The posts were cultivated with porcine bone-gingival tissue specimens in vitro for 7 and 14 days and then subjected to dynamic mechanical analysis simulating physiological loading at 1 Hz up to 50 μm amplitude. In parallel in silico analysis of stresses and strains have been made simulating “the worst case” when the fixture fails in osseointegration while the abutment still holds. Results show treatment of zirconia can lead to double interface stiffness , invariant viscostiffness (from 5–35 to 45–90 kPa·sα) and material memory values (increased from 0.06–0.10 to 0.17–0.25), which is beneficial in preventing bacterial contamination in dental implants. This suggests TiO2-coated zirconia abutments may have a significant clinical benefit for prevention of the bacterial contamination.Prevention of bacterial inflammation around dental implants (peri-implantitis) is one of the keys to success of the implantation and can be achieved by securing the gingival tissue-abutment interface preventing penetration of bacteria. Modern dental practice has adopted zirconia abutments in place of titanium, but the adhesion of gingival tissue to zirconia is inferior to titanium. The aim of this study was to assess and improve the adhesion of mucosal tissues to zirconia posts using sol-gel derived TiO A dental implant system can be used to restore a missing tooth or teeth. It is made of three parts: the implant, an abutment and a crown . The impThe risk of inflammation is increased if bacteria can form a biofilm on the abutment surface ,7,8. Soo2) is a very good alternative ceramic material to be used in abutments in place of titanium, as it is chemically stable, biocompatible and has a high wear resistance  in 95% ethanol and mixing it with a solution of ethanol, HNO3 and ultrapure water. The resultant solution was left to age at room temperature for 24 h. The TiO2 coatings were prepared by dipping the specimens into the solution and then withdrawing them at a speed of 0.3 mm/s following the heat treatment at 500 °C for 1 h and were cleaned ultrasonically again [The posts were prepared as described in  by cuttily again . The posOn the contrary to the previous study , these p2 environment with the culture medium changed every 24 h up to 7 and 14 days (three samples with a non-coated implant and three with a coated implant) in culture  supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 U/lg penicillin, streptomycin 100 lg/mL, and 200 mM L-glutamine. The specimens were incubated at 37 °C in a 5% CO culture a.Analysis of the adherence of the posts to the gingiva was carried out using the model-free invariant Biomaterials Enhanced Simulation Testing (BEST)  method rThe samples underwent automatic preconditioning ) for ~5 min before the test started for the signal stabilization to eliminate inertial disturbances and possible effects of initial specimen misalignment. The force and displacements were measured via the same single probe, subtracting the empty system and the sample holder calibrations made before the tests. All tests were non-destructive ones so the posts remain in contact with the tissue afterward whereas they might undergo some irreversible deformation (creep). In this work the data of forces and displacements in the setup shown in The tests described in the earlier study  were reli to true or engineering strain εi [The strain definitions in train εi .t, frequency ω and stress σdyn:Cω is the dynamic viscostiffness (quasi-property in units of kPa·sα), α—dynamic material memory parameter (unitless). This equation is valid for any system and it does not require postulation of any model of the material, nor does it require linear elasticity or viscoelasticity assumptions to be valid [The BEST method of the post-processing results foresees an application of the time convolution integral to harmonic stress input ,27,28,29be valid . BEST cobe valid .Cω and α values are time-invariant in a sense that they do not depend on the time of experiment. Equation (1) can be always numerically explicitly computed without the need for assumptions of linearity of Cω and α(ω). The values of memory parameter in Equation (1) must be non-negative to ensure causality principle, and in the range 0 < α < 1 they present the fading memory  [The ehavior) ,28,29.Modeling of the experimental setup and the testing conditions was performed with COMSOL Multiphysics 5.3 software  in 3D space using an axially symmetric model of the tissues (gingiva and the bone). The materials properties were chosen as for a linear elastic material, but the values of stiffness were entered as a non-linear user function (1) from the obtained experimental DMA data. Zirconia posts were assumed fully rigid with respect to the tissues and they were not explicitly simulated, imposed rather as a boundary condition of the respective displacement transfer to the soft tissue. The basic conditions for simulation comprise a 50 μm displacement amplitude at 1 Hz frequency applied axially  to the post-tissue interface up to 300 s in the axial 2D symmetric model (this reflects the conditions of DMA tests during 5 min). No big differences between the engineering and true strains  were fouStatistical analysis of the data was performed first with direct outcomes data  and second with idempotent analysis ,24 to exThe presence of leverage points was detected with hat matrix diagonal components not falling under Stephen’s rule (these points were removed). Influence (outlier) points analysis was made by calculating Cook’s distances, and those data points exceeding the unity value (if any found) were removed. The consistency of regression coefficients was independently checked by application of the Theil–Sen estimator and the goodness of fit significance by modified Anderson–Darling test (data not shown). Heteroscedasticity of fitting residuals was estimated with the RUNS test and the residuals autocorrelation with the Durbin–Watson parameter. All the data below have passed these criteria, and obtained biomechanical invariant values were considered to be best linear unbiased estimators (BLUE).p = 0.0). The p-values reported are the likelihoods of observing the effect sizes, if the null hypothesis of zero difference is true. This means that there is a statistically significant difference between the static loading reaction of coated and uncoated posts, the former being superior in terms of withstanding static loads to the same deformation degree. The unpaired median difference between Control.1 (=dynamic stiffness at control) and dynamic stiffness is much larger—67.4 kPa  61.6~71.8; p = 0.0 for the two-sided permutation t-test). Thus, dynamic stiffness for the treated (coated) post being much higher all the time indicate that the coated post “feels” more resistance to moving better than in uncoated control.The stiffness (stress/strain ratio in kPa) values for static and dynamic loadings are compared in p = 0.0), indicating a significant difference.The extraction of the data from the viscostiffness values show that the control specimens require about 2 s to fully react on dynamic stimulus (shorter memory < 0.10), whereas treated samples would need even about 12 min to completely recover from the one loading cycle . These characteristic times can be associated with the Deborah numbers of the system as they reflect the “reaction to flow”: when the time of observation is significantly lower than the characteristic time, the system (post + tissue) appears to be less responsive to the stimulus.L) with time, dynamic strains  is mainly compressive at the top edge of the gingiva and is tensile at the bottom edge , but in RZ (shear RZ-component) has extrema at terminal points (top and the bottom of the post-tissue interface) and also at ~0.6 mm distance from the bottom of the contact of the post with the tissue . The differences obtained in this study between coated and uncoated zirconia posts were larger than observed previously in conditions [Experiments and simulations have shown that a significantly stronger gingival attachment was observed with TiOnditions  for siminditions  use of sFor in vitro mechanical testing of posts  adherence to the gingival tissue it is useful to simulate the “worst case” when the implant fails in osseointegration but when abutment can still prevent pathogens penetration due to its sufficient tissue–abutment interface quality. It is reasonable to assume the abutments (posts) would equally perform in the normal case too when the tissue dynamic displacement is less than 50 μm in amplitude at 1 Hz.The tests are needed to be properly planned and executed in the right way to make the design of dental biomaterials with an enhanced clinical value. This concerns samples preparation, test conditions and results analysis.For the first time, invariant values  have been extracted from experimental data for these zirconia posts without application or assumption of a material model (viscoelastic or others). These values comprise time-convoluted data and are better predictors for materials performance comparison than traditional stiffness (stress/strain ratios), as the latter depends on the way stresses and strains are defined.Invariant values can be used in computer in silico simulations using a simple linear elastic material approach but with the values of elastic properties substituted with these values instead of some constants. This can simplify calculations and extend them into more realistic clinical cases with 3D implant placement planning and outcome estimation.An example using in silico simulation has demonstrated that coated zirconia posts would cause low hydrostatic pressure to gingival tissue, which is important to support blood circulation and regeneration of the surrounding tissues. Analogous non-coated zirconia posts would have failed earlier in the same conditions .The most relevant findings of this study could be listed as follows:This study also has some limitations. Besides the small number of samples used, there is an uncertainty in soft tissue properties, which vary depending on the location, storage, preparation, etc. This was addressed by cultivating control and treated post in identical conditions simultaneously, but this does not fully compensate for variations in absolute values of the gingival tissues mechanical properties. The values of stiffness and invariant memory values are likely to be different for another set of tissues even with the same abutment materials. However, as these values were compared to controls, it is reasonable to assume that the difference between control posts and coated posts has significant statistical differences, demonstrating coating effectiveness.It would also be interesting to carry out a pull-out test or rotational test of the embedded posts, but it was not possible due to the limited sample size and geometry samples availability. Pull-out test data, however, are more rate-dependent, so it would require more samples to extrapolate the results to proper strains or deformation rates having clinical relevance . Further2 coating vs. processing  and deployment (placement) is very important to address. For long-term application, degradation of the coating might be a limitation, but it is likely to work with the healing abutment system when the fixture has been successfully osseointegrated.There are also diverse grades and compositions of stabilized zirconia for dental applications and it is not clear whether, for example, the same coating and coating technique would be equivalent for different zirconia materials with varied surface topology and composition ,38. For 2 coating via the sol–gel process has a statistically significant impact on improvement of the mechanical properties of the tissue–gingiva interface by improving the static and dynamic stiffness, the invariant viscostiffness, and material memory values in the “worst case” scenario. For the conditions used (1 Hz and up to 50 μm amplitude) coated posts have demonstrated:~2-fold improvement in static stiffness (stress/strain ratio),~3-fold improvement in dynamic stiffness (dynamic stress/strain ratio),~2.5-fold increase in invariant viscostiffness and,~3–4-fold increase in material memory valueThe experimental in vitro and in silico study of coated (treated) and uncoated zirconia posts has shown that TiO2-coated zirconia abutments may have a significant clinical benefit for prevention of the bacterial contamination, which would also improve the success of the implant.Computer in silico analysis has shown that well-adhered coated posts even in this worst case do not generate local shear stresses in the gingival tissue over 5 kPa, which is a positive factor to be considered for the case of prevention of adjacent tissues necrosis or hypoxia due to insufficient blood supply. Altogether this suggests TiO


This study focuses on the use of we-media by small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to disclose internal corporate social responsibility (ICSR) under the impact of the 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Study 1 interprets the catalyst effect of COVID-19 on the externalization of SMEs’ ICSR. The fuzzy grading evaluation method is initially verified. Under the impact of COVID-19, SMEs fulfilling their ICSR can enhance consumer brand attitudes. Study 2 uses a structural equation model and empirical analysis of 946 effective samples and finds that consumers perceive the self-sacrifice of corporations during the coronavirus disease period. SMEs can fulfill their ICSR to enhance the internal explanation mechanism of consumer brand attitudes and the moderating role of enterprise losses. The 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has caused a sudden outbreak of pneumonia. The World Health Organization has declared a public health emergency. The disease has posed great risks and challenges to the world’s economic and social development , earning employees’ praise and the recognition of consumers. Existing research on the impact of SMEs using we-media channels to disclose their ICSR on consumer behavior during epidemics is scarce. Previous research on the ICSR of enterprises is limited to employee satisfaction , emotion (feeling), and behavior (reaction tendency)  with score feature i is xi, xi2 … xin. Then, the average score Xi of feature i is as follows:The fuzzy analytic hierarchy process effectively addresses the inaccurate index values and transforms qualitative evaluations into quantitative evaluations. The calculation model of the average score of a single feature value is as follows: The score of all users (m features) under a certain second-level construct k are xk1, xk2… xkm, and the number of times the m features are mentioned is pk1, pk2… pkm, respectively. Then, the average score of the second-level construct k, The average score of a single second-level construct is calculated as follows: Suppose all features (g second-level constructs) under a first-level construct r are yr1, yr2 …yrm and the number of times the m features are mentioned is qr1, qr2…qrm, respectively. Then, the average score of first-level construct r, The average score of a single first-level construct is calculated as follows: Suppose all features , from which we construct F = , f1 = , and f1 External consumption behavior = . The product characteristic index is f1 =  and f1 Internal organizational behavior = . Then, the captured comments are processed through word segmentation to obtain nouns or motionless relation phrases. The similarity matching principle is then used to attribute the corpus to the characteristic word class. The related literature’s interpretation of each first-level dimension summarizes the feature words under the first-level dimension to construct the feature word lexicon using the marketing dictionary. Similarly, the score scale of each item is determined, and the score is refined, E = , where 5 points means they like it very much and 1 point means they do not like it very much. The degree of adjectives can be specifically divided into the following categories: 5 = , 4 = , 3 = , 2 = , 1 = . Finally, after counting each feature word’s frequency of occurrence in the corpus, based on the weight calculation model, the corresponding weight and score for each corpus are calculated.In this study, the application steps of fuzzy hierarchical evaluation are as follows: First, we determine the evaluation item set After calculating the frequency of 14,123 comments and obtaining the frequency of each feature word in the corpus, based on the weight calculation model, the corresponding weight and score of each corpus are calculated, as shown in Fig. The analysis results in Fig. Table This study uses data crawler technology and a fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method to extract the evaluation information in consumer-generated content by semantic analysis and similarity matching of text comment data. The results show that SMEs fulfill their ICSR by using Weibo media disclosures during the epidemic, which produces positive evaluations and consumer brand attitudes . In this era of social networks, information spreads rapidly on the Internet, and consumers pay increasing attention to information about the activities of SMEs  It verifies the main effect of SMEs fulfilling CSR to enhance consumer brand attitudes under the impact of the epidemic and does not explore or verify the intermediary mechanism of consumer perceptions of enterprise self-sacrifice. (2) In Study 1, we select the Weibo of Chinese SMEs as an example, and it is difficult to exclude the influence of consumer stereotypes on brand attitudes. It is also difficult to completely clarify the ECSR previously performed by Laoxiang Chicken enterprise and the spillover effect of the enterprise’s ICSR on improving consumer brand attitudes in events like the general manager of the enterprise tearing up employees’ joint letter. (3) Study 1 does not explore the boundary conditions that exist in the process of externalizing ICSR of SMEs under the impact of the epidemic. To compensate for the above limitations, we further explore this issue in Study 2.The purpose of Study 2 is to effectively eliminate the interference of consumers in the inherent image of enterprises, the perception of enterprise scale, and the ECSR. By fabricating material used by SMEs on Weibo to disclose their ICSR under the impact of the epidemic, a structural equation model is constructed using the questionnaire survey method. This method is advantageous as it can effectively control the experimental process and factors, clarify the causal relationship between core variables, verify the impact of SMEs’ ICSR on consumer brand attitudes during the epidemic, verify the mediating role of perceived enterprise self-sacrifice between enterprises’ ICSR and consumer brand attitudes, and address the moderating effect of the perceived degree of enterprise losses.Self-sacrifice theory refers to individuals’ willing to bear losses to adhere to their beliefs and values  are not significantly different, meaning that the sample questionnaire has no response bias.In this study, we use the virtual situation survey method followed by the situation questionnaire to let the subjects read the survey scenario and then fill out the questionnaire. The survey target is the consumer group. The participants need to read the following information in the situation manipulation part: The enterprise’s Weibo and public account platforms issued announcements. Affected by COVID-19, the enterprise conservatively estimated losses of at least 30 million. However, the enterprise promised not to lay off employees during the epidemic, and the wages of employees in self-isolation would be paid, even if the enterprise had to sell its houses or cars. Every effort would be made to ensure that employees had food and work. Following relief from the epidemic, the enterprise must resume business on the premise of ensuring employees’ safety. After reading the survey scenario materials, the subjects continue to fill out the questionnaire. The WeChat group collect questionnaires by snowballing. A total of 975 questionnaires are recovered. The information of the test samples is shown in Table Given the context of this study, we use a more mature scale. Additionally, there are discussions among scholars to make appropriate amendments to the scale. The research scale used by Glavas and Godwin  is adoptFirst, we confirm the reliability and validity of the questionnaire, followed by the hypothesis test. According to the values in Table χ2/df = 354.01, RMSEA = 0.09, SRMR = 0.06, CFI = 0.92, IFI = 0.533; to a certain extent, the common method bias in the measurements of this study is not serious.In this study, the questionnaire survey method is mainly used. The same subject provides multiple variable data. As there may be an effect of common method bias, we use Harman’s single factor test. Whether the enterprise fulfills its ICSR, perceived enterprise self-sacrifice, perceived degree of enterprise losses, and consumer brand attitudes are used to construct a single-factor structural equation model and to test the fit. The fit of the single-factor model is not ideal: χ2/df = 2.38, GFI = 0.950, NFI = 0.938, TLI = 0.945, CFI = 0.921, and RMSEA = 0.070. These indicators test the fit of the model. The sample fit indicators are as follows: χ2/df between 1 and 3; the GFI, NFI, TLI, and CFI values are greater than 0.85; and the RMSEA less than 0.08, indicating that the research model has a good fit and can be used for further hypothesis testing. According to the test results of the standardized path coefficients in the model, the enterprise’s performance of ICSR under the impact of the epidemic is associated with the perceived enterprise self-sacrifice. The self-sacrifice has a positively significant impact . The enterprise’s ICSR under the influence of the epidemic positively impacts consumer brand attitudes . Therefore, perceived enterprise self-sacrifice is associated with consumer brand attitudes. The positive effect of attitudes is significant . Additionally, to further verify the stability of the moderating role of perceived enterprise self-sacrifice, we refer to Hayes . As shown in Table Further, we test the moderating effect of the perceived degree of enterprise losses. The results show that the interaction terms of the enterprise’s ICSR and the perceived degree of enterprise losses under the impact of the epidemic have a significant positive affect on perceived enterprise self-sacrifice ; when the level of perceived enterprise losses is high, the fulfillment of ICSR by enterprises has a significant positive effect on perceived enterprise self-sacrifice ; the difference between the two is significant . At the same time, in a enterprise with a low degree of perceived losses, the indirect impact of the enterprise’s ICSR and perceived degree of losses on consumer brand attitudes (through perceived enterprise self-sacrifice) under the impact of the epidemic is not significant , while in the case of an enterprise with a high degree of perceived losses, there is a significant positive effect , and the difference between the two is also significant . Therefore, Hypothsis 4 is verified.Based on Table Previous studies indicate that only when enterprises consider both ICSR and ECSR can consumers make external altruistic attributions to the performance of ICSR, thus enhancing brand purchase intentions  shocks on the operation of SMEs  and scaling the commanding height of enterprise market competition are the focus. Therefore, the practical contributions of this study mainly concern enterprises at the top level.First, fulfilling ICSR is a rational choice for SMEs to find a new way out of difficulties. In the Internet era, the dispersal of information has changed, and the boundaries of organizations show “fuzziness.” In terms of consumer distance, enterprises are becoming increasingly closer. Consumers are increasingly paying attention to the ICSR of enterprises while also focusing on the ECSR. That is, the ICSR of enterprises has risen to a new height in the minds of consumers. The epidemic has had a great impact on the normal operation of SMEs, regarding the production or sales activities or the daily work of employees. SMEs need to respond actively, open resources, reduce expenditures, stabilize their cash flow, and ensure their survival in the epidemic. Under circumstances where other factors are established, SMEs should actively fulfill their ICSR and find new ways out of the predicament.Second, paying attention to and implementing ICSR in an epidemic situation is conducive to establishing brand image and enhancing consumer brand attitudes. According to the findings of this study, under the impact of the epidemic, SMEs face difficulties. Therefore, within their ability, SMEs need to protect employee interests first and actively fulfill their ICSR to establish a good enterprise brand image. Such an image can help enterprises survive the epidemic and usher in greater development opportunities after the epidemic. For example, Laoxiang Chicken actively fulfilled its ICSR and has obtained loans worth 100 million yuan from banks to overcome its difficulties. Therefore, fulfilling ICSR not only helps SMEs during the epidemic crisis but also helps sustain the thrust of continuous development, empowering the growth of enterprises. The epidemic has played a positive role in promoting forced change, and under such pressure, SMEs should actively fulfill their ICSR, turning the threat into an opportunity.Third, SMEs should promptly disclose their CSR activities to improve consumer brand attitudes. The development of we-media has gradually matured, and as a cheap and convenient public platform, we-media can transmit information to the outside promptly. SMEs should use Weibo, public accounts, and Douyin (short video-sharing platform) to actively disclose their CSR activities to improve their consumer brand attitudes. At the same time, SMEs should also pay attention to reasonable and effective publicity. According to the findings of this study, SMEs should publicize their ICSR and objectively display their difficulties. They should fulfill their ICSR and be aware of “good welfare” and “bad influence.” Only by letting consumers know the difficulties of the enterprise can they truly understand that the enterprise is sacrificing its interests to protect the interests of its employees, thus preventing public opinion in which people question that the enterprise blindly improves its internal welfare by neglecting its social responsibility, which is a show to deceive consumers.Fourth, a crisis management mechanism should be constructed, including the establishment of a plan, provision for a reserve fund system, and an early warning mechanism. Once a crisis occurs, SMEs can prepare and react quickly, and enterprise losses can be reduced to the minimum.First, this study is based on cross-sectional data from questionnaire surveys. The relevant research results cannot be used to draw causal inferences concerning the research structure. If future research can use panel data from CSR annual reports issued after the epidemic, it can be more intuitive to compare the impact of enterprises’ ICSR on consumer brand attitudes at different points before and after the epidemic. Second, this study does not verify whether enterprises use we-media channels to disclose CSR is better than if they use traditional media. In the future, we can verify the impact of SMEs’ choice of different channels to disclose CSR on consumer trust and brand attitudes. Finally, as the epidemic has not yet ended, whether consumers’ favorable attitudes toward enterprise brands will translate into improved performance after the epidemic still needs further research in the future.


BioMed Research International has retracted the article titled “The Effect of Synthetic Osteoconductive Bone Graft Material for Augmentation of Internally Fixed Unstable Trochanteric Fractures” [actures”  due to c


The samples were characterized by their pasting characteristics, the hysteresis loop test, and textural properties measured during storage. It was found that the breakdown viscosity values of the blends, including oat fibers, were lower than those of the others (waxy potato starch (WPS), WPS-AF), which suggests that these samples would have higher resistance to retrogradation and therefore would form a more stable paste. The pattern of flow curves showed that the investigated waxy potato starch and starch-fiber pastes were non-Newtonian fluids, thinned by shear. Areas of the hysteresis loops indicated that pastes with fibers had anti-thixotropic or mixed thixotropic/anti-thixotropic character. The greatest areas of the anti-thixotropy hysteresis loops were characteristic for WPS, while its mixtures with AF and OF caused a decrease in the value of these areas. It can indicate that starch-fiber blends were more stable during shearing. Fiber-type and starch concentration strongly affected the textural parameters of the starch-fiber gels.The aim of this paper was to investigate the influence of dietary fibers from oat (OF) and apple (AF) (concentration 0.2%) on the pasting properties, rheological (including thixotropic and anti-thixotropic) and textural properties of 3% and 4% ( Growing consumer awareness about healthy food forces producers to design convenient, functional, and safe food rich in vitamins, dietary fiber, and antioxidants ,2. DietaDF has been the subject of intensive and comprehensive research in recent years. The reason for using dietary fiber is the constantly growing interest in healthy food, and thus bioactive substances found in plants, as well as ingredients and raw materials with functional properties, important in the technological process .Dietary fiber plays an important role in the design of functional foods. Total dietary fiber (TDF) includes two fractions: soluble (SDF) and insoluble (IDF). Fibers of cereal preparations  have a high IDF content, while preparations obtained from fruits  and vegetables are characterized by a relatively high content of SDF. Insoluble fiber swells in the aquatic environment, filling the intestines, which regulates their peristalsis and prevents them from straining. Water-soluble fiber forms a sticky gel in its environment. This property reduces blood cholesterol, regulates glucose, reduces the absorption of sugars, and gives a feeling of satiety. Therefore, it is important to be able to influence the content of fiber fractions in the product, showing a special health-promoting impact or having a functional effect in the technological process ,7.Application of dietary fibers in formulation of food products depends on their functionality. Interaction with other ingredients, such as starch, is important . From a The rheological and textural properties affect the sensory features of food products. Therefore, knowledge of the flow characteristics and changes in the internal structure of starch pastes is extremely important at the stage of design, control, and evaluation of technological processes ,14. The Waxy potato starch (WPS) Eliane 100, a product of AVEBE FOOD  contained 83.8% dry matter, <1% amylose, 80 mg% total phosphorus, and 0.1% lipids. Ecological dietary fiber separated from oat (OF) (90.14% dry mass (d.m.); fat 4.3 g/100 g; carbohydrates 32.4 g/100 g, protein 9.5 g/100 g) was purchased from Look Food , manufactured in Poland. The dietary fiber separated from apple (AF)  was purchased from Vegamarket .w/w d.m.) and mixtures of starches (2.8% and 3.8%), with an addition of the fibers from oat and apple (0.2% w/w d.m.), measuring using a Viscograph-E device . Pasting characteristics were run from 30 to 95 °C at 1.5 °C/min rate of increase in temperature. Samples after 5 min at 95 °C were cooled to 50 °C. Constant stirring at 75 rpm was maintained.Pasting characteristics of starch ), the maximum viscosity; Tη max. (°C), the temperature at the maximum of viscosity; η95°C (BU), the viscosity at 95 °C; η95°C after 5 min; (BU), the viscosity at 95 °C after 5 min; ηmin. (BU), the minimum viscosity; –breakdown (BD) (difference between ηmax. and ηmin.); Tη min. (°C), the temperature at minimum viscosity; η50°C (BU), the viscosity after cooling to 50 °C. Viscograph Data Correlation software was used to process the data . All measurements were run in double.Values measured from the pasting profile of starch-fiber blends were: TTransformation of UnitsTorque in Brabender units (BU) may be transformed to Pascalsec or Poise by calibrating the viscograph with viscosity standard fluids.Convert BU to centipoise (cP): 700 cmg (standard) means that 0–1000 BU equals 0–700 cmg. For a Newtonian liquid and a range of 0–700 cmg. Centipoise (cP) = BU × 3 × cmg/1000. Example: 600 BU = 420 cmg or 600 BU = 420 × 3 = 1260 cP. Convert cP to Pas: 1 cP = 1 mPas. For non-Newtonian liquids, the conversion may be slightly in error. In this paper, non-Newtonian blends were tested; therefore, the units were not converted to compare the tested properties [The research was carried out by Małyszek et al. (2015)  and conc−1 for 10 min and maintained at the maximum shear rate for 1 min, then the shear rate was decreased from 300 to 0 s−1 over 10 min.Flow curves were carried out using an a RS6000  rheometer in controlled rate of shear (CR) mode with a CC26 Ti measuring system and a 1.9 gap. Measurements were taken at a constant temperature of 25 °C. The rate of shear was raised from 0 to 300 s−1 within 600 s) and down (the rate of shear was decreased from 300 to 0 s−1 within 600 s) were fitted to Ostwald–de Waele (1) models [τ is the shear stress (Pa∙s), K is the consistency coefficient (Pa∙sn), −1) and n is the flow behaviour index (-).The flow curves up (the rate of shear was increased from 0 to 300 s) models .(1)τ=K·The areas of thixotropy and anti-thixotropy hysteresis loops  were calculated by summing the areas of particular trapeziums between the hysteresis loop curves “up” and “down”. The area of the single trapezium was calculated according to Sikora et al. (2015)  with theThe areas of thixotropy and anti-thixotropy were calculated as the total area of the hysteresis loop.TP) (W/m3) in a volume of the sample (the first derivative of an oriented work executed for destruction and/or rebuilding of the inner structure of a sample over a range of time) were calculated as a function of the shear rates, according to the formula:The graphs of the power of thixotropy . The analysis of variance was done using Duncan’s test at the confidence level of α = 0.05.0) and temperature at maximum viscosity (Tη max.). On the other hand, the concentration of starch did not affect the temperature at minimum viscosity (Tη min.). Krystyjan et al. (2015) [0 and Tη max. parameters in comparison with the control sample. Fiber substitution affected the temperature at minimum viscosity (Tη min.) of 3% starch pastes, reducing the value of this parameter by 5.7% in the presence of oat fiber and by 6.9% in the case of apple fiber. It should also be noted that, at a higher concentration of the mixture (4%), such a relationship was no longer observed, since the addition of both fibers did not affect the discussed parameter.An increase in the starch concentration (from 3% to 4%) caused a statistically significant decrease in the temperature of the beginning of gelatinization (T. (2015)  also obsmax.) values increased with the increasing starch concentration, while the presence of fiber in starch blends caused the value of ηmax. to decrease. Thus, the obtained results suggest that waxy potato starch absorbed water and gelatinized at the highest range and at a lower temperature than starch-fiber blends  was calculated as the difference between maximum and minimum peak viscosity during heating. According to Thirathumthavorn and Charoenrein 1996) , a highe96 , a hiThe viscosity of starch pastes after cooling to 50 °C in relation to the minimum viscosity did not increase greatly in the tested samples. The values of viscosity at 50 °C of starch-apple and starch-oat fibers were close to the viscosity for the control sample (WPS). Apple fiber, which contains a smaller insoluble fraction than oat fiber, created less viscous systems after cooling ,25.−1) and decreasing (0–300 s−1) shear rates, were described by the Ostwald–de Waele rheological model, which was characterized by a very good fit to the experimental data (R2 > 0.9998)  .The pattern of flow curves  showed tK) and flow behavior index (n) of the WPS pastes increased with the concentration of WPS in the paste. The consistency coefficient (K) represented the shear stress values of the starch pastes during shearing, and its higher value corresponded to a higher position of the flow curves (−1) and down (300–0 s−1), wherein the value of the index n was lower in the shear range 300–0 s–1 than in the shear range 0–300 s−1. Starch pastes with substitution of AF and OF showed the higher value of index n than pastes without additives (WPS). The flow behavior index of starch pastes with dietary fibers was equal to or higher than one, pointing to its weak dilatation behavior in the shear range 0–300 s−1.The concentration  had an influence on rheological parameters of the pastes prepared with and without addition of dietary fibers. As shown in w curves . The 3% −1), while the clockwise loop direction was observed at higher shear rates (150–300 s−1), although with the first direction predominating . Although oat brans absorb considerably less water than apple fiber [The greatest areas of the anti-thixotropy hysteresis loops were characteristic for 3% and 4% WPS  and its mixtures with AF . Replacing starch with oat fiber caused a statistically significant decrease in the value of these areas , which indicates that WPS–OF blends were more stable during shearing . The highest values of power of thixotropy in the pastes of starch  were observed at lower shear rates (0–150 s−1). In this range of shear, the biggest difference between destruction and reconstruction of the internal structure of starch pastes was noticed. The same relationship occurred in starch pastes with additions of OF and AF, but to a lesser extent. In the samples with lower starch concentration (3%), addition of oat fiber had a larger impact in lowering the value of thixotropic power than apple fiber  stronger competition between destruction and recovery of inner structure of starch pastes than blends with dietary fibers was observed. Thus, in the case of starch-fiber mixtures (−1), less energy was needed to destroy and rebuild the internal structure.In both starch concentrations , at a lower shear rate range , while in the starch-apple pastes, this value was the lowest (1.43) . In every case , the hardness of gels was higher on the 7th day of storage than after 1 day, independently of concentration of starch or type of fiber. The values of hardness for stored samples were calculated as the ratio of gel hardness after 7 days and 1 day of measurement. In the pastes with a total concentration of 3%, the largest differences in the hardness of gels during storage were observed in the starch-oat sample (2.08 of hardness increase Ht (1.43) . SamplesFiber—type and starch concentration remarkably affected the textural parameters of the starch-fiber gels. The results can suggest that lower values of differences in hardness indicate better stability of samples in time. However, no clear trend was observed in the hardness values of the WPS–OF and WPS–AF gels. A similar result was obtained in the study of wheat and corn starch with oat and apple fibers ,19.It was found that DF can have a significant effect on WPS. As the results showed, the breakdown viscosity values of the blends, including oat fibers, were lower than those of the others , which suggests that these samples would have higher resistance to retrogradation and therefore would form a more stable paste. The pasting properties of WPS with dietary fiber systems were affected by fiber replacement, as the competition for water resulted in decreased starch granular swelling, corresponding to decreased peak and final viscosities. This was confirmed by the hysteresis loop test, where the addition of oat fiber (OF) caused a statistically significant decrease in the value of the areas. Fiber type strongly affected the textural parameters of the starch-fiber gels too. The results can suggest that lower values of the gel hardness ratio after 7 days and 1 day of measurement indicate better stability of samples in time.Furthermore, this research may be essential in the knowledge about the storage stability of DF-enriched potato starch products. The properties of the tested mixtures of starch and fiber preparations are likely affected by the content of insoluble fiber, which stabilizes such systems.


Starch nanocrystals (SNCs) are a biodegradable polymer which has been widely studied and used in many fields. In this study, we have developed an efficient procedure for the preparation of SNCs. First, sodium hexametaphosphate (SHMP) and vinyl acetate (VAC) were used to modify waxy potato starch (WPS). Then, the modified starches were hydrolyzed with sulfuric acid to prepare SNCs. Results showed that SNCs prepared with modified starch had higher zeta potentials and better dispersion properties than the original starch. After modification, WPS still maintained its semi-crystalline structure, but the surface became rougher. SHMP-modified WPS showed a decrease in viscosity peak and an increase in gelatinization temperature. VAC-modified WPS showed increased swelling power. Additionally, SNCs prepared with VAC-modified WPS had better water redispersibility and dispersion stability than those from SHMP-modified starch—which will have broader application prospects in the field of safe and biodegradable food packaging. Starch is an abundant biopolymer which comes mainly from grains and tubers and is totally biodegradable ,2,3. TheWaxy potato starch has been widely studied because of its many excellent characteristics . Waxy poThe purpose of this research was to obtain SNCs with good dispersing properties through the method of, first, modification and then sulfuric acid hydrolysis. Herein, the characteristic changes of the modified starches were evaluated by attenuated total reflection–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR–FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermal stability, adhesion property, gelatinization, and swelling force tests. The structural characteristics of the modified starches were determined by X-ray diffraction and polarizing microscopy. The modified starch nanocrystals were characterized by Marvin particle size  measurements and wettability tests.Waxy potato starch (WPS) was kindly provided by the Avibe Company . SHMP was purchased from Shanghai Hongshun Biotechnology Co., Ltd. . Sodium chloride, anhydrous sodium carbonate, and VAC were purchased from Shanghai Alighting Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd. . Sulfuric acid (≥95%) was purchased from Beijing Chemical .2CO3, 2.5 g NaCl, and different amounts of SHMP  were added to the starch suspension [For modification by SHMP, 40 g of WPS was added to 100 mL deionized water and stirred magnetically at 45 °C for 10 min. A total of 1 g Naspension . The pH spension .2CO3 was added as a buffer and stabilizer [For VAC modification, a 40% suspension of WPS was prepared, and 1 g Naabilizer . Using aabilizer ,29, and 2SO4 solution (3.16 mol/L) at 40 °C and stirred at 200 rpm for 6 days. Then, the nanocrystals were separated from the acid by centrifugation at 10,000 rpm at 25 °C for 10 min. The deposits were washed in distilled water until the pH of the supernatant was constant. Finally, SNC powder was obtained by lyophilizing the neutralized suspension.Waxy potato SNCs were obtained by sulfuric acid hydrolysis of waxy maize starch according to the method of Angellier et al. . Briefly−1 [w/v.The absorption spectra of the samples were recorded using attenuated total reflection–Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry  at a resolution of 4000–400 cm−1 . Scannin−1 . The parw/w) starch sample suspension was kept at 40, 50, 70, or 90 °C for 30 min, then cooled to room temperature and centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 min. The supernatant was discarded, and the precipitate was weighed. The swelling power (g/g based on dry weight) was calculated as follows:The swelling power was determined following the method described by Qian et al. . The 2% The SNCs were dispersed in deionized water at a concentration of 3 mg/mL following the method described by Zhou et al. . The disp < 0.05 was considered significant.Experiments were performed in triplicate, and the data were represented as the average value ± standard deviation. The difference between factors and levels was evaluated by analysis of variance (ANOVA). Duncan tests were conducted to examine differences among experimental mean values, and −1, which was attributed to stretching and antisymmetric stretching of the C–H bond [−1 was attributed to bending vibrations of H–O–H [−1 and 1150 cm−1 were caused by stretching vibrations of C–O [−1 was caused by stretching vibrations of O–C in the C–O–C group of the glucose ring [−1 [−1, indicating that the starch was indeed modified. The absorption peak of the P–O–C vibration, located at 1050–995 cm−1, overlapped with the absorption peak of C6–OH vibrations in the starch and glucose units, which was difficult to directly observe by ATR–FTIR. It has also been suggested that the phosphoric acid cross-linking reaction peak at about 3300 cm−1 was due to migration of the stretching peak of the hydroxyl group [−1 were related to the crystalline and amorphous areas of starch, respectively, and the ratio of absorbances at 1047 and 1022 cm−1 was usually used to characterize the short-range molecular order of starch [−1 of native and modified WPS with 4% SHMP, 6% SHMP, and 8% SHMP were 0.6367, 0.6202, 0.6349, and 0.6215, respectively. The results showed that the short-range molecular sequence of the modified starch was destroyed by the cross-linking reaction. This also illustrated the occurrence of modification.The FTIR spectrum of waxy potato starch modified by hexametaphosphate is shown in C–H bond . The absof H–O–H . The abss of C–O . The absose ring ,38. Accoring [−1 . There wyl group . The IR f starch ,41. The −1 represented stretching vibrations of O–H [−1 was attributed to bending vibrations of H–O–H in combined water [−1 represented stretching vibrations of C–O. At 1724 cm−1, a new absorption peak was caused by stretching vibrations of C=O [−1 and 2832 cm−1, which was attributed to interactions with C–H vibrations [−1 of native and modified WPS with 4% VAC, 6% VAC, and 8% VAC were 0.6460, 0.6244, 0.6274, and 0.6288, respectively. This also illustrated the occurrence of modification.The ATR–FTIR spectrum of the waxy potato starch modified by VAC is shown in s of O–H . The absed water . The abss of C=O , owing tbrations . The absThe SEM micrographs of native and modified WPS with SHMP are presented in The morphologies of the acetylated waxy potato starch and the original starch are shown in Starch has a semi-crystalline structure, and the amorphous and semi-crystalline regions are arranged alternately. The amorphous and semi-crystalline regions differ in density and refractive index, and cross-polarization occurs when polarized light passes through the starch granules . The entThe X-ray diffraction patterns of WPS modified with SHMP  are shown in X-ray diffraction patterns of WPS modified with VAC  are shown in TG and DTG curves of WPS and its modified starch are shown in The characteristic parameters of all samples are shown in w/v) SNCs was measured at pH 7.0 to evaluate the water dispersion stability of the prepared SNCs. The higher the absolute value of the zeta potential, the greater the stability of the dispersion system [n system . AccordiThe WPS was chemically modified and then hydrolyzed with sulfuric acid to obtain SNCs, which had higher dispersibility than those obtained by direct sulfuric acid hydrolysis of native starch. This method simplified the preparation steps of SNCs. It can be concluded from the X-ray diffraction and polarized light microscopy that both SHMP and VAC modifications did not change the crystal configuration of waxy potato starch, but the relative crystallinity was decreased. Starch modified with SHMP had lower peak viscosity and was difficult to gelatinize. VAC-modified waxy potato starch had increased swelling. SNCs prepared with modified starch had higher zeta potentials and better dispersion properties than the original starch. The dispersion of SNCs modified with VAC was better than that of SNCs modified with SHMP. Additionally, SNCs prepared with VAC-modified (8 wt% of WPS) WPS had the best water dispersion properties and dispersion stability. This method of preparing SNCs by starch modification and hydrolysis provided new possibilities for improving the dispersibility of SNCs and may be used in the field of safe and biodegradable food packaging.


Sphenostylis stenocarpa), Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), and Bambara peanut (Vigna subterranean). In this study, we investigate the effect of high-temperature short-time extrusion cooking and extrusion cooking temperature; low (100°C) vs high (140°C) temperatures in a single screw extruder, on hydration characteristics, viscoamylolytic properties, in vitro starch digestibility and digestion kinetics of these grain legumes. We show that water holding capacity and swelling power increased (p < 0.05) with increasing extrusion temperature for Sphenostylis stenocarpa and Vigna subterranean but not Cajanus cajan extrudates. Significant effects of extrusion cooking (i.e unextruded vs 100°C and unextruded vs 140°C) and extrusion temperatures (i.e. 100°C vs 140°C) were observed in peak, trough, final and setback viscosities of all extrudates. Starch digestibility and digestion characteristics were modified with increase in extrusion temperature, however, no effect of extrusion temperatures (i.e. 100°C vs 140°C) on starch digestion kinetics was observed for Sphenostylis stenocarpa and Vigna subterranean except for hydrolysis index (34.77 vs 40.77%). Nutritional and physiological implications of extruded grain legumes in monogastric animal feeding were also highlighted. The Information presented herein will influence expanded use of extruded grain legumes as feed ingredients for intensive monogastric animal feeding.Thermal degradation of sugars and amino acids, and depolymerization of macromolecules such as starch, proteins and fibre occasioned by high-temperature short-time extrusion cooking modify the physicochemical and functional properties of raw materials. High-temperature short-time extrusion cooking holds promise for the expanded use of non-conventional ingredients as food/feed due to its practicality, increased productivity and efficiency, and ability to retain thermally degradable nutrients during cooking. However, little is known about the effect of the high-temperature short-time extrusion cooking process on the physicochemical properties and starch digestibility of lesser-known grain legumes such as African yam beans ( Fabaceae or Leguminosae commonly found in the tropical rain forests of the Americas and Africa [Legume grains are protein-energy rich seeds, members of the dicotyledonous family d Africa . Grain ld Africa , hence td Africa  and compd Africa ,5. Oligod Africa , constitd Africa . Sucrosed Africa ,9. The gd Africa .Grain legumes also provide dietary sources of antioxidants such as polyphenols, flavonoids, isoflavones and anthocyanins, which protect body cells against free radicals by functioning as radical scavengers, reducing agents, potential complexes of pro-oxidant metals and quenchers of singlet oxygen . Other bLens culinaris Medikus) in twin screw extruders at 140, 160 and 180°C respectively [Phaseolus vulgaris L. at 150°C [In high-temperature short-time (HTST) extrusion cooking, a moisture, temperature, pressure and mechanical shear regime is applied to the grains/ingredients . Compareectively  and 21–2at 150°C . Increasat 150°C  i.e. redat 150°C ,33. The at 150°C .These physical, chemical and nutritional changes in foods and feeds occasioned by HTST extrusion cooking, hold implications for humans and monogastric (single-chambered stomach) animals who consume the bulk of extruded products. The monogastric gastrointestinal tract is involved in mechanical digestion  and enzymatic digestion, moving digested food thorough the body, and absorbing the products of digestion. The process of extrusion cooking is known to considerably impact nutrient availability, palatabSphenostylis stenocarpa, Cajanus cajan, and Vigna subterranean have attracted little research into their response to HTST extrusion cooking, hence limiting their use in foods and feeds even within geographical locations that boast of local production. This study describes the influence of high-temperature short-time extrusion cooking temperatures on the hydration and viscoamylolytic properties of Sphenostylis stenocarpa, Cajanus cajan, and Vigna subterranean, and their susceptibility to enzymatic hydrolysis in a monogastric digestive system model. It further postulates nutritional and physiological implications of these modifications in monogastric animals.Lesser known grain legumes such as Sphenostylis stenocarpa (African yam beans), Vigna subterranean (Bambara groundnut) and Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea), were sourced from a local grain supplier, cleaned and milled through a 1mm sieve mesh. Moisture was adjusted to 25g/100g sample and mixed manually before subjecting to high-temperature short-time extrusion cooking in a single screw laboratory-scale extruder. Extruder characteristics were: screw diameter– 18.5mm, screw length– 304mm, screw speed—60 rpm, and temperature measured at the outlet die -100°C (low temperature treatment) and 140°C (high temperature treatment), respectively. The choice of extrusion conditions; moisture and extrusion temperatures was based on earlier studies [ studies ,38. AfteWater retention capacity (WRC) was determined by methods outlined by AACC , with slViscoamylolytic indices; peak, trough, breakdown, setback and final viscosities, time at peak viscosity and pasting temperature—were determined in a Rapid Visco TM Analyzer RVA-4  with the software program Thermocline for Windows according to AACC method 61-02-01 . About 2Digestion was simulated under total tract conditions consisting of a three step hydrolysis mimicking digestion in the mouth, stomach and small intestine within a closed system according to the method of Sopade and Gidley , and gluvs 100°C extrudates and unextruded vs 140°C extrudates) and extrusion temperatures (100°C extrudates vs 140°C extrudates) were done using non-orthogonal contrast (SPSS version 20), and means separated at P<0.05.All determinations were conducted in quadruplicate except the RVA determination which was conducted in duplicate. Data was subjected to one way analysis of variance (ANOVA), contrasts to assess the effects of extrusion (unextruded Sphenostylis stenocarpa (African yam beans), Vigna subterranean (Bambara groundnut) and Cajanus cajan (Pigeon pea) products are shown in Proximate composition of the raw and extruded Sphenostylis stenocarpa, Cajanus cajan, and Vigna subterranean are presented in bar charts in Figs Hydration properties of any plant-based material provides an evaluation of the water affinity of their functional polymeric components which is primarily starch. The hydration capacities of unextruded and extruded flours of Sphenostylis stenocarpa, 75.73% and 105.9% respectively, in Vigna subterranean and 13.98% and 5.08% respectively, in Cajanus cajan. Increase in extrusion cooking temperature from 100°C to 140°C also significantly increased WRC by 41.71% in Sphenostylis stenocarpa, and17.21% in Vigna subterranean, whilst decreasing WRC by 7.64% in Cajanus cajan. Swelling power measures granular swelling accruing to intergranular and intragranular imbibition of water, and was measured at 70°C in the current study. On the other hand, solubility index indicates the extent of “melting” occurring within the crystalline regions of starch. Swelling power in Sphenostylis stenocarpa extrudates increased with increased extrusion temperature and ranged from 11.93–108.9% over the unextruded Sphenostylis stenocarpa, with an 87.73% higher SP recorded in 140°C extrudates compared to 100°C extrudates of Sphenostylis stenocarpa. A significantly higher increase in SP was observed at 100°C extrusion than at 140°C i.e. 72.19% and 157.3% respectively, over SP of the unextruded Vigna subterranean flour, and a 49.36% decline in SP due to extrusion at the high temperature . In contrast, No effect of extrusion cooking at 100°C or 140°C was observed on SP (PPR vs PP100 = 0.09 and PPR vs PP140 = 0.65), however, a 143.4% higher SP was recorded for when Cajanus cajan was extruded at 140°C compared to 100°C extrudates . Extrusion cooking or extrusion cooking temperatures did not affect WSI of Sphenostylis stenocarpa and Cajanus cajan products. However a marginal reduction (-5.11%) in response to extrusion cooking at 100°C  as well as a marginal increase of +4.84% in response to extrusion cooking temperatures  were observed, with similar WSI observed in BBR and BB140 (p > 0.05).Water retention capacity (WRC) measures the ability of food/feed ingredients to bind, imbibe and retain water within their matrix. Extrusion cooking at 100°C and 140°C significantly increased WRC by 52.69% and116.6% respectively, in Sphenostylis stenocarpa, Cajanus cajan, and Vigna subterranean is presented in The effect of HTST extrusion cooking temperatures on viscoamylolytic properties of unextruded and extruded flours of Sphenostylis stenocarpa, and 100°C extrudates of Cajanus cajan (p = 0.001). Extrusion of Vigna subterranean flours at both 100°C and 140°C significantly lowered pasting temperature (p = 0.01). Time at peak viscosity was significantly increased by extrusion at either 100°C or 140°C in Sphenostylis stenocarpa extrudates only.Significant decline in peak, trough, final and setback viscosities in response to extrusion cooking temperatures (i.e. unextruded vs 100°C and unextruded vs 140°C) was recorded for all grain legumes investigated, however, no significant effect (p > 0.05) of extrusion cooking temperatures was observed for breakdown viscosity. No significant effect (p > 0.05) of extrusion temperatures (i.e. 100°C vs 140°C) was also observed for all viscoamylolytic indices , measured in the current study. However, pasting temperature was significantly reduced (p = 0.01) in 140°C extrudates of in vitro starch digestion pattern and starch digestion kinetics associated with HTST extrusion cooking of Sphenostylis stenocarpa, Cajanus cajan, and Vigna subterranean at different temperatures.o, gastric digestion of starch (simulated mouth and stomach phases) in response to extrusion at 100°C was recorded for Sphenostylis stenocarpa and Vigna subterranean but not Cajanus cajan flours. Starch rate constant (K) was unaffected by extrusion cooking at either temperatures, with no difference observed due to temperatures (100°C vs 140°C) except for Cajanus cajan flours. Area under the curve (AUC), hydrolysis index (HI) and predicted glycemic index (pGI) were significantly modified by extrusion cooking at 100°C and 140°C (p = 0.001) in Sphenostylis stenocarpa, Cajanus cajan and Vigna subterranean flours. However, while a significant effect of increased extrusion temperature (100°C vs 140°C) on AUC, HI and pGI was recorded in Cajanus cajan flours, no significant (p > 0.05) response to increased temperature was observed on these indices in Sphenostylis stenocarpa flours. No effects of extrusion temperatures (100°C vs 140°C) on AUC and pGI was observed in Vigna subterranean flours. Starch digestibility of Sphenostylis stenocarpa, Cajanus cajan and Vigna subterranean flours in vitro was significantly increased by extrusion cooking at 100°C and 140°C (p = 0.001). Increased extrusion temperature (100°C vs 140°C) also significantly increased in vitro starch digestibility in Cajanus cajan and Vigna subterranean flours but not in Sphenostylis stenocarpa flours , pinto and navy beans and legume pasta of faba beans, lentils and black gram beans extruded at 80–180°C [Vigna subterranean flour in the current study were also reported for HTC Phaseolus vulgaris extrudates as temperature increased from 100–180°C [Hydration properties have been successfully used in the screening of feed materials for different botanical origin/source ,46 and v80–180°C ,50–52 an00–180°C ,54. Extr00–180°C . Howbeit00–180°C . Extrusiin vitro is known to correlate well with in vivo digestibility [in vitro starch digestibility of peas, faba beans and lupins showed a higher extrusion-induced increase  in α-amylase susceptibility of the grain legumes at the 30mins time point compared to 120 mins time point . This is indicative of an increase in rapidly digestible starch fractions due to extrusion cooking conditions, and similar to the marked “steepness” in the digestograms of Sphenostylis stenocarpa, Cajanus cajan, and Vigna subterranean extrudates compared to their raw flours in the current study.The RVA pasting parameters provide a relative measure of extent of gelatinization, disintegration, swelling and gelling of the starch component of the feed material attributable to extrusion and extrusion cooking temperatures. Similar decrease in RVA peak and final viscosity was reported for cowpeas in response to extrusion at 124–160°C  and navytibility , and exttibility ,30. A sttibility  on the ein vitro measurements, nutritional research classifies starch into three fractions based on their digestion rate within the small intestine; rapidly digesting starch (RDS), slowly digestible starch (SDS) and resistant starch (RS). Typically, raw grain legumes contain 10.02–25.26% RDS, 21.84–39.64% SDS and 43.57–67.61% RS [in vivo, higher glycemic index and reduced gas production which is often observed with consumption of diets high in RS and “flatulence-causing” oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose [Besides being protein sources in feeds, grain legumes contain significant complex carbohydrates; starch and NSPs, which have the potential to influence the dynamics of digestion and nutrient absorption in monogastric animals in diverse ways. Typical diets of monogastric farm animals consist of about 50% carbohydrates , with st7.61% RS , which m7.61% RS  as a restachyose .E. coli and Clostridia and decline in Bifidobacteria populations in chickens on the wheat and barley-based diets. Similar trends in response to water soluble NSPs in poultry and pigs have also been reported by other researchers [Sphenostylis stenocarpa, Cajanus cajan, and Vigna subterranean extrudates, alluding to their potential for maintaining sound gut health and productivity in monogastric farm animals.Although individual NSPs possess distinctly different chemical structures and functions, they are indigestible in the stomach and small intestinal segments of the gastrointestinal tract of monogastric animals due to an absence of fibrolytic enzymes that facilitate their digestion . These Nearchers –73. Graiearchers  with theearchers  in the gin vitro starch digestibility of starchy feed ingredients correlate well with starch digestibility within the gastrointestinal tract of monogastric animals [The tendency for starch retrogradation -i.e. the re-association of disaggregated amylose and amylopectin chains of gelatinized starch - in a st animals , with do animals  and swin animals .Sphenostylis stenocarpa), Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan), and Bambara peanut (Vigna subterranean), but not water solubility index of Sphenostylis stenocarpa and Cajanus cajan extrudates. Extrusion cooking at either 100°C or 140°C also significantly decreased peak, trough, final and setback viscosities of extrudates, with no observed differences in viscosity indices when extrusion temperatures were compared. Starch digestibility also increased with extrusion temperature, even as rapidly digestible starch fractions were markedly increased in all grain legumes investigated. Findings from this research encourage further research into the use of “lesser known grain legumes” as food and feedstuffs, which could drive increased cultivation and improvement of these species.In summary, extrusion cooking at either 100°C or 140°C modified water retention capacity and swelling power of African yam beans Click here for additional data file.


KRAM herbarium has highlighted uncertainties and errors in references to place of valid publication of numerous taxa described by Hugo Zapałowicz in his Conspectus florae Galiciae criticus – Krytyczny przegląd roślinności Galicyi (1904–1914). Zapałowicz published his work in an excerpt series, a serial publication and a multi-volume book, with much duplication amongst these three different forms. Despite the importance of this work, no studies have clarified the dates of publication of its various parts, as relevant to the nomenclature of numerous new taxa of Central European vascular plants described therein: 94 species and hybrids, 10 subspecies and more than 2000 other infraspecific taxa. Here, the publication dates of the component parts of Zapałowicz’s work are clarified and discussed. Archival sources that made it possible to determine publication dates of these works are described in detail.Work on the catalogue of type specimens of vascular plants deposited in the  AAS, since 1920: Polish AAS – PAAS; in Polish, respectively: Akademia Umiejętności – AU, Polska Akademia Umiejętności – PAU) and, for a long time, had been co-operating with the Museum of the Physiographic Commission of the AAS, studying its abundant herbarium. Zapałowicz retired in 1905, after a 35 years law career, but returned to the military during World War I. Imprisoned by Russian troops, he died as a prisoner of war. Throughout his life, Zapałowicz devoted all of his leisure time to investigating the flora of the Carpathian Mountains and Galicia   .Conspectus florae Galiciae criticus – Krytyczny przegląd roślinności Galicyi (1904−1914) [= A critical review of the flora of Galicia] . The Conspectus was a multipart work that appeared over 11 years and was published in three forms: as an excerpt series, a serial publication and a multi-volume book. The excerpts were written in French, whereas the serial and books were written in Polish; in all three forms, Latin was used for species description and taxonomic remarks. Although unfinished, the Conspectus is a monumental work that provided the first (but incomplete) enumeration of the vascular plants  of Galicia, including descriptions of new taxa . Entries in the Conspectus include accepted names, selected synonyms (basionyms where appropriate), detailed Latin descriptions of most taxa, taxonomic notes, localities of herbarium specimens studied and regional distributions; taxonomic keys were not included. The Conspectus was issued as a book in three volumes; a projected 4th volume was never published. Volume 1 covers pteridophytes, monocotyledons and gymnosperms (Polypodiaceae-Coniferae) and Volumes 2 and 3 cover dicotyledons, including families from Betulaceae to Caryophyllaceae. Content that would have appeared in Volume 4 was published only in serial form, covering dicotyledon families from Papaveraceae to Violaceae. The work was based almost entirely on the herbarium collection housed at the Museum of the Physiographic Commission of the AAS in Kraków, including the author’s own collection (KRAM herbarium (with some duplicates at KRA).In 1904, Zapałowicz began publishing his most distinguished work in the field of botany, titled llection , 1906b, Conspectus, including numerous duplicate nomenclaturally-redundant publications. These events comprise a 30 part excerpt series (representing 32 publication events), a 30 part serial publication and a three volume book. All but one of them were published under the same Polish title. Conspectus (no. 18.599) under its alternative Latin title, even though the Latin title was included in only 33 of the publication events  . The content of the first 21 parts of the Rozprawy was brought together and re-published in a three volume book, along with Addenda, Corrigenda and Index generum sections at the end of each volume. The 30 excerpts (selections) were published in advance of the serial publications and the books in an international monthly journal, Bulletin International de l’Académie des Sciences de Cracovie: Classe des Sciences Mathématiques et Naturelles (Vols. 1904–1909) and its successor, Bulletin International de l’Académie des Sciences de Cracovie: Classe des Sciences Mathématiques et Naturelles; Série B. Sciences Naturelles (Vols. 1910–1914) . Parts 1 to 21 of the Conspectus were published in the Rozprawy and in book form and excerpts from them were published in the Bulletin. Parts 22 to 30 were published in the Rozprawy and excerpts from them were published in the Bulletin.The 30 individual parts that make up the Conspectus were usually published twice and sometimes even three times, but none of these duplicate or triplicate publications indicated that the name had already been published elsewhere. A few of Zapałowicz’s names, for example, Carex×bogdanensis, C.×paczoskii and C.×raciborskii, were published exclusively in the Addenda sections at the end of book volumes. Zapałowicz’s names of new taxa, published in each of the various forms of the Conspectus, meet the conditions of the International Code of Nomenclature (ICN) for valid and effective publication  usually variously cites the Bulletin or book form of the Conspectus as the correct place of publication of Zapałowicz’s names; rarely IPNI cites both sources ”) or even a secondary source is cited as a second place of publication .Zapałowicz’s names in the Conspectus are here confirmed or revised. We also verified the data available in IPNI related to Zapałowicz’s names of species and nothospecies (IPNI 2019), including verification of a few names published outside the Conspectus.Duplicate (or multiple) publication, in whole or in part, is problematic in the context of botanical nomenclature. The verification of the dates of Zapałowicz’s publications is critical because of the principle of priority: the earliest place and date of valid publication of a new name is the correct one and later redundant publication(s) of names has(ve) no nomenclatural standing. Therefore, we undertook ancillary bibliographic studies to clarify the correct dates of publication for each of Zapałowicz’s works. As an addition to Taxonomic Literature II  records,Rozprawy, Vols. 4B–14B; the bookselling catalogue of the Spółka Wydawnicza Polska [= Polish Publishing Company] in the collection Documents of Everyday Life, Vols. 1904–1912; the bookselling catalogue of Gebethner and Co. Publishing House, digital copies accessed via Jagiellonian Digital Library, Vols. 1904–1911; accession books of the Jagiellonian Library from 1904–1914 in the collection of the Manuscript Section), in the Scientific Library of the PAAS and Polish Academy of Sciences (PAS)  and in the library of the W. Szafer Institute of Botany, PAS , all located in Kraków, Poland. Additionally, we reviewed the following library collections: Ernst Mayr Library of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University, Smithsonian Libraries and the LuEsther T. Mertz Library of the New York Botanical Garden , September 2019). We consulted additional libraries in several countries for the presence in their depositories of wrappers  of the fascicles of the Rozprawy from volumes 4B–14B.We reviewed materials housed in the Jagiellonian Library  of these journals within them. In the Bulletin, the publication date of each issue, precisely to the day, is specified in the work itself. The Rozprawy volumes, apart from the imprint date at the foot of the title page, labelled each paper according to the date of presentation at the AAS meeting  commonly bear the imprint of the following year and books published in January or February occasionally bear the imprint of the preceding year.A multilingual international journal, the rial ICN . In suchAAS were recorded and advertised by its Bibliographic Commission in the bibliographic indexes published in two journals. The monthly reports were listed in the section entitled Bibliografia [= Bibliography] in the journal Sprawozdania z Czynności i Posiedzeń Akademii Umiejętności w Krakowie [= Reports on the AAS’s Activities and Meetings (Kraków)] . The annual reports were published in the journal Rocznik Akademii Umiejętności w Krakowie [= AAS Annual (Kraków)] . In the former journal, the publications most frequently were dated to the nearest month; rarely a range of dates was given (e.g. August–October 1905). In the latter journal, the publications were recorded from 1 May to 30 April of the following year. These records are a rich source of bibliographical information about the publications of the AAS, including signature size, publication prices and, in the case of journals, the table of contents with page numbers. In addition, the notification of the new publications at the sessions of the Class of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of the AAS were noted in years 1912–1914 in the section Sprawozdania z posiedzeń [= Reports from the meetings].In cases where the original work either does not provide information on the precise date of publication or the date it bears is suspected of being inaccurate, we pursued additional evidence, external to the work itself. The newly-published editions of the Rozprawy volumes in years 1904–1914. We found that bills were usually passed from the printing house to the AAS three times per year and dozens of bills for several journals of the AAS were written with the same date. We also checked handwritten minutes of meetings of the Class of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of the AAS from the years 1904–1914, which are housed at the Archives of Science of the PAS and the PAAS, to determine the publication dates of the individual fascicles that comprise volumes of the Rozprawy in years 1904–1914.All Zapałowicz’s works considered here were printed at the Jagiellonian University Printing House (currently Jagiellonian University Press); therefore, we searched the printing house’s 1904–1914 bill books, which are preserved in the Archives of the Jagiellonian University (ref. codes DUJ 185−DUJ 193), to determine the date of the printing of the AAS were distributed by the Spółka Wydawnicza Polska [= Polish Publishing Company] and Gebethner and Co. Publishing House  (1901–1909); continued, in part, by1A. Bulletin International de l’Académie des Sciences de Cracovie. Classe des Sciences Mathématiques et Naturelles. Série B. Sciences Naturelles – Anzeiger der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Krakau: Mathematisch-Naturwissenschftliche Klasse. Reihe B. Biologische Wissenschaften  (1910–1918)1B. th and 20th centuries. Initially, there were two international journals founded and administered by Polish scientists in which botanical papers were published. These were a French-language journal, Bulletin International de l’Académie des Sciences de Cracovie (1890–1901) and a German-language journal, Anzeiger der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Krakau (1890–1901). These two journals were merged in 1902 and the new multilingual journal with a bilingual title was published until 1909. At the same time, the journal was divided into classes; botanical papers went into Classe des Sciences Mathématiques et Naturelles – Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse. Beginning in 1910, the journal was divided into two series; botany was included in Série B. Sciences Naturelles – Reihe B. Biologische Wissenschaften. These two series consisted of research summaries (some of them up to two signatures long) that were intended for an international audience. The Bulletin was an important platform for Polish scientists for quick dissemination of their scientific research results abroad  preceded the year of its completion (e.g. Volume 1905 was issued in 1906). Each volume consisted of papers presented during a calendar year at ten monthly meetings of the Class of Mathematics and Natural Sciences of the AAS. Consequently, its volumes each comprised ten issues, appearing after every meeting and each issue comprised papers presented there. Beginning in 1910, the issues were printed in 16-page signatures (in octavo), with total pages per issue being multiples of 16 . Given this, the published papers could be divided between two adjacent signatures that were published separately. In issues of volumes 1904 to 1909, the date is given on the last text page of the issue, whereas in issues of volumes from 1910 to 1914, the date is given on the verso of the front wrapper. In the Bulletin, the title-page date of the volume represents the data of completion of the multipart work, whereas the individual parts were published on earlier dates. In the Bulletin, date research is easiest with sets in which the issue wrappers were preserved by the binders, either bound in place or sometimes at the end of a volume. However, the wrappers were often discarded when a volume was complete and sent for binding. In many libraries, no wrappers have been preserved, for example, in the Library of the PAAS and PAS and in the Jagiellonian Library. In the library of the W. Szafer Institute of Botany PAS, however, the wrappers are bound at the end of a volume and some unbound issues in the original wrappers are also housed there. Copies available online in the Biodiversity Heritage Library include the complete issue wrappers bound in place.The Bulletin in years 1904  to 1914 . Two parts (23 and 27) were further subdivided between two adjacent signatures and published separately  and, therefore, publication dates of names that first appeared in the Bulletin are the relevant ones for nomenclatural purposes.In the excerpts, Zapałowicz published 72 new names of species and nothospecies and more than 80 names of infraspecific taxa, accompanied almost always by Latin descriptions and/or diagnoses. In one case, Rozprawy Wydziału Matematyczno-Przyrodniczego Akademii Umiejętności, Dział B. Nauki Biologiczne (Seria 3)  (1901–1919)2. AAS. Papers accepted for publication in the journal, were printed in 16-page signatures (in octavo) with continuous pagination. Zapałowicz’s work was issued there in 30 parts in Polish with Latin descriptions/diagnoses and taxonomical remarks. The parts were published in volumes 4B to 14B(1) and titled Conspectus florae Galiciae criticus – Krytyczny przegląd roślinności Galicyi with respective part number  provided at the foot of the title page of the complete year volume.Although the ers Fig.  and the AAS and PAAS was compiled by Rozprawy given by him are inaccurate . Searches were conducted in several secondary sources , except Volume 14B, which was published in two parts. We found that, in six cases, the imprint years for complete volumes of the Rozprawy  are not the true dates of publication in this journal; Volumes 4B, 6B, 7B, 11B, 12B and 13B bore the imprint of the preceding year. In most volumes of Rozprawy  and 10B−14B), the date ranges from the AUSpraw.  are indicated by us as the publication dates of these journal volumes , but these dates fall within the period known from the Bibliographic section  were available for sale in the bookshop of Gebethner and Co. Publishing House, based on its publisher’s catalogue   is limited to a short period of time; in the case of Jagiellonian Library, it covers only the years presented above. The receipt dates are the latest dates of possible publication, but they confirm the earlier dates given in the AUSpraw.   (1906–1911), publication in book form3. Conspectus were completed and issued in 1906, 1908 and 1911  with pagination that differed from that used in the Rozprawy. The volumes are supplemented by Addenda, Corrigenda and Index generum sections at the end of each volume. The Addenda sections include omitted species with numbers, additional infraspecific forms, new names, a few new species descriptions and additional distribution data. Volume 1 covers Parts 1−7 and the Addenda and Corrigenda to Volume 1, Volume 2 covers Parts 8−13 and the Addenda and Corrigenda to Volumes 1 and 2 and Volume 3 covers Parts 14−21 and the Addenda and Corrigenda to Volumes 1, 2 and 3.Three volumes of the and 1911 . The puband 1911 . The firAUSpraw. , that the volumes of the Conspectus were already available for readers during the following periods: August–October 1906 (Volume 1), August–October 1908 (Volume 2) and November 1911 (Volume 3). The dates given in the publisher’s catalogue of Gebethner and Co. Publishing House are the same or later  printed on the bottom of the first page of each signature (see fig. 9 in http://www.kpbc.ukw.edu.pl/dlibra). This electronic material does not constitute effective publication, because it was not published in Portable Document Format (PDF) and does not have an International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) or an International Standard Book Number (ISBN)  related to DianthusarmeriaL.var.dubius Zapał.  of the book, which we considered to be reprints. Seven parts appeared earlier in book form  and these parts are considered by us to be original. The publication dates of Part 4  (www.biodiversitylibrary.org) has digitised several of the volumes of the Bulletin, together with the covers accompanying each issue. Other sources are available as follows: the Rozprawy in the Wielkopolska Digital Library (www.wbc.poznan.pl), the AUSpraw.  in the Silesian Digital Library (www.sbc.org.pl), the journal AURocznik  on the RCIN platform (rcin.org.pl) and Gebethner and Co. publisher’s catalogue titled Katalog Nowych Książek [= Catalogue of New Books] in the Jagiellonian Digital Library (jbc.bj.uj.edu.pl/dlibra).Zapałowicz’s works are available for readers via the Polona website (polona.pl). The Biodiversity Heritage Library  for the scientific names of vascular plants. However, not all information concerning Zapałowicz’s names is accurate in its current version. Entries of Zapałowicz’s names at species rank (including hybrids) in IPNI are corrected here and the hope is expressed that the current inventory may be useful for fixing them.Rorippa×wimmeri Zapał. and Violaberdaui Zapał., omitted in IPNI, are added by us. One name, Viola×roxolanica attributed to Zapałowicz, must be deleted. This taxon was described by Błocki (Deutsche Bot. Monatsschr. 5: 147. 1887) at species rank, then Zapałowicz transferred it to a hybrid category. Therefore, it must be cited as Viola×roxolanica Błocki (pro sp.). In total, we obtained 99 names at species rank (including hybrids), attributed to Zapałowicz, including one combination (Rumexcarpaticus (Zapał.) Zapał.). Most of these names, 94 out of 99, are attributed to the Conspectus. Corrections are here provided for more than 60% of the respective IPNI entries. We have checked their name spelling (four corrections), authorships (three corrections), associated bibliographical details (63 corrections) and journal names  (for details, see Table 9 for de. It seem


December 31, 2007 is the last day as the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Epidemiology for me. The reason why I can serve as the Chief for the past 6 years is the support of the Editorial members, and I appreciate their help. With their participation, the average and median of 23 days between receiving the first submission of a paper and returning the Editorial Comments to the authors has achieved. If they were not the members of the Editorial Board, each of them could have written their own scientific article 2 or more a year! Such a tough work has been to be the member for the past 6 years. I also thank reviewers. Reviewing an article within 2 weeks is also tough work, but this short-period reviewing system support the 23 days as well.During the 6 years, the Journal progressed in several points. First, the Journal started to be cited by the Thomson ISI. I do really not know the evaluation of the impact factor between 1.24 and 1.25, but this is expected to introduce many submissions to the Journal. Second, the Journal became to be able to be read from all over the world through the net. This may induce the citations of the article on the Journal to other papers. Also, submission of a paper through e-mail is now possible.Although the current Board is responsible for articles received till the end of 2007 through the decision of accept or reject, I will retire soon. In and after 2008, I will support the more progress of the Journal as a Board member of the Japan Epidemiological Association as well as one of the members of the Association. I hope Dr. Tomotaka Sobue, the next Editor-in-Chief, and his colleagues progress the Journal drastically.Thank you all.Editor-in-Chief, Journal of EpidemiologyYosikazu Nakamura, MD, MPH, FFPH