Forest EcosystemsIntro | Profile | Case Studies | Ecosystem Assessment [ We ' re ] putting the question , with the environmentalists , to the international marketplace : " How much are you willing to pay ? " And the cynics will tell you , " Not a penny . . . . The world will not pay any more for your products than it will from a forest that ' s managed differently . " So , we ' ll see . We ' re asking the question . — Linda Coady , V . P . WeyerhaeuserPeacefully and productively resolving the conflicts of competing agendas is one of the great environmental challenges facing the world ' s populations . In Earth on Edge , Moyers and his team of producers take us to Clayoquot Sound in Canada . There native Indians ( called the First Cutting timber in a harvest management area . Nations ) , environmentalists , and one of Canada ' s biggest lumber companies — MacMillan Bloedel — are uniting in an experimental collaboration . Clear cutting of old - growth cedar , hemlock , and fir had been halted by the environmentalist protesters . But when the logging stopped , so did the potential for jobs for many of the First Nations ' people . Economic conflict brought the lumber company , the First Nations , and the environmentalists together . The result is Iisaak , a new company that harvests trees in a way that mimics natural processes , allowing the ancient rainforests and the wildlife they support to survive . This innovative project is advised by an independent team that determines whether the logging merits a green seal of approval The success of the effort depends on consumers : Are they willing to pay more for wood harvested sustainably ? - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------------------------- Forests , wooded areas , and scattered trees have provided food , fuel , medicines , filtered water , shelter , and building materials throughout time . As countries with ample forests develop , they tend to emphasize timber production over other forest services ; we ' ve already seen this process occur in Canada and the US . Now , forests ' timber production is similarly helping fuel economic development in many developing countries , where more than half of the world ' s remaining forests are located . Woman carries wood from rejuvenated Dhani Forest . But in these countries , millions of people still depend on forests for food ( mushrooms , fruit , nuts , other edible plants , and game ) , building and household materials ( timber , vines , bamboo , leaves , etc . ) , and fodder to feed their livestock — basic everyday needs . Plus , traditional goods ( woodfuels , food , and medicines ) still serve as the basis for livelihoods in many rural populations . The environmental challenge for these countries is balancing national development with local needs and , at the same time , sustaining their forests . How much of the world ' s forests remain ? Forests are defined as land areas " dominated by trees where the tree canopy covers at least 10 % of the ground area . " By this definition , forests cover about 25 % of Earth ' s land surface , excluding Antarctica and Greenland . Before people began clearing forests for agriculture , forests covered about 20 % more land than they do now . Some estimates are as high as 50 % more . Since 1980 , forest area has decreased by about 10 % in developing countries . In tropical regions , deforestation is currently estimated to exceed 130 , 000 square kilometers per year . In northern hemisphere countries , forest area is holding steady or increasing . In the United States and countries in Western Europe , where nearly all forests are managed to some degree , forest area increased as previously deforested areas were replanted for production or simply allowed to regenerate . Forest Area from 1980 to 1995 ( click on image to enlarge ) About 40 % of forests are relatively undisturbed and large enough to maintain biodiversity . These are called " frontier " forests . Nearly half are likely to be developed soon . They ' re concentrated in three areas : two boreal forests , one in Canada / Alaska and one in Russia , and one area of tropical forest mostly in Brazil but spanning parts of Peru , Venezuela , and Colombia . What are the primary goods and services forests provide ? Goods Services Timber — In the early 1990 s industrial wood products contributed about $ 400 billion to the global economy . Water filtration - U . S . national forests provide water to 60 million people in 3 , 400 communities , a service valued at $ 3 . 7 billion per year . Woodfuels — Woodfuels account for about 15 % of primary energy supply in developing countries , up to 80 % in some Sub - Saharan and Asian countries . Carbon storage - Forests store 613 - 938 gigatons of carbon , making them an important natural defense against climate change . Nontimber products — Food and fodder are the most important nontimber products to people who depend on forests as a primary source of nutrition . Biodiversity — More than 60 % of known terrestrial plant and animal species , including thousands of tree species , live in forests . We lose much more than trees when forests disappear . In many parts of the world — for example , New York City — forest vegetation and soils are the primary or only filter for much of the water that people in the region use . But of the 145 watersheds around the world , 42 have lost more than 75 % of their original forest cover . Fifteen have lost more than 95 %. In Canada , Russia , Central and Eastern Europe , and most developing countries , annual timber harvests exceed what is regrown in available forest areas . The United States and Western Europe , two of the major producers of industrial timber , currently harvest less wood from available forest land than regrows annually , but in recent years the rate of regrowth has decreased . Growing trees take up more carbon than mature trees , but they store less until they reach full size , and loss of forest and decreased growth rate mean less carbon is stored . And more carbon in the atmosphere advances global warming . Clearly , trees are one of our most effective bulwarks against global warming . But it is the biological richness and beauty of forest ecosystems that holds tremendous appeal to many environmentalists and the general public , as witnessed by worldwide appeals to " save the rainforest , " even by people who don ' t live near and have no direct connection to rainforests . What is the prognosis for the world ' s forests ? For frontier forests the principal threats are logging , mining , fragmentation by roads and other forms of infrastructure , and clearance for agriculture . Mining is stimulated by the lucrative industrial minerals located in developing countries ' forests . Logging and mining operations , eager to move products to market , are often the initial road builders . Fragmentation by roads is important because they open remote forest regions to more logging and mining and to human settlement . Roads also increase hunting and poaching , sometimes of endangered species . Clearance for agriculture is the primary cause of forest loss in Africa . Rural subsistence farming expands as populations grow . In Latin America , large - scale cattle ranching , government development programs , and hydroelectric projects are the main causes of forest loss . In Asia , loss results almost equally from expansion of farming and development projects . In the northern hemisphere , acid rain and other pollutants have taken their toll largely on boreal forests . The greatest threats , though , continue to be fragmentation and conversion . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------------------------- Forests in developing countries are under great pressure . Traditional forest goods and services — timber , fuel , food , and medicine — continue to support rural populations who depend directly on their natural environments to fulfill their everyday needs and to provide materials for subsistence incomes . Population increase and economic growth are primary driving forces behind conversion of forests to agricultural land for both food and cash crops . The challenge is to balance local peoples ' subsistence needs or concerns with the pressures and interests of national or regional economic development organizations and income opportunities . In some instances , these unusual coalitions are born of contention , but they often mature through acceptance that managing forests sustainably can benefit all stakeholders now and in the future . Regenerating Dhani Forest in IndiaDhani Forest is a 2 , 200 - hectare , hilly woodland in the southwestern section of Orissa State in India near the Bay of Bengal . once a thriving ecosystem , commercial timber harvesting and local exploitation had , by the mid - 1980 s , reduced the forest to little more than stump - studded slopes . Until then , Dhani Forest had provided a subsistence living for the 1 , 244 people — 212 households — living in the five villages nearest to the forest . By 1987 , they realized they had to act to ensure their survival . Harijan women stitching siali leaf plates . The Orissa State Forest Department had begun permitting commercial contractors to harvest timber in Dhani in 1960 . Until then , local people had been allowed to gather a variety of products from the forest : bamboo and wood for housing and agricultural tools ; fruits , fibers , siali leaves for making plates ; and flowers . Commercial harvesting removed forest canopy in Dhani ' s low - lying areas . Pressured by need , villagers converted the deforested land to agroecosystems . In addition , the state tried to establish teak plantations in other sections . For 20 years commercial cutting continued and local use increased . In 1979 the State allowed a major timber harvest that left no large trees . Alarmed , the villagers increased their timber - cutting in a rush to claim some of the income for themselves . By 1986 , the forest was badly degraded . In 1987 the five villages closest to Dhani Forest agreed to work together to restore their forest . Through their cooperative efforts , the forest regenerated faster than many thought possible . But restoration required the help of all the local communities that depend on the forest for their livelihoods . Now recognized by the State , a committee formed of citizens in the five villages supervises use of the forest and protect it from uncontrolled grazing and harvesting . By the early 1990 s , stumps sprouted new branches , grasses flourished , streams recharged , and wildlife returned . To learn more about how the communities of Dhani saved their forest , read Up from the Roots : Regenerating Dhani Forest in World Resources 2000 - 2001 . ( Free Adobe Acrobat Reader required ) Managing the Mankòtè Mangrove ForestThe Mankòtè mangrove forest on St . Lucia Island in the Caribbean covers about 63 hectares and comprises 20 % of St . Lucia ' s mangrove forests . Until 1960 , this coastal forest ecosystem was part of a U . S . military base . After the base closed , islanders had access to the mangrove forest once again and began to use it as a source for fish , birds , and crabs . Islanders also began dumping wastes and spraying pesticides there to eradicate mosquitoes . Perhaps the most destructive activity , however , was cutting down the trees which are used to make charcoal . By the 1980 s , charcoal production was a major source of subsistence income and an important cottage industry . For the more than 15 , 000 residents of communities near Mankòtè , the forest became their primary source for wood . And the mangrove forest was in decline . The Caribbean Natural Resources Institute ( CANARI ) , a regional NGO , identified Mankòtè forest as a priority area for conservation and recognized that the people who depended most on the forest were the most important ones to enlist in its restoration . Harvesters united in an informal cooperative to monitor and track trends in charcoal production and the status of the mangroves . Harvesters , local NGOs , and government agencies together determined that an alternative wood supply was needed . They planted a woodlot of fast - growing hardwoods for use in producing charcoal . The data are limited , but research suggests that the density and size of mangrove trees has increased , and charcoal production averaged 2 tons per month in early 2000 , only slightly less than the average in the past 15 years . The St . Lucia government continues to receive proposals to develop the area . Fortunately , so far , key agencies are holding development at bay until they can determine how best to make use of their resources without encroaching on the mangroves . To learn more about community mangrove management in St . Lucia ' s Mankòtè forest , read Managing Mankòtè Mangrove in World Resources 2000 - 2001 . ( Free Adobe Acrobat Reader required ) = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = ========================= Taking Stock of Forest EcosystemsConditions and Changing CapacityIntro | Profile | Case Studies | Ecosystem AssessmentFIBER PRODUCTIONCondition : GoodCapacity : Increasing Global fiber production has risen nearly 50 percent since 1960 to 1 . 5 billion cubic meters annually . In most industrial countries , net annual tree growth exceeds harvest rates ; in many other regions , however , more trees are removed from production forests than are replaced by natural growth . Fiber scarcities are not expected in the foreseeable future . Plantations currently supply more than 20 percent of industrial wood fiber , and this contribution is expected to increase . Harvesting from natural forests will also continue , leading to younger and more uniform forests . WATER QUALITY AND QUANTITYCondition : FairCapacity : Decreasing Forest cover helps to maintain clean water supplies by filtering freshwater and reducing soil erosion and sedimentation . Deforestation undermines these processes . Nearly 30 percent of the world ' s major watersheds have lost more than three - quarters of their original forest cover . Tropical montane forests , which are important to watershed protection , are being lost faster than any other major forest type . Forests are especially vulnerable to air pollution , which acidifies vegetation , soils , and water runoff . Some countries are protecting or replanting trees on degraded hillslopes to safeguard their water supplies . BIODIVERSITYCondition : PoorCapacity : Decreasing Forests , which harbor about two - thirds of the known terrestrial species , have the highest species diversity and endemism of any ecosystem , as well as the highest number of threatened species . Many forest - dwelling large mammals , half the large primates , and nearly 9 percent of all known tree species are at some risk of extinction . Significant pressures on forest species include conversion of forest habitat to other land uses , habitat fragmentation , logging , and competition from invasive species . If current rates of tropical deforestation continue , the number of all forest species could be reduced by 4 - 8 percent . CARBON STORAGECondition : FairCapacity : Decreasing Forest vegetation and soils hold almost 40 percent of all carbon stored in terrestrial ecosystems . Forest regrowth in the northern hemisphere absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , currently creating a " net sink " whereby absorption rates exceed respiration rates . In the tropics , however , forest clearance and degradation are together a net source of carbon emissions . Expected growth in plantation area will absorb more carbon , but likely continuation of current deforestation rates will mean that the world ' s forests remain a net source of carbon dioxide emissions and a contributor to global climate change . WOODFUEL PRODUCTIONCondition : FairCapacity : Unknown Woodfuels account for about 15 percent of the primary energy supply in developing countries and provide up to 80 percent of total energy in some countries . Use is concentrated among the poor . Woodfuel collection is responsible for much local deforestation in parts of Asia , Africa , and Latin America , although two - thirds of all woodfuel may come from roadsides , community woodlots , and wood industry residues , rather than forest sources . Woodfuel consumption is not expected to decline in coming decades , despite economic growth , but poor data make it difficult to determine the global supply and demand . Area of Forest Ecosystems ( click on image to enlarge ) Population of Forest Ecosystems ( click on image to enlarge ) « previousSource note : Data are from the companion book , World Resources 2000 - 2001 : Ecosystems and People : The Fraying Web of Life and from Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems : Agroecosystems ( World Resources Institute , 2000 ) . For comprehensive data about the world ' s ecosystems and their current conditions and trends , visit EarthTrends at www . EarthTrends . wri . org .