unless defined otherwise , all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which the invention belongs . although any methods and materials similar to or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or in the testing of the present invention , the preferred methods and materials are now described . as used herein , the term “ neuronal cells ” encompasses any differentiated neuronal cells such as neurons ( e . g . rgcs ) or glial cells ( e . g ., astrocytes and oligodendrocytes ) of either the central or the peripheral nervous system . the term also encompasses neuronal stem cells and neuronal progenitor cells . neuronal cells encompassed by the term can assume any form such as the form of a tissue or dissociated neuronal cells ( e . g . in a cell suspension ). as used herein , the term “ cell death ” encompasses apoptosis , necrosis and other types of cell death , such as mixed type of cell death . as used herein , an “ effective amount ” of one or more compounds means an amount effective to protect cells from cell death . for the purpose of the present invention , the protective effect of a compound can be measured , for example ; by a longer cell survival time , a decrease in the percentage of cells that die within a particular period of time or both in compound - treated cells in comparison to control cells . of course , what constitutes the effective amount will depend on a variety of factors , including , for example , the size , the age and the condition of the individual , as well as on the mode of delivery . it is well within the ability of one of ordinary skill in the art to determine the effective amount . the compounds of the present invention can protect cells and tissue both in vitro ( e . g . in cell culture ) and in vivo ( e . g . in a human or in a non - human animal ). for example , protective compounds may be used with cultured cells or with tissue maintained ex vivo for purposes of transplantation into one or more sites in the eye of a patient suffering from an optic neuropathy . in this instance , the protective compound would enhance survival and viability of the tissue and increase the chances of a successful graft . use of protective compounds in this context can be achieved with any of the available culturing or grafting procedures . for in vivo applications , the compounds of the present invention are used to treat a subject ( e . g ., a patient ) who is experiencing a cell death - related disease or condition . the compounds can also be used to prevent the disease or the condition ( including partial prevention such as delay and minimizing symptoms at onset of disease or condition ) in an at - risk individual not yet showing signs of the disease or the condition . in these applications , one or more compounds of the present invention are administered to a subject in an effective amount to treat or to prevent the disease or the condition . examples of cell death - related diseases or conditions that can be treated or can be prevented include , but are not limited to various neurodegenerative disorders ( e . g . alzheimer &# 39 ; s disease , huntington &# 39 ; s disease , prion diseases , parkinson &# 39 ; s disease , amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , ataxia telangiectasia , spinobulbar atrophy , age - related reduction in number or in function , macular degeneration , retinal degeneration , dominant optic atrophy and leber &# 39 ; s hereditary optic neuropathy ), diseases and conditions induced under various conditions of ischemia and / or excitotoxicity ( e . g . ischemic stroke , hemorrhagic stroke , retinal ischemia , diabetic retinopathy , and ischemic optic neuropathy ), diseases due to nervous system trauma ( e . g . spinal cord injury or traumatic optic neuropathy ), diseases due to inflammation ( e . g . optic neuritis or multiple sclerosis ), diseases due to infection ( e . g . meningitis and toxoplasmosis optic neuropathy ), diseases and conditions induced by certain medications or irrigating solutions ( e . g . optic neuropathy induced by ethambutol or methanol ), diseases due to other etiologies ( e . g . glaucoma ), and diseases and conditions associated with exposure to radiation . the compounds can be provided in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and can be administered to a subject via a topical or a systemic route , such as those described below . in an exemplary embodiment , the compounds of the present invention are used to treat or to prevent a disorder related to neuronal cell death , including , but not limited to , glaucomatous optic neuropathy , ischemic optic neuropathy , inflammatory optic neuropathy , compressive optic neuropathy and traumatic optic neuropathy . in a preferred embodiment , the compounds of the present invention are used to treat or to prevent glaucoma . it is reasonable to expect that the more neuronal cells that a protective compound contacts , the more pronounced its protective effect . preferably , the method of the present invention allows a protective compound to contact at least about 25 %, 50 % or even as many as 95 % or 100 % of the cells . preferably , contacting the neuronal cells with one or more compounds of the present invention will reduce cell death by at least about 50 % when compared to untreated cells . however , it is expected a reduction of cell death of 25 %, 10 % or 5 % will extend the vision of the treated subject . in a human subject , a reduction in cell death may be estimated by extrapolation from functional and structural assays . functional assays involve evaluating changes in visual function over time , specifically , visual acuity and visual fields . it is reasonably expected that a reduction in the rate of neuronal cell death following initiation of treatment may be correlated with a reduction in the rate of loss of visual function over time . structural assays involve visualizing or measuring the optic nerve head or the retinal nerve fiber layer with an opthalmoscope or other device to assess optic disc atrophy , disc cupping or loss of nerve fibers . a protective compound can be made to target specific cells , such as a neuronal cell , by linking it to an antibody or other molecule that can bind a cell surface antigen , such as thy - 1 , which is a major retional ganglion cell surface protein . for example , a protective compound can be covalently linked to a cell - specific aptamer . the systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment ( selex ) procedure can be used to produce rna molecules that bind to thy - 1 . see tuerk c & amp ; gold l , science 249 : 505 - 510 ( 1990 ), incorporated herein by reference as if set forth in its entirety . a library of rna molecules can be generated by in vitro transcription from a commercially generated dna library of sequences having a combinatorially rich random nucleotides core flanked by primer binding sequences ( e . g ., ffffffffffffffff rrrrrrrrrrrrrr , wherein fffffffffffffffff represents a binding site for a forward primer , wherein rrrrrrrrrrrrrr represents a binding site for a reverse primer , and wherein is twenty - four to thirty - six combinatorially rich random nucleotides ). purified thy - 1 can then be attached to sepharose beads , the rna molecules allowed to bind , the beads washed , and the bound rna eluted . the eluted rnas are molecules with increased affinity for thy - 1 . they can then be reverse transcribed and amplified in a pcr reaction ( using the forward and the reverse primers that bind to all of the molecules ). the amplimers will then be transcribed , and the process repeated . the optimal rna sequences are then synthesized with resistant nucleotides and covalently attached to a protective compound . for treating a cell death - related disorder , protective compounds may be administered singly or in combinations of two or more protective compounds , with or without other active drugs , including without limitation , ocular hypotensive and other anti - glaucoma agents ( e . g . prostaglandins or prostanoids , carbonic anhydrase inhibitors , beta - adrenergic agonists and antagonists , alpha - adrenergic agonists , n - acetyl cysteine , glutathione or other anti - glaucoma agents ) known to those skilled in the art . protective compounds may be delivered within any appropriate pharmaceutical formulation by topically ( e . g . eye drops ), transsclerally , intravitreally , intraorbitally ( e . g . retrobulbar or peribulbar injection ), subconjunctivally , orally , intravenously , subcutaneously , intramuscularly , intraocularly , transdermally , bucally , intravaginally , rectally , nasally , intracerebrally , intraspinally or any of a variety of novel alternative drug delivery systems including those currently marketed , or any other means that is appropriate to the compound ( s ) in question . for easy access to neuronal cells , protective compounds can be delivered through injection or depot injection in or around the vitreous , the retinal nerve fiber layer , the optic nerve fibers or the targets of neuronal cells within the brain . topical ophthalmic compositions are employed when the compounds are to be dosed topically . preferably , the topically dosed compounds are formulated for sustained release over a period of time . see remington &# 39 ; s pharmaceutical sciences ( 14th ed . 1970 ); joshi j , ocul . pharmacol . 10 : 29 - 45 ( 1994 ); mccalden et al ., experientia 46 : 713 - 715 ( 1990 ); feist et al ., j . cataract refract . surg . 21 : 191 - 195 ( 1995 ); cheng et al ., invest . opthalmol . vis . sci . 36 : 442 - 453 ( 1995 ); and chetoni et al ., j . ocul . pharmacol . ther . 129 : 245 - 252 ( 1996 ), each of which is incorporated herein by reference as if set forth in its entirety . also preferably , the topically dosed compounds are formulated to increase penetration and to increase corneal contact time . see meseguer et al ., j . ocular . pharm . ther . 12 : 481 - 488 ( 1996 ); and nelson et al ., j . am . optom . assoc . 67 : 659 - 663 ( 1996 ), each of which is incorporated herein by reference as if set forth in its entirety . the preparation of topical compositions is well known in the art . generally , topical ophthalmic compositions useful in the present invention are in the form of a solution , a suspension , a gel or formulated as part of a device , such as a collagen shield or other bioerodible or non - bioerodible device . various excipients may be contained in the topical solutions , suspensions , or gels of the present invention . for example , buffers ( e . g . borate , carbonate and phosphate ), tonicity agents ( e . g . sodium chloride , potassium chloride and polyols ), preservatives ( e . g . polyquatemiums , polybiguanides and bas ), chelating agents ( e . g . edta ), viscosity enhancing agents ( e . g . polyethoxylated glycols ) and solubility agents ( e . g . polyethoxylated castor oils , including polyoxl - 35 castor oil , polysorbate 20 , 60 and 80 ; pluronic ® f - 68 , f - 84 and p - 103 ; or cyclodextrin ) may be included in the topical compositions . likewise , a variety of gels may be useful in topical gel compositions of the present invention , including , but not limited to , carbomers , polyvinyl alcohol - borate complexes , xanthan , gellan or guar gums . topical bioerodible and non - bioerodible devices ( e . g . conjunctival implant ) may be used for topical administration of protective compounds . see weiner a , “ polymeric drug delivery systems for the eye ,” in polymeric site - specific pharmacotherapy , ( a . j . domb , ed ., john wiley & amp ; sons , pp . 316 - 327 , 1994 ). topical administration is suitable for facilitating the delivery of the protective compounds described herein to enable chronic treatment of a particular tissue . protective compounds may also be delivered on a solid or a semisolid scaffold . for example , for treatment of the eye , delivery is accomplished by placing the support in a region of the eye selected from the group consisting of an eyelid , a conjunctiva , a sclera , a vitreous , a retina , an optic nerve sheath , an intraocular location and an intraorbital location . additionally , protective compounds may be delivered slowly over time to the eye through the use of contact lenses . this regimen is generally performed by first soaking the lenses in a protective compound and then applying the contact lenses to the eye . when the protective compounds are administered during surgical procedures , such as through injection or perfusion , the use of irrigating solutions as vehicles are most preferred . the most basic irrigating solutions generally comprise sterile saline or phosphate - buffered saline ( pbs ). more advanced irrigating solutions , however , are preferred . also contemplated are sustained - release formulations . specifically contemplated is the administration of the protective compounds during intraocular , intracerebral , or intraspinal surgical procedures via , for example , retrobulbar or periocular injection ( ophthalmic surgery : principles of practice , w . b . sanders co ., philadelphia , pa ., usa , pp . 85 - 87 ( g . l . spaeth , ed ., 1990 )), intraocular perfusion or injection , or intraspinal or intracerebral injection or perfusion . as used herein , the term “ physiologically balanced irrigating solution ” refers to a solution adapted to maintain the physical structure and the function of tissues during invasive or noninvasive medical procedures . this type of solution typically contains electrolytes , such as sodium , potassium , calcium , magnesium and / or chloride ; an energy source , such as dextrose ; and a bicarbonate buffer to maintain the ph of the solution at or near physiological levels . various solutions of this type are known ( e . g . lactated ringers solution , bss , rtm , bss plus rtm , sterile irrigating solution and sterile intraocular irrigating solution ). pharmaceutical compositions of the protective compounds can be formulated for systemic use using techniques well known in the art . orally administered compositions are generally in the form of tablets , hard or soft gelatin capsules , suspension , granules , powders or other typical compositions and contain excipients typically present in such compositions . methods for the preparation of such oral vehicles are well known by those skilled in the art . parenterally administered compositions are generally in the form of injectable solutions or suspensions . methods for the preparation of such parenteral compositions are well - known by those skilled in the art . it is appreciated that the compounds of the present invention are good electron donors ( upon removal of the removable protective group if present ), and thus have antioxidant activities . accordingly , these compounds can be used to protect against oxidative damage to human or animal cells , tissues and organs in general . the role of reactive oxygen species ( ros ) in the etiology of human diseases ( e . g . cancer , atherosclerosis , rheumatoid arthritis , inflammatory bowel diseases , immune system dysfunctions , brain function decline and connective tissue dysfunction ) and conditions ( e . g . radiation damage ) is well - established . diseases and conditions caused by oxidative damage can be prevented or can be treated with the compounds of the present invention . the specifics on using these compounds for this purpose , such as the appropriate dosage and the route of administration , can be readily determined by a skilled artisan as described above in the context of protecting cells from cell death - related diseases and conditions . the invention will be more fully understood upon consideration of the following non - limiting examples . synthesis of pb3 , pb4 , pb5 , pb6 , pb7 , pb9 : borane - protected phosphines pb3 , pb4 , pb5 , pb6 , pb7 , and pb9 ( fig1 a - f ) were designed for improved cell permeability and mitochondrial targeting . the long alkyl groups on pb3 and pb4 increase lipophilicity and thereby enhance the ability of pb3 and pb4 to cross cellular memberanes . pb3 and pb4 also have an enhanced ability to cross the blood brain barrier compared to related compounds . pb5 has two pivalamide side chains and has an increased corneal permeability and increased concentration within negatively charged mitochondria . pb6 becomes positively charged by intracellular amidase cleavage , which facilitates entry of pb6 into the negatively charged mitochondrion . pb7 has two octyl ester side chains and pb9 has two decyl ester side chains . both pb7 and pb9 enter into cells , cross the blood - brain barrier , or cross the blood - retinal barrier better than pb1 . phenylphosphine ( 2 . 0 g , 18 mmol ) was dissolved in acetonitrile ( 2 ml , degassed ) in a flame - dried round bottom flask under ar ( g ). hexyl acrylate ( 6 . 34 ml , 36 mmol ) was added at 0 ° c . after complete addition of hexyl acrylate , the reaction was stirred at room temperature for 3 days . the solvent was removed en vacuo . the residue was dissolved in dry thf under an argon atmosphere . this solution was cooled to 0 ° c . and borane - thf ( 1 . 0 m in thf , 18 ml , 18 mmol ) was added slowly . the solvent was removed under reduced pressure , and the residue was purified by flash chromatography ( silica gel , 50 % v / v ethyl acetate in hexanes ). phosphine - borane complex 3 ( pb3 ) was isolated as a clear oil ( 1 . 6 g , 3 . 66 mmol , 20 . 4 % yield ). spectral data : 1 h nmr ( 300 mhz , cdcl 3 ) δ7 . 78 - 7 . 70 ( m , 2h ), 7 . 57 - 7 . 47 ( m , 3h ), 4 . 00 ( t , 4h ), 2 . 70 - 2 . 56 ( m , 2 μl ), 2 . 41 - 2 . 19 ( m , 6h ), 1 . 65 ( m , 4h ), 1 . 38 ( m , 8h ), 0 . 86 ( t , 6h ), 1 . 40 - 0 . 40 ( m , 3h ) ppm . ms ( esi ) m / z 459 . 2827 ( mna + [ c 24 h 42 obo 4 pna + ]= 459 . 2827 ). borane - diphenylphosphine complex ( 0 . 190 g , 1 . 0 mmol ) was dissolved in acetonitrile ( 8 ml ) in a flame - dried round bottom flask under ar ( g ) at room temperature . hexyl acrylate ( 0 . 212 ml , 1 . 2 mmol ) was added to this mixture . the reaction mixture was allowed to stir at room temperature for 3 days . the acetonile was removed en vacuo , and the residue was purified by flash chromatography ( silica gel , 80 % v / v ethyl acetate in hexanes ). phosphine - borane complex 4 ( pb4 ) was isolated as a pale yellow oil ( 0 . 119 g , 0 . 334 mmol , 33 . 4 % yield ). spectral data : 1 h nmr ( 300 mhz , cdcl 3 ) δ7 . 72 - 7 . 65 ( m , 5h ), 7 . 51 - 7 . 45 ( m , 6h ), 4 . 05 ( t , 2h ), 2 . 55 ( m , 4h ), 1 . 55 ( m , 2h ), 1 . 38 ( m , 6h ), 0 . 86 ( t , 3h ), 1 . 4 - 0 . 4 ( m , 3h ) ppm ; ms ( esi ) m / z 373 . 2452 ( mna + [ c 21 h 30 bo 2 pna + ]= 373 . 2452 ). 2 -( diphenylphosphino ) ethylamine ( 0 . 2 g , 0 . 87 mmol ) was dissolved in a mixture of 20 ml of acetic anhydride and 5 ml pyridine under ar ( g ). the reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 3 days . the solvents were removed en vacuo . the residue was dissolved in ethyl acetate and washed with 0 . 5 m hcl , water , and brine . the organic layers were dried over mgso 4 ( s ), filtered , and concentrated en vacuo . the residue was purified by flash chromatography ( silica gel , 80 % v / v ethyl acetate in hexanes ). phosphine 6 was isolate as a white solid . 1 h nmr ( 300 mhz , cdcl 3 ) 7 . 51 - 7 . 45 ( m , 10h ), 5 . 72 ( s , 1h ), 3 . 45 ( m , 2h ), 2 . 25 ( m , 2h ), 1 . 88 ( s , 3h ), 0 . 86 ( t , 3h ) ppm . phosphine 6 was dissolved in dry thf under an argon atmosphere . this solution was cooled to 0 ° c . and borane - thf ( 1 . 0 m in thf , 1 ml , 1 mmol ) was added slowly . the reaction was stirred at 0 ° c . for 45 min and then at room temperature for an additional 3 h . the solvent was removed under reduced pressure , and the residue was purified by flash chromatography ( silica gel , 80 % v / v ethyl acetate in hexanes ). phosphine - borane complex 6 ( pb6 ) was isolated as a white solid ( 0 . 16 g , 0 . 59 mmol , 67 . 8 % yield ). spectral data : 1 h nmr ( 300 mhz , cdcl 3 ) 7 . 72 - 7 . 65 ( m , 4h ), 7 . 51 - 7 . 45 ( m , 6h ), 5 . 95 ( s , 1 ), 3 . 55 ( m , 2h ), 2 . 55 ( m , 2h ), 1 . 85 ( s , 3h ), 2 . 0 - 1 . 0 ( m , 3h ) ppm ; ms ( esi ) m / z 308 . 3 ( mn + [ c 16 h 21 bnopna + ]= 308 . 3 ). after the dried thf was aerated by argon gas for 10 min , 6 . 9 g ( 50 mmol ) of k 2 co 3 was added . after the mixture was aerated 2 minutes by argon gas , 2 g of bis ( 3 - aminopropyl )- phenylphosphine and 4 ml of pivaloyl chloride were added into the mixture separately at 0 ° c . the ice bath was removed after addition . after the reaction mixture was stirred for 0 . 5 hour , it was heated to 60 ° c ., and it was kept at 60 ° c . for 10 hours under argon gas . after the reaction mixture was cooled down to 0 ° c ., 35 ml of 1m bh 3 . thf was added . after the reaction was stirred under argon gas overnight , it was purified by chromatography to obtain 0 . 5 g of bis ( 3 - propyl pivalamide ) phenylphosphine borane complex ( pb5 ). spectral data : 1 h nmr ( 300 mhz , cdcl 3 ) 7 . 72 - 7 . 65 ( m , 2h ), 7 . 51 - 7 . 45 ( m , 3h ), 5 . 95 ( s , 2h ), 3 . 25 ( m , 4h ), 1 . 5 - 2 . 0 ( m , 8h ), 1 . 15 ( 18s ), 1 . 0 - 0 ( m , 3h ) ppm ; ms ( esi ) m / z 428 . 3 ( mna + [ c 22 h 40 bn 2 o 2 pna + ]= 308 . 3 ). bis ( 3 - propionic acid methyl ester ) phenylphosphine borane complex ( pb1 ) ( 0 . 5 g ) was dissolved in 10 ml of octanol , and 0 . 5 g of ptsa was added . the reaction mixture was stirred under argon gas at 60 ° c . for 4 hours . after removal of octanol , it was purified by chromatograph ( etoac / hexane = 2 / 8 ) to get 0 . 45 g of bis ( 3 - propionic acid octyl ester ) phenylphosphine borane complex ( pb7 ) as colorless liquid . spectral data : 1 h nmr ( 300 mhz , cdcl 3 ) δ7 . 78 - 7 . 70 ( m , 2h ), 7 . 57 - 7 . 47 ( m , 3h ), 4 . 05 ( t , 4h ), 2 . 70 - 2 . 56 ( m , 2h ), 2 . 41 - 2 . 19 ( m , 6h ), 1 . 65 ( m , 4h ), 1 . 38 ( m , 20h ), 0 . 86 ( t , 6h ), 1 . 40 - 0 . 40 ( m , 3h ) ppm . ms ( esi ) m / z 510 . 3993 ( mna + [ c 28 h 50 obo 4 pnh 4 + ]= 510 . 3993 ). bis ( 3 - propionic acid methyl ester ) phenylphosphine borane complex ( pb1 ) ( 2 . 5 g ) was dissolved in 10 ml of decanol , and 0 . 5 g of ptsa was added . the reaction mixture was stirred under ar gas at 60 ° c . for 12 hours . after removal of decanol , it was purified by chromatography ( etoac / hexane = 2 / 8 ) to get 2 . 00 g of bis ( 3 - propionic acid decyl ester ) phenylphosphine borane complex ( pb9 ) as colorless liquid . spectral data : 1 h nmr ( 300 mhz , cdcl 3 ) δ7 . 78 - 7 . 70 ( m , 2h ), 7 . 57 - 7 . 47 ( m , 3h ), 4 . 05 ( t , 4h ), 2 . 70 - 2 . 56 ( m , 2h ), 2 . 41 - 2 . 19 ( m , 6h ), 1 . 65 ( m , 4h ), 1 . 38 ( m , 28h ), 0 . 86 ( t , 6h ), 1 . 40 - 0 . 40 ( m , 3h ) ppm . ms ( esi ) m / z 565 . 4541 ( mna + [ c 32 h 58 obo 4 pnh 4 + ]= 565 . 4541 ). cell culture : cells of rgc - 5 ( atcc deposit accession no . pta - 6600 ), a neuronal cell line , were suspended in growth medium and plated in 96 - well plates at a density of 2 , 000 cells per well . after 24 hours in culture , cells were treated with 17 . 8 μm menadione ( sigma - aldrich , st . louis , mo .). menadione creates oxidative stress resulting in cell death . pb3 , pb4 , or pb6 was added to the wells directly before menadione treatment . after 24 hours of menadione treatment , the cells were stained with calcein - am and photographed . calcein - am - positive ( i . e ., viable ) cells were counted using nih imagej software ( national institutes of health , available online ) to determine whether any of the added compounds protected rgc - 5 cells from menadione - induced cell death . the borane - protected phosphines pb3 , pb4 , and pb6 were neuroprotective against menadione - induced cell death in rgc - 5 cells . pb3 significantly protected rgc - 5 cells from menadione - induced cell death at concentrations of 100 μm ( 30 . 9 ± 4 . 3 % of the cells were protected ( p = 0 . 000032 )), 1 μm ( 46 . 4 ± 16 . 8 % of the cells were protected ( p = 0 . 024 )), and 10 μm ( 38 . 3 ± 12 . 2 % of the cells were protected ( p = 0 . 014 )). pb4 and pb6 were less effective neuroprotectants than pb3 . pb4 was most effective at a concentration of 1 μm resulting in protection of 19 . 0 ± 5 . 5 % ( p = 0 . 031 ) of the cells . pb6 was most effective at a concentration of 10 pm resulting in protection of 25 . 6 ± 8 . 4 % of the cells ( p = 0 . 016 ). differences in the effectiveness of these phosphines may be due to differences in cell permeability or intracellular targeting . synthesis of pb1 and pb2 : chemicals and solvents were from aldrich chemical ( milwaukee , wis .). reactions were monitored by thin - layer chromatography and were visualized by ultraviolet light or staining with i 2 . nmr spectra were obtained with a bruker ac - 300 or varian inova - 600 spectrometer . phosphorus - 31 nmr spectra were proton - decoupled and referenced against an external standard of deuterated phosphoric acid . mass spectra were obtained with electrospray ionization ( esi ) or matrix - assisted laser desorption / ionization ( maldi ) techniques . synthesis of bis ( 3 - propionic acid methyl ester ) phenylphosphine borane complex ( pb1 ) ( fig2 ) phosphine 1 : see rampal et al ., j . am . chem . soc . 103 : 2032 - 2036 ( 1981 ), incorporated herein by reference as if set forth in its entirety . phenylphosphine ( 10 g , 90 mmol ) was dissolved in acetonitrile ( 10 ml , degassed ) in a flame - dried , round bottom flask under ar ( g ). potassium hydroxide ( 1 . 0 n , 1 . 0 ml ) was added to this mixture , and the resulting solution was cooled to 0 ° c . methyl acrylate ( 16 . 2 ml , 180 mmol ) was added at a rate that maintained the reaction temperature below 35 ° c . upon complete addition of methyl acrylate , the reaction was heated at 50 ° c . for 8 hours . the reaction mixture was then washed with brine ( 2 × 10 ml ). the organic layer was dried over mgso 4 ( s ), filtered , and concentrated en vacuo . the residue was purified by distillation with the desired product distilling at 160 - 170 ° c . ( 0 . 5 mm hg ). phosphine 1 was isolated as a clear liquid ( 20 . 7 g , 73 mmol , 81 % yield ). spectral data : 1 h nmr ( 300 mhz , cdcl 3 : cd 3 od ) 7 . 54 - 7 . 48 ( m , 2h ), 7 . 37 - 7 . 30 ( m , 3h ), 3 . 62 ( s , 6h ), 2 . 46 - 2 . 23 ( m , 4h ), 2 . 10 - 2 . 03 ( m , 4h ) ppm ; 13 c nmr ( 75 mhz , thf - d 6 ) 173 . 25 ( d , j = 12 . 9 hz ), 133 . 51 ( d , j = 15 . 5 hz ), 132 . 28 ( d , j = 19 . 4 hz ), 129 . 22 , 128 . 43 ( d , j = 7 . 2 hz ), 51 . 47 , 30 . 22 ( d , j = 16 . 9 hz ), 22 . 63 ( d , j = 11 . 9 hz ) ppm ; 31 p nmr ( 121 mhz , cdcl 3 : cd 3 od ) − 23 . 06 ppm ; ms ( esi ) m / z 305 . 0905 ( mna + [ c 14 h 19 o 4 pna + ]= 305 . 0919 ). pb1 : phosphine 1 ( 20 . 7 g , 73 mmol ) was dissolved in dry tetrahydrofuran ( thf ) in a flame - dried round bottom flask under ar ( g ). this solution was cooled to 0 ° c . and borane - thf ( 1 . 0 m in thf , 80 . 6 ml , 80 . 6 mmol ) was added slowly . the reaction was stirred at 0 ° c . for 45 minutes and then was stirred at room temperature for an additional 1 . 5 hours . the solvent was removed under reduced pressure , and the residue was purified by flash chromatography ( silica gel , 80 % v / v methylene chloride in hexanes ). pb1 was isolated as a clear oil ( 7 . 6 g , 25 . 6 mmol , 35 % yield ). spectral data : 1 h nmr ( 300 mhz , cdcl 3 : cd 3 od ) 7 . 78 - 7 . 70 ( m , 2h ), 7 . 57 - 7 . 47 ( m , 3h ), 3 . 64 ( s , 6h ), 2 . 70 - 2 . 56 ( m , 2h ), 2 . 41 - 2 . 19 ( m , 6h ), 0 . 68 ( m , 3h ) ppm ; 13 c nmr ( 75 mhz , thf - d 6 ) 172 . 29 ( d , j = 19 . 1 hz ), 131 . 88 ( d , j = 13 . 5 hz ), 131 . 84 , 128 . 93 ( d , j = 12 . 3 hz ), 126 . 11 ( d , j = 61 . 4 hz ), 51 . 83 , 27 . 37 , 20 . 71 ( d , j = 45 . 4 hz ) ppm ; 31 p nmr ( 121 mhz , cdcl 3 : cd 3 od ) 17 . 34 ( d , j = 70 . 4 hz ) ppm ; ms ( esi ) m / z 318 . 1292 ( mna + [ c 14 h 22 bo 4 pna + ]= 318 . 1283 ). synthesis of ( 3 - propionic acid methyl ester ) diphenylphosphine borane complex ( pb2 ) ( fig2 ) pb2 : see imamoto et al ., j . am . chem . soc . 107 : 5301 - 5303 ( 1985 ), incorporated herein by reference as if set forth in its entirety . borane - diphenylphosphine complex ( 0 . 190 g , 1 . 0 mmol ) was dissolved in methanol ( 8 ml ) in a flame - dried , round bottom flask under ar ( g ) at room temperature . potassium hydroxide ( 0 . 0028 g , 0 . 05 mmol ) was added to this mixture , followed by the drop - wise addition of methyl acrylate ( 0 . 108 ml , 1 . 2 mmol ). the reaction mixture was allowed to stir at room temperature for 6 hours , after which the methanol was removed en vacuo . the residue was taken up in dichloromethane ( 10 ml ) and was washed with 0 . 5 n hcl ( 1 × 5 ml ) and brine ( 1 × 5 ml ). the aqueous layers were washed with dichloromethane ( 10 ml ), and the combined organic layers were dried over mgso 4 ( s ), filtered and concentrated en vacuo . the residue was purified by flash chromatography ( silica gel , 30 % v / v ethyl acetate in hexanes ). pb2 was isolated as a pale yellow oil ( 0 . 219 g , 0 . 76 mmol , 76 % yield ). spectral data : 1 h nmr ( 300 mhz , cdcl 3 ) 7 . 72 - 7 . 65 ( m , 5h ), 7 . 51 - 7 . 45 ( m , 5h ), 3 . 64 ( s , 3h ), 2 . 55 ( m , 4h ), 0 . 96 ( m , 3h ) ppm ; 13 c nmr ( 75 mhz , cdcl 3 ) 132 . 37 ( d , j = 9 . 20 hz ), 131 . 67 , 129 . 17 ( d , j = 10 . 1 hz ), 128 . 84 , 52 . 24 , 28 . 01 , 21 . 15 ( d , j = 39 . 5 hz ) ppm ; 31 p nmr ( 121 mhz , cdcl 3 ) 16 . 26 ( d , j = 59 . 0 hz ); ms ( esi ) m / z 309 . 1190 ( mna + [ c 16 h 20 bo 2 pna + ]= 309 . 1192 ). cell culture : rgc - 5 cells were cultured in dulbecco &# 39 ; s modified eagle &# 39 ; s medium ( dmem ) ( mediatech , inc ., manassas , va .). containing 1 g / l glucose , supplemented with 10 % fetal bovine serum , 100 u / ml penicillin , and 100 μg / ml streptomycin ( mediatech , inc .). cells were passaged every 48 to 72 hours when cells were approximately 60 to 75 % confluent , replated at a 1 : 20 dilution in a 75 cm 2 flask in 20 ml of cell culture media and incubated at 37 ° c . in humidified 5 % co 2 . experiments were performed in duplicate or triplicate . cell treatment and assessment of viability : cells were plated in 96 - well plates at a density of 60 cells / mm 2 in 50 μl of media . approximately 24 hours after plating , 50 μl of media containing either menadione , rotenone , or antimycin a , either with or without pb1 and pb2 , was added to the cells to generate the final concentrations of 10 nm , 1 μm , or 100 μm . control wells received media containing vehicle alone . following 24 hours of treatment , media was aspirated from wells using a 25 - gauge needle and cells stained with calcein - am ( 10 μg / ml ) and propidium iodide ( 1 μg / ml ) ( both invitrogen , carlsbad , calif .) in pbs for 30 minutes . the staining solution was aspirated using a 25 - gauge needle and replaced with pbs . three randomly chosen fields per well were photographed on an axiovert 135 microscope under epifluorescence with a nikon d70s digital slr camera ( nikon , melville , n . y .) at a resolution of 3008 × 2000 pixels and an exposure time of 1 . 6 seconds . live ( calcein - positive ) and dead ( propidium iodide - positive ) cells were assessed using image ) software . pictures were batch analyzed using a macro containing the following actions : subtract background , threshold , erode , erode , watershed , and analyze particles between the sizes of 1000 pixels and infinity . the fidelity of automated counts was periodically confirmed by comparison with manual counts . each experiment was analyzed with respect to its own set of controls to account for variation in passage number of the rgc - 5 cells and small differences between batches of cryopreserved rgc - 5 cells . statistics : viability was assessed as number of live cells / mm 2 , and compared to the untreated controls of each experiment . means were compared using student &# 39 ; s unpaired t - test . rgc - 5 cells plated in 96 - well plates were treated for 24 hours with the redox cycling agent menadione , the complex i inhibitor rotenone , or the complex iii inhibitor antimycin a , at final concentrations ranging from 100 nm to 31 . 6 μm ( menadione ) or 1 μm to 316 μm ( rotenone or antimycin a ). without additional treatment , menadione ( 3 . 16 μm ), rotenone ( 3 . 16 μm ), or antimycin a ( 1 μm ) caused 50 - 70 % cell death . rgc - 5 cells were co - incubated with these mitochondrial electron transporter chain ( metc )- drugs and the borane - phosphines pb1 or pb2 for 24 hours , followed by assessment of cell viability by calcein / propidium iodide assay . tcep ( 100 μm ) served as a positive control . pb1 and pb2 showed significant rescue of rgc - 5 cells from death induced by the metc - active drugs menadione , rotenone , and antimycin a . pb1 was highly neuroprotective when given to rgc - 5 cells at a final concentration of 100 μm against menadione ( 83 ± 5 % vs . 34 ± 4 %; p & lt ; 0 . 0001 ) and against antimycin a ( 74 ± 4 % vs . 34 ± 2 %; p & lt ; 0 . 0001 ). pb1 rescue from rotenone - induced oxidative stress was significant , but substantially less than for the other metc - active drugs ( 36 ± 3 % vs . 25 ± 3 %; p = 0 . 01 ) ( fig3 b ). pb2 was highly neuroprotective at a final concentration of 1 μm against menadione ( fig3 a ; 95 ± 5 % vs . 34 ± 4 %; p & lt ; 0 . 0001 ) and antimycin a ( fig3 c ; 68 ± 3 % vs . 34 ± 2 %; p & lt ; 0 . 0001 ). likewise , pb2 showed significant but substantially lower protection from rotenone ( fig3 b ; 34 ± 2 % vs . 25 ± 3 %; p = 0 . 03 ). at higher concentrations , pb1 and pb2 showed little or no rescue of rgc - 5 cells , most likely due to toxicity . the borane - protected phosphines bis ( 3 - propionic acid methyl ester ) phenylphosphine borane complex ( pb1 ) and ( 3 - propionic acid methyl ester ) diphenylphosphine borane complex ( pb2 ) were synthesized as described in example 2 . cell culture : murine endothelial cells were isolated from immortomice , which express a temperature - sensitive simian virus 40 large t antigen , using sheep anti - rat dynabeads coated with the rat anti - mouse pecam - 1 monoclonal antibody mec13 . 3 . the cells were grown at 33 ° c . with 5 % co 2 on culture dishes coated with 1 % gelatin , in dmem with 20 % fbs , 2 mm l - glutamine , 2 mm sodium pyrovate , 20 mm hepes , 1 % non - essential amino acids , 100 μg / ml streptomycin , 100 u / ml penicillin , heparin at 55 u / ml , endothelial growth supplement 100 μg / ml , and murine recombinant interferon - γ at 44 units / ml . irradiation and viability assays : the cells were plated onto 1 % gelatin coated 96 - well plates at a density of 2 , 000 cells per well . for irradiation , control and treatment groups were removed from the incubator . treatment groups received single doses of radiation between 1 and 30 gray using an irradiator containing 137 cesium ( jl shepherd & amp ; associates ) using a rotating platform to ensure uniform delivery . control groups were left at room temperature during irradiation of the treatment groups . pb1 or pb2 was administered 18 hours before , immediately before , or 18 hours after irradiation . media was aspirated 48 or 72 hours after irradiation using a 30 gauge needle and the cells were incubated in staining containing calcein - am and propidium iodide in pbs for 30 minutes at room temperature in the dark . digital photomicrographs of the wells were taken at a total magnification of 200 × on a zeiss axiovert inverted microscope under epifluorescence . calcein - positive ( viable ) and propidium iodide - positive ( dead ) cells were counted using nih imagej software . statistical significance was determined using the student &# 39 ; s t - tests . to assess the protective effects of pb1 and pb2 against exposure to ionizing radiation , 100 μm to 100 μm pb1 or pb2 were administered to cultured retinal endothelial cells 18 hours before , at the time of ; or 18 hours after radiation . survival of irradiated retinal endothelial cells was assessed 48 ( fig4 a - f ) or 72 ( fig4 g - l ) hours after irradiation . both pb1 and pb2 were effective radio - protectants when administered before or at the time of irradiation . viable cell counts assessed 72 hours after 3 gy irradiation increased from 29 ± 6 % of non - irradiated control to 54 ± 6 % with 1 μm pb1 ( p = 0 . 005 ) when the compounds were administered at the time of irradiation . treatment with 1 μm pb2 improved viability to 62 ± 10 % of control ( p = 0 . 01 ). this corresponds to 35 % and 46 % rescue for pb1 and pb2 respectively . administration of pb1 18 hours after exposure to ionizing radiation up to 30 gy also resulted in significant increases in viable cell counts ( fig5 ). treatment with pb1 at 100 nm exhibited significant protection against all radiation exposures tested , and all pb1 treatment levels showed significant protection against 30 gy radiation exposure ( fig5 ; p & lt ; 0 . 05 ). the borane - protected phosphines bis ( 3 - propionic acid methyl ester ) phenylphosphine borane complex ( pb1 ) and ( 3 - propionic acid methyl ester ) diphenylphosphine borane complex ( pb2 ) were synthesized as described in example 2 . cell culture : murine endothelial cells were cultured as described in experiment 3 . endothelial cells were treated directly with high levels of h 2 o 2 in the absence or presence of pb1 and pb2 at a concentrations of 1 - 1000 μm . 1 μm was most effective against oxidative insults . cell viability was assessed as described in experiment 3 24 hours after administration of pb1 or pb2 . superoxide scavenging : the ability of pb1 and pb2 to scavenge superoxide was quantified essentially as described ( schlieve et al ., invest . opthalmol . vis . sci . 47 : 3878 ( 2006 )). essentially , fluorescence of hydroethidine was measured after exposure to superoxide generated by xanthine / xanthine oxidase , in the presence or absence of pb1 , pb2 , or polyethylene glycol - conjugated superoxide dismutase used as positive control . sulfhydryl reducing activity : sulfhydryl reducing activity was measured with 5 - 5 ′- dithio - bis ( 2 - nitrobenzoic acid ) ( dtnb ), which undergoes a colorimetric change when its disulfide linkage is reduced . reaction of various concentrations of dithiothreitol , tris ( carboxyethyl ) phosphine , pb1 , or pb2 with 30 mm dtnb in methanol was carried out in buffer at ph 5 , 7 , and 9 . the sulfhydryl reduction potentials of pb1 and pb2 were assessed both before and after borane deprotection with dabco . pb1 and pb2 protected cultured retinal endothelial cells from oxidative damage , a known signaling pathway for various pathological conditions . pb1 and pb2 both exhibited a significant protective effect against h 2 o 2 when administered at 1 μm levels , raising viable cell counts from 4 . 2 ± 1 . 1 % of control to 10 . 8 ± 2 . 3 % and 9 . 0 ± 1 . 6 %, respectively ( p & lt ; 0 . 05 ). this pb1 and pb2 - mediated protection involves disulfide reduction , not superoxide scavenging . the borane - protected phosphines , thus , appear to interfere with the signaling of cell death after oxidative stress by inhibiting sulfhydryl oxidation .
methods and compositions involving a class of boron - protected phenylphosphine agents having increased cell permeability and having improved chemical stability for treating or for preventing cell death - related diseases or conditions in a human or a non - human animal .