Recent research indicates that this reflects a positive social emotion, kama muta, which is evoked by a sudden increase in interpersonal closeness, specifically by the relational model of communal sharing. Because forming strong, close, and communal bonds exemplifies valued human qualities, and because other humans are our primary target partners of communal sharing, we predicted that feeling kama muta in response to observing communal sharing among out-group strangers would make people view out-groups as more human. In Study 1, we replicated a model obtained through a large exploratory preliminary study which indicated that videos depicting out-group members enacting communal sharing evoked kama muta and increased protagonist humanization. This, in turn, led to decreased blatant dehumanization of the entire out-group via perceived out-group warmth and motivation to develop a communal sharing relationship with the protagonist. The preregistered Study 2 further tested our model, demonstrating (1) that the relationship between protagonist humanization and kama muta is bidirectional such that baseline humanization of the protagonist also increases feelings of kama muta in response to acts of communal sharing; (2) that watching videos of communal sharing, as compared to funny videos, increased protagonist humanization; and (3) that kama muta videos, compared to funny videos, had an indirect effect on the reduction of out-group blatant dehumanization, which was mediated by protagonist humanization and out-group warmth.People often view out-groups as less human than their in-group. Some media video content is  Isak and Even just have their eyes on each other, it is so sweet! I have learnt so much from season 3 – that we just have to accept who we are, be open and not deal with things alone. The fact that we are first and foremost human – and not our sexuality, gender, disease, religion, etc.”Anonymous comment from the official SKAM web page at the Norwegian Broadcasting Company (NRK)The protagonists described in the quote above are vulnerable to stigmatization and to people seeing them as less than fully human. Isak and Even are a gay male couple and are lead characters in the Norwegian TV series “SKAM” about a group of friends at a high school in Oslo. The online comments’ sections of these videos reveal that viewers from all over the world overcome their own negative perceptions of gay men while watching SKAM. How does this happen? The series has attracted a lot of Norwegian and international attention due to its moving depictions of gay and minority teens in Norway . The comPrevious research has focused on the link between the negative emotion disgust and the perception of out-groups as less human than the in-group e.g., . This liHere, we argue that one’s own emotional reaction in response to observing out-group members’ interactions should influence how human these persons, and possibly their groups, are perceived to be. These emotional reactions, in turn, will depend on the kinds of social relationships the persons are perceived to enact. These assumptions are based on theoretical frameworks stressing the crucial role of emotions for informing the pursuit of important evolved goals, such as the goal to cooperate with trustworthy others .Hence, we suggest that out-group members and their groups should be perceived as more human when viewers respond emotionally to the perception that out-group members are implementing extraordinary acts of communal sharing  because such actions are an honest cue that they are benevolent cooperators. The emotional construct that fits best the assumed appraisal theme of perceiving such remarkable communal sharing is kama muta, a term recently introduced for a class of emotional experiences often labeled as being moved in English . We therWe start by outlining research on kama muta and explain how the relation between kama muta and humanization is plausible. Next, we delineate research on dehumanization and present findings showing that humanization is not necessarily the opposite of dehumanization. Lastly, we explicate the model in detail and summarize a preliminary study before presenting two preregistered studies which test our model.moved by love. English speakers often use terms such as “being moved” or “touched” when they speak about feeling kama muta. In order to not only rely on vernacular labels when measuring and theorizing about kama muta  are derived from Relational Models Theory , 2004. RKama muta is elicited when CS relations suddenly intensify . CS inteThe validity of both the kama muta construct and the KAMMUS, a multidimensional measure of kama muta, has been previously demonstrated in a cross-cultural study . Across In sum, kama muta is a cross-culturally validated emotion, which is evoked by a sudden intensification of a communal sharing relation. In this paper, we specifically test the effect of kama muta evoked through parasocial contact on perceived humanness. We suggest that kama muta will increase perceived humanness because it signals a propitious opportunity for a new or renewed communal sharing relationship with a trustworthy, cooperative, sensitive, loving, and caring human being.Dehumanization is the process of not including people into the human category. Members of this human category share an essence, which connects all humans and differentiates us from other species . Dehumanlack of culture was categorized as dehumanizing language, whereas civility was categorized as humanizing language. However, Although a prerequisite for understanding dehumanization is to understand what constitutes humanness , humanizDespite these different emphases, dehumanization and humanization imply perceiving others as less and more human, respectively. The difference between the concepts can be understood as a difference in the kind of comparison standard used. Dehumanization results from a perceived violation of a minimal goal of decent human behavior and civility, whereas humanization results from a comparison with a maximal goal of exemplary human behavior see . Thus, dOutlined above, disgust is an important emotional elicitor of dehumanization. However, to our knowledge, there is no research on the potential effect of positive emotions on viewing out-groups as human. We suggest that kama muta is a positive emotion with consequences for humanization, since it informs people of the opportunity to develop new communal relationships with trustworthy, cooperative people.individual humanization of out-group members. We expect this association to reflect both causal directions such that (1) kama muta increases humanization of other individuals and (2) humanization of other individuals increases the level of experienced kama muta. We expect kama muta to increase humanization of out-group members because kama muta is evoked by intense CS, which portrays actions that are considered to be human. Viewing the out-group member as human, which we believe is an important prerequisite for responding emotionally to the out-group member’s actions, is also expected to influence the evocation of kama muta. In other words, we expect that an important prerequisite of feeling kama muta from out-group members’ actions is to see them as people that are able to act in ideal human ways. We will first test for the correlation between kama muta and humanization in the first study and follow up by testing the bi-directionality in the second study.Therefore, we expect that kama muta is related to humanization; the characteristics unique to humanness found by the coding scheme of not amoral, primitive, and irrational and do not lack culture. In order for the generalization process from humanization of individuals to reducing the dehumanization of their entire group to occur, we expect that further mediating processes will be necessary. Viewing out-group members as human indicates that they are seen as persons who belong in a community. Thus, humanization of individual out-group members should also motivate people to develop CS relationships with out-group members, which reduces dehumanization of the whole out-group. Consistent with this, for instance, perceived friendship potential is an important moderating condition for intergroup contact to produce positive attitudes toward whole out-groups  and viewing out-groups as more human. There has been no such work of which we are aware examining the relationship between positive social emotions and humanization. Therefore, as this is a novel research area, we first conducted a preliminary study, which assessed all previously documented kama muta components  in predicting humanness perceptions of out-groups. We allowed the data-driven procedure to select the best performing kama muta component because there is no consensus in the emotion literature as to which component is central nor how the emotion components affect each other . We alsoIn our preliminary study, which we describe in detail in the In the preregistered Study 1, we replicated the model derived in the preliminary study using confirmatory analyses on a new sample.In the preregistered Study 2, we further tested two aspects of the replicated model:1.We controlled for possibility that the effects of kama muta might simply be accounted for by general positive valence by adding amusement as a comparison condition. Whereas kama muta is associated with the positive experience of fostering close, communal sharing relationships, which should lead to viewing out-groups as more human, amusement leads to a positive, hedonic experience which distracts the viewer from negative thoughts . Thus, i2.https://osf.io/fmj97/. We report how we determined our sample size, all data exclusions, all manipulations, and all measures. All studies were approved by the internal review board at the Department of Psychology, University of Oslo. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.All data and codes are uploaded on OSF: We tested the causal directions underlying the previously documented correlation between feeling kama muta and humanizing the protagonist in the video which solicited kama muta; is the protagonist seen as human which then enables the viewer to feel kama muta, or does feeling kama muta enable the viewer to humanize the out-group protagonist, or both?https://aspredicted.org/fr5w7.pdf for the pre-registration. We will assess the replication of the model in Study 1 through model fit indices.In the preliminary study, we obtained a model describing the process of how kama muta predicts humanization of individual targets and reduces dehumanization of the entire out-group. Since this model was built based on exploratory analyses, the aim of Study 1 is to use confirmatory analyses to replicate the model obtained in the preliminary study  = 0.80, and RMSEA at H0 and H1 estimates based on the RMSEA 90% CI values of the retained path model from the preliminary study , the a priori power analysis yielded a sample size of 4001.We conducted an ry study . Using aN = 440 participants from Prolific Academic requesting White heterosexual US American nationals with an approval rate of 90%. The inclusion of only White heterosexual US Americans was in order to ensure that the videos participants saw depicted either ethnic or sexual out-groups. However, some participants categorized themselves as non-heterosexual when responding to demographic questions. Participants were compensated with 1 GBP for their time. As preregistered, participants were excluded from the primary analyses if they did not watch the whole video (N = 42), did not watch the video with sound or watched the video with someone (N = 24), or were of the same group membership as the protagonist in the video (N = 1). We also excluded one participant who was under the age of 18. Of the remaining N = 394, 212 indicated that they were male, 33 categorized themselves as non-heterosexual, and all participants categorized themselves as White Americans. Age varied from 18 to 74, M = 36.85, SD = 13.13.We recruited Each participant was presented with one randomly selected moving video from a pool of eight videos see .2. See After watching the video, participants were asked to indicate which protagonist they focused on the most during the video (“Later on in the questionnaire you will answer questions about one of the persons you saw in the video. Please select the person you focused on the most during the video clip”). The protagonists were labeled according to name or role . Scales measured at the group level asked about either Black people, Pakistanis, Indians, Thai people, or gay men, depending on which video participants saw. Then, participants were asked to respond to the dependent and independent variables described belowNot at all to 6 – A lot with the exception of the feeling thermometer scales which ranged from 0 – Cold to 100 – Warm.Participants were asked to indicate their agreement to the following measures using a 7-point scale, ranging from 0 – The experience of kama muta was assessed through a measure with three subsections, reflecting physiological signs , appraisals of communal sharing between the protagonists in the video , and the subjective feelings of kama muta . This kama muta measure was an earlier and shortened version of the measure validated in A measure of individual-level humanization was developed for the present study as previous research has focused on dehumanization measures. This face-valid measure of protagonist humanization asked participants to indicate how human they considered the protagonist to be . These items were directed to the protagonist which participants focused on when watching the video. Thus, the label of the protagonist  was replaced with the protagonist in the items above.To assess the extent to which participants were motivated to develop a communal sharing relationship with the protagonist specifically, participants were asked to imagine that they were to get to know the protagonist and rate their agreement to six statements regarding the potential relationship . These items were taken from In order to assess feelings of warmth toward the in-group and out-group, we asked participants to indicate how cold or warm they felt toward US Americans (the in-group), Black people, Pakistanis, Indians, gay men, and Thai people from . BecauseA measure of blatant dehumanization toward the protagonist’s group from  was giveM = 4.02) and labels (M = 4.42). The below mid-point ratings of kama muta physiological signs (M = 2.64) indicate that the kama muta experience was not very strong. Protagonist humanization scores were far above the mid-point (M = 5.17), and the blatant group dehumanization scores were below the mid-point (M = 2.49), indicating the protagonists and their groups were seen as human.The descriptive statistics presented in N = 158), gay men (N = 39), Thai people (N = 147), Indians (N = 42), and Pakistani (N = 8). Both Indians and Pakistanis were portrayed in the same video, so the measure asking participants which protagonist they focused on was used to determine whether they were presented with blatant group dehumanization measures about Pakistanis or Indians.A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) using SPSS 26 was conducted to test for differences between the groups portrayed in the videos. All kama muta components, protagonist humanization, motivation for CS, feeling thermometer score toward the out-group portrayed in the video, and blatant group dehumanization were added as dependent variables. The group portrayed in the video was added as a fixed factor. This factor had five levels, corresponding to Black people  = 3.75, p<0.001, ηp2 = 0.064. Looking at pairwise comparisons (with Bonferroni correction), videos depicting gay men had significantly lower ratings of kama muta labels  than videos depicting Black people , Thai people , and Indians . Kama muta physiological signs were also significantly lower among participants who saw a video depicting gay men  compared to videos depicting Indians . Gay male protagonists  were humanized less than Black  and Thai protagonists . Participants who saw a video with Thai protagonists were more motivated to develop a CS relationship with the protagonist  compared to participants who saw videos depicting gay men  and Black people . Lastly, Indians received significantly lower blatant group dehumanization scores  than all of the other groups: Black people , gay men , Thai people , and Pakistanis .Across all dependent measures, there was a significant difference between the groups portrayed in the video The model was estimated using latent variable structural equation modeling, specifically the maximum likelihood estimation technique in Mplus version 7 . Criteri2(186) = 396.33, p < 0.001, RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.054 , CFI = 0.967, SRMR = 0.045. The standardized parameter estimates are shown in We estimated the same model as in the preliminary study where kama muta labels and protagonist humanization predicted out-group feeling thermometers  and motivation for CS. Blatant group dehumanization was predicted by out-group feeling thermometers and motivation for CS. The retained structural regression model from the preliminary study was replicated, χB = -0.062  and motivation for CS B = -0.036 , while controlling for the other. Additionally, the effect of protagonist humanization, while controlling for kama muta feelings, predicted a decrease in blatant group dehumanization through feeling thermometer B = -0.150  and motivation for CS B = -0.038 , while controlling for the other. Comparing the indirect effects . We decided to model these as independent variables rather than assuming any directionality by having one predict the other. This is because Study 1 was correlational, making it difficult to assess directionality, and that a bidirectional effect of kama muta on protagonist humanization is plausible. As outlined in the introduction, kama muta can have an effect on protagonist humanization because of the emotion-eliciting event portraying out-groups acting in human ways. Conversely, not viewing the protagonists as human, i.e., as not being capable of acting in human ways, might hinder one from feeling kama muta in response to their actions. Therefore, in Study 2 we will investigate the directionality between kama muta and protagonist humanization.However, there was a strong overlap between kama muta labels and protagonist humanization, as seen in the high correlation between these two constructs  We test if the effects of kama muta obtained in the preliminary study and Study 1 are due to the specific emotional state of kama muta or whether they can be more generally attributed to its positivity by adding amusement as a comparison condition. (2) Whereas in the preliminary study and in Study 1 we tested for a relation between feelings of kama muta elicited by the video and protagonist humanization, but not its direction, we now aimed to investigate the causal direction of this relationship.before the protagonist acted in ways that would either evoke kama muta or amusement. Thus, kama muta and amusement was only measured at Time 2. This design allowed us to test if protagonist humanization measured at Time 1 predicted kama muta scores at Time 2, i.e., if protagonist humanization predicts kama muta. Additionally, by taking the difference score of protagonist humanization between Time 1 and Time 2 and using kama muta scores to predict this difference, we were able to test if kama muta increases protagonist humanization. Furthermore, as blatant group dehumanization was also measured at both Time 1 and Time 2, we were able to test for the directionality of the link between kama muta and blatant group dehumanization.In order to test the directionality of kama muta and protagonist humanization, a pre–post study design with a week delay was employed. In the first time point , participants saw a short segment of a video, which was presented in full at the second time point a week later . At both time points, participants were asked to respond to the protagonist humanization scale after seeing the video. Only a part of the video was presented at Time 1 because we were interested in how human the protagonist was seen https://aspredicted.org/3wc25.pdf for the pre-registration) are as follows:Thus, the preregistered hypotheses (see (H1)3 will increase protagonist humanization from Time 1 to Time 2, whereas there will be no increase for funny videos.Moving videos(H2)Protagonist humanization at Time 1 positively predicts kama muta ratings at Time 2.(H3)The retained model from the preliminary study and Study 1 will be conceptually replicated with data from Time 2 comparing moving with funny videos.(H4)4.Moving videos will decrease blatant group dehumanization, from Time 1 to Time 2, whereas there will be no decrease for funny videos(H5)Blatant group dehumanization at Time 1 negatively predicts kama muta ratings at Time 2.N = 350 participants at Time 1 from Academic Prolific requesting White heterosexual US nationals with an approval rate of 90%. The inclusion of only White heterosexual US Americans was in order to ensure that the videos participants saw depicted either ethnic or sexual out-groups. However, some participants categorized themselves as non-heterosexual when responding to demographic questions. Participants were compensated with 1 GBP for their time at Time 1 and were promised an additional 3 GBP after they had completed the study at Time 2. As preregistered, participants were excluded from the primary analyses if they did not complete the second part of the study (N = 124); if they were not alone when watching the video (N = 9); if they were frequently distracted during the survey (N = 2); or if they were of the same group membership as the protagonist in the video (N = 8). In addition, we excluded one participant because he had prior knowledge about the protagonist in the video and one participant because he had technical problems. Of the remaining N = 221, 122 indicated they were male, all categorized themselves as White/Caucasian and heterosexual. Age varied from 18 to 74, M = 34.61, SD = 12.19.We recruited A within- and between-subject design over two time points was employed see . Video cAt Time 1, participants saw a 10-s segment of the video, selected to not induce kama muta or amusement, in order to give them a frame of reference when responding to the protagonist humanization measure. A week later at Time 2, participants saw the whole video. The videos were presented in the same order at both time points. The group membership of the protagonists was indicated before each video ; this was in order to ensure that participants were aware of the group membership of the protagonists before each video they watched. Furthermore, in order to ensure that responses were based on the video clips alone, and not prior contact or knowledge of the protagonists in the video clips, we asked participants beforehand whether they had heard about the TV series or musician presented in the videos.N = 72 from Amazon Mechanical Turk, see The selection of videos for each stimulus set was informed by a pretest. We pretested six moving and six funny videos by measuring amusement, laughter, kama muta labels, and physiological signs . The labels and appraisal components of kama muta were the same as in Study 1. We made composite scores of each kama muta component in addition to a composite score comprising kama muta labels and physiological signs. This is because we wished to include a variable which reflects the feeling and the intensity of kama muta experienced by participants. Amusement was assessed using one item “I was amused”; we also assessed physiological signs (“I laughed”) and appraisal .Only protagonist humanization and blatant group dehumanization measures were presented at Time 1, whereas at Time 2 all measures were presented see . See Tab6; and 0.91 for motivation for CS. We assessed the internal consistency of the scales measured repeatedly in our analyses by computing multilevel models as recommended by F = 589.39, p < 0.001, B = 3.09 , and the main effect of video content on amusement ratings was also significant F = 114.02, p < 0.001, B = -1.70 . The manipulation was therefore successful (see We fitted two mixed models using SPSS 24 with kama muta labels and the item amused as dependent variables. Video content (moving vs. funny) was added as a fixed factor, and intercepts were allowed to vary randomly across participants. The main effect of video content on ratings of kama muta labels was significant sful see .We tested the hypotheses that kama muta would increase protagonist humanization from Time 1 to Time 2 (H1) and that protagonist humanization at Time 1 would increase evoked kama muta at Time 2 (H2) by fitting mixed models using SPSS 24. In all models, we first added time, group , video content (moving vs. funny), order of video, and their interactions as factors and removed the non-significant factors and interactions from the retained models.∗video content and video content∗group were added as fixed factors. Intercepts were allowed to vary across participants. As predicted, the time∗video content interaction was significant, F = 34.87, p < 0.001, such that protagonist humanization only increased from Time 1 to Time 2 for the moving videos, but not for the funny ones. As seen in the non-overlapping CIs in Testing H1, protagonist humanization was added as the dependent variable, and time, group, video content, and the interactions timeExploratorily, we conducted mediation analyses to investigate if it was in fact the elicited emotions that mediated the effect of change in protagonist humanization from Time 1 to Time 2. We tested for mediation using the classical 3-step approach, but fitting mixed models and calculating CIs of the indirect paths using a Monte Carlo procedure .B = 0.47 , meaning that feeling kama muta in response to the moving video did indeed increase protagonist humanization from Time 1 to Time 2. In the second mediation model, we tested if ratings of amusement mediated the relationship between video content and change in protagonist humanization from Time 1 to Time 2. We did find a positive indirect effect of amusement β = 0.22, B = 0.33 , but the direct and total effects of video content on protagonist humanization were negative  mediated the relationship between video content and change in protagonist humanization from Time 1 to Time 2. We found an indirect effect of kama muta, β = 0.32, tive see . This meF = 30.43, p < 0.001. In addition, the video content∗protagonist humanization at Time 1 interaction was also significant, F = 21.60, p < 0.001, qualifying the main effect. The simple slopes show that the more the protagonist was seen as human before the moving video, the more kama muta participants felt after the moving video, B = 0.48 , but not after the funny video, B = 0.07 . This makes sense, given that the funny videos were not expected to evoke any kama muta, but we had forgotten to preregister that interaction.Testing H2, kama muta  was added as the dependent variable, protagonist humanization at Time 1 was added as a fixed covariate, and video content was added as a fixed factor, and their interaction was added as well. Intercepts were allowed to vary across participants. As predicted, the main effect of protagonist humanization at Time 1 was significant, F = 10.97, p = 0.001. So was the video content∗protagonist humanization at Time 1 interaction, F = 5.87, p = 0.016, qualifying the main effect. Simple slopes show that the more the protagonist was seen as human before the amusing event, the more amused participants felt after the funny video, B = 0.45 , but not after the moving video, B = 0.09 .Exploratorily, we specified the same model as for H2 but used amusement as the dependent variable. Again, the main effect of protagonist humanization at Time 1 was significant Next, we tested the hypothesis that the retained model from the preliminary study and Study 1 would be conceptually replicated with data from Time 2, comparing moving with funny videos (H3). To do so, we specified a two-condition within-participant path model as suggested by 7. This difference in protagonist humanization, in turn, should result in greater motivation for CS toward the protagonist and warmer feelings toward the protagonist’s group, which in turn should lead to less blatant group dehumanization toward the group  = 8.70, p = 0.561, RMSEA (90% CI) = 0.00 , CFI = 1.00, SRMR = 0.029. The standardized parameter estimates are shown in The model was identified and indicated good model fit, χB = -0.126 . The indirect effect through warmer feelings toward the group was significantly larger than the indirect effect through motivation for CS, B = –0.129 . The indirect effect through motivation for CS was not significant. We also examined a mediation from video content through protagonist humanization to motivation to develop a CS relationship employing the same bootstrap analysis, which showed that this indirect effect was significant, B = 0.733 .We examined the indirect effect of video content on blatant group dehumanization through protagonist humanization, motivation for CS, or feeling thermometer ratings, employing a bootstrap analysis with 10,000 resamples and percentile confidence intervals. This analysis showed a serial mediation from video content to protagonist humanization to warmer feelings of the protagonist’s group to less blatant dehumanization of the said group, Next, we tested the hypotheses that participants exposed to a moving, but not a funny, video would show a decrease in blatant group dehumanization (H4) and that blatant group dehumanization at Time 1 would predict kama muta at Time 2 (H5). We followed the same steps as for H1 and H2.∗order were fixed factors, as these were the only significant factors that were retained from the initial model. Intercepts were allowed to vary across participants. There was a significant main effect of order F = 7.81, p = 0.005. There was a significant video content∗order interaction F = 3.87, p = 0.050, qualifying the main effect. Looking at pairwise comparisons (with Bonferroni correction), when the moving video was presented first, the group depicted in the moving video was blatantly dehumanized more (M = 1.72) compared to the group that was presented in the funny video that was presented first (M = 1.41), F = 4.86, p = 0.028. The blatant dehumanization score for the group depicted in the moving video that was presented second was lower (M = 1.58) than for the group that was depicted in the funny video that was presented second (M = 1.79), but this difference was not significant, F = 2.39, p = 0.123.Testing H4, blatant group dehumanization was the dependent variable, video content and order and the interaction video content∗video content interaction on blatant group dehumanization was not significant, F = 0.008, p = 0.93  = 16.76, p < 0.001, and so was the main effect of video content F = 223.23, p < 0.001. As predicted, the video content∗blatant group dehumanization at Time 1 interaction was significant, F = 9.94, p = 0.002, B = -0.36 , qualifying the main effects. Hence, our hypothesis was supported such that the lesser the group was seen as human at Time 1, the lesser participants felt kama muta after the moving video. Also, as predicted, the parameter for the funny video was not significant, B = −0.09 , meaning that blatant group dehumanization did not have an effect on kama muta ratings after the funny video.Testing H5, kama muta  was added as the dependent variable, blatant group dehumanization at Time 1 was added as a fixed covariate, and video content was added as a fixed factor, and their interaction was added as well. Intercepts were allowed to vary across participants. The main effect of blatant group dehumanization at Time 1 was significant, The model retained in Study 1 was conceptually replicated in Study 2 in a model where we also compared the effects of moving videos to those of funny videos: Compared to funny videos, moving videos depicting a communal sharing interaction increased protagonist humanization. This difference in protagonist humanization reduced blatant group dehumanization, and this effect was mediated through feeling thermometer scores. In other words, when people see a moving video of specific out-group members acting communally, they see the protagonists as more human. This influences how the entire group of the protagonist is seen; from seeing the group as warm, the whole group is also less dehumanized. We additionally found that prior humanness perceptions of the protagonist and group also affected how much kama muta participants experienced; that is, not only does feeling kama muta make people see others as more human, the more human they see them, the more likely they are to be moved by their communal interactions in the first place.In contrast to the positive effect of kama muta on humanization of individual out-group members, we found no evidence of a direct, causal effect of video content on blatant dehumanization of the entire out-group. Thus, the impression of the entire out-group, in response to observations of how its members interact, appears to hinge upon the evaluation of its specific, individual members as being human.Unexpectedly, there was a significant difference in protagonist humanization between the moving video and the funny video at Time 1, i.e., before the emotion-eliciting event. Possibly, some kama muta and amusement could have been elicited during these 10-s video clips, which could have driven the effect. However, as there was an increase in protagonist humanization from Time 1 to Time 2 in the kama muta condition, this does not invalidate the conclusion that watching a moving video leads to increased protagonist humanization.more blatantly dehumanized, thus going against our hypothesis and the general pattern of effects that we found. However, future replication work might use a between-subject design to avoid any such order effects.Also, unexpectedly, we found an order effect of the videos in the blatant group dehumanization responses where the funny video that was presented first had lower blatant dehumanization ratings than the moving video that was presented first. This could be due to our design choice to measure blatant group dehumanization of both groups after participants had seen both moving and funny videos, therefore influencing the blatant group dehumanization scores. The order effect indicates that the funny video attenuated the effect of the moving video on blatant dehumanization, whereas the moving video could have contaminated the blatant dehumanization ratings of the group presented in the funny video. Therefore, even though our design choice produced an unfortunate order effect, we do not see this as invalidating our results as the order effects made the group depicted in the moving video decreased from Time 1 to Time 2, whereas even low levels of kama muta increased protagonist humanization at Time 2 , protagonist humanization me 2 see .kama muta, increases out-group humanization. Previous research has focused on how negative emotions have increased dehumanization  were consistently high. Both ratings were also significantly higher for moving videos than for funny videos (as seen in non-overlapping CIs in In one preliminary study (presented in the Further, our studies also showed that kama muta and protagonist humanization are closely related. Study 1 found a high correlation between the variables so we modeled both as independent variables in our model, not making assumptions regarding how kama muta and protagonist humanization are related. Therefore, in Study 2 we investigated the effect of kama muta on protagonist humanization by measuring protagonist humanization before and after videos evoking kama muta and amusement. As predicted, we found that protagonist humanization increased after watching a kama muta-evoking video depicting out-group protagonists. This effect was stronger than what feeling amusement had on protagonist humanization. How much the viewer perceived the protagonists as human before watching an emotional video also predicted the level of kama muta and amusement in the viewer after watching the video. Viewing the protagonist as human enables people to react emotionally to the video. However, our results do not show whether this prior humanization is due to having more favorable views of the out-groups in the video or if this is an indication of participant’s ability to be transported in the narrative and identify with the protagonists. Future research should look at this.Study 2 demonstrated that the moving video, relative to the funny video, increased motivation to develop a communal relationship with the protagonist, and this was mediated through protagonist humanization. In other words, when people feel kama muta from watching videos depicting out-group protagonists acting communally, they see these out-group protagonists as more human and therefore as potential partners for committed, close relationships of communal sharing. The kama muta emotional response motivates this psychological process. These results provide support for the proposal that the function of kama muta is to generate increased affective devotion and moral commitment to communal sharing relationships . AdditioImportantly, we also found that humanization of individual targets generalize to reduce dehumanization of their whole group in a model developed through stringent exploratory data analysis in our preliminary study and replicated twice in studies 1 and 2. Kama muta reduces blatant out-group dehumanization through the mediating psychological processes of warm feelings toward the group and motivation to develop a communal sharing relationship with the protagonist. The warmth mediator was the most consistent mediator across the studies. Additionally, viewing the protagonist as human was also an important mediator in the serial mediation model in Study 2.Our findings provide a social relational explanation for why media that evoke kama muta increase humanization, whereas earlier research by Having warm feelings toward the protagonist’s group was also an important mediator for reducing blatant dehumanization of the entire out-group. Such “warm” feeling is often conceptualized as indicating lack of emotional prejudice , but it Lastly, some limitations and suggestions for future research are warranted. First, the amusement measure in Study 2 could have been more reliable, i.e., we could have developed an amusement measure as thorough as the KAMMUS measure of kama muta. Future research should therefore focus on this. Second, the order effect of the blatant dehumanization measure in Study 2 indicates that the effect of kama muta is perhaps not very durable: When we presented a funny video between the moving video and the blatant group dehumanization scale, we obtained lower ratings in blatant dehumanization for the group presented in the moving video than when we presented the moving video second and assessed its effect directly afterward. However, this is only an indirect indication about the durability of the effect, and future studies should investigate this question directly. In addition, we expect that the effect of one exposure is not very durable but that the cumulative effect of repeated exposures is. This assumption should also be tested in future research, as it can inform interventions and campaigns aiming at reducing out-group dehumanization and intergroup hostility. Third, moral elevation , which iTo conclude, our results suggest that seeing media video content depicting communal interactions between out-group members and feeling kama muta as a response to it will most likely have an effect on viewing these groups as more human. This is precisely what the Norwegian TV series SKAM did for the viewers cited in the beginning of this paper.https://osf.io/fmj97/.The data that support the findings of this study are openly available in OSF at: The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Internal Review Board at the Department of Psychology, University of Oslo. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.JB conducted the statistical analyses and wrote the first draft. All authors conceived, designed, conducted the studies, and revised the final manuscript. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Another mechanism by that lincRNA-p21 can affect these processes is a cross-talk with different miRNAs. In vitro and in vivo studies revealed dysregulation of lincRNA-p21 in various human cancers. In addition, emerging evidence demonstrated that, lincRNA-p21 can be considered as a potential prognostic and therapeutic biomarker in cancers. Also, lincRNA-p21 enhances the response to radiotherapy for colorectal cancer. However, the molecular mechanisms of lincRNA-p21 in carcinogenesis have not been fully elucidated so far. So, this review summarizes the function of lincRNA-p21, as a tumor suppressor factor in different biological processes implicated in cancers.Long intergenic noncoding RNA p21 was mapped on the human chromosome 6p21.2. Accordingly, it was firstly described by promoting the p53-dependent apoptosis in the mouse. Also, it is a new lncRNA playing some vital roles in the cell cycle, apoptosis, cell proliferation, tumorigenesis, invasion, metastasis, and angiogenesis. In this regard, it was shown that,  LincRNA-p21 , which was mapped on human the chromosome 6p21.2, upstream of the cell-cycle regulator gene p21/Cdkn1a, was firstly described as an inducer of the p53-dependent apoptosis in mouse embryonic fibroblasts [LincRNA-p21 has two isoforms that both of them contain a single exon and Alu inverted repeat elements. Also, LincRNA-p21 together with lncRNA NEAT1 localizes in HCT-116, MCF-7, and U2OS cells [LincRNA-p21, also called as TRP53COR1 (P53 Pathway Corepressor 1 protein tumor), is a new lncRNA that has an important function in initiating and progressing various cancers. Moreover, it was shown that, lincRNA-p21 induces the transcriptional activity of wild-type p53 on vascular smooth muscle cells [lincRNA-p21 involves in the development of different tumors. Accordingly, the lincRNA-p21 overexpression can suppress tumor invasion by Notch pathway [lincRNA-p21 suppresses the progression of prostate cancer by apoptotic induction and controlling gene expressions downstream of p53 [lincRNA-p21 are still unknown in the progression and development of various cancers. Likewise, lincRNA-p21 are induced by DNA damage response. Then, lincRNA-p21 recruit hnRNP-K (heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein K) on the promoter of p21, which is crucial for the interaction between the p53 and the p21 promoters and eventually in the enhancement of p21 expression [lincRNA-p21 in different cancer types [lincRNA-p21 has significantly reduced in multiple cancers such as gastric cancer [lincRNA-p21 was detectable in body fluids such as blood, serum, plasma, and urine. Therefore, it can be suggested as a potential biomarker for prostate cancer [le cells , becausem of p53 . Howeverpression . In vivoer types –11. Sevec cancer , chronicc cancer , hepatocc cancer , colorecc cancer , diffusee cancer . OveralllincRNA-p21 is a significant regulator of apoptosis and cell proliferation by p53 signaling and inhibiting the target gene translation. For instance, Huarte et al. [lincRNA-p21 with p53 can control the number of apoptosis and cell proliferation regulator genes. They also observed that, lincRNA-p21 and p53 knockdowns lead to the inhibition of the apoptosis genes such as Perp and Noxa, as well as the activation of cell survival genes such as Stat3, Atf2, and Bcl2l3. Also, lincRNA-p21 overexpression results in cellular apoptosis after the induction of DNA damage [lincRNA-p21 interacts with MDM2, thus releasing p53 from MDM2, and p53 binds to p300, resulting in the increase of p53 activity [lincRNA-p21 expression [lincRNA-p21 promoter and also controls the level of lincRNA-p21. In addition, it is necessary for inducing lincRNA-p21 by p53 [lincRNA-p21 may cross-talk to p53 and ING1b signaling pathways  [Recent studies have indicated that, pression . Accordi1 by p53 . Therefon cancer . On the n cancer  have obsoptosis) . PUMA isoptosis) . In factlincRNA-p21 enhanced the percentage of the cells in S phase and decreased the apoptosis. Whereas, up-regulation of lincRNA-p21 resulted in G1 arrest in HN6 and Cal27 cells as well as reducing the expression levels of several cell cycle regulating factors such as Cyclin B1 and Cyclin D1 along with the apoptosis induction in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cells. Collectively, lincRNA-p21 suppressed the HNSCC cell growth, activated cell apoptosis, and induced G1 phase arrest in vitro and in vivo studies [lincRNA-p21 can diminish the expression of HIF-1α, reduce the VEGF levels, prevent the cell proliferation and invasion, and finally increase the apoptosis of MHCC97H liver cancer cells [lincRNA-p21 expression suppresses invasion, the transition of the cell cycle from G1, cell proliferation, and migration, and also activates the apoptosis of the oesophageal cancer cell line. Actually, it seems that, lincRNA-p21 acts through enhancing the expression of p21 and reduces the expression of cyclin D, and as a result, cell-cycle were arrested [lincRNA-p21 lead to the reduced levels of p21, rearrangement of chromatin state of some target genes of polycomb, diminish the G1/S efficiency, and enhance the cell proliferation [lincRNA-p21 levels and the decreased cell proliferation in mesenchymal stem cells isolated from aged mice compared to younger mice. Notably, the lincRNA-p21 knockdown increased the cell growth via the Wnt/β–catenin signaling pathway [lincRNA-p21 may be considered as a tumour suppressor that induce apoptosis, prevent cell growth, and arrest cycle progression, understanding the precise mechanisms of lincRNA-p21 in different processes in carcinogenesis needs further study.The results of another investigation have demonstrated that, down-regulation of  studies . Likewiser cells . Similararrested . In thisferation . Another pathway . AlthouglincRNA-p21 play critical roles in tumorigenesis. In fact, lincRNA-p21 inhibits β-catenin translation, leads to the down-regulation of protein levels of β-catenin in HeLa cells [lincRNA-p21 enhances HIF-1α stability under the hypoxia conditions points that it may also have an oncogenic function and facilitate tumorigenesis [LincRNA-p21 directly binds to STAT3 resulting in the prevention of tumorigenic signals in HNSCC. Briefly, the down-regulation of lincRNA-p21 reduces its interaction with STAT3, and consequently activates the transcriptional activity of STAT3 and promotes tumor progression. On the other hand, lincRNA-p21 up-regulation suppresses the regulatory activity of STAT3, as a result, it inhibits tumorigenesis [lincRNA-p21 in cancer stem cells led to the activation of tumorigenesis, whereas its increased expression potently repressed the tumorigenesis [lincRNA-p21 inhibits tumorigenesis in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Meanwhile, knockdown studies indicated that, endogenous lincRNA-p21 inhibited tumorigenesis and differentiation [lincRNA-p21 by a novel adenoviral vector in cancer stem cells, could inhibit Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway resulted in repressing the viability and tumorgenesis of these cells [lincRNA-p21 could be a potential diagnostic biomarker in the patients with prostate cancer [Accumulated evidence has been demonstrated that, lncRNAs including La cells , which sigenesis , 26. Linigenesis  igenesis . Also, Zigenesis  indicatentiation . Therefose cells . In addie cancer .Fig. 2CrTumor invasion and metastasis, which are the symptoms of disease development and the main causes of treatment failure, are known as the main reasons for mortality. Although a number of investigations have assessed the tumor invasion and metastasis, its exact mechanism is not known yet . PrevioulincRNA-p21 can inhibit the invasion and metastasis of different cancers such as gastric cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, and colorectal cancer. For example, Chen et al. [lincRNA-p21 knockdown by the Hippo pathway and YAP activation [A number of studies have reported that, lncRNAs including n et al.  reportedtivation .lincRNA-p21 activates the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) by downstream miRNA [lincRNA‐p21 expression can suppress EMT via Notch singling, along with the reduced lincRNA‐p21 expression that led to a reverse result [lincRNA-p21 could repress the development of hepatocellular carcinoma by the miR-9/E-cadherin signaling pathway [lincRNA-p21 expression reduced the migration and invasion abilities of the head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) cell lines ; however, they have enhanced after the down-regulation of lincRNA-p21. Correspondingly, the up-regulation of lincRNA-p21 resulted in the decreased matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) and MMP9 proteins, and vice versa. These resulted proved that, lincRNA-p21 expression suppressed the aggressive manners in these cells [Moreover, it has been revealed that, am miRNA , while Jam miRNA  have repe result . In this pathway . FurtherAngiogenesis and lymph angiogenesis promoted by chemical factors from tumor cells, are key factors in the growth of tumor and metastasis. Vasculogenesis leads to the formation of the initial vascular network, and consequently differentiate endothelial cells (ECs) from precursors including angioblast. Afterward, angiogenesis activates the formation of the new blood vessels from the existing vessels. In these processes, angiogenic factors such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) or hypoxia play the key roles , 35.LincRNA-p21 has recently been reported to have critical functions in angiogenesis. For example, in a very interesting study, Castellano et al. [lincRNA-p21 play a prognostic role in NSCLC  via controlling angiogenesis. In this regard, they observed that, the downregulation of lincRNA-p21 under hypoxic conditions causes a reduction in the expression of genes related to angiogenesis . These genes are involved in various processes such as extracellular matrix degradation, metastasis, formation in endothelial cells, angiogenesis, and cell motility. In addition, after silencing lincRNA-p21, HUVEC tube formation reduced, which suggest a regulatory function of lincRNA-p21 in angiogenesis. Interestingly, the increased levels of lincRNA-p21 in tumor cells from the patients with NSCLC were related to the higher microvascular density [lincRNA-p21 expression activated angiogenesis in the rats with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). In addition, there was no significant difference in the levels of bFGF, VEGF, and HGF expressions between the RA rats and the RA rats with down-regulating lincRNA-p21 [lincRNA-p21 in the angiogenesis by in vivo models may provide a promising therapeutic marker.Previous studies have reported that, there are different signaling pathways and new molecules for the induction of angiogenesis. Also, one of the most important novel markers in angiogenesis is lncRNAs . LincRNAo et al.  found th density . While tcRNA-p21 . Also, dlincRNA-p21 in the different cancer’s tissues and cell lines. Furthermore, numerous studies have revealed the role of this lncRNA in suppressing the cell proliferation and cell growth, as well as the enhancement of apoptosis. Also, it is worth mentioning that, lincRNA-p21 is able to regulate some important signaling pathways in cell proliferation, cell growth, cell cycle, apoptosis, and metastasis including Wnt/β-catenin, miR-9/E-cadherin, Notch signaling, JAK2/STAT3, and AKT/mTOR pathways [linc-RNA-p21 leads to the increased PKM2 expression as well as the activation of AKT or mTOR signaling. PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway has an important function in cancer progression, such as the prostate cancer [lincRNA-p21 results in the inhibition of the Wnt/β-catenin pathway, and consequently inactivate the hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) via the impact of miR-17-5p on Wnt inhibitory factor 1 (WIF1) [lincRNA-p21 may enhance the response to radiotherapy for colorectal cancer through the inhibition of the β-catenin signaling pathway and increase in the expression of the Noxa, as a pro-apoptosis gene [lincRNA-p21 inhibited cell proliferation and the expression of α-SMA and type I collagen in the hepatic stellate cells (HSC). Actually, lincRNA-p21 acts through microRNA-181b to enhance the expressions of PTEN and HSC activation  [lincRNA-p21 suppressed the progression of lung cancer cells via the inhibition of cell proliferation and migration as well as the activation of apoptosis in NSCLC. Accordingly, this impact of lincRNA-p21 on lung cancer cells is mediated by the miR-17-5p signaling pathway. Notably, miR-17-5p is a target of lincRNA-p21 [Several studies have evaluated the expression levels of pathways , 38, 39.e cancer . Similarsis gene . Interespathway) . SimilarcRNA-p21 .Fig. 4LilincRNA-p21 has a putative MRE for the miR-181 family. They observed that, lincRNA-p21 binds to the miR-181 family and also forms a negative feedback loop with miR-181/PKC-δ that promotes the microglial activation [lincRNA-p21 could inhibit Wnt/β-catenin pathway via binding to miR-17-5p in hepatic stellate cells [lincRNA-p21 for binding to miR-1277-5p and regulation of the level of miR-1277-5p expression. In addition, the up-regulation of miR-1277-5p inhibited the impact of lincRNA-p21 on the apoptosis and cell viability [lincRNA-p21 and regulate its expression through HSF1 (heat-shock factor 1) in MDA-MB-231 cells [lncRNAs have been indicated to have an interaction with other RNAs including miRNAs via nucleic-acid base pairing, and this interaction leads to the lncRNA-mRNA competition for microRNA binding. Based on this fact, lncRNAs are believed to be new competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs), which present miRNA binding sites (MREs) , 45. In tivation . In linete cells . Also, aiability . Interes31 cells  lincRNA-p21 led to the recruitment of let-7/Ago2 to lincRNA-p21, and the decreased stability of lincRNA-p21. In fact, overexpression of let-7b activated the RNA degradation coding lincRNA-p21 in human cervical carcinoma HeLa cells [lincRNA-p21 can not only bind to miRNAs directly, as miRNA sponges, and modulate their roles, but it can also be targeted by different miRNAs regulating its expression and function.Mechanisms of the cross-regulation between lncRNAs and miRNAs consisted of four posttranscriptional mechanisms. At first, miRNAs reduced the lncRNAs stabilities, which resulted in the modulation of lncRNAs amount abundance and affected different cellular processes . For exaLa cells . SecondlLa cells . InteresLa cells . An in vLa cells . ThirdlyLa cells . Forth, La cells . AltogetlincRNA-p21 in different processes occurring in human cancers. In fact, lincRNA-p21 acts as a tumour suppressor gene inhibiting the cell proliferation, cell survival, tumorigenesis, invasion, metastasis, and angiogenesis. On the other hand, it activates cell apoptosis, in which the expression of several genes happened. It seemed that, lincRNA-p21 may serve as one of the main regulators in various signaling pathways involved in carcinogenesis. It can also involve in response to different therapies for various cancers through regulating the signaling pathways. Moreover, lincRNA-p21 can affect different biological processes by interacting with miRNAs such as miR-181, miR-1277-5p, let-7, and miR-320. Notably, a combination of lincRNA-p21 along with several miRNAs can form a panel of potential biomarkers for various cancers. By indicating several vital roles of lnicRNAp21 in the pathogenic processes involved in carcinogenesis and its dysregulated expression in human cancers, lincRNA-p21 is suggested as it may serve as a potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarker and a therapeutic target in human cancers. However, these biomarkers, especially in body fluids as a non-invasive way, must be validated using further clinical translation assessments. Meanwhile, the role of this lncRNA in response to radiotherapy suggests that, the regulation of this lincRNA may be a new therapeutic strategy for cancers. However, further clinical studies should be evaluated in the future. In addition, further research conducted on the functions of lincRNA-p21 can reveal the molecular mechanisms of cancer pathogenesis.Previous studies support the critical role of


Latinx youth experience disparities in the availability of and participation in evidence-based interventions to reduce hazardous alcohol use. The aim of this secondary data analysis was to examine whether Project Options, a brief, evidence-based alcohol use intervention was beneficial for Latinx participants. A total of 331 first-, second-, and third-generation immigrant Latina and Latino youth who participated in a multi-site, hybrid effectiveness/efficacy clinical trial of the intervention were selected for analyses. Mixed-effects growth models tested changes in drinking cognitions  and behaviors  across three time points . Consistent with prior Project Options studies, participants with more drinking experience reported greater decreases in perception of peer drinking, intentions to drink next month, and all drinking behaviors than those with less experience. While no changes were observed in expectancies, first-generation participants endorsed lower positive use expectancies than second- and third-generation youth as well as more favorable cessation expectancies than third-generation teens. In concert with prior studies demonstrating the intervention's success in recruitment and retention of Latinx participants, results suggest that Project Options might be a promising school-based intervention for Latinx youth. This intervention has the potential to reach adolescents who might otherwise not participate in traditional programming and help decrease disparities in availability of evidence-based practices for Latinx youth. Latinxreach. Since attending school is compulsory for underage youth in the U.S., this setting offers an opportunity to reach Latinx youth that might otherwise not participate in traditional services. Furthermore, school-based interventions might be particularly apt to address key risk factors for underage drinking as schooling plays a significant role in socializing youth to peer norms  and compounded by low service utilization. Given the high need for intervention services and the many barriers to treatment faced by Latinx youth , additier norms , 9.When and to what degree to adapt interventions for specific ethnocultural groups to increase EBIs' cultural responsiveness remains an ongoing discussion in intervention science. Several frameworks have been proposed to guide cultural adaptations that maintain fidelity to the EBI while improving ethnocultural fit e.g., –13]. Whi. Whi13)]Project Options is a brief, voluntary, cognitive-behavioral intervention, based on the premise of motivated, guided self-change that incorporates social cognitive components and developmental considerations important for adolescents. The model focuses on de-escalation of alcohol involvement and is grounded in a cognitive, social information processing approach . In thisEfficacy studies demonstrated that Project Options attracts a diverse sample of youth , 17, thaInitial evaluations of a multi-site efficacy-effectiveness hybrid clinical trial of Project Options tested in three geographically and culturally different areas in the U.S.  show that it is a promising EBI for Latinx youth. Specifically, a study of the intervention's voluntary recruitment and engagement strategies at each site demonstrated that participants more or less reflected the demographics of their corresponding school and that students who identified as African-American or Black where more likely to participate in the intervention than students of other ethnicities . Indeed,Immigrant generation and gender are two important factors associated with alcohol use patterns and consequences among Latinx youth. Recent data indicate that 38% of the Latinx community are first-generation immigrants and only 34% are second-generation immigrant (U.S.-born of parents born in Latin America), while 28% are third-and-later generation immigrant . First-familismo . The interaction between lifetime drinking experience and follow-up assessments was significant . Compared to non-drinkers at baseline, those in the 1–5 , 6–20 , and 21 or more  categories reported greater decreases in perceived prevalence of peer drinking. In addition, the main effects of total number of sessions attended  and gender  were significant. That is, attending more sessions decreased the perceived prevalence of peer drinking. Similarly, boys endorsed lower levels of perceived prevalence of peer drinking, on average, than girls. The main effects of condition, site, and immigrant generation were not significant.The linear growth model testing changes in perceived percentage of peer drinking was significant . Lifetime drinking experience , immigrant generation , and site  independently predicted alcohol expectancies. Specifically, those who reported 6–20  and 21 or more  drinks endorsed more positive alcohol expectancies compared to non-drinkers; no significant differences were found in any other comparisons. Participants in Minneapolis reported more positive alcohol expectancies compared to those in Miami , and there were no site differences between Portland and the other two sites. First-generation participants reported lower positive alcohol expectancies than their second-  and third-generation counterparts , while there were no differences between second- and third-generation participants. Condition, number of attended sessions, assessment time point, and gender did not have main effects on alcohol expectancies.Though the model testing the interaction between baseline lifetime drinking experience and assessments in predicting alcohol expectancies was significant, the interaction was not; therefore, the main effect model is presented . Lifetime drinking experience , condition , and generation (χ2(2) = 10.27, p = 0.006) had significant main effects on cessation expectancies. Those who reported 21 or more drinks at baseline endorsed more negative cessation expectancies compared to non-drinkers . There were no differences between those in the 1–5 and 6–20 categories compared to non-drinkers, respectively. Similarly, those randomized to the ME condition reported worse cessation expectancies . While third generation immigrants endorsed worse cessation expectancies compared to their first generation counterparts , there were no differences between third- and second- as well as first- and second-generation immigrants. Site, assessment time point, total number of sessions, and gender had no main effects on cessation expectancies.The model testing the interaction of lifetime drinking experience and assessment time point in predicting cessation expectancies was significant, but the interaction was not, therefore, the main effects model is presented . The interaction between lifetime drinking experience and assessment time point was significant . Compared to non-drinkers at baseline, intention changes between those in the 1–5 lifetime drinks category  and those in the 21 or more lifetime drinks category  were significantly different. Similarly, the rate of change in intentions to drink next month was significantly different between those in the 6–20 baseline lifetime drinks category and those in the 1–5 drinks category  and between those in the 6–10 category and those who reported 21 or more drinks at baseline . The main effects of condition, total number of attended sessions, site, gender, and immigrant generation on intention to drink next month were not significant.The model examining intentions to drink next month was statistically significant . The interaction between lifetime drinking experience and assessment time point was significant . There were significant differences in the rate of change in number of drinking days between those in the 1–5 , 6–20 , and 21 or more drinks  categories compared to non-drinkers. Similarly, the rates of change between those in the 21 or more drinks and those in the 1–5 category  were significantly different. The main effects of condition, site, total number of attended sessions, gender, and generation were not significant.The negative binomial growth model testing changes in number of drinking days in the past month was statistically significant . The interaction between drinking experience and assessment time point was significant . Compared to non-drinkers, the rates of change in average number of drinks per drinking occasion were significantly different by those who reported 1–5 , 6–20 , and 21 or more  drinks at baseline. Condition had a main effect on average number of drinks such that those randomized to the ME approach reported a rate of average number of drinks 1.757 times greater than those in the didactive condition . Site, total number of attended sessions, gender, and generation did not have significant main effects of average number of drinks per occasion reported by participants.The negative binomial growth model that examined changes in average number of drinks per drinking occasion was significant . The interaction between drinking life experience and assessment time point was significant . There were significant differences in the rates of change between those who reported 1–5 , 6–20 , and 21 or more  drinks at baseline compared to non-drinkers. Condition had a marginally significant main effect on maximum number of drinks such that those randomized to the ME condition reported a rate of 1.68 times greater than those in the didactic condition . Total number of attended sessions, site, gender, and immigrant generation did not have main effects on the maximum number of drinks per drinking occasions in the past month reported by participants.The negative binomial growth model that tested changes in maximum number of drinks per occasion was significant  that re studies , 24, 35. studies –76. In aAs expected, participants with more baseline lifetime drinking experience reduced the number of days they drank, as well as the average, and maximum number of drinks they consumed per drinking occasion across time. Neither gender nor immigrant generation were associated with these changes, suggesting that participating in Project Options might have been beneficial for Latinx participants regardless of participants' immigrant generation and gender. These findings are in line with prior efficacy trials of the EBI. For example, Schulte et al.  found thIn concert, findings from this multi-site hybrid efficacy/effectiveness trial suggest that Project Options content might have changed drinking cognitions and behaviors among Latinx participants. Prior studies of this multi-site trial showed that the intervention was successful in voluntarily recruiting and retaining participants regardless of delivery condition   and engaTogether these results tentatively demonstrate that adapting an EBI to the local context and the developmental stage of adolescent participants might be an effective way to ensure its usefulness for Latinx youth of different immigrant generations. Although the intervention content was not specifically adapted to the culture of Latinx youth, the EBI's adaptation to the local context of each site might have captured aspects of the general cultural school environment in which these youth are developing, thereby meeting their needs. These adaptations are consistent with one of the data-driven arms proposed by Lau  wherein Study findings must be considered within its limitations. Ethnic background and drinking experience were not considered in the initial randomization of participants to the ME or didactic conditions. As a result, not enough Latinx participants in each lifetime drinking experience category were present at each site to allow for nesting of observations by site or school. In addition, this led to differences in participant drinking profiles. For example, those randomized to the ME condition reported a higher average number of drinks per occasion and less positive cessation expectancies than those in the didactic style condition. As expected, the majority of Latinx participants in the BI across the three sites  were from Miami. While we attempted to account for these differences analytically, these findings might reflect the Latinx culture of Miami and may not be generalizable to other Latinx local contexts. Relatedly, we were unable to examine potential variation by sub-groups of Latinx youth; some studies have found differences in alcohol use by generation and Latinx sub-group e.g., , 42, 78], 7842, 7In combination with prior evaluations of engagement/retention  and thermgmyers@health.ucsd.edu.The data analyzed in this study is subject to the following licenses/restrictions: The datasets for this article are not publicly available because the study involved underage participants with alcohol use experience. We are not able to release data as part of the publication given the sensitivity of the data and our agreement with the institutions' Institutional Review Boards. Requests to access these datasets should be directed to Mark G. Myers, The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Boards at Florida International University, Reed College, University of Minnesota, and the University of California, San Diego. Written informed consent to participate in this study was provided by the participants' legal guardian/next of kin.GB reviewed the literature, conducted statistical analyses, wrote initial manuscript drafts, and was responsible for edits. TG conducted the literature review, consulted on statistical analyses, and contributed to the writing and editing of the manuscript. KA was a co-investigator on the clinical trial, consulted on hypotheses, guided statistical analyses, and contributed to manuscript revisions. SB was a co-principal investigator on the clinical trial, provided feedback on drafts of the manuscript, and supervised the completion of the study. MM was a co-principal investigator on the clinical trial, consulted on statistical analyses, revised multiple drafts of the manuscript, and oversaw the completion of the study. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Couples who are similar in their drinking behaviors  often report better quality and longer marriages. These patterns of drinking may have negative implications for blood pressure, however, as individuals age. The present study examined the effects of alcohol use on blood pressure among couples and whether the associations varied by age. Participants included 2311 married/cohabiting couples  followed from 2006 to 2014 in the Health and Retirement Study who reported their average drinks per week and had their blood pressure measured. Multilevel models revealed older men (aged 60+) who drank more had higher blood pressure irrespective of wives drinking whereas for younger men the link between their own drinking and increased blood pressure was greater when wives drank more. Although concordance may be beneficial for marriage, there may be a downside to drinking concordance for health especially among middle aged men. Part of a symposium sponsored by Dyadic Research on Health and Illness Across the Adult Lifespan Interest Group.


Human carbonic anhydrases (hCAs) belong to a well characterized group of metalloenzymes that catalyze the conversion of carbonic dioxide into bicarbonate. There are currently 15 known human isoforms of carbonic anhydrase with different functions and distribution in the body. This links to the relevance of hCA variants to several diseases such as glaucoma, epilepsy, mountain sickness, ulcers, osteoporosis, obesity and cancer. This review will focus on two of the human isoforms, hCA I and hCA II. Both are cytosolic enzymes with similar topology and 60% sequence homology but different catalytic efficiency and stability. Proteins in general adsorb on surfaces and this is also the case for hCA I and hCA II. The adsorption process can lead to alteration of the original function of the protein. However, if the function is preserved interesting biotechnological applications can be developed. This review will cover the knowledge about the interaction between hCAs and nanomaterials. We will highlight how the interaction may lead to conformational changes that render the enzyme inactive. Moreover, the importance of different factors on the final effect on hCAs, such as protein stability, protein hydrophobic or charged patches and chemistry of the nanoparticle surface will be discussed. This reaction occurs non-enzymatically as well, but the reaction rate is too slow in a biological context.Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) are found in species from all kingdoms and are categorized into eight distinct classes  ,2. The α2 transport, pH and CO2 homeostasis, biosynthetic reactions, calcification and tumor progression between others  [CAs in mammals are involved in many physiological and pathological processes such as respiration and COreviews) ,5,6. Duereviews) ,5.Nanoparticles (NPs) started to gain a lot of interest in the 1990s. NPs offer a much larger surface area per weight than larger sized particles. Moreover, some materials have different chemical properties when reduced to the nanosize compared to the bulk size of the material .The combination of nanomaterial and biological macromolecules offers new possibilities for the design of functional materials. However, most proteins’ and enzymes’ functionality are dependent on their tertiary structure. Proteins that adsorb to a particle surface may undergo structural changes to optimize their interaction with the surface, which would lead to an unfunctional protein attached to the NP surface. The NP-protein construct has gained interest within the research community in the last two decades in three main areas: bio-nanotechnology, nanotechnology with medical applications, and nanosafety ,10,11,122 and the development of nano-inhibitors with high specificity and efficiency. Human CAs (and carbonic anhydrase from other organisms as well) have been combined with NP-based supports for the sequestration and transformation of CO2 into useful products as a measure to reduce the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere. Biocatalysts based on CAs are prepared via different approaches such as entrapment, covalent immobilization, or adsorption of the enzyme on different nanomaterials [For CAs, two bio-nanotechnology applications have been mainly explored, the sequestration and capture of COaterials ,14,15,16aterials ,18,19.This review will focus on two cytosolic CAs from the α-class, human carbonic anhydrase I and II (hCA I and hCA II) and their interaction with nanomaterials of diverse chemistry and size. hCA I and II are well characterized and different aspects for the proteins are thoroughly reviewed elsewhere ,21,22,23cat/KM = 1.5 × 108 M−1s−1 for the conversion of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate as shown in Equation (1) while hCA I has a lower efficiency with a kcat/KM = 5 × 107 M−1s−1 for the same reaction [hCA I and hCA II are two of the 16 known mammalian CAs (15 human variants) . Both vareaction .2 [2 ,27.hCA I and II have, in their native form, one cysteine each. The cysteines can be mutated to serines without affecting the enzymes catalytic capacity  and the hCA I and II (both wild type and pseudo wild type) unfold via a so-called molten globular state ,35,36. MDiverse techniques have been used for the study of the interaction between NP and hCA I and hCA II in solution. Here, we describe shortly the different techniques focusing on the particular method or challenges in the study of the interactions of hCAs and NPs as well as which kind of information can be extracted from each technique . Before Circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy measures the difference between absorbance of left- and right-polarized light, respectively. The CD spectra is commonly divided into far-UV CD and near-UV CD. The far-UV-CD spectra can be used to investigate the extent of different secondary structure elements in a protein and it can also be used for following changes in secondary structure due to, for example, adsorption to an NP. Near-UV CD reports on the local environment around mainly the amino acid tryptophan. For a thorough review about CD, see Ranjbar and Gills .CD is one of the main methods to investigate the adsorption of hCA to NP. hCA I and II have six and seven tryptophans, respectively, which are spread in the native structure see . Prof. JhCA I and hCA II have been widely studied by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and their individual backbone atoms have been assigned ,59. The Many fluorophores can be used for investigating protein adsorption to NP due to their ability to report changes in their close environment . When itp-nitrophenyl acetate (NPA), by hCAs can be followed by absorption spectroscopy in the visible region due to the formation of a phenol (Equation (2)) [hCAs have, beside their biological activity, esterase activity that is commonly used for kinetic studies of the activity of these enzymes. The hydrolysis of esters, such as ion (2)) ,65. The Isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) is used to determine the enthalpy of binding in order to study enthalpic and entropic contributions in binding events such as protein adsorption on nanoparticles . It alsoMass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful method for identifying molecules in mixtures. MS can be used, for example, to identify (and quantify) proteins. MS has been extensively used during the last three decades to identify the proteins in the so-called “protein corona”, hence, the layer of specific proteins, from a complex biological solution, that adsorb to a specific nanoparticle . MS can We want to start this section with our interpretation of the concepts interaction and adsorption when it comes to proteins and nanoparticles. Processes in which the different objects spend a short time associated together and thereafter separate are defined as transient interaction. Adsorption occurs when the two objects stick together for a significant length of time. Adsorption is characterized by really slow desorption rates compared with adsorption rates. Proteins that adsorb to a surface often undergo structural rearrangements in order to optimize their binding to the surface. Initially, the protein can establish transient interactions between the protein surface and the particle surface. After the initial interaction, and depending on the residence time on the surface, the protein can start to unfold to establish new and stronger interactions with the surface leading to stable adsorption ,73.Most of the studies regarding the interaction between hCAs and NPs use silica and polystyrene nanoparticles of different sizes . Within hCAs were among the first proteins to be characterized when it comes to their interaction with NPs. Billsten et al., Karlsson et al., and Lundqvist et al. all characterized the interactions with different methods and research focuses. Billsten et al. used ellipsometry to show that hCA II and two truncated variants of hCA II adsorb to silica NPs . These ehCA I, which is more thermodynamic stable than hCA II, shows a different behavior in its interaction with silica NPs. Lundqvist et al. showed that hCA I interacts with the silica NP surface, however, it does not adsorb (stay a long time at the particle surface) . hCA I hAssarsson et al. used ITC to study the interaction between hCA II and polystyrene NP with different surface modification  . The unmFurthermore, ITC results for the titration of hCA II (pI = 7.6) on carboxyl modified NP at pH 6.8, 7.4 and 8.2 show that the net charge does not affect the extent of adsorption, which supports that the hydrophobic effect plays an important role in the adsorption process. On the other hand, the charge of the protein affects the adsorption behavior of hCA I. Near the pI for hCA I (pI = 6.6), high protein coverage is obtained which decreases as the pH increases and the protein becomes more negative. Thus in the case of hCA I, electrostatic repulsions between proteins at the surface or with the particle counteract attractive interactions .The size of an NP, of a specific material, may also affect how a protein interacts with it. This has been shown by Nasir et al. for hCA I and trhCA II interacting with carboxyl-modified polystyrene NP using ITC. trhCA II adsorbs on NPs with sizes 26, 49 and 94 nm while adsorption of hCA I could not be confirmed for the 49 and 94 nm particles. The ITC results suggest also a different packing of the proteins at the particle surface. The protein layer formed by trhCA II has a higher surface density than the protein layer formed by hCA I. The observed effects were explained considering the interprotein interactions at the NP surface. A high curvature reduced the interprotein interactions leading to a high packing if the protein does not lose its native form on the surface .Other NP and CAs from other organisms have been investigated and CA adsorption on, for example, gold NPs with different surface stabilization was confirmed but this will not be covered in detail in this review ,68.a values than histidine) also starts to bind to the silica NP surface. The area around position 37, at pH ~8–9, can be described as slightly positive compared with other areas of the protein and is the base of the positively charged area of a dipole vector through the protein [The adsorption process of a protein to a surface is governed by a combination of different forces. The process can be divided into different steps: bulk diffusion of the protein towards the surface, docking at the surface, conformational changes at the surface and lateral diffusion/interactions at the surface . Docking protein . At pH,  protein . From thThe primary interaction site on hCA II when it adsorbs to silica NPs at pH ~ 8.5 was confirmed by Lundqvist et al. . In the hCA I has been much less studied when it comes to characterizing the docking area to silica NP surface. The different behavior of hCA I compared to hCA II when it comes to its adsorption to silica NP surface suggests that hCA I probably has many unspecific interactions sites all around the structure and not any specific interaction point as in the case for hCA II.Numerous methods have been applied to investigate the structural changes hCA undergoes after adsorption to NP, CD ,50,51,53hCA I, as already discussed, does not readily adsorb to silica NPs, it rather interacts with the surface and then detaches out into the bulk again see . NMR stuNasir et al. studied the interaction between hCA I with silica particles, in conditions in which the protein was in excess over the NP surface area . They foThe evidence for hCA II adsorption on NP has already been discussed see . The thehCA II´s ability to adsorb to silica NP and undergo structural changes when bound to the surface is best demonstrated in Nasir et al.’s work . The chaIn the same article, the adsorption of truncated hCA II to different sized carboxylated polystyrene NP was also investigated. The protein shows a different behavior in the presence of polystyrene NP compared to silica NP. The structural change happens in a time frame of milliseconds to seconds at the NP surface. Moreover, the size dependence is opposite. The particles that give rise to extended adsorption of conformational changes are the smallest ones and the effect decreases as the size increases. The difference in time frame for the structural changes that the protein undergoes on the surface and in the NP size dependence between adsorption on silica compared to polystyrene NP surfaces was hypothesized to come from the different balance of forces that drive the adsorption of hydrophilic NPs compared to the adsorption of hydrophobic NPs .hCA I and II are efficient enzymes whose primary function is the conversion of carbon dioxide to bicarbonate. However, hCA I and II can also catalyze a range of different reactions . In partUsing silica particles, Billsten et al. used an extrinsic active-site probe to estimate the accessibility to the active site for hCA II and truncated variants of hCA II in the presence of 9 nm silica particles . hCA II hCA I has a more complex interaction with silica particles than hCA II and variants of hCA II as already mentioned. Bare silica causes negligible inhibition upon short incubation (15 min–2 h) that confirm the weak interaction between hCA I and silica particles . Since hThe study of the effect of polystyrene NPs by Assarsson et al. shows that hCA II does not adsorb to amino-modified polystyrene NP at pH around the protein isoelectric point . HoweverAssarsson et al. continued to study the interaction between hCA and polystyrene NPs . hCA I, Polymer modified-metallic nanoparticles have also been explored. Assarsson et al. has shown that hCA II activity is affected by poly(acrylic) acid (PAA) and poly(sodium styrene sulfonate) (PSS)-modified gold surfaces . Gold suDetailed characterization of how a specific protein interact with/or adsorb to a specific nanoparticle is a relatively young research field. The outcome of if a protein is mixed with a nanoparticle will depend on which protein it is and the material, size, shape and surface modification of the nanoparticle. In this review, we have summarized the knowledge gained so far on the interaction from one of the more studied proteins, hCA I and II, and model nanoparticles, silica and polystyrene.The review also goes through many of the different methods that have been used in order to characterize the interaction/adsorption of proteins to nanoparticles. The review of the generated results from the studies of hCA I or hCA II interaction/adsorption to NPs illustrates the complexity of the research field. It will be hard to generate any general rules for predicting the outcome for mixing a protein with a nanoparticle. Despite the structure and enzymatic mechanism similarity of the two reviewed isoforms, hCA I and II, the adsorption process differs regarding driving forces, time scale, extend of conformational changes, etc. At the moment, every new protein–NP system has to be individually characterized. However, the knowledge gained for hCAs can be used to guide the characterization work that should preclude the design of a new bionanomaterial.


We propose an automatic system for organizing the content of a collection of unstructured videos of an articulated object class . By exploiting the recurring motion patterns of the class across videos, our system: (1) identifies its characteristic behaviors, and (2) recovers pixel-to-pixel alignments across different instances. Our system can be useful for organizing video collections for indexing and retrieval. Moreover, it can be a platform for learning the appearance or behaviors of object classes from Internet video. Traditional supervised techniques cannot exploit this wealth of data directly, as they require a large amount of time-consuming manual annotations. The behavior discovery stage generates temporal video intervals, each automatically trimmed to one instance of the discovered behavior, clustered by type. It relies on our novel motion representation for articulated motion based on the displacement of ordered pairs of trajectories. The alignment stage aligns hundreds of instances of the class to a great accuracy despite considerable appearance variations . It uses a flexible thin plate spline deformation model that can vary through time. We carefully evaluate each step of our system on a new, fully annotated dataset. On behavior discovery, we outperform the state-of-the-art improved dense trajectory feature descriptor. On spatial alignment, we outperform the popular SIFT Flow algorithm. Our goal is to automatically organize the content of a collection of unstructured videos of an articulated object class under weak supervision, i.e., only knowing that the object class actually appears in each video , and could potentially replace the tedious and time-consuming manual annotations needed by supervised recognition systems. For example, action recognition systems are typically trained on clips of human actors performing scripted actions . Moreover, aligning such objects is challenging due to their deformable nature. These are also the reasons why articulated classes typically require a greater annotation effort than rigid ones . PoTs are a key component of this work, which we discuss and evaluate in detail.Our system consists of two main stages: behavior discovery and spatial alignment. The behavior discovery builds on the PoTs descriptor. For the spatial alignment, we introduce a technique for aligning short video sequences of the same object class based on thin plate splines (TPSs).Pairs of trajectories , and does not need to address the temporal segmentation.ry Sect.. Our metSpatial alignment , and use them as candidates for spatial alignment.nt Sect.. We explStep 5: Spatial alignment , these are used only for convenience. PoTs do not require semantic understanding or any part-based or skeletal model of the object, nor are they specific to a certain object class. Furthermore, the collection of PoTs is more expressive than a simple star-like model in which the motion of point trajectories are measured relative to the center of mass of the object . For example, we find the “walking” cluster Fig.  based onFigure PoT ordering: anchors and swings. The two trajectories in a PoT are ordered, i.e., we always measure the displacement of the second trajectory (swing) in the local coordinate frame defined by the first (anchor). We select as anchor the trajectory whose velocity is closer to the median velocity of pixels on the foreground mask, aggregated over the length of the PoT (Sect. oT Sect. . This apDisplacement vectors. In each frame PoT descriptor. The descriptor P has two parts: (1) the initial position of the swing relative to the anchor, and (2) the sequence of normalized displacement vectors over time:P records only the angle (and not the magnitude) between anchor and swing; this retains scale invariance and enables matching PoTs between objects of different size. The dimensionality of P is f we build the set n frames after f. Finally, we retain in We explain here how to automatically form PoTs out of a set of trajectories extracted with a dense point tracker  if the optical flow displacement of foreground pixels is uniform. This happens when the entire scene is static, or the object moves with respect to the camera but the motion is not articulated. We define i normalized by the mean, and n the length of the PoT. We set PoT candidates and selection. The candidate PoTs for a frame f are all ordered PoTs f and exist in the following k,  and mes Fig. a. We scoentclass1pt{minimaame Fig. c–f. In aentclass1pt{minimaThe behavior discovery stage inputs a set of shots entclass1pt{minimaentclass1pt{minimaAn input shot typically contains several instances of different behaviors each. It would be easier to cluster intervals corresponding to just one instance of a behavior, and ideally covering its whole duration. Here we partition each shot into such single behavior intervals. Boundaries between such intervals cannot be detected using simple color histogram differences , we also partition based on periodic motion. For this we use time–frequency analysis, as periodic motion patterns like walking, running, or licking typically generate peaks in the frequency domain  to V one-dimensional sequences and sum the fast Fourier transform (FFT) of the individual sequences in the frequency domain (V is the codebook size). If the height of the highest peak is We model an interval as a time sequence Naively doing time–frequency analysis on an entire interval typically fails because it might contain both periodic and non-periodic motion . Hence, we consider all possible sub-intervals using a temporal sliding window and label the one with the highest peak as periodic, provided its height k-means to form a codebook from one million PoT descriptors randomly sampled from all intervals, using Euclidean distance.k-means eight times and choose the clustering with lowest energy to reduce the effects of random initialization (Wang and Schmid We use k-means) for both PoTs and the improved DTFs, .In video sequences, we use point trajectories as units for matching, instead of points in individual frames Fig. b. We exttrajectory matches at each RANSAC iteration, and solves  and ‘Temporal Matching’ (TM). IM treats the point correspondences generated by a single trajectory match independently during RANSAC. TM instead samples four d solves  in the lIM Sect. .Fig. 7Mon trajectories). Computationally, matching two sets of trajectories of size n and m is O(nm),  while with PoTs it would be We also considered matching PoTs across the sequences instead of individual trajectories, but this is less efficient because each trajectory can be part of many PoTs . Unlike a homography, TTPS allows for local warping, which is more suitable for putting different object instances in correspondence. We build on the popular TPS robust point matching algorithm . It is updated by setting M.As the point correspondences are typically not known beforehand, TPS-RPM jointly estimates TPS-RPM optimizes  in a dett in the first sequence . Under stricter assumptions, our method can potentially align much longer sequences. Finally, these works have been evaluated only qualitatively on 5–10 pairs of sequences, whereas we provide extensive quantitative analysis  between two or more video sequences , horses (100) and dogs (100). The horse and dog shots are primarily low-resolution footage filmed by amateurs (YouTube), while the tiger shots come from high-resolution National Geographic documentaries filmed by professionals. This enables quantitative analysis on a large scale in two very different settings.We automatically partition each tiger video into shots by thresholding color histogram differences in consecutive frames  with the behavior displayed by the animal, choosing from the labels in Table  dataset 10,000 wiLandmarks. We annotated the 2-D location of 19 landmarks , where PoTs benefit from the accurate foreground masks. Here, PoTs also outperform fg-IDTFs, showing that the power of our representation resides in the principled use of PoTs, not just in exploiting foreground masks to remove background trajectories. Moreover, all other results (a–f) show that PoTs can also cope with imperfect masks.For the dog class, IDTFs perform better than PoTs Fig. e, f. HowResults on tigers and horses showed that adding appearance features can be detrimental, since there is little correlation between a behavior and the appearance of the animal and/or the background. This is not the case for the dog class, where the shots come from only 8 different scenes, compared to more than 50 for horses, and several hundreds for tigers. However, it shows that PoTs and appearance features are complementary: when appearance should be beneficial, we see the expected performance boost by adding this additional information. This is potentially useful for traditional action recognition tasks . We normalize the error by the scale of the object, defined as the maximum distance between any two landmarks in the frame. The overall alignment error is the average error of all visible landmarks over all frames.After visual inspection of many sampled alignments Fig. , we founalignable). Computing , and by adding spatial regularization with the foreground masks , 1000 of them are correctly aligned . The precision at this point is 0.5, i.e., half of the returned CMPs are correctly aligned. For the horse class, TTPS + FG returns 800 correctly aligned CMPs, with precision 0.35.We report the run-time of the main steps of our method in Table Inaccurate foreground masks. Our system is robust to small to medium inaccuracies in the foreground masks, such as missing part of the object or including some of the background , similar behaviors of different classes might be grouped together, and additional cues might be needed to separate them.We introduced a weakly supervised system that discovers the behaviors of an articulated object class from unconstrained video, while also spatially aligning several instances of each behavior. We emphasize that the only supervision needed is a single label per video, indicating which class it contains.The entire system is bottom-up and needs not relate to the kinematic structure of an object class. We showed that the behavior discovery and the alignment process apply to different classes, by leveraging the recurring motion patterns of a particular class, rather than being limited to pre-defined relationships.This was enabled by our PoT descriptor, which proves very effective for modeling the motion of articulated objects. Thanks to the use of PoTs, PoTs outperform alternative motion descriptors  on behavior discovery. While being appearance-free, on horses and tigers PoTs also outperform all tested alternatives that included appearance information . When augmented with appearance descriptors, PoTs also outperforms competitors on the dog class. In terms of spatial alignment, we have shown that our technique produces more accurate alignments than relevant alternatives such as SIFT Flow and SIFT matching.Thanks to the principled use of motion, we discovered behaviors and recovered alignments across instances exhibiting significant appearance variations . Establishing such correspondences across different object instances can be very useful to learn class-level models of behavior and/or appearance. Our method recovers them automatically from unconstrained Internet video, and can be a platform for replacing the tedious and expensive manual annotations normally needed when learning from video.