commercially available , woven materials that have been used to help repair soft tissue are illustrated in fig1 a - 1 c . the polypropylene mesh shown in the micrograph of fig1 a is bard mesh , a non - absorbable , knitted material produced by c . r . bard , inc . ( murray hill , n . j . ); and the material shown in the micrograph of fig1 b is prolene ™ mesh ( ethicon , inc ., somerville , n . j . ); and the material shown in the micrograph of fig1 c is gore - tex soft tissue patch ™, a non - absorbable implant of eptfe produced by w . l . gore & amp ; associates , inc . ( flagstaff , ariz . ); fig2 a - 2 c are perspective views of materials that can be machined to produce a non - woven soft tissue implant of the present invention . fig2 a is a perspective view of non - woven biocompatible film 14 . film 14 has known or discernable dimensions ( width , length , and thickness ), which can be modified or left intact in the manufacture of a soft tissue implant . film 14 is a single - layer , smooth - edged film . as shown in fig2 b , film 14 can be laminated to produce film 16 , which can also be used , with or without further modification , to manufacture the implants of the present invention . multiple layers of biocompatible film 14 can be added together to improve the mechanical properties ( e . g ., tear resistance or burst strength ) of the implant . a first film 14 can be thermally bonded to a second film 14 using hydraulic presses such as those manufactured by oem press systems ( orange , calif .). as shown in fig2 c , an implant can include laminated film 16 , that includes two pieces of film 14 and tear resistant substrate 18 . tear resistant substrate 18 is placed between a first film 14 and a second film 14 . where tear resistant substrate 18 is thermally compatible with film 14 , tear resistant substrate 18 and film 14 can be bonded using heat and / or pressure . if necessary , an adhesive or thermal attachment layer can be used between film 14 and tear resistant substrate 18 . this may include a layer of material with a lower melting point , which can be achieved by reducing the crystallinity of a like material or by selecting a different material composition . alternatively , tear resistant substrate 18 can be mechanically bonded to film 14 by sutures , clips , or the like . biocompatible materials useful in film 14 or laminated film 16 can include non - absorbable polymers such as polypropylene , polyethylene , polyethylene terephthalate , polytetrafluoroethylene , polyaryletherketone , nylon , fluorinated ethylene propylene , polybutester , and silicone , or copolymers thereof ( e . g ., a copolymer of polypropylene and polyethylene ); absorbable polymers such as polyglycolic acid ( pga ), polylactic acid ( pla ), polycaprolactone , and polyhydroxyalkanoate , or copolymers thereof ( e . g ., a copolymer of pga and pla ); or tissue based materials ( e . g ., collagen or other biological material or tissue ( e . g ., mucosal or submucosal tissue ) obtained from the patient who is to receive the implant or obtained from another person ( e . g ., a recently deceased person ) or an animal ( i . e ., the implant can constitute a xenograft )). the polymers can be of the d - isoform , the l - isoform , or a mixture of both . an example of a biocompatible film 14 suitable for producing the laminated film structure 16 is biaxially oriented polypropylene . aet films ( peabody , mass .) manufactures biaxially oriented films ( aqs and opb ). tear resistant substrate 18 can be spun bonded polypropylene , eptfe , or a polymeric film compounded with impact modifiers . [ 0048 ] fig3 a and 3b are perspective views of machined films 20 and 21 , respectively . referring to fig3 a , diamond - like cell pattern 22 has been machined into film 20 to impart porosity , which can support tissue ingrowth on high strength thin film substrates . radius 24 has been applied to each cell pattern 22 corner to improve tear strength . changing the dimensions of cell member 26 can alter the configuration of cell pattern 22 . different physical properties can be imparted along each axis of the film . referring to fig3 b , a perspective view of a machined film 21 , tapered cell pattern 22 has been machined into the film to impart porosity , which can support tissue ingrowth . the ability to alter mechanical properties with tapered cell pattern 22 geometry is demonstrated . manufacturing methods to impart patterns such as cell pattern 22 include , but are not limited to , laser machining , die punching , water jet cutting , and chemical etching . the lasers preferred for creating smooth edges on plastic films include , but are not limited to , co 2 , diode ultraviolet , or excimer lasers . an implant having cell pattern 22 is expected to confer benefit to a patient in which it is implanted because of the substantially smooth edges of cell pattern 22 . referring to fig4 a and 4b , cell member 27 was created in biocompatible film 28 . atraumatic edge 29 lies at the interface between cell member 27 and biocompatible film 28 . cell member 27 was created using a 3 . 0 - watt avia q - switched ultraviolet laser ( coherent , inc ., santa clara , calif .). referring to fig5 a block diagram shows manufacturing steps for creating a non - woven soft tissue implant . the polymer used to construct the film is extruded using melt or paste extrusion techniques ( as noted herein , in alternative methods of the invention , the film can be obtained , rather than made ). after extrusion , the mechanical properties ( e . g ., tensile strength ) can be improved through a biaxial stretching process ( this is an optional step ). equipment that can be used to carry out this process can be purchased from bruckner gmbh ( siegsdorf , germany ). if desired , the film can be laminated using heat , pressure , or adhesives to further improve the mechanical properties of the implant . films with properties that may improve an implant ( e . g ., films with increased tear strength ) can be added at this step . a cell pattern ( such as one described or illustrated herein ) is machined into the film . the film can be annealed at elevated temperatures ( e . g ., above the glass transition temperature for the polymer within the film ) to relieve stresses caused by film stretching and the machining process . the material can then be cleaned , packaged , and sterilized . the packaging material can include instructions for use ( i . e ., instructions can be printed on the packaging material ); similarly , instructions can be provided on a separate material . referring to fig6 a , 8a , 9 a , and 10 a , unit cells of mesh2 , mesh2c , mesh4 , and mesh3 , respectively , are diagrammed . as shown in the legends , referring to fig6 b , 8b , 9 b , and 10 b , methods for calculating the surface area ratio of mesh2 , mesh2c , mesh4 , and mesh3 are provided in tabular form . a summary of the four nonwoven films , their thickness and surface area ratio are shown in the following table : product thickness ( cm ) surface area ratio mesh2 0 . 020 0 . 79 mesh2c 0 . 020 0 . 97 mesh3 0 . 020 0 . 94 mesh4 0 . 020 0 . 54 referring to fig1 , an exemplary pore having an opening of 0 . 100 ″ and a wall thickness of 0 . 025 inches is shown . referring to fig1 , a graph illustrates the percentage strain ( x - axis ) on various soft tissue implants including marlex ™, prolene ™, trelex ™, mesh2 , and eptfe . as illustrated by fig3 a and fig6 a , for example , the cells within a soft tissue implant can be regularly shaped ( as are the rectangular cells of fig3 a ) or irregularly shaped ( i . e ., they can have an irregularly shaped perimeter , as shown in fig6 a , which may or may not be symmetrical ). for example , the cell can be of a “ regular ” shape when it is essentially square , rectangular , or diamond - shaped , or essentially round or oval ; the cell ( s ) can be of an “ irregular ” shape when at least one of the cell walls contains a sinusoidal element . moreover , each of the cells in the implant can have a plurality of undulating elements that form a repeating pattern ( e . g ., the undulations can be in phase with one another ). the shape of the cells , their pattern , number , size , etc . can vary as described herein regardless of the film from which the implant is constructed ( i . e ., the cells can vary as described herein regardless of whether the film is non - porous or microporous ; whether the implant contains a single film or multiple films ; whether the film contains an absorbable or non - absorbable polymer ; whether the implant contains a film to increase tear resistance ; etc .). in any event ( regardless of the cellular shape ), the length of an opening ( i . e ., the distance between one part of the cell wall and another ( e . g ., the distance along the longest axis , the shortest axis , an intermediate axis ; or the distance between two points that do not define an axis )) can be between about 10 and about 10 , 000 microns ( e . g ., about 50 - 100 ( e . g ., about 75 ); about 10 - 1 , 000 ( e . g ., about 500 ); about 10 - 2 , 000 ( e . g ., about 1 , 200 ); about 10 - 5 , 000 ( e . g ., about 2 , 500 ); about 10 - 7 , 500 ( e . g ., about 4 , 500 ); about 100 - 1 , 000 ( e . g ., about 750 ); about 500 - 2 , 000 ( e . g ., about 1 , 750 ); about 1 , 000 - 3 , 000 ( e . g ., about 2 , 100 ); about 1 , 000 - 5 , 000 ( e . g ., about 3 , 500 ); about 1 , 500 - 5 , 000 ( e . g ., about 3 , 750 ) about 4 , 000 - 6 , 000 ( e . g ., about 4 , 750 ); about 5 , 000 - 7 , 500 ( e . g ., about 6 , 500 ); about 6 , 000 - 8 , 000 ( e . g ., about 7 , 200 ); or about 7 , 500 - 10 , 000 ( e . g ., about 9 , 000 microns ). in one embodiment , the cells of a soft tissue implant will be about 10 - 10 , 000μ ; about 1 , 500 - 5 , 000μ ; or about 50 - 100μ ( i . e ., the length across the longest axis of the cell can be about 100μ , 250μ , 500μ , 1 , 000μ or 2 , 000μ . such implants ( e . g ., implants in which the longest length of a cellular opening is about 2 , 000 microns ) can be porous enough to permit tissue ingrowth while having good mechanical properties ( e . g ., sufficient strength and flexibility ( e . g ., an implant flexible along two axes )). one or more of the cells in the plurality within an implant can have essentially the same shape as the cell shown herein as that of mesh2 , mesh2c , mesh3 , or mesh4 . finite element analysis can be used to design a cell or cell pattern that , when incorporated in a soft tissue implant , provides the implant with properties that approximate one or more of the properties of the soft tissue being repaired or replaced . human skeletal muscle can exert 3 - 4 kg of tension per square centimeter of cross sectional area . since many muscles in humans ( or other animals , which may also be treated with a soft tissue implant described herein ) have a relatively large cross - sectional area , the tension they develop is quite large . the gluteus maximus can exert a tension of 1200 kg , and the quadriceps can exert a tension of 360 kg . this difference is due to varying cross sectional areas . because areas of the body contain different muscle groups , the non - woven soft tissue implants of the invention can be constructed so that their characteristics ( e . g ., their strength characteristics ) match those of the tissue ( s ) being replaced or repaired . for example , the soft tissue implant can have force displacement characteristics that do not restrict tissue movement ( e . g ., that do not restrict the contraction or stretching of a muscle to which the implant is attached ) or that restrict such movement to a limited extent . for example , a soft tissue implant can restrict tissue movement by less than 5 %, less than 10 %, less than 25 %, or less than 50 %. the force displacement character of a given implant can be calculated by measuring the percentage by which the implant is displaced ( e . g ., the amount by which it “ gives ” relative to a resting configuration ) under a given force . for example , a soft tissue implant can be distended by about 25 % ( or more ( e . g ., 30 , 35 , 40 , 45 , 50 % or more )) at 16 n / cm ( see fig1 ). the number , shape , and arrangement of the plurality of cells and the thickness of the implant can be varied to impart force displacement characteristics that approximate those of the structure being repaired . as noted above , the films can be made from a variety of polymers , including absorbable polymers . where the implant contains more than one absorbable ( e . g ., bioresorbable ) film , the rate at which one film ( e . g ., a first film ) is resorbed within a body can be different from the rate at which another film ( e . g ., a second film ) is resorbed . as with other bi - layer or multi - layer implants of the invention , a surface of the first film can adhere to a surface of the second film , and multi - layer implants can include a film that increases tear resistance ( e . g ., a porous biocompatible film ). a soft tissue implant can also be defined by measured parameters such as the area of a cell ( or pore ; ap ( see the size ranges above ), its perimeter ( pp ), the area of a cell “ unit ” ( ac ), and the surface area ratio ( asurf ), which is preferably less than 1 . 5 . a method for calculating asurf is shown in fig6 b , for example . asurf is calculated by dividing asu ( the 3d surface area of a unit cell ) by the area of the unit cell ( ac ). asu is determined by adding the top surface area ( atop ), the bottom surface area ( abot ; which can equal the top surface area ), and the area of thickness ( at ). these values , in turn , can be found as follows : atop is the difference between the area of a unit cell ( ac ) and the area of space in a unit cell ( as ); abot can equal atop ; and at equals the thickness of the film multiplied by ( pp + 4 ( pp / 4 )). lastly , as is equal to ap plus 4 ( ap / 4 ) ( which is equal to 2ap ). the methods of making a soft tissue implant include those described above as well as the following . an implant can be made by a method that includes the steps of extruding a biocompatible polymer into a film and forming a plurality of cells in the film . the film can be of a thickness described above and have the material content described above , and the cells can have the characteristics of any of those described above . as noted , the extrusion process can be , for example , a melt or paste extrusion process , and the cells can be formed by , for example , laser ablation or machining ( e . g ., die punching ). a soft tissue implant having more than one layer can be made by a method that includes the steps of ( a ) extruding a first biocompatible polymer to form a first film ; ( b ) extruding a second biocompatible polymer to form a second film ; ( c ) attaching the first film to the second film to produce a soft tissue implant and ( d ) forming pores in the soft tissue implant . alternatively , a multi - layer implant can be made by a method including the steps of ( a ) extruding a first biocompatible polymer to form a first film ; ( b ) forming pores or cell patterns in the first film ; ( c ) extruding a second biocompatible polymer to form a second film ; ( d ) forming pores in the second film ; and ( e ) attaching the first film to the second film to produce a soft tissue implant . as for single - layer implants , the films can be of a thickness described above and have the material content described above , and the cells can have the characteristics of any of those described above . any of the soft tissue implants made by these methods can be further processed ( e . g ., their edges can be modified to facilitate tissue placement and / or their shape can be changed ( by , for example , stretching )). the implants can also be cleaned and / or sterilized and packaged , with or without instructions for use . any of the soft tissue implants made by these methods can be used to repair , or in the course of repairing , a damaged tissue in a body ( including , but not limited to , a human body ). medical implant applications for the soft tissue implant technology described above may include , but are not limited to , plastic reconstruction , urinary stress incontinence , hernia repair , gastric banding , and chest wall reconstruction . accordingly , the methods of the invention include methods of treating a patient who has sustained an injury to a tissue , independent of the source of the injury ( i . e ., the injury could arise from a traumatic injury , including an accidental injury or a surgical incision , or the injury may be associated with a disease , disorder , or condition ). the method can include exposing , preferably under sterile conditions , the injured tissue ( e . g ., a muscle , muscle group , or other tissue such as the intestine , liver , or kidney ), and administering a soft tissue implant to the tissue . the implant can be further secured to the tissue by one or more sutures , staples , or other fasteners . alternatively , or in addition , the implant can be secured by an adhesive . the surgical incision through which the implant was inserted can then be closed . the physician or surgeon performing the operative procedure can select an appropriate implant . for example , it will be readily apparent what size implant is required ( generally , the implant should be large enough to cover the affected part of a tissue ). similarly , the physician or surgeon can choose a non - absorbable implant when appropriate . for example , one may select a non - absorbable soft tissue implant for indications such as hernia repair that require long - term durability and strength . alternatively , one may select an absorbable soft tissue implant for indications such as tissue augmentation during plastic reconstruction when one wants to avoid the potential complications associated with a permanent implant . tissue - based materials are best suited for indications such as pelvic slings that require materials less prone to erosion into adjacent tissue structures . in other methods , the soft tissue implant can be produced in more three - dimensional forms for certain indications , such as the plug and patch procedure for inguinal hernia repair . a three dimensional structure can be machined using a laser system incorporating a third axis for micromachining . alternatively , the nonwoven soft tissue implant could be thermoformed into a three - dimensional shape after machining . the product designs may also be suitable for non - medical device applications . non - medical applications may include diagnostic testing , in biotechnology or other research , in automotive , electronics , aerospace , and home and commercial appliances . a number of embodiments of the invention have been described . nevertheless , it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention . a non - woven soft tissue implant was constructed using biaxially - oriented polymer films . the film is stretched in both the machine and transverse directions ( relative to the extrusion direction ) to orient the polymer chains . the stretching process can take place simultaneously or sequentially depending on the equipment that is available . the base film was syncarta ™ ( aet films , peabody , mass .). the base film was machined into mesh design 2 (“ mesh2 ”) using a 3 . 0 - watt avia q - switched ultraviolet laser produced by coherent , inc . ( santa clara , calif .). the design of a cell of the non - woven soft tissue implant is shown in fig6 a . the finished product was implanted , using standard surgical techniques , in the subcutaneous tissue of rats for 7 , 14 , and 28 days . following sacrifice and retrieval of the specimens , histological evaluation was carried out to evaluate the inflammatory and wound healing response . histology sections were obtained and stained with haematoxylin and eosin for cellularity of the implant site and masson &# 39 ; s trichrome stain was used to evaluate the extent of fibrous capsule formation . the findings over a 28 - day period indicate that the nonwoven soft tissue implant is biocompatible and undergoes a normal resolution of the inflammatory response , secondary to surgical injury , and development of a normal foreign body reaction at the material / tissue interface with fibrous capsule formation surrounding the entire implant and within the holes of the material . the results of histological analyses are shown in fig7 a and 7b . a non - woven soft tissue implant was constructed using biaxially - oriented polymer films . two base films were used . the first film was a two - side sealable material opb 95 ( aet films , peabody , mass .). the second film was a one - side sealable material aqs 90 ( aet films ). six sheets of the first film were placed between two sheets of the second film with the sealable side of the second in contact with the first film set . the sheet assembly was brought to 145 ° c . at 400 psi of constant pressure for 60 minutes under vacuum . the laminated assembly was machined into designs mesh2 and mesh4 ( see fig6 a and 9a , respectively ) using a 3 . 0 - watt avia q - switched ultraviolet laser produced by coherent , inc . ( santa clara , calif .). a non - woven soft tissue implant was constructed using biaxially - oriented polymer films . two base films were produced . the first film comprised a three - layer extrusion in an a - b - a form . the “ a ” layer was made up from pks409 resin ( solvay polyolefins europe , brussels , belgium ) and the “ b ” layer was made up from hc312bf resin ( borealis group , kongens lyngby , denmark ). the layers were melt extruded and oriented using a stenter film process . the film was oriented in the machine direction at a 5 : 1 ratio and in the transverse direction at a 10 : 1 ratio . the thickness of the film after stretching was 24μ . the second film included a three - layer extrusion in an a - a - b form . the “ a ” layer was made up from hc312bf and the “ b ” layer was made from pks409 . the layers were melt extruded and oriented using a stenter film process . the film was oriented in the machine direction at a 5 : 1 ratio and in the transverse direction at a 10 : 1 ratio . the thickness of the film after stretching was 23μ . six sheets of the first film were placed between two sheets of the second film with the “ b ” side in contact with the first film set . the sheet assembly was brought to 145 ° c . at 400 psi of constant pressure for 60 minutes under vacuum . the laminated assembly was machined into the design mesh2c ( see fig8 a ) using a 3 . 0 - watt avia q - switched ultraviolet laser produced by coherent , inc . ( santa clara , calif .). in addition , cell patterns of design mesh4 were created in the same assembly using a die punch produced by elite tool & amp ; die ( smithstown , ireland ). surface area ratios for the cell patterns in the produced films were calculated and are shown in the table above . polyaryletherketone ( peek ; invibio inc ., lancashire , uk ) is a polymer that has properties making it useful as an implant material for devices such as spine cages , bone screws , orthopedic stems , and dental implants . peek exhibits a desirable combination of strength , stiffness , and toughness , and it is biocompatible . accordingly , a soft tissue implant was constructed using peek material . westlake plastics ( lenni , pa .) supplies peek polymer films that range from about 0 . 001 to about 0 . 029 inches thick . these films can be used to fabricate biocompatible implants with lower profiles than commercially available textile based products . a film made of 0 . 005 inch peek polymer was machined using an ultraviolet laser ( more specifically , a 3 . 0 - watt avia q - switched ultraviolet laser ( coherent , inc ., santa clara , calif .)) into the pattern shown in fig6 a using a cad - cam process . fig4 b shows a highly magnified image of a cell pattern edge created using the laser machining process . this soft tissue implant has an implant surface area ratio of 0 . 79 , which reduces the amount of material available to provoke a foreign body reaction . in addition , the implant had a smooth surface with a low coefficient of friction . polytetrafluoroethylene ( ptfe ; bard vascular systems ( tempe , ariz .)) polymer also has properties that allow it to be used , as described herein , as an implant material for , for example , vascular grafts and patches . ptfe can be processed into a microporous form using an expansion procedure . like peek , expanded ptfe is strong , flexible , and biocompatible . yet another non - woven soft tissue implant was constructed using a biaxially - oriented polymer film . the film is stretched in both the machine and transverse directions ( relative to the extrusion direction ) to orient the polymer chains . as noted above , the stretching process can take place simultaneously or sequentially depending on the equipment that is available . the base film was syncarta ™ ( aet films , peabody , mass .). the base film was machined into mesh design 3 (“ mesh3 ”) using a 3 . 0 - watt avia q - switched ultraviolet laser produced by coherent , inc . ( santa clara , calif .). the design of a cell of the non - woven soft tissue implant is shown in fig1 a .
the present invention features soft tissue implants and methods for making same . the implants can includes a biocompatible film that is rendered porous due to the inclusion of uniformly or non - uniformly patterned cells , and the film has a thickness of less than about 0 . 015 inches in the event the starting material is non - porous and less than about 0 . 035 inches in the event the starting material is a microporous film . multi - film implants can also be made .