Tropical cyclone rainbands (TCRs) are not only one of the most striking and persistent features of tropical cyclones (TCs) but also one of the major causes for extreme floods as TCs approach or encounter the land area. TCRs have been traditionally considered as manifestations of atmospheric waves initiated near the eyewall or close to the TC center. However, the limited evidence from recent studies showed the possibility for TCRs to develop squall-line-like characteristics in the outer region of TCs. In this study, the degree of the prevalence for this similarity is explored by radar and surface observations from a large set of 50 outer TCRs associated with 22 TCs as they approached Taiwan. The results indicate that around 58% of outer TCRs are similar to squall lines. These outer TCRs are generally characterized by convective precipitation, an obvious convergence zone between the band-relative rear-to-front flow and front-to-rear flow at low levels, either frontward or rearward tilting updrafts, and a surface cold pool signature. The frequent similarity between the outer TCRs and squall lines documented provides important insights into the formation of organized, heavy precipitation associated with TCs. Outside the eyewall region, TCRs are a primary, concentrated region of the heaviest precipitation within TCs and play prominent roles in influencing the intensification or weakening of the storms16. TCR landfalls and the interactions between the topography and the TCs as they approach and move over landmasses are major causes of heavy rainfalls and/or severe floods in many different geographical locations25.In addition to the eye and eyewall, tropical cyclone rainbands (TCRs) are the most striking and persistent feature of tropical cyclones (TCs)38. Despite the diversity of wave types proposed previously, these wave arguments, to a certain extent, have reasonably explained the formation, spiral nature, and propagation characteristics of TCRs. Having said so, different interpretations of TCR origins and propagation continue to emerge in the literature43, and a consensus has not yet been reached.In the past few decades, significant efforts have been made by a large number of tropical cyclone studies to identify the possible origins of TCRs. The most well-known concept in both observational and theoretical studies is that the appearance of TCRs is considered to be a manifestation of atmospheric waves initiated near the eyewall or close to the TC center44. The presence of pronounced cold pools at low levels is one of the most striking thermodynamic signatures associated with squall lines and many organized convective systems and represent a crucial convective forcing in the initiation and development of moist convection48.In contrast to TCR wave theories, there is still a vast gap in our knowledge regarding the physical processes conducive to the triggering and maintenance of the moist convection associated with TCRs. This is mostly due to the incomplete documentation of the complexity of convective processes inside the TC environment. One of the intriguing questions is whether the convective initiation and development of TCRs are similar to those of ordinary convective rainbands such as squall lines. Squall lines, according to the AMS Glossary of Meteorology, are usually referred to as a line of active deep moist convection and are a frequent and the most well-documented mode of precipitation organization within mesoscale convective systems57. The temperature deficit produced by precipitation evaporation within these documented TCRs was typically weaker than that of ordinary convective systems48. However, most of these previous case studies of TCRs dealt with the so-called “principal band”, a well-known rainband type that is typically located near the boundary between the inner core and outer region in TCs8. It is clear that these aircraft investigations are largely confined to the inner-core vicinity and thus provide a rather incomplete depiction of the entire spectrum of TCRs.Considerable aircraft observations have revealed some unique mesoscale structures of TCRs, which are tied to the inner-core vortex dynamics and are essentially different from those of squall lines37. However, the outer TCRs are traditionally considered as inertia-gravity waves58, although the outward propagation of the observed outer TCRs  seems much slower than the typical outward speed of inertia-gravity waves 42. The frequent occurrence of inertia-gravity waves within TCs has also been reported in some recent published works60. The gravity-wave-like disturbances can propagate outward into the outer region of TCs, in distinct contrast to the vortex Rossby waves that exhibit the stagnation radius [~3 times the radius of the maximum wind (RMW)] in their radial propagation. However, the degree to which the outer TCRs resemble the inertia-gravity waves remains largely unclarified due to the lack of detailed observations38. The moist convection of the inner TCRs is strongly constrained by the inner-core vortex, generally moves with ambient rotational flow, and is rapidly filamented61. In contrast, the precipitation of the outer TCRs usually exhibit higher asymmetry as opposed to the quasi-circular geometry of the inner TCRs8. In addition, the outer areas of TCs usually possess larger convective available potential energy (CAPE) and lower humidity than the inner-core environment66, both of which would facilitate intense convection, the effect of precipitation evaporation, and the occurrence of potentially threatening and severe weather conditions. Consistent with this point of view, limited research evidence from studies of TCs indicates the likelihood for outer TCRs to develop squall-line-like airflow structures and a low-level cold-pool signature72. However, the degree of the prevalence for the appealing similarity between outer TCRs and squall lines has not been identified at this stage because only very few outer TCRs have been thoroughly studied and reported in the literature.Because the convective behavior within TCs is fundamentally determined by the degree to which they are influenced by the inner-core vortex, TCRs may be conceptually classified into inner and outer rainbands. Theoretically, the inner TCRs are recently recognized to be more probably related to vortex Rossby wavesThe primary objective of this study is to use long-term radar observations (2003~2015) to investigate a considerable number of outer TCRs from different TCs as they approach Taiwan, in an attempt to advance our general understanding of the outer TCRs and their possible similarities to squall lines. Taiwan is a well-known target for TCs originating over the northwestern Pacific Ocean and has established an excellent whole-island Doppler radar observing network in the 2000s. Both the above aspects make this geographical location unique for the investigation of the outer TCRs. The particular focus of the present study is to perform dual-Doppler radar analyses for a comprehensive TCR dataset to understand to what extent the squall-line-like convective structures are prevalent in the outer regions of TCs.The primary datasets used in this study were provided by eight ground-based Doppler radars  scans of the reflectivity are screened subjectively. The set of data is obtained from the available radars for all TCs during 2003~2015, for each of which CWB had issued warning reports. The identification of an outer TCR is based on the following criteria. First, an organized precipitation feature with a stronger (weaker) reflectivity intensity inside (outside) the band and with a length much greater than its width must be visually identified. Second, the reflectivity values along the bands should be greater than 20 dBZ and the boundary of the bands must be well determined via the horizontal reflectivity patterns. With these two criteria, the precipitation features such as relatively transient showers or light stratiform precipitation usually present within TCs could be effectively avoided. Third, the rainband segment should move well into the dual-Doppler synthesis domains , Sepat (2007), and Usagi (2013)] exhibit concentric eyewall structure during the period of dual-Doppler analyses. There are five TCR cases  associated with these TCs. Based on the detailed examination of radar observations, these five TCR cases are all located in the outer region well beyond the position of outer eyewall.With comprehensive examination of the available radar measurements from 2003 to 2015, a total of 50 TCRs satisfying the above criteria are identified from 22 TC events. Table 74. For the present study, the analyzed outer TCRs are all initiated well offshore beyond the observational range of the ground-based Doppler radars , with very few cases above 30 m s−1. The rainbands are embedded within the large-scale cyclonic TC circulation so they exhibit an obvious propagating motion not only in the cross-band direction but also in the along-band direction  in Fig. 76. Distances of radar sites to the studied rainbands are typically between 30 and 90 km so as to provide better sampling of winds at lower and upper levels. If we take the lower bound of radar beams, earth curvature, and the heights of radar sites into account, the average altitude of the lowest PPI scan near the rainband’s location is calculated to be ~0.6 km (MSL), which is comparable to the typical lowest level of available data (0.5~1 km) from previous dual-Doppler analysis works of TCRs and squall lines78.In this study, the dual-Doppler synthesis of the multiple-view reflectivity and radial velocity datat boxes D~D7 in Fi79 is first used to unfold the radial velocities and to remove incorrect or obviously suspicious values of radar reflectivity and radial velocity. Consequently, the NCAR REORDER software80 is used to interpolate reflectivities and radial velocities from the raw PPI scans to Cartesian coordinates with a horizontal grid spacing of 1 km and a vertical grid spacing of 0.5 km, with the lowest (highest) analysis level located at 0.5 (10) km (MSL). Given the horizontal data spacing (~1.5 km) at the range of 90 km and the average vertical data spacing (~1 km), the horizontal  grid spacing chosen herein is roughly comparable to the horizontal  data spacing divided by 2.5 81. In the interpolation procedure, the advection adjustment due to the rainband’s movement is also considered82. The NCAR software program Cartesian Space Editing, Synthesis, and Display of Radar Fields under Interactive Control (CEDRIC83) is used for the synthesis of the gridded radial velocities into horizontal wind fields. The vertical air motions are obtained through the variational adjustment of the anelastic continuity equation with boundary conditions of zero vertical motions at the surface and the echo’s top.For the procedure of the dual-Doppler synthesis, the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) SOLO software76. Following Ray et al.75 and Kessinger et al.84, the error characteristics of synthesized winds may be evaluated for each studied rainband based on synthesis geometry and grid spacing adopted herein. To better elaborate representative errors in regions encompassing the studied TCRs, the mean variances of wind errors averaged for all rainbands are calculated and illustrated as a function of altitudes, as shown in Fig. 2 s−2. The boundary condition for the vertical velocity variance (1 m2 s−2) is applied at the top of the synthesis domain and downward integration is performed. The error variances of horizontal wind components  are small (1~1.5 m2 s−2) and remain constant with height. The horizontal velocity errors can be considered negligible when compared to strong horizontal winds  associated with TC circulations. The error variances of vertical velocities (w) are slightly larger and range from 1 to 2.7 m2 s−2. These expected values of w errors (1~1.6 m s−1) are smaller than the typical strength of updrafts (on the order of 5 m s−1 or more) observed within outer TCRs66.Accuracy of dual-Doppler-derived winds is influenced by various sources of errors due to incomplete sampling, boundary conditions, and integration proceduresFor a convenient depiction of the rainband’s structures, we have adopted the terminology “front” and “rear” in a manner similar to that used for squall lines. A schematic diagram from an outer TCR of Typhoon Saola 2012), as shown in Fig. 012, as s69. To mitigate this uncertainty, data from a number of particular coastal and island stations . These APs and their associated precipitation features are illustrated in Fig. AP1 exhibits a rearward tilting updraft rooted in the prominent low-level convergence between the rear-to-front flow (hereafter RTF) and front-to-rear flow (hereafter FTR). AP2 is similarly characterized by an obvious low-level convergence between the RTF and FTR. However, an overturning updraft  is evident. AP3 has an overturning updraft feature but is dominated by the FTR at low levels, which decelerates as it passes through the region of the heaviest precipitation. In contrast to the generally convective nature of the precipitation with prominent vertical extents, horizontal gradients and intense radar reflectivity for AP1~3, the precipitation associated with AP4 (AP5) is less convective, with weaker vertical motions and a deep layer of RTF (FTR) throughout the rainband’s area. Although each of these APs is distributed over diverse regions and without obvious preference in its location relative to the TC center  on the inner side. These kinematic patterns are highly similar to those of the convective regions of mature squall lines documented previously with dual-Doppler observations87.The FTR observed for AP1 tends to meet with the RTF near the outer edge of the rainband to form an obvious convergence zone, convective precipitation, and a rearward tilting updraft Fig. . The mea89.For AP2, the FTR on the outer side is shallower [below ~2 km (MSL)], and it meets with the RTF to lift the air upward and to form an overturning-updraft-like feature Fig. . The int−1 km−1, respectively. The shear magnitude is comparable to that of tropical squall lines90. The rainband’s environment of AP1 is characterized by relatively gentle vertical variations of the band-normal winds  at low levels. Despite the potential influence of convectively generated cold pools, the environmental flow with larger shear vectors toward the front side for AP2 is consistent with its overall downshear tilt of updrafts  in the mid-to-upper troposphere  indicate more pronounced frontward ambient shears  in the lower troposphere for AP2 Fig. . The meacf. Fig. . Note there Fig. , which w92. It is noteworthy that the mean vertical profiles of environmental thermodynamics associated with AP1 and AP2 calculated from the NCEP data (not shown) reveal similar characteristics, with relative humidity of ~85–94% and obvious convective instability  in the lower troposphere. The differences in θe between AP1 and AP2 are minor (<3 K) at the same levels and the minimum in θe occurs at ~4–5 km (MSL) for both APs. These two APs account for the majority of our analyzed TCRs  . Convergence associated with the deceleration of either FTR or RTF at low levels is also evident, with magnitudes of 0.5 × 10−3~1.5 × 10−3 s−1 that are generally weaker than those of AP1 and AP2. Bright-band signatures near the 0 °C level  in the radar reflectivity are sometimes present as seen from individual vertical cross sections of these rainbands (not shown). The causal relationship between the low-level convergence and the rainband’s precipitation is somewhat uncertain in this analysis because the stratiform precipitation in the outer region of the TCs would probably also result from the melting process of the upper-level ice particles within the inner-core convection50. In this context, the movement and formation of AP4 and AP5 would be influenced by the characteristics of storm-scale radial and tangential flow of TCs.Figure 54. Band-normal circulations of the principal band usually exhibit no obvious RTF and are dominated by the low-level inflow from the outer to inner side, with a prominent feature of an overturning updraft aloft. To some extent, AP3 reflects a typical secondary circulation associated with TCs with storm inflow at low levels and an outflow layer in the mid-to-upper troposphere.Each of these three APs (AP3–5) accounts for only 12~16% of our analyzed TCRs cf. Fig.  resemble−1, in contrast to generally weaker downward motions (<−1.5 m s−1) for AP3-5. It is thus likely that if convectively generated downdrafts can feed into low-level flow, they may have a potential role in favoring the intensification of RTF observed in AP1-2.It should be noted that examination of individual vertical cross sections of the studied TCRs indicates evidence of convective downdrafts that typically have higher spatial and temporal variabilities. The averaging procedure in the composite analysis as shown in Fig. 48. The surface observations during the passage of these TCRs are analyzed to provide important clues about this likelihood. Practically, the strength of the convectively generated cold pool may be approximated by the temperature deficit that is defined as the difference between the minimum value found within the rainband and the mean value measured immediately before the arrival of the band 95. As described in the earlier section, 28 TCR cases are available for thermodynamic analysis, and the calculated temperature deficits for each of the squall-line-like APs (20 cases) and other APs (8 cases) are shown in Fig. θe) deficits are also calculated and shown in Fig. According to the kinematic structures discussed above, one intriguing question is whether the outer TCRs, with squall-line-like APs , exhibit obvious cold pools, in a manner similar to squall lines69 and tropical precipitation96. Relatively smaller temperature deficits (around or less than ~1 °C) are also observed in a few squall-line-like APs, such as the TCR cases 5, 6, 10, 31, and 34  associated with the non-squall-line APs. The insignificant θe deficit for non-squall-line APs would be partly related to weaker downward transport of lower-θe air aloft due to weaker convective downdrafts observed within these rainbands as described earlier97. Consistent with stronger cold pools observed in the squall-line-like APs, more pronounced changes in kinematics during the passage of these rainbands are also evident, with the average wind shift and deceleration in cross-band flow equal to ~40° and ~8 m s−1, respectively. Combination of these surface analyses and dual-Doppler observations presented earlier supports a fundamental similarity between the squall-line-like APs and squall lines.A separation of the calculated cf. Fig. . A dominBy performing the dual-Doppler radar analyses from a large set of 50 outer tropical cyclone rainbands (TCRs) associated with 22 tropical cyclones (TCs) that approached the Taiwan area, this study attempts to understand the degree of the prevalence of similarities between the outer TCRs and squall lines. Five distinct airflow patterns (APs) are identified from the studied TCRs, including squall-line-like APs and non-squall-line APs. The outer TCRs with squall-line-like APs (AP1-2) are found to be common (~58%) and are generally characterized by convective precipitation and an obvious convergence zone between the band-relative rear-to-front flow and front-to-rear flow at low levels, with either frontward or rearward tilting updrafts. In contrast, the majority of the non-squall-line APs  is characterized by less convective precipitation and exhibits a deep layer of either front-to-rear flow or rear-to-front flow within the rainband. Around 12% of the studied TCRs  resembles the kinematic characteristics of the previously documented inner TCRs and/or principal bands. Analysis of the surface observations during the passage of the studied TCRs further indicates stronger intensities of the convectively generated cold pools associated with the squall-line-like APs. Combination of dual-Doppler and surface observations supports a fundamental similarity between the squall-line-like APs and squall lines.69. It has been long recognized that atmospheric cold pools bear high resemblance to the laboratory density current, in terms of their associated airflow patterns and propagation speed99. Nevertheless, the density-current dynamics is commonly treated as a two-dimensional problem, namely, considering the plane of the vertical and the propagation direction. Our knowledge for the behavior of cold pools under strong ambient winds and highly rotational background like the vortex environment of TCs remains very poor. To advance a general understanding of convective forcings for TCRs, future investigations should pay more attention to the dynamics of cold pools and their origin in the TC environment.This study documents a frequent similarity between outer TCRs and squall lines, which provides important implications. First of all, the effect of cold pools on the initiation and development of moist convection can be expected to be generally prominent in the outer region of TCs, consistent with the previous findings from limited case studies of outer TCRs58. In particular, these waves usually initiate in the vicinity of the inner-core region and propagate outward radially. Given these wave properties, together with the findings from the present study, one can reasonably anticipate that a dynamic transformation from wave-dominant convection to squall-line-like rainbands is very likely to occur in certain time periods as TCRs propagate outward from inner to outer regions of TCs. As evident in this study, the variability in structural characteristics of the studied TCRs, including both squall-line-like APs and non-squall-line APs, would reflect different stages or different scenarios of such transformation. Carefully tracking the history of evolving and structural details of a given TCR is quite challenging, especially from the observational perspective, but represents a critical, future task to explore the likelihood and understanding of these transformation processes.In addition, the appearance of TCRs has been traditionally considered as a manifestation of atmospheric waves such as vortex Rossby waves and inertia-gravity waves


Falls of individuals with dementia are frequent, dangerous, and costly. Early detection and access to the history of a fall is crucial for efficient care and secondary prevention in cognitively impaired individuals. However, most falls remain unwitnessed events. Furthermore, understanding why and how a fall occurred is a challenge. Video capture and secure transmission of real-world falls thus stands as a promising assistive tool.The objective of this study was to analyze how continuous video monitoring and review of falls of individuals with dementia can support better quality of care.A pilot observational study (July-September 2016) was carried out in a Californian memory care facility. Falls were video-captured (24×7), thanks to 43 wall-mounted cameras . Video review was provided to facility staff, thanks to a customized mobile device app. The outcome measures were the count of residents’ falls happening in the video-covered areas, the acceptability of video recording, the analysis of video review, and video replay possibilities for care practice.Over 3 months, 16 falls were video-captured. A drop in fall rate was observed in the last month of the study. Acceptability was good. Video review enabled screening for the severity of falls and fall-related injuries. Video replay enabled identifying cognitive-behavioral deficiencies and environmental circumstances contributing to the fall. This allowed for secondary prevention in high-risk multi-faller individuals and for updated facility care policies regarding a safer living environment for all residents.Video monitoring offers high potential to support conventional care in memory care facilities. A fall is defined as an “unexpected event in which the participant comes to rest on the ground, floor, or lower level” . Falls aDetecting a fall early and in an ongoing manner provides significant potential for reduced morbidity and mortality in patients and system-wide savings . As 50% A significant portion of recent health technology innovation regarding fall management has been driven by industry and has taken place in the commercial space. To date, the most well-known commercial solutions include wearable alert systems , which dIn this study, the video technology was used to review real-world falls in a single memory care facility, thus avoiding artificiality of simulated or acted falls carried out in a contained laboratory environment, as well as biased information about falls gathered from individuals’ recalling the fall or from administrative hospital record . The extA holistic approach of the fall management was used in this paper. The objective of the study was to analyze how continuous video monitoring and video review of falls occurring in common spaces and private rooms of residents living in a memory care facility can support best quality of care.This study reports on an ancillary study that is part of a larger project called SafelyYou. SafelyYou aims at developing deep learning (a subfield of machine learning) algorithms for automated real-life real-time fall detection in nursing and memory care facilities (http://www.safely-you.com). This pilot observational study was carried out between July and September 2016. Falls were video-captured in residents 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and the video recordings were provided to the facility staff for video review. The study took place in a memory care facility that is part of the Memory Care Community in California and of the Integral Senior Living network, in which residents reside in a supportive ecosystem. The facility offers 40 individual bedrooms with individual bathrooms and common indoor areas  where residents are allowed to walk and spend time freely. Residents of this memory care facility have all been diagnosed with dementia (Alzheimer disease and related dementias), had a mean age of 79.4 years (standard deviation [SD] 3.2), and were predominantly female (71.4%) at the time of the study inclusion.The primary outcome measure is the count of the total number of residents’ falls occurring in the video-covered areas of the facility over the 3-month period of video recording . This count is further compared with the cases of falls that the facility health board independently reported in its daily routine care for each known occurrence of fall  2 months before video deployment  and during the 3 months of study (July-September 2016).The secondary outcome measures qualitatively assess the use of video recording and replay possibilities for care practice. This entails (1) acceptability of video monitoring by residents and facility staff and use of fall review by facility staff to support care practice and quality of care; and (2) the analysis of falls and of fall-related injuries, leveraging video replay to depict intrinsic and extrinsic factors, and environmental circumstances contributing to the falls Acceptability and impact of video review on care practice were assessed through semidirected interviews carried out during bimonthly meetings with the care facility staff over the 3 months of study. An adapted version of the 4-point Hopkins Falls Grading Scale  was usedA total of 43 wall-mounted cameras were deployed in all common areas and private rooms of consenting residents and families in accordance with the following privacy and ethical guidelines. The videos of fall events that had been depicted by the research team were made available to be viewed by the executive director of the facility who would decide to discuss them with her staff. The meetings between the facility staff and research team were carried out twice a month during the 3 months of the study in a rather flexible way and using semidirected interviews. The main purposes of these meetings were as follows: (1) to be sure that no unanticipated issues or concerns with residents, surrogates, and/or staff arose and (2) to observe the use (or no use) of the videos and what were the changes in care practice that were reported. During these meetings, the research team asked about the use of the videos in a neutral way . The main focus of the first meeting concerned the confirmation of the resident-surrogate dyads who had agreed to participate, as well as the questions from the executive director. The final meeting focused on the removal of all the cameras of the facility and discussed the practice changes that the video recording had potentially triggered.Privacy and consent procedures were developed with support from the institutional review board (IRB) of the University of California, Berkeley (http://cphs.berkeley.edu/), and following guidelines from California Department of Social Services Community Care Licensing Division (CDSS-CCLD). Approval of the study protocol was obtained from the Committee for Protection of Human Subjects of University of California, Berkeley, before starting the study (CPHS protocol number 2015-11-8119). Residents living within the care facility showed severe cognitive impairment related to Alzheimer disease and related dementias. Their capacity to consent to research according to the legal standards of informed consent was altered. As a consequence, surrogate consent was required for this pilot study. The legally authorized representatives of the facility residents were informed at a town hall meeting that a study on fall prevention would occur at the facility and were invited to participate in its presentation with their relative. The legally authorized representatives of the facility residents were given oral and written information about the purpose of the study, procedures, risks, and benefits as listed in the consent form. Those who would like to participate signed the self-certification document to confirm they were the legally authorized representatives and were provided the informed consent document provided by the research team. The study was explained to the affected individuals living in the facility. If affected individuals provided assent, they would be included in the study. If they provided any verbal or nonverbal indication that they do not wish to have the camera in their room or object to any other part of the study, they would not be included. The legally authorized representative was the one who could say yes to the study, thus providing informed consent, but the resident retained the right to say no to the study at any time, thus providing assent. If at any time, individuals expressed verbal or nonverbal indication that they would like the camera removed, personnel would remove the cameras. Participants or legally authorized representatives who originally assented or consented to the study and would later revoke consent would also have cameras removed and video data destroyed.In private bedrooms, cameras were located high-up in a corner in the bedroom but not in the bathroom and remained visible to the participants. When cameras were not unplugged, they would show a small red light when motion is detected in a room. A sticker was positioned on the participants’ doors as a reminder to the residents, families, and facility staff that participants were being filmed in their private rooms. This physical sign on the door stating that video recording was in progress ensured that everyone entering the room was aware of the camera. Flyers that explained the goals of the research study, the length of the study, the use of wall-mounted cameras, and the generic email address and centralized phone number were positioned in several locations of the facility. The generic study email address and the centralized phone number were provided to respond to any withdrawal wish, expression of interest, or questions. Cameras were also equipped with an explanatory tag that described the goals of the research, the use of wall-mounted cameras, and the possibility to unplug the camera at any time and the way to do so, as well as the name of the principal investigator, the generic study email address, and the centralized phone number to be used in case of concerns. The guidelines from CDSS-CCLD were followed for the study protocol. Whereas the federal law requires that all residents have the right to privacy, the CDSS guidelines for use of the video surveillance state that recording in a common area does not require a waiver because there is no expectation of privacy in common areas (such as eating areas) . CamerasA registered nurse was hired specifically for the study and was available to answer concerns from the participants, the families, and the facility staff, which could emerge before and during the study, including potential withdrawal from the study. If the participant or his/her legally authorized representative expressed willingness to withdraw from the study, they were to inform either the facility staff who would transmit this information to the nurse or the research team by directly using the generic study email address and/or the centralized phone number generated for the study. The possibility of participants’ withdrawal from the study at any point was mentioned at both oral and written levels during information and inclusion sessions. As mentioned on the camera laminated tag, the equipment could also be turned off at any time by simply unplugging it from the wall outlet. If the camera had been unplugged for over 24 hours, the team would figure out whether the participant or surrogate forgot to plug the camera back in or whether he/she would like to have the camera removed for the rest of the study. If a participant or his/her surrogate wished to withdraw the study at any time, all his/her video data would be destroyed. Video segments found improper by the review board were referred to the dementia care nurse of the team in case of content of potential physical or sexual abuse, neglect, sexual activity, or other actions that could imply abuse if taken out of context and other incriminating behaviors. Before deleting data, the dementia care nurse was responsible for determining whether the matter should be taken to facility management or to adult protective services. In accordance with Californian legislation , facilitA total of 15 out of 38 resident-family dyads (40%) were able to attend the information meeting about the research study, out of which 10 gave oral and written consent and volunteered for the research, and 5 did not wish to participate. Accordingly, the video recording in private rooms included 10 residents, and video recording in common spaces included the total of 38 residents in July and August, followed by 36 residents in September (because of a slight dip in facility occupancy rate).No impact of the video deployment, recording, and review on the daily routine of the residents and professional caregivers was reported over the 3-month period. At the end of the study period and based on the preliminary results and care experience, the project partner of memory care facilities of Integral Senior Living network agreed to expand the protocol to 14 facilities.Bimonthly follow-up interviews showed that, in the first 7 weeks of the study, no formal video review was carried out by facility staff despite the fact that video recordings from the previous 72 hours were easily available through secured mobile devices to facility management. Facility management reported hardly ever using the video feeds during this time because of the numerous other challenges faced with operating a memory care facility and the little obvious value granted to the video so far. After 7 weeks, a particularly severe fall incident was recorded during daytime in which the resident was lying on the ground for almost 3 hours without receiving assistance. In accordance with procedures approved by the IRB of the university, this incident was reported to facility management. After reviewing this fall, facility management showed increased interest in reviewing other falls, and the mobile device app provided to review videos proved to be accessible and easy to use to facility staff, who subsequently gained familiarity with it. Further interviews revealed that facility management found video replay useful to grade the severity of the injury and eventually screen patients in the future for external referral to the emergency unit in case of severe injury. In addition, interviews revealed that facility management carried out preventative care interventions, which they believed would address some of the causes of future falls. These preventive actions first included moving furniture and changing room layout based on potential tripping hazards and falls (noticed from videos). Second, changes to care policy that included additional checking on high-risk residents every hour instead of every 2 hours at night were instated following the review of the data.During the 3-month intervention period, a total of 26 falls were reported in routine conventional care by facility staff for the whole facility , providing a prevideo intervention facility baseline fall rate of a mean of 9 falls per month. An expected facility fall rate adjusted for the number of residents of 12.7 and 12 falls per month was reported for comparison purpose in As summarized in This observational study brings evidence that continuous video monitoring and video review of falls of residents in a memory care facility can support best quality of care. It was found in this pilot study that continuous video monitoring in common spaces and private bedrooms of such care facility and fall review were both feasible and acceptable by facility staff after a certain adoption period. Although these preliminary results need to be confirmed with a larger number of facilities and a larger sample of participants and fall cases in future studies, fall review appears as a valuable health care procedure that might contribute to improved safety in residents and yield better quality of care in facility practice. Fall review provides a unique access to the unpredictable unwitnessed history of a fall, thus supporting screening for the severity of the fall and fall-related injury at the acute phase. Video replay might also allow for secondary prevention in high-risk multi-faller residents with cognitive disorders and, more broadly, for updated facility care policies and preventative actions regarding the living environment of all residents.Although the fall rate is quite high in long-term care facilities , the difThe video footage gave access to unrivaled data that were explored from a multidisciplinary perspective, thanks to the combination of the information gathered during the meetings with the facility staff and the analyses of the videos carried out by the researchers. A first finding is that rapid postfall review provides a unique access to the ever-unpredictable “unwitnessed” hidden and silent event of the fall. Access to the natural history of the fall is all the more challenging because individuals suffering from cognitive impairment including memory loss are usually unable to recall the fall . Video c, the findings of this study reinforce recent major studies that showed that home-safety assessment and modifications impacting extrinsic factors reduce falls by 19% to 26% [This study makes it also challenging to analyze the complex multifactorial falling patterns through video in the particular perspective of cognitively impaired older adults. Factors that contribute to the risk of falls in patients have traditionally been classified as intrinsic , extrinsic , and situational (related to the activity being done) -51. Thes% to 26% ,52. The % to 26% , should % to 26% ,15.As previously stated, a fall is usually multifactorial and happens as a result of a complex interaction between the individual and his or her living environment . An addiThis study needs to be replicated and results confirmed over a larger sample size of individuals and memory care facilities and over a longer period of time to control for size effect, to measure long-lasting effects, and to allow for meaningful examination of the relation between decrease in fall rate and the proposed intervention. Recommendation for future research include (1) upgrading computational deep-learning algorithms to provide an automated diagnosis (or assumption) of real-time fall, as well as an at-risk screening scale estimating the fall risk in every resident, thanks to an automatized set of video-based biomarkers; (2) measuring time spent lying on the floor ; (3) conduction of further studies (if possible randomized) comparing conventional care with real-time utilization of an interactive assistive video diagnostic of falls; (4) proposing a cost-effectiveness analysis of using such technology in memory care facilities; (5) conducting interviews within focus groups using medical anthropology approaches to get a deeper understanding about professional caregivers’ perspective on the video monitoring; (6) increasing knowledge about fall epidemiology and falling patterns regarding cognitive functioning of the individuals in particular ; and (7) deploying and testing the device in other settings such as individual homes.Falls and fall-related injuries are frequent and potentially preventable causes of morbidity, functional decline, and increased health care use and mortality among individuals suffering from Alzheimer disease and related disorders. The findings of this study highlight the potential of video-monitoring deployment to support fall diagnostic and fall-related injuries and suggest that video review can have a positive impact on quality of care in memory care facilities. Given the growing demand for assisted living in elderly and persons with dementia, video monitoring appears as a promising assistive tool to support health care organizations and possibly complement existing conventional care for both detection and prevention of falls. But more data are needed to validate that the fall rate in managed care facilities can be reduced and safer care provided through interactive video review of falls.


Traditional knowledge of indigenous plants is pivotal in developing strategies to feed livestock sustainably in low input systems. Likewise, in Pakistan the indigenous people of Central Punjab have been using their regional grasses as a ruminant fodder for centuries. This study evaluated the indigenous traditional knowledge to ascertain the value of various fodder grasses to optimise their use to feed livestock in Central Punjab.The snowball technique was employed to identify key informants who had relevant knowledge about different grasses in the study area. Semi-structured questionnaires, face-to-face interviews and site visits were used for describing the fodder grasses. The data were then analysed by using relative frequency citation and pairwise comparison methods to determine the order of priority among the listed fodder grasses. Furthermore, SPSS 22 software was used for descriptive statistics and interpretation of associations among studied parameters. Microsoft Excel was used to present data as % values and graphs.Overall, 53 grasses were described with ethnobotanical information regarding their uses for fodder, ethnoveterinary and other purposes. All these grasses belonged to the family Poaceae where the subfamily Panicoideae had the maximum number of 30 grasses. We categorized these grasses into high (A), medium (B) and low priority (C) groups where the group A grasses were reported as not only the most abundant but also the most palatable forages to all ruminants. Their higher demand was reflected by the feeding systems of both ad libitum grazing and feeding after cutting and mixing with other feeds. The study also revealed 37 previously unreported ethnoveterinary uses of these grasses.The results have reinforced the value of conserving ethnobotanical knowledge, being poorly documented previously, in developing strategies to feed livestock. It indicated the preferred fodder grasses as well as the possible reasons of their preference. The reported data need to be validated for nutritional and health benefits. This information could help the smallholder farmers in association with regional governments to propagate suitable fodder grasses for their use in sustainable livestock feeding to produce safe and healthy food for indigenous communities. The agriculture and livestock industry are playing a predominant role in Pakistan’s economy. Around 43.5% individuals are linked with this industry with its 21% contribution in Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In this sector the most protuberant role has been made by the Punjab province in comparison to all other provinces of Pakistan [Geographically Punjab is subdivided into south, north, west and central regions . AmongstIndigenous communities which have been involved in livestock handling possess a significant knowledge about potential forage resources . Many coThis ethno botanical survey based study not only aimed to describe many traditionally used fodder grasses but also to set out an order of priority on the basis of their usage for different ruminant animals. The study also evaluated the relative abundance, medicinal worth, delectableness, and feeding systems of these grasses for ruminants.The southern boundary of River Jhelum down to River Sutlej surrounds the planes of Central Punjab. This region is comprised of 19 districts which are grouped into 3 agro-ecological zones. Among these 3 zones 6 representative cities i.e. Kasur, Faisalabad, Vehari (Northern irrigated zone), Sargodha (Sandy deserts zone), Gujrat, and Narowaal (Barani zone) were selected. As the northern irrigated zone is the largest zone, maximum numbers of 3 targeted areas were selected from it. These areas are not only the main producers of ruminant milk and meat but also these are distantly apart from each other which helped the collection of diversified ethnobotanical data from this region. In these districts, the remote rural areas were actually targeted due to their reliance on conventional fodder grasses as a feed for raising their ruminant animals , flora of India (https://sites.google.com/site/efloraofindia/) and some other grass flora identification keys [After their collection, each fodder grass sample was identified by comparing their morphological characters with already available grass specimens in the herbariums of Lahore College for Women University, Lahore and the Quaid i Azam University, Islamabad. Along these two herbaria, online available plant databases like flora of Pakistan  by using relevant scales of abundance Table .Table 2ARelative frequency of citation (RFC)All the recorded data values were tabulated by using Microsoft excel 2013. Two data analysis methods i.e., Relative Frequency of Citation and Pairwise comparison method were applied to find out the priority order of their grass utilization as described below:This tool helped us to set up the priority order among the listed fodder grasses. Its value depended upon the numbers of respondents that had mentioned a particular grass species as a good fodder indicating its significance. The RFC was estimated by using the following eq. .\documenwhereb)Pairwise comparison method (PC)FC = number of respondents who stated that particular grass species as a good fodder, N = total number of respondents included in studyc)Cluster analysis & descriptive StatisticsIn combination to RFC another data analysis tool called PC method was also employed to establish a priority order among listed fodder grasses . In thisd)Graphical illustrationsFor making groups of high and low priority fodder grasses, Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (Squared Euclidean distance method) in the SPSS 22 software was applied to the RFC values. Moreover, descriptive statistical analysis (frequency and cross tabulation) was also employed to find out the association between different parameters of the survey.Microsoft Excel was used to convert selected data items into different types of graphical illustrations.The informants of this study were divided into 3 major age groups i.e. 25–35 years, 36–50 years and 51–65 years. The maximum number of informants was local shepherds (41%) because they were the key users of these fodder grasses. It was also observed that in this category most informants were males (84%) and the rest were females (16%). Similarly, in farms there were more men (72%) than women (28%). The less number of females as shepherds and farmers showed the cultural pattern of the study area where females were not expected to work in an outdoor environment in this region. Therefore, much higher (60%) number of females was recorded for the category of domestic animal caretakers (Table Arundinoideae (Arundineae), Panicoideae , Chloridoideae  and Pooideae . Among these subfamilies, Panicoideae was ranked as the top with 30 fodder members and subfamily Aristidoideae attained the least position because it had only 1 member grass being was used as a fodder  were the most likely and most preferably utilized fodder grasses by the indigenous communities. These fodder grasses were preferred because of their availability, palatability, ability to satisfy animal hunger, ease in availability, positive effects on milk production and shelf life during a dry season  ranged from 0.693 to 0.533 and this group comprised of 25 grasses  of this group were above the 200 cm or 400 cm in heights and these grew well in vigour and density that animal didn’t need to pull up the whole plant to satisfy its hunger  Table . This caThe results of relative abundance showed that most of the listed fodder grasses were abundant in study area i.e. 32.1%, while least number of fodder grasses was found to be rare (9.4%) Table . Also anSince ancient times the human beings are using plant resources for medicinal purpose for not only themselves but also their livestock . This usBromus japonicus, Phragmites australis, Cynodon dactylon, Desmostachya bipinnata, Eleusine indica, Eragrostis minor were used to treat the multiple digestive disorders like dysentery, constipation and flatulence problems. However, some served as antiseptics e.g. Arundo donax, Brachiaria ramose, Sorghum bicolor, Panicum antidotale and Chrysopogon zizanioides. The reported ethnoveterinary uses of all grasses were compared with other published data from different regions of Pakistan. Some studies stated similar ethnoveterinary uses for Cynodon dactylon [Arundo donax, Saccharum spontaneum, Saccharum bengalense, Sorghum halepense and Zea mays [Among all ethno botanically listed fodder grasses, 43 grasses were found with ethno veterinary significance . However, Phalaris minor and Cymbopogon jwarancusa were interestingly also used as mouse and mosquito repellents respectively.Apart from their ethno veterinary value, 25 grasses were also reported for their other indigenous uses Table . Like maThis ethnobotanical study is the first of its kind which not only describes 53 naturally grown indigenous fodder grasses of Central Punjab Pakistan, but also provides an inventory which manuscript their local names, most commonly used parts for fodder, diversity in palatability and feeding systems, abundance category and unreported ethnoveterinary uses as well. In addition this research also established 3 fodder grass categories based upon their utilization value. The data analysis highlighted the possible motives behind the greater acceptability ratio of high priority fodder grasses i.e. diversity in their palatability for major ruminant species , abundant availability in the study area and versatile feeding methods . This data enriched study is not only significant for the conservation of ethnobotanical knowledge but also it may help in facilitating the sustainable livestock feeding for ruminants. Subsequently, the information may play a major role in improving the livelihood of smallholder farmers.Although these high priority grasses have been used for fodder purpose for centuries by indigenous people, the recorded traditional data were never verified on experimental grounds. So there is a chance that drastic climatic changes in the past centuries would have also altered the soil properties which could ultimately affect the nutritional and medicinal value of these grasses. It is quite possible that actual nutritional as well as pharmacological facts and figures would show entirely a different picture about these conventionally used fodder grasses. Hence, a blend of traditional and scientific knowledge is essentially required to produce worthwhile selection criterion for these fodder grasses. Moreover, if some of these grasses show promising nutritional and pharmacological values then the relevant policy makers should take necessary steps for their enhanced but economical cultivation by providing much needed support to the traditional farmers of the study regions. We believe that further support for the small holder farmers who are working hard despite the challenging environment is needed in this region enriched with traditional knowledge. Otherwise, this natural biodiversity of beneficial grasses could be damaged due to over and unregulated grazing risking the achievement of food security in these and other similar neglected regions of great significance.


Drosophila eye is a versatile model to study patterning and growth, where complex signaling pathways regulate growth and cell survival. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying regulation of these processes is not fully understood. In a gain-of-function screen, we found that misexpression of cullin-4 (cul-4), an ubiquitin ligase, can rescue reduced eye mutant phenotypes. Previously, cul-4 has been shown to regulate chromatin remodeling, cell cycle and cell division. Genetic characterization of cul-4 in the developing eye revealed that loss-of-function of cul-4 exhibits a reduced eye phenotype. Analysis of twin-spots showed that in comparison with their wild-type counterparts, the cul-4 loss-of-function clones fail to survive. Here we show that cul-4 clones are eliminated by induction of cell death due to activation of caspases. Aberrant activation of signaling pathways is known to trigger cell death in the developing eye. We found that Wingless (Wg) and c-Jun-amino-terminal-(NH2)-Kinase (JNK) signaling are ectopically induced in cul-4 mutant clones, and these signals co-localize with the dying cells. Modulating levels of Wg and JNK signaling by using agonists and antagonists of these pathways demonstrated that activation of Wg and JNK signaling enhances cul-4 mutant phenotype, whereas downregulation of Wg and JNK signaling rescues the cul-4 mutant phenotypes of reduced eye. Here we present evidences to demonstrate that cul-4 is involved in restricting Wg signaling and downregulation of JNK signaling-mediated cell death during early eye development. Overall, our studies provide insights into a novel role of cul-4 in promoting cell survival in the developing Drosophila eye.In all multicellular organisms, the fundamental processes of cell proliferation and cell death are crucial for growth regulation during organogenesis. Strict regulation of cell death is important to maintain tissue homeostasis by affecting processes like regulation of cell number, and elimination of unwanted/unfit cells. The developing  Drosophila eye model to identify genes involved in promoting growth and cell survival. The Drosophila adult eye contains 750–800 differentiated ommatidia, and develops from a sac-like epithelial structure called the imaginal disc housed in the larva. The ommatidia differentiate in the wake of a synchronous wave of retinal differentiation called the Morphogenetic Furrow (MF).1 The MF originates at the posterior eye margin, and the Wingless (Wg) signaling pathway negatively regulates the anterior movement of the MF.4 Wg, a secreted morphogen, initiates an intracellular signaling cascade by binding to its receptors Arrow (Arr) and Frizzled (Fz), which triggers downstream events to control the nuclear localization of the Drosophila beta-catenin Arm, and the spatial expression of Wg target genes.7 In Drosophila eye, Wg is also known to induce the proapoptotic genes, head involution defective (hid), reaper (rpr) and grim (together referred as HRG), to trigger programmed cell death to remove extra cells from the periphery of the pupal retina.13 Further, aberrant signaling during development, e.g., abnormal Wg signaling, also causes stress-induced apoptosis.14During organogenesis, regulation of conserved processes like cell proliferation, cell survival and cell death is crucial for organ growth and differentiation. A fine balance between control of cell death and cell survival is responsible for final organ shape and size during development. We used 17 which are negatively regulated by Drosophila inhibitor of apoptosis (DIAPs).19 Inactivation of DIAP-1 can trigger cell death by the activation of cysteine proteases Dronc and Drice, the Drosophila homolog of Caspase-9 and Caspase-3, respectively.23 In Drosophila expression of baculo-virus protein, P35 can block caspase-dependent cell death.24 Besides Wg, activation of c-Jun amino-terminal (NH2) Kinase (JNK) signaling triggers cell death through the activation of caspases.27 JNK belongs to a conserved MAP kinase super-family, which is involved in cell proliferation and cell survival, and is activated through a cascade of phosphorylation by MAP kinases.30 In Drosophila, JNK signaling is activated by binding of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) Eiger (Egr) to its receptor Wengen (Wgn), and a conserved signaling cascade of Tak 1 , hemipterous (hep) (Jun kinase kinase), basket (bsk) (Jun kinase) and jun. Activation of the pathway leads to expression of the downstream target puckered (puc), a dual phosphatase, which participates in a negative feedback loop by downregulating JNK activity.30The intrinsic caspase-dependent cell death involves activation of HRG,cullin4 (cul-4) as a modifier that rescues the reduced eye phenotype.31 During development cul-4 is globally required. Analysis of cul-4 function revealed its new role in promoting cell survival during early eye development. The cul-4 gene belongs to an evolutionary conserved class of Cullin-family E3 ubiquitin ligases.32 Earlier studies showed that cul-4 is involved in maintenance of genomic integrity by promoting the ubiquitylation and subsequent degradation of key regulators of cell cycle progression.36 Here, we report that cul-4 promotes cell survival by preventing Wg and JNK signaling-mediated cell death in the developing eye.We argued that during early eye development, Wg or JNK levels must be tightly regulated to allow differentiation to proceed, and to prevent premature cell death that results in small or reduced eye phenotype. In a genetic screen, we identified L mutant exhibits reduced eye phenotype in larval eye disc  resulted in the rescue of L2-reduced eye phenotype (cul-4 (ey>cul-4) does not affect the eye size (not shown) suggesting that cul-4 may not promote cell proliferation. We analyzed loss-of-function phenotype of cul-4 to understand its role during eye development.In comparison with the wild-type larval eye disc and the adult eye , L mutaneye disc  and aduleye disc .11, 37 Mhenotype . Misexprcul-4 loss-of-function clones by cell lethal (cl) approach, which results in an eye disc comprising of nearly 80% mutant cells due to elimination of the wild-type twin spot by a cl mutation.39 Loss-of-function clones of cul-4 alleles  margins of developing eye disc by using bi-Gal4 driver (bi>GFP) resulted in reduction of eye field on DV margins  to induce somatic ‘twin clones' using Ubi-GFP (1XGFP), where cul-4−/− mutant cells (GFP-negative) were adjacent to their wild-type twin spot (2XGFP). However, we found that only the wild-type twin clone (2XGFP) and the heterozygous cells (express 1XGFP) could be identified. However, we found wild-type twin clones (2XGFP) but no cul-4 mutant clones (GFP-negative) in the third-instar eye disc (not shown), suggesting that the cul-4 mutant cells failed to survive. We performed a 'twin spot' analyses in the heat-shock-Flippase (hs-FLP) -induced clones, to test survival profiles of cul-4 mutant cells. The heat shock was administered in the first instar larva and the resultant clones were examined in the second- (24 h after clone formation (ACF)) and third-instar (48–72 h after clone formation) disc to determine whether or not these clones could survive. Very small clones were detected at second instar stage (within 24 h after clone formation). However, within 48 h after clone formation, the mutant clones were lost. In comparison with the wild-type clones  and a signaling molecule Wg  resulted in a significant rescue of the reduced eye phenotype  resulted in significant rescue of the cul-4 mutant phenotype  resulted in strong ectopic induction of Wg in DV domain of the eye  (arm (ey>arm)   , a negative regulator of the Wg signaling pathway45 (ey>sggS9A) (11 or dominant negative form of TCF (dTCFDN)44 (ey>dTCFDN)  ,  to turn on the transcription of Wg target genes .44 In weild-type . We test (ey>wg)  or arm ((ey>arm)  resulted, ey>wg)  or arm ( ey>arm)  in cul-4>sggS9A) ,11 or do>dTCFDN)  does not ey>sgg)  or dTCFDdTCFDN),  resultedcul-4 loss-of-function phenotypes (cul-4 loss-of-function background using puc (puc-lacZ) the downstream target, which serves as the functional readout for JNK pathway activation.30 In wild-type eye disc, puc is expressed in differentiated photoreceptor neurons of eye disc    in the eye disc, strongly enhanced the reduced eye- to a 'no-eye' phenotype (junaspv7(ey>junaspv7) alone in the eye results in a highly reduced eye field , Hedgehog (Hh), Wg and so on) for regulating gene expression. For example, Slimb, is involved in regulating Wg and Hh signaling during eye development,50 Neuralized (Neu)51 and Mind Bomb (Mib), are E3 ligases that are components of N signaling pathway; and are required for Drosophila eye development.52 Recently other functions for E3 ligases are being recognized. For example, DIAP1 regulates Dronc/Hid caspases,53 and is transcriptionally regulated by yorkie (yki) for survival function.54 DIAP-1 in turn, is regulated by Cul-3 in the developing eye to regulate apoptosis.71 Our studies provide evidences for a new function for cul-4 in cell survival during eye development.Cul-4, an E3 ligase, is involved in regulation of chromatin function through heterochromatin gene silencing, maintenance of genomic integrity by promoting the ubiquitylation and degradation of key cell cycle regulators.cul-4 alleles are larval lethal that can survive until early third instar and produce smaller imaginal discs than wild-type discs at comparable developmental age.40 These phenotypes were attributed to problems with cell division. Our twin spot analysis revealed an interesting result that cul-4 mutant tissues in the developing eye imaginal disc failed to survive  validated that cul-4 mutant cells failed to survive when generated in early embryonic or larval stages. Blocking caspase-mediated cell death led to significant rescue of reduced eye phenotypes of cul-4 loss-of-function . Cul-4 stocks used are EP 2518 (UAS-cul-4); cul-4 RNAi lines 8711 and 8711-R1 (from NIG).61 The N-terminal deletion mutants used were cul-4ExG1−3/CyO, which lack 340 amino acids from amino terminal. cul-4JJ11/ twi>GFP, CyO carries a nonsense mutation at Trp199 position.40The fly stocks used are described on Flybase H99/TM6B,43pucE69, UAS-puc,30 UAS-bskDN,25 and UAS-DJunaspv7.67 The Gal4/UAS system was used for targeted misexpression studies38 using ey-Gal4,65 and bi-Gal4  FRT 42D, cul-4 −3ExG1/CyO, (ii) FRT 42D, cul-4 −5ExG3, (iii) FRT 42D, cul-4 −1ExL2/CyO and (iv) FRT 42D, cul-4 JJ11/twi>GFP, CyO.To generate loss-of-function cloneshsFlp; FRT42D ubi-GFP to generate loss-of-function clones of cul-4ExG1−3 and cul-4JJ11in the eye imaginal disc at different larval development stages. Egg laying were collected from synchronous cultures maintained at 25 °C. The cultures were heat shocked at 24 and 48 h after egg laying (AEL) at 37 °C for 50 min in order to induce loss-of-function clones. Eye discs were dissected in second and third-instar stages to analyze/identify cul-4 loss-of-function clones marked by the absence of GFP expression.We used 62 Antibodies used were rat anti-Elav (1:100), mouse anti-Wg (1:50), mouse anti-β galactosidase (1:200) , rabbit anti-Dlg (1:250) (gift from Kyung- Ok Cho), rat anti-Mirror (1:200) (gift from Kwang Wook Choi), rabbit anti-caspase-3* (1:200) and rabbit Phospho-SAPK/JNK  (81E11) . Secondary antibodies  were goat anti-rat IgG conjugated with Cy5 (1:200), donkey anti-rabbit IgG conjugated to Cy3 (1:250), donkey anti-rabbit IgG conjugated to FITC and donkey anti-mouse IgG conjugated to Cy3 (1:200). The discs were mounted in Vectashield  and imaged using Olympus Fluoview 1000 microscope . Images were analyzed using the Adobe Photoshop CS4  and image intensity was calculated using the Image J software.Eye-antennal imaginal discs were dissected from wandering third-instar larvae and stained following the standard protocol.62 were blocked in 10% Normal Goat Serum in Phosphate Buffered Saline with 0.2% Triton X-100.TUNEL assays were done using the Cell-death Detection Kit from Roche Diagnostics following the standardized protocol.17 The TUNEL-positive nuclei were counted from five eye imaginal discs for each genotype using Image-J and statistical analysis was performed using Microsoft Excel 2013. The P-values were calculated and the error bars represent Standard Deviation.Apoptotic cell death was assayed using TUNEL assays in the mutant clones generated via twin spot analysis and cell lethal approach. Eye discs, after secondary antibody staining,Drosophila eye images were taken70 using a Zeiss Apotome Imager.Z1 microscope . The flies were prepared by freezing them at −20 °C for ~2 h. The legs and wings of the flies were removed and flies were mounted on a dissection needle, and the fly was positioned on a glass slide using mounting putty. Images were captured by using extended depth of focus function of the Axiovision software version 4.6.3  by compiling the individual stacks from the Z-sectioning approach. The final images and figures were prepared using Adobe Photoshop CS4 software.Adult cul-4 mutants dissected in ice-cold PBS. Samples were transferred to sample buffer containing SDS-β-mercaptoethanol, boiled for 10 min, stored in −80 °C. Protein samples were separated on 10% SDS-PAGE and transferred to nitrocellulose membrane. The membrane was blocked in blocking solution  and incubated with primary antibody. The antibodies used were anti- mouse Wg (1:100) (DSHB); anti-mouse arm (1:2000) (DSHB), anti-rabbit p-JNK (1:2000) , anti-rabbit Caspase-9 (1:1000)  or anti- mouse tubulin (1:5000) . Secondary antibodies were horseradish peroxidaseconjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG, and the signal was detected using super-signal chemiluminiscence substrate .Protein samples were prepared from third-instar eye-antennal imaginal discs of different


Videos and commercials produced for large audiences can elicit mixed opinions. We wondered whether this diversity is also reflected in the way individuals watch the videos. To answer this question, we presented 65 commercials with high production value to 25 individuals while recording their eye movements, and asked them to provide preference ratings for each video. We find that gaze positions for the most popular videos are highly correlated. To explain the correlations of eye movements, we model them as “interactions” between individuals. A thermodynamic analysis of these interactions shows that they approach a “critical” point such that any stronger interaction would put all viewers into lock-step and any weaker interaction would fully randomise patterns. At this critical point, groups with similar collective behaviour in viewing patterns emerge while maintaining diversity between groups. Our results suggest that popularity of videos is already evident in the way we look at them, and that we maintain diversity in viewing behaviour even as distinct patterns of groups emerge. Our results can be used to predict popularity of videos and commercials at the population level from the collective behaviour of the eye movements of a few viewers. It is often said that our preferences and biases influence the way we see the world. This is literally true when viewing static images, where prior preferences influence our gaze, and inversely, our point of gaze can affect our subsequent judgments of what we see , 2. ThusPerhaps then, well-produced video material also synchronises judgments, and so we asked whether similarity of eye movements is predictive of collective preference ratings. To answer this question, we selected videos with high production value that have been viewed by large audiences. We used commercials aired during the 2014 Super Bowl championship game of the National Football League , watched by over one hundred million people  and for homophily and inter-subject correlation (ISC). In sociology, the study of homophily has gained considerable attention by showing that people relate best to those who they perceive as similar to themselves, those who display similar thinking [The quantitative analysis of these data is based on thinking –15 or evthinking . We willIn neuroscience, the study of inter-subject correlation has demonstrated that successful inter-personal communication and similar points of view are accompanied by correlated brain activity between individuals , 18, andTwenty-five (25) study participants watched 65 commercials, which were broadcast on television during the 2014 Super Bowl, arguably the most popular sporting event in the United States. Each participant watched the videos individually while their vertical and horizontal eye gaze position was recorded. The subjects’ gaze positions during one instant each from a pair of videos, superimposed upon a map of relevant shapes and colours in order to provide a point of reference for where the subjects were looking, are shown in r = 0.63, p = 1.9 × 10−7, N = 56). There is a lower-than-expected correlation between population and sample ratings which is perhaps due to the experimental sample size being 0.4 percent of the size of the Ad Meter panel. Previous work in neuroscience regarding inter-subject correlation of video viewers has proposed that in such a small group of people, individual preferences—essentially “noise” —will have a much greater effect on the group’s average opinion, whereas in a much larger group of people, the “noise” will reduce because competing individual preferences will cancel each other out [First, we use Pearson correlation to compare the ratings of our subjects to the larger-scale population data available from the Ad Meter  indicating that the most popular videos also had a more uniform appeal in our sample. Previous literature suggests that popular commercials elicit correlated brain responses in viewers as measured by EEG [x- and y-eye position coordinates, ISC, averaged over all viewer pairs, We then compute homophily of ratings based on the numerical difference of the ratings between viewers see  and compd by EEG . To deteiCij between directions of viewers i and jCσ .Instead of gaze position, we focus next on eye movement direction of viewer iσ→i(t) . Directiof birds , 21 thatd σ→j(t) . These pj(t)  that may not be immediately apparent from the inter-subject correlations. Furthermore, this model would disregard any inter-subject correlations between two subjects which only arise as a result of each having some similarities with the viewing patterns of a third subject ∝eJij so that the means and correlations of this joint distribution equal the observed means Cij  are not correlated between elements. On the other hand, if interactions are very weak, then behaviour is entirely random and correlation approaches zero as in a “fluid”. Thus, correlation is zero at both extremes, but in some intermediate scale, correlation is maximal. In statistical mechanics, this scale is referred to as “critical temperature” Tc . Critical temperature is estimated here by scaling Jij for each video and determining a point of maximal inter-subject correlation marking the emergence of collective behaviour  and any less would make their behaviour entirely random (fluid-like). For the videos near this critical point, groups emerge with similar collective viewing patterns among the group but distinct from those in other groups, i.e., they have high modularity (Tc (Tc > 0.82) there is a clear correlation of critical temperature with modularity . As is shown in r = 0.41, p = 0.0028, N = 52). It is important to note in Javg  and simply show a large giant component and some single nodes without taking into account the weakness of connexions, which may have skewed the calculation of modularity for lower-Tc, lower-Javg videos. However, we expect that modularity should overall decrease with decreasing critical temperature Tc, which we test by shuffling the gaze trajectories to randomise them and destroy correlations between subjects. When we do analysis on the randomised videos, we indeed find Tc going to 0 and zero modularity . In total, our results suggest that diversity of opinion is already evident in the way we look at the world, and that we maintain diversity even as distinct viewing patterns emerge. Our main results follow.We have used commercials aired during the Super Bowl as they provide a natural experiment with some level of homogeneity: There is a large number of similar videos produced for and aired in the same context, with preference ratings uniformly collected from a large number of viewers. These Ad Meter ratings have often been used as a benchmark for marketing research, and various predictors of Ad Meter ratings have been proposed, although rigorous evaluations are rare. A recent study demonstrated that similarity of neural responses to video is predictive of popularity in large audience including Ad Meter ratings, Nielsen ratings and even tweeting frequency . The meaWhen analysing eye movement direction, groups of viewers emerge who share unique patterns of reorienting behaviour. This group behaviour is not readily observed in the raw correlations between subjects, only becoming apparent when we model the correlated behaviour as the result of a system of coupled viewers. To our knowledge, this is an entirely novel way of analysing similarities in human behaviour, and is an important theoretical contribution of this work. We build on previous statistical mechanics approaches to other biological systems: similar analysis has also been used to describe flight velocity in a flock of birds , 21 whosJij as “interactions” between viewers and analysed the corresponding network of interactions. But what exactly is meant by “interaction”? Strictly speaking Jij are parameters of the probability distribution given by Jij express the strength of interactions between pairs. It has been shown in previous papers that a thermodynamic model is applicable to different biological systems, such as neurons and flocks of birds [Cij, which is in reality only the result of each subject’s gaze trajectory being similar in some way to that of a third subject rather than to each other.We have referred to model parameters of birds –23, wherof birds , 21. AnoJij. In probability theory the same distribution arises for variables that are correlated, and Jij captures their conditional dependence. One way to think about these dependencies is to imagine our test subjects as representatives of a prototypical viewing pattern. To further expand upon the hypothetical situation mentioned above, imagine viewer A and viewer B both sharing the viewing pattern represented by prototypical viewer C, for some fraction of the time. In the absence of this period of time, perhaps viewers A and B have nothing in common, and thus no longer correlate. While correlations Cij are a promiscuous measure capturing correlations between all pairs of viewers, Jij would in this case only have interactions between A and C and between B and C, but not between A and B, who do not share anything in common beyond what they share with C. In probability theory we would call A and B conditionally dependent on C, but conditionally independent from each other. For physical systems of interacting elements it would mean that A and B do not interact directly, but correlate only because they interact with C. Thus, the observed correlations can arise via a chain of interacting pairs without needing direct interaction between all. In that sense, global behaviour can arise from many interacting pairs and without global orchestration. In the present case, interaction strength between prototypical viewing patterns captures the fraction that two viewing patterns uniquely share, and the global correlations arise from a combination of such unique viewing patterns.Since the subjects do not physically interact with each other during the viewing, one may think of the video as a medium through which The first finding with regards to homophily (inter-rater agreement in our sample group) is that it correlates with popularity ratings (Ad Meter ratings). This trend is somewhat to be expected since the more highly-rated videos need to have almost uniformly high ratings to score well on average, whereas the videos that were not rated as highly had a mix of ratings. As is often the case, more “acceptable” stimuli are uniformly liked, while those that may be in some way controversial are more polarising, inspiring a wider range of responses. We find that ISC of reorienting behaviour is a predictor of the popularity of the video. More importantly, it is also a predictor of homophily of opinions. If people view a video in similar ways, they are more likely to have similar, and positive, responses to the video. As such, these results do extend previous findings that similarities in physical behaviour among humans is correlated with better rapport, leading to tighter communities .Jij rather than from pairwise correlations of gaze direction. It is not surprising that strong average Cij leads to clear modular networks in interactions Jij, as those videos with strong average correlations also displayed strong average interactions. However, the deeper community structure [Cij between two subjects which only arise from their each being similar to a third subject; these two subjects would not have a strong interaction Jij, leading to differences in the community structure of Cij and Jij for the same video. Higher modularity means that the viewing patterns within a group are similar yet diverse across all groups. Using tools from statistical mechanics we identify a critical scale of interaction strength characterised by the critical temperature Tc. An important feature of the high-Tc videos is the emergence of distinct communities among the network of viewers. This means that, rather than having the same collective behaviour across all 25 subjects for a given video, close to criticality there are instead several separate communities among viewers, each community behaving collectively within itself while interacting with the video in a different way from the other communities. The emergence of communities around the critical point coincides with the increase of the popularity of the video at the broader population level and suggests that the engagement of videos is already elicited in the collective behavior evident in the gaze interactions of viewers. In turn, the distance to the critical point obtained from the thermodynamical modelling of the eye-movement directions can be used as a predictor of popularity when the video is viewed by larger audiences.An important observation of this work is that similarities in attentional orienting emerge between viewers while diversity between groups is preserved. This is formalised with the measure of modularity, which captures the strength of communities within a network , 30. Hertructure , 31 founTwenty-five (25) subjects across a range of ethnic, gender, and age demographics . However, correlation is significantly lower than expected for a sample of 25 raters, indicating that the population and our test sample are not homogeneous .The homophily, or degree to which pairs of participants think alike about the video, is calculated as follows :O=1N(N-xi(t) and yi(t) for the ith viewer. To capture similarity in point-of-gaze we measure Pearson correlation coefficients between pairs of viewers and average across all pairs. Here, for horizontal eye position:Cy.The first analysis in Motivated by previous research on correlations of velocity of independent agents (flocks of Starlings) , 21 we cWe also compute velocity for theoretical reasons. First, the correlation function  must teni and j:For each video we compute the correlation of eye movement directions of two viewers Cij for the two videos in Q (defined below).From this we compute again the average across all pairs:This again represents an inter-subject correlation, in this case of eye-movement directions. It should be noted that this quantity in statistical mechanics is referred to as susceptibility and is an important order parameter of the system. It characterises how susceptible is the system of interacting particles to small external perturbations.σi —is known as the XY model [Jij and external perturbations by the “field” i. The energy of such a system is given byIn statistical mechanics, a system of interacting units that are characterised as 2-D unit vectors —such as the eye movement direction vectors XY model . In the Jij. Thus, the model corresponds to a fully-connected XY model [Jii are set equal to zero. At the microscopic level time-varying σi(t) will affect other units σj(t) such that the system is in perpetual fluctuation. On a long time scale the units will take on a range of values distributed according to Boltzmann distribution:T represents the level of fluctuations in the system . Note that the minimum probabilistic model necessary to explain correlations Cij and means T = 1. This motivates the interpretation of Jij as the “interaction” strength between viewers, although of course in practise the eye movements for different viewers do not interact  indicates with 1/0 whether two viewers are in the same cluster or not. The best assignment of viewers to clusters is found by maximizing Q, for which efficient algorithms have been developed [Modularity is a useful measure of the existence and strength of communities in a network, with higher modularity meaning that more of a network’s links, and most of its strongest links, are between nodes that are members of the same community rather than between nodes that belong to different communities , 30. Thepractice , 35. To eveloped .T captures the level of fluctuations of states T = 1. So, we set the “operating temperature” To of the system when the video is shown, equal to 1. At this point, we calculate the average of pairwise correlations Cij, or susceptibility χ of the system, and we then do analysis on the system at different temperatures T to see how the average energy of the system changes for different values of T. The rate of change is called the heat capacity, i.e. how much energy the system can absorb as the temperature T increases:T  phase (Tc < To = 1) and Tc greater than 1 would imply a system in the solid (ordered) phase (1 = To < Tc). As the system becomes increasingly “liquid”—the temperature T at which Cv reaches a maximum, increases—the critical temperature tends toward zero, and as the system becomes more ordered, Tc approaches and then surpasses 1. In this study, we find that all of the videos have critical temperatures Tc less than 1, so no videos are operating exactly at criticality, but some reach criticality at Tc closer to the operating temperature 1 than do others. In keeping with theory, the videos with the operating temperature To closer to the critical temperature Tc display higher average correlations or susceptibility than those with a greater difference between To and Tc [A video operating at its critical point when shown, such that the average correlation or susceptibility is maximal, would thus have a peak at o and Tc .S1 Appendix(PDF)Click here for additional data file.S2 Appendix(PDF)Click here for additional data file.S3 Appendix(PDF)Click here for additional data file.S4 Appendix(PDF)Click here for additional data file.S5 Appendix(PDF)Click here for additional data file.S1 FigA) found experimentally are reproduced by the model found using the Monte Carlo learning algorithm . Each point is a single pairwise correlation Cij. Average gaze direction (B) for each subject r = 0.99, p = 9.4 × 10−20, N = 25 for x-component of direction, r = 0.99, p = 1.6 × 10−19, N = 25 for y-component of direction). For each colour, one point is one subject’s gaze direction. Red points denote the y-component and blue points denote the x-component. Black dashed lines have a slope of 1 to demonstrate the faithfulness of the recreated values.Pairwise correlations ((EPS)Click here for additional data file.S2 FigTo = 1. Each video has a different critical temperature Tc defined at the peak of CV. All of the videos are near to criticality, but some videos are closer than others. These are also the videos with the highest inter-subject correlations and highest average couplings (see Cv curve of each video has a different style and colour of marker.The operating temperature of each video is (EPS)Click here for additional data file.S3 FigJij (A) follows the same increasing trend with average coupling Javg  as does the critical temperature found from the Monte Carlo algorithm. (B) Although the critical temperature found by Monte Carlo simulation and the critical temperature estimated from the largest eigenvalue of the matrix of couplings Jij are not equal, they are strongly correlated . Each point represents one video.The maximum eigenvalue of (EPS)Click here for additional data file.S1 Table(PDF)Click here for additional data file.S2 Table(PDF)Click here for additional data file.S3 Table(PDF)Click here for additional data file.S4 Table(PDF)Click here for additional data file.S1 VideoThis video shows the gaze trajectories of the subject group for the duration of the video from (MOV)Click here for additional data file.