Supramolecular organizing center (SMOC)-mediated signal transduction is an emerging concept in the field of signal transduction that is ushering in a new era. The formation of location-specific, higher-order SMOCs is particularly important for cell death and innate immune signaling processes. Several protein interaction domains, including the death domain (DD) superfamily and the CIDE domain, are representative mediators of SMOC assembly in cell death and innate immune signaling pathways. DD superfamily- and CIDE domain-containing proteins form SMOCs that activate various caspases and provide signaling scaffold platforms. These assemblies can lead to signal transduction and amplification during signaling events. In this review, we summarize recent findings on the molecular basis of DD superfamily- and CIDE domain-mediated SMOC formation. Improved understanding of large molecular signaling complexes that form during innate (nonspecific) immune responses could help develop treatments for multiple diseases including cancer. Correct cell signaling requires precise protein interactions and binding, which are mediated by specific sites on the surface of the protein molecules involved. Innate immune responses and cell death mechanisms rely on such protein interactions, and defects can cause signaling abnormalities and trigger disease. Hyun Ho Park and co-workers at Chung-Ang University in Seoul, South Korea, reviewed recent insights into the presence of supramolecular organizing centers (SMOCs), localized complexes of signaling proteins that form during immune responses. The researchers highlight existing understanding of SMOC assembly processes. A better understanding of SMOCs will help to explain enzyme activation, signal amplification and cell signaling control mechanisms. Protein interaction is usually mediated by protein interaction domains, a critical part of proteins involved in the binding of specific sequences to other proteins5. Among the protein interaction domains, DD, DED, CARD, and PYD belong to the death domain (DD) superfamily. This is one of the largest protein interaction domain families, sharing sequence homology and a unifying structural feature: a six-helix bundle fold8.Cell death and innate immune signaling pathways are important defense mechanisms against various pathogens. These processes are mediated by various complicated protein–protein interactions that transfer signals and control cellular signaling events. Many proteins participating in these cellular signaling events contain small protein interaction domains, such as the death domain (DD), death effector domain (DED), caspase-recruiting domain (CARD), PYrin domain (PYD), baculovirus IAP repeat (BIR) domain, Bcl-2 homology (BH) domain, and/or cell death-inducing DFF45-like effector (CIDE) domain. These proteins interact with specific binding partners9. DFF40 is an endonuclease that digests chromosomal DNA and produces nucleosomal fragments, whereas DFF45 is an inhibitor of DFF40 10. Both DFF40 and DFF45 contain a CIDE domain that can mediate the interaction between two proteins, resulting in the inhibition of DFF40 nuclease activity by DFF45 12. In addition to DFF40/DFF45, the CIDE-A, CIDE-B, and CIDE-3 proteins have been identified as having CIDE domains13. Although functional studies have shown that these three CIDE domain-containing proteins are also involved in apoptosis regulation, recent studies have indicated their role in energy metabolism, specifically their involvement in controlling the size of lipid droplets16.Apoptotic DNA fragmentation is a hallmark of apoptosis and is primarily mediated by the CIDE domain-containing proteins DFF40 and DFF45 22. Studies have revealed that various signaling molecules in cell death and innate immune signaling form higher-order signaling complexes called supramolecular organizing centers (SMOCs) via DD superfamily or CIDE domains24. In addition to SMOC formation, DD superfamily-containing proteins can be assembled into various oligomerization structures. In this review, we summarize the binding strategies of the DD superfamily and CIDE domains detected thus far. We also discuss the biological significance of these assemblies during cell death and innate immune signaling events.Over recent decades, the interprotein interactions in the cell death and innate immune signaling pathways mediated by DD superfamily-containing and CIDE domain-containing proteins have been intensively studied. This interest is based on their functional importance in biological systems and their links to many human diseases, including cancer, obesity, and various immune diseases27. Since then, genetic, functional, and structural analyses have revealed similar DD-like domains in various proteins, designated DEDs28, CARDs29, and PYDs31. The subfamily classification is mainly determined by sequence homology6. In humans, 37 DD-containing proteins, 7 DED-containing proteins, 33 CARD-containing proteins, and 22 PYD-containing proteins have been identified thus far and found to be particularly functional during cell death and innate immunity events6. DD superfamily-containing proteins specifically interact through their DDs with other downstream DD superfamily-containing proteins, thus transferring signals through cellular signaling. In addition, DD superfamily-mediated SMOC formation is critical for activating various caspases and kinases, which are necessary for cell death and innate immunity processes33.In the early 1990s, an intracellular DD comprising ~90 amino acids was first identified and named during a cellular study on tumor necrosis factor receptor and Fas25. Then, the structures of the Fas-associated DD protein (FADD) with a DED28; RIP-associated protein with DD (RAIDD) with a CARD34; and NACHT, leucine-rich repeat and PYD-containing 1 (NLRP1) with a PYD35 were elucidated  technology, many helical filament structures of the DD superfamily, important for SMOC formation, have been determined55. Each NLRP family protein and caspase-1 contains a PYD and CARD at their respective N-terminus. ASC is a bipartite adaptor containing a PYD and CARD, which can link NLRP with caspase-1 by mediating the interaction of PYD–PYD through NLRP and the interaction of CARD–CARD through caspase-1. The results of an analysis based on cryo-EM indicated that all members of the DD superfamily in the inflammasome form a helical filament structure56.DD superfamily-mediated SMOC formation has been studied most intensively via structural studies of an inflammasome composed of Nod-like receptor (NLR), inflammatory caspase-1, and the ASC adaptor molecule19. The filament architecture is assembled via left-handed one-start helical symmetry with approximately 3.6 subunits per turn. It is formed by three types of typical asymmetric interactions and displays threefold symmetry along the helical axis try Fig. . In addi64. Domain-swapping-mediated dimerization has been observed in all subfamilies of the DD superfamily, including Fas DD22, NLRP14 PYD65, caspase-8 DED67, and vPOP CARD68. Based on structural studies, it was revealed that two different domain-swapping mechanisms can be used to form a stable DD superfamily dimer. The first mechanism involves stem helix (formed by connected H5 and H6)-mediated domain swapping, during which structural changes occur in the H5 and H6 regions. The stem helix is formed by H5 connecting to H6, which can interact with the stem helix through its binding counterpart. The DD and PYD subfamily members also use this mechanism for domain swapping. The details of this stem helix-mediated oligomerization were described in a structural study on the core of the DISC, which is composed of Fas DD/FADD DD 68. In this structure, H4, H5, and H6 in the typical six-helix vCOP bundle are displaced and inserted between H1, H2, and H3 in a molecule opposite of vCOP. This insertion forms the typical six-helix bundle structure, leading to vCOP dimerization , DFF45 (ICAD in mice), and DFF40 (CAD in mice)) were identified and studied83. This fold is similar to that of SUMO and ubiquitin, which are small protein modification proteins  interacts with the acidic patch , indicating that this oppositely charged surface interaction is a common strategy for CIDE domain dimer formation (Fig. 78.Representative CIDE domain homodimer formation was revealed via a structural study of FSP27 CIDEain Fig. . As expeion Fig. 78.89. This newly discovered helix is constructed with ten subunits with a 56.5 Å rise/turn and a diameter of 105 Å (Fig. 24. This helical structure formed by the CIDE domain was also formed in solution, as observed by EM (Fig. 89.The helical assembly mechanism of the CIDE domain has been recently revealed through structural study of the CIDE domains in DREP4 and DREP25 Å Fig. . This he EM Fig. . The hel24. This functional study and previous biochemical studies showed that the CIDE domain-mediated DFF40 dimer has limited nuclease activity, possessing insufficient activity for fast chromosomal DNA fragmentation during apoptosis93. In contrast, the helical filament assembly of DFF40 via its N-terminal CIDE domain can increase the local concentration of DFF40 to impose a compatible distance, functioning as a molecular ruler to efficiently cleave the chromosomal DNA producing apoptotic DNA ladders (Fig. 24. The various forms of the CIDE domain as revealed by structural studies are summarized in Table The function of this common head-to-tail helical CIDE domain assembly was studied by observing the apoptotic DNA fragmentation process executed by DFF40ers Fig. 24. The v94. In particular, the DD superfamily, composed of the DD, CARD, PYD, and DED subfamilies, mediates SMOC formation using a common helical assembly mechanism. This SMOC can mediate signal transduction, signal amplification, and proximity-induced enzyme activation. DD superfamily-mediated SMOC formation includes caspase activating complexes such as an inflammasome for caspase-1 activation, a PIDDosome for caspase-2 activation, an apoptosome for caspase-9 activation, and a DISC for caspase-8 and caspase-10 activation. A SMOC also includes various signaling platforms, such as a MYDosome for Toll-like signaling and CMD complexes for immune cell signaling. Understanding these huge molecular complexes can explain proximity-mediated allosteric enzyme activation, cooperativity, signal amplification, threshold behavior, and the spatial and temporal control of signal activation and termination.The concept of modern signal transduction has been further advanced from classical signal transduction via the discovery of various SMOCs, which are location-specific, higher-order signaling complexes. This new signaling platform is especially important for cell death and innate immune signaling96. Recent studies have demonstrated that CIDE domain-containing proteins also form higher-order SMOCs that perform apoptotic DNA fragmentation functions24.In addition to helical filament assembly by DD superfamily members, various assembly mechanisms, including several different types of dimerization, have also been observed. Among these formation strategies, domain-swapping-mediated dimerization is a newly identified alternative for DD superfamily dimerization. As DD superfamily-containing proteins are functionally diverse, acting as enzymes or scaffolding adaptors in various cellular signaling pathways, it is unsurprising that these proteins have evolved the capability to form many different types of oligomers using various oligomerization strategiesDomain-mediated protein interactions, especially SMOC-mediated signaling transfer in cell death and innate immunity, are important for understanding signal transduction. Signal transduction failure is linked to various human diseases, such as gout, multiple sclerosis, neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, and Crohn’s disease. Understanding the emerging concept of signal transduction by the formation of the large molecular scaffolding center SMOC via DD superfamily members and the CIDE domain may provide a new target for treating human diseases. Blocking SMOC assembly, therefore, may be an interesting avenue for further research.


In this review, Fehr et al. summarize the current understanding of the mechanisms by which PARPs promote or suppress proinflammatory activation of macrophages, and also discuss various other roles PARPs play in virus infections. + to amino acid residues of target proteins, leading to mono- or poly-ADP-ribosylation (MARylation or PARylation). This PTM regulates various key biological and pathological processes. In this review, we focus on the roles of the PARP family members in inflammation and host–pathogen interactions. Here we give an overview the current understanding of the mechanisms by which PARPs promote or suppress proinflammatory activation of macrophages, and various roles PARPs play in virus infections. We also demonstrate how innovative technologies, such as proteomics and systems biology, help to advance this research field and describe unanswered questions.Poly-adenosine diphosphate-ribose polymerases (PARPs) promote ADP-ribosylation, a highly conserved, fundamental posttranslational modification (PTM). PARP catalytic domains transfer the ADP-ribose moiety from NAD PARP members thus function as “writers” of ADP-ribose. Among the 17 human PARPs, PARP1, PARP2, PARP5A, and PARP5B promote PARylation, while most other members  catalyze MARylation (Polyadenosine diphosphate-ribose polymerases (PARPs) promote ADP-ribosylation, one of the fundamental posttranslational modifications (PTMs) . This ubRylation . A new nRylation . DiffereRylation .PARP family members contain a few structural domains, in addition to the catalytic domain. One of such domains is the macrodomain that is contained in PARP9, PARP14, and PARP15, for which they are called “macro” PARPs. Macrodomains bind to, and in some cases hydrolyze, ADP-ribose in the free or protein-bound form (“readers” of ADP-ribosylation) and influence many biological processes . EvidencDifferent cellular distributions of PARPs may also indicate their distinctive targets and functions . While PADP-ribolylation is reversed by “erasers” such as poly-ADP-ribose glycohydrolase (PARG), ADP-ribosylhydrolase 3 (ARH3), and macrodomains such as Mdo2 . PARG isImmune cells serve an important role in the immune system and differentiate into various subsets that perform a spectrum of unique functions. The balance of the number of different immune cell types and their activation levels is crucial for health and disease. Overwhelming evidence has associated chronic inflammation with various pathological conditions and their potential causes, including atherosclerosis, cardiovascular events, cancer, autoimmune diseases, metabolic disorders, neurological diseases, and aging . Many inParp1 deletion causes resistance to LPS-induced endotoxic shock by NF-κB-dependent iNOS induction and NO production. Recent evidence suggests that phosphorylation of PARP1 results in PARylation of the NF-κB subunit p65/RelA, which induces the transcription of NF-κB-regulated genes  is required to induce normal inflammatory macrophage activation and that the de novo NAD± synthesis can be impaired in aged macrophages  is therefore increased to maintain NAD± levels, which is crucial for normal inflammatory macrophage activation.PARPs catalyze the transfer of ADP-ribose from NAD of NAD± . A recenrophages . Another of NAD± . In LPS-PARP1 modulates the differentiation of T cells into effector T cells such as T helper 1 (Th1), T helper 2 (Th2), and regulatory T cells (Tregs) . PARP1 dApoE−/−) mice reduces the size, macrophage and T-cell content, death of macrophage foam cells, necrotic core, NF-kB activation, and adhesion molecule expression in experimental atherosclerotic lesions, typical features of human plaques prone to acute thrombotic events , the evidence remains scant on the roles that other PARPs play in macrophage biology. LPS increases the mRNA expression of PARP3, PARP4, PARP7, PARP8, PARP10, PARP11, PARP12, and PARP13 in murine bone marrow-derived macrophages, but there are no known functions for these PARPs in macrophage biology . Other rPARPs have been targets for drug development, particularly in the cancer field. The most active targets include PARP1, and more recently PARP14 . StudiesA global view of PARP activity on immunity undoubtedly requires proteomics. However, even with the most advanced mass spectrometry technologies available, disentangling the unique and overlapping functions of PARPs remains very challenging. Only a handful of studies have begun to interrogate the complex biology of the PARP family members in the context of immunity.Nearly 30 years ago, radioactive labeling strategies demonstrated an increase in ADP-ribosylation signal in human monocyte-derived macrophages in response to IFNγ . In addiIn a separate study, using quantitative proteomics in combination with shRNA-mediated knockdown experiments, PARP14 interactors were pursued in the context of LPS signaling in RAW264.7 cells . A PARP1Protein–protein interactions alone do not clarify the role of PARP enzyme activities in immunity. To date, only one study has investigated ADP-ribosylated substrates in immune cells on a global level . Since AB. pertussis, V. cholera, P. aeruginosa, C. botulinum, S. aureus, and E. coli encode for ARTs that target proteins such as elongation factor 2, actin, and Rho GTPases that lead to cell death . Bacterial pathogens such as ll death . As discPARPs interact with pathogens in many ways, and here we describe specific cases where they either promote or restrict virus replication and the innate immune response. This discussion is summarized in Parp14 and Parp15 have undergone multiple rounds of gene loss and duplication, which creates novel gene products needed for continual adaptation to new pathogens.First, many mammalian PARPs are stimulated by the production of IFN (IFN-stimulated genes [ISGs]), and thus are part of the mammalian antiviral defense system . Also, sSeveral PARP proteins are also present in stress granules, which are important membrane-less organelles that function to restrict the translation of RNA when cells are under stress, such as during a virus infection. They are often characterized by the presence of TIA1, TIAR, and G3BP1, but are known to contain several hundred proteins . InteresSeveral decades ago, a conserved domain was identified in all coronaviruses (CoVs), togaviruses, and hepatitis E virus that was termed the “X” domain . These dSome of the first reports of PARPs and ADP-ribosylation impacting virus infection focused on the role of PARP1 on retrovirus and HIV-1 integration and replication. In addition to its role in regulating retrovirus replication, PARylation enhances and represses several other viruses. This includes herpesviruses, where PARPs have a wide range of effects. PARP1 and the tankyrase PARP5a modify the EBV protein EBNA1. PARylation of EBNA1 causes it to dissociate from the dyad symmetry elements, which restricts OriP binding and impairs the maintenance of the viral episome during latency . PARP1 aFinally, poly-ADP-ribosylation is implicated as having proviral activities in several viral systems. PARP inhibitors have led to greatly reduced infectivity of adenoviruses, possibly through the ADP-ribosylation of their core proteins . PARP inNonenzymatic and mono-ADP-ribosylating PARPs have a variety of roles in promoting or inhibiting virus replication. This class of PARPs include the zinc finger (ZnF) PARPs , the macrodomain-containing PARPs , and several PARPs that do not fit into a specific category . Here, we discuss what is known about each of these PARPs in the innate immune response to viruses.ZnF PARPs contain one or more ZnF domains. These domains are small protein motifs that enable these PARPs to bind RNA. All three ZnF PARPs use this domain to interact with viral RNA and inhibit either translation or degrade viral RNA, though the specific RNA sequence that each PARP binds to is likely unique. In addition, all three ZnF PARPs use either the enzymatic or nonenzymatic functions in their PARP domain to impact the innate immune response or virus replication.PARP13, or ZnF antiviral protein (ZAP), was one of the first PARPs identified to have antiviral activities when, in a screen for antiviral ISGs, it was found to potently inhibit murine leukemia virus (MLV) replication . SomewhaZap knockout (−/−Zc3hav1) mice showed enhanced replication of SINV in 10-d-old mice as expected  production in human cells by binding to RIG-I via its ZnF domains and promoting its oligomerization . HoweverWhile ZAPL does not contain an active PARP domain, in some cases it is required for the ADP-ribosylation of proteins. For instance, the C terminus of ZAPL binds to the influenza virus polymerase proteins PB2 and PA, which causes their subsequent poly-ADP-ribosylation, ubiquitination, and degradation . It is uPARP12 mRNA, PARP12L, and PARP12S  domains that are important for RNA binding, one or two WWE domains in the middle of the protein that are important for ADP-ribose binding, and a PARP domain at the C terminus, which provides the protein with mono-ADP-ribosylating activity . There a PARP12S . PARP12Ltrans-Golgi network (TGN) and translocates to stress granules during stress stimuli in several different cell types. This activity has been linked to the ZnF domains, as mutations in the ZnF domains abrogated the ability of PARP12 to move to stress granules  . Using bPARP7, also known as tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)-inducible poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (TiPARP), has a single ZnF domain that mediates RNA binding. It also has a WWE domain and a PARP catalytic domain capable of mono-ADP-ribosylation .TiParp−/− mice. TiPARP-mediated inhibition of SINV was dependent on its ZnF domain, which binds to SINV RNA and recruits RNA degradation factors to sites of viral replication. This suggests that TiPARP recognizes specific virus RNAs for degradation, however the target specificity of TiPARP is still unknown.Like PARP12, TiPARP was also shown to block VEEV replication and inhibit cellular translation when transduced into cells by a VEEV replicon . In a seTiPARP also has proviral effects in addition to its antiviral functions. TiPARP negatively regulates the type I IFN response by ADP-ribosylating TBK1 . The ADPThe macro PARPs contain two (PARP9/PARP15) or three (PARP14) macrodomains that mediate binding to ADP-ribose, as described above. While some macrodomains can cleave ADP-ribose from a substrate, it is likely that macrodomains within these PARP proteins only bind ADP-ribose. All three macro PARPs are rapidly evolving , and PARPARP9 was originally termed B-aggressive lymphoma 1 gene (BAL1) as it was identified as a risk factor for large diffuse B-cell lymphomas . It is cS. typhimurium and an ARH-deficient MHV, though it is not known whether the ability of PARP14 to inhibit these pathogens is tied to its role in up-regulating IFN production or whether these are distinct functions of PARP14. It is important to note that these experiments were done with undifferentiated or M0 macrophages, while other studies where PARP-14 was found to have anti-inflammatory functions used M1 or M2 macrophages, differentiated by further IFN-γ or IL-4 treatment. This suggests that PARP14 function is likely context-dependent.PARP14 was originally identified as Collaborator of STAT6 (CoaST6) . It has The final class of PARPs do not fit into any of the other defined classes of PARPs, have no similar domains other than the PARP domain, and are thus simply termed “other PARPs.” These PARPs include PARPs 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, and 16. PARP6 and PARP8 have no defined domains besides their PARP domain, and neither have a known role in the immune response. PARP4, while rapidly evolving as described earlier, has not been reported to have any direct antiviral or proviral activity. PARP16 promotes ER stress responses by ADP-ribosylating IRE1α and PERK , and alsPARP10 contains both an RNA recognition motif (RRM), nuclear import and export signals, and two ubiquitin-interacting motifs (UIM) in addition to its catalytic domain  and is hPARP11 is the second smallest PARP protein , with only a single WWE domain in addition to its ART domain, and is also highly up-regulated by IFN . RecentlIn summary, several of the nonenzymatic or mono-ADP-ribosylating PARPs are potent antiviral proteins that are able to inhibit viruses from several different viral families. However, some do contain activities that promote virus replication. While some mechanisms are known, including blocking translation, degrading RNA, and targeting viral or host proteins for ubiquitination and degradation, many mechanisms are still unknown. However, recent reports are making it clear that in many, but not all cases, ADP-ribosylation is tied to protein homeostasis, either through mediating translation or ubiquitination-dependent protein degradation. In addition, several studies have identified multiple points where the innate immune response is modulated by PARPs and ADP-ribosylation . The ideWith the advent of new mass spectrometry techniques and improved tools for detecting ADP-ribose, the last decade has seen an explosion in our understanding of how PARPs and ADP-ribose impact not just immunity, but biology in general. This technological development is exponential, which will further facilitate PARP research in the future. PARP inhibitors are being tested in the clinic for chemotherapy, so it is likely that PARP inhibitors or agonists could be useful for treating immune disorders as well. However, developing PARP-specific inhibitors or agonists will be challenging. There is still a long way to go before we fully understand how PARPs function both in cell culture and in vivo to target them for the treatment of infections or immune diseases. Additional PARP-deficient animals and specific inhibitors are needed to gain a better knowledge of how PARPs impact pathogenesis from infection or immune-mediated diseases. While PARPs are structurally and functionally distinct, specificity and off-target effects of PARP inhibitors remain incompletely understood; thus, further characterization of each compound is necessary.Accumulating clinical and scientific evidence supports a theory that inflammation promotes various global health threats such as myocardial infarction. However, mechanisms of macrophage activation, for instance, remain obscure. Recent understanding that macrophages are highly heterogeneous has added to the complexity of inflammation. What is the role of each PARP in inflammation via an enzymatic activity-dependent or independent mechanism? What is a specific function of each domain in macrophage activation? Furthermore, additional roles for PARPs in the antiviral response are likely to exist, especially for PARPs that are under strong positive selection pressure, but have yet to be associated with a specific biological activity. In several cases the mechanism used by PARPs to inhibit specific viruses remain unknown. It is also intriguing that several IFN-induced PARPs have been shown to enhance virus replication. Could this be a mechanism by the host to maintain a minimal amount of virus replication in vivo so that the immune system can be appropriately activated? The answers to these and many other questions will be of great interest to PARP researchers, immunologists, and microbiologists as they are likely to uncover unique cellular processes regulated by ADP-ribosylation that could lead to the identification of novel therapeutic targets for infections or immune-mediated diseases.


If bubble sizes depend mainly on the inertial force, viscous force, surface tension, and gravity, then the normalized mean bubble diameter should be a function of the Reynolds number, Weber number, and Froude number. The mean bubble diameter (bmd) generated by whipping was expected to be affected by the thickness (d) of the rod of the mixer, its movement speed, and physical properties of the material. Therefore, dimensionless mean diameter (bm/dd) was expressed based on a dimensionless equation. In the three‐phase dispersion, different empirical equations were obtained depending on the amount of rice flour added, and the bubble diameter could be predicted using dimensionless parameters. In addition, the equations were generally applicable to the various materials selected for this study.In this study, the bubbles in rice flour batter were investigated under a constant temperature, because the bubble size distribution is important for the control of food texture. We obtained experimental data using a hand mixer and compared the properties of doughs prepared using six rice flours; each flour was prepared through a different milling process. We also added the size effect of the rice flour particles as the Bond number. Furthermore, we performed a dynamic wettability test to estimate the wettability of the rice flour surface. The results of this test were described well by the Washburn equation, and The powder properties of rice flour were investigated, and dimensionless parameters were analyzed to construct an appropriate process control system for rice flour‐based food products. Although the process method optimized for flour products is also used for rice flour products in practical situations, the comprehensive evaluation based on dimensionless parameters leads to optimization of the process for rice‐flour based products. Moreover, this optimization might strongly support the creation of a new texture, and thus, the potential for market expansion of rice‐flour based products is considerable. In partThe texture of rice flour‐based products without gluten is typically moist and chewy. Although this texture is unique and appealing, its inflexibility is an obstacle to the expansion of rice flour‐based products. Moreover, the processing of cellular foods is usually optimized for flour, and thus, favorable texture of rice flour‐based food products is not obtained by simply replacing flour with rice flour. Therefore, studies on the development of gluten‐free cellular foods are conducted by imitating the elastic properties of gluten with food additives such as emulsifiers, thickeners, and nonstarch polysaccharides  cultivated in 2015 at Miyagi Perf., Japan was used as the material of rice flour. Six rice flours, referred to as RFa–RFf, were prepared. RFa was produced by initial milling to 3.0 mm or less with a screen and secondary milling at 0.3 mm under 3,600 rpm using a pin mill device . RFb was pulverized by high‐speed milling at 10,000 rpm using an exceed mill device . For RFc, the white rice was milled by pin milling at 3,600 rpm and then pulverized by high‐speed milling at 11,000 rpm by the wet grinding method with 5% water by weight of rice flour. RFd was produced by pin milling at 3,600 rpm and then by high‐speed milling at 10,000 rpm. RFe and RFf were pulverized under the same conditions, except the milling time. The milling time for RFe was twice as long as that for RFd; for RFf, it was four times longer than that for RFd. Rice flours, excluding RFc, were prepared by the dry grinding method. To investigate the effects of the liquid phase, sucrose was added to unadjusted soymilk containing 12% w/w soy solids , and 10 to 40% w/w solutions were prepared.2.22.2.1The particle size distribution was measured using a particle size analyzer  by the laser diffraction method. This instrument has a helium neon laser and a solid laser as red and blue light sources. Consequently, particle size can be measured at the submicron order.The particle density of each powder sample was measured by the liquid displacement method using a Gay‐Lussac‐type Pycnometer . 2‐Propanol was used as the dispersion medium, and vacuum drying was performed at 0.07 MPa for 5 hr. Density was measured at 25 °C, and the specific weight of 2‐propanol was 0.78084 g/cm³.V is the hydration volume, t is the hydration time, S is the cross‐sectional area of the powder bed, ε is porosity, r is the capillary radius, wγ is the water surface tension, wη is the water viscosity, and θ is the contact angle. In this study, wγ and wη were set to 72.5 mN/m2 and 1.0026 mPa·s, respectively.The dynamic wetting test of each powder sample was performed using a hydration meter . A sample cup 40 mm in diameter and a height of 30 mm was filled with the sample powder and set on a transparent tank. The tank was connected to a water bath. The water surface height in the bath was reduced by hydration toward the powder bed by capillary pressure. The water was supplied from a reservoir because the water level returned. The time course of the volume of water supplied was monitored for 3 hr at intervals of 15 s with a cumulative flow meter. The course of the squared hydrate volume was fitted by the Washburn equation Eq. .(1)V=S·V over time was used to obtain the wetting parameter Ccosθ, as follows:The slope of the hydration curve obtained by the change in Simultaneously,r) and porosity (ε) are constant during the hydration period, the wettability parameter ccosθd can be quantitatively defined. In this study, the capillary diameter (2r) was defined as cd.Therefore, when the capillary radius  aqueous solution was prepared, so that its concentration became 0.3% w/w, and it was selected as a model foam. Sucrose in the concentration range of 40 to 60% was added to the SDS solution.The surface tension of the solution was measured using a surface tension meter . The viscosity was measured using a Brookfield viscometer , and fluidity curve measurements were obtained at a rotational speed of 6, 12, 30, and 60 rpm. The viscosity calculated from the value at 60 rpm was regarded as the viscosity of each solution. The density was measured following the methods described in Section 2.2.3Both solutions of soymilk or SDS with sucrose were subjected to mixing using a hand mixer (Tescom THM26) at 800 to 1,250 rpm for 1 min, and then, 5 to 50 g of each rice flour was added to the solution. Each solution was subjected to mixing using the same whipper at the same rotational speed as the initial whipping rotaion speed  for 10 min, and rice flour‐based dough with soymilk or SDS was prepared. The bubbles in the rice flour batter were investigated under a constant temperature. The sample was dropped on a slide glass with a spatula immediately after preparing the batter, covered with a cover glass, and settled on a microscope equipped with a CCD camera. Images of 1,740 × 1,180 pixels were obtained and bubbles were identified in each image by tracing the contours manually. The images were transferred to analysis software, Gel‐Pro® Analyzer , and the diameter of bubbles was measured. A total of 512 bubbles were measured in each sample, and the mean bubble size was calculated.33.1pd) from the volume‐based particle size distribution of each sample as follows:Particle size measurements for rice flours are shown in Table jr) was decided from the measurement results.jq is the volume‐based frequency, jz is mean particle size for each section, and h is the number of particle size divisions. Then, the number‐based mean particle size was calculated with the distribution.At first, the number‐based frequency (pd) of each sample. The surface state of a particle is described by the Bond number (Bo). To investigate the surface state of rice flour, Bo based on a particle was calculated by the ratio of the contribution of gravity to the surface tension, as follows:Bo is the Bond number based on a particle, pρ is the particle density, pd is the particle diameter, g is gravity, and Lγ is the liquid surface tension. Bo was calculated using the density of particles, surface tension of water (0.0725 N/m), and gravity (9.81 m/s²), and it was in the range of 6.2 × 10−7 to 1.2 × 10−5.The number‐based mean particle size was 1.650 to 7.218 µm. In this study, we used the number‐based mean particle size as the mean particle size . The dimensionless parameter of wettability ccosθ/dpd ranged from 2,561 to 4,260 among rice flours. A two‐dimensional plot of the Bo and ccosθ/dpd is shown in Figure Bo and ccosθ/dpd. Thus, these results suggested that rice flour subjected to different milling procedures could be classified by its Bo and its ccosθ/dpd value.The course of the squared hydrate volume is summarized in Figure 3.2A typical cake batter is composed of flour, eggs, sugar, fats and oils, an emulsifier, and water as the main materials. When this batter is observed with a microscope, it can be confirmed that the egg aqueous solution containing a high concentration of sugar exists as a continuous phase and that many bubbles spread as a dispersed phase. Ochi and Yoshikawa  evaluate3 for 0 to 40% sucrose and that of SDS solutions ranged from 1.115 to 1.221 kg/m3 for 40 to 60% sucrose.The surface tension of the solution‐based soymilk sample ranged from 0.0451 to 0.0466 N/m for 0 to 40% sucrose and that of the solution‐based SDS sample was from 0.0313 to 0.0341 N/m for 40 to 60% sucrose. The viscosity of both the SDS solution and the soymilk solution was almost constant with the rotation speed and showed Newtonian fluid properties. The calculated viscosity of soymilk solutions ranged from 0.0079 to 0.0377 Pa·s for 0 to 40% sucrose. SDS solution viscosity ranged from 0.0052 to 0.0427 Pa·s for 40 to 60% sucrose. The density of soymilk solutions ranged from 1.115 to 1.404 kg/mWe), Reynolds number (Re), and Froude number (Fr) were chosen as dimensionless numbers, explaining the liquid behavior. We, Re, and Fr were defined as follows:u is the whipping speed, Lρ is the liquid density, d is the whipper size, Lη is the liquid viscosity, and Lγ is the liquid surface tension. Further, u was calculated as follows:wd is rotation diameter of whipper (wd = 37.92 × 10−3 m) and N is rotation speed per minute. In this study, d was constant (d = 1.5 × 10−3m), but u, Lρ, Lη, Land γ were variable. Thus, these dimensionless numbers were calculated using five different rotational speeds, three types of surface tension, viscosity, and densities of the SDS solution, and five types of these parameters for the soymilk solution. Therefore, We increased against surface tension, Re increased against viscosity, and Fr increased in proportion to the rotation speed. The relationship between We and Re is shown in Figure We greatly changed depending on the rotation speed and that there were solution systems where Re also changed greatly with the shift and some where it did not. In all solutions, Fr had almost the same proportional relationship regardless of the concentration with We, and the relationship with Re varied depending on the concentration of the solution. From these results, it was found that Re could be changed more than We and Fr by changing the rotation speed, and there were solution viscosities for which behavior changed according to the rotation speed and some that did not change much.Although the surface tension and viscosity of each solution were changed with the concentration of sucrose, the correlation between the two was low and not necessarily proportional Figure . Therefo3.3We, Re, and Fr . It was shown that the effect of surface tension and viscosity was strong. When the surface tension is low and the viscosity is high, foam with a small bubble diameter can be obtained. For the addition of 50 g, the contribution of solids relatively increased since the values of k and l became small, the value of n decreased, and the value of o increased. For the addition of 15 to 30 g, the value became an intermediate value between 5 and 50 g. Previous studies have reported that foam with small diameters are obtained with conditions of high viscosity and low surface tension in two‐phase foam  was added in Eq. The properties of rice flour are greatly affected by the milling process. In particular, the water absorption varies by each product so that in practical situations, the quality of rice flour‐based products is not constant. Thus, the optimum addition when making the batter should be adjusted depending on the rice flour. To inclusively suggest a control method, it is necessary to develop the estimation model including the effect of powder properties of rice flour in a gas‐liquid solid system. Therefore, the whipping properties of batter were recalculated by Eq. rΦ) was obtained as follows:rm is the mass of rice flour [kg], pρ is the density of the rice flour particle [kg/m3], Lm is the mass of the liquid [kg], and Lρ is the density of the liquid [kg/m3]. The liquid corresponds to soy milk and SDS, but was calculated by approximating with pure water . The coefficient and the power values were calculated in the same manner as Eq. the volume fraction of each rice flour (P = −0.435), thus, it is suggested that the increase in solids contributed to form the smaller bubble.The relationship between the normalized mean bubble size and the estimation index is shown in Figure 4Bo and the wettability parameter ccosθ/dpd clearly suggested that differences in the powder properties of rice flour could be evaluated by particle size and wettability. The foam strongly depended on the inertial force, viscous force, and surface tension and was affected by solids in the three‐phase dispersion. The normalized mean bubble diameter reflecting whipping behavior was predicted by We, Re, Fr, Bo, and ccosθ/dpd. Therefore, a regression equation was constructed using these dimensionless numbers, and the effects of factors derived from materials and operating conditions were investigated. No regression equation had a linear relationship with the bubble diameter in all the prepared samples, but empirical regression equations, were obtained according to the amount of rice flour addition. It was predicted that when the amount of added rice flour was small, the effect of liquid properties was large and that high viscosity and low surface tension of the liquid phase made a smaller bubble diameter. Further, it was considered that the effect of the solid increased as the amount of added rice flour increased and that the small particle size and low wettability were the conditions required for reducing bubbles. In the solid‐gas‐liquid three‐phase dispersion system, it is possible to analyze the whipping characteristics by the dimensionless parameters We, Re, Fr, Bo, and ccosθ/dpd in the equation according to the amount of solid addition. The dimensionless mean diameter (bm/dd) was expressed by a dimensionless equation. These results successfully demonstrated the potential to evaluate the whipping process by dimensionless parameters. To improve the prediction accuracy by the empirical equation, it is very important to obtain information about the bubble size in batter from versatile flours that have different powder properties or materials and conditions. Moreover, the contribution of the breaking process to the sizes of bubbles formed by the whipping process should be clarified. The state of the bubble nucleus in a food material is important to evaluate the initial swelling process during baking. Thus, understanding the effect of bubble properties, particularly bubble diameter in the batter and the growth of bubbles in the swelling process, might lead to the optimization of processing for rice flour‐based foods and a new cooking method.The quest for the optimization of process control methods is essential to develop new rice flour‐based cellular foods in response to food allergies. The aim of this study was to investigate the whipping behavior of rice flour batter as a three‐phase dispersion. Six types of rice flour were prepared by different milling processes. To evaluate the powder properties of rice flour, the particle density, surface tension, and wettability were investigated. A two‐dimensional plot of the relationship between T. Fujii designed the study and interpreted the results. C. Ichikawa and D. Ishikawa collected test data and drafted the manuscript. J. Yang collected test data.The authors declare no conflict of interest.Acoefficient of demensionless equation [‐]BoBond number [‐]Ccosθwetting parameter [m³]dwhipper size [m]bmdmean bubble size [m]ccosθdwettability parameter [m]ccosθ/dpddimensionless parameter of wettability [‐]pdmean particle size of rice flour [m]wdrotation diameter of whipper [m]FrFroude number [‐]ggravity [m/s²]kWe [‐]power value of lRe [‐]power value of mFr [‐]power value of rmmass of rice flour [g]Lmmass of liquid in batter [g]N−1]rotation speed per minute [minnBo [‐]power value of occosθ/dpd [‐]power value of pΦr [‐]power value of rcapillary radius [m]ReReynolds number [‐]Scross‐sectional area of the powder bed [m²]thydration time [s]uwhipping speed [m/s]Vhydration volume [m³]WeWeber number [‐]Lγliquid surface tension [N/m]wγwater surface tension [N/m]εporosity [%]Lηliquid viscosity [kg/m·s]wηwater viscosity [kg/m·s]θcontact angle [°]pρparticle density [kg/m³]Lρliquid density [kg/m³]Φrvolume fraction of rice flour in liquid phase [‐]


Tenebrio molitor) on the quality attributes of shortcake biscuits were studied. The approximate composition was analyzed, along with the physical properties and color. Moreover, the antioxidant properties, starch digestibility, and glycemic index were determined in vitro. The protein and ash contents in biscuits supplemented with mealworm flour increased, while the carbohydrates content decreased. The increasing insect flour substitution decreased the lightness (L*) and yellowness (b*) but increased the redness (a*), total color difference (ΔE), and browning index (BI). The spread factor for the sample with the highest proportion of mealworm flour was significantly higher than the other biscuits. Furthermore, higher additions of mealworm flour increased the antioxidant activity of the biscuits and contributed to an increase in the content of slowly digested starch, with a decrease in the content of rapidly digested starch. Therefore, the results of the research are promising and indicate the possibility of using edible insects to enrich food by increasing the nutritional and health-promoting values.Edible insects, due to their high nutritional value, are a good choice for traditional food supplementation. The effects of partial replacement of wheat flour and butter with mealworm flour ( Entomophagy is commonly practiced by 2 billion people mainly in Asia, Africa, and South America . In receTenebrio molitor). The unsaturated fatty acid content in T. molitor amounts to 74.64% [Despite the advantages of using insects in human nutrition, the barrier to wider consumption is negative consumer perception. Insects in Western countries have several bad associations, namely with dirtiness, poverty, and diseases . Visual o 74.64% ,19. Thero 74.64% . In turno 74.64% . For cooo 74.64% . Other co 74.64% . An atteo 74.64% .T. molitor, still have high antiradical activity [T. molitor is characterized by its reasonably high fat content, with an appropriate fatty acid profile [Furthermore, edible insects, in addition to their high nutritional value, have nutraceutical properties, such as strong antioxidant properties . Our preactivity ,25,26. T profile . Based op < 0.05) and varied from 4.94 mm to 4.98 mm, whereas for the thickness, only sample M1 was significantly lower than the others (6.89 mm) (p < 0.05), which is correlated with the low weight of this sample. Therefore, the spread factor for this sample was significantly higher than the other biscuits (7.18) (p < 0.05). Undoubtedly, this was a result of the largest amount of mealworm flour being added to this batch. The spread ratio is a measure of cookie quality. A higher spread ratio is desirable for better cookies, which indicates higher product performance [p < 0.05). For the studied biscuits, we also calculated the apparent density, which was significantly higher for biscuits with higher amounts of mealworm flour (M1 and modification 2 (M2)) than the others. Although there is not much research on insect supplementation of bakery products, cookies are a very popular matrix for assessing supplementation with other functional additives. Certain functional additives, such as the insect flour used in this study, cause similar changes in the physical properties of bakery products. For example, cookies enriched with dephytinized oat bran [The physical properties of the biscuits were determined by weight, diameter, thickness, spread factor, and apparent density. The physical properties of the biscuits are shown in formance . On thisformance . The sproat bran  and noveoat bran  had highp < 0.05). In this case, the fat content that was removed from the dough in the form of butter was almost completely replaced in the form of fat from mealworms, and the estimated fat contents introduced into the dough from the ingredients in all modification batches were similar. Biscuits with the highest amounts of mealworm flour (M1 and M2) were found to be the richest in ash, with levels equivalent to the microelement contents . Considering possible ash content deviations, sample M3 was characterized by having the lowest value due to the having the lowest amount of added mealworm flour. Generally, there was a progressive increase in the protein and ash contents, with a decrease in the carbohydrates content as the concentration of mealworm flour increased. In turn, the moisture content decreased as the mealworm flour concentration increased in the biscuits. The water contained in the dough was derived only from water contained in the ingredients used for its production—no additional water was used. This proportional change in the moisture content was, therefore, caused by the replacement of the flour and butter with mealworm flour, which has a lower moisture content than these ingredients, meaning the water content of the dough was also reduced. The nutritional compositions of the products are important, however the moisture content is a significant quality factor affecting preservation, packaging, and transport convenience [p < 0.05). This is because protein and carbohydrates have the same conversion factor values as energy values [The approximate compositions of the studied biscuits and mealworm flour are reported in venience . Althougy values . A diffeThe surface colors of the shortcake biscuits in terms of the L*, a*, b*, ΔE, and browning index (BI) values can be found in •) and 2,2′-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS•+). The antioxidant properties of the mealworm flour and the biscuits prepared from it are shown in •+ and DPPH• were observed for the mealworm flour . Navarro del Hierro et al. [• scavenging activity of mealworm extracts and also confirmed their strong antioxidant properties. As expected, the partial substitution of wheat flour with mealworm flour significantly (p < 0.05) increased the free radical scavenging capacity, as reflected by DPPH• and ABTS•+ scavenging activity values. Therefore, the antioxidant activity levels of the biscuits increases as the concentration of mealworm flour in the recipe increased. Higher free radical scavenging activity was observed for DPPH• than ABTS•+. Food fortification has gained increased interest among consumers. Many products are enriched to increase their antioxidant potential. For example, cookies produced with 5% to 20% camu camu (Myrciaria dubia) coproduct powder as a replacement for wheat flour had higher antioxidant potential than control cookies [• and ABTS•+ radical scavenging activity. Such changes might be depend on the molecular weight of protein or peptide in question, as well as the amino acid composition [• in terms of radical scavenging, the obtained results suggest that mealworm proteins contain amino acids or peptides that act as electron donors and can react with free radicals to transform them into more stable compounds.Measuring the antioxidant capacity of food products is of increasing interest because it can provide a wide variety of information on factors such as the oxidation resistance, the quantitative contribution of antioxidants, or the antioxidant effects that can occur in the body at the time of consumption. The antioxidant activity of the sample extracts was evaluated by assessing the ability of the extracts to inhibit 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl  is defined as the part of the starch that is digested within 20 min of food intake and which causes a rapid increase in blood glucose levels. Slowly digested starch (SDS) is the part of the starch that is completely digested in the small intestine, but at a slower rate than RDS, i.e., within 20–120 min of ingestion .Based on the obtained results, it can be concluded that the addition of flour from mealworm affected the changes in rapidly and slowly digested starch contents . All samThe effect of the mealworm flour addition on starch digestibility in biscuits has been documented. The digestibility of starch present in food, especially when subjected to different types of heat treatment, is influenced by the other ingredients present in the food. The other ingredients can include proteins; interactions between proteins and starch are crucial . The addAn in vitro starch hydrolysis method was used in this study to estimate the metabolic glycemic response to food products. The in vitro glycemic index values of the biscuits are shown in Trolox , ABTS , DPPH , dinitrosalicylic acid, pepsin from porcine gastric mucosa , pancreatin from porcine pancreas (cat no. P1750), amyloglucosidase , and invertase  were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Company, Ltd. . The D-glucose assay kit (GOPOD format) was obtained from Megazyme International . All other chemicals used were of analytical grade.Tenebrio molitor mealworms  (larvae) were obtained from a local breeder . The insects were fasted for two days to empty their digestive tract, then they were frozen for 24 h at −18 °C and lyophilized. Afterward, the insects were ground in a laboratory grinder (IKA A11 basic) to obtain flour. In order to obtain a uniform particle size, the flour was passed through a 20 mesh sieve, then the flour was analyzed . All analyses were performed within two weeks of the preparation of the flour, during which time it was stored in an airtight container at −18 °C. All chemicals and reagents used were of analytical grade.Wheat flour (type 500), sugar, eggs, and butter  were purchased from a local market. The The biscuits were prepared as three variants with different amounts of added insect flour, which partially replaced the wheat flour and butter. Control biscuits were prepared without the addition of insects. The shortcake recipe contained commonly used ingredients, including wheat flour (300 g), butter (150 g), eggs (60 g), and sugar (70 g) . The colFifteen biscuits were randomly selected from each batch and were analyzed in terms of weight, thickness, and diameter. The spread ratio was calculated by finding the ratio of a biscuit’s diameter versus its thickness . The appThe insect flour and biscuit samples were assessed for their moisture, ash, fat, and protein contents (N×6.25) by employing standard methods of analysis . The carFifteen biscuits were randomly selected from each batch and color measurements were performed in triplicate. The color of the biscuits was measured using an EnviSense colorimeter NH310 . Color differences were recorded in the CIE L*a*b* scale in terms of lightness (L*) and color . Additionally, the total color difference (ΔE) was calculated using the following formula:The browning index  and (3)) was calculated using the measured L*, a*, and b* values as follows :(2)BI= 1v/v) for 120 min in a laboratory shaker. Next, the samples were centrifuged at 3000 g for 10 min. The supernatant was stored at −18 °C until the next day for further analysis.The biscuits samples (1 g) were ground in a laboratory grinder and shaken with 10 mL of 4:1 ethanol/water .The DPPH assay was estimated according to Brand-Williams, Cuvelier, and Berset , with slThe results were expressed as Trolox equivalent antioxidant activity (TEAC) values (mM Trolox).•+ solution was mixed with 0.05 mL of each sample. The absorbance was measured after 3 min of the reaction at 734 nM. Deionized water was used as a blank. The scavenging effect was calculated according to the equation:•+; A control is the absorbance of the control (ABTS•+ solution).The ABTS assay was determined according to Re et al.  with sliThe results were expressed as Trolox equivalent antioxidant activity (TEAC) values (mM Trolox).3 and 5mL of 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 6) were added, followed by 4.6 mg amyloglucosidase and 5mL of 2.5% pancreatin in 0.1 M phosphate buffer (pH 6) to start the small intestinal phase. The tubes were filled with distilled water to a volume of 55 mL. Digesta aliquots measuring 1.0 mL were removed after the gastric phase and at 20, 30, 60, 90, 120, and 180 min from the start of amylolysis, then were each subsequently added to 4mL absolute ethanol in a tube and mixed.The in vitro digestibility of the starch was determined according to the method of Monro et al.  with sliThe rapidly digested starch (RDS) and slowly digested starch (SDS) levels were determined by measuring reducing sugars released during in vitro digestion of biscuits according to the procedure described by Soong, Tan, Leong, and Henry . BrieflyThe amount of sugars released was calculated in mg of glucose/g of each sample using the absorbance values. The rapidly digested starch (RDS) was evaluated as the amount of reducing sugars determined in the sample aliquot after 20 min from the start of pancreatic digestion, whereas slowly digested starch (SDS) was calculated as the difference between the amount of reducing sugars measured at 120 min and RDS.The in vitro GI of the biscuits was determined by evaluation of the in vitro starch digestibility according to the method described by Reis and Abu-Ghannam  with slip values of less than 0.05.All assays were performed in triplicate. All data are presented as means plus standard deviation. Statistical analyses were carried out using Statistica . Tukey’s test was used to compare the groups. The differences between the mean values were found to be statistically significant at a This study was undertaken to identify the potential for edible insects to increase the nutritional and antioxidant properties of shortcake biscuits. The results revealed that the substitution of wheat flour with mealworm flour changed the nutritional value of the products. There was a progressive increase in the protein and ash contents of biscuits as the concentration of mealworm flour increased. In turn, the fat content and energy value did not differ significantly.Increased levels of mealworm flour in the biscuits led to a darker appearance. Additionally, the biscuit with the greatest amount of mealworm flour was characterized by the highest spread factor. Regarding the antioxidant activity, mealworms were found to have high antioxidant potential, as evident from the higher free radical scavenging activity of biscuits enriched in mealworm flour in comparison to control. Moreover, it is very beneficial that the addition of mealworm flour to biscuits caused an increase in slowly digested starch, with a decrease in rapidly digested starch.The results showed that edible insects might be a good nutritive and bioactive additive to traditionally eaten food, which was confirmed based on fortification of the shortcake dough. This type of dough can be used as an intermediate product to make various types of food, including not only confectionery products, but also savory products. A further step would be to investigate the effects of the addition of edible insects to other food matrices.


Prof. Natalia Shustova is the Peter and Bonnie McCausland Associate Professor at the University of South Carolina. After receiving her Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry from the Moscow State University and a second Ph.D. in Inorganic Chemistry from the Colorado State University, she became interested in porous frameworks during her time as a Postdoctoral Associate in the group of Prof. Mircea Dincă at MIT. After starting her independent research career first as an Assistant Professor at the University of South Carolina in 2013 and since 2017 as Associate Professor, her research interest lies in the development of materials for sustainable energy conversion, sensing and artificial biomimetic systems. Tell us a little bit about your research background and how you became interested in the chemistry of porous materials and covalent organic frameworks.I started my education and scientific career as a materials scientist at Moscow State University. During the work pursuing my two Ph.D. degrees in inorganic and physical chemistry I became a molecular synthetic chemist with an interest in organic electron acceptors. Versatile highly crystalline frameworks such as covalent organic frameworks (COFs) or metal organic frameworks (MOFs) provided me a unique opportunity to merge all the directions from my background in physical and inorganic chemistry with materials science in the pursuit of materials discovery and development. My journey back then in the field of porous frameworks started at MIT where I had my post-doctoral training in the research group of Prof. Mircea Dincă. Initially, the main attraction which was drawing me to the field of COFs were the unlimited opportunities that I believe this platform can provide for the exploration of synthesis, physical properties, and even materials chemistry. Lately, I have been inspired by the possible advances that the porous frameworks can bring to multiple areas ranging from oxygen evolution to nuclear waste administration in order to provide valuable potential materials to expand the technological landscape. Furthermore, I believe that the field of porous frameworks is a strong magnet for multidisciplinary collaborations that usually result in an unusual break-through. This tendency can also be clearly seen in the latest publications.Looking back on 15 years research on COFs, what were the highlights in COF research and which expectations remained unfulfilled?Over the past decade, great efforts have been pursued in the development and the advancement of the COF field. The chemistry and synthetic routes for COF preparation have been delineated which leads to a rapid progress in the field. However, this rapid development also brings the necessity for standardized nomenclature to catalogue these innovative frameworks (COFs) into distinct classes that has not been developed so far. Overall, COFs are a powerful platform that can advance a myriad of applications, extending from gas storage and separation to catalysis. In contrast to zeolites, that have limited intrinsic porosity, and amorphous porous polymers, that lack a clear structure–property correlation, COFs are very attractive candidates for pollution extraction or water purification. Moreover, COFs have a great potential in catalysis through tuneable pore environment and straightforward wall decoration with multifunctional catalytic active sites that we actually investigate in my group. Another field for applications of COFs is sensing, in which the utilization of the well-defined organic scaffold can lead to rapid signal transduction and, as I believe, signal amplification. The last, but not least, application that I want to highlight is the development of crystalline organic semiconductors possessing high conductivity and mobility, which has recently surfaced as a new emerging area of research.In your opinion, which challenges need to be tackled in order to move the field further?Despite tremendous effort and success, there are still challenges in the field of chemistry, physics and materials science in relation to COFs that must be resolved. For instance the development of a general method for single crystal growth is highly desirable for the establishment of fundamental aspects related to structure–property correlation and of course theoretical modelling. Another aspect that requires attention from the scientific community is the development of new synthetic routes that will further broaden the diversity of COF motives and advance the field of materials science while at the same time—and this is very important—leading to crystalline materials. From the other aspect, the understanding of interactions between photons or electrons and a COF crystalline skeleton occurring in one layer, in multiple layers, or in the bulk material is the key for a number of applications including highly porous electrodes and sensors. Biocompatible COFs is another intriguing direction for research that currently lacks extensive studies of framework toxicity and stability.In summary, I believe that we have only touched the surface of possible options of synthetic methodologies for the preparation of porous crystalline purely organic frameworks such as COFs. However, crucial cornerstones such as thermodynamics, electronics, photosynthesis, and theoretical modelling are still under heavy and exciting development from my point of view.What needs to be done in order to make COFs more widely adopted and to get a foothold in industry and industrial applications?Since the beginning of COFs there have been a significant success in finding novel topologies and organic linker engineering resulting in tailoring the intrinsic properties of COFs, but their widespread implementation in device components has not been accomplished yet. This requires overcoming challenges to achieve low cost, high throughput preparation and processability of COFs for mass production. For instance, the preparation of high quality thin films of COFs with controllable thickness is a main challenge in COF research. Moreover, the ability to integrate a COF into a device is a difficult task and needs a multidisciplinary approach and input from materials development and device fabrication.Where do you see the field going next?I hope until this point, I have highlighted the most important features of COFs for a wide range of applications that not only span the classical applications known for metal-organic frameworks such as gas storage and separation but also recognizes a shift towards the less studied areas of optoelectronics or waste management. COF-based materials display an enormous potential especially since the movement towards tailored COF design for specific applications. For instance, development of COF materials with dynamically controlled photophysical behaviour has recently taken off. The advent of novel synthetic approaches, unique growth techniques, and optimized device fabrication methods for COF-based materials is anticipated. And these areas in COF research will be drastically expanded within the next years. However, I strongly believe that this should be accompanied with a growing interest towards a refinement of design principles and fundamental mechanistic studies of physical processes in COF-based materials in order to benefit from their evolving technological possibilities. Therefore, the advances highlighted here are a very promising start but also show a compelling future for COF research.The interview was conducted by Senior Editor Dr. Johannes Kreutzer.


For plants grown under EP, the average number of seeds per plant without pruning was 3.88, whereas those pruned produced 17.60 seeds per plant. Pruning at the first branching event led to higher number of seeds per plant (26.25) than pruning at the second flowering event (8.95). In general, applying BA was beneficial . The best combination of treatments was different for each genotype. Pruning young branches and applying BA in the first flowering event not only prevented the abortion of inflorescences but also induced the feminization of male flowers into hermaphrodite or female-only flowers. The procedures suggested from this study , allowed the production of a high number of seeds from erect cassava genotypes in a short period. The implementation of these procedures will improve the breeding efficiency in cassava.Flowering in cassava is closely linked with branching. Early-flowering genotypes branch low and abundantly. Although farmers prefer late flowering genotypes because of their erect plant architecture, their usefulness as progenitors in breeding is limited by their low seed production. In general, the first inflorescence aborts in cassava. Preventing this abortion would result in early production of seeds and make cassava breeding more efficient. The objective of this study was to assess if pruning young branches prevents the abortion of first inflorescences and promotes early fruit and seed set. Four genotypes with early, late, very late, and no flowering habits were grown under an extended photoperiod (EP) or normal dark night conditions (DN). Additional treatments included pruning young branches at the first or second flowering event and spraying (or not) benzyladenine (BA) after pruning. One genotype failed to flower and was not considered further. For the remaining genotypes, EP proved crucial to induce an earlier flowering, which is a pre-requisite for pruning. Total production of seeds in EP plots was 2,971  Manihot esculenta Crantz) has significant economic relevance, particularly in the lowland tropics. Its main product is the starchy roots that are harvested, usually, about 12 months after planting (MAP). It is a fundamental food security crop in many regions of the world, particularly Sub-Saharan Africa. It is also an important industrial crop, the second source of starch worldwide  or male (staminate) flowers in terminal inflorescences (racemes or panicles) within the same plant. Occasionally, hermaphrodite flowers can be observed but at very low frequency .Inflorescences always develop at the apex of the stem. Sprouting of the buds below the inflorescence allows further growth of the plant. To the naked eye, flowering and branching appear to take place simultaneously . Male flSexual reproduction, the key requirement for crop breeding, is common and relatively easy to achieve in cassava . Some geEarly branching genotypes tend to produce progenies that flower early and branch low. This type of plant architecture facilitates greatly the breeding work because botanical seed is produced early and in abundance. However, farmers generally prefer erect varieties and breeders increasingly favor late and scarcely flowering progenitors. The production of botanical seed from erect genotypes is sparse, slow, and expensive. Perhaps one of the most important areas of research to accelerate genetic gains in cassava, therefore, would be the development of technologies that accelerate and facilitate the production of seed from erect cassava genotypes in crossing nurseries.Considering the vegetative reproduction of cassava, efficient sexual reproduction is not essential for this species. This has proven to be the case . In mostThere have been important progress manipulating flowering biology of cassava in the past few years. Earlier flowering was achieved through grafting  and the The limitations for the production of botanical seed from crosses between erect genotypes are further increased in subtropical regions of the world due to the short growing cycle (compared with low latitude environments). An unpublished innovative approach was developed at Guangxi Subtropical Crops Research Institute (GSCRI) . The key feature of this approach is the removal of lateral branches as soon as the transition to flowering has taken place. Pruning young branches strengthens the apical dominance of the terminal inflorescence and prevents its abortion. Moreover, the first inflorescence seems to achieve unprecedented development with a large number of fertile flowers.i) to validate the effect of pruning young branches in tropical environments using South American cassava germplasm under normal and extended photoperiod conditions; ii) to compare the effect of pruning lateral branches at the first and second flowering events; iii) to assess the effect of plant growth regulator, benzyladenine, in combination with pruning; and iv) to monitor any observable change, in addition to fruit and seed production, caused by pruning and/or plant growth regulators.The objectives of the present study were: All data were collected at CIAT’s Experimental Station, in Palmira, Valle del Cauca, Colombia. This site is located less than four degrees north of the Equator. The duration of the photoperiod is therefore uniform throughout the year. In some cases, plants were grown under extended photoperiod conditions (EP) which began as soon as the stem cuttings were planted. The altitude of this location is 965 meters above sea level. Night temperatures tend to be lower than at locations in the same latitude but at sea level. Average maximum and minimum temperatures through the year are 30.1 ± 2.7°C and 19.2 ± 1.2°C, respectively.GM 971-2 begins flowering abundantly 2-3 MAP with a marginal response to EP; CM 4919-1 is a late flowering genotype. Under normal, dark-night conditions (DN) it flowers for the first time about nine MAP, but under EP it begins flowering 5 months earlier. SM 3348-29 branches and flowers only after grafting on an early branching understock , was monitored constantly and maintained under control.Field management followed the standard procedures for cassava at CIAT. A mixture of the pre-emergence herbicides Karmex  and Dual Gold  was applied 4–7 days before planting. Manual weeding was made as necessary. Plots were uniformly fertilized following standard procedures . Irrigat2/sec). Illumination began soon after planting and, as plants grew, the LED tape was raised. Lights were turned on at sunset and turned off at sunrise.The early and innovative experiences at GSCRI in Nanning suggested that, under prevailing subtropical conditions and using germplasm developed in SE Asia, pruning young branches prevented the abortion of inflorescences and enhanced flower production, particularly from the first branching event. However, for pruning to be effective, flowering needs to have been already triggered. This requirement is a serious limitation for erect plant genotypes. This experiment was carried out validate the effect of pruning on plants which had been exposed to EP. Five rows with 10 plants each were planted with clone CM 4919-1, characterized by a strong response to EP . Row spahttps://youtu.be/hHHvaCzvB0E) illustrating the pruning procedure is available. Pruning was carried out only at the second flowering event to maximize the number of growing shoots per plant  on June 6, 2018. Each treatment x genotype combination was planted in a single row plot with 10 plants. Rows were spaced 1.5 m and plant to plant distance within the row was 0.5 m. Basically, the same pruning experiment was duplicated. In one case plants grew under DN and in the other with EP, which began the day of planting. Illumination of plants lasted all night long. There were five treatments implemented in each of the four genotypes (nested within each of these two photoperiod conditions): i) No pruning; ii) Pruning in the first branching event; iii) Pruning in the first branching event, combined with the application of benzyladenine (BA); iv) Pruning in the second branching event; and v) Pruning in the second branching event, combined with the application of BA. The four genotypes serve as replications for the five pruning treatments. Rather than controlling environmental variation (as blocks do in a randomized complete block design) the replications in the present study address the issue of genetic variation, which in the case of flowering, is a critical factor to consider.Four experimental genotypes were planted  had negligible effect on photosynthesis and temperature at the apex of the plants. A 50 ppm (w/v) BA solution was prepared mixing commercial MaxCel  with distilled water. The solution was sprayed (5 ml of the solution) in the top of plants that required the BA treatment immediately after pruning the lateral vegetative branches. BA was applied weekly after the day of pruning until the transition from flowers to fruits was observed. BA was not applied to unpruned plants. Data was taken individually on each plant. This trial was kept for 300 days in the field. Flowers were not covered and were left untouched for open pollination to take place.The source of light used for the EP treatment was 50W LEDs with reflectors fixed at 3 m above ground in a square grid 4.5 m apart. Results from previous evaluations (unpublished data) indicated that every plant received a stimulus in excess of the 0.02 μmol/mPlots were visited daily and records were taken when a plant began flowering and branched. The number of days from planting to first branch was registered individually on each plant, as well as height of first branching. Number of nodes to first branching and number of fruits and seeds were also registered individually on each plant.versus not pruning, was nested within each photoperiod condition. Similarly, the third contrast (pruning in the first or second branching event) was nested within the pruning-EP or pruning-DN combination. Finally, the fourth and fifth contrasts (spraying BA or not) were nested within pruning in the first or second branching events, respectively. All sources of variation were considered fixed (except the plant-to-plant variation within a plot). Type III sum of squares were used for the ANOVA. LSD test was used to assess differences among averages.Data were taken on individual plants. The experimental units, therefore, were the individual plants within a 10-plant plot. Each pruning treatment x clone combination was planted in a single row and randomly allocated within each of the two photoperiod conditions used in the study. Plots were visited daily and records were taken when a plant began flowering and branched. Statistical analyses were conducted with SAS . AnalysiIn general, the different trials grew well without relevant problems. Environmental conditions were representative for the location used. There was no major biotic problem, except for an unusual mite pressure that was quickly controlled.Fifty stem cuttings were planted and 49 sprouted producing a total of 95 main stems (3 plants produced only one while the remaining 46 plants produced two main stems). On average each main stem produced 2.25 branches in the first flowering event, resulting in a total of 216 branches. It was the apex of some of these branches that were pruned during the second flowering event . The experience gained during Experiment 1 was critical for a timely identification of apical shoots that had undergone the transition to flowering and the successful pruning procedure. st branch (HEIGHT); days to first flowering/branching (DAYS), number of nodes to first branching (NODES); number of fruits per plant (FRUITS), and number of seeds per plant (SEEDS). Only 32% of the plants growing under DN eventually flowered. Since flowering is a pre-requisite for pruning, data for the different pruning alternatives within DN sample sizes were unbalanced and limited. No further analysis of these data from DN is presented. On the other hand, results under EP allowed a useful assessment on the effect of pruning and application of BA on fruit and seed production. The analysis of data was based on a successive nesting of each source of variation on the others. This approach allowed relevant pairwise orthogonal contrasts between the different treatments, which are illustrated, along with the respective sample sizes, in The ANOVA (table not presented) indicated that the contrasts between DN and EP were highly significant (P < 0.0001) for every response variable: height of 1vs 201.5 cm) and earlier (103.8 vs 243.2 days to first flowering) than plants growing under DN. FRUITS and SEEDS per plant were significantly higher in EP compared with DN  was initiated after the first branching had occurred.versus 150, data not shown). Since these differences are across the five pruning treatments, they properly reflect the impact of extended photoperiod. The impact of pruning can be easily visualized looking at the data within EP.The most relevant information in Under EP, FRUITS and SEEDS from non-pruned plants were respectively 2.1 and 5.2, whereas those from pruned plants were 9.9 and 23.8, respectively. These results indicate that, by the time the experiment had been completed 300 days after planting, the best results were obtained in plants growing under EP that have been pruned. The effects of pruning can be visually appreciated in the photographs presented in versus the second branching event. FRUITS values were 14.7 and 5.0 for plants pruned, respectively, in the first or second branching event. Similarly, SEEDS averages were 35.0 and 12.0 from plants pruned in the first and second branching, respectively. It is clear, therefore, that across genotypes, pruning in the first branching event results in greater seed production.The following contrast presented in i) there is a female flower on top of the inflorescence (yellow circle) that would typically be male based on its position; and ii) the orderly evolution of flowers undergoing anthesis from bottom to top has been clearly disrupted.The final contrasts in Results presented in The simplest results to describe are those from SM 3348-29. No plant from this genotype produced seeds under DN. Non-pruned plants from SM 3348-29 growing under EP failed to produce seed as well. In contrast, the largest number of seed per plant obtained across the entire experiment came from plants of this clone, pruned in the first branching event, and with the addition of BA . This is, indeed, a remarkable result. Even for early and profuse flowering genotypes (see results from GM 971-2), the production of this number of seeds would be difficult. Pruning plants of SM 3348-28 in the first flowering, without BA spraying, offered the second-best result, with more than 30 seeds per plant. These two averages were significantly different (P < 0.05). All the other treatments resulted in significantly lower averages. The unquestionable conclusion is that the combination of EP, pruning in the first branching event with the additional spraying of BA maximizes the early production of seed of this very late flowering cassava genotype.The top of 2 for EP plots) and the uniformity of soils in the experimental station.Results from GM 971-2 contrast from those of the previous genotypes. This is the only clone among the germplasm evaluated that flowered often under DN Figure 6Another observed phenomenon arising as a result of pruning was that flowers in the same inflorescence tended to reach anthesis within a few days from each other and with a common disruption of the normal sequence (from bottom to top). This phenomenon is clear in Finally, the germination capacity of botanical seed produced after pruning was evaluated in three separated batches following the standard procedures at CIAT. Out of more than 1,200 seeds 85% of it germinated without any abnormal appearance.It was occasionally observed, within the 10-plant rows, that one or two plants had a very different flowering pattern. For example, nine plants would flower (and branch) three times during the length of the trial but the remaining plant in the plot would not do so, not even once. Similarly, in a given plot all plants except one, would fail to flower. Moreover, this flowering plant may have up to two levels of branching (e.g. flowered twice). These outlaying plants, however, did not prevent identifying clear responses from the different genotypes to the light treatments, but explain some apparent inconsistencies in the data presented. They were included, however, in the respective plot data.vs EP) clearly indicates that extended photoperiod has a positive effect and results in a significantly higher number of fruits and seeds. The contrast between the performance under DN vs EP in each of the four genotypes agreed with earlier reports  inbred progenitors in cassava breeding has been listed . HoweverCapacity for successful pruning can be quickly acquired after a short training. It was observed that proper pruning at the first branching event is easier than at the second one, because the chronology of events in the first flowering event is slower than in the second. It was easier, therefore, to detect on time the globular shaped shoots that were ready for pruning in the first flowering event. On the other hand, branches in the second flowering event seem to develop much faster and as a result, some of the pruning was done later than desirable . The botanical seed produced behaved normally when germinated. This is obviously a key requirement for the protocols suggested in this study to be useful.The most important finding of this work is that pruning young branches prevents the abortion of the first inflorescence, fostering seed production much earlier than in untreated plants of late flowering genotypes. EP is fundamental for the induction of the first branching event. Therefore, a combination of EP with pruning is a sensible recommendation. Since breeders are interested in the early production of seed, it seems also reasonable to focus on pruning at the first flowering event. The combination of extended photoperiod, pruning, and BA application was particularly advantageous for late flowering genotypes such as CM 4919-1 and SM 3348-29, which otherwise produce very little or no seed at all. Early flowering genotypes such as GM 971-2 seemed to react differently to these treatments. However, breeders seldom need to foster flowering and seed production in early flowering cassava. Future research should validate these preliminary results regarding the reaction of different genotypes. The results reported in this study were conducted in CIAT Experimental Station in Palmira at about 1,000 m.a.s.l. The reaction to pruning may be different in other locations. The advantages of pruning young branches were first detected near Nanning city in China (lower than 500 m.a.s.l but a higher latitude than that of CIAT) and validated also in greenhouse conditions at Cornell University. Pruning has been successfully used at Kasetsart University in Thailand. This would suggest that the advantages of pruning reported in this study are not restricted to Palmira, Colombia, nor to the germplasm used in the present study.The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.MP conducted the experiment, took data, performed the pruning, and participated in the analysis of data. BY and YT were involved in the first evaluation of the effect of pruning branches. NM and SS were in charge of the field management and electric system installation. PTH and TLS contributed with the improvement of the protocol through BA application. HC coordinated the work in Colombia, analyzed data, and wrote the manuscript. TLS participated in writing and editing the manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Glacier melting is one of the important causes of glacier morphology change and can provide basic parameters for calculating glacier volume change and glacier mass balance, which, in turn, is important for evaluating water resources. However, it is difficult to obtain large-scale time series of glacier changes due to the cloudy and foggy conditions which are typical of mountain areas. Gravity-measuring satellites and laser altimetry satellites can monitor changes in glacier volume over a wide area, while synthetic-aperture radar satellites can monitoring glacier morphology with a high spatial and temporal resolution. In this article, an interferometric method using a short temporal baseline and a short spatial baseline, called the Small Baseline Subsets (SBAS) Interferometric Synthetic-Aperture Radar (InSAR) method, was used to study the average rate of glacier deformation on Karlik Mountain, in the Eastern Tienshan Mountains, China, by using 19 Sentinel-1A images from November 2017 to December 2018. Thus, a time series analysis of glacier deformation was conducted. It was found that the average glacier deformation in the study region was −11.77 ± 9.73 mm/year, with the observation sites generally moving away from the satellite along the Line of Sight (LOS). Taking the ridge line as the dividing line, it was found that the melting rate of southern slopes was higher than that of northern slopes. According to the perpendicular of the mountain direction, the mountain was divided into an area in the northwest with large glaciers (Area I) and an area in the southeast with small glaciers (Area II). It was found that the melting rate in the southeast area was larger than that in the northwest area. Additionally, through the analysis of temperature and precipitation data, it was found that precipitation played a leading role in glacier deformation in the study region. Through the statistical analysis of the deformation, it was concluded that the absolute value of deformation is large at elevations below 4200 m while the absolute value of the deformation is very small at elevations above 4500 m; the direction of deformation is always away from the satellite along the LOS and the absolute value of glacier deformation decreases with increasing elevation. Most glaciers in China lie in high mountainous environments , which aThe routine monitoring of changes in glacier morphology mainly involves onsite investigation via field operations including field stereophotogrammetry, the Differential Global Positioning System technique, and ground-penetrating radar analysis . Such fiGravity satellite data, laser altimetry data, and InSAR data have been widely used in the study of glacier morphology . Among tKarlik Mountain, located in the easternmost part of the Tienshan Mountains, contains numerous glaciers, which represent a critical water source for river supply and industrial and agricultural development ,28. UndeThis study focused on Karlik Mountain, located in the Hami region, China . The mountain is located in the easternmost part of the Tienshan Mountains , with an2 and a glacier reserve of about 7.01 km3. There are 76 rivers in the Hami region, 20 of which are affected by glacial meltwater supply.The glaciers of Karlik Mountain consist of many small flat-top glaciers, valley glaciers, hanging glaciers, and cirque glaciers, with hanging-type glaciers being dominant ,31. The Sentinel-1 is an earth observation radar satellite mission launched by the European Space Agency (ESA). Sentinel-1 consists of two satellites, Sentinel-lA and Sentinel-lB, which share the same orbital plane with a 180° difference in orbital phasing. Each satellite has a 12-day revisit frequency, double star cooperation, and the revisit frequency can be shortened to 6 days ,32. Senthttps://sentinel.esa.int/web/sentinel/sentinel-data-access/) [2 from 56° S to 60° N [http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org/srtmdata/) [http://data.cma.cn/).Sentinel-1A was launched on 3 April 2014 with a C-band SAR sensor. Sentinel-1A SAR data are freely and openly available from the ESA’s Sentinel-1 online data hub (access/) . The Senaccess/) . The IW access/) ,37. The access/) ,34,35. Ttmdata/) . The DEMtmdata/) . TemperaSBAS InSAR is a newly developed time series analysis method based on Differential InSAR ,41,42 whFirstly, there are N SAR images covering the research area in a certain time span, appropriate values of spatial temporal baseline thresholds are set, and the baseline combination is conducted according to the principle of small baseline to generate M multi-looked interferometric pairs . M satisM is determined by the combination of small baselines. An accurate value of M can be determined by setting a spatial baseline threshold and a temporal baseline threshold. In this study, the spatial baseline threshold was set as 2% of the maximum spatial baseline value (unit: m), and the temporal baseline threshold was set as 50% of the maximum temporal baseline value (units: days). This set of threshold values maximally preserves the deformation time series information and effectively reduces data redundancy.i can be expressed as follows [Vj . Then, the M interference phase difference of a pixel i can be expressed by Equation (3) [Vj  refers to the mean phase change rate of the Vj . Simplified to a vector form, the phase difference of the pixel in the direction of LOS is expressed by the following equation [Combined with external Digital Elevation Model (DEM) data (SRTM), M interference pairs were differentially processed by removing the flat-earth and topographic effects. Then, spatial filtering and phase unwrapping were performed to obtain M phases. For one pair of interference pairs, assuming the acquisition time of the main image is  follows :(2)Δφi=φtion (3) :(3)[Δφ1Δequation :(4)ΔφLOSThe mean phase change velocity Here, the maximum incidence angle of Sentinel-1A is 45°. When the slope is larger than this maximum incidence angle, layover will occur , which mThe data were analyzed using the ENVI 5.3 and SARSCAPE 5.2.1 software, and the image parameters are listed in The acquisition date of the super main image was 29 May 2018. The first step in the interferogram generation process was to generate a connection graph. According to the meteorological conditions and data sets of the study area, the maximum length of the spatial baseline was 102 m, the minimum length of the spatial baseline was 3 m, the maximum length of the temporal baseline was 192 days, and the minimum length of the temporal baseline was 12 days. The distribution of small baseline pairs is shown in The most critical step in the interferometric process is the interferogram generation. The interference pairs were screened to eliminate the irregular interference fringe and unsatisfactory phase unwrapping. Finally, 87 interference pairs were reserved for use in the subsequent calculation to ensure sufficient redundant observations in the time series calculation. In order to reduce the influence of noise in the coherent region, the multiple look operation is carried out, and the number of views is 1 (azimuth direction) × 5 (distance direction) . Next, aAccording to the previously described method, using glacier vector boundaries of the second China Glacier Inventory (CGI2), the average rate of glacier deformation on Karlik Mountain during the period from November 2017 to December 2018 was finally obtained . In FiguBased on the topography, the study region was divided into north and south slopes by the ridge line a. Due to2 are located in Region 4 (southeast of the study area), with a relatively discrete spatial distribution. The deformation of glaciers in this region is mostly negative during the study period. The glacier of Region 4 is a small area with short length, the deformation contributed by the slope direct would be smaller, and the contribution by the thickness variation would be larger. Region 4 is more affected by high temperature in summer, and the deformation is therefore strongly negative. The above analysis shows that the retreat rate of glacier is slowest in the northwest and fastest in the southeast [According to the observed glacier deformation, a deformation time series was established, as shown in outheast . Additiooutheast .During the study period from 18 November 2017 to 31 December 2018, the average deformation of the glacier area was −11.77 ± 9.73 mm/year, and the total deformation to the north and south of the ridge line was −11.31 ± 6.54 mm/year and −12.11 ± 8.22 mm/year, respectively. Yang et al.  showed tDeformation monitored using the SBAS InSAR method is generally verified by field observation data obtained by leveling or Global Positioning Systems . HoweverIn the study area, there is relatively more precipitation in summer due to the monsoon of the westerlies, which would bring warm humid air to the study area in summer, while there is less precipitation in winter due to the high pressure of the Inner Mongolian Siberian . AccordiData from the Yiwu meteorological station and the Hami meteorological station (located to the southwest of Karlik Mountain)  were useThe results show that the glaciers of Karlik Mountain were replenished in summer. From The above changes in glacier deformation are roughly consistent with the annual changes in the glacier movement on Karlik Mountain. Qin et al.  note thaGlacier deformation is closely related to glacier retreat and is strongly affected by elevation. In this study, glacier elevation was divided into 11 different altitude bands a to inve(1)A SAR dataset with a short temporal baseline and a short spatial baseline was established. By setting appropriate temporal and spatial baseline thresholds, incoherence effects caused by long spatial and temporal baselines can be limited. Thus, the glacier deformation accuracy was improved;(2)The total glacier deformation during the study period was −11.77 ± 9.73 mm;(3)Based on the assumption that the deformation of bare land in the study area is zero, the deformation of bare land was taken as the error value in order to validate the deformation results. It was found that this error value is much smaller than the glacier deformation, which thus verifies the reliability of the results of this paper;(4)Taking the ridge line as the dividing line, it was found that the deformation rate of the south slopes was higher than that of the north slopes. It was found that the deformation rate was higher in the southeast of the study area than in the northwest;(5)Through the analysis of temperature and precipitation data, it was found that precipitation played a leading role in the glacier deformation. In winter, precipitation and temperature were low, and glacier deformation was also low. There was a strong correlation between glacier deformation and elevation; the lower the elevation, the larger the deformation.In this paper, the SBAS InSAR method was used to monitor the variation of glaciers in the Eastern Tienshan Mountains between November 2017 and December 2018. The glacier deformation rate was calculated and a deformation time series was presented. The main conclusions are as follows: