CASE OF BROGAN AND OTHERS v. THE UNITED KINGDOM
Violation of Art. 5-3;Violation of Art. 5-5;No violation of Art. 5-1;No violation of Art. 5-4;Not necessary to examine Art. 13;Just satisfaction reserved
C. Russo;J.A. Carrillo Salcedo;N. Valticos
11. The first applicant, Mr Terence Patrick Brogan, was born in 1961. He is a farmer and lives in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland. 12. He was arrested at his home at 6.15 a.m. on 17 September 1984 by police officers under section 12 of the Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1984 ("the 1984 Act"). He was then taken to Gough Barracks, Armagh, where he was detained until his release at 5.20 p.m. on 22 September 1984, that is a period of detention of five days and eleven hours. 13. Within a few hours of his arrest, he was questioned about his suspected involvement in an attack on a police mobile patrol which occurred on 11 August 1984 in County Tyrone and resulted in the death of a police sergeant and serious injuries to another police officer. He was also interrogated concerning his suspected membership of the Provisional Irish Republican Army ("IRA"), a proscribed organisation for the purposes of the 1984 Act. He maintained total silence and refused to answer any questions put to him. In addition, he turned away from his questioners and stared at the floor, ceiling or wall and periodically stood to attention. He was visited by his solicitor on 19 and 21 September 1984. 14. The second applicant, Mr Dermot Coyle, was born in 1953. He is at present unemployed and lives in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland. 15. He was arrested at his home by police officers at 6.35 a.m. on 1 October 1984 under section 12 of the 1984 Act. He was then taken to Gough Barracks, Armagh, where he was detained until his release at 11.05 p.m. on 7 October 1984, that is a period of detention of six days and sixteen and a half hours. 16. Within a few hours of his arrest, he was questioned about the planting of a land-mine intended to kill members of the security forces on 23 February 1984 and a blast incendiary bomb attack on 13 July 1984, both of which occurred in County Tyrone. He was also interrogated about his suspected provision of firearms and about his suspected membership of the Provisional IRA. He maintained complete silence apart from one occasion when he asked for his cigarettes. In one interview, he spat several times on the floor and across the table in the interview room. He was visited by his solicitor on 3 and 4 October 1984. 17. The third applicant, Mr William McFadden, was born in 1959. He is at present unemployed and lives in Londonderry, Northern Ireland. 18. He was arrested at his home at 7.00 a.m. on 1 October 1984 by a police officer under section 12 of the 1984 Act. He was then taken to Castlereagh Police Holding Centre, Belfast, where he was detained until his release at 1.00 p.m. on 5 October 1984, that is a period of four days and six hours. 19. Within a few hours of his arrest, he was questioned about the murder of a soldier in a bomb attack in Londonderry on 15 October 1983 and the murder of another soldier during a petrol bomb and gunfire attack in Londonderry on 23 April 1984. He was also interrogated about his suspected membership of the Provisional IRA. Apart from one interview when he answered questions of a general nature, he refused to answer any questions put to him. In addition, he periodically stood up or sat on the floor of the interview room. He was visited by his solicitor on 3 October 1984. 20. The fourth applicant, Mr Michael Tracey, was born in 1962. He is an apprentice joiner and lives in Londonderry, Northern Ireland. 21. He was arrested at his home at 7.04 a.m. on 1 October 1984 by police officers under section 12 of the 1984 Act. He was then taken to Castlereagh Royal Ulster Constabulary ("RUC") Station, Belfast, where he was detained until his release at 6.00 p.m. on 5 October 1984, that is a detention period of four days and eleven hours. 22. Within a few hours of his arrest, he was questioned about the armed robbery of post offices in Londonderry on 3 March 1984 and 29 May 1984 and a conspiracy to murder members of the security forces. He was also interrogated concerning his suspected membership of the Irish National Liberation Army ("INLA"), a proscribed terrorist organisation. He remained silent in response to all questions except certain questions of a general nature and sought to disrupt the interviews by rapping on heating pipes in the interview room, singing, whistling and banging his chair against the walls and on the floor. He was visited by his solicitor on 3 October 1984. 23. All of the applicants were informed by the arresting officer that they were being arrested under section 12 of the 1984 Act and that there were reasonable grounds for suspecting them to have been involved in the commission, preparation or instigation of acts of terrorism connected with the affairs of Northern Ireland. They were cautioned that they need not say anything, but that anything they did say might be used in evidence. 24. On the day following his arrest, each applicant was informed by police officers that the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland had agreed to extend his detention by a further five days under section 12(4) of the 1984 Act. None of the applicants was brought before a judge or other officer authorised by law to exercise judicial power, nor were any of them charged after their release. 25. The emergency situation in Northern Ireland in the early 1970s and the attendant level of terrorist activity form the background to the introduction of the Prevention of Terrorism (Temporary Provisions) Act 1974 ("the 1974 Act"). Between 1972 and 1983, over two thousand deaths were attributable to terrorism in Northern Ireland as compared with about one hundred in Great Britain. In the mid 1980s, the number of deaths was significantly lower than in the early 1970s but organised terrorism continued to thrive. 26. The 1974 Act came into force on 29 November 1974. The Act proscribed the IRA and made it an offence to display support in public for that organisation in Great Britain. The IRA was already a proscribed organisation in Northern Ireland. The Act also conferred special powers of arrest and detention on the police so that they could deal more effectively with the threat of terrorism (see paragraphs 30-33 below). 27. The 1974 Act was subject to renewal every six months by Parliament so that, inter alia, the need for the continued use of the special powers could be monitored. The Act was thus renewed until March 1976 when it was re-enacted with certain amendments. Under section 17 of the 1976 Act, the special powers were subject to parliamentary renewal every twelve months. The 1976 Act was in turn renewed annually until 1984, when it was re-enacted with certain amendments. The 1984 Act, which came into force in March 1984, proscribed the INLA as well as the IRA. It has been renewed every year but will expire in March 1989, when the Government intend to introduce permanent legislation. 28. The 1976 Act was reviewed by Lord Shackleton in a report published in July 1978 and subsequently by Lord Jellicoe in a report published in January 1983. Annual reports on the 1984 Act have been presented to Parliament by Sir Cyril Philips (for 1984 and 1985) and Viscount Colville (for 1986 and 1987), who also completed in 1987 a wider-scale review of the operation of the 1984 Act. 29. These reviews were commissioned by the Government and presented to Parliament to assist consideration of the continued need for the legislation. The authors of these reviews concluded in particular that in view of the problems inherent in the prevention and investigation of terrorism, the continued use of the special powers of arrest and detention was indispensable. The suggestion that decisions extending detention should be taken by the courts was rejected, notably because the information grounding those decisions was highly sensitive and could not be disclosed to the persons in detention or their legal advisers. For various reasons, the decisions fell properly within the sphere of the executive. 30. The relevant provisions of section 12 of the 1984 Act, substantially the same as those of the 1974 and 1976 Acts, are as follows: "12 (1) [A] constable may arrest without warrant a person whom he has reasonable grounds for suspecting to be ... (b) a person who is or has been concerned in the commission, preparation or instigation of acts of terrorism to which this Part of this Act applies; ... (3) The acts of terrorism to which this Part of this Act applies are (a) acts of terrorism connected with the affairs of Northern Ireland; ... (4) A person arrested under this section shall not be detained in right of the arrest for more than forty-eight hours after his arrest; but the Secretary of State may, in any particular case, extend the period of forty-eight hours by a period or periods specified by him. (5) Any such further period or periods shall not exceed five days in all. (6) The following provisions (requirement to bring accused person before the court after his arrest) shall not apply to a person detained in right of the arrest ... (d) Article 131 of the Magistrates’ Courts (Northern Ireland) Order 1981; ... (8) The provisions of this section are without prejudice to any power of arrest exercisable apart from this section." 31. According to the definition given in section 14 (1) of the 1984 Act, terrorism "means the use of violence for political ends, and includes any use of violence for the purpose of putting the public or any section of the public in fear". An identical definition of terrorism in the Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1978 was held to be "in wide terms" by the House of Lords, which rejected an interpretation of the word "terrorist" that would have been "in narrower terms than popular usage of the word ‘terrorist’ might connote to a police officer or a layman" (McKee v. Chief Constable for Northern Ireland [1985] 1 All England Law Reports 1 at 3-4, per Lord Roskill). 32. Article 131 of the Magistrates’ Courts (Northern Ireland) Order 1981, declared inapplicable by section 12(6)(d) of the 1984 Act (see paragraph 30 above), provides that where a person arrested without warrant is not within twenty-four hours released from custody, he must be brought before a Magistrates’ Court as soon as practicable thereafter but not later than forty-eight hours after his arrest. 33. The Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1978 also conferred special powers of arrest without warrant. Section 11 provided that a constable could arrest without warrant any person whom he suspected of being a terrorist. Such a person could be detained for up to seventy-two hours without being brought before a court. The 1978 Act has been amended by the Northern Ireland (Emergency Provisions) Act 1987, which came into force on 15 June 1987. The powers of arrest under the 1978 Act have been replaced by a power to enter and search premises for the purpose of arresting a suspected terrorist under section 12 of the 1984 Act. 34. In order to make a lawful arrest under section 12(1)(b) of the 1984 Act, the arresting officer must have a reasonable suspicion that the person being arrested is or has been concerned in the commission, preparation or instigation of acts of terrorism. In addition, an arrest without warrant is subject to the applicable common law rules laid down by the House of Lords in the case of Christie v. Leachinsky [1947] Appeal Cases 573 at 587 and 600. The person being arrested must in ordinary circumstances be informed of the true ground of his arrest at the time he is taken into custody or, if special circumstances exist which excuse this, as soon thereafter as it is reasonably practicable to inform him. This does not require technical or precise language to be used provided the person being arrested knows in substance why. In the case of Ex parte Lynch [1980] Northern Ireland Reports 126 at 131, in which the arrested person sought a writ of habeas corpus, the High Court of Northern Ireland discussed section 12(1)(b). The arresting officer had told the applicant that he was arresting him under section 12 of the 1976 Act as he suspected him of being involved in terrorist activities. The High Court held that the officer had communicated the true ground of arrest and had done what was reasonable in the circumstances to convey to the applicant the nature of his suspicion, namely that the applicant was involved in terrorist activities. Accordingly, the High Court found that the lawfulness of the arrest could not be impugned in this respect. 35. The arresting officer’s suspicion must be reasonable in the circumstances and to decide this the court must be told something about the sources and grounds of the suspicion (per Higgins J. in Van Hout v. Chief Constable of the RUC and the Northern Ireland Office, decision of Northern Ireland High Court, 28 June 1984). 36. Under ordinary law, there is no power to arrest and detain a person merely to make enquiries about him. The questioning of a suspect on the ground of a reasonable suspicion that he has committed an arrestable offence is a legitimate cause for arrest and detention without warrant where the purpose of such questioning is to dispel or confirm such a reasonable suspicion, provided he is brought before a court as soon as practicable (R. v. Houghton [1979] 68 Criminal Appeal Reports 197 at 205 and Holgate-Mohammed v. Duke [1984] 1 All England Law Reports 1054 at 1059). On the other hand, Lord Lowry LCJ held in the case of Ex parte Lynch (loc. cit. at 131) that under the 1984 Act no specific crime need be suspected to ground a proper arrest under section 12 (1)(b). He added (ibid.): "... [I]t is further to be noted that an arrest under section 12(1) leads ... to a permitted period of detention without preferring a charge. No charge may follow at all; thus an arrest is not necessarily ... the first step in a criminal proceeding against a suspected person on a charge which was intended to be judicially investigated." 37. In Northern Ireland, applications for extended detention beyond the initial forty-eight-hour period are processed at senior police level in Belfast and then forwarded to the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland for approval by him or, if he is not available, a junior minister. There are no criteria in the 1984 Act (or its predecessors) governing decisions to extend the initial period of detention, though strict criteria that have been developed in practice are listed in the reports and reviews appended to the Government’s memorial. According to statistics quoted by the Standing Advisory Commission on Human Rights in its written submissions (see paragraph 6 above), just over 2% of police requests for extended detention in Northern Ireland between the entry into force of the 1984 Act in March 1984 and June 1987 were refused by the Secretary of State. 38. The principal remedies available to persons detained under the 1984 Act are an application for a writ of habeas corpus and a civil action claiming damages for false imprisonment. 39. Under the 1984 Act, a person may be arrested and detained in right of arrest for a total period of seven days (section 12 (4) and (5) - see paragraph 30 above). Paragraph 5 (2) of Schedule 3 to the 1984 Act provides that a person detained pursuant to an arrest under section 12 of the Act "shall be deemed to be in legal custody when he is so detained". However, the remedy of habeas corpus is not precluded by paragraph 5 (2) cited above. If the initial arrest is unlawful, so also is the detention grounded upon that arrest (per Higgins J. in the Van Hout case, loc. cit., at 18). 40. Habeas corpus is a procedure whereby a detained person may make an urgent application for release from custody on the basis that his detention is unlawful. The court hearing the application does not sit as a court of appeal to consider the merits of the detention: it is confined to a review of the lawfulness of the detention. The scope of this review is not uniform and depends on the context of the particular case and, where appropriate, the terms of the relevant statute under which the power of detention is exercised. The review will encompass compliance with the technical requirements of such a statute and may extend, inter alia, to an inquiry into the reasonableness of the suspicion grounding the arrest (ex parte Lynch, loc. cit., and Van Hout, loc. cit.). A detention that is technically legal may also be reviewed on the basis of an alleged misuse of power in that the authorities may have acted in bad faith, capriciously or for an unlawful purpose (R v. Governor of Brixton Prison, ex parte Sarno [1916] 2 King’s Bench Reports 742 and R v. Brixton Prison (Governor), ex parte Soblen [1962] 3 All England Law Reports 641). The burden of proof is on the respondent authorities which must justify the legality of the decision to detain, provided that the person applying for a writ of habeas corpus has firstly established a prima facie case (Khawaja v. Secretary of State [1983] 1 All England Law Reports 765). 41. A person claiming that he has been unlawfully arrested and detained may in addition bring an action seeking damages for false imprisonment. Where the lawfulness of the arrest depends upon reasonable cause for suspicion, it is for the defendant authority to prove the existence of such reasonable cause (Dallison v. Caffrey [1965] 1 Queen’s Bench Reports 348 and Van Hout, loc. cit., at 15). In false imprisonment proceedings, the reasonableness of an arrest may be examined on the basis of the well-established principles of judicial review of the exercise of executive discretion (see Holgate-Mohammed v. Duke, loc. cit.).