DM of bitter cassava flour, thereby multiplying the energy density and nutritional value of this flour by 5.18. It also appears that the action of flours rich in amylases was depending on the concentration, the nature of the flour, its composition, and the treatment undergone. In view of all these results, we can therefore consider the formulation of a weaning food with the consistency, and energy and nutritional value necessary for the proper growth of children.Malnutrition appears in weaning age and is usually due to weaning food which is of low nutritional value. This problem led us to investigate the study of the physicochemical and functional properties of cassava flours and corn flours, and the fluidification of the gruels made from these flours by germinated yellow corn and sweet white potato flours. To do this, the approximate chemical composition, physical and functional properties, and ability of amylase‐rich flours to digest the starch in order to reduce consistency were evaluated. From these analyses, it emerges that the chemical composition, and physical and functional properties are influenced by the nature and the treatment undergone by the flours. It appears that the amylase‐rich flours that we used at a concentration of 1%–3% during the preparation of the gruels significantly reduced their consistencies. Given their strong liquefying power, this reduction was more marked with germinated corn flour where 1% permits to obtain desired consistency with 21.50 g of  These c22.1The plant material consists of seeds of Atp variety corn (yellow), cassava roots (bitter cultivar), tubers of local sweet potato variety (white) and commercial flour. The choice of these foods is justified by their common uses in the formulation of infant flours.2.2Supply of food raw material: Dry corn seeds, cassava roots, and potato tubers were purchased from the Dschang and Santchou IRAD stations, respectively. They were used to produce the various flours.2.3Corn seeds obtained at IRAD were separated into three batches. The first lot was used for the production of sprouted corn flour and the other two batches for the production of corn flour. Indeed, for the production of germinated corn flours, the previously sorted corn seeds were washed and soaked for 48 hr. They were then removed from the water, spread out, and mixed with ashes and then for 96 hr, they were left in the shade on a cloth that we watered every day (02 watered/day) until the germination process was well underway and the roots appeared. Afterward, we proceeded to drying in a “Venticell” oven at a temperature of 50 ± 0.5°C for 45 hr. The seeds were then degerminated, ground, and sieved (Ø = 400 μm). The second batch was sorted, ground, and subsequently sieved (Ø = 400 μm). The third batch of each variety was also sorted, skinned, ground, and sieved (Ø = 400 μm). The flours obtained were then packed in plastic bags and stored in a desiccator. The cassava roots obtained were transformed into flour according to the method described by Bindzi . This ca2.4The water content of each flour was obtained after drying in the oven at 105°C until constant weight and the dry matter determined after subtraction of the water content. Leach and Schoch  method w2.5The results of the analyses carried out were expressed as averages plus or minus deviations. The means were analyzed by the ANOVA test at the 5% probability threshold, and the Duncan test was used to compare the means. The graphs were drawn using Excel 2013 software. A correlation matrix and principal component analysis (PCA) between the physicochemical, functional, and consistency properties of the gruels were also performed using SPSS software version 20.0 and XLSTAT 2016.33.1p ˂ 0.05). Except commercial flour, the water content values of flour are similar to those obtained by Ndangui (p > 0.05) between the two cassava flours, which would mean that this treatment had not been extended. For corn flour, this protein content is not significantly different (p > 0.05). However, this level is lower than that found by Klang (p < 0.05) observed within the corn samples would be the consequence of the destruction of the germ, place of storage of lipids during the dehulling. In the case of cassava, this result obtained does not corroborate those of Fana, Shimelis, and Abrehet (p < 0.05) observed would be due to the treatments applied to the samples. The values obtained are similar than those of Belitz, Grosch, and Schieberle (p < 0.05) than those found by Belitz et al. (p < 0.05) within the samples. This difference would be due to the nature of the samples and the treatments applied. The lowest value of ash in roasted cassava is due to the sensitivity of specific minerals to temperature at prolonged time during roasting  in content between husked and unpeeled corn flour can be explained by the fact that husking affected the germ where the starch was stored. Moreover, there is no significant difference (p ˃ 0.05) between the different cassava samples which would mean that the roasting was not pushed until browning and that we only had a pregelatinization of the starch without breaking the bonds that keep the molecule stable. Concerning amylose and amylopectin, we have observed that the treatment and the nature of the flours do not affect these parameters. The content of reducing sugars varies from 3.75% for commercial flour to 0.28% for dehulled yellow corn flour. It is observed that these levels are very low and this could be attributed to the accumulation of starch (complex carbohydrates) during maturation. The analyses carried out showed the existence in very small quantities of phytates in corn and commercial flours and an absence in cassava samples. These results could be due to crop conditions and the degradation of these compounds by phytases during plant development as reported by Medoua, Mbome Lape, Agbor‐Egbe, and Mbofung (p < 0.05) by the nature, nutritional composition, and treatment of the sample. These results are higher than those found by Ngouadjeu . We observed that all mineral decreased with roasting probably due to the fact that thermal treatment denatures them. Recent report suggests that phytic acid contained in corn flour interferes with the availability of copper, iron, and potassium  between cassava and corn flours for this parameter due to the particle size of the samples  in pH values between corn and cassava samples. This would be explained by the fact that the cassava samples were fermented and during this process there was synthesis of organic acids leading to a reduction in pH. The pH range obtained is the same with that of Fana et al. (p ˃ 0.05) between the different cassava and corn samples and this could be explained by weak intermolecular hydrogen bonds and/or more water molecule binding sites. Regarding the solubility index, it is also noted that there is no significant difference (p ˃ 0.05) between the different samples of corn and cassava but rather between these samples and commercial flour. This would be explained by the composition of the commercial flour which would be rich in soluble compound. The value obtained is greater than that of Abioye, Ade‐Omowaye, Babarinde, and Adesigbin  are shown in Table a et al. . The tita et al. . It shoudesigbin , obtaine3.53.5.1Figure 3.6p < 0.05) within flours of the same nature but between flours of different nature. The significant difference (p < 0.05) observed within flours of different nature could be explained by the nutrient composition of these flours because the high proportion of proteins and lipids in corn flours would hinder the binding of water molecules by the starch during cooking, thereby preventing the gruels from gaining weight and consistency. This difference of flow rate can be also attributable to low starch content of corn (Table p < 0.05) between and within the different flours, which could be explained by their nutrient composition. Indeed, the strong activity of germinated yellow corn flour on cassava flours generally can be explained by the substrate specificity existing between the starch and the amylase of this flour; it would also be due to the fact that cassava flours are low in lipids and proteins which would hinder the establishment of amylase–substrate bonds and the hydrolysis of starch bonds leading to the reduction of its consistency. The use of white potato flour for the preparation of gruels has allowed us to obtain gruels with the flow velocities between 67.00 and 161.33 mm/30 s for bitter cassava and yellow corn flour, respectively. There was also a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the flow velocities of the different gruels cooking with white sweet potato flour. This would be explained by the nature of the amylase present in the flour and the composition of these flours. There is also a significant difference (p < 0.05) between the flow velocities of gruels supplemented with germinated corn flour and potato flour, which can be explained by the nature of the amylase contained in each amylase flour. Indeed, as demonstrated by Yadang et al. (p < 0.05) between the flow rates of gruels with and without amylase flours, which would be the consequence of a rather significant degradation of starch by amylase content in amylase‐rich flours.Table rn Table . This tag et al. , the pot3.7Table 3.8The evolution of the flow velocities of gruels in which the various amylase flours were added after cooking is given in Figure 3.9This Table 3.10p < 0.05) observed for this parameter between gruels without ARF can be explained by the composition and nature of the different flours. The introduction of ARF generally leads to an increase in energy density. Indeed, the incorporation of germinated yellow corn flour makes it possible to obtain energy densities going from 70.80 for the dehulled yellow corn flour to 91.75 Kcal for the bitter cassava flour. The significant differences (p < 0.05) observed within the different flours can be explained by their nutrient composition and the ability of yellow corn flour to predigest starch in order to increase the quantity of flour and consequently the energy value. The incorporation of white sweet potato flour during the preparation of gruels has allowed us to obtain gruels with energy densities between 61.48 and 70.70 Kcal for commercial flour and roasted bitter cassava flour, respectively. In addition, a significant difference was observed (p < 0.05) between the energy densities of gruels cooking with and without amylase‐rich flours which would show the ability of amylases contain in flours to increase the energy value of the gruels. Similar results were also obtained by Elenga, Massamba, Kobawila, Makosso, and Silou . This matrix shows that the variables are correlated in small groups. Hence, the interest of conducting an analysis is of main component in order to visualize the proximities and distances between these variables. The principal component analysis (PCA) allows us to map variables  according to their correlation and proximity.Table In the case of our analysis, three components F1, F2, and F3 explain 100% of the variations with respective contributions of 63.32%, 27.89%, and 8.79% . This is explained by the fact that the amylases present in these flours require the presence of cofactors (ions) for their activity. The K would play this role at some concentration. These amylases are therefore metalloenzymes. These results corroborate those of Noman, Hoque, Sen, and Karim , Cu (r = −0.955), and Mg (r = −0.908). Phytates are antinutritional chelators of metals present in plants. Their presence in plants reduces the bioavailability of ions as demonstrated by Medoua et al. (r = 0.887). This can be explained by the fact that phytate molecule is negatively highly charged and this making it an excellent chelator who can form insoluble complexes with proteins leading to reduced digestibility , lipids (r = 0.991), and pH (r = 0.879). Parameters without values in the table do not have significant effects (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01). Mass density is a parameter dependent on sample size and biochemical composition (particularly proteins) , Cu (r = 0.858), Ca (r = −0.703), lipids (r = −0.773), cyanides (r = 0.903), proteins (r = −0.938), reducing sugars (r = −0.678), and mass density (r = −0.823). Ions such as Fe, Cu, and Mg are present on the surface of flours and more particularly starch. These ions allow the starch of the flours to establish bonds with the water molecules by electrostatic attractions and thus to retain this one. As for Ca, it prevents the binding of water molecules by phosphorous ions present on the surface of flour starches either by neutralizing the negative charge of these ions by establishing electrostatic bonds between them or by reducing the bioavailability of water by binding these molecules. For fixing water, proteins and lipids are found on the surface of starch granules and limit the binding of water molecules by the granule , Ca (r = 0.945), phenols (r = 0.756), and reducing sugars (r = 0.987). Depending on the type of fatty acids and amino acids constituting the lipid and protein chain, respectively, this will influence their solubilities. Indeed, the richer the lipids are in phospholipids, the more soluble they are; the richer the proteins are in hydrophilic amino acids, the more soluble they are. This would lead us to conclude that these flours are rich in this type of compound. Calcium and reducing sugars  are low molecular weight molecules naturally soluble in water. This would mean that their high proportion in a matrix would make it more soluble.The second grouping is that between Ca, Mg, reducing sugars, proteins, pH, mass density, cyanide content, titratable acidity, solubility index, fibers, phytates, ashes, lipids, Fe, copper, phenols, and water retention capacity. This grouping shows that there is a strong negative correlation between phytates and the following ions: Fe , AMYP (r = 0.987), AM (r = −0.987), and water absorption capacity (r = −0.833). Carbohydrates are the main molecules responsible for water retention in flours, thanks in particular to the existence of their −OH groups. Indeed, the carbohydrate content of a food would mean less fat and protein and therefore fewer compounds preventing water retention by the starch flour and their swelling. Absorption capacity is the ability of flours to retain water and trap it. This imprisonment would therefore lead to a water stress condition in the environment, thus reducing the availability of water necessary for swelling. Amylose and amylopectin are the two components of starch. The swelling power of flours is mainly linked to starch and more particularly to its two constituents. The instability of the flour gel formed is due to the high amylose content of the flour. Indeed, amylose molecules are more soluble than amylopectin molecules due to the size of its chain and the lack of steric clutter on this molecule. It will therefore tend to dissolve in water, causing the bonds formed with water to break . Starch and particularly amylose and amylopectin are the main molecules responsible for the rheological and functional properties of flours. In particular, it is responsible for the water retention and absorption capacity of the flours. This explains their relationship with water absorption capacity. The negative correlation between amylopectin and water absorption capacity is due to the fact that this molecule is sterically hindered and these intramolecular −OH groups have difficulty establishing bonds with molecules. Moreover, this steric clutter makes this molecule compact and difficult to detach so difficult to absorb water. The variables mentioned above, although not significantly correlated to the action of white sweet potato flour, could still influence its activity. Despite this, Na was found to be positively correlated with white sweet potato action. Indeed, just like Ca, K, and Fe, this ion plays the role of enzymatic cofactor and is therefore essential to the activity of these enzymes or enzymes in white sweet potato flour.The fourth grouping is the starch, WAC, Na, SwP, AMYP, AM, carbohydrates, and WSPF. From this grouping, it appears that SwP, which is similar to water retention capacity, is strongly correlated to carbohydrates (The analysis of the classification of flours by hierarchical ascending classification made it possible to define three classes Figure . The fir4At the end of this work, the aim was to chemically and functionally characterize the flours and to evaluate the ability of germinated yellow corn flour and white sweet potato flour to reduce the consistency of cassava flour‐based porridges, maize, and commercial, and it appears that the approximate chemical composition and physical and functional properties of the flours vary significantly from one plant to another, from one variety to another, and from one treatment to another. The gruels made from corn, commercial, and cassava flour without flour rich in amylases are low concentrations of dry matter, and the increase in its concentration leads to an increase in consistency. The addition of flours rich in amylases during cooking resulted in a fluidification, an increase in the nutritional value, and energy density of the gruels. This reduction proved to be better with germinated maize flour where with 1%, flow rates of between 100 and 160 mm/30 s were obtained for 21.50 g DM of bitter cassava flour, thereby multiplying the energy density and nutritional value of this infant flour by 5.18. It also emerges from these analyses that the action of these amylase‐rich flours is conditioned by the nutrient composition and physical and functional properties of the flours. As well as the nutritional composition, the functional and physical properties depend on the nature of the flour and the treatment applied as shown in the PCA. In view of these results, we can therefore consider the formulation of a weaning food with a consistency, and energy and nutritional value necessary for the proper growth of children.The authors do not have any conflicting interests.This study does not involve any human or animal testing.None.


Bartonella spp. are facultative intracellular pathogens that infect a wide range of mammalian hosts including humans. In order to subvert cellular functions and the innate immune response of their hosts, these pathogens utilize a VirB/VirD4 type-IV-secretion (T4S) system to translocate Bartonella effector proteins (Beps) into host cells. Crucial for this process is the Bep intracellular delivery (BID) domain that together with a C-terminal stretch of positively charged residues constitutes a bipartite T4S signal. This function in T4S is evolutionarily conserved with BID domains present in bacterial toxins and relaxases. Strikingly, some BID domains of Beps have evolved secondary functions to modulate host cell and innate immune pathways in favor of Bartonella infection. For instance, BID domains mediate F-actin-dependent bacterial internalization, inhibition of apoptosis, or modulate cell migration. Recently, crystal structures of three BID domains from different Beps have been solved, revealing a conserved fold formed by a four-helix bundle topped with a hook. While the conserved BID domain fold might preserve its genuine role in T4S, the highly variable surfaces characteristic for BID domains may facilitate secondary functions. In this review, we summarize our current knowledge on evolutionary and structural traits as well as functional aspects of the BID domain with regard to T4S and pathogenesis. Agrobacterium tumefaciens VirB/VirD4 T4AS system, the subunits are named VirB1–11 and VirD4 (Type-IV-secretion (T4S) systems are multiprotein complexes embedded in the cell envelope of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria and some archaea . They rend VirD4 . VirB2–1Bartonella effector proteins) (Bartonella species (A. tumefaciens VirB/VirD4 T4S system (Bartonella henselae (Bhe) showed that Beps are translocated via a VirB/VirD4 T4S system into various host cell types to modulate diverse cellular and innate immune functions allowing Bartonella to spread and establish long-lasting hemotrophic infections in its mammalian host  , the lat species . The vasS system . VirD4-TS system . Multiplian host .VirB homologous) T4S system in certain Bartonella spp.) display the canonical FIC-OB-BID architecture , Bep1–10 in lineage 3 (L-3), and BepA-I in the most species-rich lineage 4 (L-4)  domain that confers posttranslational modifications, a central connecting OB (oligonucleotide binding) fold, and a C-terminal BID domain . A previitecture . Further 4 (L-4) . Instead 4 (L-4) . While tst cells .In this review, we will focus on the evolution and classification of BID domains based on their presence in different T4S substrates. We will furthermore discuss structural and functional aspects of the BID domain with regard to T4S and the subversion of host cell function.BID domains display high sequence variability. Their classification is mainly based on their position within the multi-domain relaxases and Beps . C-termiAgrobacterium, Chelativorans, Ochrobactrum, and Sinorhizobium. Although it is not clear whether these PezT/Zeta-BID proteins are translocated through a T4S system, their genetic conservation to a virB/virD4-like T4S system locus suggests that these proteins are bona fide T4S substrates  of toxin/antitoxin modules . These Pbstrates . Therefo domains , left. I domains . Thus, telaxases .Atu pAT) fused to Cre-recombinase (Cre) translocates through the Bhe VirB/VirD4 T4S system with similar efficiency as Cre-tBID-fusions of different Bhe-Beps (The coevolutionary trajectory of tBID domains with their cognate T4CP is evident for tBID1 domains (TraA/VbhT) and TraG and for ancestral/derived tBIDs (Beps) with VirD4 . In contBhe-Beps . We therB. rochalimae Bep6, a derived tBID1 domain of B. clarridgeiae Bep9, and a derived BID1 domain of Bhe-BepE . Both species belong to L-4 and thus their Beps are designated with a letter code  by inhibiting apoptosis  to potentiate cAMP production  are currently unknown. However, a Bhe-BepA construct consisting only of helix-4 of the ancestral tBID1 domain and the adjacent C-terminal stretch did not inhibit apoptosis, suggesting that helix-4 alone is not sufficient for the antiapoptotic activity mediated by Bhe-BepA-BID  displayed antiapoptotic activity (Bhe and Bqu) possess antiapoptotic activity toward human ECs  (BepG of otein(s) . Similarotein(s) . InteresBartonella spp. supposedly infect dendritic cells at the dermal site of inoculation and exploit these migratory cells as Trojan horses in order to reach the bloodstream, where bacteria infect, replicate, and persist within erythrocytes  and protein toxins by various α-proteobacteria and for the interkingdom transfer of effectors by pathogenic proteins . Future Independent studies showed that T4S substrates are translocated to the recipient cytosol in an unfolded state . Due to AW and CT designed the figures. AW, CT, and CD wrote the manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Although experimental data including stripe/quasi-stripe structure and hidden states have been reported, the ground state of ultrathin MX2 compounds and, in particular, the origin of anisotropic (stripe and quasi-stripe) CDW phases is a long-standing problem. Anisotropic CDW phases have been explained by Coulomb interaction between domain walls and inter-layer interaction. However, these models assume that anisotropic domain walls can exist in the first place. Here, we report that anisotropic CDW domain walls can appear naturally without assuming anisotropic interactions: We explain the origin of these phases by topological defect theory  and interference between harmonics of macroscopic CDW wave functions. We revisit the McMillan-Nakanishi-Shiba model for monolayer 1T-TaS2 and 2H-TaSe2 and show that CDWs with wave vectors that are separated by 120° (i.e. the three-fold rotation symmetry of the underlying lattice) contain a free-energy landscape with many local minima. Then, we remove this 120° constraint and show that free energy local minima corresponding to the stripe and quasi-stripe phases appear. Our results imply that Coulomb interaction between domain walls and inter-layer interaction may be secondary factors for the appearance of stripe and quasi-stripe CDW phases. Furthermore, this model explains our recent experimental result (appearance of the quasi-stripe structure in monolayer 1T-TaS2) and can predict new CDW phases, hence it may become the basis to study CDW further. We anticipate our results to be a starting point for further study in two-dimensional physics, such as explanation of “Hidden CDW states”, study the interplay between supersolid symmetry and lattice symmetry, and application to other van der Waals structures.Ultrathin sheets of transition metal dichalcogenides (MX Anisotropic structures in charge density waves (CDWs) have been explained likewise. CDWs are periodic modulations of electric charge density in low-dimensional conductors6. The stability of CDWs containing stripe domain walls8 was first studied by free energy theories10. But these theories assumed that stripe domain walls can exist in the first place, probably due to weak computational facilities at that time. The appearance of stripe domain walls and quasi-stripe (triclinic) domain walls12 has been explained by Coulomb interaction between domain walls13 and three-dimensional stacking14. However, are these interactions indispensable? It would be ideal to have rich structures with the least amount of interactions.Usually, anisotropic structures such as stripe phases can be explained by anisotropic interaction between the constituent atoms, electrons, or liquid crystal polymers2) compounds 1T-TaS2 and 2H-TaSe2 . Interesting CDW phases are the stripe phase with stripe domain walls and the triclinic (T) phase with quasi-stripe domain walls  and interference between harmonics of macroscopic CDW wave functions. We consider the transition metal dichalcogenide  satisfying the triple-Q condition 32 to explain the IC-C phase transition. Nakanishi and Shiba analyzed this model more carefully by including higher order harmonics in the order parameter configuration, finding the presence of the NC phase in 1T-TaS233  are separated by 120°. In this case, the triple-Q condition i = 1, 2, 3) defines a two-dimensional reciprocal space. To characterize the set First, we consider the special case that the CDW wave vectors entclass1pt{minima33. Important wave vectors are the commensurate wave vectors Gi by angles of 13.9° and 0°, respectively. N = 0 represents the charge density modulation by the fundamental wave N > 0.Figure 35 , while the second one (type-2) uses McMillan’s original free energy9 analyzed with the method of Nakanishi-Shiba (see the Method section for more detail). The type-2 free energy is important because ring-like diffuse scattering were not observed for ultra-thin sheet of 1T-TaS2 including monolayer22. Figure In our extended analysis we have used two types of free energies: the first one (type-1) uses phenomenological parameters which reproduce a ring-like diffuse scattering obtained by an electron diffraction experimentSurprisingly, the free energy has a “multivalley landscape”: there are many local minima besides those corresponding to the well-known IC, NC, and C CDWs. Each of these local minima corresponds to new CDW states with three-fold rotational symmetry. Despite of different global texture, type-1 and type-2 free energies show almost identical local minima. If the 120° constraint is removed, then these local minima are expected to move to new minima corresponding to the T phase.H-TaSe2 as shown in Fig. Gi. Figure Qx = 0 obtained by Nakanishi-Shiba34 which explains the IC-C phase transition. We extend their analysis to the two-dimensional plane by varying Qx and find new local free energy minima like those of 1T-TaS2. Here, we have used the free-energy parameters in ref. 34 These local minima correspond to CDW states with three-fold rotational symmetry. Despite different global texture, type-1 and type-2 free energies show almost identical local minima. If the 120° constraint is removed, then these local minima are expected to move to new minima corresponding to the stripe phase.The multivalley free energy structure also exists in 2Here, we consider CDW states without the 120° constraint. Let 12. Here, we consider the angles N = 1. We have used the free energy parameters from Nakanishi-Shiba33. Then, we find a triplet of local minima which forms a regular triangle (black). This result is surprising because the T phase was previously explained by inter-layer interaction14, but our calculation is done for a monolayer crystal. Experimental result of the T phase in bulk 1T-TaS2 (green triangle)12 is in good agreement with our calculation. The domain size in our calculation is smaller than bulk crystal but may become closer to experiment if we further consider Coulomb interaction between domain walls or inter-layer interaction. Aside from this quantitative detail, we conclude that anisotropic domain walls for the T phase can be formed without inter-layer interaction and, hence, in a monolayer 1T-TaS2.First, we consider the T phase. From the triple-Q condition there are four independent degrees of freedom. Here, we fix two degrees of freedom, namely, the angles between domain walls, to visualize the free energy. The angles between domain walls are known from experiments7, the stripe phase is obtained by minimizing the free energy with the constraint N = 1) visualized with H-TaSe2 (green triangle)7. The domain size may become closer to experiment if we further consider Coulomb interaction between domain walls. Therefore, we conclude that anisotropic domain walls for the stripe phase can be formed naturally even in a monolayer 2H-TaSe2 with the least amount of interaction.Next, we consider the stripe phase. According to experimental resultsT-TaS2 and 2H-TaSe2 with general CDW wave vectors i = 1, 2, 3) separated by 120°. A “bird’s-eye view” of CDW free energy landscape with multivalley structure reveals the presence of multiple local minima which correspond to different CDW states. Then, we removed the 120° constraint and observed local minima for the stripe and T phases. These results are surprising because we resorted to neither Coulomb interaction between domain walls nor inter-layer interaction, which had been considered as the origins of the stripe and phases.First, we summarize the results presented in the previous sections. We revisited the McMillan-Nakanishi-Shiba models for 1To explain these results, we consider the following mechanism. CDW phases between the IC and C phases are accompanied with domain walls, where each domain contains a CCDW with a different phase: such domain walls minimize the commensurability energy between the CDW and the underlying lattice. The average domain size is inversely proportional to T-TaS2, the C phase is closer  to the T phase than the NC phase, i.e. the T phase has larger domains which is energetically favored. Therefore, as temperature increases, 1T-TaS2 will first make a phase transition from the C phase to the T phase; phase transition to the NC phase occurs when the NC domain size and the T domain size become comparable . However, if the free energy minima for these phases were the global minima at some temperature, then these phases would be observed upon cooling as well. In addition, the coexistence of NC and T has been observed for non-equilibrium condition upon rapid cooling, where the fraction of T-domain depends on cooling rate12. This coexistence is rather a “proof” of the multivalley free-energy structure. For rapid cooling, temperature gradient leads to energy fluctuation and a portion of the sample can stay in the local minimum for the T phase.We remark that it is very natural that the stripe and T phases correspond to local minima of the free energy rather than global ones. Experimentally, these phases (without coexistence) appear only upon heating from the commensurate state. The intralayer mechanism of the incommensurate-striped phase boundary was first studied by Littlewood and RiceH-TaSe2 has a parity-conserving commensurate structure , while v = 0 give stripe domain walls (such as 2H-TaSe2 with μ = 3 and v = 0). In particular, we predict that the ultrathin TaSe2 with a new μ = 2 and v = 1)37 can also have T domain walls.Next, we explain what condition distinguishes stripe and T domain walls. While 2ure Fig. , 1T-TaS239, for instance, is stabilized by the production of vortices. Creation of vortices requires energy, but vortices also increase entropy and minimize the free energy of the system. Similarly, stabilization of the stripe and T phases is related to entropy release/increase which is asymmetric with heating/cooling. The stripe and T phases break the 3-fold rotational symmetry of the CCDW state. The T phase further breaks parity. Lower symmetry due to production of symmetry-breaking domain walls implies larger entropy, i.e. lower free energy.The appearance of the stripe and T phases with the least amount of interaction can also be explained in the context of entropy. The Kosterlitz-Thouless transition2. Our results imply that Coulomb interaction between domain walls or inter-layer interaction may be secondary factors for the appearance of these phases. Note that our result does not contradict with Nakanishi-Shiba’s model of stripe and T phases based on inter-layer stacking14: their work still applies for MX2 with higher number of layers. Our result also explains our recent experimental result, namely the appearance of the T phase in monolayer 1T-TaS2.From these discussions, we conclude that the T and stripe phases can appear naturally even in monolayer MX30 and mysterious CDW states such as the hidden CDW states42, hence our model may become the basis to study CDW further. Our analysis may be extended to study the interplay between supersolid symmetry and lattice symmetry, and application to other van der Waals structures43.As future applications of this work, the appearance of various local minima may predict new CDW phases. Addition of Coulomb interaction between domain walls and local charge modulation may explain metal-to-insulator transition with domain wall network32McMillan’s phenomenological free energy for triple CDW isr are related to the electron charge density i   specifies the three components of the triple CDW. T- and 2H-polytypes, Nakanishi and Shiba considered Here the complex order parameters Supplementary Information.


It is believed that Mirror Visual Feedback (MVF) increases the interlimb transfer but the exact mechanism is still a matter of debate. The aim of this study was to compare between a bimanual task (BM) and a MVF task, within functionally rather than geometrically defined cortical domains. Measure Projection Analysis (MPA) approach was applied to compare the dynamic oscillatory activity (event-related synchronization/desynchronization ERS/ERD) between and within domains. EEG was recorded in 14 healthy participants performing a BM and an MVF task with the right hand. The MPA was applied on fitted equivalent current dipoles based on independent components to define domains containing functionally similar areas. The measure of intradomain similarity was a “signed mutual information,” a parameter based on the coherence. Domain analysis was performed for joint tasks (BM and MVF) and for each task separately. MVF created 9 functional domains while MB task had only 4 functionally distinctive domains, two over the left hemispheres and two bilateraly. For all domains identified for BM task alone, similar domains could be identified in MVF and joint tasks analysis. In addition MVF had domains related to motor planning on the right hemisphere and to self-recognition of action. For joint tasks analysis, seven domains were identified, with similar functions for the left and the right hand with exception of a domain covering BA32 (self-recognition of action) of the left hand only. In joint task domain analysis, the ERD/ERS showed a larger difference between domains than between tasks. All domains which involved the sensory cortex had a visible beta ERS at the onset of movement, and post movement beta ERS. The frequency of ERD varied between domains. Largest difference between tasks existed in domains responsible for the awareness of action. In conclusion, functionally distinctive domains have different ERD/ERS patterns, similar for both tasks. MVF activates contralateral hemisphere in similar manner to BM movements, while at the same time also activating the ipsilateral hemisphere. Significance: Following stroke cortical activation and interhemispheric inhibition from the contralesional side is reduced. MVF creates stronger ipsilateral activity than BM, which is highly relevant of neurorehabilitation of movements. A specific type of mirror therapy, which is based on mirror-visual feedback (MVF), has been used for the rehabilitation of different forms of neuropathic pain , Magnetoencephalography (MEG) and Electroencephalography (EEG)  of EEG signals  participated in the study. Participants' handedness was tested using the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory  and the second was the same movement performed with the dominant (right) hand only, using a MVF paradigm . In thisParticipants were instructed to wait ~10 s in between the two movements, so that sufficiently long baseline activity could be recorded for further data analysis. Trial sessions preceded the experiment, in order to familiarize the participants with self-paced movement, and to establish the pace of the task.The experiment was divided into sub-sessions, with a break in between sub-sessions to avoid fatigue. Each sub-session consisted of 10–12 trials, resulting in 80–90 trials per task. Participants first performed the bimanual task, then the unimanual task.Participants' EEG and EMG were recorded using three cascading universal bio-signal amplifiers , with separate ground and references for EEG and EMG measurements. Both EEG and EMG were sampled with the same frequency at 1,200 Hz and filtered with an IIR Butterworth notch filter (5th order) at 50 Hz; this was integrated into the amplifier. EEG signals were recorded using 44 surface electrodes according to international 10-10 electrode standard position  were removed by calculating independent components (IC) and removing components associated with noise before returning to the EEG domain. The Infomax Independent Component Analysis (ICA) method was used . This period, quite far from the onset of EMG was selected to avoid a period of motor planning. Statistical significance of the ERS/ERD values was determined by applying a t-percentile bootstrap algorithm  is a measurement tool that is used to analyze event-related EEG dynamics. This is an extended version of ERS/ERD which enables simultaneous analysis over a range of frequencies. It measures relative power changes of an EEG channel or an IC component in certain frequency bands during a dynamic task with respect to the baseline period before the task Makeig, . The ERSp = 0.05. To compare between ERS/ERD of two different conditions, a common baseline period was calculated. Correction for multiple comparisons was performed using the Holm-Bonferroni method  a non-parametric permutation test, based on resampling, was implemented in EEGLAB with a significance level set to od Holm, .While ERSP give an M × N matrix with M time and N frequency elements, for MPA analysis this matrix is vector, i.e., presented as an 1 × (M × N) vector. For visualization purposes only, this vector was transformed back to M × N matric.measure vector (vectorized ERSP) and a corresponding equivalent dipole.Each IC is presented by its This is a crucial step which defines brain areas which contain ICs with significant similarities in projected measure vectors .P(y) and with a standard deviation set to 12 mm  of a certain experimental condition, at brain locations y spanning a regular 8 mm spacing grid:Based on the density, it calculates the estimated  Mi(y) is truly M(y). Mi is a vectorized ESRP corresponding to ICi while 〈M (y)〉 is its “projection” on 3D Gaussian at voxel y. Once projected measures M (y) are obtained for each voxel, it is necessary to estimate their probability distribution, i.e., to identify brain areas, i.e., “neighborhoods” which exhibit statistically significant similarities in this measure.Where Pi(y) and Pj(y), it calculates the degree of similarity Si, j, which in this case presents “a signed mutual information”  between pair wise IC measure vectors (ERSPi and ERSPj)Next, for each pair of dipoles C(y) was calculated.Based on this, convergence C(y) identifies brain areas, i.e., “neighborhoods” which show statistically significant similarities in estimated measure vectors 〈M (y)〉. C(y) has higher values for homogeneous (similar) areas. The significance of the similarity  is determined based on bootstrap statistics. This tests against the null hypothesis that 〈M (y)〉  are produced by a random set of measure vectors with a statistical significance set to p = 0.05.Previous step only defines one global area of significant similarities. Affinity Propagation Clustering method  and even allows spatially disconnected areas to be assigned to the same domain, which comprises highly functionally connected areas.Because the MPA method is based on the probabilistic representation of dipole locations , it is not necessary that IC of each single subject contribute to each domain  across all ν voxels in domain d is:Projected estimated measures defined over significant brain areas C(y) are separated in two groups, MVF and BP. For a condition n is the number of component dipoles for a certain condition and Pj(i) is the model probability that dipole j is actually at domain voxel i.Above, t-test was applied to reveal a statistically significant differences between conditions within a domain. All regions with p > 0.05 are shaded in ERSP graphs in the section Results. The flow diagram of the procedures in shown in Once W values were obtained for both condition, a two-tailed student We first analyzed the spatial location and functional relevance of each domain. Following this, we created ERSP maps for both tasks in each domain, and compared them between tasks, within the same domain, and between functionally different domains.The first and largest domain, D1, was located in the left hemisphere, contralateral to the right, active hand. It contained areas that were responsible for motor planning (premotor cortex BA6) and execution (primary motor cortex BA4), as well as somatosensory association areas  in the posterior parietal cortex and, to a smaller degree, the primary somatosensory cortex (BA3).The second domain, D2, was also located in the left hemisphere and comprised functionally related areas covering the superior  and posterior (BA40) parietal cortices, with additional contributions from the primary somatosensory cortex S1  and primary motor cortex M1 (BA4). It shared some similar BAs with domain 1, with the main difference being a contribution from the secondary somatosensory cortex (BA40), indicating the functional relevance of this domain for visuo-spatial integration . The largest part of this domain (67%) was located in BA6, the pre-and supplementary motor area of the left hand, responsible for movement planning , which is responsible for awareness of actions, and self-recognition  on the left side.While the analysis of both tasks together enables comparison of ERS/ERD maps, the analysis of domains for each task separately reveals differences in spatial organization of functional domains. Nine functional domains for MVF task indicated larger complexity of MVF as compared to BM task which resulted in 4 functionally distinctive spatial domains.BM) located on the left hemisphere, covered area responsible for motor planning and execution as well as somatosensory association areas. In largely corresponded to Domain 1 in analysis of both tasks together . Domain D2BM is located dominantly on the right hemisphere, with largest portion containing BA 6 responsible for motor planning as well as primary sensory and motor cortex. It is most similar to D3. Domain D3BM covers mostly superior frontal gyrus bilaterally, including BA8 and BA32, similar to D4. Finally domain D4BM is located on the left hemisphere over BA31 and BA7 and has similar spatial location as D5 in section Joint Tasks Analysis of Domains.During BM , the larMVF is located on the left hemisphere and largely covered the same areas as D1 and D1BM. Domain D2MVF covered bilaterally superior frontal gyrus (BA6) that is responsible for motor planning. Domain D3MVF was located over the superior frontal gyrus and had a similar spatial location as D4 and D4BM. Domains D4MVF and D5MVF were both located over the right hemisphere. D4MVF covered the sensory-motor cortex and was most similar to D6. Domain D5MVF covered the premotor cortex BA6 as well as BA32 and BA24. It was most similar to D3, covering areas responsible for awareness of actions and self-recognition. Domains D2MVF and D5MVF covered similar area as D2BM. Domain D7MVF was located over left prefrontal cortex (BA10 and BA46) responsible for sustained attention and working memory. Domain D7MVF was also located over the left hemisphere and was most similar to D5. Domains D8MVF and D9MVF were both located over the right hemisphere. Largest portion of D8MVF covered right BA9 which is amongst the others responsible for processing coordinate spatial relations  as well as a domains related to the awareness of action  and domains having the function of sensory sustained attention . When analyzed individually, both BM and MVF tasks had similar spatial distribution of their largest domains D1t = 0 s corresponds to the physical onset of movements as detected by EMG of the right hand. Statistically significant differences between the tasks were calculated based on permutation analysis (p = 0.05), and are shown in the column to the right. After applying a correction for multiple comparisons using the False Discovery Rate (FDR) method .Domain D2 had strong ERD in the alpha and the beta band, followed by beta ERS. The EDR was stronger n BM task during movement preparation in the beta band and during execution in the beta and theta bands. Domain 2 also had a strong ERS in the theta band, which relates to the physical onset of movement, thus probably having a proprioceptive contribution. Theta ERS has also been reported at the onset of visual or proprioceptive stimuli in experimental paradigms involving cue-based motor tasks  across theta, alpha, and lower beta band, which is not surprising, because in MVF there was no planning of left hand movement. During movement execution difference between BM and MVF task persists in the lower beta and in the theta band, but not in the alpha band.Domain D3 had ERS/ERS similar to domain 1 in both tasks, though domain 3 was located in the right hemisphere. A large part of this domain comprises BA6, i.e., it is related to motor planning. The largest difference between BM and MVF tasks could be seen just before the physical onset of movement  to reveal tasks specific connectivity and connectivity common for both tasks. Analysis of separate tasks showed that while MVF covers all domains as BM tasks, it also includes additional domains related to motor planning and self-recognition of action. For joint tasks analysis, time-frequency responses of each tasks and for each single domain were presented. The analysis revealed differences in ERS/ERD between the tasks and between domains. Interestingly, for most domains the differences were more distinctive between domains than between tasks.Previous MVF studies have often compared the movement of one hand , in contrast with BM which includes both hands  and perceptuo-motor control . It could be functionally attributed to the localization of objects in space, and to motor planning and execution . This shows that prominent fronto-parietal connectivity also exists in MVF and is of a comparable intensity, as measured by ERS/ERD.We will start the analysis by comparing domains DBM included BA6  as well as smaller parts of M1 and S1 on the right hemisphere, and ACC (BA24), and BA8. Its functional role was motor planning. Similarly to D2BM, domain D3 in joint tasks covered dominantly the frontal gyrus bilaterally as well as the precentral gyrus on the right hemisphere. In MVF this areas were split in two domains, D5MVF which also consisted almost 50% of BA6 over the right hemisphere and D2MVF which consisted almost exclusively of BA6 bilaterally.Almost half of second largest domain D2BM corresponded to D4 and to D3MVF. It contained BA32 responsible for the averseness of an action. This domain might not be seen in amputees or stroke patients who cannot move a paretic hand because they do not experience conflicting sensory  and motor information. This area is active is people who cannot suppress involuntary actions  was related to the perceptual awareness of movement   responsible for sustained attention and working memory.Another domain related to motor planning over the right hemisphere was D5In summary, for all domains present for BM task similar domains were identified for MVF task. In MVF motor planning is in addition divided into functional unit over the left hemisphere, right hemisphere and bilaterally. During BM task, areas responsible for bilateral and right hemisphere motor planning are located within one domain. Additional functional domains which exist in MVF task only, related to sustained attention and to processing spatial relations, reflecting the nature of the MVF task which require visual engagement and result in sensation of movement of the left hand.Joint task domain analysis showed that domains located in the right hemisphere covered the same functional areas as domains in the left hemisphere and in addition cover areas responsible for self-recognition of action. Two domains found in joint analysis were not directly comparable to any domain in the individual task analysis. These are domain D2 located over the left hemispheres including somatosensory association areas BA5 and BA7 as well as primary sensory and motor cortex . All these BA are present within DBT and DMVF but not as one functional unit. Likewise, D7 located in the left hemisphere  became functionally independent unit only when both tasks are analyzed together. Right side BA6, premotor and supplementary motor area of left hand was the part of several functionally module, in domains D3 D4, and D6. It dominantly contributed to domain 3, the primary function of which was motor planning, but it also contributed to domain 4 with main function in self-recognition of action. Finally, together with BA3 and BA4, BA6 created a domain 6, responsible for motor planning, execution and sensory-motor integration  had strong alpha ERD. Domains D1 and D3, containing pre and supplementary motor cortices on the left and the right hemisphere  had similar ERD/ER. Domains D4 and D5, which did not include the motor cortex, did not have as strong alpha ERD as the first three domains. In domain D5, located on in the left hemisphere ERD was very weak for both tasks, and present only after initiation of movement. Finally, the small domain D7 which covered S1 and SII on the left hemisphere, had beta ERD followed by strong beta ERS, and thus demonstrated ERD on a different frequency to domains which involved the motor cortex.We also compared ERS/ERD between BM and MVF tasks. During preparation of movement, ERD was stronger in most domains, in particular in Domain 3, for BM taks. During execution of movement, ERD was stronger for BM task in Domains 1–4, while it was stronger for MVF task in Domains 5 and 7. Domains 1–4 covered motorplanning over both hemispheres. Domains 5 and 7 covered somatosenory cotex, sustained attention and spatial integration over the left hemisphere.MVF related to motor planning might not be bilateral in case of left hand MVF.In this study we analyzed MVF with right, dominant hand, being the active hand in front of the mirror. A number of studies compared MVF of the dominant and non-dominant hand. Garry et al.  found noBM) which encompasses both premotor and parietal areas on the left hemisphere.Measure projection analysis creates domains using a similarity measure based on correlation. In the literature, fMRI rather than EEG was used to analyze functional connectivity between different areas of the cortex in BM and MVF tasks. In our study we found a strong presence of BA 6, covering both premotor and supplementary motor areas, responsible for motor planning in several functional domains. The fMRI studies from literature showed strong involvement of premotor and supplementary motor cortex (BA6) in functional networks present in both BM and MVF tasks (Gao et al., Functionally distinctive cortical areas have characteristic ERS/ERD patterns, which for most domains are comparable between BM and MVF motor tasks. The largest differences between tasks exist in a domain functionally related to the awareness and planning of action of the left hand. This is of importance for rehabilitation of movement in stroke patients, who often have strong intracortical inhibition from the contralesional side, that impedes motor recovery (Jones and Adkins, Participants signed the informed consent form prior to taking part in the study. The study was approved by the University of Glasgow, College of Science and Engineering Ethical Committee. A member of research team provided a written consent to publish her photo.SA-W conducted the experiments and analyzed data. FP contribute to the experimental design and paper writing. AS contributed to the data analysis and paper writing. AV designed the experiment, contributed to data analysis, and wrote the paper.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


X-ray crystallography and electron microscopy, support the earlier findings on the proteins’ ancestry. This chapter describes the structure of the teneurin scaffold with reference to a large family of teneurin-like proteins that are widespread in modern prokaryotes. The central scaffold of modern eukaryotic teneurins is decorated by additional domains typically found in bacteria, which are re-purposed in eukaryotes to generate highly multifunctional receptors. We discuss how alternative splicing contributed to further diversifying teneurin structure and thereby function. This chapter traces the evolution of teneurins from a structural point of view and presents the state-of-the-art of how teneurin function is encoded by its specific structural features.Pioneering bioinformatic analysis using sequence data revealed that teneurins evolved from bacterial tyrosine-aspartate (YD)-repeat protein precursors. Here, we discuss how structures of the C-terminal domain of teneurins, determined using  Teneurins are evolutionarily ancient cell surface receptors which have emerged as important regulators of many neurobiological processes in both vertebrates and invertebrates, including synaptic partner matching , synaptiX-ray crystallography, up to 2.4 Å resolution), which is that of chicken Teneurin 2  type-III domain termed the FN-plug domain . CompareDrosophila olfactory map , and this type of fusion can be found naturally in certain bacterial species such as the TcdB2 protein from Burkholderia pseudomallei.The C-terminal teneurin scaffold shows a strong similarity to the TcB-TcC subcomplex of bacterial ABC insecticidal toxin complexes (Tc), with some significant differences. These ABC toxins are large protein complexes produced by a number of bacterial species against insect targets. These toxin systems are comprised of three major components: TcA forms a pentameric injection apparatus that binds to an insect cell and punctures the cell membrane, injecting the toxic component . TogetheYersinia entomophaga vs. 1458 amino acids for chicken teneurin 2). This results in the spiral of β-sheet making ∼1 extra turn in TcB-TcC compared to teneurin  domains in an equivalent position to the EGF repeats of teneurin. Following this is a similar set of domains to teneurin: a TTR-like domain, FN-plug, NHL β-propeller, YD-repeats, and an Rhs-repeat-associated core domain , connected by thin elongated rods, presumed to be the EGF repeats  repeats, a short cysteine-rich motif and a recently identified transthyretin-like (TTR) domain, which is flexibly linked to the central scaffold and packs against the FN-plug domain in the high resolution crystal structure of chicken Ten2, where it is stabilized in a discrete conformation by crystal lattice contacts . The TTR repeats .in trans in an in vitro cell aggregation assay xxDx(D/E)xDxxxDCxxx(D/E)CCxxxxCxxxxxC. The teneurin cysteine-rich motif has not yet been functionally characterized, although bioinformatic analysis has revealed sequence similarity to putative metal-binding motifs in bacterial and algal proteins .As predicted from previously solved structures of YD-repeat-containing proteins , the resStrikingly, unlike structures of TcB-TcC toxin complexes, where the entire C-terminal toxic domain is enclosed within the YD-shell, the teneurin C-terminal domain leaves the shell interior via a gap in the shell wall . These eImmediately downstream of the shell exit site, the crystal structure of chicken Ten2 reveals a 120-residue domain , which bears structural homology to a class of bacterial proteins which bind the small-molecule antibiotics bleomycin and zorbamycin . These bin vitro and inducing apoptosis in vivo. However, in the context of an intact teneurin ectodomain, no nuclease activity was observed , albeit having a divergent intracellular domain, providing evidence that the gene could have been acquired by M. brevicollis from its prokaryotic prey via a horizontal gene transfer event , and also in the protochordates floridae . Teneurifloridae . Howeverer event , as obseer event . As choaRecent breakthroughs in understanding the first structures of teneurin protein domains have revealed unexpected new insights into this enigmatic family of proteins. First, the structures show that the C-terminal Tox-GHH/TCAP domains are solvent-exposed and therefore will be accessible to external ligands, proteases and other extracellular factors. Second, teneurin family proteins contain a previously unknown type of fibronectin domain (FN-plug) that specifically acts to seal off the YD-shell. Third, understanding the fold of the central teneurin scaffold led to the discovery of a whole family of teneurin-like proteins in prokaryotes, suggesting evolution from an ancient and widespread fold. Future research on these bacterial proteins, comparing their structure-function relationship with teneurins, will likely reveal more unexpected aspects of teneurin biology. Last but not least, the elaborate structure of the teneurin extracellular C-terminus is unlike that of any other cell adhesion receptor, most of which consist of smaller adhesion domain repeats. The intricate nature of this fold, and the presumably large energetic cost of synthesizing and correctly folding these large proteins, suggests that teneurins may encode functions beyond the role of a canonical cell adhesion receptor that are yet to be explored.All authors contributed to the conception and writing of the manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Great progress has been achieved recently in identification and characterization of the conserved and plant-unique regulators involved in the MVB and autophagosome pathways. In this review, we present an update on the current knowledge of these key regulators and pay special attention to their conserved protein domains. In addition, we discuss the possible interplay between the MVB and autophagosome pathways in regulating vacuolar degradation in plants.In eukaryotic cells, the endomembrane system consists of multiple membrane-bound organelles, which play essential roles in the precise transportation of various cargo proteins. In plant cells, vacuoles are regarded as the terminus of catabolic pathways whereas the selection and transport of vacuolar cargoes are mainly mediated by two types of organelles, multivesicular bodies (MVBs) also termed prevacuolar compartments (PVCs) and autophagosomes. MVBs are single-membrane bound organelles with intraluminal vesicles and mediate the transport between the  Vacuoles are the major sites for both storage and metabolism in plant cells and play essential roles during plant growth and development . Plant vIn this mini review, we summarize the recent advances in research into the MVB and autophagosome pathways in plant cells. The key regulators and their conserved domain will be highlighted. In the end, we also discuss the possible crosstalk between the MVB and autophagosome pathways in plant cells.In the plant secretory pathway, soluble vacuolar cargoes are recognized by VSR proteins , while iPisum sativum) (The first VSR protein identified is BP-80 from pea (sativum) . BP-80 rsativum) . VSRs arsativum) . The TMDsativum) . The YMPArabidopsis thaliana has been resolved to show how VSRs recognize their cargoes recently  aleurain VSD sequence of 1ADSNPIRPVT10. In this model, the cargo-binding pocket of PA domain is occupied by switch III residues (130TPEE133), forming a closed conformation before interaction with the cargo. The Ala-Asp-Ser residues preceding the NPIR motif in the cargo  are recognized by PA domain and the Arg-95 forms a hydrogen bond to Ser residue, which is crucial to receptor-cargo interaction. When Ala-Asp-Ser residues are bound to the PA domain, they displace the switch III residues from the cargo binding pocket and induce conformational changes that are propagated to the C-terminus of the PA domain. This results in a 180° flip of the C-terminal tail and the conformation is stabilized by hydrogen bond between Glu-24 and His-181, allowing the central domain to cooperate with the PA domain in recognizing the full-length VSD.The structure of PA domain of VSR from recently . The cryThe ESCRT machinery is an assembly of protein subcomplexes which plays canonical roles in the MVB biogenesis and ubiquitinated membrane proteins sorting for degradation and it is evolutionarily conserved in eukaryotes . CompareArabidopsis genome nine TOM1-like (TOL) proteins with conserved VHS domains followed by GAT domains and putative clathrin binding motifs. Previous studies have shown that some Arabidopsis TOLs can bind to ubiquitin and regulate cargo recognition, as well as interact with clathrin for ubiquitinated cargo clustering  proteins have been reported to interact with the VPS4/SKD1 complex to regulate MVB biogenesis and vacuolar sorting of auxin transporters   ATPase VPS4. The N-terminal microtubule-interacting and trafficking (MIT) domain of VPS4 recognizes and binds to C-terminal MIMs (MIT-interacting motifs) present in the ESCRT-III subunits. LIP5 (lyst-interacting protein 5), a VPS4/SKD1 positive regulator, was recently reported to regulate MVB biogenesis and MVB-mediated sorting of membrane proteins through interaction with increased salt tolerance 1-like1 (ISTL1), a protein predicted to be the rance 1) .Arabidopsis BRO1 (or ALIX), which is homologous to yeast bypass of C kinase 1 (BCK1)-like resistance to osmotic shock 1p (Bro1p) and mammalian apoptosis linked gene-2 interacting protein X (ALIX). BRO1/ALIX interacts with the ESCRT-III component SNF7, and recruits the deubiquitinase AMSH3 (associated molecule with the SH3 domain of STAM 3) to late endosomes to remove ubiquitin from cargoes before luminal sequestration of MVBs  and positive regulator of SKD1 (PROS) . ESCRT-r of MVBs . A more  of MVBs . Another of MVBs . In addi of MVBs . BRAF reATG gene was identified in yeast (ATG genes have been screened out (Autophagy is known to be tightly controlled by the conserved autophagy-related (ATG) proteins  . Since tin yeast , around ened out . These cened out .To elucidate the mechanism of autophagosome formation, functional and structure biological efforts have been made for decades. However, little structure biological studies have been published on plant ATG components. As recent structure biological progresses on PI3K complex and conjugation systems have been well summarized , in the The budding yeast autophagy Atg1 complex consists of five components  . The forThe serine/threonine kinase Atg1 consists of an N-terminal kinase domain (KD), and two C-terminal tandem MIT domains (MIT1 and MIT2), which directly recognize Atg13 . As the ATG1 orthologs in Arabidopsis comprise four members (ATG1a-c and t), while ATG13 is encoded by a pair of genes (ATG13a and ATG13b)  . The rem-residue . However-residue .ATG11 has been identified in yeast  motifs and a C-terminal ATG11 domain, a short cryptic ATG17-like domain (residues 348–494) was also identified near the N-terminal of Arabidopsis ATG11. Recently Atg11 was purified and subjected to a series of biophysical analyses, including analytical ultracentrifugation and CD spectroscopy  is essential for interaction between Atg2 and Atg9  colocalized with ATG8a in autophagic structures in immunogold TEM study and positively regulated autophagy and immunity-associated hypersensitive cell death in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis EXO70 exocyst subunits, were internalized into the central vacuole and co-localized with the autophagosomal marker ATG8f (FREE1 is known to bind to phosphatidylinositol-3-phosphate and ubiquitin then interacts with the ESCRT-I subunit VPS23 via the PTAP-like tetrapeptide motifs or possibly incorporated into ESCRT-III via association with SNF7 on MVBs . Meanwhibidopsis . In addibidopsis . Howeverer ATG8f .Substantial progress has been made in identifying regulators important for the crosstalk between the MVB and autophagosome pathways in mammals and yeast . In planYC, YH, WC, JG, and LJ designed the concept and the organized the manuscript. YC, YH, and WC wrote the manuscript. YC and LJ edited the manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Noroviruses are responsible for almost a fifth of all cases of gastroenteritis worldwide. New strains evolve every 2–4 years by escaping herd immunity and cause worldwide epidemics. In the US alone, noroviruses are responsible for ~20 million cases and more than 70,000 hospitalizations of infected children, annually. Efforts towards a vaccine have been hindered by a lack of detailed structural information about antibody binding and the mechanisms of antibody escape. Caliciviruses have 180 copies of the major capsid protein , that is divided into the N-terminus (N), the shell (S) and C-terminal protruding (P) domains. The S domain forms a shell around the viral RNA genome, while the P domains dimerize to form protrusions on the capsid surface. The P domain is subdivided into P1 and P2 subdomains, with the latter containing the binding sites for cellular receptors and neutralizing antibodies. There is increasing evidence that these viruses are extremely dynamic and this flexibility is critical for viral replication. There are at least two modes of flexibility; the entire P domain relative to the shell and within the P domain itself. Here, the details and possible roles for this remarkable flexibility will be reviewed. Noroviruses are the major cause of epidemic gastroenteritis in humans and, as such, are important pathogens , causinin-vivo analyses more difficult [Efforts to make effective norovirus vaccines have been thwarted by our lack of understanding of the structural mechanisms of viral escape. In addition, noroviruses are constantly evolving and generate new strains every 2–4 years ,4,5 thatifficult . Neverthifficult .Caliciviruses are T = 3 icosahedral particles with 180 copies of the major capsid protein , that is divided into the N-terminus (N), the shell (S) and C-terminal protruding (P) domains ,12,13,14The purpose of this review is to examine recent results demonstrating that the Calicivirus capsid is a dynamic structure and that this flexibility may play important roles in receptor binding and escape from immune surveillance. From these studies, there are at least two aspects of capsid flexibility; the entire P domain freely moves about the capsid surface and the conformation of the P domain itself is highly flexible and sensitive to antibody escape mutations and receptor binding.Caliciviridae family had been determined , it wasirus, NV ,20. WhilSince this unusual “floating P domain” conformation (“expanded state”) was so different than the crystal structure of NV (“compressed state”), the structure of rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) VLP was also determined . The strThe structures of MNV (genotype GV.1) and RHDV (genotype GIV) have this “extended” conformation and represent two different genotypes. However, neither infect humans and it was possible that it is a feature not found in the human noroviruses. It was therefore important that the cryo-EM structure of the human Vietnam026 (GII.10) VLP was determined . The cryThere is also recent evidence that this flexibility of the P domain likely plays a critical role in receptor interaction in MNV . In thisCalicivirus genera, antibody recognition of buried epitopes, and receptor interactions all strongly suggest that P domain flexibility plays some critical role in the Calicivirus life cycle. While studies are underway to ascertain this function, Caliciviruses can adopt both conformations depending upon environmental cues. As suggested in this figure, the viruses might prefer the compressed or expanded state when binding to the cell surface. In this way, the virus may become primed for cell attachment when in the appropriate location in the gut. From the recent MNV P domain/ CD300lf structure [The conservation of this unique flexibility of the P domain across tructure , it appeIn the expanded state, several events might occur. The flexible tether between the shell and the P domains could be sensitive to proteases. This could release soluble P domains that might act as a “smoke screen” for the immune system and present antigenic sites not normally exposed on the viral surface. Similarly, the marked flexibility of the P domains in the expanded state might expose these antigenic sites without having to be cleaved from the shell. In either case, if any of these normally buried sites are immunodominant, then the immune response might focus on producing antibodies that bind poorly or not at all to the compressed capsid. This hypothesis is supported by the findings that the immune response to MNV included antibodies to the buried shell domain  and fromFrom the results above, the P domain is like a balloon floating above the viral shell, attached only by a thin tether. The P domain is structurally isolated from the rest of the capsid and therefore it seems highly unlikely that antibodies or receptors can bind to the P domain and transmit conformational changes to the shell. However, there is growing evidence that the P domain itself is highly flexible and that this motility is necessary for viral function.To detail the possible roles of this flexibility within the P domain, it is important to first review the locations of antibody and receptor binding sites on the P domain. There has been a great deal of work describing virus interactions with two types of cellular receptors; complex polysaccharides and cell surface proteins.As will be discussed below, there are very recent results that show that flexibility within the P domain may help human noroviruses bind to the histo-blood group antigens (HBGA) . SusceptThere have been a number of structures of norovirus P domains complexed with simple saccharides ,34,35. CCaliciviruses as demonstrated by studies showing that transfection of the fJAM-1 gene into non-permissive cells transferred sensitivity to infection that was blocked by antibodies to fJAM-1. JAM-1 is a member of the immunoglobulin-like superfamily of proteins found on the surface of leukocytes and blood platelets and is thought to regulate the formation of tight junctions in epithelial and endothelial cells. Domain deletion and mutagenesis experiments have mapped the virus interactions to outermost D1 domain [Feline calicivirus (FCV) causes respiratory illness and stomatitis in cats . FCV int1 domain . It is i1 domain . This woThe cryo-TEM structure of FCV complexed with fJAM-1 was determined to a resolution of ~18Å . While tThe structure of human JAM-1 (hJAM-1) has been determined to atomic resolution . In the This work has been updated with very recent and exciting cryo-EM studies on the FCV/VP2 complex . In thesIn the initial crystal structure of the MNV P domain , the outTo understand how noroviruses escape antibody neutralization, we determined the cryo-EM structure of MNV complexed with the Fab fragment from a neutralizing A6.2 . It was Using the A6.2/MNV-1 docking model ,19 as a An even more extreme case of P domain plasticity was observed with a second neutralizing antibody, 2D3 . CompareTo understand the difference between these two antibodies, the cryo-EM structure of the 2D3 bound to MNV was determined  Figure . Like A6To address how the 2D3 escape mutants, that are distal to antibody contact and buried beneath the surface, can block 2D3 binding, dynamic simulations were performed on the P domain where the V339I mutation was modeled into both the open and closed conformations  Figure . The resTogether, these results strongly support the contention that the P domain is in a dynamic structural equilibrium where the crystallographically observed open and closed states represent two possibilities of a montage of conformations. The site directed escape mutations to A6.2 and the naturally occurring escape mutations to 2D3 suggest that the virus can block antibody binding by shifting this equilibrium towards the closed state. If true, then it necessarily follows that the closed state is the viable and infectious form of the virus. Further, it is not at all clear why the 2D3 contacts on the P domain are so immutable and suggest important roles in this particular region of P domain such as receptor binding.Cd300lf. It was confirmed that this was the receptor from studies showing that knocking out Cd300lf in BV2 cells blocked infection by MNV. Further, treating the cells with antibodies to CD300lf blocked MNV attachment. Attachment of MNV to BV2 cells was not affected by pre-treatment of the cells with the mannosidase I inhibitor, kifunensine, suggesting that carbohydrates do not play a significant role in MNV attachment. Even stronger evidence of the importance of CD300lf came from the demonstration that expression of this mouse cell surface protein in HeLa cells made these human cells susceptible to MNV infection. While carbohydrates are not apparently important for cell binding, they did find that a serum cofactor was required for cell attachment. Recent studies on MNV demonstrated that these some of these serum factors are bile salts [The Virgin lab recently discovered that the cell receptor for MNV was proteinaceous and was not dependent upon carbohydrates for binding . Using Cle salts . In thesUsing these soluble forms of CD300lf and the P domains, they also directly measured the interaction affinity using surface plasmon resonance . The monThe details of the MNV/receptor interactions have been elucidated with the atomic structure of the P domain/CD300lf complex ,52 FiguB. The CDInterestingly, the conformation of the A’–B’ and E’–F’ loops in the receptor complex is nearly identical to that of the closed conformation. The major difference is in the C’–D’ loop that is “turned up” compared to the P domain alone. This affords enough space for the bile salt, GCDCA (tan spheres), to bind. It may be that the structural equilibrium in solution is shifted by GCDCA binding to the closed form, which may be preferred by CD300lf. In this way, the bile salts may enhance receptor binding, indirectly, by altering the dynamics and structural equilibrium of the P domain. What is particularly interesting is that one of the two escape mutants to the neutralizing antibody, 2D3, is the buried residue V339 (black spheres) that lies immediately adjacent to the bile salt binding site. As with the bile salts, we had proposed that the V339I mutation shifted the equilibrium towards the closed conformation that does not favor antibody binding ,45,48. IPanel C shows the binding locations of CD300lf (green) and the neutralizing antibody 2D3 (pink) with respect to the bile salt binding site. This figure is rotated 90° compared to panels A and B and is hypothetical since the receptor and antibody do not bind at the same time. As this figure shows, the two proteins do not bind to the exactly the same location on the P domain but the main body of the proteins are too close together to bind simultaneously. It should be noted, however, that whether antibodies overlap the binding site of CD300lf in the case of MNV or HGBA’s in the case of human noroviruses, neither circumstances are likely to be necessary for antibody efficacy. As discussed previously ,54, it mPanel D shows a comparison between the MNV P domain/CD300lf/GCDCA complex  and the These studies have shown that the Calicivirus capsid is not merely a “tin can” moving viral genome from cell to cell. Instead, it a highly dynamic virus that appears to have a highly mobile P domain that can move around the capsid surface, likely to facilitate binding to the target cell. This flexibility of the P domain might also be involved in avoiding the immune system by presenting antigenic sites exposed in one state but not the other. There is similarly a high degree of mobility within the P domain with it adopting a spectrum of conformations depending upon various environmental cues. This flexibility may be to help it target the best tissue for infection. It might even be used to confuse the immune system by presenting a wide array of structures. In essence, could the virus be presenting one “face” to the immune system while adopting a very different one for cell attachment depending upon the environment?


ΔVI) and the parcel-based relative yield are proposed and further used to estimate rice yield. Hyperspectral images at key growth stages, including tillering stage, jointing stage, booting stage, heading stage, filling stage, and ripening stage, as well as rice yield, were obtained with Rikola hyperspectral imager mounted on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) in 2017 growing season. Three types of parcel-level relative vegetation indices, including Relative Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (RNDVI), Relative Ratio Vegetation Index (RRVI), and Relative Difference Vegetation Index (RDVI) are created by using all possible two-band combinations of discrete channels from 500 to 900 nm. The optimal VI type and its band combinations at different growth stages are identified for rice yield estimation. Furthermore, the optimal combinations of different growth stages for yield estimation are determined by F-test and validated using leave-one-out cross validation (LOOCV) method. The comparison results show that, for the single-growth-stage model, RNDVI at booting stage has the best correlation with rice yield with a R2-value of 0.75. For the multiple-growth-stage model, RNDVI at jointing stage, RNDVI at booting stage and RNDVI at filling stage gain a higher R2-value of 0.83 with the mean absolute percentage error of estimated rice yield of 3%. The study demonstrates that the proposed method with parcel-level relative vegetation indices and relative yield can achieve higher yield estimation accuracy because it can make full use of the advantage that remote sensing can monitor relative changes accurately. The new method will further enrich the technology system for crop yield estimation based on remotely sensed data.Time-series Vegetation Indices (VIs) are usually used for estimating grain yield. However, multi-temporal VIs may be affected by different background, illumination, and atmospheric conditions, so the absolute differences among time-series VIs may include the effects induced from external conditions in addition to vegetation changes, which will pose a negative effect on the accuracy of crop yield estimation. Therefore, in this study, the parcel-based relative vegetation index ( Remote sensing technology is an important measure for collecting data on the Earth and its changes, and it has been widely used in all kinds of subjects such as water resources , geologyAlthough satellite images have been widely used in crop yield estimation, there are still many problems that we need to address. For example, high spatial and temporal resolution satellite images usually cannot be obtained at same time, sometimes it is impossible to obtain valid data at the key growth stage due to poor weather conditions. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) equipped with sensors can remedy those defects mentioned above . UAV remUnmanned Aerial Vehicle platform equipped with remote sensing sensors can supply high spatial and temporal resolution images for precision agriculture, but there are still some issues that need be further investigated. For example, accurate radiometric correction for time-series images is a challenge for UAV remote sensing. The ideal condition for multi-period UAV data acquisition is that the weather is clear and the angle of the sun is the same for each flight. Actually, for each flight, the absorption and scattering of solar radiation by atmospheric molecules, dust and water vapor are different and the altitude angle of the sun is not the same due to the different flying time , which m′′E, 30°34′21.21′′N)  . The ave1.21′′N) . Two ric1.21′′N) . Field dRikola Hyperspectral Imager  mounted on the DJI Matrice 600 Pro UAV  are usedEvery hyperspectral images were processed with vignetting correction, lens distortion correction, black level calibration and band to band registration. DN values of raw images were transformed to radiance values. Except for band to band registration, all data processing was carried out with Rikola Hyperspectral Imager software .As mentioned above, the use of relative vegetation index is expected to diminish the limitation of absolute differences that contain the uncertain information caused by different background, illumination and atmospheric conditions at different growth stages. The idea of parcel-level relative vegetation index is based on the hypothesis that solar radiation, solar altitude and atmospheric conditions are the same, and background are similar at one time of data acquisition. So, the one parcel of rice field is selected as reference parcel and others are seen as studied parcels. The parcel-level relative vegetation index and relative yield is calculated on the basis of vegetation index and yield of reference parcel. In our study, a well-grown parcel with normal fertilization is selected as a reference parcel from all experimental parcels. Relative vegetation index is calculated by vegetation index of studied parcel divided by vegetation index of the reference parcel [Eq. (1)], and relative yield is calculated by yield of studied parcel divided by yield of reference parcel [Eq. (2)]. Schematic plot of the calculation method is shown in r). All the r-values are plotted in matrix plots. The advantages of the matrix plots are that they give a quick overview of hundreds of wavelength combinations and make it possible to identify the optimal band combination for further analysis.In our study, three types of relative vegetation indices are tested, including Relative Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (RNDVI), Relative Ratio Vegetation Index (RRVI), and Relative Difference Vegetation Index (RDVI). All possible two-band combinations of discrete channels from 500 to 900 nm are used to create RNDVI, RRVI, RDVI, as demonstrated by ΔVI is parcel-level relative vegetation index, VI is the vegetation index of a study parcel, RVI is the vegetation index of reference parcel.Where RY is parcel-level relative yield, Y is the measured yield of a study parcel, and RY is the measured yield of reference parcel.Where Since the good linear relationship between VI and crop yield, like rice and wheat, have been found in the previous studies , multiplR2) and root mean square error (RMSE) between estimated and measured yield are calculated to quantify the performance of estimation models.The relative VIs at different growth stages are all related with relative yield, but which single growth stage and growth stage combinations that can more accurately estimate rice yield will be determined through this study. Therefore, firstly, the optimal single-growth-stage model can be directly obtained by comparing the fitted model with different single growth stage. Secondly, the multiple-growth-stage model can be acquired by comparing the fitted model with two, three, four, five, and all combinations of growth stages. Coefficient of determination  and filling stage . The expression of model is:As seen, the best estimation model with R2 and RMSE of all three-variate models are shown in R2 of 0.83 and the lowest RMSE of 189.13 kg/ha are obtained by the model including jointing stage , booting stage  and filling stage . The model expressed as Eq. (5):The model expressions and R2 (0.84) and the lowest RMSE (185.84 kg/ha) is obtained by the model incorporating jointing stage , booting stage , filling stage , and ripening stage , the model expression is:As shown in R2 of 0.84 and RMSE of 185.46. The included growth stages are jointing stage , booting stage , heading stage , filling stage , and ripening stage . The model is expressed as Eq. (7):As seen in R2 = 0.84, RMSE = 185.45 kg/ha:Yield estimation model including all optimal RNDVIs of every growth stage is expressed as Eq. (8), R2-values do not increase significantly while RMSE values don’t decrease significantly. Yield estimation model would be complex if too many RNDVIs are included in the estimation model, but a univariate model using one RNDVI would decrease the estimation accuracy. In order to identify the optimal yield estimation model with greatest simplicity and accuracy simultaneously, all optimal multivariate models were tested using F-test. The optimal estimation model would be selected from the models that with F-test reaching 1% significant level and simultaneously with lower RMSE and less RNDVIs included. As can be seen in F-test of all models reach 1% significant level. Then, taking into consideration R2 and RMSE, the multivariate model including three RNDVIs, with R2 of 0.83 and RMSE of 189.13 kg/ha, is identified as the optimal estimation model. The equation of selected model is expressed in Eq. (5).As can be seen in The estimation model Eq. (5) is validated using leave-one-out cross validation (LOOCV) method. The agreement between estimated and measured yield is tested using RMSE. The scatter plot of estimated and measured yield are shown in R2 of 0.5. R2 of 0.75 for univariate model and 0.76 for multivariate model, respectively. Compared with those researches, our study presents the idea of relative vegetation index and relative yield to improve the rice yield estimation accuracy. As the results have shown, the univariate model using RNDVI at booting stage obtained a R2 of 0.75 and the multivariate model including three RNDVIs, i.e., RNDVI at jointing stage, RNDVI at booting stage and RNDVI at filling stage, gained a R2 of 0.83. The results demonstrated that when using relative vegetation index and the relative yield, a high accuracy of yield estimation can be obtained.Grain yield estimations with UAV-based remotely sensed data have been carried out for many types of crops. In this study, the RNDVI at booting stage shows the highest correlation with rice yield. This conclusion is consistent with previous studies , in whicThe large number of narrow spectral bands results in a high inter-correlation between them . In our In this study, we conducted a 1-year rice experiment with two rice varieties and five nitrogen levels at a specific region. The results obtained in this study may be limited by rice varieties and research regions. In addition, due to the limitation of data volume, no systematic comparison between the models with the relative spectral index and with the traditional spectral index was made. So, this method needs to be further validated by using multi-year, multi-region, and multi-variety data. at jointing stage, RNDVI at booting stage and RNDVI at filling stage was determined as the optimum model among the multivariate models that include RNDVIs at different growth stages. The promising ability of parcel-level relative vegetation indices for rice yield estimation is proven in this study, however, the further applications of relative vegetation indices on rice or other crop yield estimation are still needed for a solid conclusion using more measurements. This will be carried out in our future work.The study proposed a rice yield estimation method with the parcel-level relative vegetation index as input variables to overcome the external effects, such as different background, illumination and atmospheric conditions, on the absolute differences of time-series vegetation indices. Three types of relative vegetation indices were constructed using all possible two-band combinations of discrete channels from 500 to 900 nm, including RRVI, RNDVI, and RDVI. The main conclusions drawn from this study are: (1) RNDVI is the optimal type of relative vegetation index for rice yield estimation compared with RRVI and RDVI, and the correlation between RNDVIs and rice yield are significantly higher than RRVIs vs. yield and RDVI vs. yield; (2) the optimal RNDVIs at different growth stages are generally composed by bands in red edge and near infrared regions; (3) the booting stage is the optimum stage for yield estimation when estimation model constructed by RNDVI at one single growth stage; (4) the multiple-growth-stage model, including three RNDVIs, i.e., RNDVIFeW analyzed the data and wrote the manuscript. FuW conceived and designed the experiments, and revised the manuscript. YZ, JhH, and JX collected the UAV hyperspectral and yield data. JfH provided comments for the manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


While a long history of neuropsychological research places language function within a primarily left-lateralized frontotemporal system, recent neuroimaging work has extended this language network to include a number of regions traditionally thought of as ‘domain-general’. These include dorsal frontal, parietal, and medial temporal lobe regions known to underpin cognitive functions such as attention and memory. In this paper, we argue that these domain-general systems are not required for language processing and are instead an artefact of the tasks typically used to study language. Recent work from our lab shows that when syntactic processing — arguably the only domain-specific language function — is measured in a task-free, naturalistic manner, only the left-lateralized frontotemporal syntax system and auditory network are activated. When syntax is measured within the context of a task, several other domain-general networks come online and are functionally connected to the frontotemporal system. While we have long argued that syntactic processing does not occur in isolation but is processed in parallel with semantics and pragmatics — functions of the wider language system — our recent work makes a strong case for the domain-specificity of the frontotemporal syntax system and its autonomy from domain-general networks. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 2018, 21:132–137The evolution of languageThis review comes from a themed issue on Christopher Petkov and William Marslen-WilsonEdited by Issue and the EditorialFor a complete overview see the Available online 1st June 2018https://doi.org.10.1016/j.cobeha.2018.04.008http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).2352-1546/© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license  and do not have an additional task to perform, only the left-lateralized frontotemporal syntax system , wh, wh11]),em e.g. , 14, 15), 15bullyem . Analysem  they identify track with the nature of the input. That is, while most resting state ICA papers would lead us to believe that there are a set of canonical networks and the structure of these networks is largely unchanging from state to state , 19, 20,In our experience, ICA is sensitive to shifting cognitive demands, as observed when we used ICA to delineate functional networks active during naturalistic viewing — that is, as participants watched a movie •. In conThe important point here is that for the distinction between domain-specific and domain-general systems to be explanatory, the ‘domain-specific’ neural system for language needs to be defined. This has not been the approach used in most studies attempting to contrast domain-specific with domain-general processes in language. For instance, Fedorenko and colleagues , 29, 30•Defining the extent to which syntax is domain-specific has recently become important in the context of investigating the evolutionary precursors to human language. This research is based on the premise that the core aspect of human language processing is the construction of hierarchical syntactic structures, and tests this hypothesis by comparing the sensitivity of humans and macaques to different kinds of sequence learning — ranging from simple adjacency relationships which are not expected to show species differences — to hierarchical syntactic structures which are. The results of these studies support the claim that both humans and non-human primates are sensitive to simple adjacency relationships whereas only humans are able to construct hierarchical syntactic structures . This kiThe phylogeny of the domain-specific aspects of human language remain unknown, although there are a range of hypotheses about their genesis, from the idea that they arose through a genetic mutation  to the nThe broad domain-general systems such as those subserving attention and memory are clearly not restricted to language processing, but may be called upon within certain situations/contexts. For instance, the frontoparietal control network , saFirst, we know that these domain-general systems cannot compensate for syntactic processes carried out by the left-lateralized frontotemporal syntax system since they do not appear to be recruited when the left hemisphere frontotemporal syntax system is impaired following brain damage . In a str's = .05–.15) with fMRI activity in the cortical language network defined by the localizer. Further, this finding is challenged by a recent analysis of the fMRI movie-watching data mentioned above [language is what is being encoded by the hippocampus.Recently, it has been suggested that the hippocampus contributes to language processing in that patients with damage to the hippocampus show certain language impairments  and theed above , 45 whiced above , 47) decIn this brief overview, we have suggested that it is necessary to take a more nuanced approach to differentiating domain-general and domain-specific components involved in language. While syntax seems to meet the criteria for domain-specificity in that it is fast, obligatory, and underpinned by a specialized neural system (see ), there Nothing declared.• of special interestPapers of particular interest, published within the period of review, have been highlighted as: