Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) and suggest that it may have been imported into the community’s behavioural repertoire by an immigrant female. We describe the presence and frequency of well-digging and related behaviour, and suggest that its subsequent spread in the group may have involved some degree of social learning. We highlight that subsurface water is a concealed resource, and that the limited spread of well-digging in the group may highlight the cognitive, rather than physical, challenges it presents in a rainforest environment.Access to resources shapes species’ physiology and behaviour. Water is not typically considered a limiting resource for rainforest-living chimpanzees; however, several savannah and savannah-woodland communities show behavioural adaptations to limited water. Here, we provide a first report of habitual well-digging in a rainforest-living group of East African chimpanzees (The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10329-022-00992-4. Daubentonia madagascariensis) (Sterling and McCreless Gorilla gorilla beringei)     and donkeys    (Klingel Equus quagga)  , which occasionally excavate their own wells        . Subadult female ONY immigrated to the Waibira community of the Budongo Forest, Uganda, in 2014. Shortly after her arrival, she was repeatedly seen digging wells in a water hole used by the community during the dry season. She dug small holes with her hand in the sandy-gravel substrate of the water hole, waited for water to filter through (0–13 s), then drank it. During these observations both mature and immature individuals were seen observing ONY digging with apparent interest (peering). Once ONY had finished drinking, the other individuals used her wells for both direct drinking and sponging up of water with tools made of leaves, moss, or a combination of both materials. Here we describe ONY’s well-digging behaviour and the same behaviour subsequently seen in other individuals of the community.Here, we describe the appearance and subsequent spread of well-digging behaviour in a previously apparently naïve community of wild East African chimpanzees . Camera traps were placed once rainfall started to decline  and before the chimpanzees started to visit the water hole. Camera traps were removed once the regular rains resumed and no chimpanzees had visited the water hole for at least 2 weeks . Camera traps were set up in the main areas of activity at the water hole and set to run 24 h/day, taking 60-s videos during daylight hours and 15-s clips at night, with a 1-s pause between successive videos.From these camera trap videos, as well as from additional handheld camcorder videos taken ad libitum during focal individual follows between 2011 and the present, we coded all digging-related behaviour Table . We defiA total of 56 digging-related events were coded from 121 videos (Table n = 14) was recorded in the dataset. During the first direct observations of this behaviour by the field team in 2017, another parous adult female was recorded to observe ONY digging with apparent interest for at least 9 min , and wait for her to finish drinking. Over the next 4 h, two adult males, one adult female, and two immature males were observed to exploit the well with either a leaf sponge and/or for direct drinking (Video S3).Digging-related behaviours were recorded between 2013 and 2019, with play digging and digging reported in 2013 prior to ONY’s immigration. The first observation of well-digging occurred in February 2015  and AKK (n = 5); the nulliparous adult female, ONY (n = 14); and a juvenile female, LIZ (n = 2), unrelated to any of the three adults  and moss sponges, but no drinking tools were specific to drinking from wells. Leaves were also used to wipe mud from the hands after digging.Chimpanzees living in water-restricted areas are able to exploit subsurface water by digging wells to access it  had been observed in the Waibira community prior to ONY’s immigration in 2015, we recorded no observations of well-digging in the community prior to 2015, despite camera trap video recording at the site (ongoing since January 2013) and direct observations during focal follows (ongoing since 2012). We also recorded no indirect evidence of well-digging at the water hole prior to 2015. While it is impossible to rule out that we missed this behaviour or failed to recognise the indirect traces of it, we consider it likely that ONY introduced the behaviour into the Waibira group. First, her competence and frequency of well-digging were remarkable from the beginning, suggesting that she knew the behaviour prior to immigration. Second, and equally remarkable, were the behavioural responses of other adult individuals who closely observed her well-digging behaviour and then exploited her wells over several years, suggesting that the behaviour was previously unknown to other Waibira adults.A similar pattern was recorded in adult chimpanzees in Bossou, who closely observed (‘peering’) previously unknown nut-cracking behaviour in a field experiment  for potato washing . While some younger males were observed to dig a well on at least one occasion, no adult male has so far been seen to dig one . This female-biased pattern of spread is similar to that observed in Japanese macaques  further spread of well-digging between adult females and immature individuals of both sexes; (2) matrilineal spread, as three of the habitual well-diggers were mature females, two of them with offspring; and (3) the possible spread to adult males with the maturation and rise in rank of immature male well-diggers.In conclusion, we describe a new case of well-digging in chimpanzees–the first described for a rainforest-living group. We describe the apparent spread of this behaviour, which was potentially introduced by an immigrant female. The repeated innovation of well-digging across four communities of chimpanzees  of ONY digging on 16 February 2015. First observation (from camera trap) of ONY digging and then drinking from a well at the water hole. While the large adult male on the right sits down, ONY—the third individual from the left—is visible at 1 s digging in the background. She digs until 11 s in, at which point she starts to drink and does so for the remainder of the video. The adult female LIR is sitting to the right of ONY and can be seen watching her throughout. (MP4 56600 KB)Supplementary file2 First observation (direct) of ONY digging on 8 February 2017 at 11.40 a.m. ONY is seated on the left and is clearly seen digging from the start of the video. Another adult female  is seen on the right, making, then using, a leaf sponge while facing ONY. (MP4 23514 KB)Supplementary file3 Continuation of first observation (direct) of ONY digging on 8 February 2017 at 11.42 a.m. ONY is seen on the left picking out an object and then digging to enlarge the well, waiting for water to rise within it, and then drinking from it for several minutes. KET, who is dipping a leaf sponge into water and drinking from it, and her infant KYO, can be seen on the right. At 3 min  49 s, KET, who has been facing ONY and, together with her infant, KYO, watching her intermittently, then approaches to a near distance and watches her more intently , but does not use the well. Both females leave at the end of the video (7 min 23 s). (MP4 192231 KB)Supplementary file4 LIR and offspring drinking and leaf sponging from the well dug by ONY on 8 February 2017. At 1.43 p.m., the adult female LIR is seen drinking from the well that ONY dug several hours earlier. LIR’s infant, LAM, is seen peering to the left of LIR. At 20 s, LAM puts leaves into his mouth as though to make to make a leaf sponge, but continues to chew on the leaves picked, and adds others to the wadge in his mouth ; he is not seen to use the leaves to sponge up water, and appears to have swallowed them by 1 min 20 s. At 1 min 2 s, LIR makes a leaf sponge by incorporating two types of leaves and then uses it in the well, and LAM peers at her while she does so. At 1 min 38 s, LIR’s juvenile son, LKU, moves into the frame and immediately drinks from the well. At 1 min 53 s, LAM dips his fingers into the well and drinks from them. (MP4 60421 KB)Supplementary file5 Adult male MOR drinking from the well dug by ONY on 8 February 2017. At 2.11 p.m., the adult male MOR is seen drinking from the well dug by ONY several hours earlier. (MP4 19851 KB)Supplementary file6 Adult male ILA drinking from the well dug by ONY on 8 February 2017. At 4.02 p.m., adult male ILA is seen drinking from the well dug by ONY several hours earlier. (MP4 6816 KB)Supplementary file7 A well dug by adult female ONY on 12 January 2018 in the sand/gravel substrate of the water hole. The hand of CH  is shown for scale. Discarded leaf sponges can be seen in and around the water hole. (MOV 230879 KB)Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.


It is a challenging problem to classify multi-dimensional data with complex intrinsic geometry inherent, such as human gesture recognition based on videos. In particular, manifold structure is a good way to characterize intrinsic geometry of multi-dimensional data. The recently proposed sparse coding on Grassmann manifold shows high discriminative power in many visual classification tasks. It represents videos on Grassmann manifold using Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) of the data matrix by vectorizing each image in videos, while vectorization destroys the spatial structure of videos. To keep the spatial structure of videos, they can be represented as the form of data tensor. In this paper, we firstly represent human gesture videos on product Grassmann manifold (PGM) by Higher Order Singular Value Decomposition (HOSVD) of data tensor. Each factor manifold characterizes features of human gesture video from different perspectives and can be understood as appearance, horizontal motion and vertical motion of human gesture video respectively. We then propose a weighted sparse coding model on PGM, where weights can be understood as modeling the importance of factor manifolds. Furthermore, we propose an optimization algorithm for learning coding coefficients by embedding each factor Grassmann manifold into symmetric matrices space. Finally, we give a classification algorithm, and experimental results on three public datasets show that our method is competitive to some relevant excellent methods. Human action/gesture recognition  is a hotFor video-based human gesture recognition, each video is assigned to a class label and videos of the same class maybe acted by different person in different environment. It becomes more difficult for gesture recognition due to large variations, such as illumination, appearance, pose and scale. There exist variations even though for the same person. Therefore it is a challenging problem for video-based human gesture recognition. Basically, the key problems of video-based human gesture recognition are learning discriminative feature representations for a gesture video and designing an effective recognition method.For feature representation, some researches focused on handcrafted approaches, such as HOG-3D , space–tFor recognition methods, sparsity representation classification (SRC) had been shown to deliver notable results for various visual-based tasks, such as face recognition , subspacAlthough the Grassmann manifold can well reflect the non-linear structure of data, the single space representation methods lose some important information by vectorizing each image in videos. Naturally, video and image set can be represented in the form of data tensor. Tensor computing had been successfully applied to many visual-based application . Lui Extending SRC model on Grassmann manifold into product Grassmann manifold to deal with multi-dimensional data such as videos and image-sets. (2)Discussing the different importance of three factor manifolds and proposing a weighted sparse coding model. (3)Comparing with several classification methods on three datasets to show the effectiveness of our proposed method.The rest of this paper is organized as follows: ‘Product Grassmann Manifold Representation for Data’ introduces product Grassmann manifold representation for data; ‘Weighted Sparse Coding on Product Grassmann Manifold’ gives a weighted sparse coding model on PGM; ‘Experiments’ shows experiments on different datasets, and experiment results show that the proposed method achieves considerable accuracy; ‘Computational Complexity’ analyzes the computational complexity of our proposed method; ‘Main Findings and Future Directions’ gives main findings and future directions.In the following paper, we use the mathematical symbols in p-dimensional subspace of ℝd (X = [x1|x2|⋯|xp] ∈ ℝd×p and it is denoted as span(X). For the sake of convenience, we use the same symbol X to represent span(X). The distance of two points X and Y on Grassmann manifold can be defined as X) = XXT, and Sym(d) is the symmetric matrices space with order d  is defined as i = 1, …, M) is called factor manifold and pi is called dimension of each factor manifold. A point on PGM is denoted as [X] = . The distance between two points [X] =  and [Y] =  on PGM is defined as weighted average distance of each factor Grassmann manifold ωm(≥0) represents the importance of factor manifold A point on Grassmann manifold ce of ℝd . That merefer to . ProductJ1×J2×J3, where J1, J2 and J3 represent height, width and length of video respectively; Image set can be represented as tensor 𝒜 ∈ ℝJ1×J2×J3, where J1, J2 and J3 represent height, width and number of image set respectively; Light field can be represented as tensor 𝒜 ∈ ℝJ1×J2×J3×J4  are orthogonal matrices spanning the row space with the first Jm rows associated with non-zero singular values from the unfolded matrices respectively, 𝒮 ∈ ℝd1×⋯×dM is a core tensor, dm = ∏i≠mJi, and ×m denotes mode- m multiplication. Each Vm) columns of Vm)(T and denote it as Um)( is a point on Grassmann manifold U(1), …, UM) is a point on PGM In the following, we discuss the way to represent multi-dimensional data on PGM. The variation for each mode of a tensor 𝒜 ∈ ℝpm reflects the principal information of data. In brief, the information of data may be redundant if the value of pm is too large and the information of data may be insufficient if the value of pm is too small. Hence it is important to select the parameters pm and we will discuss this problem in details in our experiments.Remark: The value of parameter X1], …, [XN]} be the training set which includes N samples, where p1,…,pM|d1,…,dM) be a query sample on product Grassmann manifold. The sparse coding model on PGM is formulated as follows: α = T is the sparse representation coefficient, the abstract symbols i.e., addition and scalar-mulitplication. Y]. To get the sparse coding model on PGM, proper definitions of distance and combination operator should be specified. According to the geometric property of Grassmann manifold, we use the embedded distance and linear combination on the space of symmetric matrices. Hence, we construct the weighted sparse coding model on PGM as follows, Let { = , i =    1,2,...,N and Xmi ∈G, m = 1,2,...,M; the query sample on PGM:    [Y] =  and Ym ∈G,m=1,2,...,M. Ensure:    The sparse code α∗   for m = 1 : M do      for i = 1 : N do         for j = 1 : N do          [Km(X)]ij = ωmTr(XmiTXm j Xm j TXm i )       /* compute matrix Km(X)         end for          [Km]i  = ωmTr(XmiTYmYmTXm i )            /* compute vector    Km      end for   end for    M     ∑  m=1 Km(X) = UΣUT          /* compute SVD of  M   ∑ m=1 Km(X)   A ← Σ1/2UT     Y∗ ← Σ−1/2UT )   α∗ = arg min α  ∥Y∗− Aα∥2 + λ∥α∥1           /* the solution of model (2)   return  α∗_______________________________________________    α∗ can be used for classification. Following the idea of the Sparse Representation Classification (SRC) .When model on (SRC) , the quek sparse codes, where li is the class label of training sample [Xi] and δ(x) is the discrete Dirac function. Y] = by using the samples associated to class k is defined as Y is determined by In details, let  ________________________________________________________ Algorithm 2 Weighted sparse representation classification on product Grass- mann manifold (WSRC-PGM)_______________________________________________________________ Require:    Training data [Xi] = ,i=1,2,...,N belonging to c classes;    the query [Y] =  Ensure:    The class label Label([Y]) of the given test sample [Y]   Compute α∗ as Algorithm 1   Compute residual ɛk([Y]) by using equation (3)   Compute the class label by using equation (4)   return  Label([Y])___________________________________________________________________________    λ is all chosen as 0.1 by experience.In this section, we show performance of the proposed method against some state-of-the-art methods on three kinds of datasets. In the following experiments, all video data can be regarded as points on PGM The Cambridge hand gesture datasets  containsp1, p2, p3) of three factor Grassmann manifolds and their weights . In fact, we have ω1 + ω2 + ω3 = 1 in model p1, p2, p3, ω1, ω2). For this datasets, p1, p2, p3 are optimized all in the range of 2 to 20 by step 2, and ω1, ω2 are optimized in the range as In this subsection, we discuss the parameter setting including dimensions  in Maximizing the average CRRs of five results to have good discrimination, there exist 33 optional parameter combinations. Meanwhile, we expect the data representation carrying more information to better fit the testing data. Hence, among the 33 combinations we choose the top 5 % combinations making λ is set as 0.1. With the three combinations of parameters , the samples of Set1-Set4 are represented as points on In this experiment, the parameter The confusion matrix of our proposed approach on the four testing sets under parameter combination 1 are given in The Ballet dataset contains 44 videos including 8 complex motion patterns from 3 persons . In detap1, p2, p3, ω1, ω2) by 5-fold cross validation on training set, where p1, p2 are all in the range of {2:2:20}, p3 is in the range of {1:1:6} and ω1, ω2 are in the range as p1, p2, p3, ω1, ω2, ω3) are listed in Similar to the discussion for parameter setting of experiment on Cambridge hand gesture dataset, we jointly determine the parameters  by 5-fold cross validation on training set, where p1 is in the range of {2:4:32}, p2 is in the range of {2:4:24}, p3 is in the range of {10:4:45} and  are in the range as p1, p2, p3, ω1, ω2, ω3) are listed in In our experiment, videos are firstly cropped by tracking the region of interest through a simple correlation filter, and then all videos are resized to 32 × 24 × 45. The videos whose frames are less than 45 are appended with the last frame added some Gaussian noise. Similar to the previous discussion, we jointly determine the parameters . The gSC algorithm (O(Ndp2) flops for computing N, where span(Z), d1 = d2 = d3 = 400, p1 = 8, p2 = 18, p3 = 12 of combination 1 in our experiment and d = 400, p = 50 are chosen in gSC (Same as the notations of algorithm WSC-PGM, the WSC-PGM algorithm requires lgorithm  requiresn in gSC . We can t in gSC .We further evaluate the execution time of our WSC-PGM for classification in Subject to video-based human gesture recognition, we proposed a novel weighted sparse coding model on product Grassmann manifold. A video can be viewed as a third order tensor and then represented as a point on product Grassmann manifold by factorizing the tensor through HOSVD. This representation can characterize the multi-dimensional information including appearance, horizontal motion, vertical motion from video data and also can efficiently take advantage of the nonlinear manifold structure of video data. Based on PGM representation of videos, we proposed a sparse coding method by embedding the product Grassmann manifold to the product space of symmetric matrices. Meanwhile, an efficient algorithm WSC-PGM and the corresponding classification algorithm WSRC-PGM are proposed. The method of this paper improves the correct recognition rate and meanwhile it reduces the time complexity comparing with sparse coding on single Grassmann manifold. Experiments on three kinds of public datasets show that our method performs very well.In future work, we would like to study the product Grassmann manifold representation method combing with time series model in tensor form, in order to enhance the discriminant performance of videos.


In this illustrative video, the authors demonstrate resection of a superior vermian arteriovenous malformation (AVM) using the endoscopic-assisted parieto-occipital interhemispheric precuneal transtentorial approach. Lateral positioning allows for gravity-assisted access to the interhemispheric fissure without retractors. The parieto-occipital trajectory is useful in patients who have a steep tentorial angle and avoids manipulation of the occipital lobe and visual cortex. In addition, the authors utilize an angled endoscope, which allows full inspection of the resection bed after AVM removal to visualize areas hidden from the microsurgical view to minimize the chance of residual disease in a deep corridor with multiple visual obstructions.https://youtu.be/hk9nIIdtqbIThe video can be found here:  This is Dr. James Liu, and I will be demonstrating the endoscopic-assisted parieto-occipital interhemispheric precuneal transtentorial approach for microsurgical resection of a vermian arteriovenous malformation.0:34 Patient History and Neurological Examination. The patient is a 78-year-old female who presented with a sudden onset of headaches, nausea, and vomiting associated with truncal ataxia and loss of balance. Neurological exam was nonfocal without any neurological deficits.0:48 Preoperative Imaging. CT scan showed a cerebellar hemorrhage in the superior vermis. CT angiogram demonstrated a possible superior vermian AVM draining into the vein of Galen. The AVM was fed primarily by the superior cerebellar arteries, confirmed on the 3D reconstructed images and diagnostic angiogram.1:10 Choice of Surgical Approach. The surgical approaches to this region include the supracerebellar infratentorial approach. However, the steep slope of the tentorial angle makes this a difficult trajectory to access the AVM. Another approach to this region is the interhemispheric occipital transtentorial approach. However, this approach has an increased risk of visual field loss from retraction and manipulation of the visual cortex. Alternatively, we eventually chose the interhemispheric parieto-occipital precuneal transtentorial approach. This approach starts at a higher trajectory, which avoids occipital lobe retraction and also avoids the steep slope of the tentorium. It also provides a favorable direct trajectory to the AVM and the superior cerebellar artery feeders in the quadrigeminal cistern, as well as control of the draining vein going into the vein of Galen.2:03 Lateral Position and Skin Incision. The patient is placed in the lateral position with the right side down to allow gravity-assisted access to the interhemispheric fissure without fixed retraction. A linear skin incision is made over the parieto-occipital region based on the navigational plan. Image guidance is used to plan the optimal precuneal retrocallosal trajectory to the AVM, and a right parietal craniotomy is performed that crosses the midline.2:30 Dural Opening and Interhemispheric Exposure. A C-shaped dural incision is made and reflected toward the superior sagittal sinus. CSF drainage with an external ventricular drain allows for brain relaxation and facilitates access to the interhemispheric fissure. After localizing the straight sinus with image guidance, a tentorial incision is made in a safe entry zone lateral to the straight sinus with a bipolar cautery and a no. 11 blade. This is done in an incremental fashion. A micro-Doppler is also used to confirm the position of the straight sinus. This ensures added safety to avoid sinus violation.3:07 Arachnoid Dissection. The arachnoid membrane over the quadrigeminal cistern is opened using microscissors with careful spreading and sharp dissection.3:20 ICG Angiography. Intraoperative ICG angiography is used to help identify the early draining vein going superiorly toward the vein of Galen.3:32 Corticectomy in Superior Vermis. A corticectomy is made along the superior vermis using bipolar cautery. Careful bipolar dissection and gentle aspiration eventually exposes the nidus of the AVM.3:50 Extension of Tentorial Incision. The tentorial incision is extended posteriorly to get better control of the posterior margin of the AVM.4:02 Evacuation of Hematoma Cavity. We eventually reach the hematoma cavity. Evacuation of the hematoma gives added advantage of increased working room and control of the inferior margin of the AVM, as there are no arterial feeders in this region.4:16 Circumferential Microdissection of AVM. Dissection is now carried across the superior surface of the AVM toward the contralateral side. The nidus is carefully rolled toward the right side in order to visualize and dissect the brain-AVM interface on the left side. Care is taken to identify each arterial feeder, which are coagulated and divided sharply. Eventually, the draining vein is coagulated and divided toward the end of the circumferential dissection. As we inspect the opposite side, we visualize another distal SCA feeder, which is coagulated and divided to release the AVM from the resection cavity. It is important to inspect all surfaces of the AVM to ensure that all feeding vessels are detached from the nidus prior to final removal of the AVM.5:24 Endoscopic Inspection. A 30-degree endoscope is used to inspect the resection bed. The vein of Galen is nicely visualized here. Angled endoscopy helps to look around corners that are not well seen with the microscope. There does not appear to be any residual AVM. The superior vermian vein is nicely preserved. We can now see the straight sinus at the base of the falx just medial to our transtentorial incision.5:59 Hemostasis and Closure. Hemostasis is obtained and Surgicel is placed on the resection cavity. The external ventricular drain is then removed at the end of the case. Multilayered wound closure is performed in the standard fashion.6:15 Postoperative Imaging and Hospital Course. Postoperative CTA and catheter angiography show no evidence of residual AVM. Postoperatively, the patient was neurologically intact and discharged to rehabilitation.6:28 Conclusion. In summary, the interhemispheric parieto-occipital precuneal transtentorial approach with endoscopic assistance is a useful strategy to surgically treat superior vermian AVMs.Primary surgeon: Liu. Assistant surgeon: Zhao, Quillin. Editing and drafting the video and abstract: all authors. Critically revising the work: all authors. Reviewed submitted version of the work: all authors. Approved the final version of the work on behalf of all authors: Liu. Supervision: Liu.


Ambush predators such as spiders affect the flower‐visiting behavior of diurnal pollinators such as bees Dukas , potentiTenodera sinensis (Mantodea: Mantidae), eating a moth, Sarcopolia illoba (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), on flowers of Eupatorium lindleyanum (Asteraceae) at night in Hyogo, Japan  comprised 92.3% of the ambush predators on flowers , mantisflies , fishing spiders , a house centipede , and a centipede   on E. lindleyanum flowers using night‐shot video cameras with infrared light in September and October of 2020  was observed to perform conspicuous lateral swinging movements like a pendulum while hovering and feeding on nectar of Hemerocallis citrina  were frequently observed to flutter their wings while landing on flowers to feed on floral nectar  hover while feeding on nectar, whereas settling moths  land on flowers while feeding on nectar (e.g., Atwater na Video . Wassertna Video  postulatar Video ; this bear Video , suggestAppendix S1Click here for additional data file.Video S1Click here for additional data file.Video S2Click here for additional data file.Video S3Click here for additional data file.Video S1LegendClick here for additional data file.Video S2LegendClick here for additional data file.Video S3LegendClick here for additional data file.


The general development of the sports world has guided researchers in sports science to study excellence in sports performance, namely, the study of the characteristics and requirements specific to each sport. However, in order to meet these requirements, each individual must have a set of specific characteristics similar to those of the group to which he/she belongs. The variables in the study are related to the psychomotor abilities and psychological aspects that could influence the overall performance of junior III handball players. The main work instruments are related to field testing and psychological characteristics measurement. For psychomotor abilities, we used means such as the TReactionCo software (eye–hand coordination), Just Jump platform , Tractronix system , and Illinois test , and for the psychological characteristics, we used the Motivational Persistence Questionnaire. In addition, the result of the study is represented by new software that we created in order to better observe the level of development of these characteristics in junior handball players. From a statistical point of view, we calculated the correlations between psychomotor abilities and psychological characteristics using ANOVA in order to see field position differences and performed linear regression for the variables of this study. The handball game, due to its complexity, requires and is equally part of the improvement of the motor manifestation mode during matches from the perspective of two components.Players must be mentally prepared to cope with psychological discomfort resulting from the stressful effects of competitions, training periods in isolated areas, the monotony of training, affected interpersonal relationships, or even conflict situations.Sport psychology, as a branch of psychology applied in our field, has the objective of studying the adaptations of people’s mental processes, needs for competitive activity, and training periods.All stages of sports training, especially in the current period, contain an increased level of difficulty in the context of interdisciplinary and psychological contributions ,2.An individual or collective investigation from a psychological point of view can establish the level at which the athlete is able to fulfill or demonstrate as effectively as possible the skills, knowledge, and degree of training, all of which are related to the level of competition.The psychology of sports activities, as a precisely directed scientific discipline, addresses and studies the educational and intellectual processes of athletes engaged in sports activities, with behavior and motor reaction being precisely pursued goals.In order to obtain the best possible performance, motor activity presents physical and mental demands, and the maximum effort alternates between these two spectra of the performance of players.The main purpose of this work is to highlight correlations between the psychological characteristics and psychomotor abilities of junior handball players. The main mental aspects that we chose were represented by motivational persistence, self-discipline, and planning capacity.Firstly, we chose to assess motivational persistence because it can be an important factor that can help players to continue their activity at a higher level of performance, even if we are talking about junior players. Motivation mainly concerns behaviors focused on fulfilling personal goals such as joy, curiosity, satisfaction, and interest. All of these are integrated with the inner self and correspond to the value system of the athlete .Secondly, self-discipline can be an important aspect in team sports and is characterized by the capacity of players to assess the situation that they face daily according to the necessities of the game.This psychological characteristic has a much greater influence than the close follow-up of training, level of training, and skill development because a handball player must have mental self-discipline in order to make the best decisions in unpredictable environments where competitiveness is extremely high .Thirdly, planning capacity has great importance in playing team handball because of the influence that it can have in daily situations that a team and the players experience. According to sports psychologists such as , planninThe game of handball, as a performance sport, requires intense effort from players due to the extremely difficult demands of training and competitions that require maximum concentration, in addition to all of the physical, volitional, and mental abilities.Sports performance, like human performance in general, is determined by logical, emotional, and creative activities of the spirit of athletes and plays a key role in obtaining the best indices of motor manifestation .The main goal of high performance in sports activities is considered the borderline activity of human possibilities and multilateral mental and physical processes that evolve simultaneously with the athlete.How morphological prototypes are important for success within and among the sports phenomenon;An increased morphological variability in some sports compared to other disciplines or sports;Athletes who own or who by specific means obtain an optimal anthropometric profile for a specific sporting event are more likely to achieve success;Morphological optimization is useful for assessing training status and talent selection at both female and male levels.In recent years, the study of performance in sports based on anthropometry has shown :How morpThe intensity of this sport varies between walking, moderate running, short-distance sprints, lateral movements, and forward/backward movements, so an increased level of specific endurance is critically needed to maintain an optimal degree of play throughout the match ,9.We can say that, along with body mass, other anthropometric characteristics have been shown to be crucial for sports activities and thus achieving performance in the game of handball , as wellBased on the anthropometric measurements of handball players presenting different levels of practicing this sport, it was concluded that, among the players analyzed, those who showed a higher level of performance were the tallest with a large wingspan and an optimal body mass with low proportions of fat .The analysis of the entire kinematic chain at the time of throwing is seen as an impractical means of evaluation, with joint mobility being a common method of quantification using traditional goniometric measurements of the area of movement. Few studies have deepened these types of measurements and their influence on mobility, and statistically insignificant results can be found in the reports of specialized studies ,15.Skills such as obtaining visual information about a moving object  and a high degree of oculomotor coordination are advantages for players, as it allows them to react to external stimuli more effectively by adapting their whole body according to the situation in the field . Other sCompetitions in sports games take place in environments that differ in space and time, aspects that condition the wave of information provided by opponents, and a good decision-making ability allows athletes to move on the playing surface in the best circumstances.Authors have stated the importance of the reaction time arising from oculomotor coordination for obtaining victories ,18,19. TNew training methods are focused on good physical training, which is achieved by using methods and means similar to game situations and from the perspective of the psychological aspects required by the modern version of this sport .Experts in this sport and coaches analyze the efficiency of the players that they train through standardized methods for each competition, so they can accurately determine the contribution of each player to the success of the team, as well as the team in general .The explosive force on the lower limbs is responsible for performing various variations of jumping, speed running, and acyclic movements in the handball game. In this sport, a player must generate forces with different variations in intensity (throwing or fighting for positions on the field) . This isThe application of different methods and means for improving the explosive force had a positive result in the case of juniors but also for those who practice this sport at a high level. The most common method for improving vertical jumping is plyometric training ,23, follIf we are to analyze the awareness of sports specialists, we can notice that it has increased with regard to the role of personality in developing sports performance. In competitive sports, such as handball, the players and trainers are on the lookout for better performance; therefore, great efforts are made in order to enhance the player’s achievements. While trying to obtain better performance, the actual performance of the athletes is constantly evolving alongside their psychological characteristics .Further research has focused on the diversity of psychological profiles and psychological characteristics such as motivation, mechanisms involved in coping with stress, and the adaptation skills of different athletes by age, gender, and sport type ,26,27,28In our domain (sports science), a nomothetic approach is more frequently used. Domain specialists that have the same view focus on the socio-demographics and sports characteristics of athletes and carry out comparisons by age, gender and sport type ,30,31,32Alongside the assessment of some basic somatic parameters ,33,34, mAspects such as the prediction of the adversary’s movements with or without the ball, attention, choosing the appropriate response, perception, and high levels of sensory and motor fitness are some elements that can help a team win the game ,38. WithAssessing the level of development of certain psychomotor characteristics;Identifying the most important psychological characteristics that could influence the activity of junior handball players;Creating a performance profile of junior III handball players;Creating a software program that could help the training process and the selection phase by observing the general development of the players.As work objectives, we identified the most important ones, such as:Firstly, we assumed that the most important psychological characteristics for junior handball players are motivational persistence, planning capacity, self-discipline, implementation, and recurrence.Secondly, we assumed, through the second hypothesis, that some psychomotor characteristics of the subjects have correlations with psychological aspects.Lastly, the final hypothesis was to see if there is any correlation between the psychological aspects of these junior handball players, which was tested with multivariate tests.For this study, we chose to apply our evaluation protocol on 181 junior III handball players from 10 teams in Romania. The research group was an average of 13.5 ± 0.5 years, and they came from different living areas . All of the findings were based on the results that we gathered from tests and measurements, and the analysis was conducted using statistical software.For the research design, we chose a set of field tests in order to assess specific psychomotor components of junior III handball players, further applying a questionnaire for some psychological characteristics such as motivational persistence, self-discipline, and planning.The main psychomotor characteristics that we focused on were eye–hand coordination, dynamic balance, spatial orientation, and general dynamic coordination, and for each of these elements, we applied a field test with specific elements from the handball game.All of the field tests had the main objective of testing the hypotheses of the present research study.As instruments, we used TReactionCo Sofware, laptops, special keyboards, tripods, Just Jump platform, infrared sensors, cones, and the Motivational Persistence Questionnaire for the psychological aspects; all of their actual usage in the research is presented in the Procedure subsection.p values, Durbin Watson statistic, R-value, ANOVA analysis, and also Cronbach’s alpha.The data presented are based on correlations, means and standard deviations, 95% confidence intervals, After obtaining data from the players, all of the information was input into the statistical analysis software SPSS v. 26.Before the beginning of field testing, all players were informed about the structure of the evaluation, and the tests were explained and demonstrated so that they would have an overall view of the process. The evaluation started with the questionnaire to measure their levels of motivational persistence, self-discipline, and planning capacity. The questionnaire used is a validated one, and we also computed Cronbach’s alpha in SPSS to obtain a score reliability coefficient.Eye–hand coordination: For the system setting, the upper limb option is selected. The athlete sits on a chair and positions the keyboard resting on his/her thighs. The laptop is placed in front of the subject at a distance allowing better observation of markings that appear on the screen. The evaluation begins when the athlete presses one of the three keys. A red dot appears on the left or right side of the screen, and the athlete has the task of pressing the key on the side where that mark appears as soon as possible after the appearance of the stimulus. Each subject has to analyze 20 successive images, and the average reaction time at the level of the upper limbs is recorded. It is considered a correct assessment if the athlete has more than 10 correct hits/touches. The average time should be as short as possible.Dynamic balance: Depending on the type of jump that needs to be performed, the player positions him/herself on the jumping platform, performing the movement necessary to achieve the goal in order to achieve the best values . Depending on the distance to be covered, the distance is calculated with the help of a roulette wheel, positioning the sides on either side of the running lane to position the gates with infrared photocells. The athlete positions him/herself at the starting line and starts running at free speed and enters the deceleration process after passing the last area with the whole cell with photocells.Spatial-temporal orientation—Illinois test description: With the help of roulette, a distance of 5 m in a straight line is measured. Heads are positioned at point 0, and 2.5 m and 5 m distances are measured. From the level of the head from a distance of 2.5 m, 3 successive distances of 3.3 m are measured with the help of the roulette wheel, at the level of which milestones are placed. At the start and finish points, two gates with infrared sensors are positioned, which start automatically after the athlete leaves, and his/her final time is recorded. The subject has to complete the route as shown below.General dynamic coordination: Distances of 5/10/15/20 m are measured on a straight line, and the markings for the positioning of the tripods with photocells are positioned on either side of the corridor on which the athlete will run. At the beginning of the test, the athlete must run at a high tempo without major deviations in the direction of travel in order to avoid inconsistencies in the values obtained.Agility—505 test description: The athlete must run to the 15 m marker in order to accumulate sufficient speed to move; after crossing the 5 m mark and crossing the imaginary drawn line, the athlete must run back the same distance of 5 m. The recorded time is the time in which the athlete travels a distance of 5 m (round trip). The twisting ability of each leg is tested, and the subjects are instructed that they should not exceed the 5 m line by much so as not to waste too much time.Choosing the psychological variables in the present study was preceded by analyzing research papers, in which we tried to identify the elements that might have implications in sports practice. Generally, we identified some common aspects, such as motivation, and we considered that even at a young age, the capacity to maintain a high level of motivation can represent a true advantage in the future careers of these junior handball players. This action was followed by identifying other characteristics that we considered to be important (self-discipline and planning capacity); these two have the ability to improve the general level of the athletes. It is necessary, at any age, when practicing team sports, to have the capacity to self-organize for the tasks that are presented in training sessions, in official competitions, and during free time between these events. Continuous growth and the maintenance of a linear and constant evolution can be influenced by such factors. In addition, the capacity to plan, even for a junior player, is important, as it means that if the objectives and the purposes of the physical activities are clearly stated, the sports life of the individual can improve.Regarding the psychological characteristics, they were evaluated by applying the Motivational Persistence Questionnaire, which contains 30 items divided into 5 categories (with 5 questions for each dimension), with a 5-step answer scale  and can determine the levels of the following characteristics: motivational persistence, planning, self-discipline, determination, recurrence, and ambition .-Model questions:-For motivational persistence: “I maintain my motivation even in activities that lasts for months”;-For planning: “I plan in detail what I have to do for the next day”;-For self-discipline: “Even if it’s not necessary, I put my things in order.”In the first phase, we computed reliability statistics in order to obtain the Cronbach’s alpha value for the Motivational Persistence Questionnaire that we applied in our research group. As is shown in In the table below  are presWe also calculated the general evaluation results for the psychological aspects as well as the mean and standard deviation of the group. If we analyze the levels presented in the table above, we can see that the whole group can be qualified in the upper limit of development for the three psychological characteristics measured .Furthermore, we performed an ANOVA analysis  in orderIn the table above , we showFor the agility and general dynamic coordination, the r-value (0.418) signifies that there is a directly proportional influence and growth between them. This means that better indices or low results on the agility course can increase the results for the psychomotor ability mentioned. This led us to a primary conclusion that the training process of the junior handball players must be performed properly, and it must influence, in balanced proportions, all of the motor and psychomotor areas.The dynamic balance presents a negative r-value (−0.477) with general dynamic coordination. This result means that if the dynamic balance results increase, the psychomotor ability decreases in a beneficial way by reducing the time when taking the test. The handball game, by its growth, is known as a very dynamic sport in which the players must perform multiple motor tasks, such as running and passing the ball, running–stopping–throwing, and avoiding the opponents. Thus, all of these elements can be positively influenced by the effective development of these psychomotor abilities.Another statistical analysis that we conducted was related to the effects of the psychological aspects of the players, which were analyzed and tested through the questionnaire applied in our study . As we cLastly, we performed linear regression  in orderThe conclusion from these values is that in a dynamic sport that involves the continuous movement of players with and without the ball, a good level of these psychomotor abilities alongside a good psychological capacity can improve the overall output of the players; these aspects need to be taken into consideration in the training activity.p values of the psychomotor and psychological aspects (p = 0.02), general dynamic coordination (p = 0.04), and self-discipline (p = 0.03). This led us to the conclusion that these three aspects could have a greater influence on the overall process of the evolution of junior handball players.To show the influence of the variables and their weight in the overall linear regression, we highlight the standardized coefficients and the  aspects . As is sAnother important aspect that can be highlighted relates to the software that we created in order to have a better perspective of the psychomotor and psychological characteristics of junior III handball players. The “Skills” software, by using mathematical algorithms, can create an overview of the above-mentioned aspects, and it can find utility both in the training process and in talent identification actions.Firstly, we assessed the level of development of psychomotor abilities of junior handball players by applying motor tests that mimic specific elements of the handball game, and the results were registered and further analyzed from a statistical point of view. We focused our attention upon eye–hand coordination, dynamic balance, general dynamic coordination, and spatial-temporal orientation, these being important abilities that can influence the handball game and can represent an important factor in the talent identification phase.As we know, of great importance in this stage of their development, psychological aspects can influence their general evolution both in the sports area and in the social environment.After applying the questionnaire, we can observe the level of development of these psychological characteristics, for which the players scored above average  in the case of motivational persistence (6.31), planning (6.39), and self-discipline (6.44), but for better performance, we believe that the average scores of the three components could be improved.Furthermore, we tried to create a performance profile of junior handball players by selecting these psychomotor abilities alongside psychological aspects, these having the overall capacity of creating an overview for the players.Some studies have neem related to the influence of supplements and their interaction with motor capacity , and othIn regard to talent identification, there are studies that have focused mainly on playing position and the month of birth , and theThe level of performance of the players can be compared to a series of studies that have connected anthropometric characteristics with physical components such as agility and the ability to jump in the identification of talented players . Other sAfter computing linear regression results, we obtained a good relationship between psychomotor abilities and psychological aspects, and in terms of the statistical value, it was shown that the R-value (0.83/83%) puts these two aspects as general elements that can condition the level of the other variables presented in this study.A practical application of the results of this study is the creation of the “Skills” software through which we tried to aid the training, selection, and talent identification processes. In a general overview (as can be seen in the figures below), the pages of the software are related firstly to the playing positions on the handball field, and after choosing players from the uploaded database, the evaluator or coach can choose any player that they want in order to assess their general level of psychomotor manifestation . There aSome limitations of the study could be represented by the number of players analyzed; a much larger study could be conducted and might include a greater number of athletes. In addition, another limitation is related to the specialty of the literature in the sense that we could not find more research articles to compare our results with.From all of the data obtained from the statistical analysis, we can highlight the need to make this kind of comparison between psychomotor and psychological factors in junior handball players. The presence of significant correlations supports the veracity of the control tests used in outlining the main characteristics of these junior players.On the other hand, the results obtained can be seen as a starting point for further leading the training process of these junior handball players by concentrating on and leading the activity towards improving the elements presented in the study.


To explore mothers’ perceptions of malnutrition and its causes in U-5’s in Mozambique, as well as their ability to recognise, prevent and act on signs of malnutrition.A qualitative exploratory inquiry using focus group discussions and individual interviews analysed using Nutbeam’s health literacy themes.Manhiça District Hospital in Manhiça, Mozambique.n 53) attending the in- and out-patient paediatric wards.Mothers of U-5’s (Different malnutrition literacy levels were identified in mothers’ responses. Mothers’ reflections on the causes of malnutrition in U-5’s were more elaborate compared to those of recognition, prevention and treatment strategies. Only severe forms of acute malnutrition were recognised by mothers, while early signs of undernutrition and stunting largely went undetected or unmentioned. Limited knowledge, time and financial resources were mentioned as contributors to suboptimal practices resulting in malnutrition. The district hospital, rather than community resources or local health posts, was indicated as the place mothers would go to seek advice and treatment for malnutrition. All mothers requested additional information on how to prevent and treat malnutrition.The varying literacy levels among mothers, the lack of references to community health workers as a resource in identifying and managing malnutrition, and the identification of poverty and sociocultural conditions as contributors to suboptimal practices indicate the need for in-depth research focused on the social determinants of malnutrition. A more comprehensive understanding of mothers’ health literacy would contribute to the development of holistic programmes aiming to improve community management of malnutrition. In the Government’s Multisectoral Action Plan for the Reduction of Chronic Undernutrition 2011–2015, the high prevalence of malnutrition in U-5’s has been attributed to the following factors: insufficient nutrient intake and illness from infections, household food insecurity, inadequate breast-feeding, pregnancy during adolescence, poor access to health and sanitation services, poverty, lack of access to education and gender inequality. While these immediate, underlying and basic causes of malnutrition in U-5’s in Mozambique are well founded, mothers’ perceptions of the causes, effects and severity of malnutrition are, to our knowledge, not researched in this setting. Since studies from other contexts have shown that mothers’ perceptions of illnesses influence health-seeking behaviours–9, and specifically, their conceptualisation of the aetiology of malnutrition and how this influences health-seeking behaviours or response to nutrition interventions–7,9 gaining an understanding of how malnutrition is perceived by caregivers is necessary for efficient tailoring of nutrition intervention/rehabilitation programmes–11.Malnutrition plagues a large part of the Mozambican U-5 population, with <5 % wastedWith this rationale, this exploratory inquiry aimed to explore mothers’ perceptions of malnutrition and its causes in U-5’s in rural Mozambique, as well as their ability to recognise, prevent and act on signs of malnutrition, with the ultimate goal of identifying areas for further research related to mothers’ malnutrition literacy and health-seeking behaviours.. The MDH has just over 100 beds including an 8-bed ward dedicated specifically to child malnutrition which has admitted approximately 1500 children each year in the last 5 years .A qualitative exploratory inquiry, which employed focus group discussions (FGD) and individual interviews (IDI), was conducted at the Manhiça District Hospital (MDH), situated in the south of Mozambique. The MDH is the referral health facility for Manhiça District, a predominantly rural area with a population of around 200 000 inhabitants. According to HDSS data, almost half of the Manhiça population live below the poverty line with subsistence agriculture being the main income activity in the district along with factory work at large sugar factories in neighbouring towns. The area is endemic for malaria, tuberculosis, HIV and malnutrition, with hospital-based data collected in Manhiça between 2001 and 2010 showing that 47 % of U-5 patients presented some indication of malnutrition. The main staple foods for the district include maize, sweet potatoes, peanuts and cowpea. Various nutrition interventions have been implemented in the area over several years, with varying impact/success.The Centro de Investigação em Saúde da Manhiça (CISM) is a biomedical research centre which has been running a Health and Demographic Surveillance System (HDSS) in Manhiça since 1996, was used in this study to determine the child’s nutritional status. The child’s weight and age were checked against gender-specific WHO Z-score growth charts to determine the child’s WfA Z-score. The cut-off points on the growth charts were used to provide an indication of nutritional status by comparing the WfA Z-score of the child with the standard reference population. Mothers of U-5’s who presented some indication of malnutrition (WfA < –2 sd) and severe malnutrition (WfA < –3 sd) were asked to participate in IDI only, to allow potentially sensitive questions regarding the child’s health and nutrition status to be asked. Mothers of children who did not present any signs of undernutrition (WfA ≥ –2 sd) were asked to take part in either a FGD or IDI. An exception of the FGD inclusion criteria was made for FGD 5 in which one mother of a child with a WfA Z-score <–2 sd was included due to low attendance at the MDH that day. No sensitive questions about the child’s weight or health were asked.Study participants were recruited at the MDH while attending routine health checks with their U-5’s. As part of these routine health checks, weight, age and gender of the child were recorded on patient health cards. With these data already available, weight-for-age (WfA), an indicator for underweightZ-score ≥–2 sd of reference population data.Inclusion criteria – FGD: (1) mothers >18 years old with children <5 years old; (2) attending the out-patient paediatric ward and (3) child’s WfA Z-scores: ≥–2 sd to <–3 sd of reference population data.Inclusion criteria – IDI: (1) mothers >18 years old with children <5 years old; (2) attending in- or out-patient paediatric wards and (3) children with varying WfA n 53) who agreed to participate were provided with informed consent forms which they either read themselves or, for those unable to read/understand, the contents of this form was explained by IN, the second author. Those who signed the informed consent via signature or fingerprint in the presence of a witness were invited to participate in either FGD or IDI.Mothers attending the MDH in- and out-patient paediatric wards who met the study inclusion criteria were briefed about the study objective and procedure, that is, a combination of purposive and convenience sampling was applied. Information was given in Changana  by CISM staff wearing a CISM uniform which mothers visiting the MDH would be familiar with due to the long-standing collaboration between the hospital and the research centre. About 10 % of the mothers who were asked to participate declined, while those  were semi-structured and included questions related to sketched images of infants <6 months with varying mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) , and dialogical inter-subjectivity was employed as the authors interpreted and compared their findings throughout the analysis. Transcribed and translated material was read several times in Portuguese and English, and during the analysis process, when clarifications were needed, checked by IN against the original recordings.Audio records of the interviews were transcribed and simultaneously translated into Portuguese by IN, then translated into English by GP. The interview data were subjected to manifest thematic analysis. Therefore, the initial codes generated were data-driven, making the first stage of the analysis inductive; however, after concluding that the initial codes and sub-themes illustrated elements of different levels of health literacy, the second phase of the analysis was theory-driven, thus linking the empirical material with Nutbeam’s discussion of health literacy. As this health literacy model is suitable for understanding health-related perceptions and behaviours, it guided the subsequent analysis, rendering the second part of the analysis deductive in character. The inductively identified codes were thus grouped in accordance with Nutbeam’s three overarching health literacy themes, then analysed in an iterative process, involving a movement within each theme, between the three themes and the whole dataset. In this last phase of the analysis, nine sub-themes were identified that linked the descriptive codes to the health literacy model , and only a few mothers had a formal occupation with most partaking in farming work or were unemployed.A total of fifty-three mothers participated in the study across nine IDI and seven FGD. Mothers who participated in the study were aged between 18 and 40 years, with the majority of mothers in their late twenties/early thirties. Regarding educational attainment and work situation, the characteristics of the participant group corresponded with those of the population belonging to the MDH’s catchment area, which is reflective of a typical rural district of southern MozambiqueBased on the definitions of the three levels of health literacy as proposed by Nutbeam, the descriptive codes and subsequent sub-themes were grouped in relation to ‘Functional Malnutrition Literacy’, ‘Interactive Malnutrition Literacy’ and ‘Critical Malnutrition Literacy’, all of which are presented in Table  Within these, two sub-themes were identified denoting varying ability to identify healthy appearances and prevention strategies.In total, seventy-nine meaning units were interpreted as mirroring functional health literacy Table , that isZ-scores. Some displayed signs of hesitancy, while others confidently described their view of the child in the respective image. Most mothers, however, did not elaborate beyond ‘healthy’ and ‘unhealthy’. When they did, they mentioned ‘thin legs’, ‘a grown belly’ and ‘a head bigger than the body’ as visible indications of ill health. The more obvious images were correctly identified as presenting healthy (image N and image K) v. malnourished children (images P and B). However, image T was largely incorrectly identified as ‘healthy’ even though the MUAC Z-score (>–2 to ≤–1) indicates the child is at risk of malnutrition.Mothers had mixed reactions to the sketched images of infants with varying MUAC ‘The child with hunger disease does not play like others … It stays isolated, becomes thin, the hair turns brownish. It does not look beautiful’. (FGD 4)In addition to the physical attributes, mothers indicated changes in children’s behaviour and appearance as signs of malnourishment:‘When the disease starts you will not see the signs, you will see and watch and when you realise, it may be there already and it is when you are going to take it to the hospital’. (FGD 4)However, mothers acknowledged that they would find it difficult recognising the early signs of malnutrition with one mother saying:,16,21,22. This indicates a potential lack of awareness of other forms of malnutrition, specifically stunting. Further evidence providing a basis for context-relevant awareness-raising campaigns informing about all forms of malnutrition seem desirable, especially since the most common forms of malnutrition in Mozambique include stunting and Fe deficiency anaemia.The lack of profundity in the mothers’ discussions surrounding early sings of malnutrition warrants further research into identifying the point at which mothers/caregivers recognise the risk or presence of malnutrition in children, as well as the point that triggers concern and action on the part of caregivers. Descriptions of the symptoms of malnutrition resembled that of severe protein-energy malnutrition manifested as marasmus or kwashiorkor. This finding is consistent with previous literature in which children with comparable symptoms were recognised as being unhealthy, whereas short stature was considered the norm in communities with a high prevalence of linear growth falteringdon’t know’ how they would treat or prevent malnutrition and that they would have to seek advice from the hospital or ‘other people’. Their inputs into the discussion of prevention and treatment in this interview format were thus poor.The meaning units gathered under this sub-theme displayed a limited malnutrition literacy. Attending the hospital for routine weighing was the only prevention measure mentioned. Monitoring the weight of the child and following instructions from hospital staff was also highlighted as a key treatment method. In general, the mothers’ responses exhibit low self-efficacy in preventing and treating malnutrition saying that they simply ‘hunger disease’, they primarily formulated this in terms of biomedical understandings, foods for age and local allegories or beliefs related to parenting.This level of health literacy captures the kind of knowledge that allows the individual to evaluate different forms of information and confidently make independent health-related decisions. We identified fifty-four meaning units, abstracted into three sub-themes that illustrated this kind of literacy. When mothers conceptualised the causes and effects of ‘‘In the community whenever the baby gets sick, even if you’re an adult, they say it’s HIV … they don’t say anything else in the community’. (FGD 5)Mothers’ descriptions of the causes of malnutrition were predominantly in line with biomedical concepts . Some demonstrated a basic awareness of the comorbidities of malnutrition . However, the data also suggest that malnutrition is sometimes misdiagnosed within the community:‘If the mother did not feed well, of course the baby can be born with low weight’ (FGD 7).While most talk revolved around acute malnutrition, there were also a couple of references made to chronic malnutrition, for example, to pre- and postnatal factors:The analysis shows an ability to reason and evaluate different biomedical explanatory models (causes and comorbidities) of malnutrition; however, the interviews did not give sufficient information for evaluating whether it was used as a base for nutritional strategies.good food’ were identified as causes of malnutrition. However, perceptions often seemed to be based on texture rather than nutritional quality with ‘light’ foods considered suitable and ‘heavy’ foods unsuitable for U-5’s. When listing foods considered good for growth and development, xima (a thick porridge made from maize or corn flour), soups and curries enriched with peanuts were frequently mentioned. Cold foods were considered harmful to the child’s ‘organism’ resulting in an upset stomach.Mothers displayed a higher level of awareness of the link between food and malnutrition. Inaccuracy in assessing a child’s need for food as well as an absence of ‘it is not the essentials that children need … at the age they have’ (FGD 7). A distinction was also made between foods appropriate for adults and children but mothers explained that because of a lack of ‘suitable’ food, adult food is sometimes given.‘This ends up causing this malnutrition, because … the baby’s organism can hardly digest those foods that an adult consumes’. (FGD 5)Above all, mothers emphasised the importance of age-appropriate foods, for example, to not give juice and biscuits as ‘rich food’ described as vegetables and enriched porridges were recognised as foods that could be used to treat malnutrition. It is not clear from the data whether animal-source foods are purposively avoided due to food taboos or are considered inaccessible due to financial or structural constraints as identified in a previous study conducted in northern Mozambique. Considering the nutritional importance of animal-source foods for infants and children in providing high-quality protein and a range of key micronutrients conducive to the healthy growth and development of U-5’s,25, further research into the root cause of this finding is needed.Meat and animal-source foods were noticeably absent in mothers’ responses, while ‘The mothers’ conceptualisation of the link between malnutrition and food perceived to be appropriate for U-5’s was detailed with varied examples and strategic choices described in a more elaborate and confident manner compared to the other sub-themes.djambelada [the child ‘had been jumped’] was mentioned:‘They say “that child was djambelada”. It has lean legs, the belly grew and the head. They say that it is a problem of hunger disease … You cannot djambelar while you are still breastfeeding’. (FGD4)When mothers were asked how malnutrition is perceived in their community, the expression ‘When you like to sleep with the father while the baby is still small, and when you have done that you touch the child without having showered or washed your hands and you breastfeed the baby, that’s bad for the child’. (FGD 6)The literal meaning of this expression is that the mother, instead of letting the child sleep between the parents, had ‘jumped’ over the child and slept with her husband. This expression was also used with reference to breast-feeding and hygiene:, gaining a better understanding of the significance of these local beliefs can allow a more comprehensive decision to be made about how they could be integrated into future interventions.It is, from our material, not obvious to what extent the expression is an allegory for the mother not making the child’s needs a top priority or whether this is an explanatory model locally accepted as a cause of malnutrition. Regardless, the analysis indicates a general use and awareness of the expression. However, the way the mothers discussed this indicates that they perceived themselves as being aware of a variety of knowledge regimens related to behaviours and their link to the child’s well-being. Since previous research has acknowledged the great significance of incorporating local beliefs into health intervention programmes to increase their efficacy. However, contrasting the Nutbeam model, this part of the material did not primarily display empowerment through knowledge to address social and economic determinants to improve health, but rather that the mothers perceived themselves at the losing end of inequalities.The remaining sixty-five meaning units, structured into four sub-themes, were interpreted as being linked to the third and most advanced form of health literacy as proposed by Nutbeam. This level captures the connection between health-related knowledge and the broader societal context, that is, the kind of knowledge that is needed to act gainfully in a specific sociopolitical context‘A small lecture about what we can change in the diet … Teach us to do these things without needing a lot of appliances at home … to improve the condition of children’. (FGD 7)Mothers expressed a desire to learn more about malnutrition by directly requesting more information, for rexample, from hospital staff about general care practices, appropriate foods for children, causes of diarrhoea and causes of malnutrition:The interviewees clearly expressed awareness of the need to increase their knowledge of malnutrition as well as an eagerness to improve their parental strategies to promote their children’s nutrition and health. Therefore, the results imply that future campaigns which aim to increase malnutrition literacy among caregivers would be welcomed in this setting.‘If I stayed at home I wouldn’t know how to deal with this…. There is no other alternative, when the child is sick we go to the hospital and there they will know what to do. We cannot do anything else but that’. (FGD 1)This sub-theme is obvious throughout the dataset with mothers indicating that they would seek medical help at the hospital upon identifying physical or behavioural changes in their child such as weight loss, loss of appetite or a reluctance to be breastfed:‘I can see a child with nothing, even though it has anaemia. You think she has a good body, but it is sick’. (IDI 6)Mothers also reported recommending other mothers/caregivers to seek medical help to reduce health risks and emphasised the importance of following the instructions given at the hospital on how to rehabilitate the child. Importance was put on attending the hospital for an accurate diagnosis, since mothers alone may not be able to correctly identify what illness the child has:‘If you live far away from the hospital you may wait longer before you go, because to go to the hospital you need money for the bus. Those who live far away know that, but if you are close you can walk to the hospital’. (FGD 5)While mothers made references to seeking care at the hospital upon noticing signs of ill health, the identification of signs differed as well as mothers’ timing of seeking medical help. One depicted determinant of this was the proximity of the hospital from the home, with further distance and the need for money for public transport resulting in a delay in seeking treatment.,6,9.The many references to the district hospital were most likely influenced by the study location being the hospital. Nevertheless, it is still noteworthy that there was a reliance and usage of the hospital in identifying and treating malnutrition, since similar studies conducted in community settings indicated a greater reliance on traditional doctors, religious leaders and community members to treat children with symptoms of malnutritionWhile the findings show that mothers value the services of the MDH, a delay in seeking treatment may be the consequence of: (1) structural barriers such as proximity to the MDH; (2) economic barriers including the cost of transport to the MDH and (3) potential health literacy barriers as the interviewed mothers had difficulties in identifying the early stages of undernutrition. Therefore, even among service users of the MDH, the culmination of these barriers may result in malnutrition progressing to severe stages before the child reaches the hospital. Investigations into how different institutions can be strengthened to support mothers in preventing, detecting and treating malnutrition are therefore recommended, including investigations into what different roles general poverty reduction strategies, community members and local healthcare facilities can play for preventive strategies, early detection and treatment of late stages of malnutrition.Djambelar was not used. Mothers emphasised the importance of paying attention to children, citing ‘lack of attendance to the child’ (FGD 1) as a cause of malnutrition and ill health. Mothers returning to work soon after giving birth and leaving the child in the care of someone else, particularly while the child is still of breast-feeding age, and the subsequent pre-mature weaning and increased risk of malnutrition that results from this, was mentioned as a cause of malnutrition:‘Sometimes we leave children with other people … who don’t give food the way it should be, or the mother has left a child that is breastfed and someone else is making milk and they do not follow the instructions. This can be bad for the child’. (FGD 5)Quality of parenting, parental educational level and attitudes towards feeding were, according to some mothers, related to malnutrition. In these general discussions, the term ‘Some mothers work already and do not have time and prefer to buy. Home-grown food is more important than that food you can buy’. (IDI 1)Due to work-related time constraints, mothers reported opting for convenience foods over home-cooked foods despite being aware that this is not ideal. This growing trend of preferences towards ready-to-eat convenience foods was identified as a factor associated with malnutrition.Household food insecurity due to the presence of many family members was also identified as a cause of malnutrition. Some linked household food insecurity to the burden of feeding grandparents, yet others mentioned them as a source of knowledge and support, and indicated that the shift in parenting between generations, towards preferences for more convenient foods was a contributor to malnutrition.good foods’.‘You also have other mothers who want to give, but do not have the means to give every day, not even a little bit of food’. (FGD 7)There was a strong awareness of the link between poverty and malnutrition with mothers stating that they sometimes do not have the financial capacity to provide foods for their children never mind ‘‘There is nothing in place to help when the child is born, you do not know what to do. Even the mother does not have good food to eat, she has milk to breastfeed the child but she does not have the conditions that could help her give other things to the child, so the child grows in suffering from the start’. (IDI 5)A lack of financial support, possibly stemming from extreme poverty and resulting in chronic food insecurity, was a reoccurring theme.‘I sometimes have difficulties, when I do not work and the father of the child also does not work and we stay at home, it is difficult to guarantee good nutrition for the baby. Those who have a job, they always manage to get something for their baby… There are mothers who do not manage because life is not easy’. (FGD 6)Lack of income, with subsequent food insecurity, was similarly mentioned as a cause of malnutrition:‘Our reality dictates what we do, for example I live in an area that has no energy… When there is no freezer this [breast] milk will be ruined after two hours … so it is impossible to take milk from the breast … I have to resort to the cans’. (FGD 7)‘If there is no way to change, for example be born by another mother, sometimes the only thing you can do is to regret being born. What will you do if there is no one to help you? No brother, born lonely, then it is difficult to find the money’. (IDI 5)While mothers linked poverty directly with a lack of food, it was also linked with a lack of other resources that impact a child’s general health:,21,27. While mothers linked malnutrition directly to poverty and a lack of resources, references to economic barriers in some findings were implicit, for example, mothers’ focus on providing enough calories as opposed to a variety of foods could be the consequence of systemic poverty, rather than simply a lack of knowledge at the individual level on what constitutes a sufficient diet for children. This is consistent with the findings presented in the Government’s Multisectoral Action Plan for the Reduction of Chronic Undernutrition 2011–2015, which states that poorly diversified, low nutritional quality diets due to poverty and household food insecurity contribute to the high prevalence rates of stunting, anaemia and other micronutrient deficiencies in Mozambique.This sub-theme presents mothers’ awareness of not only the different links between the causes of poverty and malnutrition, but also the debilitating role that poverty plays in dictating caregivers’ ability to change their situation and respond appropriately to health challenges. These findings are consistent with similar studies which also found poverty to be a perceived cause of malnutrition,18,28. Conducting the interviews in the local language is considered a strength as well as the research team’s local expertise and broad competency in areas, including nutrition, anthropology, public health and medicine.The exploratory nature of the study implies that indications for future research, rather than thematic, theoretic or data saturation, was sought. This, together with the fact that the choice of study site may have caused a sampling and response bias, should be taken into consideration, and findings should therefore be viewed as preliminary and indications of topics for further research. The use of images of children with varying MUAC measurements to guide the discussions and WfA as a recruitment measure potentially resulted in a biased response with the focus of the discussions of malnutrition on underweight and wasting, while stunting went virtually unmentioned. The abductive approach strengthened the study’s validity by making possible triangulation of the empirical material through the connection to a broader body of scientific workThe key findings, which emerged from this research, were that the perceived symptoms of malnutrition largely related to protein-energy malnutrition with symptoms of stunting and micronutrient deficiencies went largely unmentioned. Mothers’ awareness of the multifaceted causes of malnutrition was more developed than their perceived ability to identify and treat malnutrition. This, together with mothers’ willingness to increase their nutrition literacy through training by health professionals, shows the need and want for health literacy promotion programmes.The reliance of the MDH medical professionals to identify and treat malnutrition in this community and the lack of references to community health workers highlights the need to explore the possibility for community health posts with greater proximity to rural populations, to play a greater role in early identification and prevention of malnutrition in U-5’s. The limited ability of mothers in identifying malnutrition prevention and treatment strategies emphasises the need to enhance caregivers’ nutrition health literacy, integrating local conceptions and contextual factors, such as food norms and income level, when developing programmes to reduce malnutrition rates. Finally, the prominence of poverty and sociocultural conditions in mothers’ responses as links to malnutrition identifies areas for in-depth research, preferably with a focus on how malnutrition prevention efforts can consider how mothers’ actual capacity to promote their children’s nutritional well-being is linked to their financial situation and degree of institutional and structural support.Further research, which aims to gain a full understanding of mothers’ knowledge of the different forms of malnutrition, is paramount in guiding health promotion programmes focused on nutrition. Investigations into social policies, food accessibility and availability, local beliefs and food taboos present in this context seem necessary to make a more comprehensive decision on how these influencing factors can be incorporated into existing and future nutrition interventions to improve their efficacy. Therefore, community-based participatory research that seeks to (1) uncover the knowledge required by caregivers on malnutrition, taking socio-economic conditions into account, to increase nutritional literacy and self-efficacy in treating malnutrition and (2) identify the forms in which this information should take in order to be communicated and understood effectively is recommended to increase the chances of success at reducing the high prevalence of malnutrition in U-5’s.


Despite the potential link between mental skills and athletic performance, little is done to examine handball players’ present level of mental skills concerning their performance. To begin with, the study has three folded aims; the first one is to examine the factor structure of Bull’s Mental Skills Questionnaire, which was developed in the United Kingdom to measure selected mental skill, of Serbian athlete population. The second aim is to determine gender differences in those mental skills, and the third aim is to determine differences between the playing positions in the mental skills of handball players to create a mental profile of Serbian handball players.U test was used.The sample consisted of 170 handball players, aged 14 to 39, who have played handball at the semi-elite, competitive-elite, and successful-elite level. The modified exploratory factor analysis was used to determine the latent dimensions of the Bull’s Mental Skills Questionnaire. For examining gender differences in the manifestation of mental skills Mann–Whitney U test show that there are significant gender differences in variable anxiety and concentration management  and relaxation ability . Female handball players score higher on anxiety and concentration management and lower on relaxation ability. When playing positions are in question, results of Kruskal–Wallis‘s one-way analysis of variance, i.e., Mann–Whitney’s post hoc analysis, suggest that statistically significant differences were observed between wings and center backs and wings and goalkeepers in the imagery ability.Compared to the original structure of the questionnaire, which singles out seven factors of mental skills , five factors were singled out in the sample of Serbian male and female handball players . With these five subscales as dependent variables, results of the Mann–Whitney The Bull’s Mental Skills Questionnaire in Serbian sample of handball players show satisfactory psychometric characteristics but has singled out five factors of mental skills compared to the original questionnaire. With the development of modern sports, there was a need to further explore the processes, characteristics, and skills of successful athletes in relation to those who do not reach the elite level. The increasingly advanced physical dispositions of today’s athletes have indicated that at the top competitive level, the difference between victory and defeat sometimes depends on psychological factors. Among the elite athletes in various sports, the winners of Olympic medals, the following differentiating characteristics were singled out: personal dispositions ; psychological skills or states ; cognitive and behavioral techniques which athletes use for the purpose of achieving desirable psychological states  .However, when discussing the psychological characteristics of successful athletes, the term mental toughness is most often used. This term has been used for more than 20 years, along with terms such as mental strength, mental preparation, mental skills, and psychological skills. The impossibility of defining a clear and precise construct that would refer to the mental profile of highly successful athletes is still one of the challenges of sports psychology. Namely, while some researchers believe that mental toughness is a personality trait, others argue that it is a skill subject to learning, which is relatively stable, but also in interaction with environmental impacts . In thisOne of the first studies to study the mental toughness of athletes is based on the idea that environmental factors  form the basis of mental toughness consisting of three categories: strong character, strong attitude, and strong mind . The envOne of the most current models of mental toughness, which is largely empirically confirmed e.g., , is a moHaving in mind the diversity in understanding mental toughness, in this research, we integrate the previously mentioned understandings, and we start from the notion of mental skills, which we regard as a set of learned or innate beliefs, attitudes, emotions, and behaviors that are specific to the sports setting and affect the way an athlete approaches the sport and reacts to different situations of achievement and pressure to achieve success in sports.One of the questionnaires that found its practical and empirical use in sport is Bull’s Mental Skills Questionnaire , which wAs stated, research into the mental skills of top athletes is a current topic in sports and sports psychology. Regarding data relating to handball, a slightly smaller number of studies can be found that relate to the examination of the psychological characteristics of handball players. Concentration, anxiety management, self-confidence, and motivation have been singled out as specific psychological skills in handball .Research on gender differences in athletes’ mental skills shows inconsistent data. Namely, although some studies indicate significant gender differences in the degree of emotional regulation in favor of male handball players e.g., , no gendWhen it comes to different playing positions in handball and mental skills, research shows that goalkeepers, wings, and playmakers react faster when selecting adequate figures than those in the pivot or back positions . On the One of the goals of this research is to examine the factor structure of Bull’s Mental Skills Questionnaire. The questionnaire has not been applied to a sample of Serbian handball players so far. Research conducted outside the Serbian population so far on this questionnaire shows a satisfactory factor structure and application to athletes . Bull’s We used a cross-sectional correlational design to collect self-report data on mental skills from Serbian handball players.N = 99) and female handball players (N = 71), aged 14–39 (1 [according to N = 24), wings (N = 44), center backs (N = 27), backs (N = 48), and pivots (N = 27).The research includes male and female handball players of various competitive ranks. The sample consisted of 170 handball players; male players , and age (continues variable). Sport participation variables included: level of sports participation , years of training handball (continues variable), and players’ position . Mental skills variables included subscales of Bull’s Mental Skills Questionnaire.The Bull’s Mental Skills Questionnaire was developed in the United Kingdom to measure imagery ability , mental preparation , self-confidence , anxiety and worry management , concentration ability , relaxation ability  and motivation  from which a total scale score is derived . The quevia pen and paper in the presence of the evaluator.Prior to conducting the study, consent was obtained for the use of The Bull’s Mental Skills Questionnaire, which was then translated into Serbian for the first time. The translation was done by two researchers: one Ph.D. psychologist and one Ph.D. sports researcher. Evaluators have gone through short training about the proper administration of the questionnaire. During 2018 and 2019, data were collected from handball clubs in the territory of Serbia. Respondents were instructed on the goal of the research, and only athletes who expressed a desire to be part of the research participated. All participants were provided with anonymity, and all ethical principles of research were observed. The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the ethical board of the University of Novi Sad, Serbia (Ref. No. 46-06-02/2020-1). Respondents filled out the questionnaire U test, and the criterion of statistical significance was defined at p ≤ 0.05. Using the Kruskal–Wallis one-way analysis of variance, differences depending on playing positions were determined, and the post hoc analysis was followed by the Mann–Whitney test with the same boundary criterion of statistical significance. For all these statistical analyses and procedures, IBM SPSS Statistics version 26 was used and software package R ver. 4.1.1 while using the following libraries: psych, corrgram, nFactors, ggplot2.The modified exploratory factor analysis was used to determine the latent dimensions of the Bull’s Mental Skills Questionnaire. Namely, as the data of the questionnaire are of the ordinal type, in the first phase, it was necessary to calculate the correlations between all items by Spearman’s procedure, then import the obtained intercorrelation matrix and perform a factor analysis on it. The resulting intercorrelation matrix was then rotated into a more favorable parsimonious promax solution, and the number of significant principal components was determined using multiple criteria . The most logical solution was taken as acceptable. Differences between male and female handball players in the manifestation of mental skills were obtained by applying the Mann–Whitney Based on the selected factors, the differences in mental skills according to gender, playing position, and the competitive rank were examined.Based on Playing positions are grouped into goalkeepers, wing, pivotmen, center backs, and backs.post hoc analysis. The results suggest that statistically significant differences in playing positions were observed between male goalkeepers and wings  in the Imagery ability as well as between center backs and wings . There were no statistical differences among female handball players between the playing positions.The results presented in When we look closely at achieved scores on mental skills, even though they do not statistically differ, they contribute to a better understanding of the mental skill of different playing positions. Among male handball players, center backs achieve the highest scores ( ± 3.88) .For female handball players, trends are slightly different. Wings achieve the highest score ( ± 3.25) .The first goal of the research was to examine the factor structure of the Bull’s Mental Skills Questionnaire , which hRegarding gender differences in the mental skills of handball players, the obtained results indicate that female handball players show a lower degree of anxiety regulation ability than male handball players but, on the other hand, show a higher degree of relaxation ability. The obtained results are in line with previous research, which found that female handball players have a somewhat lower ability to regulate emotions and less coping strategies compared to male handball players . AlthougPlaying positions in handball differ, as do the tasks that handball players face in these positions. Thus, a statistically significant difference was obtained in Imagery ability among male handball players, between goalkeepers and wings, and between wings and center backs . HandbalWhen it comes to female handball players, significant differences in relation to the playing position were not found . But froObtained results are somewhat in line with previous research that shows that playmakers (center backs) score highest on subscales of mental skills directed toward attention and concentration process, goal-setting abilities, and mental preparation . In our Wings, both in male and female samples of handball players, show slightly lower mental skills. Compared to previous research that found that players in these positions score higher on self-confidence and achievement motivation , the Ser•The internal validity of the factors of the Bull’s Mental Skills Questionnaire proved to be satisfactory and similar to the validity obtained in the sample of English, South African, and Turkish respondents.•Compared to the original structure of the questionnaire, which singles out seven factors of mental skills , five factors were singled out in the sample of Serbian male and female handball players .•Male and female handball players differ statistically significantly in the degree of emotional regulation, whereas male handball players show a higher degree of emotional regulation and the ability to concentrate compared to female handball players. Results regarding gender differences in sports are often non-consistent, which is why it is necessary to continue investigating and observing if those differences influence sports achievement and the wellbeing of athletes. In the Serbian sample, obtained differences may be the result of the social aspect of handball.•Male handball players differ in Imagery ability in relation to the player’s position. A significant difference was obtained between the wing players and goalkeepers and wings and center backs. Players in the wing position achieve the lowest score on Imagery ability. Significant differences in relation to playing position were not obtained in female handball players. These results indicate the need to work with players in the wing position on the development of mental skills ; and with players in the center backs position to develop strategies to reduce competitive anxiety. Also, the result indicates the need to work with all-female players on the development of mental skills aimed at emotional regulation, especially with female players in the wing position, in order to improve emotional regulation.•Obtained results invite further investigation of handball players mental skills in relation to age, level of sports participation, and interaction between mental skills and other individuals  and situational factors .•In line with the understanding that mental skills can be taught, further research should focus on investigating the effects of mental training programs for handball players.The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article/supplementary material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Ethical Board of the University of Novi Sad, Serbia (Ref. No. 46-06-02/2020-1). Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants’ legal guardian/next of kin.DJ and JT contributed to the experimental design, data collection and analysis, and drafting of the manuscript. BM contributed to the experimental design and revision of the manuscript. SM and NF contributed to the data collection and examined the study. DS, AB, and PD conceived of and examined the study and revised the manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.