Emerging and re-emerging viral diseases are of great public health concern. The recent emergence of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) related coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) in December 2019 in China, which causes COVID-19 disease in humans, and its current spread to several countries, leading to the first pandemic in history to be caused by a coronavirus, highlights the significance of zoonotic viral diseases. Rift Valley fever, rabies, West Nile, chikungunya, dengue, yellow fever, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, Ebola, and influenza viruses among many other viruses have been reported from different African countries. The paucity of information, lack of knowledge, limited resources, and climate change, coupled with cultural traditions make the African continent a hotspot for vector-borne and zoonotic viral diseases, which may spread globally. Currently, there is no information available on the status of virus diseases in Africa. This systematic review highlights the available information about viral diseases, including zoonotic and vector-borne diseases, reported in Africa. The findings will help us understand the trend of emerging and re-emerging virus diseases within the African continent. The findings recommend active surveillance of viral diseases and strict implementation of One Health measures in Africa to improve human public health and reduce the possibility of potential pandemics due to zoonotic viruses. Africa is a large continent comprising 54 countries including some of the island nations within its geography. Various vector-borne and zoonotic virus diseases were reported from several African countries. Africa has a tropical climate, which enforces great diversity in its flora and fauna across the continent. The tropical climate, scarcity of resources, rampant poverty, and lack of knowledge coupled with cultural and traditional rituals and practices put many countries in the African continent at the edge of virus disease outbreaks. The high density of forest area and the tribes living within these forests mainly in west Africa, where human–animal conflicts are frequently encountered, put the communities at risk of disease progression and dissemination. One of the most challenging viruses, the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), was reported to be transmitted to hunter gatherers in the forests of west Africa after conflicts with non-human primates during hunting for bushmeat. The Pygmy and Bantu tribes living within the forests in Western Africa have witnessed rampant infections of HIV .The Ebola virus disease outbreak remains a global challenge and has recently been reported from several west African countries. An Ebola outbreak in non-human primates (chimpanzee and gorilla) as well as in the human population was reported from west Africa between 1994 and 2002 . A totalMonkeypox is another zoonotic viral disease with a high prevalence in west Africa. The dependence of the local population on bushmeat is one of the major driving factors behind the spread of monkeypox in west Africa. Apart from this, exposure to the body fluids of infected individuals is another mode of human-to-human transmission of the disease .Anseriformes and Charadriiformes have been reported to be the reservoir of avian influenza viruses [Other parts of Africa have also reported different zoonotic virus diseases, including Rift Valley fever (RVFV), Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHFV), West Nile virus (WNV) disease, avian influenza, and rabies among several other viral diseases ,7,8,9,10 viruses . IAV inf viruses ,13,14,15 viruses . Migrato viruses . Long-di viruses . Migrato viruses . The ide viruses . Since i viruses ,21.Apart from poultry, swine farming is another large-scale industry in the African continent. The challenging aspect of swine farming is that swine are known to be a ‘mixing vessel’ for several viruses, including influenza viruses, which are reported to cause disease outbreaks in swine as well as in humans ,21,22,23Culex are reported to be the main reservoir of WNV [Arboviruses, including yellow fever virus (YFV), dengue virus, and chikungunya virus infections have been reported from several African countries. These arboviruses are transmitted by mosquitoes and the abundance of mosquitoes in certain areas has resulted in a high incidence of these arboviruses . West Nir of WNV . WNV hasr of WNV . Rift Var of WNV . Crimeanr of WNV . Apart fThe guidelines and procedures of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA)  were folOriginal research and review articles that reported virus zoonotic and vector-borne diseases in humans and other species in localities within the African continent were searched for any available records published until 25 September 2019. Only original research, natural case reports, or review articles were included in this systematic review. Experimental studies that did not report natural cases were excluded from this study. The articles were primarily searched through four databases, including National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information (NLM-NCBI)-PubMed, Google Scholar, the Program for Monitoring Emerging Diseases (ProMED), and SCOPUS. The reported virus diseases in humans, livestock, wild birds, wild animals, pets, poultry, and slaughterhouses were screened. Initially, the databases were searched using variation of the search terms (“Zoonotic virus diseases in Africa” OR “Virus zoonoses in Africa”). Later, the search terms were further extended to search through the databases with individual country names for all the 54 countries that are located either within mainland African continent or its island nations. Therefore, the search terms were extended to, e.g., “Virus zoonosis in South Africa” OR “Zoonotic virus diseases in South Africa”, as well as “Virus zoonotic diseases in Zimbabwe”, “Virus zoonotic diseases in Madagascar”, “Virus zoonotic diseases in Mozambique”, and so on for all 54 African countries, including the island nations of Mauritius, Seychelles, Comoros island including Mayotte and Anjouan, as well as Cape Verde, Sao Tome and Principe, and La Reunion islands for the zoonotic virus diseases that were reported up until 25 September 2019. Full-length research or review articles were collected for this systematic review. Articles reported from outside Africa or those articles that did not report virus zoonosis within the African continent were not included for the drafting this systematic review. Additionally, editorials, conference proceedings, and articles in a language other than English were excluded from this systematic review. The article titles that reported a virus or zoonotic virus disease(s) in humans, domestic or wild animals, and birds were downloaded and stored for further refinement to be included in this study.Only those articles reporting vector-borne and zoonotic viral diseases within Africa.The abstract of the stored articles were first read through to find out their relevance to be included, and, if necessary, the introduction and/or results and discussion sections of each article were thoroughly investigated to ensure that the articles met the inclusion criteria.A database search was conducted, and the apparently relevant full text articles were accessed. The inclusion criteria were applied as follows:The articles thus selected were used as the background of the current study to discuss the vector-borne and zoonotic virus diseases reported throughout the African continent.Data were entered in a Microsoft Excel database . The data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), version 25. Descriptive statistics, such as bar charts, were used to summarize the distribution of reported virus diseases by study year, region, host, and country.Africa is a large continent comprising 54 mainland and island nations within the continent’s geographical area. The continent represents great diversity in its fauna and flora. Several vector-borne and zoonotic diseases of virus etiology have been reported from countries across the African continent in the past and to date .Most of the reviewed vector-borne and zoonotic virus diseases were noticed to be reported mostly from Western, Eastern, and Southern African countries as compared to Northern African countries as shown in The current systematic review illustrates a comprehensive analysis of all reported vector-borne and zoonotic viral diseases from all the countries within mainland Africa and its island nations. The current study discusses the virus diseases reported across five geographical regions of the continent viz., East Africa, West Africa, Central Africa, North Africa, and Southern Africa.The eastern part of Africa comprises mainland countries, including Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mozambique, Somalia, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe, along with the island nations of Comoros, La Reunion, Mauritius, and Seychelles. The frequency distribution of the different reported virus diseases from African countries is shown in Miniopterus griveaudi and Chaerephon pusillus and brain tissues from dead bats, to investigate the prevalence of lyssaviruses. These bats were primarily hunted for bushmeat purposes. Initially, the sera samples collected from bats were heated for 30 min at 56 °C to inactivate the complement and then lyssavirus-neutralizing antibodies were detected in the samples using a miniaturized rapid fluorescent focus inhibition test (RFFIT). Additionally, real-time RT-PCR was conducted to detect lyssavirus RNA in the bat samples using specific oligonucleotide primers targeting a conserved sequence of nucleoprotein gene of lyssaviruses under investigation, including Lagos bat lyssavirus (LBV), Duvenhage lyssavirus (DUVV), European bat lyssavirus-1 (EBLV-1), as well as rabies lyssavirus (RABV). In this study, only two bat sera samples were positive for LBV seroprevalence while two other sera were positive for DUVV prevalence out of eight samples that were tested. None of the samples were positive for lyssavirus RNA by real-time RT-PCR [Anjouan is part of the Comoros island nation in the Mozambique channel, located in the Indian Ocean between the southern African mainland and Madagascar in the eastern part of Africa. A study included 21 samples from different bat species, including blood from live bats species of e RT-PCR . Many otMayotte is one of the French islands and is a part of the Comoros island nation. A lyssavirus seroprevalence study was conducted in this region, targeting insectivorous and frugivorous bats between 2010 and 2015. Twenty-two sera samples were collected from the bats in Mayotte and samples were processed for lyssavirus diagnostics. Initially, sera samples were heated for 30 min at 56 °C to inactivate the complement and then lyssavirus-neutralizing antibodies were detected in the samples using the miniaturized RFFIT method. Additionally, real-time RT-PCR was conducted to detect lyssavirus RNA in the bat samples. As a result, two positive sera samples were observed for both LBV and DUVV antibodies in this investigation. The RNA samples were also screened for lyssavirus prevalence, but all were negative with real-time RT-PCR. Past exposure of bats to the lyssavirus was identified, hence any human–bat interaction may put humans at risk of disease transmission .After an influenza-like illness outbreak occurred at a US military base in Djibouti, nasopharyngeal swabs and nasal wash samples were collected from 32 symptomatic individuals of the active US troops and contractors during March–August 2009. Influenza viral RNA was identified in 27 samples: 25 were positive for H3N2 virus while two samples were positive for A(H1N1)pdm09 virus. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) genes of H3N2 viruses were closely related to the H3N2 sequences reported from the USA, Australia, and South-East Asia during the 2009 pandemic . This fiThere were few outbreaks of dengue fever in Eritrea during 2005–2015. A study reported the prevalence of dengue fever virus and dengue fever outbreak in Eritrea during a 10-year period from 2005–2015. This was the first comprehensive study to provide information on the status of dengue fever from Eritrea . ParticuEthiopia is one of the world’s most affected countries for rabies, where 2771 people died during 2009–2010 because of rabies . The stuA high seroprevalence of Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) was reported in dromedary camels in Ethiopia during 2011–2013. Sera samples from 188 dromedary camels were collected across three provinces viz., Afar, Somalia, and Oromia. Serological investigation based on immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies detected MERS-CoV in 93% and 97% of the juveniles and adults, respectively. A total of 175 sera samples were found positive for MERS-CoV. The high genetic similarity of MERS-CoV isolates retrieved from humans and dromedary camels suggested the zoonotic transmission of the disease .In total, 117 fecal samples were collected from either diarrheic or apparently healthy pigs with no other clinical signs of illness in Bishoftu, Ethiopia between June and September 2013. RT-PCR diagnostics detected 17 swine samples that were positive for caliciviruses. The PCR amplicons were purified on agarose gel and four of the RT-PCR-positive samples were sequenced using Sanger sequencing. Sequence analysis identified two human norovirus genomes as well as two porcine sapovirus sequences. The occurrence of human norovirus sequences in domestic pigs suggested the transmission events of noroviruses from humans to swine in Ethiopia. This represents a reverse zoonotic disease transmission (zooanthroponosis) and was the first investigation of the prevalence of enteric caliciviruses in Ethiopian domestic swine .A surveillance study including migratory waterfowls, gulls, pelicans, and storks was conducted to investigate the prevalence of avian influenza A virus in these European migratory wild birds, which overwinter in the Rift Valley of Kenya . Fecal sDuring 1991–2015, a surveillance study was conducted to investigate the prevalence of influenza C virus (ICV) and influenza D virus (IDV) in cattle and camel populations in Kenya. A total of 931 sera samples from cattle and 293 sera samples from camels were collected, which revealed a 10.6% seroprevalence for ICV and 8.2% seroprevalence for IDV in camels . Cattle Immunohistochemistry was used to determine RVFV infections in liver tissue samples obtained from six animal carcasses and 11 human corpses in Kenya . The majA metagenomic study identified several viruses in pig fecal samples collected from 12 different smallholder swine farms located in Kenya and Uganda. Total viral RNA was extracted from the samples, which was subjected to Illumina sequencing on an MiSeq platform. Sequence analyses identified porcine circovirus, rotavirus, bocavirus, sapelovirus, mamastrovirus, posavirus, picobirnavirus, swine pasivirus 1, porcine teschovirus, and kobuvirus in swine fecal samples .Many human cases of IAV and IBV infections were reported during 1999–2014. In total, 365 cases of H1N1, 1285 cases of A(H1N1)pdm09, 1183 cases of H3N2, and 1454 cases of IBV infections were reported , which rA study was conducted to monitor the prevalence of IAV in different household animals in Kenya during 2010–2012. Overall, 1491 swine swab, 3863 chicken swab, 172 swine sera, and 1894 chicken sera samples were collected. Additionally, sera and swabs were also collected from other domestic animals and birds, including dogs, cats, ducks, and turkeys. Serology using ELISA using specific anti-IAV antibodies identified one cat, two chickens, three dogs, three ducks, and 13 pigs that were seropositive for IAV antibodies. Real-time RT-PCR for the matrix gene of IAV detected 24 chickens, four dogs, five ducks, and 11 pigs that were positive for the active infection. Subtyping using real-time RT-PCR for the HA and NA genes identified that eight pigs were infected with the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus identified in pigs was closely related to the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus, which has been in circulation in the human population in Kenya since 2009. Therefore, this investigation suggested a reverse zoonotic transmission of the A(H1N1)pdm 09 virus from humans to pigs in the country .During January–June 2018, 1163 plasma and nasal swab samples were collected from dromedary camels across 13 counties in Kenya. Most of the samples were collected from counties located in northern Kenya bordering with the Republic of Somalia. ELISA followed by a microneutralization (MN) assay using Vero B4 non-human primate cell lines identified 792 plasma samples that were positive for the MERS-CoV antibodies. Active infection of MERS-CoV was detected in only 11 nasal swab samples. Using Vero cells, two MERS-CoV isolates were successfully retrieved for whole-genome sequencing. Phylogenetic analysis found that these MERS-CoV sequences were distinct from the sequences reported from the Arabian Peninsula. This study was the first report of the MERS-CoV whole genome sequence from Kenya . In geneMormopterus francoismoutoui) between 2010 and 2015. A total of 121 bat sera and tissue samples were collected and processed for lyssavirus diagnostics. Real-time RT-PCR was conducted to detect lyssavirus RNA in the bat samples using specific oligonucleotide primers targeting a conserved sequence of the nucleoprotein gene of lyssaviruses. Three bats were found seropositive for LBV while 14 sera samples were positive for DUVV and nine samples were positive for EBLV-1. Interestingly, all RNA samples were negative with real-time RT-PCR for lyssavirus [La Reunion is officially a French island located in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar and southwest of Mauritius. In this region, a study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence of lyssavirus in insectivorous and frugivorous bats  of Rattus rattus species and 2 out of 125 (1.6%) samples of Mus musculus species of rodents were found to be positive with nested PCR for the infection of Anjozorobe virus [Anjozorobe virus is a representative virus of Thailand orthohantavirus (THAIV) in the family be virus . The stube virus .Another country-wide serological surveillance was conducted across 106 administrative districts in Madagascar to investigate the seroprevalence of CCHFV. In this investigation, 1995 human participants working in slaughterhouses since at least 2007 were enrolled. This was considered a group of high-risk individuals given the nature of their occupation. The human sera samples were tested against CCHFV-specific immunoglobulin G- (IgG) and M (IgM) antibodies. As a result, only one human subject was identified with a recent CCHFV infection while 15 workers appeared to have a past exposure of the disease [Reoviridae family and is reported to be transmitted by certain biting species of midges and mosquitoes [Anopheles squamosus mosquitoes was positive for BTV infection. Interestingly, 136 cattle had antibodies against BTV while 39 samples were seronegative. This was the first report of BTV circulation from Madagascar [Bluetongue virus (BTV) is a member of the squitoes . In a sudagascar . BluetonCulex and Aedes mosquitoes may serve as a vector for RVFV [Human cases of IAV and IBV infections have also been reported in Madagascar. A surveillance during 1999–2014 identified 109 H1N1, 1101 A(H1N1)pdm09, and 579 H3N2 subtype cases of IAV and 1004 cases of IBV infections . Anotherfor RVFV .Hipposideros commersoni, Miniopterus species, Chaerephon species, Mops species, Mormopterus jugularis, Otomops madagascariensis, Eidolon dupreanum, Pteropus rufus, Rousettus madagascariensis, Triaenops menamena, and Myotis goudoti were investigated for the prevalence of lyssaviruses. These bats were hunted for bush meat purposes between 2010 and 2015. The lyssavirus-neutralizing antibodies were detected in the samples using miniaturized RFFIT. As a result, 23 samples were positive for LBV, 54 sera were positive for DUVV, and only one serum was positive for EBLV-1. None of the samples were positive for lyssavirus RNA through real-time RT-PCR. Since bats are a reservoir for several zoonotic viruses, the trade of bats for bushmeat in the region puts the human population at risk of zoonotic virus transmission [In total, 301 samples including blood from live bats and brain tissues of dead bats from different bat species i.e., smission .A retrospective study identified 60 (14.1%) human sera samples having hepatitis E virus (HEV) antibodies. These sera samples were collected from slaughterhouse workers in 18 districts during September 2008 to May 2009. Additionally, sera and liver tissue samples were collected from 250 pigs between November 2010 and January 2011. Interestingly, 178 swine sera also had HEV antibodies. Then, total nucleic acid was extracted from the pig liver tissue samples and cDNA was synthesized, which was subjected to an HEV TaqMan qPCR assay for the detection of hepatitis E virus RNA. Positive amplicons were gel-purified for ligation into the pGEM-T Easy vector for sequencing. Out of 250 swine liver tissue samples, only 3 were positive for HEV RNA. This was the first serological as well as virological investigation confirming the past prevalence of HEV in human and swine populations in Madagascar .Eidolon helvum) is known as a reservoir of zoonotic virus diseases. Serological and genetic studies based on mitochondrial (cytochrome b) and nuclear DNA analyses reported that the panmictic continental population of E. helvum facilitates zoonotic transmission [E. helvum population across the sample sites in the African continent, including sites in Malawi, represented panmictic continental populations. This finding raised the concern of a higher risk of transmission of zoonotic virus disease to human populations that may be exposed to the excreta or body fluids of E. helvum living in colonies near human settlements in the region [Africa’s most common fruit bat  were also collected from domestic pig kholas, houses, and a single warthog habitat across nine of the 24 districts in Malawi during 1982–1984. Ticks were pooled in different groups. A total of 181 pools of ticks collected from pig kholas were positive for ASFV while 48 pools collected from the houses in Mchinji district were positive [A devastating outbreak of African swine fever virus (ASFV) disease occurred in domestic pigs during 1981–1984. As a result, a significant number of pigs were reported dead in the affected areas. ELISA and indirect immunofluorescence detected ASFV antibodies in 149 swine sera samples . Additiopositive . This suMormopterus acetabulosus and Pteropus niger. This study identified seven LBV-, 19 DUVV-, and 2 EBLV-1-positive sera samples collected from different bat species within the island. On the contrary, real-time RT-PCR could not amplify lyssavirus sequences from the bat samples and hence failed to document an active infection [Mauritius is an island nation in the Indian Ocean located approximately 1200 miles southeast of the African continent. In a lyssavirus seroprevalence study during 2010–2015, a total of 67 blood and tissue samples were collected from insectivorous and frugivorous bats of nfection .In a sero-surveillance conducted in Mozambique during 2012–2013, 78 sera samples collected from febrile patients living in Maputo city were screened for the chikungunya virus, dengue virus, RVFV, and WNV. Indirect immunofluorescence assays followed by ELISA found 15 sera with chikungunya virus and 10 with dengue virus antibodies. One serum had RVFV and three sera had WNV antibodies. This investigation revealed that the prevalence of vector-borne viruses is frequent among people living in the suburban areas of Maputo city in Mozambique, which suggested the need for active surveillance for these virus diseases in the region .A study conducted at two different hospitals in Maputo city investigated the prevalence of influenza viruses. Nasopharyngeal and/or oropharyngeal swabs were collected from 1140 patients. Real-time RT-PCR identified 46 patients as positive for influenza virus active infection. Subtyping could be done for 20 of the 46 influenza-positive samples, which determined that 13 patients were positive for H3N2, 4 for A(H1N1)pdm09, and another 3 patients were infected with IBV. Phylogenetic analysis determined that the influenza viruses isolated in Mozambique were similar to the influenza viruses reported in Southern African regions . This suPteropus seychellensis during 2010–2015. In total, 40 sera samples were collected from the bats and processed for the detection of lyssavirus-neutralizing antibodies using a miniaturized RFFIT test. As a result, six positive sera were detected for LBV and four for DUVV while only one sera sample was positive for EBLV-1. Additionally, real-time RT-PCR was conducted to detect lyssavirus RNA, which suggested no active infection. Although an active infection could not be identified, but since bats are the reservoirs of zoonotic viruses, the exposed human population is always at risk of contracting the disease [Seychelles is an archipelago nation located east of Africa in the Indian Ocean between the southern African mainland and Madagascar. A lyssavirus seroprevalence study was conducted in Seychelles in insectivorous and frugivorous bats of  disease .The circulation of hepatitis B virus (HBV) was reported from three villages in Somalia. Practices of maintaining poor hygiene and cleanliness were reported in these villages. Additionally, the villages were over-crowded, and the residents were living under primitive housing conditions. The sera samples collected from 331 adults and 52 children were tested for the surface antigen of HBV-hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), as well as anti-HBsAg, anti-hepatitis B core antigen (HBcAg), and anti- hepatitis B envelope antigen (HBeAg). A seroprevalence of 12.08% for HBsAg antibodies was observed in the samples, which reflected the circulation of HBV in Somalian villages .Mycobacterium tuberculosis disease. Overall, 438 sera samples were subjected to anti-HCV ELISA for the screening of hepatitis C virus (HCV) as well as for the seroprevalence of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1). The repeatedly reactive sera for the HCV were further tested with the recombinant immunoblot assay (RIBA-2). Only those sera that were reactive to both assays were considered positive. On the contrary, reactive sera for HIV-1 were further tested with the Western blot assay and hence samples positive for both tests were considered positive. This study found that eight sera samples were reactive to both assays for HCV while only six sera samples were positive for HIV-1 ELISA and Western blot [In 1990, another study was conducted in three major urban areas of Somalia viz., Mogadishu, Chismayu, and Merca. In this study, 236 sera samples were collected from female prostitutes, 80 sera were collected from patients belonging to the sexually transmitted disease group, 79 sera belonged to male military personnel, and 43 sera were obtained from patients suffering from ern blot . Therefoern blot .Eidolon helvum) near Dar es Salam. Sera samples were collected from 226 children in the age group of 2 months to 13 years having febrile illness and admitted to a hospital. Serology confirmed that only one human sample (0.4%) was positive for AchPV2. Interestingly, three (12%) bat samples were positive for AchPV1 and two (8%) were positive for AchPV2 [E. helvum would be at risk if they came in contact with the urine, tissues, or excreta of these bats [Bats are implicated to carry several novel emerging viruses of pandemic potential which can infect other animal species and humans when spillover occurs. A study was undertaken to assess the zoonotic potential of two novel paramyxoviruses named Achimota virus 1 (AchPV1) and Achimota virus 2 (AchPV2) in 25 sera samples collected from a roost of fruit bats (r AchPV2 . This stese bats .Panthera leo) in the year 1994 in a population of 250 lions; the dead lions had neurological disease symptoms of seizures and pneumonia [Canine distemper virus (CDV) is a morbillivirus, which is primarily known to infect domestic dogs . Serengeneumonia . This stneumonia . CDV wasneumonia .Eidolon helvum bat populations. Serological and genetic studies based on mitochondrial (cytochrome b) and nuclear DNA analyses reported that the panmictic continental population of E. helvum would facilitate virus transmission across its colonies in the African continent, including Tanzania [E. helvum population across the sample sites in African continent, including sites in Tanzania, represented panmictic continental populations. This finding raised the concern of a higher risk of transmission of zoonotic virus disease to human populations that may be exposed to the excreta or body fluids of E. helvum [A study was conducted to understand the transmission dynamics and persistence of zoonotic henipaviruses in Tanzania . Urine, Tanzania . This in. helvum .During April–May 2018, sera samples were collected from 278 household dogs for the diagnostics of rabies virus. ELISA test was used to detect rabies virus antibodies in 94 samples. However, most of the households were aware of rabies but were not aware of its wide host range. The seroprevalence of rabies virus in dogs in households puts household members at risk of contracting the virus. This would explain the high death rate (1500 people per year) each year due to rabies virus infection in Tanzania .There were two Ebola virus disease outbreaks reported from Uganda. The first outbreak was reported from Gulu in the year 2000 where 425 cases were reported with 224 deaths; Ebolavirus-Sudan (EBOV-S) was the etiological agent of this outbreak. The second outbreak was reported in November-December 2007 in Bundibugyo where 116 confirmed cases with 30 fatalities were reported; Ebolavirus-Bundibugyo (EBOV-B) was the etiological agent behind this outbreak . In thisRhinovirus C has been reported from human populations in sub-Saharan Africa . From FeE. helvum bat populations in Uganda [E. helvum [A study reported the transmission dynamics and persistence of zoonotic henipaviruses in n Uganda . Samples. helvum .Anopheles mosquitoes. There has not been any other case of Ntwetwe virus from this region; hence, the case of this girl child was a rare and unique event. The study suggested that mosquitoes or an animal reservoir might be the probable source of transmission of this virus disease [A novel orthobunyavirus named Ntwetwe virus was reported from a three-year-old female child resident of Ntwetwe village in Uganda in February 2016. This child reported fever, abdominal pain, and headache, which worsened as days passed by. The patient went into a coma after two weeks of the onset of the disease. Diagnosis was carried out for the possible viral and bacterial diseases being circulated in the region but were negative . Hence,  disease .Culex mosquitoes. Certain avian species are considered as the reservoir host for WNV. Wide-scale transmission has usually been reported by migratory birds [WNV was first reported from the West Nile district of Uganda in the year 1937 . WNV wasry birds .An outbreak of RVFV occurred in domestic animals in Kisoro district of Uganda in 2016, leading to frequent abortions in pregnant animals. A sero-surveillance was initiated, which included 338 cattle, 323 sheep, and 336 goats. Anti-IgG ELISA was conducted to assess the seroprevalence of RVFV antibodies in the collected samples. The results revealed that 70 cattle were seropositive for RVFV along with 22 sheep and 12 goats. The outcome of this investigation suspected the zoonotic spread of the disease in Kisoro district .Patients visiting outpatient departments of different Ugandan hospitals during July 2009 through February 2010 and then July 2010 through April 2011 suffering from fever, sore throat, and cough were enrolled in a surveillance for influenza virus diagnostics. Samples were collected from the patients and screened for A(H1N1)pdm09 virus using the real-time RT-PCR assay. The positive samples were used for virus isolation; as a result, 199 virus isolates were retrieved. The genomes of virus isolates were also sequenced. Sequence alignment and phylogenetic analyses identified 73 A(H1N1)pdm09 virus isolates . Since AIn January 2017, high mortality was observed in white-winged black terns in Wakiso district of Uganda. Internal organs as well as oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs from dead birds were collected and investigated for IAV infections. Wild birds exhibited the clinical symptoms of torticollis, depression, lethargy, and convulsions just before death. Since the tern samples were positive for the IAV, subtyping for H5 virus was done, which identified few H5-positive tern samples. Immediately after this outbreak in terns, the disease was also observed in chickens and ducks in Masaka district. Eighteen clinical samples obtained from chickens and ducks were investigated. Molecular investigation followed by sequencing identified the H5N8 virus in 17 samples. Phylogenetic analysis identified a high similarity (99.5%) of Ugandan H5N8 virus sequences with the H5N8 sequences reported from the Democratic Republic of Congo and a relatively lower identity (98.8–99.1%) with the H5N8 virus sequences reported in 2017 from Egypt and South Africa . This obAfter an African swine fever (ASF) outbreak in Zambia during 2013–2015, 56 tissue samples were collected from 16 dead or killed pigs to determine the disease epidemiology. The outcome reported the association of three different ASFV genotypes with this outbreak, viz., genotype I, genotype II, and genotype XIV . InteresE. helvum bat populations in Zambia [E. helvum population across the sample sites in the African continent, including sites in Zambia, represented panmictic continental populations [E. helvum [Serological and genetic studies based on mitochondrial (cytochrome b) and nuclear DNA analyses reported the transmission dynamics and persistence of zoonotic NiV in n Zambia . Five ouulations . This in. helvum .Since non-human primates have been found to be reservoirs of several zoonotic viruses, a recent investigation studied the prevalence of novel simian arteriviruses, pegiviruses, and lentiviruses in 12 samples of Green African Monkeys  sampled from three different sites in Zambia . Plasma Culex mosquitoes in Zambia. A total of 9439 mosquitoes were collected during 2012–2016 and were segregated into 464 pools according to species [Culex mosquitoes which were collected during 2016 were positive for WNV using RT-PCR [A recent investigation reported the first isolation of WNV from  species . Each pog RT-PCR . Sequencg RT-PCR . Intrigug RT-PCR .Domestic dogs exhibiting clinical signs of diarrhea and vomiting were investigated for canine parvovirus (CPV) infection. Thirty-two diarrheic dogs that were taken to a veterinary hospital in Lusaka, Zambia were included in the study. Fecal samples were taken from these dogs and total DNA was extracted, which was subjected to conventional PCR reaction to amplify a 583-bp region of the VP2 gene of CPV. The amplicons were gel-purified and sequenced. This study found 23 samples were positive for CPV infection mostly in unvaccinated dogs. Three variants of CPV viz., CPV-2a, CPV-2b, and CPV-2c were identified, with the highest prevalence of the CPV-2c variant in the diarrheic dogs. Interestingly, variant CPV-2a showed a 100% sequence identity at the nucleotide level with the CPV-2a variant reported from India in the year 2012 while the CPV-2c variant was highly identical to the CPV-2c variant reported from Argentina in the year 2011. Intriguingly, the study found that while all three variants of CPV were co-circulating in the country, the highest predominance was of CPV-2c, which was detected in 91.3% of the CPV-positive samples. This study reported the prevalence of the CPV-2c variant of the virus for the first time in sub-Saharan Africa .In a comprehensive country-wide surveillance for rabies virus during a 16-year period from 1999 until 2015, brain tissue samples were collected and preserved from 46 domestic dogs obtained from different households, including one cat, one pig, one human, two jackals, and eight cows. Samples were subjected to the direct fluorescent antibody test (DFAT) followed by nested PCR for the detection of the N and G genes of rabies virus. Interestingly, all of the samples tested in this study were positive for rabies virus N and G genes, with only one exception where one dog was positive for the G gene and was negative for the N gene through nested PCR. Overall, this investigation showed a 100% prevalence of rabies virus in the brain tissues of dead animals and the human sample, which reflected a serious threat of rabies to humans as well as other domestic animals and wildlife in the country .Fresh fecal samples from 51 healthy wild white pelicans were collected in August 2006 from Lochinvar National Park located in the Southern province of Zambia. Virus isolation followed by HI and NI subtyping identified one isolate to be avian influenza virus H3N6 subtype. For genetic analysis, the complete genome was amplified using RT-PCR. Amplicons were purified from agarose gel and sequenced using Sanger sequencing. The PB2, HA, and NS genes were highly similar with the H3N6 virus reported from a duck in South Africa, which would be due to reassortment, which might have occurred within sub-Saharan Africa because of the interaction of wild birds sharing the intra-African flyways . In anotSera samples were collected from non-human primates in southern and eastern Zambia during 2009–2010. Forty-eight blood and spleen tissue samples were taken from Zambian malbrouck monkeys, 25 from chacma baboons, and 23 from yellow baboons. The mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was sequenced to determine the species of non-human primates. A plaque reduction neutralization test was conducted to investigate the prevalence of Zika virus, YFV, and tick-borne encephalitis virus, which resulted in a total of 33 Zika virus-positive samples. More precisely, 16 of the Zambian malbrouck monkeys, 12 of the chacma baboons, and 5 of the yellow baboons were seropositive for the Zika virus antibodies. In contrast, all spleen tissues were negative for Zika virus and YFV using real-time RT-PCR, which reflected a negative active infection. Serology also confirmed that the sera samples were negative for YFV and tick-borne encephalitis virus. The findings of this study revealed that Zika virus was in circulation among non-human primates . OverallTracheal and cloacal swabs were obtained from 417 swallows (a species of wild bird) and other domestic bird populations at two different lakes near the capital city of Harare in February 2010 and October 2011. A triplex RT-PCR for the detection of avian influenza virus, avian paramyxovirus Type-1 (APMV-1), and WNV was conducted, which detected five avian influenza virus infections, 15 APMV-1 infections, and 11 WNV-positive samples in the study population. Interestingly, the birds captured for sampling appeared healthy, hence they were released successfully after sampling .From 2010 to 2017, over an eight-year surveillance period, total of 552 brain tissue samples were collected from different animal species, including dogs, cats, bats, rodents, lions, horses, jackals, and zebras, among others, who were suspected of rabies. The brain tissue samples were submitted to the Central Veterinary Laboratory located in Harare, where samples were investigated for rabies using the direct fluorescent antibody test (DFAT) and direct rapid immunohistochemical test (DRIT). A large proportion of the tested samples (316/552) were found positive for rabies . As expeThe western part of Africa includes Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Cote d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo.Orthomyxoviridae family and is reported to cause a mild influenza-like respiratory disease in pigs and animals [Influenza D virus (IDV) seroprevalence was reported among cattle in Benin. IDV is a member of the  animals . A total animals . Sheep a animals . These rRuminants living in wetland areas, including ponds, swamps, and dams, in northern and central Burkina Faso were included in a sero-surveillance for RVFV. Cattle, goats, and sheep that grazed around or nearby these wetland areas were sampled between 2005 and 2007. Blood samples were collected from 120 cattle and 200 sheep and goats each. Sera were harvested and were first subjected to IgG ELISA; the positive samples were then subjected to IgM ELISA for further confirmation of seropositivity. A serum neutralization test was conducted to assess the virus-neutralizing efficacy of the RVFV antibodies. The investigation found that 18 cattle, 8 goats, and 14 sheep were seropositive for the RVFV antibodies. Interestingly, the study observed a varying seroprevalence among the sampling sites .During January 2014–December 2015, 743 children up to five years of age suffering from influenza-like illness (ILI) and 181 children suffering from severe acute respiratory infection (SARI) were enrolled for treatment at six healthcare centers within Burkina Faso. Children with ILI reported a fever, cough, and sore throat. SARI cases reported having a fever, cough, and/or difficulty in breathing. RNA was extracted from the collected samples for the detection of IAV by real-time RT-PCR followed by IAV subtyping. Real-time RT-PCR samples with a cycle threshold (Ct) value up to 30 were considered for HA gene sequencing. The molecular investigation identified 112 IAV-positive children suffering from influenza-like illness while 12 children were IAV positive and suffering from the severe acute respiratory infection. Subtyping identified that 23 ILI cases occurred due to the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus, while 51 were found to be positive for the IAV subtype H3N2. Interestingly, influenza B virus (IBV) was detected in 38 of the ILI cases. The study reported that 15 ILI cases belonged to the B/Victoria lineage of IBV while 10 IBV-positive samples belonged to the B/Yagamata lineage, but 13 other samples could not be ascertained. Similarly, seven cases of the SARI were due to IAV infection, five were because of IBV infection, two were due to the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus, and another five were due to the H3N2 virus infection. This study reported that different types and strains of influenza viruses were responsible for inflicting ILI and SARI among children in Burkina Faso .Thirty tracheal swabs as well as 10 organ samples were submitted from a poultry farm in Burkina Faso upon suspicion of infectious bronchitis virus in the flock, which reported a decrease in egg production along with respiratory disease symptoms. Molecular diagnostics identified that the flock at the poultry farm was infected with IAV H9N2 subtype and was negative for infectious bronchitis virus. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the H9N2 strain belonged to the G1 lineage, which is known for its high zoonotic potential. The IAV H9N2 subtype which was reported from the poultry flock in Burkina Faso clustered with H9N2 isolates reported earlier from the United Arab Emirates in 2015 and Morocco in 2016 .After an influenza-like illness occurred in the country during 2009–2010, a large-scale surveillance was conducted for the detection of influenza viruses. Nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs were collected from 498 symptomatic patients; extracted viral RNA samples were subjected to the molecular detection of IAV and IBV using one-step real-time RT-PCR assays. Only IAV-positive samples were further subjected to a second subtype specific real-time RT-PCR assay to distinguish among H1, H3, and A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses. Out of 498 samples, 131 samples were found to be positive for IAV while only one sample was positive for IBV. More precisely, only eight patients were found to be infected with the IAV subtype H3N2 virus while 123 patients were positive for the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus. Interestingly, no patients were positive for the IAV subtype H1N1. The HA1 gene sequences were retrieved from one of the isolates, which phylogenetically clustered together with the sequences reported from the USA and China. .Zoonotic transmission of Ebola virus was reported from Cote d’ Ivoire in 1994 from chimpanzees to humans . There aA Western blot and PCR-based investigation revealed frequent infection of simian foamy virus (SFV) in free-living chimpanzees in Tai National Park. This study reported 12 chimpanzees having SFV infection out of 14 samples . This stIn a surveillance for influenza virus infections among human population during 1999–2014, 344 cases of A (H1N1)pdm 09 virus, 171 human infections of H3N2 subtype of IAV, and 446 cases of IBV infections were reported . InteresIn a large-scale surveillance of Newcastle disease virus (NDV) and infectious bronchitis virus during 2010–2012, tracheal and cloacal swab samples were collected from 14,508 backyard chickens, 7322 commercial chickens, 650 ducks, and 326 guinea fowls. Additionally, 1943 sera samples were also collected from different birds. Infectious bronchitis virus antibodies were detected in 1401 sera samples using the ELISA test while 420 sera samples had NDV antibodies using the HI test. Nested PCR was conducted using random hexamers to assess the prevalence of NDV and infectious bronchitis virus in tracheal and cloacal swabs, which detected 363 and 272 infectious bronchitis virus-positive pools in the backyard chickens and commercial chickens, respectively. Sixteen pools from duck samples and 15 pools from guinea fowl samples were also positive for the infectious bronchitis virus infection. On the other hand, 421 pools from backyard chicken samples while 230 pools from commercial chicken samples were positive for the NDV disease. Fourteen pools from ducks and five pools from guinea fowls were positive for NDV. Therefore, this investigation identified NDV and infectious bronchitis virus in backyard and commercial poultry, ducks, and guinea fowls during 2010–2012 .Briefly, Ebola virus, MPXV, and SFV infections were predominantly present in Cote d’Ivoire. The other comparatively less predominant virus diseases that were circulating in the country were HIV-1, infectious bronchitis virus, and NDV .A study was conducted to screen the incidence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) in pregnant women visiting the maternity department of Edward Francis Small Teaching Hospital in Gambia between 1 May and 31 July 2015. Blood samples were collected from 424 pregnant women during the study period. The seroprevalence of HBV was determined by screening for HBsAg. Interestingly, 39 (9.2%) samples were found to be positive for HBsAg; however, only eight women reported a history of jaundice. Additionally, the sera samples were simultaneously tested for HIV infection. Only three women were found to be positive for HIV .Nasal swab samples from 50 pigs were collected at a Kumasi abattoir during January-February 2014. Samples were investigated for IAV infection using H3N2-specific anti-HA monoclonal antibody ELISA. Two samples (4%) were found to be positive for H3N2 antibodies . In anotForty-eight samples, including tracheal swabs and tissues from the lung, brain, spleen, and trachea, were collected from 44 different poultry farms between November 2017 and January 2018. Samples were tested for IAV using the RT-PCR with matrix gene as well as for H5, H7, and H7 subtypes along with IBV and NDV. In this investigation, seven complete IAV genomes and one sequence of the HA cleavage site of IAV were successfully recovered along with one partial S1 gene of IBV. Sequence analyses identified the H9N2 subtype of IAV in the poultry samples. Additionally, H9N2 virus was successfully isolated from two of the samples . A highlLassa fever is a viral hemorrhagic fever caused by Lassa virus, which has an incubation period of 1–3 weeks. The initial symptoms include fever and weakness in the early stage followed by headache, muscle pain, sore throat, diarrhea, and abdominal pain in the following days. The advanced stage symptoms may include seizures, disorientation, shock, and even coma . The firEidolon helvum) has been reported to be a reservoir for several zoonotic virus infections, including those of henipaviruses. This bat species has been documented to exist in proximity of human populations in Accra [The straw-colored fruit bat  of mortality. It was reported that the disease spread through human-to-human contact and siblings within households were found to be positive for the Ebola virus . The disIn a rare case, an Ebola virus transmission from mother to child was reported in Dubreka. In August 2015, a nine-month-old female infant developed fever, vomiting, cough, and diarrhea. After preliminary symptomatic treatment, her condition was stable for the next five days, which later deteriorated with severe diarrhea and vomiting. The infant quickly developed respiratory distress while being shifted to the University Hospital but died on the way. Her buccal swab test was positive for Ebola virus by RT-PCR. The genome of this virus matched with the Sierra-Leone 3 lineage, which was endemic in the region of her residence during May–July 2015 . To tracIn October 2015, another case of Ebola virus disease appeared from Conakry, where a case patient had a loss of appetite with fever and started bleeding from the nose four days after being symptomatic. He shared a small household with a relative who was an Ebola virus disease survivor. An RT-PCR-based investigation revealed that he was positive for the Ebola virus. Since it was a known fact that Ebola virus can be shed in survivors’ semen for a long period of time , therefoIn another study, 76 days after the WHO announced the end of the Ebola epidemic in Guinea, three deceased probable Ebola virus cases came to the notice of the authorities during 27 February to 15 March 2016 . The invMastomys and R. rattus among others, were captured from households across the study area. In total, 96 rodents were found to be positive for Lassa virus antibodies in their sera samples while 46 were detected with Lassa virus antigen in the sera [A surveillance study reported 22 confirmed cases of Lassa virus infection in Guinea out of 311 suspected cases. An 18% fatality rate was reported for the Lassa fever cases . The mosthe sera . This stAfter the outbreak of an influenza-like illness, a surveillance that included the collection of nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs was conducted during 2009–2010. Clinical samples from 166 symptomatic patients were collected. This study identified five IBV-positive patients while 15 patients were found to be infected with IAV. More precisely, nine patients were found to be infected with A(H1N1)pdm09 virus while six patients were positive for influenza virus H3N2 subtype. The IAV and IBV isolates retrieved in this study could not be sequenced given the poor quality of the clinical specimen and virus isolation .A new subtype of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) subtype 1g was reported from rural Guinea-Bissau . It is bUntil 4 May 2015, a total of 5343 Ebola cases had been reported from Liberia. Interestingly, 2078 cases (38.9%) had a history of contact with those who were infected with the disease . These cIn March 2015, a case of sexual transmission of Ebola virus from a male partner to a female was reported from Montserrado County. There was a male survivor of the Ebola virus disease whose brother and estranged wife were also positive for Ebola virus in 2014. The survivor male had undergone several tests, including blood and semen, at different intervals to assess the status of the disease. The survivor’s seminal fluid and blood were negative for Ebola virus 231 days after the estimated onset of the Ebola virus disease. Surprisingly, the TruSeq RNA Access kit  using custom capture probes achieved 85.1% of the genome coverage of Ebola virus from the semen of the male survivor. The nucleotide sequence alignment of the genomes retrieved from the survivor’s semen and his female sexual partner was done and it was found that there was only one base-pair mismatch across the 15,808 nucleotides, which was a strong evidence of sexual transmission of Ebola virus from this male survivor to his female partner .In June 2015, the case of a 17-year-old deceased boy from Margibi County triggered the alarm of a second Ebola flare-up in Liberia 101 days after the last detected case of Ebola virus disease. Following this, at least seven other cases having Ebola-like symptoms were reported from the region, six of whom were found positive for the disease using real time RT-PCR analysis . FurtherApart from Ebola virus disease, at least two MPXV disease events have been reported from Liberia so far. The first event of disease confirmed four cases during the period of 1970–1990 . Almost Mastomys natalensis has been reported to transmit the disease to humans. In an investigation, out of 793 individual rodent samples collected in sub-Saharan Mali, Mastomys natalensis was amongst the most frequently captured rodent species. In total, 35 of the 511 tested M. natalensis sera samples were positive, with a seroprevalence rate of 6.8% [M. natalensis population captured from southern Mali, especially the surrounding villages nearby Soromba. Real-time and conventional RT-PCR analyses revealed a prevalence rate of 7.7% (19/246). Intriguingly, ˃99% of the rodents captured from southern Mali were M. natalensis species [Lassa fever is an important zoonotic disease found in Western African countries. The rodent species of  of 6.8% . Interes species . This ob species . Despite species .A cohort of 202 rural inhabitants of Mali were investigated for the seroprevalence of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus using the HI assay. Sera samples were collected from 202 rural individuals living in eight different villages during the year 2006 and later in April 2010. The HI assay identified 30 individuals that were positive for the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus in this investigation. This study reported the seroprevalence of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus in the rural population of Mali .During September to November 2015, a hemorrhagic fever outbreak occurred in Mauritania. The first symptomatic case was tested for Ebola virus through RT-PCR, which was found to be negative. Hence, further diagnostics for RVFV, CCHFV, dengue virus, chikungunya virus, WNV, and YFV was conducted using either ELISA or RT-PCR. After this, 10 more cases were investigated for the above viruses. As a result, an RVFV outbreak was declared, as all the suspected cases were positive for the RVFV infection. Following this declaration, a surveillance was conducted and the patients reporting fever, back pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and cutaneous bleeding were sampled and tested for the differential diagnostics for RVFV, CCHFV, and YFV using anti-IgM ELISA and RT-PCR. This investigation included all 11 samples before the outbreak was announced and 173 samples that were collected after the outbreak was declared. Therefore, a total of 184 samples were investigated for several arboviruses. As a result, 57 samples were found to be positive for the RVFV, 5 samples were positive for CCHFV, 27 samples were positive for dengue fever virus, and one sample was positive for WNV. There were some samples that were co-infected with two viruses. The RVFV-positive samples were partially sequenced and a phylogenetic analysis was conducted, which revealed a possible association between the observed cases in Mauritania and the RVFV isolates reported from Senegal in 2013. The RVFV disease outbreak in Mauritania reported 57 confirmed cases as well as 12 deaths .After the outbreak of an influenza-like illness during 2009–2010, a large-scale surveillance that included the collection of nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs was conducted. Clinical samples from 227 patients were collected, and RNA was extracted for the diagnostics of influenza viruses. RNA samples were subjected to the molecular detection of IAV and IBV using specific oligonucleotides with one-step real-time RT-PCR assays. Only IAV-positive samples were further subjected to a second real-time RT-PCR assay to distinguish among the H1, H3, and A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses. Virus isolation was attempted in Madin-Darby Canine Kidney (MDCK) cells followed by virus subtyping using the HI assay with specific antisera. The HA and NA gene sequences of the selected viruses were obtained through cycle sequencing followed by sequence alignment and phylogenetic analysis for virus characterization. The investigation revealed that a total of 39 patients were positive for IAV while only three were positive for IBV. Further, 26 patients were found to be infected with A(H1N1)pdm09 virus while seven samples were positive for IAV H3N2 subtype. Six samples were also found to be positive for IAV H1N1 subtype while only three samples were positive for IBV. Interestingly, based on the HA gene sequences that were retrieved in this study, five of the IAV isolates clustered together with the sequences reported from Uganda and southern Russia .Rift Valley fever outbreak was reported from Niger during July–September 2016. As a result, many ruminants, including cows, goats, and sheep, were reported to have fever, increased salivation, abortions, and death during the outbreak. An investigation was soon launched after the disease symptoms in ruminants were reported in the country. In the early phase of the investigation, sera samples were collected from 13 symptomatic humans as well as 6 animals, including one camel, one cow, 3 goats, and one sheep. The collected sera samples were tested for a panel of arboviruses, including chikungunya virus, dengue virus, YFV, and WNV, as well as hemorrhagic fever viruses, including CCHFV and RVFV. Three animals, including one cow, one goat, and a sheep, were found to be positive for RVFV through the RT-PCR assay. Further, during August–December 2016, a total of 399 human sera samples were collected. RT-PCR and ELISA tests identified 17 RVFV cases. More precisely, nine sera samples were found to be positive with RT-PCR while eight samples were positive for ELISA using specific antibodies. Strikingly, 33 human subjects under investigation were reported dead during this period. This was the first report of RVFV from Niger. The findings of this investigation showed the high probability of virus zoonosis between ruminants and the exposed human population in the region. Interestingly, the study also suggested that large human gatherings during festivities where ruminants are traditionally sacrificed along with environmental factors like wet climatic conditions may potentially aggravate the spread of the disease .The prevalence of H5N1 in poultry in Nigeria has been known since 2006, but the incidence of human infections was unknown. Hence, an investigation was carried out to determine if the agricultural workers exposed to poultry had evidence of disease transmission. The study included 316 farm and open market workers from four towns in the south-western part of Nigeria who were exposed to domesticated poultry, including chickens, geese, ducks, pigeons, and turkeys . The MN Over a two-year period during July 2010–June 2012, a total of 227 clinical cases of swine influenza were observed among the swine population in Lagos. Nasal swabs along with blood samples were collected from pigs and pig handlers who participated in this study. Viral RNA was extracted from nasal swab samples and sera was separated from the blood samples for downstream processing. The human workers and the animals included in this study were observed for any clinical signs of respiratory distress as well as fever and coughing. Viral RNA was subjected to one-step matrix gene real-time RT-PCR for the detection of IAV. No human samples were found to be positive for IAV infection. Interestingly, 31 swine samples were found to be positive. The virus was successfully isolated from 29 swine samples. These 29 samples were further investigated for subtyping, which confirmed the presence of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus in 18 swine samples. This was the first report of the prevalence of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus in Nigerian pigs .Soon after, another investigation from December 2015 to February 2016, during the period of circulation of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus subtype in poultry in Nigeria, 129 apparently healthy pigs were sampled for an investigation of the incidence of the disease. Surprisingly, real-time PCR analysis confirmed that 43 swine samples were infected with the IAV . IntriguSeventy-five nasal swabs from pigs at a municipal slaughterhouse in Bodija and at the University of Ibadan’s Teaching and Research Farm were collected and investigated for IAV. The assay revealed that three pig swab samples were positive for IAV H3N2 subtype . FurtherIn a more recent investigation during 2014–2016, 68 pig handlers working either at the public abattoir or in piggeries were enrolled for an IAV surveillance study. In addition to the pig handlers, swine samples were also collected during this investigation .Another study was undertaken to assess the prevalence of IAV in pigs and piggery workers in two communities in Lagos. Nasal swab and sera samples from 197 piggery workers as well as 281 pigs were collected from both communities in this study. One-step RT-PCR revealed that all the human and swine nasal swab samples were negative for IAV. Interestingly, 171 human sera and 188 swine sera samples were found to be positive with influenza A IgG antibodies using an ELISA assay. This study presented the evidence of past exposure of the swine and piggery workers to IAV infection .In another investigation, sera samples were collected from swine herds at swine farms and at slaughterhouses. A total of 264 sera samples from 31 swine herds were collected during 2009 and 627 sera from 75 herds were collected during 2012. The majority of the pigs appeared healthy at the time of sampling, with the exception of five pigs that exhibited sneezing, nasal discharge, and weakness. All sera samples were tested by the virus microneutralization assay using MDCK cells, given its higher sensitivity over HI test where HI assay has too much cross-reactivity from human viruses and is worthless for swine viruses. The results found that during 2009, only one swine herd was positive for the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus while the samples taken during 2012 resulted in 66 A(H1N1)pdm09 virus-positive swine herds, which suggested that most of the swine herds were free from influenza in 2009 but later became infected. On the contrary, eight herds were positive for IAV H1N1 subtype while four swine herds were positive for human-like H3N2 virus during 2009. Intriguingly, during 2012, a study found that 53 swine herds became infected with H1N1 virus while 66 herds were found to be positive for A(H1N1)pdm09 virus, which was a sharp increase compared to 2009 .A sero-surveillance was conducted to assess the seroprevalence of canine influenza virus H3N8 and H3N2 in pet dogs and village hunting dogs in Oyo, Lagos, and Ogun provinces of southwestern Nigeria. Approximately 3 mL of blood were collected from 96 pet dogs as well as from 89 village dogs living in hunting communities. The HI assay using specific antibodies detected that 75 dogs were seropositive for canine influenza virus H3N8 antibodies while none of the dogs were positive for canine influenza virus H3N2 subtype. However, most of the pet dogs sampled at Ibadan and Lagos veterinary clinics were vaccinated for rabies virus and canine distemper virus, but the seroprevalence of canine influenza virus H3N8 subtype in pet and village dogs puts the companion human population at risk for disease transmission .Several cases of MPXV disease have been reported from Nigeria. The first known case appeared in an eleven-year-old boy in the year 1971 who developed MPXV disease symptoms, including a rash, sore throat, fever, and headache, among other symptoms. Subsequently, other family members contracted similar disease symptoms, but the epidemiology of the disease could not be ascertained. Later monkeypox outbreaks in the country reported at least 262 suspected cases, out of which 7 patients died while another 115 cases were confirmed for the MPXV disease ,131. TheFrom 1964 to 1970, a total of 12,613 specimens were examined for the screening of virus diseases at the University College Hospital in Ibadan . SerologA high seroprevalence of MERS-CoV was reported in dromedary camels during 2010–2011. In total, 358 sera samples were collected from dromedary camels, which were raised for the purpose of meat production, from abattoirs located in four provinces viz., Adamawa, Borno, Kano, and Sokoto. Serology based on IgG antibodies detected MERS-CoV in 94% of the sera samples (336/358). The study illustrated that the MERS-CoV reported in humans is genetically highly similar to the MERS-CoV reported in dromedary camels, which suggested that dromedary camels may be a potential reservoir for MERS-CoV and may facilitate the disease transmission to humans .A sero-surveillance for the detection of HEV among pigs, cattle, and goats was conducted during January-March 2016. Indirect ELISA detected anti-HEV antibodies in 69 pigs while cattle and goat samples were found to be sero-negative .During August 2015–February 2017, 142 sera samples were collected from 11 species of non-human primates. Sera samples from some of the domestic pet monkeys were also included in this study. Indirect ELISA using Ebola virus-specific antibody identified three different non-human primates having Ebola virus antibodies. The findings of this study suggested that contact or confrontation of the human population living in the region with non-human primates may put the human population at risk of disease contraction .In a long-term study, carcasses from dead wild and domestic birds as well as cloacal and tracheal swabs from sick or suspected birds were collected during 2002–2015. A total of 101 NDV-confirmed samples were subjected to next-generation sequencing and Sanger sequencing, which generated 73 complete or near complete genomes of NDV and 38 partial sequences comprising the fusion gene. This study also identified genotypes and sub-genotypes among the NDV isolates, and interestingly, reported genotype IV and sub-genotype VIh of NDV for the first time from Africa . IntriguThe first strain of genotype XVII of NDV was reported from a free-roaming apparently healthy domestic duck in Kuru, Nigeria in 1992. The complete genome of 15,192 bp was obtained from next-generation sequencing using an MiSeq Illumina platform .Newcastle disease, MERS, hepatitis E, avian influenza and monkeypox were among the most frequently reported disease outbreaks in Nigeria. IAV, canine influenza virus H3N8, WNV, YFV, Zika virus, Ebola virus, dengue virus, and chikungunya virus were among the less frequently reported virus diseases in Nigeria .Culex and Aedes mosquitoes in the Ferlo region [In total, 120 horses were sampled, and the sera was harvested for WNV detection among pastoral communities of Barkedji village in the Ferlo area of Senegal following a previous study, which reported the presence of o region . Anti-Igo region . Intereso region . The resFollowing an influenza-like illness in the country during 2009–2010, a large-scale surveillance was conducted for the detection of influenza viruses. Nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs were collected from 2264 symptomatic patients; the extracted RNA samples were subjected to molecular detection of IAV and IBV. Only IAV-positive samples were further subjected to a second real-time RT-PCR assay to distinguish among the H1, H3, and A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses. Out of 2264 samples, 641 samples were found to be positive for IAV while 76 samples were positive for IBV. More precisely, 293 patients were found to be positive for H3N2 virus while 345 samples were positive for A(H1N1)pdm09 virus. Only three samples were positive for the IAV subtype H1N1. Interestingly, the phylogenetic analysis based on the HA1 sequences of five A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses retrieved in this study reflected a close association with the sequences reported from Cameroon, Ghana, and Cote d’Ivoire .In total, 1434 individuals from nomadic pastoral communities from five north-eastern Senegalese districts were investigated for the seroprevalence of chikungunya virus during September–October 2014. Dried blood samples were obtained from the enrolled individuals and were subjected to serological examination using anti-CHIKV IgG antibodies using a method for bead-based IgG detection. The results showed that 39 nomadic pastoralist individuals were seropositive for chikungunya virus antibodies. This study suggested that there was no recent exposure to chikungunya virus in the nomadic pastoralist communities and therefore a low seroprevalence was reported in these nomadic pastoralists .A Rift Valley fever case who tested positive for the disease made the authorities curious about a possible outbreak in the region; hence, neighbors, friends, family members, high school students, and other contacts of the index case were sampled for diagnostics of the RVFV. A total of 334 blood samples were tested for RVFV IgM and IgG as well as RNA. All the samples were negative for the disease except a 20-year-old housewife and a 32-year-old tradesman besides the case patient. The RVFV that was isolated from the patient appeared to be closely related to the virus that was reported from Mauritania in 2012 .The recent Ebola virus disease outbreak in the Western African country of Sierra Leone reported 10,746 total cases; almost one-third of the cases reported either a funeral or non-funeral (either household or work-related) exposure of Ebola virus . In totaA new sequence-based study revealed the transmission chains of Ebola virus in Sierra Leone. This study included 855 samples collected from patients admitted to the Ebola care centers in different districts in the country during December 2014 and September 2015. The total nucleic acid extracted from these samples was screened for Ebola virus RNA using real-time PCR. The samples were divided into two pools: The first pool was screened using 73 Ebola virus-specific primer-pairs in the presence of five human housekeeping genes as a control. Samples in a second pool were screened using 72 Ebola virus-specific primer-pairs and the housekeeping genes as controls. Ion Torrent Hi-Q sequencing generated 554 Ebola virus genome sequences from the positive samples . Blood, From August 2015 to January 2016, eight human Ebola virus cases were reported from Sierra Leone ,145. In Another surveillance study reported 232 Ebola virus cases in Sierra Leone during the 2013–2015 outbreak based on genome sequences. This report also suggested human-to-human transmission of the virus .Human cases of MPXV disease have also been reported from Sierra Leone. The first human case of MPXV disease was reported in the year 1972 when six suspected cases were investigated but only one was found to be positive for the disease . During n = 201), sheep (n = 135), and goats (n = 205) were collected from Togo during 2009 to 2015. The HI and microneutralization (MN) assays determined that 10.4% of cattle, 2.2% of sheep, and 1.4% of goat samples were serologically positive for IDV-specific antibodies [A serological survey reported the incidence of influenza D virus (IDV) in small ruminants in Togo . A totaltibodies . There wtibodies .During the years 2009–2010, 2454 oropharyngeal and cloacal swab samples were collected from birds. All the samples were subjected to RT-PCR-based IAV diagnostics, which revealed that none of the samples were positive for IAV infection. Additionally, 436 sera samples were also collected from birds and subjected to ELISA as well as HI assays using IAV-specific antibodies, but all were negative for IAV .In another investigation, 325 swine nasal swab samples were collected from an abattoir in Lome during October 2012–January 2014. Samples were pooled for five samples per tube to reduce the cost of diagnostics, resulting in 65 pools. The pigs appeared asymptomatic at the time of sampling. The extracted viral RNA was subjected to specific one-step real-time RT-PCR for the detection of IAV in the samples: Eight pools were found to be positive. Further, a subtyping assay based on real-time RT-PCR for the HA gene identified that all the positive pools had A(H1N1)pdm09 virus sequences. Virus isolation in MDCK cells was attempted, and therefore, one complete genome was retrieved. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus retrieved in this study was closely related to human A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses that had circulated in the region since 2010. Therefore, this study suggested a possible transmission of the virus from humans to swine . OverallCountries in Central Africa include Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Sao Tome, and Principe, as well as South Sudan.In a study, residual sera samples from 6839 patients who visited clinics in Central Luanda with typical dengue fever symptoms between 1 January 2016 and 15 May 2018 were collected for this study to investigate the seroprevalence of dengue virus. Screening for dengue virus was done for 153 randomly selected sera samples, out of which 80 samples were found to be positive for DENV-NS1 protein. The first confirmed case of dengue virus was detected in May 2017. All 153 randomly selected sera samples were further tested for dengue virus RNA using real-time quantitative RT-PCR, which successfully detected one positive sample for dengue virus serotype-2 (DENV-2). This case reported traveling to a nearby island during 24 December 2017 through to 2 January 2018. Attempts were made to amplify the entire coding region of this DENV-2 isolate for sequencing. The phylogenetic analysis clearly determined that the dengue virus isolate retrieved from the man in Luanda was the DENV-2 serotype and formed a monophyletic clade with dengue virus genomes reported earlier from east African countries .A study investigated the genotypes and subtypes of hepatitis C virus (HCV) in the central African country of Burundi between January and May 2013. In this investigation, 179 serologically HCV positive patients were enrolled to further study the circulating genotypes and subtypes of HCV. TaqMan real-time RT-PCR was used to detect the HCV RNA in the samples; HCV genotyping and subtyping was also done. The results found that the highest number of patients (166 patients or 92.7%) were infected with the HCV-4 genotype. Ten patients were identified to carry genotype-1 (HCV-1) while three patients were infected with genotype-3 (HCV-3). Subtyping was successfully done for 51 HCV-4 cases, which identified that the 4h subtype represented the highest frequency (49.1%) of infection followed by the 4e (21.6%) and 4k (3.9%) subtypes. Therefore, this study reported that HCV-4 was the most common genotype of HCV in Burundi along with the 4h and 4e subtypes, which were most commonly present .Stool samples from chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans, were collected from different locations in Cameroon to investigate the shedding of adenoviruses. Samples were collected from 43 non-human primates living in their natural habitat. A conserved sequence of the DNA polymerase gene of the adenovirus genome was amplified from 18 stool samples with nested PCR. However, attempts at virus isolation were unsuccessful, but this study reported the prevalence of adenovirus in non-human primates living in the natural habitat .The A(H1N1)pdm09 virus was first reported in domestic Cameroonian swine during 2009–2010. Following a mild respiratory disease among Cameroonian swine herds, 104 nasal and 98 blood samples were taken from 11 domestic swine herds in several villages. The extracted RNA from swine nasal swabs was subjected to real-time PCR for the IAV matrix gene. Matrix gene-positive swine samples were further subjected to A(H1N1)pdm09 virus-specific real-time RT-PCR followed by virus isolation. Additionally, HI assays were conducted on the sera samples to detect IAV-specific antibodies. The real-time PCR detected two positive swine nasal swabs, which were successfully subtyped as A(H1N1)pdm09 virus. Interestingly, the youngest infected swine was found to be four months of age, which indicated that the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus was in circulation in this swine herd within the last four months of the sampling .Another investigation was conducted to investigate the spillover of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus. The study reported active infection of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus in two swine samples. Further, 325 swine nasal swab and sera samples were collected from 12 different sites during December 2009–August 2012. Cloacal swab samples from 582 domestic poultry birds, including chickens, ducks, geese, and turkeys, as well as 1479 wild birds were collected. Samples were diagnosed using real-time RT-PCR and ELISA assays. The positive sera samples were further tested with the HI assay for confirmation. Real-time RT-PCR detected active A(H1N1)pdm09 virus infection in one swine nasal swab sample from each of the two study sites. Interestingly, sera samples collected from all domestic poultry were found to be negative for IAV. This study suggested that the free-roaming nature of pigs may put them at risk of acquiring the disease because in this manner, they may come in frequent contact with other animals, including ducks and wild birds, as well as humans . The finApart from this, a highly pathogenic IAV H5N8 subtype has recently been reported from Cameroon. The IAV H5N8 subtype was detected in duck, chicken, guinea fowl, and pigeon populations . The finA 2005–2012 seroprevalence study consisting of 137 individuals of Pygmies, the community of hunter-gatherers that has lived in the dense rain forests of Cameroon for centuries, resulted in 17 RVFV-infected and 6 CCHFV-infected individuals while two individuals were found to be positive for both viruses . This stPicornaviridae and are known to cause infections in humans and Old-World monkey species. Four of the chimpanzee samples were found to be positive for enteroviruses based on highly conserved 5’ UTR nucleotide sequences [In another study, fecal samples from 27 chimpanzees and 27 gorillas, collected from forests not disturbed by human activities, were screened for the presence of enteroviruses. Enteroviruses are members of the family equences . This stequences .Another study provided evidence of zoonotic transmission of Nipah virus. A seroprevalence study showed that people involved in the butchering of bats for bushmeat were most likely to contract the infection .Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is also widespread among pigs. A serological study found that 70 out of 162 pigs sampled were positive for HEV . The stuThe human population in Cameroon is at high risk of zoonotic virus infections. In a study, Western blot assay revealed that a blood donor was positive for dual infections with HIV-1 and SFV . This stIn another interesting study, it was observed that HIV-1 infection in Pygmy hunter-gatherers in Cameroon was due to contact with the Bantu community [In a large-scale seroprevalence study, 3955 plasma samples were collected from individuals in Cameroon to screen for HIV-1 infection. As a result, 191 individuals were found to be seropositive for HIV-1 infection. Interestingly, these people were in frequent contact with non-human primates either through hunting activities or butchering for bushmeat , hence tThe emergence of a new retrovirus named as human T lymphotropic virus (HTLV) has recently been reported from communities in Cameroon . In a seAn investigation among bushmeat hunters reported new strains of HTLV in their community: HTLV-3 and HTLV-4 . It was Another study documented HTLV-1, HTLV-2, and SFV infections in pygmies. In this study, 5 pygmies out of 35 individuals were found to be infected with HTLV-1, nine were found to be positive for HTLV-2, while one individual had dual infections with HTLV-1 and HTLV-2. Five people were positive for SFV infection while one person was positive for primate T lymphotropic virus-3 (PTLV-3) infection . This stAnother surveillance study included two groups of the population in Cameroon; the first group included 1321 individuals from the general population while the second group consisted of 198 individuals who were either bitten or scratched by non-human primates in the past . While oSimian T-cell leukemia virus (STLV) strains, STLV-1 and STLV-3, have also been reported in gorillas and monkeys from Cameroon . The prePoxviridae family, which represents human pathogens. In a recent report, until 2018, four confirmed cases of monkeypox have been reported from Cameroon [Monkeypox virus (MPXV) is another emerging zoonotic virus in Africa, including Cameroon. MPXV is a member of the Cameroon . The zooLiver tissue samples that were collected from pigs during February–March 2012 for HEV surveillance were used for the detection of the prevalence of porcine hokovirus. A total of 282 liver tissue samples, which were divided into 94 pools, were subjected to molecular diagnostics using quantitative real-time PCR. In total, 65 of the 94 pools were found to be positive for porcine hokovirus infection. All the positive pools were then tested individually. As a result, 128 individual samples were found to be positive for porcine hokovirus infection in pigs .In another surveillance for influenza virus infections among the human population during 1999–2014, 259 human infections of the H3N2 subtype of IAV and 102 cases of IBV infections were reported from Cameroon .An avian influenza H5N1 outbreak hit poultry during May- June 2016. To investigate the status of poultry flocks, 147 trachea and cloacal swab samples were collected from 7 regions encompassing 19 different sites. Additionally, biopsies of the internal organs were collected from the dead post-mortem poultry birds. RNA was extracted from the poultry samples and were subjected to real-time RT-PCR for the detection of the M- gene. Further, IAV-positive samples were tested for the H5 and H7 subtypes. The H5-positive samples were also tested for the N1 gene for confirmation of the subtype. The results revealed that out of 147 poultry samples, 58 were positive for IAV. Subtyping identified 34 poultry samples that were positive for H5N1 virus. Simultaneously, blood samples along with oropharyngeal and nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from poultry workers or poultry-exposed individuals who worked either at the poultry farm or in a live poultry market for investigation. Only 15 human samples were found to be positive for IAV, which were successfully subtyped into 11 isolates of H3N2 virus, while four isolates could not be subtyped. Seroconversion was detected only in two poultry workers .Sera samples were collected from 29 swine herds during May–June 2011. A total of 197 sera samples from 29 swine herds were collected from the majority of healthy or clinically normal pigs while only a small percentage of pigs had diarrhea. Sera samples were tested by a virus microneutralization assay using MDCK cells given its higher sensitivity over the HI test. The results found that nine swine herds were positive for A(H1N1)pdm09 virus while the nine other herds were positive for H1N1 virus. This study suggested that IAV was in circulation during 2011 .Overall, the adenovirus, HEV, henipavirus, HTLV, and porcine hokovirus were the most frequently reported virus diseases in Cameroon. The MPXV, IAV, RVFV, STLV, HIV-1, CCHFV, enterovirus, and avian influenza virus diseases were comparatively less frequently reported in Cameroon .In September 2018, three members of a Pygmy family in the Central African Republic, including a mother and her two daughters, were reported to have contracted MPXV infection, with the index case female exhibiting symptoms of a maculopapular rash and lesions on the palms and soles of the hands and feet, respectively. In the first week of October 2018, an investigation was launched and learned that the index case female recently butchered three small mammals a few days before the onset of the rash and lesions. A few days later, two more family members of the index case female became symptomatic for the MPXV disease, which was confirmed by testing their samples with PCR. In the last week of October, another relative of this index case female was reported to have contracted the disease. In this investigation, it was observed that the disease spread among the index case female’s family members and relatives through three waves of infection and hence was considered as an intrafamilial transmission of MPXV disease .An ELISA-based seroprevalence study of RVFV disease was conducted among ruminants in Chad. The study area included nine villages and camps located on the south-eastern shore of Lake Chad. Sera samples from 715 cattle, 144 goats, and 65 sheep were collected and processed for RVFV diagnostics using ELISA. A total of 270 cattle, 27 goat, and 7 sheep samples were positive for the RVFV antibodies. The study speculated two possible factors behind the higher seroprevalence of cattle than goats and sheep in this investigation: The longer life span of cattle, which makes them vulnerable to the acquisition of disease compared to small ruminants, and the exposure of cattle to Lake Chad while goat and sheep are mostly restricted to a limited area .An HPAIV H5N8 subtype was reported from ducks and a chicken in 2017. A total of 11 out of 21 sampled ducks, were found to be positive for the H5 subtype of avian influenza virus using reverse-transcription PCR . This stThe first outbreak of Ebola virus disease reported 319 cases in 1976–1977. Later, 315 cases were reported in 1995, and lately, 296 cases were reported in 2007–2008 . In anotIn a surveillance study, one commercial sex worker and one blood donor were found to be positive for HIV-1 and SFV infections . It was Twenty-four stool samples from non-human primates living in forest areas were collected. DNA was extracted from all the samples and subjected to nested PCR for amplification of the DNA polymerase gene of adenovirus. The goal of this investigation was to undertake a study of the assessment of adenovirus shedding in the stool of non-human primates. A total of nine stool samples from chimpanzees and gorillas were found to shed adenovirus in their stool. Due to certain technical limitations, the virus isolation attempts were not successful. .In another study, a nine-month-old child was the first reported case of MPXV disease in Bokenda village in 1970 who was believed to be infected with smallpox, but the virus isolation confirmed it to be MPXV infection. His family had been eating monkeys occasionally as a delicacy . InteresIn a hospital-based transmission of MPXV disease, 11 confirmed or probable cases were reported . InteresIn the period of February to August 2001, seven outbreaks of suspected MPXV disease were reported . SeveralMandrillus sphinx). In this case, hunting and butchering of mandrills was suspected as the primary source of zoonosis [The first case of SFV infection was reported in the year 1985. Human contact with non-human primates was suspected to be the source of infection . The seczoonosis . Three Szoonosis . Intereszoonosis ,176,177.A widespread infection of SFV was reported from rural areas of the country in the year 2007. Sixteen patients were confirmed for SFV infection with Western blot analysis, out of which 14 patients were further confirmed with SFV sequences . PhylogeIn a sero-surveillance study assessing the seroprevalence of RVFV in cattle, blood was collected from the coccygeal vein of 677 cattle across 17 villages in Kwilu province during April 2017. Sera was tested against anti-RVFV antibodies using a nucleocapsid protein-based indirect immunofluorescence assay. The positive and intermediate cases were re-tested with ELISA for confirmation, which identified 38 cattle having anti-RVFV antibodies. The positive results were found among the samples collected across the territories, which indicated that the RVFV disease was prevalent among cattle across the Kwilu province .Blood donors from the urban areas of Malabo city and adjacent rural areas as well as parts of Bioko island were screened for the infection of HBV, HCV, and HIV at Malabo Regional Hospital blood bank between January 2011 and April 2013. A total of 2937 blood samples were first screened with colloidal gold immunochromatographic assay test strips. The positive samples were further confirmed for positivity with specific ELISA tests for these viruses. The results found that 230 (7.83%) blood donors were positive for HIV while 294 (10.01%) blood donors were positive for HBV infection. The HCV seroprevalence was determined to be 3.71%, with 109 positive cases. Interestingly, 29 blood donors were found to be co-infected with HIV and HBV while 8 donors were co-infected with HIV and HCV, as well as HBV and HCV each. This study, for the first time, reported the seroprevalence of HIV, HBV, and HCV in blood donors from Bioko island .Aedes albopictus was identified as the vector of chikungunya virus during the 2007 outbreak of the disease in Gabon. People with symptoms of fever, arthralgia, and/or rash were subjected to the investigation. A total of 24 symptomatic individuals were bled for the detection of a panel of viruses, including chikungunya virus, Zika virus, WNV, dengue virus, YFV, and RVFV, using a specific TaqMan probe in real-time RT-PCR reactions. In total, 12 samples were found to be positive for the chikungunya virus infection [Aedes albopictus. The second had 12 Aedes aegypti mosquitoes grouped into 6 pools, and the third pool had only one mosquito of the species Aedes simpsoni. Intriguingly, 32 pools (71%) of Aedes albopictus mosquitoes were found to be positive for chikungunya virus using the same TaqMan probe in real-time RT-PCR assay [Aedes aegypti was positive for the chikungunya virus while the Aedes simpsoni mosquito was negative for the virus infection [Aedes albopictus mosquito as the potential vector for the chikungunya virus’ dissemination.The tiger mosquito nfection . To idenCR assay . Only onnfection . This stAn Ebola virus outbreak was reported from non-human primates in Gabon. A total of 210 confirmed infections were reported during the period of 1994–2002 . The invAt least 10 confirmed cases of MPXV disease were reported in 1987 ,183. TwoIn an attempt to characterize the cross-species transmission of SFV to humans, 497 samples from non-human primates comprising blood and tissues and 78 blood samples of humans, especially those who recalled an encounter with non-human primates in the recent past, were collected. These people either received a bite or scratch from non-human primates. A total of 31 out of 286 blood samples from non-human primates had antibodies against SFV . A totalIn another study, 84 mandrills were investigated for the infection of SFV. In total, 70 captive and nine wild-caught mandrills were found to be seropositive for SFV . A groupAnother investigation studied the status of SFV prevalence in non-human primates and its potential for cross-species transmission to an exposed human population. In total, 273 blood samples from captive species of non-human primates and 211 tissue samples from animals sold as bushmeat were collected. A total of 9.8% of the captive animals and 4.7% of the bushmeat samples were found to be positive for SFV with PCR analysis . AnotherA total of 48 samples from different species of non-human primates, including grey-cheeked mangabeys, mustached monkeys, De Brazza’s monkeys, greater spot-nosed monkeys, crested mona monkeys, mandrill, and red-capped mangabeys were collected. Seven samples were found to be positive for HTLV-1 while one sample was positive for both HTLV-1 and HTLV-2. Thirteen samples were positive for STLV-1 and three samples were positive for STLV-3, while one sample was positive for both STLV-1 and STLV-3 . Since tEbola virus disease outbreaks have been reported in the Republic of Congo during 2001 to 2005. During this period, a total of 249 cases of Ebola virus disease were reported, with an alarmingly high mortality rate: 211 patients (84.74%) died . An inveMonkeypox was also reported in the country during 2000–2009. Three confirmed cases were detected out of 12 suspected cases. Later, the frequency of the disease increased, and 98 suspected cases were reported during 2010–2018, with 9 confirmed patients . This inIn a sero-surveillance during March–July 2011, sera samples were collected from 386 healthy urban and rural blood donors. A serum neutralization test for Zika virus detection identified a low seroprevalence in the country, with only seven healthy individuals (1.8%) having Zika virus antibodies. This investigation suggested a limited circulation of Zika virus in the Republic of Congo .After an influx of abortion cases among cattle in Rwanda during December 2012–March 2013, an epidemiological surveillance was conducted across six districts. Sera samples were collected from 595 cattle and subjected to ELISA using RVFV-specific antibodies. In total, 100 sera were found to be positive for the RVFV antibodies. The study suggested that the predominance of mosquitoes, which might serve as a vector for the disease, may be an important factor behind the prevalence of RVFV in the Nile basin .The first case of IAV disease was reported in October 2009 from a Rwandan woman of 42 years of age who came back to Kigali after completing a short US visit. She had an influenza-like illness; later, the same symptoms were reported in two of her children on 6 October 2009. On 8 October 2009, samples from the index case woman were found to be positive for A(H1N1)pdm09 virus through real-time RT-PCR. Immediately after this report, the authorities started tracing the contacts of the index case woman. Her friends, neighbors, the office where she worked, the hospital where she got treated, as well as the school where her children went for education were among the most probable spots for infection, hence these were investigated. All the suspected cases were sampled for nasopharyngeal or oropharyngeal swabs for diagnostics of the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus. Interestingly, a foreigner living in Gisenyi city, which is located away from Kigali, developed influenza-like symptoms after his arrival from the USA on 27 October 2009. His samples came up positive for A(H1N1)pdm09 virus on 30 October 2009. After some time, in November 2011, an A(H1N1)pdm09 virus infection was detected in two foreign nationals who arrived in Rwanda from Europe. During this influenza pandemic period in Rwanda, a large number of community cases were reported and tested positive, which confirmed the widespread presence of the disease in the country.Between October 2009 and May 2010, a total of 2045 nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal human samples were screened for influenza viruses. Out of these, 510 IAV- and 22 IBV-positive samples were found. Among the IAV-positive samples, 494 were positive for H1N1 subtype, while 15 cases were A(H1N1)pdm09 and only one case was positive for H3N2 subtype. Most of the cases exhibited influenza-like illness while only a few had severe acute respiratory illness .During 2003–2004, a total of 78 pregnant women were sampled and tested for the seroprevalence of dengue virus. Sera samples were first screened through the immunofluorescence assay, which determined 31 sera (39.74%) as being positive for dengue virus antibodies. Further, sera were tested with indirect ELISA using dengue E IgG antibodies and NS1 IgG antibodies, which revealed that 53 sera (67.95%) were positive for dengue E IgG while 38 sera (48.72%) samples were positive for dengue NS1 IgG. Only those sera samples that were found to be positive with all three tests were considered positive for dengue virus IgG while the others were considered negative. This resulted in, overall, 28 sera samples (35.90%) that were positive for dengue virus IgG. Interestingly, out of these 28 IgG-positive samples, only one serum sample was positive for IgM-capture-ELISA, which suggested that there was only one recently acquired dengue virus infection in the study population while the indirect IgG ELISA results indicated that most of the dengue virus infections observed in this study occurred in the past .A case of an eight-month-old child was the first reported case of MPXV disease from South Sudan in 2005. The child developed mild symptoms, initially including fever and cough among other symptoms, which suddenly became severe with the onset of a pustular rash and lesions in different body parts within the next few hours. Investigations of the specimens from this child were conducted at the Institut Pasteur in France, where the child was confirmed as positive for MPXV disease. Interestingly, the mother of this child developed similar symptoms during this time and was also confirmed as positive for the disease . FollowiThree human cases, which developed a pustular rash, were found to be positive for the Varicella-zoster virus infection in January 2006, but the source of infection was unknown because the investigation was seized due to a lack of resources . To summNorth African countries are Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia.In late 2017, a high mortality was observed in poultry flocks in Algeria. During October–November 2017, three poultry flocks were taken under investigation in the Fouka region. Congestion was observed in the visceral organs, including the trachea, lungs, pancreas, liver, and kidneys, of dead birds. Fifteen HA gene sequences of avian influenza virus H9N2 subtype were retrieved from the tissues of dead poultry. Phylogenetic analysis showed that these sequences were closely related to the H9N2 virus sequences reported recently in Morocco and Burkina Faso .Hyalomma aegyptium) were collected to determine their biological and epidemiological role in Laghouat province during 2009–2010. Ticks were investigated for CCHFV infection using nested RT-PCR, which detected that 16 ticks were positive for CCHFV infection. A total of 15 amplicons were sequenced, which identified the AP92 strain of CCHFV in H. aegyptium ticks collected from tortoises [In another study, 56 ticks  is a zoonotic disease caused by lineage C of  disease . In diff disease ,208.The CCHFV is the causative agent of hemorrhagic fever outbreaks reported in African, Middle Eastern, and Asian countries. CCHF is a tick-borne disease, which spreads through either biting or contact with infected animal tissues or blood. The disease was first reported in Egypt in 1976 in camels and sheep . In a moCulex are reported as the main reservoir of the virus [The WNV is another deadly zoonotic virus, which is thought to be transmitted by migratory birds into new regions . Mosquithe virus . It has he virus .Culex spp. or Aedes spp. were the most abundant mosquito species found in the study regions. Apart from humans, sentinel chickens also showed seroconversion, which was detected using ELISA [In a seroprevalence study conducted over a period of two years, 5965 people were recruited to participate in the study from different regions of the country. The detection of WNV using IgG antibodies revealed an approximately 24% (1431 human positive cases) seroprevalence among the subjects . Interesng ELISA .Egypt has witnessed four major RVFV epidemics since 1977. The disease has affected cattle and sheep in the context of the abortion of pregnant animals. The disease has a high mortality rate of approximately 50% in young lambs, 25% to 35% in adult sheep, and around 25% in calves whereas an approximately 10% mortality in an adult cattle population has been recorded .In 1978, 114 human cases were reported with 12 deaths. It was suggested that the import of infected camels was the source of the outbreak. Another hypothesis suggested that the import of sheep caused the introduction of the disease in the country . AnotherRespiratory disease symptoms, including facial edema, appeared in a six-week-old chicken flock in Alexandria Governorate during May 2011. Twenty swab samples, including tracheal and cloacal swabs, identified IAV H9N2 subtype in the infected chicken flock. This IAV H9N2 subtype appeared to be closely related to H9N2 subtype reported from Israel .In March 2017, either sera samples or organ tissues from 16 ducks, including 9 live and 7 dead ducks, from a commercial flock as well as another 3 dead ducks from a backyard flock were either collected or submitted for investigation following a disease outbreak in ducks, reporting a high mortality of about 90%. In April 2017, three tracheal swab samples from dead backyard goslings were also submitted for investigation, raising the total samples to 22. The trachea, brain, and spleen samples from ducks and gooselings were found to be positive for H5 through RT-PCR analysis. The serology identified IAV H5N8 subtype in the nine sera samples collected from the live ducks. The duck infected with IAV H5N8 subtype exhibited lethargy with tremors and nervous symptoms like torticollis. Based on the phylogenetic analysis, this study suggested that migratory wild birds may have transmitted the highly pathogenic strain of H5N8 virus to the ducks, given their close relatedness with the European and Asian HA gene sequences deposited in GenBank .Two naturally infected pigeons exhibiting respiratory disease and nervous symptoms were sampled for trachea and lung samples in two different geographical locations viz., Alexandria governorate and Behera, during 2009. To investigate the genomes of both birds, RNA was extracted and amplified for all eight gene segments of influenza virus using specific primers. Amplicons were run over agarose gel and then gel-purified DNA was ligated into the pGEM vector for cloning. Multiple clones were sequenced for each gene segment and aligned for analysis. The sequences were identified as the HPAIV H5N1 subtype. This was the first report of highly pathogenic H5N1 virus from naturally infected pigeons in Egypt .In another investigation, five cloacal and five tracheal swabs were collected from asymptomatic bobwhite quails on a commercial quail farm in May 2011. Viral RNA was extracted and subjected to one-step real-time RT-PCR for the detection of the matrix gene of IAV as well as H5, H7, and H9 genes. The N2 gene was identified using a conventional RT-PCR. One H9N2-positive sample was passaged in embryonated chicken egg for virus isolation. Viral RNA was extracted and reverse transcribed followed by the amplification of 225 bp of the HA gene and 334 bp of the NA gene. Amplicons were sequenced and phylogenetic analysis revealed that the H9N2 virus retrieved from a bobwhite quail was similar to the H9N2 genome sequences reported from the Middle East and Israel . This waA seroprevalence of the IAV H7N7 subtype was conducted in poultry-exposed and non-exposed individuals over a period of three years. In the first year, 565 human sera samples from the poultry-exposed group and 150 sera samples from the unexposed group were collected. At the first follow up, which occurred a year after the first study, a total of 682 human sera samples from the exposed and 139 from the non-exposed individuals were taken. Subsequently, at the second follow up, 649 human sera from the poultry-exposed group and 104 sera from the non-exposed group were collected. A virus microneutralization test was conducted to assess the titer of antibodies against IAV H7N7 subtype. The positive sera samples were then tested with Western blot analysis followed by an immunofluorescence assay. The findings revealed that in the first year of the baseline study, all sera samples were negative for IAV H7N7 subtype. However, later, at the first follow-up investigation, 13 individuals (1.9%) from the poultry-exposed group were found to have antibodies against IAV H7N7 subtype. At the second follow-up investigation, 14 individuals (2.2%) from the poultry-exposed group were found to be positive for IAV H7N7 subtype. All controls (samples in the non-exposed group) were negative. The findings of this investigation suggested the transmission of IAV H7N7 subtype from poultry to poultry-exposed individuals .Thirty-six nasal swabs and sera samples were collected from pig herds in Cairo in October 2013. The following years during December 2014–January 2015, 157 nasal swab samples were collected from the pigs at an abattoir located in Cairo. Additionally, 216 sera samples were also collected from pigs at the abattoir. RT-PCR revealed that all 36 swine nasal swab samples collected in October 2013 were negative for IAV. However, 122 out of 157 nasal swabs collected during 2014–2015 were found to be positive for IAV. The subtyping RT-PCR based on HA gene amplification was conducted to distinguish among the H5, H9, and A(H1N1)pdm09 viruses. It was found that 46 swine nasal swabs were found to be positive for the H5N1 subtype, seven were positive for the H9N2 subtype, and 69 samples were positive for the A(H1N1)pdm09 subtype. All samples were negative for human influenza virus H3N2 subtype. Interestingly, 5.6% of the samples were co-infected with avian influenza viruses H5N1 and H9N2 subtype while 1.9% samples were co-infected with avian influenza virus H5N1 and pandemic strain A(H1N1)pdm09 subtypes. More precisely, phylogeny based on two complete HA gene sequences of the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus revealed that these sequences appeared closely related to the 2009 pandemic virus. The partial HA gene sequence of the H5N1 subtype retrieved from swine in this study was found to be closely related to the avian influenza virus H5N1 subtype reported in 2015. The H9 sequences retrieved from swine were similar to the earlier reported Egyptian avian influenza virus H9N2 sequences .In a targeted surveillance investigating the incidence of avian influenza virus in migratory birds in Lake Manzala, 19 cloacal and oropharyngeal samples were collected from either diseased or deceased birds being sold for food in a nearby live bird and fish market in Damietta Governorate on 24 November 2016. Interestingly, this was the same geographic location where the HPAIV H5N1 subtype was first identified and reported in the year 2006. In the current investigation, the sick migratory birds were reported as showing symptoms of mild depression. The sampled birds encompassed three species of migratory birds viz., common coot, pintail duck, and Garganey duck. Molecular investigation based on real-time RT-PCR identified two samples originating from common coot infected with IAV, which were subtyped by specific real-time RT-PCR and determined to be the HPAIV H5N8 subtype. The reported H5N8 subtype was successfully isolated and characterized by HA and NA gene sequencing followed by phylogenetic analysis. Immediately after this finding, the diagnostics were extended to the adjoining areas of Lake Manzala, where wild birds are usually noticed and poultry farming is rampant, but no other positive samples were retrieved in this extended investigation .Rabies virus, avian influenza virus, MERS-CoV, IAV, RVFV, and WNV were the most widely distributed virus diseases reported from Egypt. A few cases of highly infectious CCHFV disease were also reported .After an outbreak of severe respiratory disease and high mortality among poultry in Libya in March 2013, tracheal and cloacal swab samples were collected from chickens for an investigation of the cause of the disease. Seventeen swabs were collected and processed for avian influenza virus and avian paramyxovirus-1 (APMV-1) detection using the real-time RT-PCR assay. Virus isolation was also attempted using specific pathogen free (SPF) embryonated chicken eggs. The samples that were positive for avian influenza viruses were further tested for subtyping using real-time RT-PCR for H5N1, H7, and H9 virus identification. After subtyping, positive samples were considered for sequencing. The molecular investigation reported nine APMV-1-positive samples while four chicken samples were positive for the LPAIV H9N2 subtype. Interestingly, one chicken sample was found to be infected with the HPAIV H5N1 subtype. This was the first study to report the HPAI H5N1 subtype and APMV-1 in Libya .The A(H1N1)pdm09 virus was detected in the human population in Morocco during a study conducted between June and December 2009 at a Military Teaching Hospital in Rabat. Nasopharyngeal swabs from 594 outpatients exhibiting influenza-like disease symptoms, including cough, fever, muscle pain, vomiting, and diarrhea, were included in the study. Real-time RT-PCR was conducted to detect the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus, which found 240 positive samples .A serological survey reported the incidence of IDV in cattle populations in Morocco . In totaEquine influenza virus H3N8 subtype was isolated using SPF chicken eggs from a mule showing respiratory disease symptoms in 1997. Further, the same virus was isolated from a diseased horse and a donkey in the year 2004. The NS gene of the three isolates was partially amplified and sequenced. The BLAST alignment followed by phylogenetic analysis of the partial NS gene sequences showed that the isolates recovered from 2004 and 1997 were closely related and were in circulation before 1990. Interestingly, the three isolates shared the same ancestry without any genetic reassortment .Following a severe respiratory disease and high mortality among poultry in Morocco during January 2016, tissue samples were collected from the affected flocks showing severe respiratory disease and high mortality. A real-time RT-PCR-based investigation found that 10 samples were positive for IAV; however, all the samples were negative for NDV. The HA gene sequences of the retrieved IAV samples identified AIV H9N2 subtype in the affected poultry flocks in the country. This was the first report of H9N2 subtype from the country, which inflicted severe respiratory disease and high mortality among poultry flocks .Aedes aegypti species were also collected from the outbreak regions, but this study could not correlate the outbreak with the mosquito vectors sampled in the region. According to the interviews taken from the reported cases, it was evident that the disease most likely spread from human to human and most of the cases were reported from rural areas [In 2005, an outbreak hit Sudan and human cases with hemorrhagic illness started appearing. Initially, these cases were suspected as a dengue fever illness and hence reported accordingly, until a yellow fever outbreak in the region was declared in November 2005. Following the declaration of the yellow fever outbreak, 605 symptomatic cases were considered for investigation from 42 different sites in the outbreak-hit areas in country. The symptoms included febrile illness, jaundice, hemorrhage, and eventually death in severe cases . A totalal areas .Around the same time, another study reported a dengue hemorrhagic fever outbreak in children in Port Sudan. A total of 312 patients, where 229 were in the range of 5 to 15 years of age while the remaining were under five years of age, were suspected for dengue fever disease based on the symptoms . In totaAnother study reported the seroprevalence of dengue virus in 489 participants in Kassala in the year 2011. A total of 46/489 (9.4%) samples were positive for the dengue virus IgG and IgM using the ELISA assay . In OctoEbola virus disease was first reported in Sudan in the year 1974 from Nzara, where 284 cases were reported, out of which 151 people died of the disease. Later, in 1979, 34 more cases were reported from the same region, with 22 fatalities. Then, 17 cases were reported from Yambio in the year 2004, with seven fatal outcomes . HoweverDuring the 2009 H1N1 pandemic, 7350 human samples, including nasopharyngeal and rhino-pharyngeal aspirations among other upper respiratory tract samples, were collected from several communities throughout Tunisia. The real-time RT-PCR-based diagnostics using the CDC protocol identified 3865 samples that were positive for influenza viruses. The following year, during 2010–2011, 181 samples were found to be positive for the influenza viruses out of 894 samples that were tested. Intriguingly, in this study, 19 human samples were found to be positive for IBV. The HA gene sequences of these 19 isolates revealed that two different IBV strains were in circulation. These IBV isolates were retrieved from patients exhibiting either mild (7 patients) or severe (12 patients) influenza-like illness. During 2009–2010, the B-Victoria lineage of IBV was in circulation while during 2010–2011, two lineages viz., B-Victoria and B-Yamagata, were in circulation. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that the IBV lineages that were in circulation were closely related to the IBV sequences reported from the neighboring countries of Algeria and Morocco .A relatively lower seroprevalence of MERS-CoV was reported in dromedary camels during 2009–2013 compared to other African countries, including Ethiopia and Nigeria. in total, 155 dromedary camels were sampled in Sidi Bouzid province, targeting the 27 herds that were primarily raised for meat production. Additionally, sera samples from 39 camels were collected from 16 different herds in Kebili province from animals that were raised for tourist rides. Serological investigation based on IgG antibodies detected MERS-CoV in 30% of the dromedary camels. A total of 61 sera samples were found to be positive for MERS-CoV .In summer 2014, blood samples were collected from 181 febrile patients attending Farhat Hached Hospital. Additionally, 38 blood samples were collected from apparently healthy abattoir workers with no febrile illness. The aim of the study was to investigate the cause of febrile illness. Patients and other subjects included in study were also asked for their travel history as well as any incident of tick bites. Simultaneously, ticks were also collected from the same region along with two national parks located in southern Tunisia during May–June 2014. Ticks were grouped into 46 pools. First of all, human sera samples were tested for WNV, but all of the samples were found to be negative. Then, samples were tested for CCHFV using IgM- and IgG-specific ELISA. Further, human and tick samples were also tested for CCHFV through real-time RT-PCR with oligonucleotide primers specific for the S segment of CCHFV. Only five patients from the hospital had IgM-specific antibodies in their sera representing a recent exposure to CCHFV, but all the sera samples were negative for IgG-specific antibodies. A total of 310 tick samples were subjected to screening for CCHFV; all were negative for CCHFV RNA using real-time RT-PCR. Only two (5.2%) of the abattoir workers were found to be seropositive for the CCHFV. No tick was found to be positive for CCHFV in this study. This investigation provided an evidence of CCHFV circulation in Tunisia .Briefly, YFV, MERS-CoV, RVFV, WNV, NDV, rabies virus, IAV, IDV, equine influenza virus H3N8 subtype, dengue virus, CCHFV, and chikungunya virus were reported to be in circulation in North African countries .Countries located in the southern part of Africa are Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa, and the Kingdom of Eswatini (previously known as Swaziland).A sero-surveillance was conducted to monitor the status of RVFV disease in African buffalo and cattle living at the interface of the Okavango Delta, Chobe National Park, and adjacent livestock areas located in Botswana during October 2010 and October 2011. In this investigation, sera samples from 863 cattle and 150 African buffaloes were collected and subjected to a virus neutralization test using anti-RVFV antibodies. Nineteen buffaloes and 49 cattle samples were found to be positive for RVFV antibodies. This was the first large-scale investigation of RVFV seroprevalence in the country. The findings of this study revealed that RVFV was in circulation at the cattle–wildlife interface in northern Botswana during 2010–2011 .During January 2012 through to March 2016, a total of 96 samples from one cat, 39 cattle, 41 dogs, 3 goats, 3 horses, 8 sheep, and one pig were collected and subjected to 2 different tests, with the aim of assessing the prevalence of rabies virus in the country along with the sensitivity of both tests. Samples were subjected to a direct rapid immunohistochemical test (DRIT) and direct florescent antibody (DFA) test. Additionally, 21 brain tissue samples were used for total RNA extraction followed by RT-PCR for the sequencing of the genome. The diagnostics confirmed that 72 of the 96 tested samples were positive for rabies virus infection. A sample obtained from a single cat was negative for the infection. In total, 30 of the 39 cattle samples were positive for the rabies virus using both diagnostic tests. Additionally, 36 of the 41 dogs were found to be positive for the rabies virus infection. Further, three goats, one horse, and six sheep were also found to be positive for the rabies virus. The phylogenetic analysis of the selected samples resulted in three clusters, where one cluster represented the rabies virus sequences retrieved from dogs while the sequences in the second cluster represented the relatedness with the rabies virus sequences reported from the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. Interestingly, the sequences in the third cluster represented the samples originating within Lesotho and a few of the samples reported from the Free State Province of South Africa. The findings of this investigation reported the circulation of rabies virus among domestic animals in Lesotho . During January 2009–July 2010, sera samples were collected from jackals in Etosha National Park to assess the seroprevalence of CDV and rabies virus. Sera samples were collected from 80 live- trapped jackals, 5 rabid jackals that were killed, and one jackal that was euthanized after an accident. A rabies fluorescent antibody virus neutralization test was conducted to assess the seroprevalence of rabies virus in the samples. Only seven sera samples were found to be positive for the rabies antibodies. On the other hand, a serum neutralization test was conducted to investigate the seroprevalence of CDV, which observed 62 positive samples. Four rabies virus isolates were successfully recovered from the brain tissues of the killed jackals. Sequencing and phylogenetic analysis revealed that these sequences were identical to the rabies virus isolates reported from the jackals, greater kudu, and dogs in the same geographic area. Therefore, these findings suggested a zoonotic transmission of rabies virus among dogs, greater kudu, and jackals in Etosha National Park .Sphenisus demersus) in Halifax island of Namibia, where in January- February 2019, more than 350 penguins were reported dead, and an investigation was launched. Penguins were reported to die after having severe disease symptoms, including torticollis, incoordination, corneal opacity, lethargy, and a state of comatose. The liver tissue sample from one symptomatic penguin and three cloacal samples from other sick penguins were collected and processed for RNA extraction. Quantitative RT-PCR detected the matrix gene sequence of the H5 strain of IAV. For further characterization of the virus, partial segments of the HA and NA gene sequences were amplified from the liver tissue and cloacal samples. Sequence analysis identified the HPAIV strain H5N8 in the penguin samples and revealed that the H5N8 virus in African penguins in Namibia is identical to the H5N8 virus reported in 2017 from South Africa [Following a disease outbreak in African penguins , four adult leopards, and one adult black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) were also sampled. Further, 24 captive cheetahs were also included in the study. Blood samples were collected from all the animals included in the study. Immunofluorescence assays were conducted using specific antibodies to investigate the prevalence of certain virus pathogens in the blood samples. As a result, three animals were found to be infected with feline herpesvirus (FHV), three were positive for feline calicivirus (FCV), five were positive for feline parvovirus (FPV), three were infected with feline coronavirus, eight were positive for CDV, and seven were found to be positive for rabies virus infections [Sixty-two free-ranging cheetahs were sampled during June 2002 through October 2004 in east-central Namibian farmlands. Additionally, three adult caracals (fections .Sterna hirundo) with sickness and mortality, an avian influenza virus-like strain based on the morphology was isolated and characterized from either sick or dead birds. The etiological agent was termed as tern virus and was classified as influenza A virus/tern/South Africa/1961 [In 1961, following an epizootic event in Cape Province of South Africa that affected common terns  containing mostly positive samples identified by the AIV antibody ELISA test as well as some negative samples were further tested with two H5-specific ELISA and HI assays. In total, 292 of these 366 samples were positive for H5 subtype through all three ELISA assays, hence a consensus was established among the testing .In another study, over a three-year surveillance during April 2012 to December 2014, a total of 17,762 sera, cloacal, and tracheal swab samples from wild birds, chickens, and ostriches across the country were submitted to testing for avian influenza virus diagnostics. The AIV antibody ELISA test identified several strains of avian influenza virus among the submitted samples. More precisely, ostrich samples were found to be positive for IAV H1N2, H5N2, H9N2, H6N1, H7N1, H7N7, H6N8, and H10N1 subtypes. Samples from Egyptian geese were found to be positive for the H5N2, H4N2, and H1N8 subtypes. The wild bird Cape Shoveller was found to be infected with H3N8 subtype while red-billed teals were found to be infected with the H4N8 and H11N2 subtypes. IAV H5N1 subtype was found to infect yellow-billed ducks while chicken samples were infected with H6N2 subtype. Pekin duck was infected with H10N7 subtype and shell duck was infected with the H7N8 subtype ,244. MorDuring an investigation of avian influenza viruses in 2014, a tracheal swab was found to be positive through the HI assay. The sample was further investigated to determine the virus through molecular techniques, hence RNA was extracted and subjected to total RNA sequencing. The genome sequence analysis found a complete genome of AOaV-1, which is known to cause Newcastle disease in avian species. This was the first complete genome of the AOaV-1 reported from the country. The genome sequences showed close identity with the AOaV-1 genome reported to GenBank from China, which was retrieved from a mallard. This finding indicated that wild waterfowls seem to harbor the AOaV-1 virus and appeared to be responsible for the long-distance dissemination of the virus to ostriches in a farm located within the Oudtshoorn district .The first detection of influenza virus A(H1N1)pdm09 in South Africa was reported in a traveler who arrived in the country from the United States on 14 June 2009 having influenza-like illness for one day after the onset of the symptoms. Interestingly, the first locally acquired infection was reported from a person on 24 June 2009, following which seven other travel-associated A(H1N1)pdm09 virus infections were observed. By mid-July 2009, a total of 762 human samples had been tested, which resulted in 108 laboratory-confirmed cases of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus infections .During February 2009–December 2012, a total of 16,005 patients were enrolled in a surveillance program known as severe acute respiratory illness (SARI) for the investigation of influenza-associated disease among hospitalized patients. Multiplex real-time RT-PCR detected 1239 influenza-positive samples. Influenza virus subtyping using the CDC-recommended molecular protocol identified 463 patients infected with the IAV subtype H3N2, while 338 patients were positive for the A(H1N1)pdm09 virus, and 418 patients had IBV infections. Twenty other influenza virus-positive samples could not be subtyped, most probably because of the low virus yield in those samples .In a study conducted in Cape Peninsula, baboons were found to be positive for hepatitis A virus (HAV), cytomegalovirus, and Epstein–Barr virus using automated enzyme-linked fluorescent assays . These bIn another study, 49 adult and 20 juvenile chacma baboons were caught from the wild and their sera samples were collected in the Limpopo, Western, and Eastern Cape provinces. DNA was extracted from the sera samples and subjected to nested PCR for the detection of HBV. The study resulted in 15 HBV-positive samples; 11 adults and four juvenile chacma baboons were infected. Southern hybridization resulted in 5 positive samples out of 15 given the low sensitivity compared to PCR. Additionally, liver tissue samples were also collected from one wild caught chacma baboon, which was ethically euthanized . These lAs nonhuman primates are considered a reservoir of zoonotic virus infections, a recent report of a novel simian arterivirus in vervet monkeys is of high concern . This viFlaviviruses are transmitted by mosquitoes and are of high importance in countries with tropical climates like South Africa. In a study conducted in Free State, cases of the transmission of flaviviruses among human, cattle, and sheep were identified. Kunjin virus antibodies detected Langat virus and suggested that other flaviviruses may also be in circulation in the area . Apart fCulex mosquitoes while birds are reported to be the primary host [WNV is a flavivirus, and the first isolation of WNV was reported from the West Nile district of Uganda in 1937 . WNV is ary host . Interesary host , with thary host . The firary host . This stary host .In another study conducted during 2008–2015 that documented 79 horses infected with WNV, interestingly, 14 WNV-infected horses were co-infected with other viruses: Three co-infections with AHSV, three with Sindbis virus, three with Shuni virus, and four with Middelburg virus . There wHorses are reported to be highly sensitive to some mosquito-borne flaviviruses, alphaviruses, and orthobunyaviruses, causing neurologic symptoms ,257. In Sindbis fever is a mosquito-borne zoonotic infection caused by Sindbis virus, which was reported in South Africa for the first time in 1963 . In a SiDuring the Rift Valley fever outbreak in the country, two human cases of Wesselsbron virus disease were reported . WesselsIn another surveillance study among horses in the country, AHSV, Shuni virus, equine encephalitis virus, Sindbis virus, Middelburg virus, and WNV infections were reported during January 2008 to December 2013 . Blood, Hyalomma species was found attached to his scalp. His condition deteriorated, with severe symptoms of hemorrhagic fever and gastro-intestinal bleeding, and he finally died on the sixth day after the onset of illness. The etiological agent was isolated and determined to be CCHFV in the laboratory in mice [In an interesting case, a 13-year-old boy who spent a few days in a camp in Western Transvaal developed hemorrhagic fever with other symptoms after returning home. A tick of the  in mice .In a recent sero-epidemiologic survey that included abattoir workers, large animal veterinarians, farmers, horse handlers, hunters, and informal slaughterers, two cases were found to be positive for CCHFV IgG . These tIn another tragic incident, a travel agent from Zambia who lived on a small holding farm travelled to South Africa for a wedding. At the time of her travel, she was unaware of the infection and had preliminary mild symptoms of a cold and was on medication for suspected influenza. Her condition deteriorated after her return from the wedding and hence she was evacuated to a private hospital in Johannesburg. Due to complications, she died in the next few days while under treatment. Intriguingly, the attending paramedic and nurse developed similar symptoms and died due to severe complications, with symptoms of viral hemorrhagic fever . The diaIn another investigation, liver tissue samples from two deceased people were collected along with one sera sample. RNA was extracted and submitted for high-throughput pyrosequencing. The serum sample generated most of the arenavirus sequences compared to liver tissue biopsies. The gaps in the aligned sequences were filled with specific PCR reactions. The assembled genome was determined to be a classical bi-segmented arenavirus genome with two open reading frames. The phylogenetic analysis using the L or S segments of the genome identified that the retrieved genome belonged to Lujo virus. This was the first report illustrating genetic analysis and genome sequence-based characterization of Lujo virus from the country .(Rousettus aegyptiacus) based in Matlapitsi cave in the Gauteng province were diagnosed with Marburg virus infection. A total of 759 bats were tested as positive using ELISA. Genomic analysis performed on real time RT-PCR-positive samples confirmed the Ozolin strain of Marburg virus in bats [In a recent bio-surveillance study, Egyptian rousette bats  in bats . The infAlphacoronavirus genus. This was the first report of coronaviruses from the South African bat population [In another investigation, coronaviruses were reported from South African bats. In this study, 113 archival gastrointestinal samples from 14 bat genera were subjected to investigation. For molecular diagnostics, 277 base-pair fragments of the RdRp gene were amplified and positive amplicons were sequenced. Only three bat specimens amplified the desired product. Phylogenetic analysis based on partial gene sequences identified that the South African bat coronaviruses clustered together with the pulation .Five pet cats residing in Pinetown near Durban, East London, and Pietermaritzburg were investigated for lyssavirus infection, all of these pets showed aggressive behavior, disorientation, dehydration, and sometimes paralysis of the lower jaw. The cats were seen capturing rodents and occasionally were observed in contact with bats. They were suspected to be infected with rabies, hence they were tested against rabies antigen. The results were positive for rabies, but the fluorescence was more intense than what is usually seen in rabies cases; hence, another lyssavirus infection was suspected. A panel of antibodies was used that differentiated amongst lyssaviruses and confirmed that the cats were infected with Mokola virus . The traIn another study, dog brain tissue samples were collected from the Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces and investigated for rabies infection using RNA extraction followed by reverse-transcription PCR and sequencing. The phylogenetic analysis confirmed that the virus sequences obtained from the Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces shared a common origin . InteresIn another surveillance of rabies virus, 141 samples from dogs and three cattle samples collected from a nature reserve near Kruger National Park were found to be positive for rabies. On the other hand, two wildlife samples, one from spotted genet and another from baboon, were found to be positive for rabies virus infection . The stuA University of Pretoria-based study revealed that veterinarians working at the university had contracted virus zoonotic diseases, including rabies virus, RVFV, and WNV diseases, until the year 2001 .The first cases of Rift Valley fever in the country were reported in Johannesburg in 1951 . AnotherIn a recent 2018 Rift Valley fever outbreak on a sheep farm in Free State, 250 fatalities or abortions in a flock of 600 sheep were reported. In this outbreak, out of 22 farm workers, 6 experienced symptoms comparable to the RVFV disease. Interestingly, four of these six symptomatic individuals came up positive for RVFV infection through the ELISA test . This inIn a country-wide RFV outbreak during 2008 to 2011, a total of 301 confirmed cases of RVFV infection were identified, out of which 25 died of the disease . The comThe Limpopo province represents a large swine industry, which has been hit in the past with African swine fever outbreaks. A study reported 1309 pigs that were infected with ASFV in the Limpopo province originated mainly because of the illegal trade and movement of pigs within the province .In a recent study, cattle and goats were found to be seropositive for RVFV in Maputaland coastal plain, which is located far north in the KwaZulu-Natal province, with no earlier reported outbreak of the disease. In this study, 432 at least six-month-old cattle from small-scale farms, which were communally grazed, were bled from the coccygeal vein during November 2016 to June 2018 and tested for RVFV using IgG sandwich ELISA using IgG antibodies and the serum neutralization test (SNT). Seroprevalence of RVFV was found in 144 samples from cattle out of the 432 samples tested. These 144 seropositive samples were further tested with IgM ELISA and 5 samples were found to be positive. This study reported an overall 34% seroprevalence of RVFV among cattle in the designated study area in the northern KwaZulu-Natal province . AdditioThe first report of porcine circovirus type 2 (PCV2) infection in South African pigs was reported from a large-scale well-managed breeding farm in the Gauteng province along with postweaning multisystemic wasting syndrome during 2001 . Pigs weIn a recent study, 375 sera samples along with fecal and nasal swabs from healthy and diseased pigs were collected during 2015–2016 from three municipalities in the Eastern Cape province. A total of 339 samples were processed for genomic DNA extraction and the specific primer pairs were used for PCV2 detection among the samples. The initial screening was done through a PCR reaction followed by the subsequent testing of positive samples with other specific oligonucleotides. High-quality PCR products were purified on gel and sequenced for characterization of the virus. The investigation resulted in 54 PCV2-positive samples out of the 339 tested. This was the first report of PCV2 from the Eastern Cape province .Later, 110 samples collected and archived during the 2015–2016 PCV2 study in the Eastern Cape province were randomly selected to assess the prevalence of porcine parvoviruses in the country. Conventional PCR amplification was used for the detection of porcine parvovirus DNA in the swine samples . PositivIn an analysis of the global surveillance of influenza virus infections among humans in 29 countries, 432 human cases of A(H1N1)pdm09 virus, 421 human infections of the H3N2 subtype, and 527 cases of IBV were reported during 1999–2014 in South Africa. Intriguingly, no human cases were reported for H1N1 virus infection during this period [Human infection of HEV was detected in Cape Town; the infection was believed to have emerged from the consumption of food derived from pork meat. A total of 164 archived sera samples, which were earlier submitted to the diagnostic laboratory located at National Health Laboratory Service at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, which were negative for HAV, HBV, and HCV infections along with no other identifiable cause of disease, were investigated for HEV prevalence. The ELISA test using anti-HEV IgG antibodies detected 39 HEV-positive sera in this investigation while only two sera samples were positive for anti-HEV IgM antibodies. Interestingly, RT-PCR could not detect any HEV-positive samples. The findings of this investigation reported the seroprevalence and circulation of HEV in the Cape Town population. More interestingly, the investigation suggested that the probable cause of disease was the consumption of products prepared from pork meat .The first complete genome sequence of a rotavirus was reported from a 10-week-old diarrheic piglet sampled at a Free State pig farm in the country in 2015. This was the first whole-genome sequence of a rotavirus reported from the African continent. For whole-genome sequencing, RNA was extracted from the fecal sample and was subjected to a sequence-independent amplification method. Sequencing was done by the ultra-deep sequencing method. The assembled sequences were analyzed using BLAST for the identification of the virus. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that these rotavirus sequences from South Africa clustered with the rotavirus sequences reported from Brazil, the USA, and Japan . In anotTo investigate the prevalence of avian influenza virus and NDV in aquatic wild birds visiting ostrich farms located in the Oudtshoorn area in the Western Cape province, a study was conducted during May to July 1998. A total of 262 aquatic wild birds of different species were sampled from 19 different ostrich farms, which were sighted visiting the feeding bowls of ostriches on these farms. Additionally, 50 samples were included from non-aquatic birds, including pigeons, doves, and sparrows, in this study. Sera samples were screened for avian influenza virus using ELISA followed by the HI assay with specific antibodies to detect avian influenza viruses. Only eight aquatic wild bird samples were HI positive for avian influenza virus. These positive samples were characterized as H10N9 avian influenza virus. None of the non-aquatic birds were positive for the avian influenza virus in this investigation. This study reported the first H10N9 avian influenza virus isolate from the African continent . AdditioParapoxvirus genus, was amplified. Amplicons were sequenced and sequence analysis of the nucleotides and amino acid alignments was carried out using the ClustalW method. This study successfully retrieved Orf virus sequences from six Boer goats, two goats, two sheep, and two cows. Interestingly, Orf virus infection was reported in one human individual who developed a blistering lesion on the thumb of one hand during the study period. This was the first study in the country that investigated the economic impact of the Orf virus disease and the transmission risk to humans [Orf virus is reported to trigger a zoonotic disease in ruminants and humans in the United Kingdom, the USA, and India, among other countries. An extensive investigation was launched during September 2009–March 2010 to find out the understanding and awareness of Orf virus disease in South Africa. Veterinarians and farmers were contacted, and relevant questionnaires were obtained to understand their response about the predominance of Orf virus disease within the country. Simultaneously, ruminants and cattle exhibiting Orf virus disease symptoms were included in the study. During the investigation, suspected cases of cows, goats, Boer goats, and sheep showing any lesions or scabs were sampled. DNA was extracted from the samples and a 594 base-pair sequence of the B2L gene, which represents a conserved region in the o humans .Upper and lower respiratory tract specimens were collected from children up to five-year-old of age with respiratory disease who were admitted to hospitals during 1 January 2011 through 31 July 2015 across KwaZulu-Natal province, which is an endemic area for HIV prevalence. Multiplex PCR was conducted for the detection of respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), adenovirus, IAV, human rhinovirus, cytomegalovirus, and HIV. The results identified that 316 children were positive for RSV, 215 were positive for adenovirus, 152 were infected with human rhinovirus, and 50 children were positive for the IAV infections. Additionally, the study observed that 348 children were positive for HIV while 416 were found to be positive for cytomegalovirus .Another study reported the implementation of severe acute respiratory illness surveillance among patients admitted to hospitals in KwaZulu-Natal, the Northwest province, Mpumalanga, and Gauteng during February 2009 to December 2013. Nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs were obtained from 7872 enrollees, who reported symptoms like fever, sore throat, cough, and/or difficulty in breathing. Multiplex real-time RT-PCR revealed that a large proportion of the admitted patients 5321/7039; 76%) were positive for HIV infection. RSV was detected in only 4% (329) of the patients. Interestingly, the frequency of RSV infection was similar in HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients .In a small study, clippers from 50 barbers from three townships in Cape Town were collected. Clippers were immediately collected after a clean-shave haircut and other styled haircuts. Blood was detected on 42% of the clippers collected in this study. The total nucleic acid was extracted from each clipper and tested for HIV using nested qualitative RT-PCR. For the HIV screening, a 160- bp region of the gag gene was amplified. For the HBV testing, samples were subjected to the COBAS TaqMan HBV test. The positive samples for HBV DNA were further tested by qualitative nested PCR for confirmation. However, all the samples were negative for HIV, and four clippers were found to be positive for HBV infection. These four positive HBV clippers had enough DNA copies to trigger the transmission of the disease. This study revealed the risk of HBV transmission through clippers used in haircuts at barber shops. The sequences of HBV DNA retrieved from two of the clippers were closely related to the HBV sequences reported from the Gauteng province .A general practitioner was called on 20 February 1970 to examine a 31-year-old white male South African farmer on a farm located approximately 100 km north-east of Pretoria. The patient was described to be in a high state of agitation with profuse sweating and muscle spasms of the back and neck. The patient was recently bitten on the lip by a bat, which was thought to be the cause of the disease. The initial disease symptoms were headache, muscle ache, sleeplessness, and difficulty in swallowing, which later progressed into profuse sweating and agitation. Muscular spasm and dyspnea of the mouth and throat muscles occurred at each attempt at drinking water. The patient was immediately admitted to a hospital in Pretoria with an initial diagnosis of rabies. At the hospital, the patient underwent intense pain and spasms of the pharyngeal muscles along with the arms and upper body parts whenever he was coaxed to drink water. The following night, the patient became violent and by the morning was seen frothing from the mouth, smashed the Vacoliter bottle to the wall, and kicked the attendants. Within 24 h after admission to the hospital, the patient died of respiratory arrest and seizure. The necropsy examination revealed that the brain was slightly congested while the lungs were severely congested along with other nervous system-related conditions. The brain tissues of the deceased were taken for a fluorescent antibody test of rabies but was found to be negative. Several attempts for rabies diagnostics were made but all were in vain. Experimental infection of mice introduced the ascending paralysis, culminating in death. It was considered a new virus strain and hence was given a new name ‘Duvenhage virus (DUVV)’. This was the first original report suggesting the zoonotic transmission of DUVV isolated from a South African male in 1970 .To summarize, a wide range of virus diseases have been reported in South Africa, including avian influenza virus, HIV, hepatitis A virus, hepatitis B virus, hepatitis E virus, IAV, IBV, Marburg virus, rabies virus, Mokola virus, WNV, RVFV, CCHFV, cytomegalovirus, African swine fever virus, rotavirus, respiratory syncytial virus, and Orf virus, among others . HoweverThe Kingdom of Eswatini (previously known as Swaziland) HIV Incidence Measurement Survey was conducted to assess the seroprevalence of HIV in the country between 10 December 2010 and 25 June 2011 across four administrative regions. This study identified 24,630 eligible individuals for participation, but only 18,177 individuals agreed to enroll for the study and HIV testing. HIV diagnostic results were available for 18,172 enrollees, out of which 5803 (32%) were determined to be HIV seropositive. This was a large fraction of the households that were positive for the disease. In a follow-up investigation, 11,897 HIV-seronegative individuals as identified in the last surveillance were investigated for the seroconversion rate among HIV-seronegative individuals. From this cohort, 11,232 individuals were accessible for the sampling and analysis. Therefore, a follow-up investigation between 23 August 2011 and 4 February 2012 included 11,232 individuals who were seronegative for HIV in the last testing and hence were sampled and re-tested for HIV seroprevalence. The outcome observed 145 HIV seroconversions among this cohort, resulting in a 2.4% incidence. The data analysis based on interviews identified that the highest seroprevalence of HIV was among men aged 30–34 years while higher seroconversion was among females who were either unmarried or those whose partners were living elsewhere. This was a nationwide cohort study to understand the current status of HIV disease in the country .Overall, a wide range of virus diseases were reported from the countries located in the southern part of Africa .The highest number of virus diseases were observed in South Africa, which might be explained by the improved disease surveillance in the country as compared to other African countries. However, despite large swine farming practices in South Africa, there is no report on the current status of influenza virus infections in pigs in South Africa. IAV and IBV infections have been reported from patients hospitalized in different healthcare facilities across the country, but there was no information on the animal reservoir host except reports of avian influenza viruses in wild birds and ostriches.E. helvum (Briefly, in this review, important virus diseases reported from countries in Africa were highlighted. The findings of this review are crucial in the context of the prevalence of virus diseases circulating across Africa and therefore, the data would be useful for designing studies focusing on virus diseases in Africa in the future. Interestingly, this review highlighted the circulation of Achimota virus, Duvenhage lyssavirus, Lagos bat lyssavirus, European bat lyssavirus, Achimota virus, Marburg virus, Nipah virus, and coronavirus through the bat species . helvum . This inCattle were also found to be infected with rabies virus, IDV, Kunjin virus, RVFV, Langat virus, WNV, and Wesselsbron virus. The reports of IDV infections in cattle were relatively interesting in the context of the host range of IDV .Additionally, horses were found to be infected mainly with equine influenza virus H3N8 subtype, IAV, rabies virus, RVFV, WNV, and Kunjin virus .This reflects that IAV, WNV, and RVFV have a wide host range. An IAV prevalence has been reported in pigs in Kenya . InteresSome of the most serious virus infections reported in human populations across the continent included Ebola virus, HIV, IAV, Zika virus, WNV, RABV, CCHFV, and HCV, among many others .This systematic review illustrates comprehensive information on important virus diseases reported from the African continent in light of the ‘One Health’ approach. Interestingly, the highest reported viruses in Africa before the year of 2000 were CCHFV, rotavirus, NDV, Mokola virus, and WNV . BetweenVirus disease pandemics have always been challenging for mankind, regardless of whether it was the 1918 Spanish influenza pandemic , the 200Culex mosquitoes; as a result, RVF outbreaks have occurred following exceptional rainfalls within Africa [Likewise, the high seroprevalence of HIV-1 in people of Cameroon who have been reported to be in frequent contact with non-human primates either through hunting activities for bushmeat or butchering reflected the zoonotic and pandemic potential of HIV-1 . WNV is n Africa ,303. RabIt is noteworthy to mention that there are several yet undetected viruses circulating in wild and domestic animals. The close proximity of human populations to wild and domestic animals may facilitate virus adaptation and the emergence of virus strains with the potential to infect humans and may result in epidemics. It was previously reported that Canine morbillivirus, which are known to distribute among carnivores, requires continued treatment and monitoring, considering that CDV infections in non-human primates have already been demonstrated . To dateWith such a background, it is concluded that human health is interdependent on animal health as well as ecosystem health. To address such challenges, where a rapidly changing environment and animal health may impact human health, the framework of a ‘One Health’ approach comes into consideration . The OneThe recent emergence of zoonotic-origin SARS-CoV-2 ,310 in DThe current investigation reported several potential vector-borne and zoonotic disease-causing viruses that have been in circulation in Africa, including avian influenza virus, ASFV, swine influenza virus, HIV, simian immunodeficiency virus, WNV, RVFV, MPXV, Ebola virus, rabies virus, MERS-CoV, dengue virus, and Nipah virus, among several others. Multiple reports have observed an increasing trend of zoonotic virus diseases, especially Ebola virus and MPXV diseases, in western African countries; and influenza virus disease in countries, including Egypt, Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa. In the past few years, Ebola has emerged as a challenging zoonotic disease with high mortality in Africa. Human-to-human transmission of Ebola virus through exposure to body fluids has been reported, which makes the human population vulnerable to the disease. The introduction of MPXV from wild reservoirs to human populations represents zoonotic transmission and it has been challenging to contain the disease to date. Interestingly, the hunting, butchering, and trading of bushmeat, especially in western and central Africa, including, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, among others, puts the human population at risk in terms of a zoonotic virus disease outbreak. Reports of an avian influenza virus from Egypt in domestic as well as commercial poultry and wild birds further increased the burden of disease in the continent. A report of swine influenza A virus from Kenya along with the finding of the HPAIV H5N1 subtype in a swine population in Nigeria and Egypt indicated the possibility of the transmission of influenza from wild birds to commercial pigs. Avian influenza was first reported in terns in South Africa in 1961. More recently, the highly pathogenic subtype of avian influenza was reported from an ostrich farm in the Western Cape province in South Africa. Interestingly, ASFV, which was reported to trigger hemorrhagic fever among the swine population, was reported in a commercial piggery in South Africa in 2013.Overall, cultural practices, poor resources, illiteracy, lack of information and awareness, and limited or lack of active surveillance of vector-borne and zoonotic viral diseases would be considered the most probable factors behind the high burden of viral diseases in the African continent. Therefore, the findings of this study recommend that appropriate action plans must be urgently taken to increase awareness through extensive concerted and interdisciplinary efforts, and adequate education must be imparted in the context of possible virus disease outbreaks to stakeholders within such communities that may be prone to the acquisition of virus infections by different means. The launch of initiatives, such as ‘One Health’, for active virus disease surveillance at the interface of animals, humans, and the ecosystem is critical to devise and implement strategies to prevent or control the transmission and circulation of vector-borne and zoonotic virus diseases in Africa.