With these explanations, we aim to support users in actively deciding and reflecting on the usefulness of the videos. We generate the explanations through an end-to-end pipeline that extracts reflection triggers so users receive additional information to the video based on its source, covered topics, communicated emotions, and sentiment. In a between-subjects user study, we examine the effect of showing the explanations for videos on three controversial topics. Besides, we assess the users’ alignment with the video’s message and how strong their belief is about the topic. Our results indicate that respondents’ alignment with the video’s message is critical to evaluate the video’s usefulness. Overall, the explanations were found to be useful and of high quality. While the explanations do not influence the perceived usefulness of the videos compared to only seeing the video, people with an extreme negative alignment with a video’s message perceived it as less useful (with or without explanations) and felt more confident in their assessment. We relate our findings to cognitive dissonance since users seem to be less receptive to explanations when the video’s message strongly challenges their beliefs. Given these findings, we provide a set of design implications for explanations grounded in theories on reducing cognitive dissonance in light of raising awareness about online deception.Online videos have become a prevalent means for people to acquire information. Videos, however, are often polarized, misleading, or contain topics on which people have different, contradictory views. In this work, we introduce  Online videos constitute the most extensive and rapidly growing portion of the Web content, with over 500 h of video being uploaded every dayreflective assessment or reflective thinking is a difficult skill to develop and requires substantial cognitive effort.This amplified reach of video content is supported by the call for democratization of information . While dvideos, and by helping people to actively reflect on the usefulness of the content they watch, instead of providing credibility measures. We do not aim to push a particular evaluation of the video content. Rather, we provide a neutral means for users to judge the usefulness of the video for themselves.One solution is to simply provide additional information  to help explanations  to stimulate more deliberate reasoning when assessing the usefulness of online videos to inform a discussion on controversial topics and ultimately, to raise user’s awareness regarding potential deceiving or biased information contained in such videos. We survey markers used in previous work on credibility assessment that can be especially informative for controversial topics. Our explanations are grounded in these markers, such as source, sentiment, emotion, and controversiality assessment. We refer to these markers as reflection triggers. In the literature, reflection triggers are defined as factors that can induce reflection (1) video subtitles, to cover the key concepts or topics in the video, 2) video comments, to account for people’s opinion on the video and the topics described in the video, and be able to contrast them with the opinions of the video producer (or people that appear in the video) and 3) the video channel, to account for source information. Thus, our reflection-driven explanations provide information about the video source , the emotions evoked by the users’ comments, the sentiment and emotions evoked by key topics mentioned in the video subtitles and video comments, and their controversiality. Thus, according to the categorization in  to understand the impact of these explanations as a means to foster reflective assessment about the usefulness of a video to inform a discussion. The experimental setup for the survey tests two conditions, watching a video without explanations and with explanations. In the latter, participants see the explanations only after watching the entire video. The explanations and the follow-up questions in the survey serve as reflective elements.We conduct a between-subjects survey  is not significant. However, participants with extreme negative alignment with the position of the video are most confident about their assessment of video usefulness when seeing the explanations. A qualitative evaluation of the explanations showed that participants find them to provide sufficient information, be truthful, relevant, and clear. Importantly, each reflection trigger in the explanations was found to be relevant for raising awareness and deciding on the video-agnostic method to generate natural language explanations based on reflection triggers; the method combines information from video subtitles, video comments, and video channel;1. a user-centered evaluation of the effectiveness and quality of the generated explanations to support reflective assessments of socially-driven online content;2. a annotated dataset of 960 videos and their user comments covering the topics of vaccination, Catalonia independence and free trade; annotations include key topics, controversial topics, sentiments and emotions;3. an dataset of 960 reflection-driven natural language explanations (one per video) focusing on reflection triggers regarding video source, controversiality of depicted topics, and sentiments and emotions evoked by both the video and user comments;4. a Thus, the key contributionsThe remainder of the paper is structured as follows. reflection triggers. Finally, we highlight the novelty of our contribution.We first describe previous approaches for supporting reflective assessment, in particular, for online content. Next, we describe previous work on automatically extracted credibility markers and reflect on their usefulness as intuitive thinking and reflective thinking , and polarity (sentiment/emotion) and can be automatically extracted.To the best of our knowledge, there are not many studies looking at the assessment of videos in computer science. However, in the health domain, videos have been extensively evaluated for credibility . In contrast, previous approaches take a position on the quality/credibility of online content. To the best of our knowledge, our approach is also the first to focus on supporting reflective assessment for videos specifically, rather than tweets or written articles. We approach this with a controlled study, where we evaluate the effectiveness of explanations aimed at supporting reflective assessment for videos. This allows us to support assessments that may be more difficult to make and highly subjective. Finally, while questions are widely used to foster reflective thinking .Video Comments: We extracted all English comments published by 6th of August 2019. We excluded all comment replies because we consider they could potentially 1) generate undesired controversiality and 2) focus the discussion on misleading topics. We exclude the comment replies because they could potentially target the person that posted the previous comment. We find such comments irrelevant for our purpose of understanding the emotions and sentiments perceived by the community on online videos, as existing literature already shows  clear by providing a detailed description. From the textual content of our videos, subtitles and comments, we extract key topics - represented by key entities, assess their sentiment  and emotion  and determine whether they are discussed controversially.In this section, we describe the video-agnostic pipeline developed to generate explanations for helping users reflect on online videos they watch. We use the video subtitles, video comments and video channel to extract and generate the i.e., users that posted comments on the videos) stays in the neutral zone and is not shared. Thus, we provide a solution that discourages the perpetuation of online deception in social networks : the information source is a reflection trigger used extensively in online sources research . Key entities such as people, locations, events, objects, among others, are known to contextualize information from videos . Furthernetworks . We chosdata enrichment) and then we align them . We next perform channel analysis to extract information regarding the source of the video. Finally, using the information from the previous steps, we perform reflection triggers extraction, and explanation generation.Watson NLU). We chose Watson NLU because it provides all needed functionality for data enrichment, it is easy to use and replicate, through the API, and extensively used in research  and a sentiment score (between −1.0 and 1.0): neutral sentiment gets a value of 0.0, positive sentiment gets values from (0.0:1.0) and negative sentiment gets values from (−1.0:0.0). Across all video subtitles, the average sentiment score was positive for the free trade topic (0.26), negative for the vaccination topic (−0.24) and close to neutral for the Catalonia independence topic (−0.05). In video comments, however, all average sentiment values were negative, ranging between −0.37 to −0.20, with the topic of vaccination being the most negative and free trade the least negative.anger, disgust, fear, joy, and sadness. In video subtitles, we observe much higher values for the emotions sadness and joy  compared to comments (between 0.24 and 0.30). Overall, video subtitles tend to be more emotionally polarized  than user comments, where the average emotion values are more equally distributed. This could also happen due to the shorter length of user comments compared to video subtitles.Second, we extract the emotions depicted in the video subtitles and comments. Watson NLU returns a score between 0.0 and 1.0  for each of the following five emotions: We use Watson NLU to extract named entities of many typesWe then extract the sentiment and the emotion of each named entity previously identified, similarly as in Sections 4.1.1 and 4.1.2. A named entity has the same sentiment and emotion score for all occurrences in a video subtitle or video comment. In video subtitles, the average sentiment score of all the named entities for the topic vaccination is negative, −0.19. For the topics Catalonia independence and free trade, the average values are very close to neutral; −0.05 and 0.03. In comments, the average sentiment scores of all the named entities is negative for all three topics: −0.20 for vaccination and −0.12 for Catalonia independence and free trade.sadness has the highest average score for the topics vaccination (0.21) and Catalonia independence (0.26) and the emotion joy has the highest average score for the topic free trade (0.25). The emotions sadness (from 0.24 to 0.26) and joy (from 0.18 to 0.21) have also the highest average scores in video comments.In video subtitles, the emotion To better align the entities, we first extracted the part-of-speech tags for the named entities previously identified using the NLTK POS taggercontroversiality, which, in our case, expresses whether a named entity appears as controversial on Wikipedia, namely on the page List of controversial issuesList of controversial issues, the named entity is assigned a controversiality score of 1, and 0 otherwise. We identified 149 named entities  that are always neutral in both video subtitles and video comments. Such entities, however, may not be useful to reflect on the video. This selection resulted in the following categories: “Person”, “Location”, “Organization”, “Company” and “HealthCondition”, with 3,599 named entities in video subtitles and 97,690 in video comments.1) appear in both video subtitles and video comments, 2) appear only in video subtitles, and 3) appear only in video comments. For this study, we focus on the first category because we consider these concepts to be relevant both for the topic (mentioned in the video) and for the users (mentioned in the comments). Moreover, named entities that appear only in the comments might be a potential source of information that cannot be found in the video, thus providing irrelevant information for the video  had a maximum of 46 related channels. Across all channels, the average number of related channels is 2.72 (median 0), while for the channels with related channels, the average number of related channels is 6 (median 4).The number of subscribers was hidden for 26 channels. For the rest of the channels, the maximum number of subscribers was around 15 million (Jimmy Kimmel Live), and the lowest 0 (for 5 channels), with an average (and median) of 417,302  subscribers. The oldest channel in our dataset was created on 2Video channel: number of subscribers, names of the related channels, channel registration date, and video publishing date.• Controversiality of key entities in video: we generate a list of controversial key entities, as in • Emotions depicted by video comments:• 1. We compute per topic and emotion the mean score among all comments. We also compute per video and emotion the mean score among all comments. These values indicate the most expressed emotions per topic and video. We consider an emotion to be expressed in a video comment if its score is above the mean value of that emotion, for the topic.2. We compute per topic and per emotion, the mean score among all key entities identified. We also compute per video and per emotion the mean score for all the key entities. We consider an emotion to be expressed by a key entity if its score is above the mean value of that emotion, for all the key entities that appear in the topic.Sentiment depicted by key entities extracted from both video subtitles and video comments: For each key entity, we compute the mean sentiment score in video subtitles and comments.• We now define the specific reflection triggers used in the explanations.Explanation Template. More examples of explanations are provided in the [square brackets] is replaced with the indicated value (e.g[date] - 2015–02–12). Column Explanation Instantiation in e.g., for videos without comments, we can not explain the emotions expressed in video comments). In this case, no explanation is generated for the given reflection trigger.The extracted reflection triggers allow us to generate explanations according to the template in We investigate the influence of reflective triggers in natural language explanations on human assessment of online videos on controversial topics. We set up a between-subjects study, which allows us to measure the effect of the explanations on assessing video usefulness. We chose a between-subjects design (instead of within-subjects) to eliminate the risk of knowledge transfer between conditions. Furthermore, this design minimizes unintended reflection: asking participants to watch the video or answer the same questions twice, might contribute toward a reflective assessment.i.e., above or close to the average number of comments in 1) reached a high number of users, 2) generated extensive discussions, and 3) the emotions and sentiments expressed in the comments are the collective opinion of many users .We used nine videos in the study, three for each controversial topic . We selected videos of 2–3 min because they have the highest coverage in our dataset. Furthermore, we wanted to avoid participant fatigue, ensure all participants put comparable effort into the study, and have a fair payment for their work. Within this duration range, for each topic, we selected all the videos for which all the reflection triggers described in Video statistics: The nine videos have between 7,333 and 793,066 views, and between 135 and 3,917 comments. The videos were posted on eight different channels, namely CNN, Vox, Daily Mail, BBC News, Grandayy, Brexit Party MEPs, RT, and Nuclear Family, between 2013-09-12 and 2019–02-24. The channels have between 31,173 and 7,510,000 subscribers and were created between 2005–10-02 and 2014–07-02. There are two to eight topics mentioned in both the video subtitles and video comments, and one to four controversial topics that refer to locations, people and organizations. The topics identified express the entire range of emotions and sentiments. These statistics show a diverse set of videos. Finally, for each video, we generated the reflection-driven explanations, according to master workers, with at least 95% acceptance rate, and from an English-speaking country , to ensure high-quality contributions.We recruited participantsWe asked the participants to imagine the following scenario:Imagine you are planning to meet a colleague for dinner, and you know (s)he has a strong opinion on a controversial topic that might come up in the conversation. You want to be prepared, so before the dinner, you research the topic on YouTube to learn more.Each HIT was composed of the assessment of one video, in one of the two conditions: video without explanations (w/o explanations) and video with explanations (w/explanations). Each participant could only participate in one condition, but they could decide how many videos they wanted to assess. The condition w/o explanations lasted for about 3 min, so we paid $0.60 per HIT. The condition w/explanations lasted for about 4 min, so we paid $0.80 per HIT. 35 participants assessed each video. video usefulness and confidence, alignment on the video and belief strength on the topic. In the condition w/explanations, the participants were first required to watch the entire video. The explanations were only shown to them after watching the entire video. Then, participants were asked to rate a set of criteria regarding the video and the explanations. To avoid priming and maintain a controlled setup, we do not provide the explanations (simultaneously) with the video. We want the participants to pay attention to the information presented . Showing them both at once creates a competition for their attention. In addition to the four criteria from the condition w/o explanations, the participants had to rate the explanation usefulness and its quality based on the cooperative principles introduced by In the condition w/o explanations, participants were first required to watch the video until the end, and then rate the video based on the following criteria: without explanations condition (w/o explanations): assessment of video only;1. with explanations condition (w/explanations): assessment of video and reflective assessment-driven explanations.2. In our study, we employed two conditions:video usefulness, explanation usefulness, and confidence  is open-ended.We also measured several dependent variables to evaluate the proposed explanations: strongly disagree to strongly agree  is highest with explanations.• H1a: Video usefulness is lower for people with extreme assessment of alignment on the video (very high and very low), than for more moderate or neutral alignment (– lignment .H1b: Video usefulness is lower for people with extreme topic belief strength (very high and very low), than for more moderate or neutral topic belief strengths (– trengths .H2: The confidence is highest with explanations (• anations .H3: The ability to make a decision (Explanation Usefulness) is highest with explanations  -1/0/1 for statements evaluated on a 3-point scale (No/I don’t know/Yes); and 2) with values from 1 to 5 for statements evaluated on a 5-point scale (from strongly disagree to strongly agree).To analyze the results of the user study, we code participants’ answers as follows: H1, H2 and H3 we apply the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test. For hypotheses H1a and H1b, measuring the effect of alignment on the video and topic on video usefulness, we apply the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient, with Bonferroni correction. Further, to test hypotheses H4a-e we apply the One-sample t-test to see whether the values deviate significantly from the neutral point, 3.0.For hypotheses We analyze the results of our between-subjects user study, using the analytical method from We investigate whether video usefulness and explanation usefulness are influenced by participants’ belief strength on a topic, and their alignment with the video. The belief strength on the topic implicitly captures participants’ (perceived) prior knowledge on the topic. The alignment on the video captures the agreement with the content of the video. We summarize the descriptive statistics for these variables in video usefulness variable. Video usefulness seems to increase when showing the explanations for the topics of free trade and vaccination, and decrease for the topic of Catalonia independence. However, the differences between the video usefulness in the two conditions, without and with explanations, is not statistically significant .H1.In video usefulness is lower for people with extreme assessment of video alignment (very high and very low), than for more neutral alignment.We hypothesized that video alignment as follows: strongly disagree and strongly agree with 1 (extreme), and the others with -1 . We observe that people found the video slightly more useful in the condition w/explanations, for both people with extreme  and more neutral alignments . We did not find any correlation between video usefulness and extreme and neutral alignments with the video (Spearman’s rank correlation with Bonferroni correction). Thus, we do not find support for hypothesis H1a.To represent extreme alignment, we recode participants’ answers for video alignment as follows: strongly disagree as -1 to reflect extreme negative alignment, strongly agree as 1 to reflect extreme positive alignment, and the other responses as 0 . People with extreme negative alignment  find the video much less useful in both conditions, but especially in the condition w/o explanations. People with extreme positive alignment with the video find the video much more useful in both conditions . Participants with neutral alignment find the video slightly more useful in the condition w/explanations . The Spearman’s rank correlation test (Bonferroni corrected) showed a moderate positive correlation between the participants’ alignment on the video  and the video usefulness .In a post-hoc analysis, we investigated whether there is a difference in extreme positive and extreme negative alignment with the video, regarding video usefulness. We recoded participants’ answers for Video usefulness is lower for people with extreme belief strength on the topic (very high and very low), than for more neutral evaluations.topic belief strength: strongly disagree and strongly agree as 1 to account for extreme belief strength, while the others as -1 to account for neutral belief strength. The differences in video usefulness are slightly larger for people with extreme belief strength on the topic in the two conditions , but very similar for more neutral participants . The Spearman’s rank correlation test (Bonferroni corrected), confirmed, however, that video usefulness is not correlated with the strength of the topic belief, and we do not find support for H1b.We recode participants’ answers for For the post-hoc analysis, performed as in H1a, the Spearman’s rank correlation test (Bonferroni corrected), confirmed there is no correlation between the belief strength on the topic  and the video usefulness, in the two conditions.p < 0.05) and for the topic Catalonia independence –confidence was lower with explanations; and for video FT3 –confidence was higher with explanations. We further discuss these cases in the qualitative analysis in H2.In column Confidence in i.e., who oppose the video, are more confident when seeing explanations . Finally, participants who are more neutral toward the video show slightly lower confidence when seeing explanations .We also analyzed participants’ confidence and their alignment on the video. Participants with extreme positive alignment with the video show slightly lower confidence when seeing explanations . Participants with extreme negative alignment with the video, t-Test to conclude that explanations are considered useful . We further discuss the two video exceptions in explanations quantity - enough information (quantity 1), explanations quantity - too much information (quantity 2), explanations quality, explanations relation and explanations manner, for all videos, per topic and per video, as measured in the condition w/explanation. The explanation scores of all variables are significantly higher than the neutral value (3.0), for all videos in our user study and each topic, c. f. One-Sample t-Test. Following, we look in detail into each variable, per video and hypothesis. Videos for which we do not find support are addressed in the qualitative analysis in In H4a.For the majority of the videos in our study, 5 out of 9, we find that enough information is provided in the explanations to decide on the usefulness of the video, thus finding partial support for hypothesis H4b.For the majority of the videos (7 out of 9), participants consider the provided explanations neutral . Thus, we do not find sufficient support for hypothesis H4c, which states that the explanations are truthful.All the explanations that we generated scored above the neutral value on quality, but for video V3 the difference between the neutral value and the mean quality score of the explanations is not statistically significant. However, we find sufficient support for our hypothesis H4d and conclude that the generated explanations are relevant to decide on video usefulness.All explanations score above 3.0, in terms of relation. There is also a significant difference in the mean explanation relation value and the neutral value. Thus, we find evidence to support hypothesis H4e.For all videos, except V3, the explanations generated score on average above the neutral value of 3.0 on explanation manner. Moreover, the difference between these two values is statistically significant for most videos, except for H1: We did not see differences in video usefulness across the two conditions.• H1a: We found a moderate positive correlation between participants’ alignment with the video  and video usefulness, in both study conditions.– H1b: The belief strength on the topic is not correlated with video usefulness.– H2: Participants’ confidence is not statistically significant different between the two conditions.• H3: For the majority of the videos, the participants find the explanations useful to decide on video usefulness.• H4a-e: We found sufficient support that the explanations contain enough information, are truthful, relevant, clear, brief and without ambiguity. However, we did not find sufficient support to conclude that the explanations do not contain too much information.• In summary, we found the following:In this section, we perform a qualitative analysis of the comments submitted by the participants in the user study. We first analyze the comments regarding explanations and their usefulness submitted in the condition with explanations entry 9 . Then, wWe received 305 answers regarding explanations, and we extracted the following codes: not relevant - information not relevant for explanations (166 comments), not usefulAmong the 95 comments that mentioned the usefulness of the explanations, 59 referred to the channel, 26 to the topics identified and 34 to the sentiments and emotions evoked by the video subtitles and video comments. In addition, four comments mentioned the usefulness of the explanations, as a whole. In general, the reflection trigger referring to the video channel is the most prominently mentioned as being relevant. Participants also paid attention to the factuality and correctness of these reflection triggers, and they agree with the values provided for topics, emotions and sentiments.Source. The channel (source) of the video appears in most comments, suggesting that the video source is a powerful reflection trigger to decide on the usefulness of a video. Furthermore, all components regarding the source are mentioned in the comments: 1) channel names (comment #1), 2) channel longevity (comment #2), 3) number of subscribers of the channel , 4) related channels (comment #4), and 5) video publishing date (comment #5).Topics. Participants appreciate the connection with the Wikipedia pages (comment #7) and the mention of controversial topics in the video (comment #8). Furthermore, participants appreciate the objective, factual description of the topics and their correctness (comment #9). Comments  also suggest that some of the topics identified are not very relevant, providing new directions for future work .Emotions and sentiment. Emotion and sentiment triggers seem to generate opposing views regarding video usefulness. Participants acknowledge that these reflection triggers are in general useful/correct , and that they make them reflect on the video usefulness . However, they also expressed concerns about the use of comments as explanatory factors (comment #16), and about the correctness of the sentiments extracted (comment #17).1) decide based on the video source alone (comment #18), 2) find the video clear enough (comment #19) or 3) find the explanations ambiguous (comment #20), superficial (comment #21), or not showing the true stance of the video (comment #22). Category 3) of comments is often encountered for The topics of vaccination (14 comments) and Catalonia independence (11 comments) have the most comments suggesting that the explanations are not useful to decide on video usefulness. Participants do not find the explanations useful because they In total, we analyzed 157 comments in the condition w/o explanations and 165 comments in the condition w/explanations. Several comments discuss the implications of certain aspects when deciding on video usefulness, such as the belief strength on the topic of the participants, source and speaker trustworthiness, video informativeness, among others. An overview of such themes and comments is given in Explanations helped to assess polarized videos. Videos can potentially contain polarizing information that study participants with weaker beliefs on the topic  can only grasp from the explanations we provide regarding user comments, c. f. comment #23. Similarly, the explanations regarding the channel help people decide on the usefulness (comment #24) or uselessness (comments #25 and #26) of the videos. We also saw that reflection triggers indicating recency were useful when the video seems to be dated. Comments such as #27 appear in the condition with explanations, which emphasizes that such explanations trigger participants’ reflection.Participants’ comments also suggest that not having a strong (extreme) belief strength for a topic influences the perceived video usefulness (comment #28). Then, participants tend to appreciate the objectivity and diversity of viewpoints in a video and thus, align with the video content–comments #29, #30. Statistics and objective facts are also convincing (comments #31-#33). Similarly, participants rely on the speaker trustworthiness to decide on the video usefulness, comment #34 versus #35. Furthermore, participants find a video not useful when the video is confusing, and people can not understanding its true nature (comments #36-#38) and when the video is not informative enough .In this section, we discuss 1) our key results on people’s alignment with the video and belief strength on the topic, explanation usefulness, and reflection in the context of existing cognitive science theories; and 2) the implications for explanations design going forward. We discuss these in light of raising awareness regarding avoiding online deception while preserving end-user privacy. Recall that the videos from our user study were relevant for controversial topics, and they varied in terms of 1) the extent they were expected to evoke emotional responses , and 2) how much knowledge people have about them .e.g., heuristics and biases) emerged as important considerations. Prior work in cognitive science supports this overarching finding . Our work provides novel insights for how people apply bounded rationality in the online media context despite being provided with explanations. Our findings suggest several reasons on why avoiding online deception is a difficult skill to acquire, but they also provide a practical foundation to raise awareness about online deception. We first discuss these findings below, and then discuss their implications for design of explanations going forward  with a video, and where users have a stronger positive belief strength on the topic, alignment is even more likely to occur. Alignment is not likely to occur on topics where participants have less strong beliefs, and likely limited previous knowledge.i.e., people’s tendency to use information that comes to mind quickly and easily when making decisions about the future  as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or theories, despite the content of the information , explanations help people to decide that the video is useful when the topic is also less emotional (free trade), and not useful when the topic is more emotional . While in the user study we selected videos for which such triggers could be generated, our dataset of 960 videos contains 283 videos without user comments and 576 videos that have no topic overlapping between video subtitles and video comments. Thus, when we cannot generate reflection triggers referring to emotions and sentiments, the explanations could be evaluated as not containing enough information. Nevertheless, the reflection triggers we selected span a large range of attributes, and in the absence of certain reflection triggers, the available ones can be inspected.i.e., the first-mentioned reflection trigger, is found useful the most. Furthermore, explanations are less useful and qualitative when they do not capture the true nature of the video  and the users that provided comments on the videos we analyze. Regarding the former, we do not ask for study participants’ stance on the video topic to try and persuade them into changing their opinion. Similarly, for the users that provide comments, we do not include their information in the explanations—we do not provide samples of comments and their analysis in terms of communicated emotions or sentiment. Instead, our explanations foster reflection through a neutral mean of presenting additional information regarding the video and by providing the aggregated opinion of all users that watched the video and provided comments.Our study suggests several improvements to the generated explanations. They also help us better understand when and how these explanations contribute to reflective assessment.i.e., to understand how topics are depicted in the video and how they are perceived by users). However, both participants with moderate and extreme belief strength appreciate the reliability of the aspects discussed in the video. Explanations also seem to specifically influence reflective assessments of videos when people have strong beliefs on a topic but are not as effective as one might hope. Nevertheless, explanations helped our participants to identify polarizing videos, which is a key aspect in avoiding online deception.The user study showed that participants with moderate belief strength (and likely limited knowledge on a topic) are more prone to perceive a video as useful if the video provides rich and diverse viewpoints. These participants used the reflection triggers describing the emotions and the sentiments evoked by the video subtitles and video comments to reflect on the content of the video , and persuading them on further reflection on the information. These aspects regarding explanations could be adapted from well-studied work on recommender systems  also suggests that this attitude polarization is asymmetric, with negative alignment being far more polarizing  is only one aspect—how the information is presented is critical to whether people internalize it or reflect on it . Other we.g., on YouTube. We could use personalized user information  to address the aforementioned design implications. Such user models, however, should be designed in-line with privacy-preserving degrees expected by users. In addition to fostering self-reflection, proposed explanations could serve the purpose of developing users’ information literacy  the pipeline for generating reflective explanations, 2) the choice of reflection triggers for explanations and 3) the experimental setup.We identify several limitations in this work, regarding e.g., topics or videos to study, subset of possible reflection triggers), the presented pipeline is open source and readily extendable for a wide range of experiments to mitigate deception in online videos.We note that while this experiment required that we take specific decisions regarding the experimental design . Furthermore, speech-to-text tools may have lower accuracy for people with accents or non-native English speakers, while entity recognition tools may not identify entities that are seen for the first time. Similarly, both sentiment and emotion are culture-specific aspects, and different pieces of information could evoke different sentiment and emotion. We try to minimize these issues by 1) focusing on known topics and issues, that contain entities likely to be recognized by information extraction tools and 2) presenting aggregate views of sentiment and emotion. Our empirical analysis and literature review also showed that the tools perform well on our tasks. Even though we applied our methodology on a set of 960 videos, the pipeline is video-agnostic. Our GitHub repository provides details on how to replicate our approach on a set of videos. Since storing transcriptions is not compliant with API ToS, we provide guidelines on how to retrieve them. NB: such transcriptions and output from other APIs could be slightly different now, as the APIs are updated and improved.The explanation generation pipeline is fully automated, by connecting several off-the-shelf tools, such as Google Video Intelligence and Watson NLU. While the pipeline is easy to replicate and extend, we acknowledge that issues of one component could affect the accuracy of another component  and better assess the usefulness of videos. In In addition, for each reflection trigger, we only extract one type of information and generate one type of explanation. Regarding emotions, we could also provide a list of extremely polarized comments, or ranges of emotion values across users. However, we argue that these aggregated views are more suitable to promote awareness regarding users’ opinion on the video, while preserving their privacy. We also do not consider comments’ temporality, which means that we can not observe how emotion and sentiment towards certain entities change over time. As such, the overview of sentiment and emotions that we present are representative for a certain snapshot in time—these values are likely to change with new comments.To reduce the evaluation load of crowd participants, we limited the maximal duration of the videos. Short length videos, however, give us the necessary confidence that study participants could focus on the entire video duration. Although we only used three controversial topics and three videos per topic, we can apply our pipeline for generating natural language explanations for reflective assessment to any controversial topic and video. Furthermore, the three topics that we chose to vary in terms of the amount of knowledge people have on them, and in terms of the emotional impact that they can have on people, which apply to many topics. Future work must consider applying and evaluating our pipeline for videos on different topics, as well as longer viewing sessions.In our study, we did not control for participants’ opinions on the topic. We allowed both people that have strong and weak opinions on the topic to participate. We believe this is a natural condition for our scenario, which asks participants to imagine that they need to research a topic on YouTube and then use it in a discussion. We account for participants’ prior knowledge indirectly, by asking them how strong they feel about a topic, instead of asking whether they have any background knowledge on the topic. However, we consider it is acceptable to believe that for someone to have an opinion on a topic, s(he) needs at least some prior knowledge. We agree that it would be clearer to disambiguate between having some knowledge and being knowledgeable.For each video, we described the same reflection triggers, which allowed for a balanced design across videos. However, this also meant that for some videos, the same reflection trigger conveyed positive information, and for others, negative information. The current experimental design did not allow us to study the polarity of individual reflection triggers or even the weighting of the reflection triggers.1) focusing on less researched sources such as videos, and by 2) helping people to reason about the videos they watch, instead of providing a credibility measure or score. We do not aim to provide a clear answer concerning the video content or to push a particular evaluation of content, but we present a neutral means for participants to judge the video usefulness by themselves and raise their awareness regarding potential deceiving information the video contains.In this paper, we introduced an end-to-end approach for automatically generating natural language explanations to foster reflective assessment of online videos on controversial topics. We can replicate the pipeline for any controversial topic, and videos of any length. We distinguish from work dealing with credibility assessment of online information by We evaluate the impact of these explanations in a between-subjects user study with two conditions, video without and with explanations. Participants found the explanations useful to very useful. This result was weaker, but still positive, for topics on which they did not have a strong belief. While a strong belief (and possibly previous knowledge) about the topic did not influence perceived video usefulness, viewer alignment with the video did. The increase in perceived video usefulness was not significant in the condition with explanations, but the explanations helped participants to make an informed decision on topics on which they have limited belief and likely limited knowledge. We also evaluated the generated explanations regarding their effectiveness to communicate the intended information, using Gricean Maxims. Participants found the explanations to contain enough information, provide truthful information, be relevant, clear, and without ambiguity. We also found that each reflection trigger is relevant when deciding on video usefulness, with the source of the video being the most frequently mentioned, followed by the sentiment and emotions evoked in the video subtitles and video comments.e.g., credible or non-credible video, factual or satirical video). Thus, we plan to experiment with different types of videos, i.e., documentaries, news, satire, to understand what kind of reflection triggers and explanations are suitable for different kinds of videos, to foster viewers reflection. Finally, we would like to experiment with various styles for presenting the explanations, tailoring them to level of alignment and individual characteristics of users .These results suggest that the generated explanations are a good foundation for supporting reflective assessment. In future work, we will analyze a more extensive set of key entity types and include topic-specific types, with an in-depth analysis of their relevance, as well as to perform a more in-depth analysis of the comments, such as in terms of temporality. In our user study, we have also identified potential candidates for additional reflection triggers. For example, participants showed interest in understanding the objectivity and the diversity of viewpoints, as well as the trustworthiness of the speakers. Extracting such aspects from the video could help participants with limited knowledge on a topic. Participants also suggest that the explanations should capture the true nature of the video and inform them about the video type (


Entamoeba histolytica proteins the timing and signaling to intervene during different processes, such as phagocytosis. However, SUMOylation has not been studied in E. histolytica yet. Here, we characterized the E. histolytica SUMO gene, its product (EhSUMO), and the relevance of SUMOylation in phagocytosis. Our results indicated that EhSUMO has an extended N-terminus that differentiates SUMO from ubiquitin. It also presents the GG residues at the C-terminus and the ΨKXE/D binding motif, both involved in target protein contact. Additionally, the E. histolytica genome possesses the enzymes belonging to the SUMOylation-deSUMOylation machinery. Confocal microscopy assays disclosed a remarkable EhSUMO membrane activity with convoluted and changing structures in trophozoites during erythrophagocytosis. SUMOylated proteins appeared in pseudopodia, phagocytic channels, and around the adhered and ingested erythrocytes. Docking analysis predicted interaction of EhSUMO with EhADH (an ALIX family protein), and immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence assays revealed that the association increased during phagocytosis; whereas the EhVps32 (a protein of the ESCRT-III complex)-EhSUMO interaction appeared stronger since basal conditions. In EhSUMO knocked-down trophozoites, the bizarre membranous structures disappeared, and EhSUMO interaction with EhADH and EhVps32 diminished. Our results evidenced the presence of a SUMO gene in E. histolytica and the SUMOylation relevance during phagocytosis. This is supported by bioinformatics screening of many other proteins of E. histolytica involved in phagocytosis, which present putative SUMOylation sites and the ΨKXE/D binding motif.Posttranslational modifications provide  Entamoeba histolytica, the protozoan causative of human amoebiasis, cellular activities, including the attack to the target cell, are widely controlled by posttranslational modifications (PTMs) of proteins. Together with the perpetual movement of trophozoites, virulence expression requires intensive vesicular traffic and association to and disassociation from proteins performing the concatenated events that conduct target molecules through several compartments, for recycling or digestion. PTMs range from peptide bond cleavage and addition of phosphate and other small chemical groups, carbohydrates, and lipids to the alteration of proteins by the conjugation of modifiers such as ubiquitin and SUMO. The knowledge of the changes suffered by molecules involved in adherence to and invasion and phagocytosis of trophozoites to the target cells are pivotal to get a more comprehensive view of the parasite virulence mechanisms.As in other eukaryotes, in SUMO is a 10 to 13 kDa small ubiquitin-related modifier that shares 18% similarity with ubiquitin in its three-dimensional structure . HoweverGiardia lamblia [Trypanosoma brucei, it contributes to chromatin organization [Plasmodium falciparum, participates in invasion [SUMOylation-deSUMOylation is a switch to control the cellular location of proteins and their interaction with other molecules . Cell gr lamblia , while inization  and in Pinvasion .E. histolytica trophozoites [E. histolytica. Besides the advancement in the comprehension of the molecular events occurring during phagocytosis, the importance of understanding these phenomena relies on the possibility of carrying out the blockage of specific parasite molecules and develop better diagnostic and therapeutic methods against E. histolytica that infects 50 million people and kills 100,000 annually, around the world [ESCRT machinery is deeply involved in the phagocytosis of hozoites ,15,16. Ehozoites . They arhozoites . SUMOylahe world . We pursSUMO genes in the AmoebaDB (http://amoebadb.org/amoeba/accessed on 29 April 2021), using as a template the SUMO sequence from G. lamblia [E. histolytica: EHI_170060 and EHI_151620. However, EHI_151620 predicts a product without the glycine residues (GG) at the C-terminus, a characteristic of SUMO [G. lamblia SUMO gene. It is located at the complementary DNA strand, between the fragments annotated as EH_170050 and EH_170070, at the 46,961 and 47,530 bp , predicted E. histolytica proteins that interact with SUMO to perform different functions , and UIp1b (EHI_097940) exhibited 23.6 to 44.3% identities to their orthologues . The phyhologues . The biobona fide SUMO protein, we obtained its secondary and tertiary structures. The secondary structure showed the 69 amino acid chain forming the ubiquitin-2Rad60SUMO like-domain (G. lamblia and close to other orthologous [lamblia (RMSD: 0.53), and S. cerevisiae (RMSD: 1.26) (PDB:1L2NB), and H. sapiens (RMSD:1.20) SUMO-2 (PDB:1A5R) protein crystals [E. histolytica.To confirm that the sequence that we were working with is a e-domain A, with ahologous ,27,28,29ae RMSD: .26  was used to obtain rat α-EhSUMO polyclonal antibodies that in western blot assays detected a 17 kDa band in agreement to the 12.6 kDa predicted for EhSUMO plus the histidine label   . Althougctively) . SIMs factively) . These iIn addition to the SUMOylation sites deciphered by the GPS-SUMO software , the secImmunofluorescence assays using α-EhSUMO and α-EhADH antibodies, uncovered, in basal conditions, dissimilar fluorescent patterns of EhADH and EhSUMO. However, merging images revealed colocation of both proteins at pseudopodia and in regions close to the plasma membrane C. ImmunoTo investigate the cellular fate of EhSUMO and EhADH during phagocytosis, trophozoites were prepared for immunofluorescence assays and examined through confocal microscopy after different times of phagocytosis. At 5 min, EhSUMO was detected in the place of contact where erythrocytes were being ingested A,B, formEhVps32 has a predicted molecular weight of 22.4 kDa, although due to its structure and charge of amino acids, it migrates at 32 kDa in SDS-PAGE . Its secThe Ramachandran plot showed 92.98%, 69.47%, and 3.16% of the amino acids in the favored, allowed, and outside the allowed regions, respectively. Besides, the RMSD analysis showed that EhVps32 reached the equilibrium at 100 ns C, whereaConfocal images of trophozoites in basal conditions, evidenced colocation of EhSUMO and EhVps32 around vesicles/vacuoles, in the inner plasma membrane, in the origin of the pseudopodia, and extensively in clumps in the cytoplasm G. ImmunoThrough phagocytosis, confocal images using the α-EhSUMO antibodies, disclosed the same membranous structures described above, and the small vesicles surrounding larger endosomes/phagosomes A,B. WherE. histolytica, we silenced the EhSUMO gene, using double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), expressed in bacteria, [To deepen the importance of SUMOylation in phagocytosis and other virulence properties of acteria, . After iPolyclonal antibodies against an exposed peptide in the EhADH structure  B, recognEhSUMO-silenced trophozoites in their adhesion to and phagocytosis of erythrocytes and the cytopathic effect on MDCK epithelial monolayers. Adhesion and erythrophagocytosis experiments evidenced that in all cases, KD trophozoites adhered and phagocytosed between 32 and 37% fewer erythrocytes than the wild type  protein, with EhADH and EhVps32 proteins, both involved in phagocytosis. Beyond the detection and characterization of EhSUMO in this parasite, the relevance of this work relies on two main aspects: (i) this is the first report on the role of SUMOylation in phagocytosis and the modification of specific proteins participating in this phenomenon, and (ii) the involvement of SUMOylation during phagocytosis highlights the potential use of this knowledge for the development of therapeutics and diagnosis methods to defeat amoebiasis.In this paper, we disclosed and characterized the presence of a E. histolytica trophozoites.Lack of vaccines, reduced chemotherapy options, and the emergence of drug-resistant parasites  are chalE. histolytica, Arya et al. in 2012 [in silico analysis, we detected EHI_170060 contig that presents the characteristics described so far for SUMO. In the phylogenetic tree, EHI_1700060 product (EhSUMO) appeared close to T. cruzi and D. discoideum orthologues. However, we used here as templates the yeast and human SUMO-2 proteins, because they have been extensively studied, their 3D structures are well known, and crystal is available. HsSUMO-2 forms stable polymeric chains that also are susceptible to poly-ubiquitination, a signal for proteasome degradation [In  in 2012  reported in 2012  found a radation . This efradation , supportDocking of EhADH and EhSUMO, and EhVps32 and EhSUMO, predicted that EhSUMO uses different motifs in the protein target to join to other proteins, but targets suggested by our results could need fine-tuning of punctual mutations to precisely determine the binding sites. However, the confocal images evidenced that EhADH and EhVps32 efficiently bind, directly or indirectly, to EhSUMO, and that SUMOylation influences their cellular location, although we cannot discern how much of the changes were due to the phagocytosis event and how much to the SUMOylation process. Nevertheless, the fact that KD trophozoites in basal conditions did not display EhADH close to the plasma membrane or in pseudopodia, suggests that EhADH needs to be SUMOylated to find its cellular position. Confocal assays using control and KD trophozoites, support this assumption. Altogether, these results point out the hypothesis that the equilibrium between PTM proteins and their unmodified state modulates the fate and function of the target substrates during phagocytosis, granting the fine-tuning of the cellular mechanisms needed for life.Except for EhADH and EhVps32, we could not disclose changes in the amount and nature of the proteins that are SUMOylated during phagocytosis, but SUMOylation-deSUMOylation is a highly dynamic process, and undetectable changes could be occurring. The multiple and speedy changes produced during this phenomenon were evidenced by the images obtained using α-EhSUMO antibodies that uncovered the active participation of EhSUMO. The images revealed the extensive membrane changes accordingly to the moment of erythrocyte’s contact and ingestion during the intense vesicular trafficking accelerated by phagocytosis. We did not find a single repetitive bizarre figure in a trophozoite or the total population, corroborating the dynamics of the event. SUMOylation alters not only the cellular location of the target protein, but changes the protein conformation, and consequently, their affinity to other proteins . This haEhSUMO silencing trophozoites showed a diminished capacity to adhere and ingest red blood cells, plausible due to a poor SUMOylation of certain proteins. However, the cytopathic effect assays evidenced that the KD-trophozoites were only poorly affected, confirming that distinct proteins are participating in adhesion, phagocytosis, and cellular destruction.The change of EhADH conformation was suggested by the lack of recognition by the α-EhADH18 antibodies in KD trophozoites. To discard protein degradation, we used a polyclonal antibody directed to the full-length EhADH protein that detected the complex in both types of trophozoites and reacted with the 75 kDa band, evidencing the integrity of the protein. We suspect that the SUMOylation could produce stability on EhADH, but when EhSUMO is diminished, the non-SUMOylated protein could change its structure. MDS experiments characterizing the different protein conformations showed that EhADH assumes distinct structures . EhSUMO in silico screening. Meanwhile, the EhVps32 movement is probably limited to the ESCRT-III complex participation. Hence, SUMOylation could enable them to move in the cell and perform their functions.The position of EhADH and EhVps32 inside the cell, after they were hypothetically SUMOylated (deduced by the colocation images), constantly change during phagocytosis. Each protein behaved differently: colocalization of EhADH and EhSUMO significantly increased through phagocytosis, whereas EhVps32 and EhSUMO maintain a high level of colocalization since basal state. These differences could be interpreted as necessary events to carry out the distinct functions of the proteins. Our work with EhADH since many years ago , has eviE. histolytica trophozoites suffer SUMOylation, as a requisite to carry out their tasks. In conclusion, our findings point out the importance of SUMOylation in phagocytosis. Based on these data, it is possible that in the future, inhibition of SUMOylation in E. histolytica and in other parasites could help to find novel therapeutic methods to defeat amoebiasis and other parasitic diseases.Karpiyevich and Artavanis-Tsakonas in 2020  postulatE. histolytica, clone A (strain HM1: IMSS) [Trophozoites of 1: IMSS) , were ax1: IMSS) .2 atmosphere.Madin Darby canine kidney (MDCK) epithelial cells were grown in DMEM medium (Gibco) supplemented with 100 IU/mL penicillin (in vitro), 100 mg/mL streptomycin (in vitro), 10% fetal bovine serum (Gibco), and 0.08 U/mL insulin (Eli Lilly), at 37 °C in a 95% air and 5% COSUMO gene was identified in the E. histolytica genome, using the BLASTP algorithm (http://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov//Blast.cgi accessed on 29 April 2021) and the AmoebaDB database (www.amoebadb.org accessed on 29 April 2021). Additionally, SUMO proteins of G. lamblia (accession number GL50803_7760), H. sapiens (accession number NP_001005781), and S. cerevisiae (accession number NP_010798.1) were also explored. The EhSUMO sequence was analyzed and 5’ and 3’ end primers were designed, to amplify the full-length gene. The putative amino acid sequence of EhSUMO (EHI_170060) was aligned with its orthologous by ClustalW and data were submitted to phylogenetic analysis by UPGMA, using MEGA 5.05 software. The bootstrapping was performed in 1000 replicates.Full-length sequence of in silico analysis, the ubiquitin-2 Rad60 domain, characteristic of SUMO proteins, was located and aligned in the putative EhSUMO amino acid sequence and compared with SUMO orthologous, to design the secondary structure of the protein. The predicted 3D structure of EhSUMO was obtained using the crystal of H. sapiens (PDB:1A5R) and S. cerevisiae (PDB:1L2N). To obtained the predicted 3D structure of G. lamblia SUMO, we submitted the protein sequence V6TGL retrieved from UniProtKB, to the I-TASSER server and the higher C-score was selected. The structural alignment of proteins was visualized with VMD [By with VMD .https//www.uniprot.org accessed on 29 April 2021), and the I-TASSER server (https://zhanglab.ccmb.med.umich.edu/I-TASSER accessed on 29 April 2021). The crystallographic structures that I-TASSER used to obtain the 3D EhSUMO model were: 5GJL solution structure of Plasmodium falciparum, IWZ0 solution structure of human SUMO-2 (SMT3B), a ubiquitin-like protein 5XQM structure of SMO1, SUMO homolog of Caenorhabditis elegans, and 2K8H solution structure of SUMO from Trypanosoma brucei. Those used for the EhVps32 model were: 5FD7 and 5FD9 crystal structures of ESCRT-III Snf7 core domain  from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 5NNV structure of a Bacillus subtilis Sms coiled-coil middle fragment, 2GD5 structural basils for budding by ESCRT-III factor ChMP3 from H. sapiens and 5NL crystal structure of the two spectrin repeated domains from E. histolytica.To predict the interaction between EhSUMO and EhVps32 or EhADH proteins, we performed molecular dynamics simulations (MDS) of the predicted 3D model of EhSUMO and EhVps32 and we took the published data for the 3D model of EhADH . The 3D psfgen software in the VMD program [http://clusterhibrido.cinvestav.mx accessed on 29 April 2021) of CINVESTAV-IPN, México.MDS were carried out using the NAMD 2.8 software , through program . By this program . Nine Å The structural analysis from the MDS, the root mean square fluctuation (RMSF), and the radius of gyration (Rg), as well as the snapshots used for docking analysis, were obtained and analyzed with the grcarma software . Root meEhSUMO gene, the full DNA sequence of 345 bp was PCR-amplified, using the following specific primers: sense 5’-CCGGTACCATGTCTAATCAACCACAATATGGAATTAAATC-3’ and antisense 5’-CCGGATCCTTATTTGATGTATTGAAGGTATTGAGTATTAAAAAGA-3’, in a mixture containing 10 mM dNTPs, 100 ng of E. histolytica genomic DNA or cDNA as template, and 2.5 U of Taq DNA polymerase (Gibco). PCR assay was carried out for 35 cycles  The sense oligonucleotide contains a KpnI restriction site, while the antisense oligonucleotide harbors a BamH1 restriction site. The full-length gene was cloned in pCold II DNA plasmid, which conferred a histidine tag [Ehgata gene [To clone dine tag . As a poata gene . Two negEscherichia coli BLI21 (pLysS) bacteria were transformed with the pCold/EhSUMO, containing the full open reading frame of the EhSUMO gene to produce a His-tagged EhSUMO recombinant protein (rEhSUMO). The His-rEhSUMO protein was purified with cobalt beads in an imidazole gradient and used to subcutaneously and intramuscularly inoculate Wistar rats  (Sigma), to generate α-EhSUMO polyclonal antibodies. Two more doses (50 µg) were injected at 15-days intervals, and animals were bled to obtain the immune serum. Pre-immune serum was also obtained, before immunization.The KFRQFENDIKLLCEGNIQ peptide from EhADH (495 to 512 amino acids) was synthesized together with the KLH (Keyhole Limpet Hemocyanin) tag to increase its immunogenicity . New Zeland rabbit  was immunized with 600 μg of the peptide resuspended in TiterMax® Gold adjuvant (1:1)  and then, three more immunizations were performed at 15-day intervals, followed by bleeding to obtain the antibody named anti-EhADH18. Pre-immune serum was also obtained, before immunizations.Trophozoites lysates (35 µg), or purified rEhSUMO were electrophoresed in 15% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels (SDS-PAGE), transferred to nitrocellulose membranes and probed with rat α-EhSUMO (1:2000), mouse α-EhVps32 (1:1000), rabbit α-EhADH (1:1000) , rabbit Trophozoites were grown on coverslips, fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde at 37 °C for 1h, permeabilized with 0.5% Triton X-100 and blocked with 10% fetal bovine serum in PBS. Then, cells were incubated at 4 °C for overnight (ON) with either α-EhSUMO (1:100) or α-EhVps32 (1:100) antibodies labeled with Alexa-555 or Pacific Blue kit (Molecular Probes-Thermo Fisher), respectively, or with rabbit α-EhADH (1:100) antibodies. After extensive washing, samples were incubated for 30 min at 37 °C with α-rabbit FITC-labeled secondary antibody (1:100). Fluorescence was preserved using Vectashield antifade reagent (Vector), examined through a Carl Zeiss LMS 700 confocal microscope, in laser sections of 0.5 μm and processed with ZEN 2009 Light Edition Software (Zeiss). To evaluate the colocation between proteins, fluorescence intensity was quantified from at least 30 confocal images, using the ImageJ 1.45v software and the JACoP plugin.Trophozoites were incubated at 4° and 37 °C with erythrocytes (1:25 ratio) for different times for adhesion and phagocytosis assays, respectively . For somFor cytopathic assays, trophozoites were incubated with confluent MDCK cell monolayers (1:20 ratio) for 1 h. After this time, the parasites were removed by several washes with cold PBS, the remaining epithelial cells were fixed with 2.5% glutaraldehyde and stained with 1% methylene blue for 10 min. The MDCK cell destruction was represented in comparison with control cells not incubated with trophozoites. Dye concentration was quantified using the ImageJ software .Trophozoites were lysed in the presence of 10 mM Tris-HCl, 50-mM NaCl, and proteases inhibitors, by freeze-thawing cycles and vortexing. Immunoprecipitation assays were performed using 200 μL of protein G-agarose  and α-EhSUMO antibody as described . ImmunopEhSUMO was performed using the bacterial expression of double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) and parasite soaking experiments as described [EhSUMO gene were PCR-amplified using the following primers: sense 3’-CCGAGCTCATGTCTGACGCACAACATTCA-5’ and antisense 3’-CCGGTACCTTAAAACCCACCAACTTGATTCAT-5’. Then, the amplicon was cloned into pJET1.2/blunt plasmid and subcloned into pL4440 plasmid, using the Sac1 and Kpn1 restriction sites. PCR, restriction analysis, and DNA sequencing were performed to verify the resulting pL4440-EhSUMO plasmid. The competent RNase III-deficient E. coli strain HT115 was transformed with the pL4440-EhSUMO. Bacteria were grown at 37 °C in LB broth for plasmid construction or 2YT broth for dsRNA expression, in the presence of ampicillin (100 mg/mL) and tetracycline (10 mg/mL) [EhSUMO-dsRNA was induced with 2-mM isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside ON at 37 °C. Then, bacterial pellet was mixed with 1 M ammonium acetate and 10 mM EDTA, incubated with phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1) and centrifuged. The supernatant was mixed with isopropanol, centrifuged, and the nucleic acid pellet was washed with 70% ethanol. DNase I (Invitrogen) and RNase A  were added to eliminate ssRNA and dsDNA molecules. EhSUMO-dsRNA was washed again with isopropanol and ethanol, analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis, and concentration determined by spectrophotometry. Lastly, purified EhSUMO-dsRNA (10 μg/mL) molecules were added to trophozoites (3.0 × 104) in TYI-S-33 complete medium, and cultures were incubated at 37 °C for 24, 48, 72, 96, and 120 h. At 24 h was the time when silencing of the EhSUMO protein was visualized and analyzed by western blot assays and confocal microscopy. All subsequent experiments were done at this time. Trophozoites growing under standard conditions (without dsRNA), were used as controls.The knock-down (KD) of escribed . Briefly0 mg/mL) . The expp values are indicated in figure legends.Statistical analyses were performed by t-Student test, using GraphPad Prism 5.0 software. The scores showing statistically significant differences are indicated with asterisks in the graphs. The corresponding Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites carry out during the invasion of the host. Many proteins are involved in this fascinating event, in which the plasmatic membrane undergoes multiple and speedy changes. Postraduccional modifications activate proteins in the precise time that they must get involved. SUMOylation, which consists of the non-covalent binding of SUMO protein with target molecules, is one of the main changes suffered by proteins to enable them to participate in cellular functions. SUMOylation had not been studied in E. histolytica nor phagocytosis, and our working hypothesis is that this event is deeply engaged in the ingestion of target molecules and cells. The results of this paper prove the presence of an intronless bona fide EhSUMO gene encoding for a 17 kDa protein that is actively involved in phagocytosis. Silencing of the EhSUMO gene affected the rate of adhesion and phagocytosis and to a lesser extent the cytopathic effect and interfered with the EhADH and EhVps32 function, two proteins involved in phagocytosis, strongly supporting the importance of SUMOylation in this event.Phagocytosis is one of the main functions that


Video consultations are increasingly used to communicate with patients, particularly during the current COVID-19 pandemic. However, training in video consultation skills receives scant attention in the literature. We sought to introduce this important topic to our undergraduate medical school curriculum.To increase final year medical students’ video consultation skills and knowledge.We used Plan, Do, Study, Act (PDSA) quality improvement methodology with a pre-post study design to develop a teaching session for 5th year medical students, informed by a literature review and online clinician survey. The 2 hour session comprised an introduction and three practical stations: patient selection and ethics, technology and example videos, and simulation. Subjective pre- and post-session confidence was reported by students across seven domains using 5-point scales . Students and facilitators completed post-session feedback forms.The 40 students and 3 facilitators who attended, over two separate teaching sessions, provided unanimously positive feedback. All students considered the session relevant. Subjective confidence ratings (n = 34) significantly increased from pre- to post-session .The inaugural teaching session was well-received and subjective assessment measures showed improvement in taught skills. This pilot has informed a UK-wide multi-centre study with subjective and objective data collection. These eConcerns regarding video consultation have been well documented, particularly pertaining to cost effectiveness, impacts on health outcomes and whether such technology serves a diverse case mix . Since CNewly graduated doctors are expected to be able to communicate effectively with patients, whether when providing care in person or remotely . NeverthWhile clinical and practical aspects of the delivery of telemedicine have a stronger presence in the literature, education on delivery of video consultation is minimally represented. Prior to the pandemic only half of American medical schools included telemedicine in their curriculum  and sincmedical education has a responsibility to ensure that physicians are prepared to effectively leverage the power of technology to serve their patients’ [In the words of one narrative review, ‘atients’ . This haatients’ ,22.We therefore sought to add video consultation skills to the undergraduate medical curriculum at our university. To this end, we have developed a teaching programme in skills specific to video consultation. The current paper describes the development and piloting of this teaching programme, in preparation for a large-scale multi-site study across UK medical schools.‘Plan, Do, Study, Act’ (PDSA) quality improvement methodology with a pre-post study design was used to introduce the proposed curriculum changes in a structured and measured way . PDSA waLocal ethics committee formal exemption from ethical approval was received due to the quality improvement nature of this project. The video consultation software  used durKey stakeholders for this project were identified using the ‘9 Cs’ method  . CliniciInterview responses informed the design of an online survey to enable data collection from a wider sample of clinicians with experience of conducting video consultations. The 17-item survey was subsequently distributed to all clinician users of NHS Near Me registered within our organisation (n = 332) in mid-2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic. Survey responses were returned by 45 clinicians (13.5% response rate); 4 responses were excluded due to lack of use of video consultation. The largest group of respondents was medical or surgical consultants (41.5%) followed by specialist nurses (19.5%). 53.7% had been using video consultations for under a year, 14.6% each for 1–2 years, 2–5 years and 5–10 years and a single clinician (2.4%) for longer than 10 years. Median clinician estimate of outpatient workload carried out by video at the time was 8% (range 1–40%).31.5% of users reported receiving some form of training in skills specific to remote consultation, all at postgraduate level. Those who did receive training mainly learnt about the technical setup (36%) either informally or at an induction from NHS Near Me. Consistent with the published literature ,24,31, rSeven key areas were identified from the published literature and stakeholder consultation as important focus points for an intervention. These formed the learning outcomes (Textbox 1), which were designed according to Bloom’s principles which comprise a hierarchical model designed to classify educational learning objectives . These pFinal year medical students were chosen as the recipient learners since their schedules place them in clinical practice for longer periods of time than other year groups, increasing their chances of encountering video consultation in practice and thus the perceived relevance of the teaching on their future careers.For the first iteration of the PDSA cycle, the intervention was designed as a single 2 hour teaching session for around 20 students, comprising a short introduction for the entire group, maximising the height of attention in group teaching during the first 10–20 minutes , followeAn overview of the teaching session structure is shown in Definitions of common alternative terms such as telehealth and remote consultationA brief history of its use in healthcareInteractive discussion of its advantages and disadvantagesIntroduction to video consultation (20 minutes)The group then rotated round three interactive teaching stations, each lasting 30 minutes, facilitated by a member of teaching staff (referred to henceforth as a ‘facilitator’) with experience of video consultation. The three stations were:Practical session looking at the setup of a video consultation using NHS Near Me video consultation software  includinDiscussion of the structure of a consultation and how this differs when using video compared to face-to-faceExample videos of two video consultations, filmed with actors, one ‘good’ and one ‘bad’. These were made based on the guidelines and stages 1 and 2 of the study. They were used as a way to illustrate the principles covered in the teaching session and carefully scripted to do so. These example videos can be accessed online via the links in the supplemental materialTechnology and example consultations*Use of a simulated patient to allow students to take a history or discuss a management plan using NHS Near Me video consultation software Students also given the opportunity to ‘be’ the patient to appreciate the differences of a consultation from both sides when using videoSimulation*Selection of mock patient summaries for students to group according to suitability for video consultationFacilitated discussion of potential algorithms to assist in patient selectionDiscussion of potential ethical issues around the use of video consultation, including issues surrounding data storage and confidentialityDiscussion and examples of protocols for video consultation, including when things go wrongDiscussion of consent process for video consultationPatient selection and ethical issues*combined into a single teaching station for the second iterationThe pilot teaching session was carried out on two separate occasions with all teaching delivered in-person, with the exception of the simulated video consultation which was carried out using a remotely located volunteer patient.In line with quality improvement methodology using the PDSA cycle, students’ baseline knowledge was measured . Prior tWhile this was not a pre-validated questionnaire, it was carefully designed based on the four dimensions of target parameters described by Gibson et al in their validated, structured approach to evaluation of teaching : structuFacilitators were also asked to complete evaluation forms asking six open questions about their experience of facilitating the sessionfor example, how the session could be improved and suggestions for other areas to be covered in the teaching session in the future.Planning is currently underway for a multi-site study with recruitment of medical schools across the UK ongoing. Teaching materials developed during the pilot study have been refined and adjusted to allow online delivery during COVID-19 restrictions and will be distributed to participating centres. Participating centres will collect data on subjective and objective assessment of student knowledge and skills before and after the delivery of video consultation skills teaching, building on methods developed during this pilot study.Two face-to-face teaching sessions were provided to a total of 40 final year medical students. 34 students completed evaluation forms. Subjective feedback was unanimously positive. All students perceived an increase in their confidence at fulfilling the learning outcomes following the session, when compared to pre-session self-rating scores, an effect that was statistically significant (p < 0.001) across all learning outcomes see .Table 1.A summary of pre- and post-teaching responses is shown in All areas of the teaching were felt to be relevant, interactive and led by enthusiastic facilitators. Areas of commendation included the interactive nature of the session, the relaxed environment and the interest of what was perceived to be a relevant subject that had not been touched on before in the students’ education. Numerical student feedback for each individual station was fairly homogenous with all stations scoring over 4.5 out of 5 for each statement. Areas for improvement from the students suggested after the first iteration focussed on timing and provision of simulation; these changes were adjusted for the second iteration.Facilitator evaluation mirrored that of the students; they liked the interactive design of the session, commenting that the mixture of topics and practical elements worked well and that this was a much-needed addition to the curriculum. Their suggestions for improvement also reflected those of the students, focussing on more time for simulation to allow more students to be directly involved.This project was undertaken prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, as video consultation was becoming an increasingly used method of communicating with patients in our rural area. However, the advent of the pandemic has caused a surge in the use of video consultation and therefore the relevance of this pilot study. We developed a novel teaching session to increase final year medical student’s skills and knowledge regarding video consultation, targeting an important gap in the curriculum and aligning student learning with national guidelines. Analysis of completed student and facilitator evaluation forms showed positive results, with all agreeing that the session was of benefit. There are, however, several areas that can be improved upon and these formed the focus of the ‘study’ and ‘act’ parts of PDSA.Student confidence scores increased by the largest margin when referring to the consent process for video consultation. The topic of consent relating to video consultation featured in each of the three small group sessions; this may have allowed consolidation of knowledge through repetition, often historically cited as an essential part of associative learning ,39. The Lack of time is mentioned repeatedly in the feedback, largely relating to the simulation session. The design of this small-group session allowed three students to take part in the simulation, however, with group sizes averaging 7 students, this left more than half the group merely observing. Following discussion with facilitators, some solutions have been identified: firstly, the entire teaching session could be made slightly longer to allow a little more time in each of the three small-group rotations. Alternatively, the role of the patient could be played by a student, allowing more students to have a role in simulation. However, the value of volunteer patients in the education of medical students is well documented  and it wThere were some logistical challenges to running this session, mainly involving the number of rooms required to accommodate each breakout session. The advent of social distancing in the COVID era has prompted the adaptation of the teaching session for online delivery for the next iteration of the project, providing a solution to this issue. Online ‘breakout rooms’ are widely available on video conferencing software which may in turn allow more students to take an active role in the simulation element of the session, provided sufficient numbers of volunteer patients are trained and available to participate.Continuing to follow a plan consistent with Quality Improvement methodology, the next step is to spread the intervention to other sites, described by Massoud et al  as ‘an oObjective evidence of improvement is lacking from this pilot project. The original study protocol did include a video consultation question in an Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) before and after the teaching session. An existing history taking OSCE station was adapted to be used in a simulated video consultation, with specific marks available for video consultation specific skills. However, due to a Wi-Fi malfunction, the volume of objective data gathered following the teaching session was too small to be meaningful and has hence been excluded from this project summary. The next iteration of the project will include an online pre- and post-teaching objective assessment using a mock video consultation.Numbers studied in this pilot project are low; while statistical significance was reached, these results should be interpreted with this in mind. Moreover, this study was carried out in a UK institution. With adaptation, however, we feel the contents are highly relevant for healthcare settings around the world using video consultation.There are well documented arguments surrounding the use of Likert scales . Within ‘to increase knowledge and skills relating to video consultation in final year medical students’ and was undertaken as a quality improvement project, using the PDSA methodology. This study addressed a significant gap in the literature relating to education in video consultation: there remain very few papers specifically addressing the education of healthcare professionals in skills specific to video consultation. The current lack of published studies leaves a shortfall between the published guidelines on remote consultation and the foundations on which education is built to meet such guidelines. In order to bridge this gap and fulfil the project aims, we combined literature review, stakeholder consultation and a firm foundation in education theory to develop high-quality educational materials suitable for use with undergraduate medical students. The subjective evidence from this pilot project suggests that this aim was achieved, in the short-term at least. The use of quality improvement methodology, although not often used in medical education, proved a useful structure for such a project.The aim of the project was Further subjective and objective evidence will be gathered from an ongoing UK-wide project based on this initial pilot.Click here for additional data file.


N = 149 physics learners with a low prior knowledge on average, sample of convenience) was conducted to explore this effect. Two explainer videos were developed to be comparable in terms of comprehensibility and duration. The explanatory approach was the only difference between the two videos. While the experimental group watched a video introducing the concept of force using misconceptions, the control group watched a scientifically correct video. Learners from the experimental group developed an equal belief of understanding, but more misconceptions and fewer scientifically correct conceptions than those from the control group. We argue that this illusion of understanding might become problematic (a) in physics instruction because students who have watched a misleading video might regard further teaching in school as irrelevant, and (b) learners might tend to rate videos including misconceptions better on an online platform like YouTube. Future studies should examine these two possible consequences.Some of the online explainer videos for physics present misconceptions as scientifically correct explanations. Even so, some of these videos achieve good ratings on online platforms. A possible reason is that explainer videos with misconceptions foster an “illusion of understanding”—the mistaken belief that a topic has been understood. Misconceptions close to everyday experiences might appear more attractive than scientifically correct explanations. This experimental study ( Explainer videos—also referred to as, for example, explaining videos, instructional videos, or learning videos—are widely popular on online platforms . Students watch them, for example, to prepare for exams or simply for entertainment  aimed to explain a particular topic understandably , individuals must hold these four beliefs—despite all four being untrue.Prinz et al.  argues tThe illusion of understanding hypothesis is similar but at the same time broader than just comparing the feeling of learning with actual learning  scientifically correct and (b) comprehensible. In addition, they should draw the mistaken conclusions that (c) they have understood the explained concept, and (d) they do not require further instruction on the topic. In a nutshell, we tested for the mistaken belief that an explanation was good and resulted in understanding. This is close to the concept of an illusion of understanding used by Paik and Schraw .Hypothesis 1: The belief of understanding is higher after watching an explainer video that includes misconceptions than after watching a scientifically accurate explainer video.We wanted to ascertain whether including misconceptions in the video fosters the illusion of understanding. Therefore, we compared the experimental group (“misconception group”) and control group  for differences in the four criteria. Of course, only the experimental group learned the misconception, while the control group learned scientifically correct knowledge. Therefore, the latter might rightfully assume that the four criteria are true. Thus, we compared the groups for their belief of understanding; however, for the experimental group, this belief of understanding would be an illusion. We assumed that the presence of misconceptions leads to a higher belief of understanding than scientifically correct knowledge because they are often based on personal experience and might appear more convincing (see above). This leads to the first hypothesis:Hypothesis 2: Beginner physics learners acquire more misconceptual knowledge from an introductory explainer video containing misconceptions than from a scientifically correct video.Hypothesis 3: Beginner physics learners acquire less conceptual knowledge from an introductory explainer video containing misconceptions than from a scientifically correct video.The second and third hypotheses focused on the comparison between the scientifically accurate video and the video including the misconceptions regarding learning gains. We expected that watching the video containing the misconceptions would lead to more misconceptions and less conceptual knowledge than watching the scientifically correct video. As mentioned above, that would be in line with the results of Yates and Marek  and alsoThe study followed an experimental design Fig. . Two expThe physics learners used their own laptops. We randomly assigned the learners to one of the groups using a random generator. Afterwards, we administered a link to an online testing environment we programmed on a WordPress base for this purpose. Learners took the tests individually online, sitting separately at their homes, while being supervised using an online meeting conference tool that we also used for physics lectures and online exams. They were not allowed to access additional information or browse the Internet. The testing time was limited to 60 min; the solutions for the knowledge tests could not simply be found online because the test items matched the content of the developed explainer videos. This makes it unlikely that learners had access to unauthorized aid.Their experience with online explainer videos and their academic self-concept in physics were measured. Their prior knowledge on the concept of force was tested in two ways: we tested for the “conceptual knowledge” and the “misconceptual knowledge” (cf. the “Instruments” section). The first evaluates how well the learners handle the scientifically correct knowledge, and the second how “well” they solve items based on the misconception (or how much they are convinced by the misconception).Following the pretest, the experimental group watched the video with the misconceptions and the control group watched the video with the scientifically correct explanation.The posttest measured the four criteria for an illusion of understanding (see the “Research Questions” section). Additionally, it included scales for the conceptual and the misconceptual knowledge (the same test as in the pretest).To fulfill ethical standards, the experimental group received further instruction after the experimental study. We explained that the video they watched contained incorrect information while presenting an attractive misconception as the correct explanation. Not only did this group receive the correct explanation afterwards, but they also participated in a group discussion on the topic that these kinds of explanations can be found on YouTube in explainer videos with millions of views. The key message was as follows: be critical with explainer videos from unknown sources.The sample comprised of German-speaking students from one single introductory physics course (a lecture with about 150 students each year) at one single German university that is mandatory for first-semester pre-service elementary teachers. Explainer videos have their best place at the beginning of teaching sequence when principles get introduced  was invited to participate. Participation was voluntary. A random generator was used to assign learners to the groups. Thirty-six learners decided not to participate because they did not allow their data to be collected. Due to German law, their data have been erased and, thus, cannot be accessed to compare their characteristics to those who participated. This probably leads to unequal numbers of learners assigned to the two experimental conditions. In total, 149 learners  participated in the study. As expected, their experience was low; 115 of the learners had not enrolled in a physics course in the last 3 years of school , 26 of them had taken a basic physics course, and 8 took physics as a major course for the German Abitur.The entire group , the results of our study should at least provide first insights into this target population. Following Gollwitzer, Eid and Schmitt , p. 92, F = ma) and that it does not require a force to keep an object moving (Newton’s first law).The video offering an explanation based on the misconceptions explained the concept of force relying on the two misconceptions “force is always needed to keep a body moving” and “force is stored in an object.” The other video explained the concept of force correctly as the reason for an acceleration , even though the language of the scientifically correct video might have been more formal. The videos were presented as part of the online survey tool; therefore, additional information, such as likes/dislikes, was not accessible to the learners.The explanatory approach  was the only difference between the two videos. Both videos had a similar duration , and the design was identical . The voiceover was performed by the same male person. To ensure that both videos were comparable in terms of language complexity, we calculated the readability scores of the texts. We used the readability coefficient LIX for this purpose because it works well with the German language , experience with explainer videos  to 5 , e.g., “I have often watched explainer videos on topics from school or university”), and academic self-concept in physics .To characterize the learners’ illusion of understanding, we applied four criteria. Individuals should have the mistaken impression that the explanation was (a) scientifically correct, and (b) comprehensible. Also, they should draw the mistaken conclusions that (c) they have understood a concept, and (d) they do not require further instruction on this topic. The criteria (a) and (b) concern the explanation itself, and (c) and (d) concern the conclusions the individuals draw from the explanation about their understanding.For a content valid assessment, all four criteria need to be contained in the scale for the illusion of understanding. We addressed the criteria by asking for agreement with statements on a 5-point Likert scale , 5 ; sample items, criterion (a), the video was scientifically correct; (b) The examples used in the video were well-chosen; (c) I understand what force means in physics; (d) I do not need to learn more on the concept of force to fully understand it). For criterion (b), the aspects that influence the comprehensibility of an explainer video are based on the framework of Kulgemeyer  . We want to highlight that these four criteria just constitute an We tested for conceptual knowledge  and misconceptual knowledge . The test consisted of nine items, each of which including a situation or a statement that can be explained by either a misconception or a scientifically correct concept.All items were multiple-choice with two of the options being the scientifically correct solution and two of the options being a solution one would pick when holding a misconception on force. All the questions could be answered independently of one another. The four answers to each question are independent aspects of the concept of force. Many test inventories  = 0.40, p = 0.53) or their scientifically correct conceptual knowledge  = 1.06, p = 0.31). The groups did not differ in gender (χ2(1) = 1.03, p = 0.31), their final school grade (t(92) = 1.48, p = 0.14), their academic self-concept in physics (t(147) = 1.00, p = 0.32), and their experience with explainer videos (t(147) =  − 0.78, p = 0.44). The control variables indicate the equivalence of the two groups. Additionally, they meet the criteria described in the “Regarding the pretest scores, there was no significant difference between the control group and the experimental group for either their misconceptual knowledge (n = 217) in their gender (χ2(1) = 1.76, p = 0.18), their final school grade (t(244) =  − 1.58, p = 0.12), or their academic self-concept in physics (t(360) = 1.32, p = 0.19). This suggests comparability of the participants with beginner physics learners in general in an academic primary teacher education environment, at least at this university.The participants did not differ from the sample of students that started their studies one year later  = 0.318, p = 0.57, partial η2 = 0.002), there was no statistically significant difference between both groups. Both groups scored lower than the neutral score of 3 and, thus, have a high belief of understanding  = 133.00, p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.477). This result is in line with hypothesis 2.Hypothesis 3: Less conceptual knowledge after video with misconceptionsTo test the effect on the scale of misconceptual knowledge, we used ANCOVA adjusting for the pre-test results on misconceptual knowledge. We found a statistically significant difference between the groups Fig. . The expF = 38.43, p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.208). This result is in line with hypothesis 3.To test the effect on the scale of misconceptual knowledge, we used ANCOVA adjusting for the pre-test results on conceptual knowledge Fig. . The conThe goal of the study was to gain a better understanding of potentially harmful effects of explainer videos based on misconceptions on students’ learning. To ensure internal validity, the learners were randomly assigned to two experimental conditions. Two explainer videos were developed to be comparable in terms of comprehensibility and duration. The explanatory approach was the only difference between the two videos. They had to work individually. The experimental group watched a video introducing the concept of force using misconceptions, and the control group watched a scientifically correct video. The effects on the acquisition of conceptual knowledge, misconceptual knowledge, and the development of an illusion of understanding were measured.After watching the videos, the experimental group had an equally developed belief of understanding (hypothesis 1), outperformed the control group in misconceptual knowledge (hypothesis 2), and had less developed conceptual knowledge (hypothesis 3).After watching the video including misconceptions, learners scored high on the belief of understanding scale. This mirrors the findings of Yates and Marek , who fouThe results are in line with hypotheses 2 and 3. Both groups achieved significant learning gains matching their respective learning opportunities. We regard this match between learning gains and learning opportunities as an argument for the validity of the results because the test instruments were developed to reflect the learning opportunities , and limited physics experience in school. They started learning the concept of force with the videos in the present study. The sample is not representative of all physics learners starting to learn the concept of force; for example, their age and education differ from learners at school, who are introduced to the concept of force. A convenience sample was chosen because it was not possible to randomly select students from the population of all beginner-physics learners starting to learn the concept of force. In addition, matching the members of the sample to a set of important population characteristics was not possible because these characteristics are unknown. The data suggest that they are representative of pre-service elementary teachers at the beginning of their bachelor’s program at this university in general. However, the sample meets important criteria that allow us first insights into the target population, including low academic self-concept in physics, limited physics experience in school, and, on average, low prior knowledge . The variables in which the sample differs from learners at school  are not expected to have a high impact on the dependent variables of this study, but the choice of the sample is still a limitation for the generalization of the results.Also, the topic was limited to misconceptions on force and misconceptions close to everyday experiences. For misconceptions on other physics concepts that do not play such a prominent role in everyday life, the results might be different. Also, it is unclear whether or not the perception of explainer videos as being scientifically correct has been influenced by the study context. The learners were informed that the material is authentic for online explainer videos, but maybe their perception that the videos are scientifically correct is influenced by the use of the videos in a study.Despite these limitations, the study suggests several implications. We regard the illusion of understanding in the experimental group as a potential problem. The perceived relevance of an explanation affects its effectiveness (Acuña et al., Based on the results, we developed the hypothesis that learners might rate the video including misconceptions good on an online platform—and maybe even better than the scientifically correct one. This might result in enhancing the visibility of videos with misconceptions as they may get more prominently featured on searching for videos about a particular concept. Kulgemeyer and Peters  already