Tocharian – Morphosyntactic Structures, Part 2
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Carling, Gerd
The topic of this lecture are the syntactic structures of various phrases in Tocharian.
 Hello and welcome to the second lesson of our module about Tocharian syntax. In this video we'll continue to our overview on syntactic features of Tocharian. First we'll look at our positions and then we'll look at specific syntactic features of the verbal system. So again this part of the course requires some basic knowledge about the top morphological categories of Tocharian and these are found in another lesson. So we'll start by looking at positional structure. Adpositional phrases are less common than case constructions. Several adpositions are frozen case forms. And adpositions may be used to emphasize for instance a location which is already expressed by a case. So they are sometimes redundant in the syntax. So we see here an example from a literary example which is very nice. So we see here the... we have here just as the king of the Radigus. And then there is this phrase great water, great water over a great water, over. You see, so he's moving over the water in the parlative. But in order to emphasize that he's really not on the water, he's like flying maybe a meter or half a meter over the water. You know, it's about a bird flying here. They add eschek. And then from leaf to leaf with the allative, moving. Now, if we look at linearization, postpositions are more frequent. However, prepositions do occur as well. And some of the adpositions can have both positions, which means that they can be both pre-posing as well as post-posing. And adpositions generally select for case, but they may select for different cases. For instance, they may be used for with both the oblique and with the allative and with the locative, such as we see here, emschke. Now we'll move over to the verb. So we'll talk about predication and specifically about the usages or the syntax of the verb. We'll start with alignment. And to carry an alignment is strictly nominative accusative. And there are a few or I would say no, ergetive tendencies. The interesting issue here is rather how the case system is used to mark core and peripheral cases, which I talked about in a previous lesson. And the distinction between primary and secondary cases reflect the difference between the core and the periphery. And an important issue is the lack of the dative and the dative, the Indo-Pian dative has been merged into carrion with the genitive. So historically the genitive endings, which are basically inflectional, but which also show traces of agglutinating technique, which means that the genitive was probably also a secondary case at a certain specific time. However, they represent both the Indo-Pian dative as well as the genitive. And in to carrion, as I said in a previous lesson, the genitive has both functions. It's possessive in non-phrases as well as the indirect object in the dytransitive constructions. So here we have an example. As you see, the monks teach, the monks are here, they are the subject, and they teach the law, and that's the direct object to the nuns, which is the indirect object, and you see here, it's in genitive. Another important feature in the alignment is the use of the clitic pronouns. The clitic pronouns can take all core functions except for the subject or agent function, which means that they cannot replace the nominative. So basically, if we look at the clitics here, we see that they can be the direct object of transitive verbs, they can be the indirect object with dytransitive verbs, they can also function as the non-canalical A, in non-canalical case constructions, they can mark the A or the agent, and they can be used for possessor as well as agent in passive constructions. And except for number one, which means the direct object of transitive verbs, all the other functions are represented in non-clitic constructions by the genitive. Now we'll look basically at the canonical case marking. So the agent is marked by a nominative, the direct object is marked by the oblique or by a clitic, and the indirect object is marked by a genitive or by a clitic. So in constructions we may have both like a genitive as well as a clitic. And we have an example here, as from the Shadantajataka. I have sent you the tasks. So you see here that the indirect object here is marked by a clitic. And there is also an alternative way of marking die transitivity, and you have a double oblique construction here. You see, so you have the direct object in oblique and the indirect object in oblique. And here we have an example from the Aranamijataka, and it says who indeed announces with an optative. To the great king, our arrival. So this here is the direct object, and here we have the indirect object with the verb meaning to announce something to someone, and we have two obliques instead of a genitive and an oblique, that would be the normal case. So non-canonical case marking. Non-canonical case marking is rare in Tokerian. It's however found with a handful of verbs such as tokei and be ken, to come to pass of a wish, or tokei and be tzink, to rise, tokei and be mink, to be deprived of, to suffer, to lack, tokei and be clean, to be necessary, tokei and be tem, to be born, to come to existence, tokei and be ken, to be fulfilled, or fulfill, tokei and be nuk, to be extinct, to disappear, or tokei and be pyukt, which means to be realized, or tokei and be kattk, to arise. So here is an example. Therefore, it says, onte, it's necessary, and you see here, it's the third singular. So in a non-canonical case construction, we have the impersonal constructions, because in some languages the verb agrees with the non-canonical case, but here it doesn't, so we have an impersonal construction, and so it is necessary for you in genitive. Another interesting thing in Tocherean is how the null arguments are expressed. So zero arguments or so-called zero-transitive verbs are normally so-called weather verbs, like it's raining, it's snowing, it's thundering, and some languages require a first argument, or like an agent, or a subject, sorry, a subject in these constructions. So no one looked at this in Tocherean, so I made a little overview, and I found no examples of an empty slot with a null argument. However, the issue needs to be further investigated with more examples. But I have an example here, where it's from the Vardin Navadana, and you see here, at this time, obliq singular, rain, rained. So I looked up all instances of the verb rain, and it's very often used with flowers raining, it's this specific Buddhist thing that flowers rained. But here I found a real proper example of rain, raining, and you see that they put, so it's likely that they don't allow no argument here, but we don't know for sure. So if we move over to structural processes, to the possessive, so even if non-canonical case marking is rare, Tocherean is clearly a there is to me language, rather than an I have language. This is a very important distinction between languages of the world, whether they have a verb for have, to have something like we have in English. But Tocherean doesn't have a verb to have, so they say there is to me, and they use Tocherean a, nas, Tocherean b, nest, it's the verb to be, or they use the ab verb mesk, to be, to exist, or Tocherean b, tem, to be born, to come into existence, to come up with a genitive and with a cletic. And here is an example, so it says, you see here, be, forgiveness, may be for me, instead of may I have forgiveness. So this is an example of these constructions, but there are plenty of other examples of this construction in Tocherean. Now we'll move over to voice and valency change, and specifically we'll start with the passive. And as you have seen in the morphology lesson, Tocherean has a set of endings that mark middle passive, and these are used to form a passive construction. So passive is marked by a middle passive ending, and an agent, which is in genitive, perlative, or in the instrumental, but only in Tocherean a, because Tocherean b doesn't have an instrumental case. The genitive is mainly used by infinitive verbs, and middle is used in passive constructions, in these constructions. So the perlative corresponds to the genitive, and in Tocherean a, the animate agents have perlative, and in animate have the instrumental case. So we have a very nice, very nice example here from the Punjavanta Jataka again, and you see here. And this, it talks about your, it talks about good deeds or good behavior, and it says, it cannot be burned by fire instrumental, it cannot be overflown by water instrumental, it cannot be carried away by kings, perlative, and it cannot be stolen by thieves. So that's, this example shows very clearly that the difference between animate and non-animate agents. So moving over to the proper middle functions, there are three types. The so-called media tantu in Tocherean grammar, and it is verbs that are found only in middle passive, so they cannot be active. Then we have the so-called media actives, and it's verbs that are inflected as middle passive in the present, whereas they are active in the preterite, and in the subjunctive they can be both. And then we have active middle passive verbs that have the same type of matching all the way through the entire paradigm. If we look now at, specifically at middle passive functions, we have first the reflexive, you know, someone adorns oneself. We have the reciprocal, it's kraptar, they gather together. We have non-reflexive or non-reciprocal, they collected the bones. And then we have many other functions, which have parallels in other languages, also in European. We have body actions, we have emotions, speech actions, spontaneous events, disruption, motion, position, and physical chemical change, and so forth. So an interesting thing about middle passive functions is that they also can be used to mark anticositive, which means that they may be used to decrease the valency of the verb. And a good example is the verb arcl into carrion A, and the interesting thing that it has this specific function into carrion A, but not into carrion B. But into carrion A the active verb, the active form means to teach, whereas the middle passive form means to learn. And there are also other examples like the verb be on, in active means meet, whereas in middle passive it means to begin. So as we've seen before, the middle can also be used to mark a passive in a passive construction. Now we'll move over to one of the most interesting parts of carrion babel syntax, which is the extremely complex system of non-cositive and causative verb stems. As we have seen in the morphology section, there are various combinations of stem classes of the verbs in present, subjunctive, and preterite, which can be combined according to a specific schedule. So you see here we have 12 present classes, we have also 12 subjunctive classes, and we have 6 preterite classes. So this is part of the morphology, like you have seen before. So these classes, both the present, the subjunctive, and the preterite, they have an inherent transitivity. And there are typically two ways in which verbs increase or decrease their transitivity. So either they add another set of stems, like the present, the subjunctive, or the preterite, or they use the middle passive as we have seen before. And this creates a unique and very complex setup of different transitivity forms, which in turn has consequences for the coding of the alignment. And it's very specific to tokerian, it's also very complex. The combination of a present, a subjunctive, and a preterite stem, as you see here, follow a certain pattern. So for one individual verb, there can be one, two, or sometimes even three or four combinations of stem classes in present subjunctive or preterite on the verb. And this specific system of tokerian is in the literature referred to as Grundwerb, or Grundwerb and Kassativt, as in the German tokerology tradition. So I prefer to call them non-Kassativ and Kassativ. And almost each and every verb of tokerian has this distinction, this setup of stem classes, or combinations of stem classes. And this gives us also an idea about the purpose of this grammatical pattern. It serves as an instrument to change the valency of the verb. And very common is, for instance, a combination of a present three as in transitive and a present eight as transitive. And then accordingly, there are subjunctives and preterites to the in transitive and transitive stem combinations. So let's look at some examples. It's very interesting to consider how these various forms come out. The transitivity increase is sometimes but normally not straightforward. So the meaning change could be increase of active involvement of the agent rather than increase in transitivity. So it's all very complex. We look here, for instance, at this list of Kassatives. We see that the in transitive variant means to stay away. The transitive is to reject and to refuse, to be separated, to separate, to be free, to free from, be connected, to join, be filled, feel, be capable, bring about, take courage, console, disappear, destroy, be spread, spread, rejoice, gladden, be deluded and be witch. Okay, so even more interesting is a specific group of verbs that take three sets of stems. And this can be compared to the so-called double causatives which is found in, for instance, Turkish languages. And here the increase in transitivity or activity is even more blurred than in the normal verbal stems with two sets of forms. So for instance we have to carry and be spirk, which means disappear, avoid and drive away, be trick, be confused, be confused or mistake and then to be confused is no real change. Weak to disappear and pass away and put to flight or dissolve and be link to hang in transitive, hang transitive and to let hang, or dangle. And be trick to burn, to torment and torture, torture. So you can see that there is really an increase in the degree of involvement by the agent here to be weak to split and the transitive to separate and then to separate. So sometimes there is no real difference, sometimes you can see that there is a difference. Now we move over to aspect. Aspect dimensions are coded in past tense basically into carrier and imperfective aspect is marked by an imperfect and the perfective is marked by the pretreat. So we have a nice example here. The Buddha stayed and you see here you have the imperfect. So he was sitting on the bank of the river and again, pearlitive, he was sitting on the bank of the river of Palgomati and what he did here was sitting there and it was probably something that he did repeatedly or normally as he used to do. So it's imperfect. And in a forested place. So you see here he was by the river pearlitive, but he was in a forested place and he taught pretreat to the monks, genitive plural, about impurity or decay of the body. So this is from the Vinaya Vibhanga, very nice example. Progressive is marked by present, but retrospective is marked either by the pretreat or by an auxiliary construction with aness and bness. So we have another example here where we have this construction and it's from the Maitreya Samet in Ataka. So in the Maitreya Samet in Ataka, locative, and in the Eleventh Act and then ceased. So this Eleventh Act by the name of Guru Darsana, but it has come to an end. So you see here you have the pretreat in the retrospective aspect. So the spectral differences are reflected as I said by the usages of the imperfect and the pretreat in texts. So events that are seen as more important to the story can be marked by a pretreat, whereas less important events are marked by an imperfect. Embedded stories such as indirect speech are marked by imperfect, whereas other events in past tense are normally marked by the pretreat. Repeated actions or events are normally marked by imperfect, but if they are seen as individual and momentary, which means that they are taking place one after another, the pretreat is used. The pretreat is the normal form for narrative texts, but is often interrupted by absolatives and sometimes by historical present. And pretreat is also the usual form of verbs in economic and administrative documents when they refer to events in the past tense, as well as in remarks and in colophons. Now we move over to tense. And there are three tenses, present, past and future. Present is marked by the present tense, either in active or in middle passive. Past is marked by imperfect in imperfective aspect by the pretreat in perfective aspect, or occasionally by a historical present. Peripherstic constructions by the verb a nas, b nas, and forms of the pretreat participle of the gerundive occur as well to express, for instance, retrospective, as we have seen before. And future is marked by present subjunctive, or a periphrastic future by gerund two, and the present of the copula. So here we have from the mitre asamit in Ataka, we are born in hell, which is a typical example of the retrospective. So now we'll look again at the same text that we had before, the punjavan to Giotaka, and the story about the mechanical doll. And now we'll look instead at the forms of the impass tense, the forms in imperfect and in the pretreat tense. So we have here, just like that, at another time, this painter went, and you see here, we have an imperfect. So it means that it's an imperfective aspect. So he went to the house of the mechanic as a guest. And thereupon, the mechanic, in all ways, to the painter having done, this is a verbal noun in the ablative, and that's translating basically a Sanskrit absolutive, honour for the night. And then, separately, in the house, here, pretreat, he covered. So what's happening here? There is first imperfective aspect, and now there is perfective aspect, because he makes a bed for him. It's just something that happens once. And then he puts again, he makes it down, it's a causative, he puts this mechanical girl here at the head, but you see here, it's again a pretreat, like here. So it's an occasional event. And then, with reverence, all this kind, beauty and honour, doing, and ceasing by the hand, she did. And you see here, again, we have the imperfect. So it means that she, it's as if she was doing this repeatedly. So remember here in the text, we have the idea that this mechanical doll is supposed to be a servant, or someone who is serving the painter. And this is something that she's not doing at this specific occasion. That's the habit of her, because she's a servant, so as if she was doing service to him. And then we have this imperfect. So, thank you for watching this video. And in the next and last one of the whole series about Okaryan, we will look at clause and sentence syntax.
 Hello and welcome to the second lesson of our module about Tocharian syntax.  In this video we'll continue to our overview on syntactic features of Tocharian.  First we'll look at our positions and then we'll look at specific syntactic features of the verbal system.  So again this part of the course requires some basic knowledge about the top morphological categories of Tocharian  and these are found in another lesson.  So we'll start by looking at positional structure.  Adpositional phrases are less common than case constructions.  Several adpositions are frozen case forms.  And adpositions may be used to emphasize for instance a location which is already expressed by a case.  So they are sometimes redundant in the syntax.  So we see here an example from a literary example which is very nice.  So we see here the... we have here just as the king of the Radigus.  And then there is this phrase great water, great water over a great water, over.  You see, so he's moving over the water in the parlative.  But in order to emphasize that he's really not on the water, he's like flying maybe a meter or half a meter over the water.  You know, it's about a bird flying here. They add eschek.  And then from leaf to leaf with the allative, moving.  Now, if we look at linearization, postpositions are more frequent.  However, prepositions do occur as well.  And some of the adpositions can have both positions, which means that they can be both pre-posing as well as post-posing.  And adpositions generally select for case, but they may select for different cases.  For instance, they may be used for with both the oblique and with the allative and with the locative, such as we see here, emschke.  Now we'll move over to the verb.  So we'll talk about predication and specifically about the usages or the syntax of the verb.  We'll start with alignment.  And to carry an alignment is strictly nominative accusative.  And there are a few or I would say no, ergetive tendencies.  The interesting issue here is rather how the case system is used to mark core and peripheral cases, which I talked about in a previous lesson.  And the distinction between primary and secondary cases reflect the difference between the core and the periphery.  And an important issue is the lack of the dative and the dative, the Indo-Pian dative has been merged into carrion with the genitive.  So historically the genitive endings, which are basically inflectional, but which also show traces of agglutinating technique,  which means that the genitive was probably also a secondary case at a certain specific time.  However, they represent both the Indo-Pian dative as well as the genitive.  And in to carrion, as I said in a previous lesson, the genitive has both functions.  It's possessive in non-phrases as well as the indirect object in the dytransitive constructions.  So here we have an example.  As you see, the monks teach, the monks are here, they are the subject,  and they teach the law, and that's the direct object to the nuns, which is the indirect object, and you see here, it's in genitive.  Another important feature in the alignment is the use of the clitic pronouns.  The clitic pronouns can take all core functions except for the subject or agent function, which means that they cannot replace the nominative.  So basically, if we look at the clitics here, we see that they can be the direct object of transitive verbs,  they can be the indirect object with dytransitive verbs, they can also function as the non-canalical A, in non-canalical case constructions,  they can mark the A or the agent, and they can be used for possessor as well as agent in passive constructions.  And except for number one, which means the direct object of transitive verbs, all the other functions are represented in non-clitic constructions by the genitive.  Now we'll look basically at the canonical case marking.  So the agent is marked by a nominative, the direct object is marked by the oblique or by a clitic,  and the indirect object is marked by a genitive or by a clitic.  So in constructions we may have both like a genitive as well as a clitic.  And we have an example here, as from the Shadantajataka.  I have sent you the tasks.  So you see here that the indirect object here is marked by a clitic.  And there is also an alternative way of marking die transitivity, and you have a double oblique construction here.  You see, so you have the direct object in oblique and the indirect object in oblique.  And here we have an example from the Aranamijataka, and it says who indeed announces with an optative.  To the great king, our arrival.  So this here is the direct object, and here we have the indirect object with the verb meaning to announce something to someone,  and we have two obliques instead of a genitive and an oblique, that would be the normal case.  So non-canonical case marking.  Non-canonical case marking is rare in Tokerian.  It's however found with a handful of verbs such as tokei and be ken, to come to pass of a wish,  or tokei and be tzink, to rise, tokei and be mink, to be deprived of, to suffer, to lack,  tokei and be clean, to be necessary, tokei and be tem, to be born, to come to existence,  tokei and be ken, to be fulfilled, or fulfill, tokei and be nuk, to be extinct, to disappear,  or tokei and be pyukt, which means to be realized, or tokei and be kattk, to arise.  So here is an example.  Therefore, it says, onte, it's necessary, and you see here, it's the third singular.  So in a non-canonical case construction, we have the impersonal constructions,  because in some languages the verb agrees with the non-canonical case,  but here it doesn't, so we have an impersonal construction, and so it is necessary for you in genitive.  Another interesting thing in Tocherean is how the null arguments are expressed.  So zero arguments or so-called zero-transitive verbs are normally so-called weather verbs,  like it's raining, it's snowing, it's thundering, and some languages require a first argument,  or like an agent, or a subject, sorry, a subject in these constructions.  So no one looked at this in Tocherean, so I made a little overview,  and I found no examples of an empty slot with a null argument.  However, the issue needs to be further investigated with more examples.  But I have an example here, where it's from the Vardin Navadana, and you see here,  at this time, obliq singular, rain, rained.  So I looked up all instances of the verb rain, and it's very often used with flowers raining,  it's this specific Buddhist thing that flowers rained.  But here I found a real proper example of rain, raining, and you see that they put,  so it's likely that they don't allow no argument here, but we don't know for sure.  So if we move over to structural processes, to the possessive,  so even if non-canonical case marking is rare, Tocherean is clearly a there is to me language,  rather than an I have language.  This is a very important distinction between languages of the world,  whether they have a verb for have, to have something like we have in English.  But Tocherean doesn't have a verb to have, so they say there is to me,  and they use Tocherean a, nas, Tocherean b, nest, it's the verb to be,  or they use the ab verb mesk, to be, to exist, or Tocherean b, tem, to be born,  to come into existence, to come up with a genitive and with a cletic.  And here is an example, so it says, you see here, be, forgiveness, may be for me,  instead of may I have forgiveness.  So this is an example of these constructions, but there are plenty of other examples of this construction in Tocherean.  Now we'll move over to voice and valency change, and specifically we'll start with the passive.  And as you have seen in the morphology lesson, Tocherean has a set of endings that mark middle passive,  and these are used to form a passive construction.  So passive is marked by a middle passive ending, and an agent, which is in genitive, perlative, or in the instrumental,  but only in Tocherean a, because Tocherean b doesn't have an instrumental case.  The genitive is mainly used by infinitive verbs, and middle is used in passive constructions, in these constructions.  So the perlative corresponds to the genitive, and in Tocherean a, the animate agents have perlative,  and in animate have the instrumental case.  So we have a very nice, very nice example here from the Punjavanta Jataka again, and you see here.  And this, it talks about your, it talks about good deeds or good behavior, and it says,  it cannot be burned by fire instrumental, it cannot be overflown by water instrumental, it cannot be carried away by kings, perlative, and it cannot be stolen by thieves.  So that's, this example shows very clearly that the difference between animate and non-animate agents.  So moving over to the proper middle functions, there are three types.  The so-called media tantu in Tocherean grammar, and it is verbs that are found only in middle passive, so they cannot be active.  Then we have the so-called media actives, and it's verbs that are inflected as middle passive in the present, whereas they are active in the preterite,  and in the subjunctive they can be both.  And then we have active middle passive verbs that have the same type of matching all the way through the entire paradigm.  If we look now at, specifically at middle passive functions, we have first the reflexive, you know, someone adorns oneself.  We have the reciprocal, it's kraptar, they gather together.  We have non-reflexive or non-reciprocal, they collected the bones.  And then we have many other functions, which have parallels in other languages, also in European.  We have body actions, we have emotions, speech actions, spontaneous events, disruption, motion, position, and physical chemical change, and so forth.  So an interesting thing about middle passive functions is that they also can be used to mark anticositive,  which means that they may be used to decrease the valency of the verb.  And a good example is the verb arcl into carrion A, and the interesting thing that it has this specific function into carrion A, but not into carrion B.  But into carrion A the active verb, the active form means to teach, whereas the middle passive form means to learn.  And there are also other examples like the verb be on, in active means meet, whereas in middle passive it means to begin.  So as we've seen before, the middle can also be used to mark a passive in a passive construction.  Now we'll move over to one of the most interesting parts of carrion babel syntax, which is the extremely complex system of non-cositive and causative verb stems.  As we have seen in the morphology section, there are various combinations of stem classes of the verbs in present, subjunctive, and preterite, which can be combined according to a specific schedule.  So you see here we have 12 present classes, we have also 12 subjunctive classes, and we have 6 preterite classes.  So this is part of the morphology, like you have seen before.  So these classes, both the present, the subjunctive, and the preterite, they have an inherent transitivity.  And there are typically two ways in which verbs increase or decrease their transitivity.  So either they add another set of stems, like the present, the subjunctive, or the preterite, or they use the middle passive as we have seen before.  And this creates a unique and very complex setup of different transitivity forms, which in turn has consequences for the coding of the alignment.  And it's very specific to tokerian, it's also very complex.  The combination of a present, a subjunctive, and a preterite stem, as you see here, follow a certain pattern.  So for one individual verb, there can be one, two, or sometimes even three or four combinations of stem classes in present subjunctive or preterite on the verb.  And this specific system of tokerian is in the literature referred to as Grundwerb, or Grundwerb and Kassativt, as in the German tokerology tradition.  So I prefer to call them non-Kassativ and Kassativ.  And almost each and every verb of tokerian has this distinction, this setup of stem classes, or combinations of stem classes.  And this gives us also an idea about the purpose of this grammatical pattern.  It serves as an instrument to change the valency of the verb.  And very common is, for instance, a combination of a present three as in transitive and a present eight as transitive.  And then accordingly, there are subjunctives and preterites to the in transitive and transitive stem combinations.  So let's look at some examples. It's very interesting to consider how these various forms come out.  The transitivity increase is sometimes but normally not straightforward.  So the meaning change could be increase of active involvement of the agent rather than increase in transitivity.  So it's all very complex. We look here, for instance, at this list of Kassatives.  We see that the in transitive variant means to stay away.  The transitive is to reject and to refuse, to be separated, to separate, to be free, to free from, be connected, to join, be filled, feel, be capable, bring about, take courage, console, disappear, destroy,  be spread, spread, rejoice, gladden, be deluded and be witch.  Okay, so even more interesting is a specific group of verbs that take three sets of stems.  And this can be compared to the so-called double causatives which is found in, for instance, Turkish languages.  And here the increase in transitivity or activity is even more blurred than in the normal verbal stems with two sets of forms.  So for instance we have to carry and be spirk, which means disappear, avoid and drive away, be trick, be confused, be confused or mistake and then to be confused is no real change.  Weak to disappear and pass away and put to flight or dissolve and be link to hang in transitive, hang transitive and to let hang, or dangle.  And be trick to burn, to torment and torture, torture.  So you can see that there is really an increase in the degree of involvement by the agent here to be weak to split and the transitive to separate and then to separate.  So sometimes there is no real difference, sometimes you can see that there is a difference.  Now we move over to aspect.  Aspect dimensions are coded in past tense basically into carrier and imperfective aspect is marked by an imperfect and the perfective is marked by the pretreat.  So we have a nice example here.  The Buddha stayed and you see here you have the imperfect.  So he was sitting on the bank of the river and again, pearlitive, he was sitting on the bank of the river of Palgomati and what he did here was sitting there and it was probably something that he did repeatedly or normally as he used to do.  So it's imperfect.  And in a forested place.  So you see here he was by the river pearlitive, but he was in a forested place and he taught pretreat to the monks, genitive plural, about impurity or decay of the body.  So this is from the Vinaya Vibhanga, very nice example.  Progressive is marked by present, but retrospective is marked either by the pretreat or by an auxiliary construction with aness and bness.  So we have another example here where we have this construction and it's from the Maitreya Samet in Ataka.  So in the Maitreya Samet in Ataka, locative, and in the Eleventh Act and then ceased.  So this Eleventh Act by the name of Guru Darsana, but it has come to an end.  So you see here you have the pretreat in the retrospective aspect.  So the spectral differences are reflected as I said by the usages of the imperfect and the pretreat in texts.  So events that are seen as more important to the story can be marked by a pretreat, whereas less important events are marked by an imperfect.  Embedded stories such as indirect speech are marked by imperfect, whereas other events in past tense are normally marked by the pretreat.  Repeated actions or events are normally marked by imperfect, but if they are seen as individual and momentary, which means that they are taking place one after another, the pretreat is used.  The pretreat is the normal form for narrative texts, but is often interrupted by absolatives and sometimes by historical present.  And pretreat is also the usual form of verbs in economic and administrative documents when they refer to events in the past tense, as well as in remarks and in colophons.  Now we move over to tense.  And there are three tenses, present, past and future.  Present is marked by the present tense, either in active or in middle passive.  Past is marked by imperfect in imperfective aspect by the pretreat in perfective aspect, or occasionally by a historical present.  Peripherstic constructions by the verb a nas, b nas, and forms of the pretreat participle of the gerundive occur as well to express, for instance, retrospective, as we have seen before.  And future is marked by present subjunctive, or a periphrastic future by gerund two, and the present of the copula.  So here we have from the mitre asamit in Ataka, we are born in hell, which is a typical example of the retrospective.  So now we'll look again at the same text that we had before, the punjavan to Giotaka, and the story about the mechanical doll.  And now we'll look instead at the forms of the impass tense, the forms in imperfect and in the pretreat tense.  So we have here, just like that, at another time, this painter went, and you see here, we have an imperfect.  So it means that it's an imperfective aspect.  So he went to the house of the mechanic as a guest.  And thereupon, the mechanic, in all ways, to the painter having done, this is a verbal noun in the ablative,  and that's translating basically a Sanskrit absolutive, honour for the night.  And then, separately, in the house, here, pretreat, he covered.  So what's happening here?  There is first imperfective aspect, and now there is perfective aspect, because he makes a bed for him.  It's just something that happens once.  And then he puts again, he makes it down, it's a causative, he puts this mechanical girl here at the head,  but you see here, it's again a pretreat, like here.  So it's an occasional event.  And then, with reverence, all this kind, beauty and honour, doing, and ceasing by the hand, she did.  And you see here, again, we have the imperfect.  So it means that she, it's as if she was doing this repeatedly.  So remember here in the text, we have the idea that this mechanical doll is supposed to be a servant,  or someone who is serving the painter.  And this is something that she's not doing at this specific occasion.  That's the habit of her, because she's a servant, so as if she was doing service to him.  And then we have this imperfect.  So, thank you for watching this video.  And in the next and last one of the whole series about Okaryan, we will look at clause and sentence syntax.
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