compressors . the precool loop , the precool heat exchanger 114 , and the catheter 300 are the same as discussed above for the first and second embodiments . fig4 shows a control diagram which would be suitable for use with the apparatus shown in fig1 . a computerized automatic control system 700 is connected to the various sensors and control devices to sense and control the operation of the system , and to provide safety measures , such as shut down schemes . more specifically , on the sensing side , the low pressure precool sensor 120 inputs low side precool pressure pa , the high pressure precool sensor 112 inputs high side precool pressure pb , the primary supply pressure sensor 202 inputs supply bottle pressure p 1 , the primary recovery pressure sensor 510 inputs recovery bottle pressure p 2 , the high pressure primary sensor 210 inputs high side primary pressure p 3 , the low pressure primary sensor 410 inputs low side primary pressure p 4 , the catheter tip pressure sensor 310 inputs catheter tip pressure p 5 , the temperature sensor 307 inputs catheter tip temperature t , and the flow sensor 311 inputs primary refrigerant flow rate f . further , on the control side , the control system 700 energizes the normally closed bypass valve 406 to open it , energizes the normally open vent valve 408 to close it , and energizes the recovery valve 506 to connect the vacuum pump outlet 404 to the recovery pump inlet 502 . finally , the control system 700 provides a pressure set point spp or flow rate set point spf to the fluid controller 208 , depending upon whether it is a pressure controller or a flow controller . fig5 shows a control diagram which would be suitable for use with the apparatus shown in fig2 or fig3 . a computerized automatic control system 700 is connected to the various sensors and control devices to sense and control the operation of the system , and to provide safety measures , such as shut down schemes . more specifically , on the sensing side , the low pressure precool sensor 120 inputs low side precool pressure pa , the high pressure precool sensor 112 inputs high side precool pressure pb , the high pressure primary sensor 614 inputs high side primary pressure p 3 , the low pressure primary sensor 610 inputs low side primary pressure p 4 , the catheter tip pressure sensor 310 inputs catheter tip pressure p 5 , the temperature sensor 307 inputs catheter tip temperature t , and the flow sensors 311 , 312 input primary refrigerant flow rate f . further , on the control side , the control system 700 energizes the normally closed primary loop bypass valve 606 , 606 ′ to open it , and the control system 700 energizes the normally closed precool loop bypass valve 111 to open it . the control system 700 also energizes the primary loop purification valves 609 , 611 to selectively purify the primary refrigerant , and the control system 700 energizes the precool loop purification valves 113 , 115 to selectively purify the secondary refrigerant . finally , the control system 700 provides a minimum high side pressure set point pl 2 to the controller 601 of the primary compressor 600 in the system shown in fig2 . alternatively , in the system shown in fig3 , the control system 700 provides a minimum high side pressure set point pl 2 b to the controller 601 of the high side primary compressor 600 , and the control system 700 provides a maximum low side pressure set point pl 2 a to the controller 619 of the low side primary compressor 618 . a numeric digital display , or a graphical display similar to that shown in fig6 , is provided on the cooling console to assist the operator in monitoring and operating the system . for example , on a single graphical display , graphs can be shown of catheter tip temperature t , high side primary pressure p 3 , low side primary pressure p 4 , and primary flow rate f , all versus time . further , on the same display , the operator can position a vertical cursor at a selected time , resulting in the tabular display of the instantaneous values of t , p 3 , p 4 , and f , as well as the average , maximum , and minimum values of these parameters . the present invention will now be further illustrated by describing a typical operational sequence of the open loop embodiment , showing how the control system 700 operates the remainder of the components to start up the system , to provide the desired refrigeration power , and to provide system safety . the system can be operated in the mapping mode , where the cold tip temperature might be maintained at minus 10 c ., or in the ablation mode , where the cold tip temperature might be maintained at minus 65 c . paragraphs are keyed to the corresponding blocks in the flow diagram shown in fig7 . suggested exemplary pressure limits used below could be pl 1 = 160 psia ; pl 2 = 400 psia ; pl 3 = 500 psia ; pl 4 = 700 psia ; pl 5 = 600 psia ; pl 6 = 5 psia ; pl 7 = diastolic pressure ; pl 8 = 375 psia ; and pl 9 = 5 psia . temperature limits , flow limits , procedure times , and procedure types are set by the operator according to the procedure being performed . perform self tests ( block 802 ) of the control system circuitry and connecting circuitry to the sensors and controllers to insure circuit integrity . read and store supply cylinder pressure p 1 , primary low pressure p 4 , and catheter tip pressure p 5 ( block 804 ). at this time , p 4 and p 5 are at atmospheric pressure . if p 1 is less than pressure limit pl 2 ( block 808 ), display a message to replace the supply cylinder ( block 810 ), and prevent further operation . if p 1 is greater than pl 2 , but less than pressure limit pl 3 , display a message to replace the supply cylinder soon , but allow operation to continue . read precool charge pressure pb and recovery cylinder pressure p 2 ( block 806 ). if pb is less than pressure limit pl 1 ( block 808 ), display a message to service the precool loop ( block 810 ), and prevent further operation . if p 2 is greater than pressure limit pl 4 ( block 808 ), display a message to replace the recovery cylinder ( block 810 ), and prevent further operation . if p 2 is less than pl 4 , but greater than pressure limit pl 5 , display a message to replace the recovery cylinder soon , but allow operation to continue . energize the bypass loop vent valve 408 ( block 812 ). the vent valve 408 is a normally open two way solenoid valve open to the atmosphere . when energized , the vent valve 408 is closed . start the precool compressor 100 ( block 814 ). display a message to attach the catheter 300 to the console quick connects 304 ( block 816 ). wait for the physician to attach the catheter 300 , press either the ablation mode key or the mapping mode key , and press the start key ( block 818 ). read the catheter tip temperature t and the catheter tip pressure p 5 . at this time , t is the patient &# 39 ; s body temperature and p 5 is atmospheric pressure . energize the bypass loop valve 406 , while leaving the recovery valve 506 deenergized ( block 820 ). the bypass valve 406 is a normally closed 2 way solenoid valve . energizing the bypass valve 406 opens the bypass loop . the recovery valve 506 is a three way solenoid valve that , when not energized , opens the outlet of the vacuum pump 400 to atmosphere . start the vacuum pump 400 ( block 822 ). these actions will pull a vacuum in the piping between the outlet of the fluid controller 208 and the inlet of the vacuum pump 400 , including the high and low pressure sides of the catheter 300 . monitor p 3 , p 4 , and p 5 ( block 824 ), until all three are less than pressure limit pl 6 ( block 826 ). energize the recovery valve 506 and the recovery pump 500 ( block 828 ). when energized , the recovery valve 506 connects the outlet of the vacuum pump 400 to the inlet of the recovery pump 500 . de - energize the bypass valve 406 , allowing it to close ( block 830 ). send either a pressure set point spp ( if a pressure controller is used ) or a flow rate set point spf ( if a flow controller is used ) to the fluid controller 208 ( block 832 ). where a pressure controller is used , the pressure set point spp is at a pressure which will achieve the desired refrigerant flow rate , in the absence of plugs or leaks . the value of the set point is determined according to whether the physician has selected the mapping mode or the ablation mode . these actions start the flow of primary refrigerant through the catheter 300 and maintain the refrigerant flow rate at the desired level . continuously monitor and display procedure time and catheter tip temperature t ( block 834 ). continuously monitor and display all pressures and flow rates f ( block 836 ). if catheter tip pressure p 5 exceeds pressure limit pl 7 , start the shutdown sequence ( block 840 ). pressure limit pl 7 is a pressure above which the low pressure side of the catheter 300 is not considered safe . if f falls below flow limit fl 1 , and catheter tip temperature t is less than temperature limit tl 1 , start the shutdown sequence ( block 840 ). flow limit fl 1 is a minimum flow rate below which it is determined that a leak or a plug has occurred in the catheter 300 . fl 1 can be expressed as a percentage of the flow rate set point spf . temperature limit tl 1 is a temperature limit factored into this decision step to prevent premature shutdowns before the catheter 300 reaches a steady state at the designed level of refrigeration power . so , if catheter tip temperature t has not yet gone below tl 1 , a low flow rate will not cause a shutdown . if p 3 exceeds pressure limit pl 8 , and f is less than flow limit fl 2 , start the shutdown sequence ( block 840 ). pl 8 is a maximum safe pressure for the high side of the primary system . flow limit fl 2 is a minimum flow rate below which it is determined that a plug has occurred in the catheter 300 , when pl 8 is exceeded . fl 2 can be expressed as a percentage of the flow rate set point spf . if p 4 is less than pressure limit pl 9 , and f is less than flow limit fl 3 , start the shutdown sequence ( block 840 ). pl 9 is a pressure below which it is determined that a plug has occurred in the catheter 300 , when flow is below fl 3 . fl 3 can be expressed as a percentage of the flow rate set point spf . an exemplary shutdown sequence will now be described . send a signal to the fluid controller 208 to stop the primary refrigerant flow ( block 840 ). energize the bypass valve 406 to open the bypass loop ( block 842 ). shut off the precool compressor 100 ( block 844 ). continue running the vacuum pump 400 to pull a vacuum between the outlet of the fluid controller 208 and the inlet of the vacuum pump 400 ( block 846 ). monitor primary high side pressure p 3 , primary low side pressure p 4 , and catheter tip pressure p 5 ( block 848 ) until all three are less than the original primary low side pressure which was read in block 804 at the beginning of the procedure ( block 850 ). then , de - energize the recovery pump 500 , recovery valve 506 , vent valve 408 , bypass valve 406 , and vacuum pump 400 ( block 852 ). display a message suggesting the removal of the catheter 300 , and update a log of all system data ( block 854 ). similar operational procedures , safety checks , and shutdown procedures would be used for the closed loop primary system shown in fig2 or fig3 , except that the primary compressor 600 or compressors 600 , 618 would provide the necessary primary refrigerant flow rate in place of the supply and recovery cylinders , the fluid controller , and the vacuum and recovery pumps . as with the open loop system , the closed loop system can be operated in the mapping mode , where the cold tip temperature might be maintained at minus 10 c ., or in the ablation mode , where the cold tip temperature might be maintained at minus 65 c . as a first option to achieve the desired cold tip temperature , the precool bypass valve 111 can be adjusted to control the liquid fraction resulting after expansion of the secondary refrigerant , thereby adjusting the refrigeration capacity . under this option , primary refrigerant high and low pressures are kept constant . as a second option , or in combination with the first option , primary refrigerant flow rate can be by means of operating controllers 601 , 619 on the primary compressors 600 , 618 to maintain a high pressure set point spp which will achieve the desired flow rate , resulting in the desired cold tip temperature . a service mode is possible , for purification of the primary and secondary refrigerants . in the service mode , the normally open bypass valves 111 , 606 are energized to close . the primary loop purification valves 609 , 611 are selectively aligned with the purification system 900 to purify the primary refrigerant , or the precool loop purification valves 113 , 115 are selectively aligned with the purification system 900 to purify the secondary refrigerant . in either the mapping mode or the ablation mode , the desired cold tip temperature control option is input into the control system 700 . further , the type of catheter is input into the control system 700 . the normally closed charge valve 626 is energized as necessary to build up the primary loop charge pressure . if excessive charging is required , the operator is advised . further , if precool loop charge pressure is below a desired level , the operator is advised . when shutdown is required , the primary loop high side purification valve 609 is closed , and the primary loop compressors 600 , 618 continue to run , to draw a vacuum in the catheter 300 . when the desired vacuum is achieved , the primary loop low side purification valve 611 is closed . this isolates the primary loop from the catheter 300 , and the disposable catheter 300 can be removed . referring to fig8 , a system for performing cryoablation procedures is shown and generally designated 910 . as shown , the system 910 includes a cryoablation catheter 912 and a primary fluid source 914 . preferably , the primary fluid is nitrous oxide ( n 2 o ) and is held in source 914 at a pressure of around 750 psig . fig8 also shows that the system 910 includes a console 916 and that the console 916 is connected in fluid communication with the primary fluid source 914 via a fluid line 918 . console 916 is also connected in fluid communication with the catheter 912 via a fluid line 920 . further , the console 916 is shown to include a precooler 922 , an exhaust unit 924 , and a computer 926 . in detail , the components of the catheter 912 will be best appreciated with reference to fig9 . there , it will be seen that the catheter 912 includes a catheter tube 928 that has a closed distal end 930 and an open proximal end 932 . also included as part of the catheter 912 , are a supply tube 934 that has a distal end 936 and a proximal end 938 , and a capillary tube 940 that has a distal end 942 and a proximal end 944 . as shown , the distal end 936 of supply tube 934 is connected with the proximal end 944 of the capillary tube 940 to establish a supply line 946 . specifically , supply line 946 is defined by the lumen 948 of supply tube 934 and the lumen 950 of capillary tube 940 . it is an important aspect of the system 910 that the diameter ( i . e . cross section ) of the supply tube 934 is greater than the diameter ( i . e . cross section ) of the capillary tube 940 . the consequence of this difference is that the supply tube 934 presents much less impedance to fluid flow than does the capillary tube 940 . in turn , this causes a much greater pressure drop for fluid flow through the capillary tube 940 . as will be seen , this pressure differential is used to advantage for the system 910 . still referring to fig9 , it is seen that the supply line 946 established by the supply tube 934 and capillary tube 940 , is positioned coaxially in the lumen 952 of the catheter tube 928 . further , the distal end 942 of the capillary tube 940 ( i . e . also the distal end of the supply line 946 ) is displaced from the distal end 930 of catheter tube 928 to create an expansion chamber 954 in the tip section 956 of the catheter 912 . additionally , the placement of the supply line 946 in the lumen 952 establishes a return line 958 in the catheter 912 that is located between the supply line 946 and the wall of the catheter tube 928 . optionally , a sensor 960 can be mounted in expansion chamber 954 ( tip section 956 ). this sensor 960 may be either a temperature sensor or a pressure sensor , or it may include both a temperature and pressure sensor . in any event , if used , the sensor 960 can be of a type well known in the art for detecting the desired measurement . although fig9 shows both a pressure sensor 962 and a valve 964 positioned at the proximal end 938 of the supply tube 934 , this is only exemplary as the sensor 962 and valve 964 may actually be positioned elsewhere . the import here is that a pressure sensor 962 is provided to monitor a working fluid pressure , “ p w ,” on a fluid refrigerant ( e . g . n 2 o ). in turn , this pressure “ p w ” is controlled by a valve 964 as it enters the inlet 966 of the supply line 946 . further , fig9 shows that a pressure sensor 968 is provided to monitor a return pressure “ p r ” on the fluid refrigerant as it exits from the outlet 970 of the return line 958 . fig1 indicates that the various sensors mentioned above are somehow electronically connected to the computer 926 in console 916 . more specifically , the sensors 960 , 962 and 968 can be connected to computer 926 in any of several ways , all known in the pertinent art . further , fig1 indicates that the computer 926 is operationally connected with the valve 964 . the consequence of this is that the computer 926 can be used to control operation of the valve 964 , and thus the working pressure “ p w ”, in accordance with preprogrammed instructions , using measurements obtained by the sensors 960 , 962 and 968 ( individually or collectively ). a schematic of various components for system 910 is presented in fig1 which indicates that a compressor 972 is incorporated as an integral part of the precooler 922 . more specifically , the compressor 972 is used to compress a secondary fluid refrigerant ( e . g . freon ) into its liquid phase for subsequent cooling of the primary refrigerant in the precooler 922 . for purposes of the present invention , the secondary fluid refrigerant will have a normal boiling point that is at a temperature sufficiently low to take the primary fluid refrigerant to a sub - cool condition ( i . e . below a temperature where the primary fluid refrigerant will be fully saturated ). for the present invention , wherein the primary fluid refrigerant is nitrous oxide , the temperature is preferably around minus forty degrees centigrade ( t sc =− 40 ° c .). the operation of system 910 will be best appreciated by cross referencing fig1 with fig1 . during this cross referencing , recognize that the alphabetical points ( a , b , c , d and e ), shown relative to the curve 974 in fig1 , are correspondingly shown on the schematic for system 910 in fig1 . further , appreciate that curve 974 , which is plotted for variations of pressure ( p ) and temperature ( t ), represents the fully saturated condition for the primary fluid refrigerant ( e . g . nitrous oxide ). accordingly , the area 976 represents the liquid phase of the refrigerant , and area 978 represents the gaseous phase of the refrigerant . point a ( fig1 and fig1 ) represents the primary fluid refrigerant as it is drawn from the fluid source 914 , or its back up source 914 ′. preferably , point a corresponds to ambient temperature ( i . e . room temperature ) and a pressure greater than around 700 psig . after leaving the fluid source 914 , the pressure on the refrigerant is lowered to a working pressure “ p w ” that is around 400 psig . this change is controlled by the regulator valve 964 , is monitored by the sensor 962 , and is represented in fig1 as the change from point a to point b . the condition at point b corresponds to the condition of the primary refrigerant as it enters the precooler 922 . in the precooler 922 , the primary refrigerant is cooled to a sub - cool temperature “ t sc ” ( e . g . − 40 ° c .) that is determined by the boiling point of the secondary refrigerant in the precooler 922 . in fig1 this cooling is represented by the transition from point b to point c . note that in this transition , as the primary fluid refrigerant passes through the precooler 922 , it changes from a gaseous state ( area 978 ) into a liquid state ( area 976 ). point c in fig1 represents the condition of the primary fluid refrigerant as it enters the supply line 946 of cryocatheter 12 at the proximal end 938 of supply tube 934 . specifically , the pressure on the primary fluid refrigerant at this point c is the working pressure “ p w ”, and the temperature is the sub - cool temperature “ t sc ”. as the primary fluid refrigerant passes through the supply line 946 of catheter 12 , its condition changes from the indications of point c , to those of point d . specifically , for the present invention , point d is identified by a temperature of around minus eighty eight degrees centigrade (− 88 ° c .) and an outlet pressure “ p o ” that is close to 15 psia . further , as indicated in fig1 , point d identifies the conditions of the primary fluid refrigerant after it has boiled in the tip section 956 as it is leaving the supply line 946 and entering the return line 958 of the catheter 12 . the exhaust unit 924 of the catheter 912 is used to evacuate the primary fluid refrigerant from the expansion chamber 954 of tip section 956 after the primary refrigerant has boiled . during this evacuation , the conditions of the primary refrigerant change from point d to point e . specifically , the conditions at point e are such that the temperature of the refrigerant is an ambient temperature ( i . e . room temperature ) and it has a return pressure “ p r ”, measured by the sensor 968 , that is slightly less than “ p o ”. for the transition from point d to point e , the main purpose of the exhaust unit 924 is to help maintain the outlet pressure “ p o ” in the tip section 956 as near to one atmosphere pressure as possible . earlier it was mentioned that the mass flow rate of the primary fluid refrigerant as it passes through the catheter 912 has an effect on the operation of the catheter 912 . essentially this effect is shown in fig1 . there it will be seen that for relatively low mass flow rates ( e . g . below point f on curve 980 shown in fig1 ), increases in the mass flow rate of the refrigerant will cause lower temperatures . refrigerant flow in this range is said to be “ refrigeration limited .” on the other hand , for relatively high mass flow rates ( i . e . above point f ), increases in the mass flow rate actually cause the temperature of the refrigerant to rise . flow in this range is said to be “ surface area limited .” because the system 910 is most efficient at the lowest temperature for the refrigerant , operation at point f is preferred . accordingly , by monitoring the temperature of the refrigerant in the tip section 956 , “ t t ”, variations of t t can be used to control the mass flow rate of the refrigerant , to thereby control the refrigeration potential of the catheter 912 . in operation , the variables mentioned above ( p w , p o , p r , and t t ) can be determined as needed . system 910 then manipulates the regulator valve 964 , in response to whatever variables are being used , to vary the working pressure “ p w ” of the primary fluid refrigerant as it enters the supply line 946 . in this way , variations in “ p w ” can be used to control “ p o ” and , consequently , the refrigeration potential of the catheter 912 . while the particular invention as herein shown and disclosed in detail is fully capable of obtaining the objects and providing the advantages herein before stated , it is to be understood that it is merely illustrative of the presently preferred embodiments of the invention and that no limitations are intended to the details of construction or design herein shown other than as described in the appended claims .
an apparatus and method for automatic operation of a refrigeration system to provide refrigeration power to a catheter for tissue ablation or mapping . the primary refrigeration system can be open loop or closed loop , and a precool loop will typically be closed loop . equipment and procedures are disclosed for bringing the system to the desired operational state , for controlling the operation by controlling refrigerant flow rate , for performing safety checks , and for achieving safe shutdown . the catheter - based system for performing a cryoablation procedure uses a precooler to lower the temperature of a fluid refrigerant to a sub - cool temperature at a working pressure . the sub - cooled fluid is then introduced into a supply line of the catheter . upon outflow of the primary fluid from the supply line , and into a tip section of the catheter , the fluid refrigerant boils at an outflow pressure of approximately one atmosphere , at a temperature of about − 88 ° c . in operation , the working pressure is computer controlled to obtain an appropriate outflow pressure for the coldest possible temperature in the tip section .