Panicum miliaceum L.) is not one of the founder crops domesticated in Southwest Asia in the early Holocene, but was domesticated in northeast China by 6000 bc. In Europe, millet was reported in Early Neolithic contexts formed by 6000 bc, but recent radiocarbon dating of a dozen 'early' grains cast doubt on these claims. Archaeobotanical evidence reveals that millet was common in Europe from the 2nd millennium bc, when major societal and economic transformations took place in the Bronze Age. We conducted an extensive programme of AMS-dating of charred broomcorn millet grains from 75 prehistoric sites in Europe. Our Bayesian model reveals that millet cultivation began in Europe at the earliest during the sixteenth century bc, and spread rapidly during the fifteenth/fourteenth centuries bc. Broomcorn millet succeeds in exceptionally wide range of growing conditions and completes its lifecycle in less than three summer months. Offering an additional harvest and thus surplus food/fodder, it likely was a transformative innovation in European prehistoric agriculture previously based mainly on (winter) cropping of wheat and barley. We provide a new, high-resolution chronological framework for this key agricultural development that likely contributed to far-reaching changes in lifestyle in late 2nd millennium bc Europe.Broomcorn millet ( Panicum miliaceum L., Poaceae family) is a resilient, fast-growing, water-efficient, drought-tolerant plant that copes well on poor soils, is successful in both low and high altitudes and across a wide latitudinal range, produces many nutrient-rich grains and abundant biomass, and serves as food, fodder, raw material and perhaps as symbol in rituals2 ,7. The agrarian methods used in growing and processing of wheat and barley are applicable to this crop10, save for, perhaps, more intensive weeding required by millet, especially early in the growing cycle cf.11. In particular, the short growing season of up to three months, which can be completed during the summer, makes broomcorn millet highly attractive to different agrarian systems. In cultivation regimes focused on winter crops, it offers an additional harvest, increasing annual grain production and preventing famine in years when winter crops fail. It is also aptly suited to economic systems where cultivation is practiced only during a short time-window, such as may have been the case with pastoral groups of Bronze Age Central Asia12, or where the availability of cropping areas was seasonally restricted (e.g. in floodplains13). It offers lush and abundant forage for animals, indispensable in the dry season. In cuisine, it adds to taste and texture, and diversifies the food options7. These qualities appeal to modern-day millet farmers in Europe9; they were at least part of the reason why broomcorn millet became a staple crop in Asia and Europe. In some regions nowadays, broomcorn millet is a cornerstone of food economy and a guarantee of food security14.Broomcorn millet , as well as a number of later pre-2nd millennium bc sites17. However, radiocarbon dating of ten charred grains from Neolithic (6–5th millennium bc) layers demonstrated their (much) later date, not earlier than the very end of the seventeenth century bc27. This discovery cast doubt on any reported 'Neolithic' broomcorn millet in Europe, and hinted that the east-to-west transfer of this crop might have taken place later than thought. The earliest so far directly dated broomcorn millet grains in Central Asia date to the mid–late 3rd millennium cal bc ; Adji Kui 1, Turkmenistan: 2210–1960 cal bc at 94.0% confidence ; southeast from this region, in the Kashmir Valley, millet from the site of Pethpuran Teng, Kashmir, is equally early . Nevertheless, persistent reports of European finds of pre-2nd millennium bc broomcorn millet grains have kept open the question of when broomcorn millet arrived in Europe.Broomcorn millet grains are common at later prehistoric sites in EuropeWhen and Where broomcorn millet arrived in several large regions of Europe, which we refer to as North Pontic, Carpathian Basin, Po Basin, central Europe and North-central Europe. We do this by (a) modelling the spread of the crop within the selected parts of Europe using a Bayesian approach, and (b) weaving together radiocarbon dating evidence and relevant archaeobotanical and stable isotope data.The precise chronology and character of the spread of broomcorn millet is the key to understanding the processes by which it entered Europe and the mechanisms for its uptake and final incorporation within food production, diet, cuisine, and the wider socio-economy. We therefore conducted a large radiocarbon-dating programme, targeting 'early' millet finds in eastern, central and northern Europe, and obtaining over 100 AMS-dates on charred grains from c. 70 sites Figs. . This pa2 [131]; 0.78–1.53 mg per grain32 [Table 31]), the dry mass prior to chemical pretreatment was sometimes very low  is lower than the expected δ13C value for charred broomcorn millet (c. − 11.1 ± 0.5‰33 [319]). The low AMS δ13C values may be partly due to fractionation during sample preparation (oxidation and graphitisation), but is more likely due to fractionation in the AMS (most probably at the ion source), which is pronounced with small graphite targets . Indeed, an exponential regression of AMS δ13C against graphite weight predicts an average δ13C value of c. − 10‰ for normal-size targets (1 mg), which falls in the range expected for C4 plants, with increasing fractionation  as the dating targets get smaller  were omitted. Multiple iterations of the preferred model revealed two early ‘misfits’, from Lavagnone in northern Italy and Ipf in southern Germany (35) and inconsistent with other millet 14C dates from the same sites and the region. These results were excluded from the preferred model.Our preferred Bayesian chronological model . Thus the estimated date of the start of broomcorn millet cultivation is fairly precise in three regions , each represented by over 30 samples from at least 19 sites , Hungary (Fajsz 18) and perhaps Croatia (Mačkovac-Crišnjevi)—and in northern Italy (Lavagnone). By the mid-fourteenth century bc, it spread across central Europe and as far south as the Aegean (Assiros in Greece). There is little evidence that millet spread north of Bohemia during the thirteenth century bc, but by the mid-twelfth century bc it was common in northern Germany and Poland. By this date, broomcorn millet was probably cultivated throughout the study region. The ostensible gap in the western Balkans reflects the state of research, as few sites here have been analysed archaeobotanically. That broomcorn millet was present here at least from the mid-thirteenth century bc onwards is demonstrated by dates on the grains from Hisar (southern Serbia). Eastern and southern parts of the peninsula  were not included in this dating programme as the material from some of these regions is a part of a different study. However, the only so-far published direct-dated millet find from Greece—that from Assiros—is included in the model. A charred food crust in a pot from the Late Bronze Age site of Kush Kaya in southern Thrace (Bulgaria) contained fragments of broomcorn millet grain, along with barley and flax; the crust was directly dated to the mid-fourteenth century bc38 (the date is not used in our model).Figure bc occurrences of the crop in Europe27. Our study shows that it is highly unlikely that broomcorn millet reached central Europe prior to the mid-2nd millennium bc.Previous radiocarbon dating of broomcorn millet called into question the reported pre-2nd millennium bc), but as a minor crop40. This was inferred from the overall number per site of millet grains or of contexts in which they were found. The finds attributed to the Neolithic, Copper and Early Bronze Ages usually occur in the form of one to several grains per deposit and were interpreted as indicating that broomcorn millet initially was a tolerated accidental inclusion in the harvests of major crops. In contrast, dense, concentrated deposits (with grains often fused into ‘porridge’) of the Middle and Late Bronze Age were taken as reflecting a higher degree of use and/or greater importance of this crop relative to others. It was, therefore, concluded that “…the transformation of millets from minor to major (or even main) crops took place in the transition from Middle to Late Bronze Age in Europe”18 [361].Archaeobotanical assessments of the early distribution of broomcorn millet in Europe suggested its widespread presence prior to and during the Early and Middle Bronze Age  crop later. Earlier deposits are not necessarily small, and there are both early and late large deposits. Small deposits also occur throughout the period of interest. There is a higher relative incidence of small deposits in the late 2nd–early 1st millennium cal bc, but many of these samples are clearly intrusive (in Neolithic contexts), and this pattern does not necessarily mean that the importance of millet declined over time.Based on the published archaeobotanical records of broomcorn millet finds in Europe, our expectation was that the number of obvious large deposits per subregion will be small for the earlier part of the covered period (Neolithic-Copper Age), moreover—that there may be none. Rather than seeing this as a 'proof' that millet first appeared in the respective subregion as a contaminant of other crops, we acknowledged that this can be a result of taphonomy  and the state of research. The radiocarbon dates presented here allow us to evaluate this notion at a macro-regional  level. The chronological distribution of small and large deposits of The northern German dataset forms a useful case-study because of its size and good regional coverage. Here, the earliest large deposits of broomcorn millet grain are as old as the first small deposits (isolated grains). This suggests that broomcorn millet was established and cultivated on a larger scale and more evenly from the outset. Regular cultivation of a crop should produce both large and small deposits, but the visibility of both will depend on their preservation and discovery. Regional differences in fieldwork methods and sampling priorities may also produce misleading patterns.bc) site of Meidling-im-Thale (Kleiner Anzingerberg), where 83 millet grains were found in several features within a burnt house41 [67], but radiocarbon dating placed the grains from four features no earlier than the eighth century bc. Likewise, over 670 millet grains were extracted from 31 samples from Late Neolithic and Copper Age layers (5th–4th millennium bc) at Gomolava42 [Table 2]. Three of these ‘millet-rich’ samples were dated directly, and none is older than tenth/ninth century bc. In both cases, the number of broomcorn millet grains per site was relatively high, but the millet-containing deposits were of low density (one or few millet grains per L/kg of soil).This study confirms the previous finding from radiocarbon dating of broomcorn millet grains—that small deposits can be (much) younger than the archaeological layers in which they are found. Our programme also included sites where broomcorn millet was more frequent than just one or few grains per context see . Even in4 plant, such as broomcorn millet, to diets otherwise based on plants using the C3 photosynthetic pathway increases δ13C values of bones and teeth, because δ13C values of C4 plants are typically 10–15‰ higher than those of C3 plants. There are wild C4 plants in Asia and some also occur in Europe  in salt marshes or in steppe environments, where they can be seasonally more abundant than C3 plants42, but higher δ13C values in prehistoric humans and domestic animals in Europe are more plausibly related to regular consumption of domesticated millets than to increasing amounts of wild C4 plants in graze or fodder44. Human bone collagen δ13C values are especially sensitive to the quantity of protein-rich freshwater or marine foods consumed, as well as the consumption of meat and milk from domestic herbivores which consumed C4 plants, whereas tooth enamel or bone apatite δ13C values reflect δ13C values in the overall diet, including carbohydrates. Appropriate threshold δ13C values identifying the input of C4 foodstuffs will therefore depend on the tissues analysed, the carbon contribution of aquatic species, and the δ13C values of local C3 and C4 plants. In Europe, for fully terrestrial diets, human bone collagen δ13C values ≥ c. − 18‰ may signify inclusion of C4 plants ("mixed C3/C4 diet"); δ13C values ≥ c. − 12‰ reflect a "predominantly C4 diet"46.The results of the radiocarbon dating program are here discussed in conjunction with the selected archaeobotanical (including grain imprints) and stable isotopic evidence. Adding a C19, for which a solid temporal frame is instrumental. One of the unexpected discoveries is that, whereas there is almost no measurable difference in the modelled dates of millet appearing in the Carpathian Basin, the Po Basin and central Europe, there was a significant delay (probably > 200 years) before millet spread from central Europe to the north European plain , and depends on the earliest dates from the Late Bronze Age settlement of Vinogradnyi Sad on the Southern Bug River, occupied c. sixteenth to thirteenth century bc and associated with the Sabatinovka culture, which stretched across the Ukrainian steppe zone47 .The two regions are currently represented by dates from only seven sites, spanning about a millennium. Our preferred model dates the start of millet cultivation in the North Pontic region to the second quarter of the 2nd millennium cal bc, Neolithic-Early Bronze Age) of Panicum miliaceum in the North Pontic were almost entirely based on millet-like impressions in pottery, daub and figurines49. A recent morphological re-examination of many of these impressions, found on mid–4th or early 3rd millennium bc (Usatovo culture) clay materials from the northwestern Black Sea coast, excluded millet grains as a source for some of the imprints (e.g. those on figurines). Other millet imprints on potsherds and daub were confirmed, along with impressions of wheat and barley grain and few other species50. The chronological attribution of this material, however, is insecure and it may in fact date to the 2nd millennium bc50 [3209–3210]. Another recent high-resolution assessment of some alleged millet grain impressions in Neolithic, Eneolithic and later pottery from sites in Ukraine has confirmed the origin of the imprints only in the sherds from the Sabatinovka culture sites (1600–1300/1200 bc)51.Reports of much earlier occurrences (6th–early 3rd millennium bc52. The growing stable isotope evidence from pre- and Early–Middle Bronze and Early Iron Age sites (4th–1st millennium bc) in the region indicates that the local pastoralist groups likely adopted millet into their diet at the end of the 2nd millennium bc . This is the time when the high-altitude settlement system was relocated to the valleys and the economic focus shifted towards agriculture55.In the north/northwestern Caucasus, the previously dated large deposit of broomcorn millet grain in Guamsky Grot rock shelter southeast of the Azov Sea confirms the presence of millet here at the very end of the 2nd/beginning of the 1st millennium cal bc (Maykop culture) near Stavropol were described as possibly deriving from millet grains, but closer examination was not carried out56 [160]. The dates from Guamsky Grot and the presence of broomcorn millet at some Late Bronze Age sites in the northwest Caucasus (Adygea57 [Table 2]) and the Don River delta (Safyanovo58 [73]) have been used to suggest that the northward diffusion of the northwest Caucasian Kobyakovo culture (1400/1300–1000 bc) brought the crop into this region. These communities built permanent domestic structures and cultivated crops53 [256],58.Impressions on the base of a pot in a Kurgan-grave from the second half of the 4th millennium bc60—leaves a possibility of broomcorn millet appearing at a similar time in the southern and northern Caucasus. The intensive interaction that "crisscrossed the whole of the Caucasus and extended well beyond its boundaries"61 [380] would have facilitated this, especially from the mid-2nd millennium bc onwards (Late Bronze–Early Iron Age) when it was promoted by increasing production and circulation of metal objects and metalworking skill61 .The earliest date on broomcorn millet from Vinogradnyi Sad gives the impression that the crop reached southwestern Ukraine earlier than the northwestern Caucasus. The few early grain-dates from Ukraine cannot clarify this. Potentially earlier dates for the first millet occurrences in the southern Caucasus—late first half, or middle of the 2nd millennium bc)62. To the east spread the Andronovo cultural complex. The Srubnaya-Andronovo horizon was "a bridge of related cultures [that] extended across the Eurasian steppes from the borders of China and Central Asia to the eastern edge of Europe"62 [5]. The cultural borders were porous and the interactions diverse across this vast region used by mobile pastoralists and agriculturalists64. Perhaps millet took this 'northerly' route from the Inner Asian Mountain Corridor to Ukraine, across northern central Asia46 [Fig. 6] and following the latitudinal steppe–forest steppe gradient in northern Kazakhstan (southwestern Siberia). For the latter region, however, archaeobotanical and stable isotope data do not indicate broomcorn millet cultivation and/or consumption before the very end of the 2nd millennium bc or later66. From current evidence, therefore, millet appears to have arrived in Europe via the "Caucasus corridor", amidst strengthened connections between the two sides of the mountain in the Late Bronze Age67 . The early dates of broomcorn millet from southwestern Ukraine are consistent with the several-centuries earlier direct-dates from southern Central Asia (Adji Kui 1 and Ojakly68) and the Inner Asian Mountain Corridor (Begash28).Kobyakovo communities occupied the area along the Kuban and the lower reaches of the Don rivers, neighboured by the Sabatinovka culture area to the west. To the northeast and east, the upper Don and the middle and lower Volga and Ural basins were occupied by the Srubnaya culture (1900–1200 bc (Early–Middle Bronze Age) in the North Pontic and the lower Don and Volga region displays isotopic variability attributed to seasonal movements between pastures, diversity of dietary sources, and changing climatic conditions that shaped the local vegetation69. Modern steppe vegetation in this area comprises of C3, mixed C3/C4 and C4 pastures, whose extent and composition vary depending on the season and climatic characteristics71. In the second half of the 3rd millennium bc, there seems to have been a period of increased aridity here, which would have favoured C4 flora72. Elevated δ13C values in human and animal bone collagen were explained by the seasonal consumption of C4 plants naturally growing in the area,73. In the Yampil region on the Middle Dniester river (in the steppe zone), several individuals from the Early–Middle Bronze Age graves (late 3rd-first quarter of the 2nd millennium bc) had collagen δ13C values of c. − 19.5‰ and were interpreted as possible millet consumers74. However, δ13C values more negative than − 18‰ do not indicate inclusion of C4 plants in the diet46.The stable isotope picture for humans and animals of the 3rd and 2nd millennium bc onwards in southern Ukraine shows that, from this point on, consumption of this crop could have represented the main source of C4 forage and/or food both in coastal areas and, especially, inland. Indeed, in central and eastern Ukraine, a systematic increase in δ13C values is seen from the Bronze to the Iron Age, and significantly in the Early Iron Age and the Scythian period69 ,76. Broomcorn millet grains from several Iron Age sites have been radiocarbon-dated in this and a previous study77. Along with the coeval evidence of soil biomarker (miliacin) indicating millet cultivation13, they confirm that that the Iron Age isotope data most probably reflect consumption of P. miliaceum.The now dated presence of millet from the mid-2nd millennium bc) in the Pontic steppes and along the Black Sea coast cultivated and consumed millet. At the time, the transect from the upper Dniester to the lower Danube and Transylvania, and further into southeastern Romania and northeastern Bulgaria, was the area of the Noua-Sabatinovka-Coslogeni cultural complex, a tradition seen as an "eastern intrusion"78 [889] that maintained trade in metal objects with much of central-eastern Europe79 [228–232]. Broomcorn millet grains were recorded at the sites occupied by these groups80, which could have served as a medium for the transmission of broomcorn millet further to the west and south. The westward spread could have proceeded up the Danube, through long-established communication and exchange networks via which a number of other goods were distributed, such as metals, amber, and decorative objects79 [45–57],82 [164–196],83.Sabatinovka culture communities  , frequently contain remains of broomcorn millet89 . Sometimes these are concentrated grains, such as in one of the ceramic vessels hoarded in a pit at the Tumulus culture site of Lozorno, north of Bratislava in Slovakia3.The assumed Danube route may have started already in the late sixteenth/early fifteenth century cal bc , which coincides with the start of the fully developed Terramare culture (1550–1150 bc90). The stable isotopic ratios of humans point to the mid-2nd millennium bc for the start of millet consumption in northern Italy; by the mid-fifteenth century bc, the Terramare communities consumed considerable amounts of millet92. The grains and chaff (glumes) of broomcorn millet are frequent and abundant in the archaeobotanical assemblages from this period onwards94 . The transfer of goods  between the Carpathian Basin and the Po Basin/northern Italy (through lowland Austria and Slovenia) during the Bronze Age has long been recognized79 [77],84 [127],96. It seems that the Carpathian Basin acted as a broomcorn millet 'hub' from where the crop radiated in different directions, including south across the central/western Balkans and into northern Greece97.In the southwestern part of the Carpathian Basin, up the Sava river, the possible early occurrence of broomcorn millet at Mačkovac-Crišnjevi corresponds well with the early dates from the Po Basin to the west. Our model dates the start of millet cultivation in the Po Basin to the early-mid fifteenth century cal bc98 perhaps facilitated a 'southerly' route of transfer of millet into peninsular Italy and the Balkans, with the city of Mycenae as the potential "power node"94 [87]. However, the majority of Late Bronze Age (1600–1100 bc) archaeobotanical finds of broomcorn millet in Greece are located in the north, including several large deposits40, of which the one at Assiros was direct-dated to the fourteenth century cal bc 99. In contrast, only one broomcorn millet find has so far been reported in the south, consisting of ten (undated) grains from the Mycenaean palace of Tiryns100. A C4 signal was detected in the stable isotopic composition of human and animal bones from mid-2nd millennium bc Greece, with millet and other C4 plants stated as possible contributors103. The presence of broomcorn millet grains in the mid-late 2nd millennium bc layers of Troy104 [9] perhaps point to Anatolia as a source area for the introduction of the crop in the Aegean. On the other hand, the archaeological evidence  documents earlier interactions between the Tumulus culture societies of the Carpathian Basin and the Aegean city-states105 [361]. Further radiocarbon dates on broomcorn millet from the southeast corner of Europe will elucidate its diffusion into this region.The increased socio-political and economic connectivity across the Mediterranean in the second half of the 2nd millennium bc , soon after its appearance in the Carpathian Basin. It seems to have appeared almost simultaneously in southern Poland, the Czech Republic and southern Germany. A 'northerly' route of its arrival into southern Poland is possible, through the forest steppe of northern Ukraine, up the rivers flowing into the Black Sea. For much of the 2nd millennium bc, the middle and upper courses of the Prut, Dniester, Southern Bug and Dnieper were characterized by the Middle–Late Bronze Age Trzciniec culture (1800–1100 bc108). The fourteenth/thirteenth century bc Trzciniec sites east of the northern Carpathian foothills show similarities in pottery and metal objects with the Noua and Sabatinovka cultures. These intercultural contacts109 [272–278] may have incorporated crop exchange. The regions north of the Alps  were identified as the area from which the Tumulus culture spread eastwards to the Tisza and the upper-middle Oder and Vistula rivers82 [97],84 [125],108. Perhaps rather than arriving from the 'east' into southern Poland, broomcorn millet moved west-to-east, along the northern Carpathian foothills and onto the loess plateaus, such as the one on which the millet-rich site of Lipnik was located .According to our preferred model, broomcorn millet was probably first cultivated in central Europe in the mid-fifteenth century cal bc pottery shapes and styles in the "communication corridor" running along the Tisza river, crossing the Carpathians and connecting their southern basin and northern slopes108. We dated broomcorn millet from the site of Maszkowice in the western part of the northern Carpathian foothills, where the characteristics of pottery and metal finds correspond to those seen in the south of the Tisza valley, within the Otomani-Füzesabony cultural tradition of the Carpathian Basin108. These contacts hint at the potential south-north direction of the crop dispersal. The Vistula river tributaries flowing down the northern Carpathian foothills, and the Morava and Oder river valleys were recognized as the communication channels through which goods and/or people moved between the Carpathian Basin and southern Poland, and further to the north107 [199]. We may be seeing several different, possibly synchronous, dispersal routes of millet within and beyond the matrix of individual cultural entities.There are striking similarities in the mid-2nd millennium bc110 [267],111). Stable isotope results from animals and humans from sites in Bohemia and Moravia suggest a striking change in diet between the early and late 2nd millennium bc, with Late Bronze Age diets having a significant contribution of millet112. The age of the recently reported miliacin in soil from a fissured ceramic vessel found in a Corded Ware culture (3rd millennium bc) grave at Držovice, central Moravia113 is highly questionable. The soil in the pot contained traces of miliacin, but the soil around the pot was not tested and so the possibility of contamination cannot be excluded, particularly since the grave was damaged by modern digging of a drainage system113 [4222],114 [188]. Without an absolute date for the miliacin itself, it is possible that the association is coincidental and that the miliacin is more recent than the pot. There are as yet no direct dates on broomcorn millet from sites in Moravia but, assuming the east–west transfer through the Danube Basin, it could have reached southern Moravia some time before it is found in Bohemia, the Alpine Foreland and the upper reaches of the Rhine.Our estimated start date for millet cultivation in central Europe is consistent with archaeobotanical data from sites in Bohemia, which place the first occurrence of broomcorn millet here at the start of the regional Middle Bronze Age . Earlier dates  on broomcorn millet from Lauda-Königshofen in the upper Danube basin and Bruchenbrücken on the upper-middle Rhine show that millet had already been cultivated in adjacent regions for some time. Lauda-Königshofen was the location of a Corded Ware culture cemetery, where the remains of later  settlements were also found. The broomcorn millet grains originate from the Corded Ware layers, but are obviously intrusive. Stable isotope results from humans buried here in the mid-3rd millennium BC gave no indication of consumption of C4 plants116.The broomcorn millet grain from the Corded Ware site of Binningen, located in the northern foothills of the Jura mountains north of the Western Alps, gave a twelfth century cal bc date . The iso1230–1160 calbc (68.2% probability) or 1260–1140 calbc (95.4% probability). Considering the number of relatively early sites and samples dated  horizon at the site of Bruszczewo in northern Poland testify to its consumption117.There are now forty radiocarbon dates on broomcorn millet from twenty-five sites in northern parts of Germany, and this is the best-covered region so far. Additional sites in north-central Poland add to the regional picture. The beginning of broomcorn millet cultivation in this region is dated to es dated , it is ubc was the time of appearance of the Urnfield culture in central Europe, which, in the twelfth century bc spread to the south and the north79 [31],82 [Fig. 1.2],118. Within this general phenomenon, many regional cultural groups have been differentiated, such as the Lausitz/Lusatian culture in central Europe whose influence spread to the north79 [346],119. Northern European communities maintained communication with the Carpathian Basin and Tumulus culture groups throughout the 2nd millennium bc, particularly during its first half120. In the second half of the millennium, the interaction extended beyond (and via) the Tumulus culture zone, to the Aegean city-states and was likely centered on amber commerce, along with trade in metals and other goods105 [365],120 [614]. Agricultural products could have been transmitted through any or all of these trans-regional networks. It has been suggested that broomcorn millet arrived into North-central Europe through the trade routes following major rivers – the Oder, Elbe and Weser121. Smaller waterways were probably also part of this network, such as the Tollense in northeastern Germany, where palaeodietary isotopic evidence  shows that victims of a Late Bronze Age battle were millet consumers123 , as well as the environmental and social circumstances at different stages of these process, has grown at an incredible pace, with the major focus on the evidence from Asia. In Europe, research on millet has not taken place at a similar scale, although some authors suggested possible routes and mechanisms of its introduction66, the Terramare culture zone91 and Iron Age coastal Croatia116. Thus, at a more local scale, the introduction and use of the new crop may not have been indiscriminate43. Various cultural reasons may have been at play, determining the (degree of) acceptance or rejection of broomcorn millet. To explore this further, it is important to understand the economic, technological and social environments into which broomcorn millet arrived in Europe, alongside the ones it may have created.Perhaps the knowledge of millet's agro-ecological requirements and related culinary traditions travelled along with it and contributed to its relatively swift transmission between distant regions. Thanks to its versatility and ecological and functional ‘plasticity’, broomcorn millet may have become highly valued asset, especially in changing or challenging environmental and social settings. There are, however, indications of ‘non-adoption’ or, more precisely, non-consumption of millet among some communities at the time when their neighbours consumed notable amounts of it. This was seen in the human stable isotopes from the Bronze and Iron Age Trans-Uralsbc (Middle/Late Bronze Age) as the time of the earliest occurrence of broomcorn millet in the studied regions of Europe. The crop emerged at only slightly different times in different parts of Europe, earliest in Ukraine, as expected given its eastern origin. Within about a century of its appearance in the Carpathian Basin and northern Italy, broomcorn millet was found throughout central Europe. It was not immediately diffused into lowland northern Germany, however, and it is only in the late thirteenth/early twelfth century cal bc that it spread rapidly through this region.This study produced and evaluated over 100 radiocarbon dates directly on charred broomcorn millet grains from over 90 sites in Europe. The main aim was to test a substantial number of grains recovered from a range of archaeological deposits in Europe attributed to the Neolithic, Copper and Bronze Ages and, in particular, high-density millet deposits (grain concentrations) attributed to the Bronze Age. This dataset decisively pinpoints the middle of the 2nd millennium The radiocarbon dates show that the new crop spread fast and was found in large quantities immediately or soon after its introduction in different parts of Europe. The abundance of millet has been taken as a reflection of its cultivation. The period for which the stable isotope evidence first hints at the consumption of broomcorn millet overlaps with the earliest radiocarbon-dates on both small and large archaeobotanical records of the crop. Whereas inter-and intra-regional variations in this pattern can be expected, a general impression is one of a relatively swift and potentially comprehensive adoption of the new crop at the continental level.bc Europe. Against this backdrop, can we now talk about a 'millet effect'? Some of the characteristics of this crop, principally its short growth-cycle and surplus potential, would have had wide ramifications in aspects such as intensity and scale of agricultural production, labour organisation, land tenure, food storage, culinary practices and, ultimately, social and political power. With the time of the arrival of the crop to the western end of the “Eurasian dyad” now determined, we can address the transformative power of millet from a solid chronological ground.Broomcorn millet transfer epitomises the process of 'food globalisation' in the Old World. Not just the routes and pace of this process have been of interest. A host of additional questions have been brought forward concerning the mechanisms, cultural and environmental context of the spread, as well as the impact of the new crop on agrarian production, animal husbandry and food consumption in the source, transit and receiving regions. Sweeping changes in economy, social relations and ideology have been archaeologically documented in mid-late 2nd millennium 127 provided an overview of the material potentially available for dating. The study period and regions—Neolithic and Bronze Age periods in eastern, central and North-central Europe—were defined in line with the aims and scope of the Collaborative Research Centre SFB 1266: Scales of Transformation at Kiel University, the time and funding available through this initiative in 2017–2019, and the working assumptions that broomcorn millet arrived in the Neolithic and that its full-fledged cultivation started in the Middle/Late Bronze Age. The dating programme had two objectives: (1) radiocarbon dating of ‘early’ finds of broomcorn millet reported from Neolithic and Copper Age sites and typically consisting of one-few grains, in order to date the first introduction of the crop in different parts of the study region; (2) radiocarbon dating of Bronze Age finds of millet, specifically grain concentrations, in order to temporally correlate this agricultural innovation with developments in lifestyle, economy and social relations characteristic of the period.Published archaeobotanical and radiocarbon studiesBased on their research focus and publications, archaeobotanists working in the parts of Europe targeted by the programme were informed about the initiative. They were sent guidelines for the selection and submission of the specimens for dating, along with a questionnaire . The matbc (broadly the Neolithic and Copper Age in Europe). Large deposits comprise tens to thousands of grains from a discrete context , often high-density concentrations of macro-plant remains predominantly or entirely composed of broomcorn millet, sometimes agglutinated (fused together) during charring.We dated charred grains from 'small' and 'large' broomcorn millet deposits  from rel14C dates on bulk samples of two to several millet grains from small deposits, homogenized by pulverisation  laboratories in Poznań  and Kiel , following standard laboratory protocols for charred plant macrofossils . This facilitated the incorporation of previously obtained (un)published dates on charred broomcorn millet grains . We normally dated single grains, but in several cases we dated two or more agglutinated grains, because these grains cannot have been significantly different in date, since they were uncharred before they were fused together. This study also includes a few tion see . If thes130. This approach is based on the premise that while the dates of our samples are constrained by when millet cultivation began in any region, it is highly unlikely that our samples include the first grains of broomcorn millet grown at any site, or even that they come from the earliest millet-growing site in each region .We used Bayesian chronological modelling to visualize spatial patterns in the earliest datesSupplementary Dataset.Supplementary Figure 1.Supplementary Figure 2.Supplementary Figure 3.Supplementary Figure 4.Supplementary Figure 5.Supplementary Information 1.Supplementary Information 2.Supplementary Information 3.


Recent evidence shows that men and women have inadequate fertility knowledge which may negatively affect their childbearing decisions in future. Given the fact that decision making for fertility needs accurate information, targeted educational interventions especially through media are needed to improve knowledge regarding the best age of fertility, factors affecting fertility potential and fertility options available for sub-fertile couples. Aim of the study is to evaluate whether a fertility educational program can be effective in increasing fertility knowledge, childbearing intention and the planned pregnancy rate among couples referring to premarital counselling centers.This study is a parallel randomised clinical trial with pre-test/post-test design. We will recruit 1240 marrying couples referring for compulsory premarital counselling in public health centers through stratified sampling in five metropolitan cities of Iran. The intervention group will receive both the typical premarital counselling training and a fertility knowledge package containing verbal and virtual educational package at five time episodes  within 4 weeks. The primary outcomes are fertility knowledge, childbearing intention and the first planned pregnancy rate (positive pregnancy test) and the secondary outcomes include contraception method use, miscarriage and unplanned pregnancy. Participants will respond to a self-administered demographic/reproductive characteristics questionnaire, the Cardiff Fertility Knowledge Scale (CFKS) and the childbearing intention questionnaire.Data will be collected through online questionnaires at baseline and 3, 12 and 18 months after the intervention. Data will be analyzed using Chi-square or Fisher-exact test for categorical variables, Independent sample t-test for normally distributed quantitative variables and Mann–Whitney U test for non-normally distributed quantitative variables. To compare the outcomes between the two groups over the time, repeated measures ANOVA will be used. We hypothesize that the positive impact of increasing the fertility knowledge is the reduced involuntarily childlessness.The findings are proposed to inform government policies and public education strategies aiming at supporting childbearing among young couples who postpone their first pregnancy while they might not have any important social and economic obstacles.IRCT20201005048925N1, Date of registration: 2020-10-12.This study was approved by Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials (IRCT), Number:  Recent evidence shows that men and women have inadequate fertility knowledge and awareness which may negatively affect their childbearing decisions in future –5. For iMost of the people obtain fertility knowledge from the mass media or internet. Given the fact that decision making for fertility needs accurate information , targeteIn Iran, the fertility rates have dramatically declined over the past three decades, and the increased marriage age, delayed childbirth, significant rate of infertility (20.2) and a recent rise in voluntary childlessness require serious attention –24. The Studies show that many social, economic and individual factors contribute to the lower fertility behavior among new generations. For instance, individual factors, women’s higher education and employment have been shown to be associated with lower fertility rate. Apart from these, poor fertility knowledge and misconceptions might be responsible for delay in childbearing among young couples , 30. EviFertility changes in Iran have been well monitored by demographers in recent years, and various individual and socio-economic factors have been considered to be responsible for fertility rate. Some new population policies have been introduced to encourage childbearing such as increased parental leave for a childbirth, while little has been done with regard to improvement of fertility knowledge. Considering the high rate of primary infertility (20.2%) , and a gTo evaluate the effectiveness of an educational intervention program on fertility knowledge, childbearing intention and planned pregnancy rate.This study is a parallel randomised clinical trial with pre-test/post-test design among 1240 couples referring to premarital counselling centres. The flow diagram of the study design is reported in Table This study will be conducted on couples referring for compulsory pre-marriage training in public health centers in five metropolitan cities of Iran with a diverse geographical distribution  to enhance the generalizability of the findings. We plan to recruit new couples (both men and women) referring for compulsory premarital counselling.Marrying couples, having an Iranian nationality with minimum basic literacy, women aging from 18 to 35 years, men aging 18–45, with no previous marriage, referring to premarital counselling centers, and are about to live together in their new home (under one roof) within 1 month, will be included in the study. We will select a low-risk group of women for pregnancy according to women’s age.An increasing number of women delay having children until after 35 years. Fertility clearly declines with advancing age, especially after the mid-30s and women are at greater risk of pregnancy complications. Therefore, we will include only women aged 18–35 as these women are making choices that may affect their intentions regarding the timing of childbearing  and usually postpone childbearing decisions . Semen pMedical students or staff, participants who have any known chronic diseases and marrying couples who did not start living together will be excluded.The intervention group will receive both the typical premarital counselling and a fertility knowledge training containing verbal and virtual educational program at five time episodes  in a package. We will implement the educational programs during 4 weeks. The intervention includes a 30-min lecture, documentary videos, text messages and short films. The control group will receive only typical premarital counselling. The content of educational or counselling program will be based on the most updated literature on fertility knowledge.The educational program was developed based on new guidelines of American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM), European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE) and Iran’s Ministry of Health and Medical Education (MOHME).The fertility knowledge package will consist of information on fertility rates, infertility rates, risks of delay in childbearing, safe waiting period for parenting, Impact of age on female fertility, limited fertility period for women, fertility window and how to optimize fertility, impact of weight and lifestyle on fertility, definition of infertility, infertility risk factors, impact of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) on fertility, the need for earlier evaluation and treatment of infertility, success rate and financial costs of infertility treatments, assisted conception and fertility preservation. In order to incorporate multidisciplinary views in this study, specialists from different relevant disciplines will be invited to provide their views on different stages of the study including the suitability of the educational content. A group of experts composed of midwife, reproductive health professional, gynecologist (infertility fellowship), medical sociologist, health psychologist and health education will evaluate and confirm the scientific validity of the intervention package. The content of educational program will be also assessed in the pilot phase.Instructors will be trained by the principal investigator before the intervention and their questions will be answered. The educational content will be provided to them as a booklet for future reading. Further, they will be asked to record the educational counselling session as an audio file for evaluation by the principal investigator. In order to increase the quality of the training program, some features will be considered, such as having a long training period (1 month), using the power of media, having intermittent training with reminders and repeating in regular basis, and in this way the triangulation will enhance the quality of the counselling program.The primary outcomes are fertility knowledge, childbearing intention and the first planned pregnancy rate (positive pregnancy test).The secondary outcomes include the contraception method use, miscarriage and unplanned pregnancy.Data will be collected by questionnaires at baseline and 3, 12 and 18 months after the intervention in each selected city  on the completion of the survey which may increase response rates. Four reminder emails or text messages will send out to non-respondents at one, two, three, and 4 weeks; a fifth telephone reminder was also undertaken.Since a recent study in Iran showed an average interval between marriage and first pregnancy as about 15.4 ± 0.2 months in Iran , we are Participants will respond to a self-administered demographic characteristics questionnaire, the Cardiff Fertility Knowledge Scale (CFKS), the childbearing intention questionnaire and some questions about their pregnancy (planned/unplanned pregnancy).Participants will complete the socio-demographic characteristics form including age, education level, income, occupation, ethnicity, gender and geographic area (province and city).The Persian version of the Cardiff Fertility Knowledge Scale (CFKS) will be used to assess the fertility knowledge. The CFKS consists of 13 items measuring knowledge about facts, risks and myths of fertility. Participants will respond to all items as true, false or do not know. A correct answer is assigned one point and an incorrect or ‘do not know’ answer is assigned zero point. Scores are reported as the percent correct score (0–100%). The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the CFKS was 0.79 and satisfactory for most countries [Parts of a questionnaire developed by Lampic et al. 2006) will be used in this study as the basis for the data collection regarding childbearing intentions that has satisfactory face validity and reliability and has previously been used by Lampic et al. (2006), Peterson et al. (2012) and Chan et al. (2014) in their studies of Swedish, American and Hong Kong university students  will be , 19. TheAfter requesting the permission of the original authors, the instrument will be translated by a bilingual researcher into Persian, and the back-translation will be done independently by another bilingual researcher  and a native English speaker. An expert panel will be held and the questionnaire will be restructured based on their remarks and comments. Some of the questions may be revised based on cultural issues and the inclusion criteria in the current study. To determine the validity of the instrument, it will be provided to several experts in the field of reproductive health and their views will be collected and the instrument will be amended accordingly. Test-retest and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient will be used to estimate the reliability of the instrument.According to our primary outcomes including fertility knowledge and intention toward childbearing that are important to be measured 3 months after the intervention, we considered a small standardized Cohen effect size (d = 0.2) with a type I error of 5% (α = 0.05) and a type II error of 10%  and sample size obtained 527 in each group and considering 15% of loss to follow up, the sample size was calculated 620 couples in each group using the G-Power software. Considering the design effect equals to 1.5, final size was calculated 1240 couples in total (620 couples in each group). In each city around 200 couples (100 in each group) and from Tehran about 440 couples (220 in each group) will be recruited.It should be noted that in order to compare quantitative outcomes between groups over time , the sample size obtained 660 couples in total (330 in each group) based on repeated measures ANOVA. So, the initial obtained sample size (620 couples in each group) will have the appropriate power for this analysis.Samples will be selected through stratified sampling and random samples are then selected from each stratum. The strata consist of five cities, and separate randomization lists will be prepared for each city using a block randomization.Due to the limited number of main public centers providing compulsory premarital counselling in each city , and other concerns such as selection bias, and generalizability , the cluster randomization based on the centers is not possible. So, we will use central randomization that is stratified to the cities.www.sealedenvelope. com) for Tehran. According to the sample size of 200 identified, 50 blocks will be produced using the online site  for other cities.The PI will randomly assign the couples into two groups in each city by a computer-generated random sequence. For randomization, the permuted block randomization will be used (block size = 4). According to the sample size of 440 identified, 110 blocks will be produced using the online site , and quantitative variables will be reported as means (SD) or medians (with 25th to 75th quartiles), as appropriate. Graphical approach, numerical indices and the Shapiro-Wilk test will be used to evaluate the normality distribution and Leven test for homogeneity of variances in quantitative variables, respectively.P value < 0·05 will be considered statistically significant.Comparisons between groups at baseline will be performed using Chi-square or Fisher-exact test for categorical variables, Independent samples t-test for normally distributed quantitative variables and Mann–Whitney U test for non-normally distributed quantitative variables. To compare the outcomes between the two groups over the time, repeated measures ANOVA will be used. Data will be analyzed using the SPSS software version 22 . For all analyses, a The ethical approval of the research project was obtained from the ethics committee of National Institute for Medical Research Development (NIMAD) (IR.NIMAD.REC.1399.123). Eligible couples will be invited for an additional counselling by a health provider to ensure that they are entirely informed on the nature of the research by means of oral and written information. All the participants who agree to participate in the study, will sign a written informed consent before the randomization. All participants have the right to withdraw from the study anytime and for any reasons. The educational package will be provided to the control group as well upon their request at the end of the study. To protect against loss of confidentiality, data sheets will be stored on a password-protected computer, which can be accessed only by the members of the research team. Information on participants will be sent to the PI only as de-identified, aggregate data.This research is a novel study because few studies evaluated the effect of educational interventions on fertility knowledge. In addition, to the authors’ knowledge, there is no published study that evaluated the impact of a fertility educational intervention on fertility knowledge, intention and the planned pregnancy rate using a randomized controlled trial in Iran. The focus of current study is on primary prevention and the study is designed to promote fertility knowledge and to reduce involuntary childlessness in a country with the birth rate below replacement-level. Although, it is difficult to encourage people to have more children, we can increase the knowledge of young couples in order to make informed decisions about the timing of their childbearing and assist them to achieve their fertility ideals by preventing delayed childbearing, particularly the first birth.In this study, an educational package including videos, lectures and virtual messages will be designed, which will employ the power of social media. Unlike other high-cost interventions, this low-cost educational intervention will help couples for making informed fertility decisions. This intervention will be designed with an infertility prevention approach and childbearing motivation among young childless couples.This study is pioneering study which uses the capabilities of social media for training and for follow up and data gathering. We also employ a multi-city sampling approach and long-term follow-up among a unique target group . Therefore, if effective, this intervention can inform government policies to incorporate such an education to the premarital counselling courses. In this way, we hope to be able to encourage new couples to think and decide on their first birth by having all knowledge about fertility and consequences of delayed fertility.We hypothesize that with improving fertility knowledge among new couples, the involuntary childlessness, personal and societal cost of infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) will be decreased. The findings may also inform government policies and public education strategies aiming at supporting childbearing among young couples who postpone their first birth while they might not have any important social and economic obstacles.


Unicystic ameloblastoma (UA) differs from conventional ameloblastoma by presenting in the younger population with a lower recurrence rate and has a unilocular appearance on radiograph mimicking dentigerous cysts. Among the three variants of UA, the mural variant has a tendency to recur. Here we present a case of mural variant of UA in a pediatric patient treated conservatively with enucleation followed by application of Carnoy’s solution to the cystic cavity. The aim of this case report is to emphasize conservative management in the treatment of UA in pediatric patients considering growth and development in children. Ameloblastoma is the most common benign, odontogenic tumor of epithelial origin ,2. The WA nine year old male child presented to the department of oral and maxillofacial surgery with a chief complaint of swelling in the lower left side of the face for a period of two months. On examination, a diffuse swelling was present on the lower left side of the face with reduced mouth opening. The swelling was tender on palpation with a firm consistency Figure . There wOrthopantamogram revealed unilocular radiolucency with sclerotic border on the left side involving the permanent molars with the second molar being pushed to the inferior border of the mandible and third molar displaced to the coronoid notch Figure . CT scanThough the lesion was extensive, a conservative treatment modality of enucleation was preferred considering the age of the patient. Under general anesthesia, the lesion was enucleated along with the involved permanent molars followed by application of Carnoy’s solution for a period of three minutes Figure . Care waRobinson and Martinez in 1977 defined UA as a cystic cavity lined by ameloblastic epithelium ,7. UA acGroup I: Luminal UA where the tumor is confined to the luminal surface of the cystGroup II : Intraluminal UA when there is nodular proliferation into the lumen without infiltration of tumor cells in the connective tissue wall.Group III: Mural UA where there is presence of invasive islands of tumor cells in the connective tissue wall of the cystOur case falls under Group III as mural variant of UA. The mural variant is believed to show a behaviour similar to that of conventional solid ameloblastoma with a propensity for recurrence after enucleation because of the presence of tumor cells in the fibrous tissue capsule . HoweverThe treatment of UA can be radical or conservative and this subject has always been controversial . RadicalThe effectiveness of a particular treatment modality is determined by means of the recurrence rate after treatment. The rate of recurrence is lesser with radical treatment when compared to a more conservative approach. The recurrence rate after treatment of UA ranges from 10%-25% . Lau andCarnoy’s solution, first described by Culter and Zollingerin 1933, penetrates cancellous bone spaces consequently devitalizing and fixing the tumor cells . The genOn the basis of their study, Lee et al. suggested that the use of Carnoy’s solution after enucleation of UA with mural invasion could be adopted as a standard treatment protocol and they found that there was only 10% chances of recurrence following treatment of UA with enucleation followed by Carnoy’s solution application; among the patients who had recurrence, two patients were treated without extraction of the involved teeth which could be attributed to the fact that tumor remnants could have been possibly left around the tooth root apex . In our Our case showed an excellent prognosis following conservative treatment with good bone formation within a period of one and half years justifying the avoidance of radical surgery in a young patient.The mural variant of UA has a high potential for recurrence when compared with other types of UA. Adult patients with mural UA can be treated by radical surgery to prevent recurrence. However, the same treatment protocol cannot be applied to the pediatric population since resection may cause an alteration in craniofacial development leading to functional and esthetic damage which can directly affect their quality of life. A more conservative approach of enucleating the lesion followed by application of Carnoy’s solution seems to be a promising treatment modality of UA in the pediatric age group. However, this warrants confirmation by future studies.


The purpose of this paper is to argue against the claim that morphological computation is substantially different from other kinds of physical computation. I show that some  purported cases of morphological computation do not count as specifically computational, and that those that do are solely physical computational systems. These latter cases are not, however, specific enough: all computational systems, not only morphological ones, may (and sometimes should) be studied in various ways, including their energy efficiency, cost, reliability, and durability. Second, I critically analyze the notion of “offloading” computation to the morphology of an agent or robot, by showing that, literally, computation is sometimes not offloaded but simply avoided. Third, I point out that while the morphology of any agent is indicative of the environment that it is adapted to, or informative about that environment, it does not follow that every agent has access to its morphology as the model of its environment. As such, it may be somewhat misleading in the debate. This leads to the following consideration: while physical entities may bear information about the milieu in which they are found, it need not mean that this information is available for them to process. Thus, the mere presence of physical processes that lawfully covary with the processes in their surroundings is not evidence that they are engaged in morphological computation as computational models of the environment, in contrast to what Reference  time and O(n) in memory. In morphological computation, by contrast, the inherent parallelism of the interactions means that the time necessary for computation is basically independent of the number of particles. Time is only needed for the preparation of the input; this time usually scales linearly with n.In general, the computational cost of simulating the interaction among Thus, the direct use of the physical system may dramatically influence the efficiency. While this undermines the classical computational complexity argument that hardware matters only negligibly, even in this case, offloading the computation does not ease the overall computational burden so as to make free computational resources available. Importantly, the efficiency gains occur predominantly in purely theoretical scenarios , and are limited to cases when direct physical intervention on a dynamical system replaces conventional digital simulation of a physical system. Whether such simulation may play a crucial role for practical control purposes in robotics, for example, remains a very open question.Yet some defenders of morphological computation may appeal to results known from other fields of non-conventional computing. The idea of using physics directly to compute lies at the core of Feynman’s notion of quantum computing . It was for computation, and muscles for executing movement.  would be in comparison to pure neuronal architectures.) Of course, if my argument is correct, it would also be surprising to see that muscles compute in an overwhelmingly slower way, for example exponentially slower.Even if the agent’s morphology could be used for computational purposes, it would be surprising to see that, say, muscles, compute significantly faster than neurons. After all, neurons, for all we know, were evolutionarily selected Arguably, morphology may indeed facilitate solving some tasks, as in direct physical preparation of a chemical system instead of digital computing. However, it does so mostly by obviating the need for computation , rather than by offloading it. In such cases, it is exactly the case that less computation is needed; the physical structure can play a crucial role, and morphology could be a game changer. One could be tempted to metaphorically say that the initially planned computation was “offloaded,” but such talk is confusing , and are highly directional . Their hlack of computation, but not morphological computation. Indeed, morphology facilitates the task because it is specified computationally in a simpler manner. At the same time, the hearing organ is part of the computational machinery of the cricket, so it has a computational role to play. However, it is not this role that is crucial. Rather, the crucial fact is that their bodily features allow crickets to avoid too much perceptual computation. Nonetheless, in this case, the notion of offloading may be used, at best, metaphorically. Again, it transpires that it is not morphological computation that is essential. If my analysis is correct, then what is essential for explaining the higher efficiency in the cricket robot is both the morphology of perceptual organs and the control is much less confusing). What is difficult and theoretically significant is determining how the benefits of using morphology to interact with the environment can be precisely measured  is important in understanding or explaining their functioning. This is hardly surprising or theoretically novel, although it may be studied more clearly from the perspective of control theory .The analysis in this section suggests that the impact of morphology on computational efficiency varies, compared with conventional computing. First, there are cases of hybrid systems, such as Paul’s XOR robot. These robots may use their morphology to perform tasks that otherwise would have to be performed using silicon chips, but classical complexity theory suggests it is highly unlikely that they would outperform silicon chips. Second, there could be direct physical models, as in the chemical interaction example studied in Reference . At leassimpliciter and its informational exploitation in control or direct physical modeling. The terms morphological control or direct physical modeling seem, therefore, much better suited to such discussions.Explanatorily, therefore, the stress on morphological computation turns out to be blown out of proportion in recent debates, as the role of such computation in efficiency is not unified. Perhaps the term itself it is a misnomer, and what is at stake is the body morphology In the following section, another purported role of morphological computation is analyzed: the role of accounting for biological adaptivity by analyzing the morphology of an agent as a direct model of the environment. That would be, after all, no small feat.In this section, the focus will be on a recent proposal to treat agents as embodied models of their environment which they literally use to compute. Unfortunately, this proposal conflates all observer-available information with information available to systems under study. It will be argued that the exclusive focus on morphology is detrimental without analyzing the kind of control structures that are available in a given biological system.The proposal analyzed in this section stems from the account of biological adaptivity in terms of the free-energy principle (FEP) . While bNot only does the agent embody the environment but the environment embodies the agent. This is true in the sense that the physical states of the agent  are part of the environment. In other words, the statistical model entailed by each agent includes a model of itself as part of that environment.According to Karl Friston, the FEP brings to the fore the critical role of embodiment in cognition:is a model. In other words, the form, structure, and states of our embodied brains do not contain a model of the sensorium—they are that model.” ([be (not necessarily to include) a model of a system—hence, bodily and morphological processes can be part and parcel of the model.” model.” .if anatomical structure in the brain recapitulates causal structure in the environment, then one would expect independent causes to be encoded in functionally segregated neuronal structures. Given that objects can be in different places, they possess separable attributes of “what” and “where.” This translates into separate neuronal representations in segregated visual pathways.This small passage shows a number of serious flaws in the way Friston presents his account of the FEP. First of all, the FEP does not, to be exact, predict the structure of the sensory pathways, as we already know that there are two streams of visual processing. It is also difficult to say how to justify such expectations by referring to the FEP. Moreover, while it has also turned out to be true that two streams are also ascribed to auditory processing [expect. To infer or expect this functional separation, one has to assume much more than the FEP.In the same short commentary, Friston gives a simple example. In his view, two pathways of visual processing in the brain are predictable from the FEP:ocessing  (even thocessing  stressesocessing ). Moreovanything in the environment. In other words, agents, even if they model their environment—which is plausible otherwise, for example owing to the good regulator theorem [However, the problem runs even deeper: the initial hypothesis about the recapitulation cannot be true. There are brain waves, for example, and not everything that the brain represents and responds to are waves. Moreover, if brains are capable of executing probabilistic reasoning , mechanisms of this reasoning need not recapitulate  theorem —they arepathways. There could be just processing stages, as with color and edge detection. After all, colors are not what objects are, so why not hypothesize a larger number of dissociable pathways? More importantly, why not hypothesize that there should be a pathway that responds to magnetic properties of visual objects, and another one responsible for perceiving their radioactivity?Moreover, even if one could expect some difference in the way two properties of visual objects are processed in the brain, because these are two different properties of objects as we see them, there is no reason to expect separate One obvious response—that there are no specialized sensors of radioactivity in humans—is not available to Friston. There are two reasons. First, visual location has no specialized sensor. It is the light that the human retina is sensitive to, and the information about object location has to be picked up from the light. Second, Friston understands sensory states of organisms very broadly; anything that lies at the boundary of organisms, defined more formally as one of their Markov blankets , is a seHowever, this kind of model, as embodied in the leukemia that one might suffer after radiation exposure, is not poised for informational use the same way as the light waves entering the retina are. As far as we know, there are no generative models of radiation in the brain, in contrast to generative models of visual objects we encounter. Thus, there is an equivocation hidden in the very claim that bodies are probabilistic models of their environment, because it suggests strongly that statistical inference of agents can rely on such models. In truth, however, only external observers (including the radiated human being equipped with appropriate measuring devices) can treat traces of radiation as models of the surrounding. They are observer-dependent models, not “animal-perspective” models.  s, given a response r, p(s|r) has been wrongly ignored by analyzing the converse, p(r|s). The distinction between two perspectives also tracks the distinction, or so I will argue, between information available for computational processing outside the animal, and information available for processing within it. While one can, for example, make natural information part of a computational process, e.g., by including a thermistor or any kind of sensor in a computational system, the indicator, such as a thermometer (or a thermistor), need not be processed by the animal itself. One can measure the temperature of a frog with a thermometer, and the frog will be perfectly oblivious to the thermometer’s reading . The thermometer may interact with the frog, but not in the way the frog’s own sensors or receptors do.The distinction between the observer perspective and the animal perspective, elucidated by Chris Eliasmith in Reference , is crucThe easiest way to elucidate the distinction further is to focus on biological organisms as regulators, or controllers, of their actions. It is quite clear that only some part of causal interactions of these organisms with the environment constitute their negative feedback as related to control; by seeing the organisms that can control , one can theorize about their proper modeling relationships. Thus, from this perspective, it is obvious that organisms that can differentially control the location of objects (by moving them) and plan their own actions depending on the category of an object should have access to these pieces of information separately. However, it does not follow that they should have differing processing pathways or stages, only separate informational states. Furthermore, because organisms, as far as we know, cannot control objects depending on their radioactivity, even if their radioactivity is traceable in their body morphology, it is not part of their own informational economy.Thus, there is one special sense of morphology facilitating control when it gives rise to informational relationships. In the case of cricket ears, crickets do not respond differentially (do not control their own actions) to sounds that lie outside their hearing range. Their morphology actually inhibits certain informational relationships from occurring: it facilitates control indirectly, by limiting the amount of information poised for motor control in cricket phonotaxis. In contrast, the information conveyed by their ears facilitates perception. This is a clear sense of facilitating control via perception. Thus, this kind of morphological computation is genuine physical computation. Similarly, control information, as involved in metabolic control—evolutionarily important according to the current theories of nervous system evolution —may invoSo, even though Friston does not use the notion of morphological computation, he seems to conflate three senses distinguished in Reference . The sammorphological computation at all. However, there is a temptation that many theorists fall prey to: treat all observer-available information as information available to organisms under study. The exclusive focus on morphology is particularly detrimental without analyzing the kind of control structures that are available in a given biological system. In contrast, in Reference [Friston’s conflation shows clearly that the problem of focusing on morphological computation is not merely terminological or verbal. In contrast to Pezzulo et al., he does not use the term eference , two sepTo summarize, in this section, it was shown that the kind of theorizing that underwrites the enthusiasm shared by some proponents of morphological computation is actually unhelpful in understanding the organisms or robots under study. Computational theories and explanations of biological control, including biological cognition, should focus on the information as available to the organisms themselves. Again, this shows that morphological computation is not a special embodied perspective, and that it may actually obscure our understanding of the role of embodiment, of functional roles of anatomy of organisms, if we focus exclusively on the morphology without analyzing the informational relationships closer.In this paper, it was claimed that the notion of morphological computation is not helpful in analyzing the contribution of the physical to computation. Moreover, the notion does not contribute to the explanation of the role of embodiment in cognitive agents. As analyses performed by Müller and Hoffman ,49 show,lack of computation is responsible for success, for example in insects simply unable to respond to a class of perceptual stimuli. Finally, it could be more efficient due to the use of a physical system as its own direct model.In addition, the analyses of offloading tasks to the morphology of an agent seem to lack the rigor required to show that it is morphological computation proper that explains the success of “offloading.” Again, the contributions are disunified; sometimes, morphological computation may be arguably slower . Sometimes, it seems that the Lastly, it was argued that the problem with morphological computation is not just terminological. Leading theorists of adaptivity, who claim that agents are embodied models of their surroundings, fail to observe exactly the same distinction as the one that creates the gap between morphology facilitating control and other kinds of morphological computation. In other words, morphological computation is a notion that offers a superficial and merely verbal kind of unified perspective on natural cognition. However, even when the notion is made more precise, its contribution fails to be novel or theoretically fecund. In other words, the notion may be confusing in the worst cases. At best, however, it is nothing but physical computation.Still, the current criticism should not be understood as a wholesale rejection of the study of various physical trade-offs among energy efficiency, speed, reliability, durability, or noise levels of physical computation. Not at all. Physical computation remains a physical phenomenon and cannot be studied purely in the abstract way. Its physical implementation does matter. However, introducing new terminology to stress that only one kind of computation, morphological computation, requires analysis of the physical impact of hardware is simply misleading. In cognitive (neuro)science, for example, all kinds of cognitive processing require this kind of attention to physical detail . Morphological computation is nothing over and above physical computation. The proper study of physical computation includes the study of various physical substrates and the way they operate, including quantum systems, reservoirs, or biological mechanisms. Note that extant formal accounts of morphological computation are based on general accounts of physical computation .


Nature Communications 10.1038/s41467-020-14509-4, published online 31 January 2020.Correction to: The original version of this Article contained an error in the information provided in the legend for Supplementary Fig. 4D. The text should read: 1 = UA-GalNAc4S; 2 = UA-GalNAc4S incubated with B.theta PBS washed cells for 1h; 3 = UA-GalNAc4S incubated with B.theta PBS washed cell for 24h; 4 = UA-GalNAc4S incubated with sonicated B.theta PBS washed cells for 1h; 5 = UA-GalNAc4S incubated with sonicated B.theta PBS washed cell for 24h; 6 = GalNAc; 7 = GalNAc6S; 8 = GalNAc6S incubated with B.theta PBS washed cells for 1h; 9 = GalNAc6S incubated with B.theta PBS washed cells for 24h; 10 = GalNAc6S incubated with sonicated B.theta PBS washed cell for 1h and 11 = GalNAc6S incubated with sonicated B.theta PBS washed cells for 24.This has been corrected in both the PDF and HTML versions of the Article.


Delayed childbearing is currently a major challenge in reproductive medicine as increased age has an important impact on successful conception, both in natural and in assisted reproduction. There is a lack of knowledge about the impact of age on fertility, even in highly educated populations. A number of initiatives have been taken to increase fertility awareness. Health care providers have been encouraged to talk with patients about their reproductive life plan (RLP) for almost a decade based on recommendations from the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. This concept has been explored successfully in Swedish contraception counselling. A growing number of online interventions aim to raise fertility awareness. These websites or interactive tools provide relevant information for individuals and couples as they consider whether they want children, when they should have them, and how many they may wish to have. These interventions are important, because research depicts that knowledge helps people in their decision-making process. With new fertility preservations such as egg freezing now available, additional education is needed to be sure that women and couples are well informed about the cost and low success rates of this intervention. Having children is valued very highly in all societies. Ninety percent of people in Western countries want children, generally between one and three . In highInterviews with professional women and men who did not have children found that they did not generally give much thought to their fertility, although there were variances between women and men. They believed that fertility problems could be addressed by assisted reproductive technologies (ART) or families could be formed through adoption. Postponed parenthood was described as an adaptation to societal changes and a contemporary lifestyle with many competing priorities .Reproductive life planning is a simple concept that can be very complex. People who have experienced instability in their life, live with interpersonal violence, and/or live in poverty with limited options may not believe they have the ability to plan anything in their lives. Other people may feel ambivalent about ‘wanting’ a child for many reasons. Some people hold religious beliefs that run counter to the idea of planning. A person may wish to become a parent but not have a partner in their life. Reproductive plans often change over time due to life circumstances, including relationship changes. Family-friendly countries offer parental leave, subsidized childcare, and work places with flexible hours for parents so they can spend more time with their children as a way to create more equity for all people who may wish to become parents . Many coThis brief review aims to continue the conversation on this important topic by describing the impact of delayed parenthood on fertility and reviewing fertility awareness among university and medical students. This paper shares several successful interventions and offers recommendations for future work.The number of women in high-income countries who have delayed childbearing has increased over the past decades, with the average age of having a first child being 30 years in Europe . There ain vitro fertilization (IVF), couples with a desire for a one-child family should start at the latest at age 32 of the female partner. When a two-child family is desired they should start when the woman is 27, and when couples want three children they should start at age 23  . Advancet age 23 . A comput age 23  to assest age 23 .In 2004, Lampic, Skoog Svanberg, and Tydén started to investigate Swedish university students’ attitudes about having children and their knowledge about fertility ,6,12. AlAt what age are women the most fertile?slight decrease in women’s ability to become pregnant?At what age is there a marked decrease in women’s ability to become pregnant?At what age is there a A young woman (<25 years) and a man have unprotected intercourse at the time of ovulation—how large is the chance that she will then become pregnant?A woman and a man regularly have unprotected intercourse during a period of 1 year—how large is the chance that she will become pregnant if she is 25–30 years old?How large is the chance that she will become pregnant if she is 35–40 years old?How many couples in Sweden are involuntarily childless?For couples that undergo treatment with IVF, what is their chance, on average, of having a child?The Swedish Fertility Awareness Questionnaire has been used in university populations in many countries with similar findings as in Sweden . The SweTo summarize in brief: men and women had misconceptions about age and fertility and overestimated the success rate of having a child through IVF. In the case of infertility, women were more likely than men to consider adoption, but both genders were much more likely to choose IVF over adoption, indicating an importance of genetic parenthood.As a consequence of these misconceptions, young men and women of reproductive age would benefit from evidence-based education on fertility issues to help them make informed decisions regarding reproductive planning. Two recent reviews investigating knowledge about age-related fertility decline concluded that campaigns about age and fertility should be targeted both to people of reproductive age and to health care providers. Interventions and campaigns are warranted, especially those targeting men and people with low education. They should be customized to meet individual needs .Not only is there a lack of fertility awareness in the general population of university students, there is a lack of knowledge among medical students and health care providers as well. Medical students’ intentions for future parenthood and their knowledge about fertility have been investigated in several studies. Yu et al. used some of the Swedish fertility questions in a study of US obstetrics and gynaecology (OB/GYN) residents. Nearly half of the residents were misinformed about fertility decline, and three out of four overestimated the effectiveness of IVF treatment. Interestingly, 80% believed that they should initiate discussions about age-related fertility decline with patients. The findings indicated a need for improved education on age-related fertility decline in OB/GYN residency programmes .In an Austrian study, fertility awareness was compared between medical students and non-medical students . AlthougAs more women postpone childbearing until their late 30s and early 40s, it is clear that women of all ages would benefit from a better understanding of the biomedical limitations and other issues related to reproductive health that may help or hinder their reproductive plans. Working with young adults to create a reproductive life plan is one strategy . A reproIn an article on clinical content of preconception care, Jack et al. offered the following recommendation:Routine health promotion activities for all women of reproductive age should begin with screening women for their intentions to become or not become pregnant in the short- and long-term and their risk of conceiving (whether intended or not). Providers should encourage patients  to consider a reproductive life plan and educate patients about how their reproductive life plan impacts contraceptive and medical decision-making. Every woman of reproductive age should receive information and counselling about all forms of contraception and the use of emergency contraception that is consistent with their reproductive life plan and risk of pregnancy. We believe that it is relatively easy to follow these recommendations when women seek family planning counselling as long as appointment times are long enough to allow for conversation.In Sweden, midwives are responsible for approximately 90% of contraceptive counselling, and the counselling is free of charge. RLP counselling has been evaluated in studies conducted in Sweden , in the Mittal et al. used the RLP counselling in a small pilot study with women with chronic diseases. Understanding the risks of pregnancy associated with diabetes, hypertension, and obesity increased, as did knowledge about how a reproductive plan could help them think about future decisions .Stern and Robbins explored administrators’ and health care providers’ experience of using RLP counselling in clinical settings ,37. NearOne key lesson from the Swedish experience is that the support of senior midwife leaders and clinic administrators is important for advancing and sustaining RLP counselling . The intIn Denmark, at the University Hospital in Copenhagen, a fertility assessment and counselling (FAC) clinic was begun in 2011 as an addition to family planning clinics, which were established in the 1970s. Delayed childbearing, low fertility rates, and increasing use of social egg freezing prompted the introduction of this new service. The state-funded FAC clinic offered free counselling using a risk assessment score sheet which included measurement of anti-Müllerian hormone, ovarian and pelvic sonography in women, and sperm analyses in men. A fertility expert provided a physical exam and 30-min consultation to all patients. A campaign was launched to make women and men aware of this new clinic . After 1However, addressing pregnancy intention in a primary care setting may be perceived as implicit persuasion for some women, as has been showed in qualitative research on Latina and black women . GarbersWebsites rather than doctors have been claimed to be the main source of fertility-related information for people aged 15–45 . This isThere are several good online interventions that have been developed to increase fertility awareness. The Fertility Status Awareness Tool (FertiSTAT) by Bunting and Boivin, for example, can be used by couples or individuals to calculate the fertility status based on some questions . In the Ekstrand et al. developed a website with RLP information. The website was translated into English, French, Arab, Greek, Spanish, and Somali to facilitate the use among women who could not read Swedish. A majority of midwives identified the quiz about fertility as a helpful tool . MidwiveAn online intervention in the UK that provides fertility information to adolescents aged 16–18 years and university students aged 21–24 years significantly increased fertility knowledge for university students and also reduced the threat of infertility for university students and adolescents. Participation in the study was associated with an increase in feelings of anxiety but a decrease in physical stress reactions. Adolescents had more optimal fertility plans compared to emerging adults due to being younger .yourFertility.org.au : a comprehensive website with an interactive tool to calculate the best period to conceive, information on the impact of age, lifestyle, and weight on fertility and medical issues impacting fertility.nhs.uk/live-well/infertility (UK): an informative overview of causes, diagnosis, and treatment of infertility, but also of risk factors and how to preserve the fertility.MyFertilityChoices.com (Canada) provides information on fertility testing, preservation of fertility, treatment, and family-building options. There are decision-making resources to facilitate fertility choices. Personal stories can be shared on the website, and experts can be contacted with questions.Reproduktivlivsplan.se (Sweden) is an online version of the RLP counselling described above . People ShowYourLoveToday.com (US) provides information to young adults about health and wellness, including information about fertility awareness.https://repro.tamk.fi/app/select.On a website from Finland, you can take a reproductive health test and a reproductive health quiz. It is offered in Finnish and English: www.Klaarvoorkinderen.be.Other tools are currently in development. In Belgium, results of a study on fertility awareness in a Flemish population encouraged the researchers to develop an interactive website to inform people about their reproduction. It can be consulted soon at Other online tools with the aim to increase fertility awareness and promote preconception health include:The recent European Congress on Preconception Health and Care in Denmark (September 2019) was a ‘fertile’ breeding ground for new ideas. Several researchers who designed some of the online tools described above worked together to develop a fertility education poster with very clear information for those who want to have children in the future  52)..52).One option that women who wish to postpone pregnancy have is to freeze their eggs (oocyte banking)—at least for those who can afford it; egg preservation is costly and often not covered by health insurance plans. Some large companies are offering egg freezing as a fringe benefit for their employees. There are many emerging questions as to who benefits from postponing family creation. Is it the companies who will have hardworking employees without children? Is it the clinics who offer this technical reproductive method? Is it the women who can invest in career goals while trying to find a suitable partner? Is it the scientists who profit from the fees? In spite of the many unanswered questions, there is a rapidly growing interest in egg freezing that should be carefully monitored and examined over time.One out of 10 female university students (average age 23 years) who attended a clinic for contraceptive counselling in Sweden in 2014 had considered freezing their eggs . In ItalA qualitative study with women on the waiting list for oocyte banking showed that these women were financially independent and lived in single-person urban households. They opted for oocyte banking because they wished to share parenthood with a future partner rather than becoming a single parent. Although women found the costs of the intervention high, they were willing to invest their money to increase their chances for shared parenthood . BaldwinWhile oocyte banking may be an option for women with a strong wish for a child in the future, the current technique is an unreliable insurance. If eggs are frozen before the age of 35, women have a 30–40% chance to conceive when there are 10 eggs available. However, research points out that women interested in elective egg freezing are often at the end of their reproductive life spans (late 30 s to early 40 s). These women want children, but have no partner with whom to build a family . AlthougIn light of this research, it is important to chart a careful and comprehensive course for the future. Education about human reproduction, including fertility, should be widely available beginning in adolescence. People need clear information about their reproductive health, including menstrual cycles and medical conditions and behaviours that can potentially compromise fertility. There are a number of new tools available to support this education. More research is needed to evaluate the efficacy of these tools, including any unintended consequences, as well as to design and test strategies for use in schools, universities and other settings.Likewise, health care providers (including midwives and nurses) should receive education about fertility, both during their medical education and through continuing education opportunities. As IVF, oocyte banking, and other technologies continue to develop, providers need to be informed about the efficacy, costs, and success rates so as to provide accurate information to their patients.Education and counselling around reproductive life planning and fertility should be approached carefully and thoughtfully, always thinking about the unique needs and situation of the client. Conversations on this topic may be upsetting and frustrating for people who may not be able to act on the advice given. Providers require training so they can approach these conversations without bias and in a way that supports each person’s needs and goals. The Family Planning National Training Centre (FPNTC) developed a Client-Centered Reproductive Goals & Counselling Flow Chart to improve health care providers’ ability to have client-centered conversations about fertility . ServiceMen must receive counselling and be engaged in conversations around fertility and parenthood. Research needs to be undertaken to listen to men on this topic and work with them to design messages and identify the best approach for having this conversation. Stories that only highlight the ‘miracle babies’ conceived and birthed by older couples may sell magazines but can also do harm by creating false expectations.Society at large also plays a critical role in supporting new families so parents can care for their children but also have the opportunity to succeed in achieving their educational and career goals. While countries with family-friendly policies have taken many steps in this direction, ongoing public discussions and research are needed to identify additional strategies that can support gender equity and reproductive autonomy and support for all people. Moreover, all deserve to understand human reproduction, including how to manage their fertility. At the same time, providing this information can be very challenging as it can be perceived as judgmental and upsetting and must be offered within the context of many desires—educational and professional success, relationship with a trusted partner, a sense of readiness for the responsibility, and hoping to have a child/children in their lives. Further, not everyone has the resources, health, and opportunities to plan for the future. Efforts need to be made to not only provide information but to address these larger issues using an equity lens so that everyone can benefit and thrive.