In educational contexts, system-determined pauses are often used to interrupt the transient flow of information and thus avoid cognitive overload in dynamic learning materials. However, next to these didactically motivated interruptions, video-based learning materials may also be interrupted due to technical issues with regard to constrained bandwidth or outdated technology. Against this background, the current experiment investigated whether the interruption of dynamic representations due to technical issues negatively affects learning. For this purpose, 64 participants watched an Arabic language tutorial. They were either informed that the video included breaks in order to support learning or that there may be breaks due to technical issues. Contrary to our pre-registered hypotheses, the attribution of the pauses to technical issues did not hamper learning and did not affect participants' ratings regarding the usefulness and the disturbance caused by the pauses. However, exploratory analyses revealed a negative correlation between the perceived usefulness and the disturbance caused by the pauses. Limitations and implications of these findings are discussed. The Corona pandemic both fueled the popularity of videos as an educational resource  result in better learning outcomes than pauses that are attributed to technical issues.Hypothesis 2: Pauses that are attributed to technical issues are rated to be more disturbing than pauses that are attributed to a didactical purpose.Hypothesis 3: The positions of the pauses are rated to be less useful if the pauses are attributed to technical issues than if the pauses are attributed to a didactical purpose.Overall, 75 participants took part in the experiment. After excluding ten participants who did not accurately remember the reasons for the interruptions (see Manipulation Check) and one participant who reported having previously participated in an Arabic language courseTo help you learn the information in the video, we will pause the video at various points for you.” In the technical issue condition, participants read the following information: “Now we show you a video in which you get a first introduction to the Arabic language. Please watch the video carefully to remember as many words as possible in a knowledge test. Unfortunately, due to the internet connection, the playback might pause at various points. We therefore ask for your patience.” The respective attributions for the pauses were printed in boldface.The attribution of the interruptions included in the video was manipulated with different instructions before the video started. In the didactical purpose condition, participants read the following information: “Now we show you a video in which you get a first introduction to the Arabic language. Please watch the video carefully to remember as many words as possible in a knowledge test. The learning materials consisted of a video including narrated slides presenting the learners with basic vocabulary of the Arabic language. The narration was provided by a young female native speaker. The auditory narration was accompanied by the words in Latin writing and illustrating pictures representing the words. Overall, the video lasted for 815 seconds (including the pauses). There were 13 pauses in the video, with each pause lasting for 15 seconds. During the pauses, the picture track was not visible and an animated circular loading symbol was displayed. The loading symbol was displayed in both conditions to keep all factors beyond the attribution of pauses constant. The loading screen did not include any additional information such as text. The positions of the pauses were selected not to interrupt sentences or not to be within words. Participants in both conditions watched exactly the same video with the pauses presented at exactly the same positions. Participants could not engage in any interactions with the video .Prior interest and prior knowledge were measured with self-assessment questions. With regard to prior interest, we asked participants to indicate how much they were interested in learning languages in general  and the Arabic language in specific (“How interested are you in learning the Arabic language?”). Both answers were recorded on scales ranging from 1  to 7 (very interested). With regard to prior knowledge, we asked participants to rate how well they spoke (“How well do you speak the Arabic language?”) and understood (“How well do you understand the Arabic language?”) the Arabic language. Both answers were recorded on scales ranging from 1  to 7 (very good). It was also assessed whether participants had already taken part in an Arabic language course.p < 0.001. Conflicts between the two raters were solved by a third judge in order to get the final score for each participant.The knowledge test included 54 items. Participants were asked to give the German translations of 54 Arabic words printed in Latin writing. They were awarded one point for correct answers, 0.5 points for partially correct answers , and 0 points for incorrect answers, resulting in a maximum score of 54 points. All answers were scored by two independent raters that were blind to condition. The individual scores of the two raters were highly correlated, r = 0.98, Mental effort was assessed with a translated and adapted version of the mental effort rating scale by Paas  asking lTo investigate whether the attribution of the pauses affected participants' evaluation of the pauses, participants were asked to rate the disturbance caused by the pauses (“How annoying did you find the interruptions in the video?”) and the usefulness of the positions at which the pauses were positioned (“How useful were the positions where the video was interrupted?”). These ratings were collected on scales ranging from 1  to 7 (very much).To explore whether the attribution of the pauses also affected participants' overall evaluation of the video, participants were asked to answer questions about the video's interestingness (“How interesting did you find the content of the video?”), joy of learning (“How much did you enjoy learning from the video?”), the video's comprehensibility (“How well did you comprehend the content of the video?”), perceived difficulty (“How difficult did you find the content of the video?”), the quality of the explanation , the intentions to use a similar video other topics in the future , and the suitability of videos to convey a foreign language (“How much are videos like this suitable for learning a foreign language?”). The participants' answers were recorded on scales ranging from 1  to 7 (very).Participants were asked whether they remembered the purported reason for the interruptions in the video in an open-ended question. The participants' answers were coded by one rater that was blind to condition according to a pre-defined coding scheme that classified the given reason into technical issues, didactical purpose, or other.The study was conducted in a quiet room with up to four participants who took part in the experiment concurrently. Participants were seated at individual laptops with headphones and could not see each other's screens. The experiment was run in MediaLab 2016M = 5.30, SD = 1.48), F = 0.01, p = 0.908, η2p < 0.01, and the Arabic language in specific , F = 0.10, p = 0.756, η2p < 0.01. Further, the groups did not differ with regard to their ability to speak , F = 0.78, p = 0.382, η2p = 0.01, and understand the Arabic language , F = 1.60, p = 0.211, η2p = 0.03. Please refer to There were no group differences with regard to participants' prior interest in learning languages in general , F = 0.02, p = 0.880, η2p < 0.01. The two conditions also did not differ with regard to participants' invested mental effort , F = 2.19, p = 0.144, η2p = 0.03.An ANOVA revealed no significant differences between the two conditions , F = 0.73, p = 0.396, η2p = 0.01, or for the perceived usefulness of the positions of the pauses , F = 2.02, p = 0.161, η2p = 0.03.Regarding the evaluation of the pauses, there was no main effect of the attribution of the pauses for the perceived disturbance by the pauses , F = 1.84, p = 0.180, η2p = 0.03, interestingness , F = 0.88, p = 0.351, η2p = 0.01, perceived quality of the explanation , F = 1.17, p = 0.284, η2p = 0.02, comprehensibility , F = 1.99, p = 0.164, η2p = 0.03, perceived difficulty , F = 1.73, p = 0.194, η2p = 0.03, future use intentions , F = 1.42, p = 0.239, η2p = 0.02, and the participants' ratings whether videos were suitable for language learning, , F < 0.01, p > 0.999, η2p < 0.01.There were no main effects of the attribution of pauses for joy of learning , were not considered to be more disturbing (Hypothesis 2), and were not considered to be placed at less useful positions (Hypothesis 3) than pauses that were purportedly introduced with a didactical purpose.Despite these insignificant findings, readers should not use this experiment as an argument against investing into the technological infrastructure of schools, universities, or adult education centers in rural areas. Most importantly, the positions and the duration of the pauses in both conditions was exactly the same for methodological reasons. Thus, in order to ensure the credibility of the condition in that the pauses were purportedly introduced with a didactical purpose, this resulted in the limitation that the pauses never interrupted sentences and were never positioned within words. It is feasible to assume that technical issues such as buffering within words may have more detrimental effects on participants' evaluations than the effects observed in this experiment. Outside of the laboratory, such technical issues may be considered one of the major challenges for online learning and may thus decrease the participation in online courses . Even though we did not compare videos to other media such as static word lists, this data may shed some doubt on the suitability of videos for basic vocabulary learning, especially if learners have no prior knowledge regarding the foreign language. However, these findings should not be over-generalized to questioning the suitability of videos for language learning because language learning does not merely comprise the learning of basic vocabulary, which was the scope of the current experiment. In contrast, videos may also be used as authentic learning materials that allow students to listen to native speakers' pronunciation (Villegas Rogers and Medley, In conclusion, the current experiment does not provide evidence that varying the attribution of pauses in videos to either a didactical purpose or to technical issues differentially affects the learning outcomes and the learners' evaluations of the usefulness or disturbance caused by the pauses. However, the discussion regarding the limitations of the experiment as well as the exploratory finding that the perceived disturbance caused by the pauses was negatively associated with the perceived usefulness of pauses may hopefully inspire future research diving deeper into both potentials and challenges of video-based learning.The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.The study involving human participants was reviewed and approved by the Local Ethics Committee of the German Institute for Adult Education. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.MM: conceptualization, data analysis, and writing.The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.


Home and community-based services (HCBS) are critical to support our rapidly growing and aging population around the world. This paper takes initial steps to compare HCBS between the USA and Taiwan from four perspectives: funding sources, service types, challenges, and recommendations. Peer-reviewed articles and governmental reports (both English and Chinese) in the U.S.A. and Taiwan were reviewed. Analyses showed both countries mainly use tax dollars to fund HCBS. Although both countries have similar service categories, USA lack a clear organization scheme whereas Taiwan has detailed and clear services provisions. Workforce quality and shortage were common challenges for both countries, especially from culture perceptive. Recommendations for USA include expanded funding pool, better coordination between agencies, and rebalancing HCBS and institutional care with limited budget. Recommendations for Taiwan include expanded service coverage and quality to reduce disparity in rural areas, and providing more support for informal caregivers.


OBJECTIVES/GOALS: To test if a machine learning algorithm could predict a person’s capacity to binge drink and explore what measures might be important for identifying individuals at risk for high-intensity binge drinking behaviors. METHODS/STUDY POPULATION: The sample included 1177  non-treatment-seeking drinkers (age: 18-91 years), that were assigned to a group based on their heaviest drinking day reported in a 90-Day Alcohol Timeline Followback questionnaire. The groups were Non-Bingers . The sample was divided into a training sample (N = 884) and a testing sample (N = 293). A machine learning algorithm called random forest was then used to generate a predictive model based on measures of substance use, personality traits, and trauma. The model was applied to the testing sample to determine accuracy. RESULTS/ANTICIPATED RESULTS: The first model correctly assigned 190 out of 293 subjects, giving it a total error rate of 0.35, with lowest rates for non-binge (0.19) and high-intensity (0.18), while medium-intensity had the highest error rate (0.86). The most important variables for the accuracy of the model included: total score on the Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test, first five sub-score of the Self-Reported Effects of Alcohol, Compulsive Drinking subscale, and presence of a current psychiatric diagnosis. As a follow-up analysis, we built and tested another random forest model without the use of drinking dependence measures. This model had a total error rate of 0.39, and introduced other important variables such as smoking behaviors, perceived stress, IQ, and number of negative life events. DISCUSSION/SIGNIFICANCE OF IMPACT: Our study showed that it was possible for a machine learning algorithm to predict binge drinking intensity better than chance. Drinking patterns were the most robust predictors, and stress, IQ, and psychiatric diagnoses were also useful in predicting binge drinking intensity.


In this work, an NF membrane under an electric field (EF) was successfully employed to separate Mg2+ and Sr2+ ions for the first time. The effects of current densities, Mg2+/Sr2+ mass ratios, pH of the feed, and coexisting cations on separation performance were investigated. Dehydration of Sr2+ or Mg2+ ions under EF was proved by molecular dynamics simulation. The results showed that a high-efficient separation of Mg2+/Sr2+ was achieved: Mg2+ removal of above 99% and increase in Sr2+ permeation with increasing EF. A separation factor reached 928 under optimal conditions, far higher than that without EF. The efficient separation of Mg2+/Sr2+ ions was mainly due to rejection of most Mg2+ ions by NF membrane and in situ precipitation of partly permeated Mg2+ ions by OH− generated on the cathode under EF. Meanwhile, preferential dehydration of Sr2+ ions under EF due to lower hydration energy of Sr2+ compared with Mg2+ resulted in an increase of permeation of Sr2+ ions. This work provided a new idea for separation of congener ions with similar valence and chemical properties.The efficient separation of Sr Conventional purification methods, such as chemical precipitation [2+ extraction. However, these methods were often batch-mode and had a low separation efficiency, a high dose of additional reagents, and a risk of secondary environmental pollution due to wastewater discharge. Worse still, there remains a great challenge in separating the congener ions of Sr2+ and Mg2+ due to the similar physical and chemical properties. Strontium (Sr) is known as “metal monosodium glutamate” for the development of high-tech products, such as semiconductor substrates, electronics, medicines and magnetic materials ,2. One opitation , solventpitation ,8, and apitation ,10, were2+ and Na+. Nicod et al. [2+ was separated from high concentration Na+ solution by NF. Increasing the size of Sr2+ species through complexation with polymers , in addition to their chemical properties [The membrane process, as a green technology, can provide continuous separation for purifying salts without adding precipitants and regenerants. The nanofiltration (NF) process exhibited high perm-selectivity especially for mono- and divalent ions largely depending on the repulsion effect for divalent ions, including size sieving, electrostatic repulsion, and dielectric repulsion ,12. As ed et al.  reporteders (PAA  or EI [1ers (PAA ) before and Mg2+ . There ioperties ,17. Recent studies found the separation of congener ions based on the differences in ion hydration free energies ,19 or el2+ and Li+ from the MgCl2/LiCl feed solution, achieving an ultrahigh Mg2+ rejection due to positive-charge restructuring and enhancement under EF. Li+ dehydration was confirmed through molecular dynamics (MD) simulation [Based on electrokinetic properties of the charged solutes and physicochemical properties of charged NF membrane in the feed solution, an electric field was applied with a cell configuration of anode-NF membrane-cathode, named as electro-NF (ENF), for the improvement the separation performance ,23. In omulation . This ismulation  and evenmulation . 2+ and Sr2+ through the ENF process is investigated for the first time. In principle, EF can be used to promote preferential dehydration Sr2+ ions because of the lower hydration free energy of Sr2+ (−1379 kJ/mol) compared with that of Mg2+ (−1828 kJ/mol) [2+ permeation through an NF membrane [2+/Mg2+ separation performance of a ENF process was investigated under different process conditions. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation can demonstrate the preferential dehydration of Sr2+ ions under EF.In this work, separation of Mgof Sr2+ −79 kJ/mol kJ/mol) , which wmembrane . Therefo2, SrCl2, KCl, NaCl, and CaCl2 were purchased from Tianjin Kemiou Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. for the preparation of feed solution. All the solutions in this work were formulated with ultra-pure water with a conductivity of 1.1 μS/cm and a pH of 5.7.Piperazine  and trimesoyl chloride , n-hexane  were used for interfacial polymerization to prepare polyamide NF membrane. The NF membrane with a pore diameter of 0.940 nm NF2, in  was fabr2. The diaphragm pump and DC power supply were used to provide pressure and current, respectively. Titanium ruthenium electrodes with porous structures were used as anode and cathode, respectively [The separation experiment was carried out with the self-made ENF crossflow device shown as ectively . 2+/Sr2+ were carried out under a constant current mode at an operation pressure of 5 bar, 25 °C. The current was fixed at 0, 5, 10, 15, or 20 mA, the corresponding current density was 0, 0.71, 1.41, 2.12, or 2.83 mA·cm−2, respectively. The voltages ranged in 0–3.5 ± 0.1 V. Each membrane was stabilized with de-ionized water for 0.5 h under 6 bar before it was tested on true feed solution. The flow rate of pure water at a pressure of 5 bar was 19.8 mL·s−1.The separation experiments of MgJ, L·m−2·h−1) was calculated from the following equation:V (L) is the volume of the permeate, A (m2) is the effective membrane filtration area, and Δt (h) is the measurement time.The flux , representing the Mg2+ rejection only by an NF membrane; the other is process rejection of Mg2+ (RP), representing the Mg2+ rejection by the whole ENF process including membrane rejection and Mg(OH)2 precipitate. Rp was calculated from Mg2+ concentrations in the permeate and in the feed according to Equation (2). For RM, the permeate amount of Mg2+ should be plus the amount consumed by precipitation. RM was calculated according to Equation (3). The amount of Mg2+ in the precipitate was obtained by the following method. The cathode was washed with 0.1 mol/L HCl solution to fully solve Mg(OH)2 precipitate. All cleaning liquid was collected to determine the Mg2+ concentration in the cleaning liquid through inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy .In ENF, most of MgRP and RM were calculated according to the following equations:CMg,p (mol/L), and CMg,f (mol/L) are the concentrations of Mg2+ ions in the permeate and in the feed, respectively. npreci (mol) represents the amount of Mg2+ precipitated on the cathode, VP is the volume of permeation. The concentrations for Mg2+ and Sr2+ were examined by ICP-OES with a determination limit of 0.01 ppm. Each experiment was carried out at least three times, and a mean value was taken.The 2+ over Mg2+  was evaluated by the following equation:The separation factor of Sr2+ ion, two Cl− ions, and 4052 water molecules with 5 nm side length was constructed, with the ion concentration close to infinite dilution (CSr = 1.3711 × 10−8 mol/L) [Z-axis and run for 3 ns to carry out the simulation of the hydration of ions under the electric field conditions. The hydration of Mg2+ ions was also simulated in the same steps.The simulation was implemented by GROMACS software. First, a box containing one Sr8 mol/L) . Then, e2 and SrCl2 single salt solutions by ENF process are evaluated in 2+, RP, rose from 65% to 94% with increasing current density from 0 to 2.83 mA·cm−2. The membrane rejection of Mg2+, RM, also rose. The change was consistent with those in our previous work due to positive-charge restructuring of the NF membrane surface and enhancement under EF [M was all lower than the Rp. The difference between RM and Rp is because the partially permeated Mg2+ ions reacted with OH− produced on the cathode to form Mg(OH)2 precipitate and deposited on the cathode surface, which significantly reduced the content of Mg2+ in the permeate. Surprisingly, Sr2+ rejection shows a decline from 42% to −80% with the increasing current density from 0 to 2.83 mA·cm−2, possibly because the EF promoted dehydration of Sr2+ ions due to its low hydration free energy to readily passed through membrane pores [The permeate flux and rejection performance of MgClunder EF . The RM ne pores ,27,28, w2 and SrCl2 solutions were decreased with the increase in the current density due to the increase of electroviscous effect with the increasing current density [2+ and Sr2+ rejection provided an opportunity for the separation of MgCl2 and SrCl2 mixed solution under EF.The permeate fluxes for MgCl density ,30. The 2 and SrCl2 aqueous solution were mixed, the interaction among Mg2+, Sr2+ ions and membrane surface could be different from that in the single salt system. The separation of Mg2+/Sr2+ under different current densities by the ENF process are shown in 2+ rejection is about 58%  were utilized to evaluate the separation performance of Mg2+/Sr2+  stayed above 99% with the growth of Mg2+/Sr2+ mass ratio, and RM (Mg2+) was hardly changed  [2+ ions had a higher permeance  of 0.071 mol·m−2·h−1 at pH 5–7 than those at acidic or alkaline conditions . These phenomena were also observed by others [The surface charge of NF membrane exhibits strong correlation with pH, affecting rejection performance of the NF membrane . As showm 3 to 8 ,35, respke NaCl) . In thisy others ,37. It wy others .−2 in M (Mg2+) was gradually decreased when pH of the feed rose from 3 to 8 due to the enhancement of negative charge of the membrane surface; while the RP (Mg2+) was always maintained over 99%. This is because the cathodic reaction occurred under EF and generated enough OH− ions to precipitate Mg2+ ions, resulting in a high and stable RP (Mg2+). Sr2+ rejection also displayed the same trends as those under no EF. Sr2+ rejection firstly reduced from 20% to a negative value −22.8% upon increasing pH from 3 to 6, then increased to −9.8% at pH 8, suggesting that the surface charges still had an effect on Sr2+ rejection even under EF. Sr2+ rejection was lower than that under no EF because EF prompts the dehydration of Sr2+ ions. As a result, in Sr,Mg of 180 was obtained at pH 6. The flux displayed a similar trend whether there is an external EF or not in At the current density of 2.12 mA·cm2+ and Mg2+ ions in source liquid, mainly Li+, Na+, K+ and Ca2+ ions. It is necessary to explore the separation performance of Mg2+/Sr2+ in the presence of other coexisting cation ions  was still above 99% in 2+ rejection increased. The rejection for the coexisting monovalent ions all became more negative compared with that of Sr2+ ions, suggesting that the coexisting Li+, Na+, or K+ ions weakened the permeability of Sr2+ ions due to the completion permeation of Sr2+ ions with Li+, Na+, or K+ ions [+, Na+, or K+ ions all increased. These phenomena were possibly because the decrease of Sr2+ permeation (Sr2+ rejection rose) to leave more pore space to allow water permeation due to a smaller radius of Li+, Na+, or K+ ions compared with Sr2+ ions  was markedly decreased with the increase of Ca2+/Sr2+ ratio, because Ca2+ ions were completed with Mg2+ ions to disturb Mg(OH)2 precipitate on the cathode surface. The flux in this system was decreased because of ion scaling on the membrane surface [In and Sr2+ . The RP  surface ,39.2+ and Sr2+ ions under different EFs. The radial distribution function (g(r)) as an important parameter in MD simulation represents the distribution probability of other particles in the ‘target particle’ coordinate space [The strength and stability of hydrated ions have an important effect on ion selectivity and mobility ,40. MD ste space , which ite space ,40.2+ and Sr2+ ions, ion-oxygen radial distribution functions g(r) of Mg2+ and Sr2+ under different EFs were analyzed as shown in 2+ dehydration prior to Mg2+ for the facile permeation of Sr2+ ions mentioned above.For a better understanding of the effects of EFs on dehydration of Mg2+ and Sr2+. The effects of current densities, Mg2+/Sr2+ mass ratios, pH of the feed, and coexisting cations on separation performance were investigated. Results showed that Mg2+ rejection (RP) almost kept above 99%; Sr2+ rejection was decreased with increasing EF. A very high SSr,Mg of 928 was achieved at optimal conditions, far higher than that without EF. The efficient separation of Mg2+ and Sr2+ ions in the ENF process is mainly because of high-efficiency Mg2+ removal resulting from the NF rejection and precipitation of Mg2+ ions with OH- generated on the cathode under EF. Sr2+ ions were preferentially dehydrated under EF to promote high permeation of Sr2+ ions due to the lower hydration energy of Sr2+ ions compared with Mg2+. In this work, the ENF process was successfully used for separation the congener ions of Mg


Much of the global burden of disease is attributable to unhealthy behaviour, including excessive consumption of alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages. Developing effective methods to change these drinking behaviours could inform policies to improve population health. In line with an increasing interest in environmental-level interventions – i.e., changing the environment in which a behaviour occurs in order to change the behaviour of interest – this review first describes the existing evidence of the impact of glassware design (including capacity and shape) on drinking behaviours . The roles of two sets of possible underlying mechanisms – perception and affordance – are also explored. Finally, this review sets out a provisional typology of drinking behaviours to enable more systematic approaches to the study of these behaviours. While there is a paucity of evidence – in particular on measures of consumption – this growing evidence base suggests promising targets for novel interventions involving glassware design to reduce the consumption of drinks that harm health.Trial registration: ISRCTN10456720. Much of the global burden of disease is attributable to several unhealthy behaviours, including excessive consumption of alcohol and sugar-sweetened beverages  drinking behaviours – amount consumed and proxies for it – and smaller-scale (micro) drinking behaviours – the micro-structure of drinking behaviours such as sip size, and the evidence is organised as such. On one level, micro-drinking behaviours are a fundamental feature of drinking: any drinking episode can be characterised by different micro-drinking elements, for example, how large the sips were, how many sips were taken, and whether pace of consumption was consistent over time. On another level, these micro-drinking behaviours might be seen as proxies for, or predictors of, larger-scale ‘macro’ drinking behaviours such as volume consumed. Thus delineating drinking behaviours by contrasting micro- with macro- behaviours can uncover the mechanics of how effects on consumption might work, which may yield new insights beyond what is captured from studying consumption outcomes alone. In the absence of an existing typology, the final aim of this paper will be to present a provisional typology of micro- and macro- drinking behaviours on the basis of the existing evidence, to enable more systematic study and better reporting of these behaviours in future studies.‘Drinking behaviour’ is a broad term, encompassing a number of behaviours. The primary aim of this paper is to review the effects of glassware design on measures of consumption – the key outcome of interest to researchers and policymakers interested in reducing consumption of health-harming drinks and increasing consumption of healthy drinks. When organising and discussing the evidence in relation to the primary aim, it is important to distinguish between larger-scale  on macro- and micro- drinking behaviours . MEDLINE and PsycInfo databases were used. Eligibility criteria included: experimental design , measuring human drinking behaviour , with researcher assignment to condition  or presentation order (for within-subject designs).The following search terms were used for each database:  AND (glass* OR drinkware OR cup OR container) AND (size* OR capacit* OR portion* OR volume* OR shape* OR fullness).Electronic database searching returned 671 papers (607 after removing duplicates). Twenty-three papers met the eligibility criteria. Snowball searching and personal communications revealed an additional 4 papers, providing a total of 27 papers included for review. For details of all included studies, see Supplementary Information.I.Searches were conducted for experimental studies manipulating glassware  and measuring human drinking behaviour , for alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks. Observational studies and literature reviews were excluded. Studies were only included if they measured drinking behaviours (not online or via self-report).i.Four studies have examined the impact of glassware design on amount consumed. Kersbergen et al.  investigIn a follow up study, Kersbergen et al.  investigTwo studies have reported on the impact of glass shape on amount consumed. Raghubir and Krishna  comparedNine studies report on the impact of glassware design on amount of drinks purchased. In the first of a series of studies, Pechey et al.  investigvs outward-sloped beer glasses were used. Though the primary aim of this field study was to assess feasibility, the authors noted that sales were 24% lower when beer was served using straight compared with curved glasses. This finding awaits replication in a larger field study, currently underway in 24 bars  on amount poured, including 4 which measure the free pouring of self-defined drinks , 14 which stipulate an exact amount to be poured , and 1 which measures both.vs tall-narrow glasses differed in terms of amount poured. It is worth noting here that variation in ‘self-defined’ servings might contribute to the absence of an effect of glass shape on poured volumes in between-subjects designs  and beer (340 ml vs 570 ml) led to increased alcohol units poured for both self-defined usual servings and alcohol units (‘standard drinks’).In two field studies measuring volume poured in freely poured self-servings for subsequent consumption, Wansink and Van Ittersum  found bevs tall-narrow glasses (capacity both 355 ml). White et al. , participants poured ∼14 ml less into outward-sloped tumblers than straight-sided ones . Chen and Lee  found bevs tall-narrow, both 300 ml). There was an interaction between glass shape and drink portion, such that when pouring shots, more was poured in short-wide glasses, but when pouring drinks, more was poured into the tall-narrow glasses. Chen et al.  and shape  did influence amount poured for a set portion, the direction of these effects depended on viewing angle, with the direction of the effects reversing when poured at 0 and 30 degrees vs 60 and 90 degrees. Chandon and Ordabayeva  on amount poured for set portions may vary with features of the pouring task and nature of the instructions. Caljouw & van Wijck  measuredn et al.  found thdabayeva  measuredSearches were conducted for experimental studies manipulating glassware  and measuring human drinking behaviour , for alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks. As for macro-drinking behaviours, observational studies and literature reviews were excluded, and studies were only included if they measured drinking behaviours (not online or via self-report).i.ad libitum consumption through one or more of several processes, including lower levels of satiation  on drinking speed has been investigated in three studies. Attwood et al. , and measuring drinking in a semi-naturalistic bar-laboratory setting  – portion size, cup size, or both – drove increased sip size. A second study manipulated the nature of drinking – i.e., whether drinking was ‘instructed’ (participants were given a series of cups and instructed to sip from each) or ‘natural’ (participants were given a glass of water without explicit instructions while completing a screening interview) – to determine the impact on sip size . However, portion size, as well as cup size, varied between these conditions , meaning larger sips may have been driven by any of these factors – portion size, cup size, instructions – alone or in combination.Two studies report effects of glass size on sip size, albeit with some caveats. Lawless et al.  found invs outward-sloped ones.A third study reports the effect of glass shape on sip size. Langfield et al.  recordedNumber of sips may be a proxy for sip size, especially when a set portion is consumed. That is, a drink drunk in fewer sips can be said to have been consumed with larger gulps – on average – than an identical drink drunk in more sips. Six studies have counted number of sips taken to consume alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks.vs short/wide). While slightly more sips were taken from the tall-narrow glass, there was no statistical evidence to support that the difference was meaningful. Attwood et al.  portions – for beer but not lemonade. These authors also found that glass fullness predicted total sip and interval duration, with longer total sipping and inter-sip time from full (340 ml) glasses than half-full (170 ml) ones. In two studies, there was no evidence that glass shape predicted sip or interval duration, for 330 ml soft drink served in straight-sided vs outward-sloped glasses , it is useful to consider plausible underlying mechanisms as targets for such optimisation. In the following sections, two distinct but not exclusive sets of mechanisms are presented: perception and affordance  for both beer glasses . This might reflect an underpowered analysis or other mechanisms contributing to the differences in drinking speed. In three subsequent studies, no association was found between midpoint bias and drinking time , or midpoint bias and amount consumed (r = −0.03), for consumption of soft drinks  offers to the animal, what it provides or furnishes, either for good or ill’ (p.127). These ideas were later popularised by Norman, a student of Gibson’s, in ‘The Psychology of Everyday Things’ (later ‘The Design of Everyday Things’), and were applied to objects in our environment that were seemingly poorly designed, failing to afford the appropriate behaviour  pursed embouchures, leading to smaller (or greater) sized sips, resulting in less (or more) being consumed. Using facial electromyography, one study found greater muscle activity used in the lips when participants sipped through a straw, as compared to sipping from a spoon or a cup . The review reveals a paucity of evidence on the effects of glassware design on drinking behaviour and in particular on volume consumed. Together, the evidence indicates potential effects of glassware design – including size and shape (and relatively less evidence on fullness) – on drinking behaviours using outcome measures that may be correlates or proxies of consumption, such as amount poured and amount purchased. For example, there are some consistent effects of glassware design (size and shape) on amount poured, across a range of drink types, sizes, portions, and shapes. Taken together, the research suggests that more is poured into larger than smaller glasses, short-wide than tall-narrow glasses, and straight-sided than outward-sloped glasses, though these effects may vary depending on how much is being poured . This includes research on sip size, with some preliminary evidence suggesting larger sips taken from larger (and wider-rimmed) cups. Studying the micro-structure of drinking – using the typology presented here as a starting point – has the potential to develop understanding of these effects and in particular whether and how much they link to volume consumed.mean sip size  and affordance (Aim III). The logic model we presented in Importantly, these are neither the only mechanisms by which drinks containers affect consumption, nor are any mechanisms likely to operate alone. For example, a glass might influence liquid volume judgments, which in turn influences volume poured. This, at one level, could influence how much is consumed. Additionally, the same glass might cue large initial sips due to the physical affordances of the glass and its rim diameter and slope when tipped, as well as the embouchure it elicits. These large initial gulps might then speed up drinking and lead to an increase in amount consumed. Future studies could attempt to isolate each mechanism, to determine whether the effect on drinking behaviour remains. For example, opaque glasses with different shapes, sizes, and fullness could be used, to limit visual perception of drink volumes and possibly midpoint bias, which has been found to vary by glass shape , it is rare that the manipulation isolates a particular design feature, without other features confounding with these features. For example, when varying glass shape, in attempting to keep glass capacity constant, glass height , drinking context , and drinking pattern when multiple drinks are consumed. Effect size estimates, generated from multiple studies, are also required to make predictions about the possible impact of an intervention at a population level. Together, these factors would help to form a robust evidence base which is required for any regulation-based policies, especially given that these policies are likely to be resisted by producers and retailers of the drinks targeted by the policy , not individuals (Marteau, There are several routes to implementing an intervention involving glassware design to reduce consumption of health-harming drinks. These include voluntary action, regulation, and legislation. Given possible barriers to change, including public acceptability of interventions and potential cost, researchers should continue to strive for evidence of the effectiveness and likely parameters for any given intervention involving glassware design. Such parameters include drink-type (e.g., alcoholic Marteau, .There is a paucity of evidence on the impact of the design of glassware on drinking behaviours, although several studies suggest it might affect how much is consumed, with some evidence for several candidate mechanisms. The provisional typology presented here and analysis of the limited existing evidence provides a starting point for subsequent research in order to generate a coherent body of evidence that can advance understanding of the impact of glassware design on macro-drinking behaviours – consumption and its proxies – as well as micro-drinking behaviours that contribute to this including sip size. To identify glassware design features worth targeting for intervention, research needs to continue a focus on the effects of glassware design on amount consumed and on micro-drinking behaviours, which may be important in understanding the mechanisms driving any overall consumption effects. The robustness of this research will be enhanced by more valid and granular measures of macro- and micro- drinking behaviours, in both laboratory and field settings. In addition, to optimise these effects, the underlying mechanisms warrant further exploration. This review highlighted perceptions and affordances as two possibilities, though neither exclusive nor exhaustive. The evidence summary presented here – including the logic model and typology – provides an initial basis for building an evidence base on a promising set of interventions to reduce consumption of alcoholic and non-alcoholic drinks that harm health.Click here for additional data file.


Background: As the use of telemental health—mental health care delivered through video or phone—has increased in the era of COVID, it is important to understand patients' preferences and perspectives regarding the use of video for telehealth visits. A new web-based treatment program for veterans uses video visits with mental health experts to supplement its online cognitive behavioral therapy to treat clinically significant symptoms of depression and/or post-traumatic stress disorder.Objective: As part of the program evaluation, Veterans were asked, “How important was it for you to be able to physically see your provider through video telehealth?” to understand whether they thought using video was important and why it may or may not be important.Materials and Methods: The study uses data from the program's exit survey and exit interview. The surveys and interviews were conducted over a 19-month period. Surveys and interviews were conducted over the phone with note taking. Matrix and content analyses were used to analyze the qualitative data—predetermined themes and emergent themes were analyzed and inform findings.Results: Seventy-three veterans completed a survey. Of these, 64 completed an interview. The majority of veterans surveyed (75%) said that it was “very important” to physically see their provider through video telehealth, 23% said that it was at least “somewhat important” or “not at all important.” This study highlights three main themes found in the qualitative data: patients discuss (1) advantages of using video, (2) why they dislike video, and (3) technological barriers to using video.Conclusions: Being able to visually see a provider, and be seen by a provider, has distinct benefits for care and relationship building that are difficult to achieve over the phone. This has important implications for the future delivery of telemental health care and deserves consideration as patients and providers decide whether to use phone or video for remotely delivered care. Department of Veteran Affairs (VA) has actively sought to promote and implement video telehealth since 2013.7 Before the pandemic, only 2% of mental health encounters within the VA health care system were through the VA's video telehealth to home platform, VA Video Connect. But by April 2020, with social distancing and stay-at-home orders in place, 90% of all VA mental health encounters were conducted remotely. A closer analysis of these VA telemental health encounters shows a mix of modalities being used—with a majority of care delivered through telephone. Within the VA health system, of the 90% of telemental health provided during April 2020, 65% was through phone.8While telehealth has been available since the 1960sThus, the growth in telemental health during the pandemic has largely involved patient encounters that take place over the phone. Lower barriers in terms of device and internet bandwidth requirements make phone more accessible for patients and providers alike. As clinics and providers work to continue to provide health services by any means possible, the importance of using video may be overshadowed by the impulse to connect quickly over the phone (even when video platforms are available).9 In mental health care settings, the use of video has been shown to have important implications for quality of care, enabling alliance building, presence, and improving patient–provider relationships. Furthermore, telemental health through video visits can confer additional advantages of convenience and accessibility,10–12 while also resulting in similar health outcomes to in-person care.14 Because telehealth will remain as part of the new normal for mental health care, even after the social distancing requirements are eased, it is an opportune time to explore whether and what advantages using video may bring.However, clinical experts of telemental health and implementation encourage the use of video rather than phone, noting that use of video technology allows patients and providers to recreate social rhythms and can give additional context for care, such as allowing providers to see home environments, with patient permission.16 this study uses qualitative methods to understand whether using video during telehealth is important to patients, and if so, why using video may or may not be important to them.This article is a qualitative study on patient perspectives toward the importance of using video for telemental health. While it does not explicitly compare video and phone, it provides an exploratory foundation to begin this important conversation, presenting the salient themes on the advantages of video for remote mental health care. While earlier studies show similar ratings and comparable effectiveness between outcomes,17 or the 2-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-2),18 respectively. Program content focuses on greater emotional awareness and emotional regulation, and relationship management. Most veterans who participated did so upon recommendation from their providers. A notable feature of the program is its hybrid approach to learning and care: participants work through self-guided modules while also meeting with a professionally trained therapist who is assigned to them for the duration of the program. While providers are all clinically licensed therapists working for the VA, they are presented to veterans as “coaches” as their primary role in this program is to give veterans the opportunity to review topics, seek clarity, and receive additional guidance on modules' content.Data used in this study were collected to evaluate a mental health care program for veterans (which continues at the time of writing). The program is designed for veterans who have experienced trauma, particularly military sexual trauma, and have symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and/or depression as indicated by a positive screen on either the Primary Care PTSD Screen for DSM-5 (PC-PTSD-5)This program lasts 10–15 weeks for veterans. The online web content consists of 10 self-guided modules. Meetings with coaches, typically held after a veteran has worked through a module, are conducted through a video platform for telehealth and last 50 min. Veterans can meet their coaches either 5 times (meeting after every two modules) or 10 times (meeting after each module). Veterans are connected to their therapist through a video telehealth platform—never in person—and only use telephone when technological difficulties make the use of video untenable. Coaches are instructed to use the video platform as the default modality for all sessions and to use phone only if necessary.As part of evaluation processes for the program, five members from the research team  took turns to conduct exit surveys and exit interviews with patients. The exit survey used 23 structured questions; one of which asked patients to rate how important it was to physically see their provider through video telehealth during the program. The exit interview (conducted immediately after the survey) used 10 open-ended questions to further probe patients' previous experience with remotely delivered mental health care, if any, why and how they got involved in the program, more details about their experience with self-guided portions of the program, and experiences with their therapist-coach.Program participants were U.S. veterans enrolled in nine VA facilities across the country. From September 2018 to March 2020, 202 participants completed the program. Upon completion of the program, a coauthor (M.W.) requested permission from the program's therapists to invite patients to participate in the exit survey and interview. If patients did not complete their last session with their therapists or if permission was not given, patients were not contacted. For those eligible for an exit survey and interview, a letter was sent to them communicating the purpose of the survey and interview and allowing them to opt out if desired. Patients were called at least three times. Seventy-three (>30% response rate) respondents agreed to participate in the exit survey.This study draws from data collected through exit surveys and interviews. Survey and interview protocols were reviewed by PI's affiliated institutions' IRB, designated as Quality Improvement, and determined to be exempt from IRB review. Participating respondents were informed that their participation was confidential and voluntary before the start of the survey and interview. While the research team used two separate instruments for the survey and interview, interview questions immediately followed survey questions on the same phone call with the respondent. Survey and interviews were 1:1 and lasted ∼45–60 min.Survey and interviews were conducted over secured phone lines at a research center. They were not audio-recorded. Rather, while one person conducted the interview, another member of the research team took detailed notes . Data collection took place from 2018 to 2020, before March 2020 when the COVID-19 pandemic began in the United States.This study draws from the survey questions asking “How important was it for you to be able to physically see your provider through video telehealth?” with options to rate along a three-pt scale . This question was followed by the open-ended question, “What did you like about working with the therapist over video telehealth?” . NotablyWhat kind of technology have you used to talk with a mental health provider? What do you like or dislike about these different modes of delivery? How comfortable are you with technology? Now that you've completed the program, have your thoughts changed at all about using web and video technology for your mental health care? If yes, how so?  Responses to the question on video preferences and all relevant text  from the interview records were extracted from the original record files and compiled into a matrix. (2) Responses were reviewed several times to build familiarity with content. (3) The first author (P.C.) used an inductive approach that allowed themes to emerge through the review process and through reorganizing and grouping of quotes that spoke to similar topics and issues. (4) The second author (A.H.) independently reviewed the emergent themes and quotes to mitigate bias and provide an interpretive check on groupings. (5) The authors discussed the themes and groupings, coming to a consensus on any disagreements. (6) The themes were further defined and explicated to describe why using video may or may not be important to the patient.Analysis for this study used strategies and best practices from matrix analysisSeventy-three veterans participated in the survey. Of these, 64 agreed to provide additional information through interviews, with 9 opting out of the interview due to time constraints. The demographic table below details proportions on gender, race and ethnicity, age, relationship status, educational level, and employment .Of the 73 respondents participating in the program's exit survey, 75% (55) said that it was “very important” to physically see their provider through video telehealth. Fifteen percent (11) said that it was at least “somewhat important.” Only 8% (6) of respondents said that it was not at all important, and 1 respondent did not provide an answer. Of the 64 who responded to interview questions on whether they had had any previous experience with telehealth, 53% (34) said that they had never had any experience, and 46% (30) had ∼1 encounter through telehealth before the start of the program.Patients' responses to why it is important to see their provider through video coalesced around three subthemes: (1) enhanced communication, (2) more accountability, and (3) better patient–provider relationship.Patients described how expressions, body language, and mannerisms were extremely important to them. Some explicitly noted that this would not have been possible with a phone conversation: “It's better than talking on the phone. Seems ineffective to do over the phone. [You] Get to see facial expressions, body language. It's extremely important, non-verbal communication” . Another enumerated the importance of nonverbal cues: “75% of communication is nonverbal. Good to see expression on people's faces. It adds another layer to communication that phone couldn't have” .Several patients also said that connecting with their provider through video gave an added sense that they were “working,” and that there was more “accountability.” “When you can see the person, it's much more serious. Human connection sets the tone. Creates the atmosphere of working on something” . Another patient articulated, “We had to use the phone one time, next time I really appreciated video. Contact formalized with appointment, accountability to adhere to that time and be there” . Nonverbal cues seen by their providers also lent themselves to creating a greater sense of accountability: “Being able to see a person and talk to them is more accountability. She could pick up on things and notice things” .Patients also described increased connection with their provider: “Felt more of a connection with her, felt like she really cared and was really listening. Weren't in the same room but she could see my reactions and vice versa. Better than just being on the phone” .Using video allowed a better relationship because it “establish[ed] more of a personal connection”  and helped to “establish trust” . Having a visual on their provider allowed patients to see that their provider “really cared and was really listening” . One patient emphasized that this would not have been possible over the phone, and said that with video, “It feels more like you're with someone face-to-face. You feel more connected. Did one session by phone, didn't feel the same. It was helpful to have face to face” .Not all patients were enthusiastic about using video for telemental health. Twenty-three percent (17) said that using video was either “somewhat important” or “not at all important.” Among the six who said that video was not at all important, three explicitly said that they would have been fine with using a telephone. However, even some patients who rated video as “very important” discussed frustrations with video. Interviews revealed three main reasons why video was not preferable for some patients: being on video felt awkward; they had privacy concerns; or they had a preference for in-person care.The majority of veterans who disliked video cited their own discomfort with this modality: “I still prefer in person because it's less awkward than the webcam for me… Video is not necessarily appealing—[there are] delays, talking over each other… I wasn't that comfortable over video. It was awkward. I don't like being on video or on camera; it makes me anxious” .Three respondents had privacy concerns, particularly in the context of having family or others nearby listen to confidential conversations, and as one put it “The main thing is when you're doing a video is that when there are other people in the house, you don't want to share it with them because it's private and you're wondering if the neighbors are hearing it. You know, it blocks my ability to be as honest. Paranoid that others can hear me” .Four veterans said explicitly that they preferred in-person care. Interestingly, two of those who said that having a video was “very important” still preferred in-person care and would have had their sessions in-person if it were more logistically convenient: “In person is a lot better, but for the distance, telehealth is a good thing. [Telehealth]just don't have that personality connection. [There is]not as much personal involvement” .Regardless of whether they liked using a video platform for their care, most participants (77%) reported at least some technological issues with using video.One of the technological issues patients faced was poor video quality: “Video quality was sporadic … Sometimes I could see her, she couldn't see me” . Some patients described connectivity issues that kept them from accessing the video platform: “It was just difficult. I'd get the email, click on the appointment, and wouldn't connect” . And for those less experienced with technology, learning to use the video platform was an additional challenge: “It took me a long time getting used to the tablet. It was a little intimidating trying to learn how to work with the tablet” .Technological problems were the primary barriers to using video telehealth and often drove patients and providers to use their phone. As one put it simply, “[The video] didn't work sometimes. We had to redirect about 2 or 3 times. Not sure if it was our end or the VA. The telephone was a lot easier than the video” .Despite frequent issues with technology, these problems did not actively prevent completion of the program. Most participants were willing to troubleshoot through technology glitches and continue with sessions.23 for enabling access to care during weather-related disasters,25 and for providing patients with trauma and anxiety disorders the ability to connect from the comfort of their homes27 made a clear case for expanding its use. Now, as we begin to settle into the new norm in which telemental health is widespread, it is important to consider how different modalities can attenuate the patient experience.Telemental health—the delivery of mental health care through video platforms or over the phone—has taken on a new salience in the era of COVID-19. In a time of great uncertainty and restructuring of societal norms, it has allowed clinics to adhere to safety precautions and continue care. Even before the need for social distancing, telehealth's value for reaching those in rural areas,29 Enhanced communication and increased accountability through a video platform worked in concert to build a strong relationship with their provider, which was foundational to engagement and retention in the program.30–32This study considers patient preferences on whether video visits are important for telemental health and explores why using video matters to patients. A strong majority of patients said that it was important to be able to see their provider; being able to see their provider allowed better communication, primarily because it allowed both patient and provider to use nonverbal cues. Nods of empathy and encouragement, positive or negative facial expressions—these cues helped facilitate interpretations and intention. Furthermore, having a visual component during telecommunication requires parties to adhere to more social norms similar to those required for in-person meetings, such as focusing on the meeting (rather than attempting to multitask as one might over the phone). Both patient and provider thus need to be more present during sessions. Patients sensed and appreciated that their providers were more present and attentive, and that they could see this from them.The study had some limitations. First, the data were collected as part of a larger project to evaluate the implementation of a program, not for the sole purpose of comparing telemental health modalities. Furthermore, no direct comparison between patients who used phone versus those who used video could be made—all participants used video and were only asked about their experience with the use of video during the program. Second, there may be some selection bias among those who agreed to participate in the exit interview, with those having more positive experiences being more willing to provide feedback. Finally, the patient experience here speaks primarily to the use of telemental health in a single program setting, and we can only tenuously consider how key findings may be applicable to other mental health programs and medical settings.by a provider, has distinct benefits for care and relationship building. To the extent that a positive, communicative, and trusting relationship with a provider has real bearings on health outcomes for patients, the use of video can enable more effective care while allowing patients to overcome logistical, access, and safety barriers associated with in-person care. Future studies may further explore and systematically test for differences between video and phone platforms or explain how the use of a video platform may vary in different medical contexts.As an exploratory evaluation of patient preferences for telemental health modalities, it is clear that most patients think it is important to use video. Being able to visually see a provider, and be seen


By leveraging the development of mobile communication technologies and due to the increased capabilities of mobile devices, mobile multimedia services have gained prominence for supporting high-quality video streaming services. In vehicular ad-hoc networks (VANETs), high-quality video streaming services are focused on providing safety and infotainment applications to vehicles on the roads. Video streaming data require elastic and continuous video packet distributions to vehicles to present interactive real-time views of meaningful scenarios on the road. However, the high mobility of vehicles is one of the fundamental and important challenging issues for video streaming services in VANETs. Nevertheless, previous studies neither dealt with suitable data caching for supporting the mobility of vehicles nor provided appropriate seamless packet forwarding for ensuring the quality of service (QoS) and quality of experience (QoE) of real-time video streaming services. To address this problem, this paper proposes a video packet distribution scheme named Clone, which integrates vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-infrastructure communications to disseminate video packets for video streaming services in VANETs. First, an indicator called current network quality information (CNQI) is defined to measure the feature of data forwarding of each node to its neighbor nodes in terms of data delivery ratio and delay. Based on the CNQI value of each node and the trajectory of the destination vehicle, access points called clones are selected to cache video data packets from data sources. Subsequently, packet distribution optimization is conducted to determine the number of video packets to cache in each clone. Finally, data delivery synchronization is established to support seamless streaming data delivery from a clone to the destination vehicle. The experimental results show that the proposed scheme achieves high-quality video streaming services in terms of QoS and QoE compared with existing schemes. With the rapid development of ad-hoc wireless communications and vehicular technologies, vehicular ad hoc networks (VANETs) have enabled the delivery of data between vehicles on roads . In VANEAmong the applications of VANETs, video streaming services are currently receiving much attention for supporting applications such as video warning for safe driving and video chats for entertainment. A vehicle can send a video warning file about an accident on its forward path to the vehicles behind it. It can also share a video clip file advertising nearby stores with its neighboring vehicles through a video chat application. Generally, video files contain large amounts of data depending on their related applications and have stringent quality of service (QoS) and quality of experience (QoE) limitations. VANETs have dynamic topology features owing to the intermittent connections and frequent link breakages due to the high mobility of vehicles on roads. Accordingly, three challenging issues should be addressed to achieve the QoS and QoE requirements to support video streaming services in VANETs with dynamic topology features and intermittent connections. First, large video streaming data should be divided into many data chunks, which should be sequentially delivered along the travel route of the destination vehicle. Second, the video data chunks should be forwarded via paths with good link quality to ensure their QoS and QoE requirements. Third, data caching should be efficiently conducted to store the video data chunks on the travel route until the destination vehicle arrives.Until now, numerous studies have proposed protocols to deliver data to a vehicle in VANETs . They arFor supporting multimedia streaming services in VANETs, many protocols ,26,27 haTherefore, we propose a video packet distribution scheme named Clone, which supports video streaming services with QoS and QoE from a source node to a destination vehicle in VANETs. To achieve this, the proposed scheme sequentially and seamlessly distributes video streaming packets to APs called clones on the trajectory of the destination vehicle by integrating high quality V2V and V2I communications in order to deliver video streaming data from the source to the destination vehicle. To realize the proposed scheme, we first define an indicator called current network quality information (CNQI). It measures the feature of data forwarding of each node to its neighboring nodes in terms of both reliability and throughput, which impact the data delivery ratio and the delay related to the QoS factors for delivering video streaming data, respectively. The proposed scheme chooses vehicles with high CNQI values as the relay nodes for delivering the video streaming packets. Next, we decide clones among nodes on the trajectory of the destination vehicle to cache the video streaming packets from the source for the destination vehicle. The clones are selected based on the CNQI values and the data delivery ability of nodes to improve the QoS. The number of clones is determined based on the size of the video streaming data and the data storage size of nodes. Next, we provide a packet distribution optimization to determine the maximum number of video packets to cache for the destination vehicle in each clone and to allow sequential video packet delivery to achieve better QoE. The determination is based on the resource ability parameters related to data caching and forwarding in each clone. Finally, we provide data delivery synchronization, enabling each clone to provide seamless forwarding of its video streaming packets to the destination vehicle in its communication coverage in order to achieve high QoE without any buffering effects on the video streaming. The synchronization ensures packet calibration for chronological order forwarding based on the delay calculation for packet loss reduction and the mobility estimation for the destination vehicle. To evaluate the performance of the proposed scheme, we compare it with four existing schemes by simulations: TSF, which is the basic trajectory based single packet transmission scheme; BAHG, which is the enhanced version of the TSF that considers vehicle’s trajectory to predict the intersections passing by; DQLTV, which is the video streaming service that supports QoE only; and GeoQoE, which is the video streaming services that supports QoE and QoS with geographical scheme. All schemes are implemented using the NS-3  simulatoThe remainder of this paper is organized as follows. First, we present the related work of our Clone scheme in The objective of this study is to route video streaming data to a vehicle moving toward its destination according to its trajectory in a VANET. In this section, we review the studies related to our study aim. First, we first examine the studies on data delivery to a destination in VANETs. Numerous routing protocols have been proposed to support data delivery to a destination vehicle in VANETs. Generally, they are categorized into two routing approaches in VANETs: topology- and position-based routing. Topology-based routing protocols, such as AODV , DSDV 1, and dynThe second category is the position-based routing approach. It exploits only the pure position information of nodes, instead of the topology information, to route data to destinations. Thus, it is considered as a promising routing approach in the dynamic environments of VANETs. In position-based routing, a source node encapsulates the position of the destination node in each data packet and subsequently forwards the packet to one of the one-hop neighbor nodes toward the position. The neighbor node receiving the data packet is geographically closest to the position of the destination node. This process is called greedy forwarding in geographic routing. Early position-based routing protocols only used greedy forwarding, which cannot prevent frequent occurrence of local maximum traps. A local maximum trap is a state in which a vehicle cannot find any neighboring vehicle closer to the destination than itself. GPSR and GPCR are two well-known protocols of this category, which both move out of local traps by complex perimeter routing. In ,15, it wBecause a vehicle generally moves according to its trajectory toward its destination, routing protocols ,23,24 exFor satisfying the demands of multimedia streaming services and applications in VANETs, many routing schemes ,27,37,41Thus, many routing protocols have been proposed to support the QoS and QoE of video streaming services in VANETs. For supporting the QoS requirements of multimedia services, Lakas et al.  proposedAs we have examined before, in In this section, we present the proposed scheme for supporting video streaming services in VANETs. First, we explain the network model and the overview of our Clone scheme. Subsequently, we describe in detail the four phases composing our Clone scheme. VANETs pose a demanding challenge for the fulfillment of the stringent requirements for video streaming using the mentioned communication technologies. The main challenges are a result of the high dynamic topology, extensive coverage problem, and intensely varying density of VANETs. In addition to these challenges, any video streaming solution must comply with some QoS requirements. CISCO has defined some requirements for general video streaming. The delay should not be longer than 4–5 s, and the loss should not exceed 5%. Bandwidth requirements depend on applications, and jitter imposes no significant requirements. The transmission of a video demands the use of significant network resources; however, it cannot be excessive. Therefore, video streaming solutions for VANETs have to fulfill all these requirements limited to a reasonable occupation of the wireless medium.The proposed scheme aims to minimize the communication delay between the user vehicles and the APs, having the best quality based on the CNQI metrics. Furthermore, the proposed scheme has a process to select the best nodes in the topology and uses a video packet distribution algorithm for a seamless streaming service to the user vehicles. Distributed nodes in the topology are fixed with a random position and the nodes density maintains the specific rate. Additionally, the clone node located at the end of the path to a user vehicle has a link stickiness process to forward the distributed video packets. Before the scenario, numerical integration of all communication nodes is inevitable to reduce the overall delay. Moreover, the integration can be a part of the proposed scheme. Each node maintains updated CNQI values based on a connection performance test along with the nodes of the neighbors in the one-hop range. The connection performance test focuses on enhancing the QoS values, such as bandwidth, bottleneck inflation in devices, and error rates.The proposed scheme can be divided into CNQI measurement, clone node selection, packet distribution optimization, and synchronization phases. In the CNQI measurement phase, the CNQI value is calculated, which unifies the resource state and the availability of the nodes in the network into a single numerical value by a mathematical formula. The clone node selection phase selects relay nodes as the clone nodes for the proposed scheme. In this phase, the number of nodes and the locations of the nodes are determined based on the calculated CNQI information. Using the decided number of clone nodes, the proposed scheme initiates the packet distribution optimization phase. In this phase, the packets for transmission to a destination are distributed to all clone nodes for real-time seamless high packet forwarding. In the synchronization phase, a one-hop link is connected along with the selected clone nodes and the user vehicle. It utilizes the user trajectory information for a seamless link connection between the last and following link connection times of the clone nodes. Thus, the proposed scheme conducts the phases mentioned above in sequence to provide a high-packet data content service through communication between the selected clone nodes and the user vehicle.In previous studies, many search techniques have been proposed for a single packet or small data transmission. However, the existing node information measurements are unsuitable for live video streaming services, owing to the low reflect rate of real-time node scenarios. Real-time resource availability information is crucial for live streaming support for calculating the optimal forwarding path to a service user with high-quality load balancing. The CNQI is an indicator of calculating the network efficiency of the overall nodes, which affects the user QoS and QoE of the overall topology. Several factors affect the video streaming service performance of the protocol. The geographical factor affects the error rate of a node, and it varies with moving obstacles. It is difficult to calculate and satisfy user QoS if the real-time topology is not considered. The video streaming data that a user receives have a quality status. If the transmitted video data have noise and delay when a user plays them, the user QoS will be decreased. Therefore, analyzing the overall topology by the CNQI technique is inevitable for user QoS and QoE. Using the CNQI scores of the nodes, we can determine which nodes cannot forward the multimedia data with a high MOS and SSIM score owing to obstacles and overload. The CNQI provides the information from reliable data, such as bandwidth of a node, current usage of a node, available resource by hardware score, and neighbor distribution rate in the range. Each node broadcasts a packet to estimate the quality of the video transmission in the one-hop range. The packet header includes the MOS and SSIM quality test data about the QoS and the QoE; then they compute their CNQI score and share each other. Finally, all nodes in the topology share the CNQI scores for multimedia transmission.H represents the performance of a node in case of hardware, and it ranges from 1 to 10 based on the response time and the hardware score. A single packet transmission test can calculate the hardware score in the communication range of a AP to the destination vehicle without any obstacles. B is the bandwidth of the AP, and the bandwidth usage is calculated by the number E represents the error rates due to the geographic feature and network topology of the node. We modify the factors in the CNQI equation and describe them in detail below. Equation .(1)UNetA high CNQI value shows the efficient network performance of a node when the node forwards packets in the networks. Furthermore, using the CNQI value, the proposed scheme has a traffic distribution effect on the overall usage of the nodes. In addition, the proposed scheme chooses relay nodes using the CNQI values in the forwarding phase, and because a CNQI value shifts with the allocated user number in the nodes, node accessibility can be improved. It is also possible to prevent a scenario where a sizeable geographic advantage causes numerous users to collect much traffic on one node, thereby degrading the efficiency of the node. In the clone node selection phase, all nodes keep updating the data table, which contains real-time information based on the assumption that all nodes keep updating their CNQI information. Because the table contains the information on variable factors, we can determine the status of the nodes in real time for realizing live streaming service. When the nodes have received the neighbor node searching for packets, the proposed scheme identifies the potential relay nodes because the nodes reflect the CNQI information.In the clone node selection phase, the best quality nodes located on the trajectory of the user vehicle are chosen. A clone node is a relay node that maintains synchronization with the user vehicle toward the destination. In the topology, many nodes participate in multimedia transmission. All relay nodes have a different capability and availability for communication owing to various reasons, such as hardware, network status, and topology status of the neighbor nodes. A clone node is selected for its high QoS and QoE for the user vehicle. It is an end node through which the multimedia packet passes to reach the user vehicle. Therefore, choosing the best clone node for the proposed scheme is the best approach to improve transmission efficiency. The CNQI score of a clone node must be higher than those of any nearby relay nodes because significant tasks are assigned to a clone node. A clone nodes has two primary roles, which are explained below: caching the multimedia contents for the user vehicle and maintaining synchronization with the user vehicle.Clone node selection is the process of determining the number of relay nodes that a user will use for receiving the data. The first relay node forwards simultaneously content searching messages and one-hop neighbors CNQI searching messages. After the first relay node selection, the N-th node receives the user request content messages, including the content information. Subsequently, the proposed scheme determines the number of N-th nodes that will be used based on the trajectory of the user, CNQI value, content information, and topology status. If the size of the content is sufficiently large to be completed by one relay node, this process is omitted.Seamless connection of the clone nodes with a user vehicle that has high mobility is a challenging issue. For this, the link connection of the previous clone node with the user vehicle must be connected until the next clone node connects with the user vehicle. The proposed scheme estimates overlapping geographical areas among the clone nodes located on the user vehicle trajectory. The overlapping geographical areas are estimated by the communication range of the clone nodes. If the overlapping area is insufficient to provide the transmission time, link disconnection may occur. However, if the overlapping area is extremely large, the number of clone nodes in the proposed scheme will be increased, leading to bandwidth dissipation. Thus, the overlapping area has to be optimized by the escape time of the user vehicle. Euclidean distance calculation applied for the optimization uses the entry and escape points of the overlapping area. From the optimization area, the guard band for distributed packet forwarding can be calculated. The guard band prevents QoS degradation caused by packet corruption and unstable transmission service owing to vehicle mobility.The minimum guard band Equation , the appConsidering the QoS and QoE effectiveness of the proposed scheme, a clone node should be located on the trajectory of the user vehicle with a wide-open area that leads to minimum obstacles for communication.Based on the guard band equations and the CNQI for improving the QoS and QoE, all nodes should have the possibility of being relay and clone nodes, and a clone node must have extensive content storage for link connection and caching the algorithm.We designed a packet distribution algorithm and a synchronization algorithm for link connection based on the mobility of the vehicle and the content playtime. For the algorithms, a clone node must have an AP to receive the computed data.At the end of the relay nodes, the last node is called a clone node, which replicates the network information of user vehicle for link connection. The clone node has a replicated identity (ID) from the user vehicle. The content data of the source identify the clone node as a user vehicle for convenience data forwarding in turn. A clone node must meet certain requirements, which are summarized as follows:In large content data transmission cases, one replicated clone node with a few relay nodes cannot forward all content data to a user vehicle owing to the size of the content compared to the storage in the nodes and the mobility of the user vehicle. Consequently, the user vehicle does not have sufficient time to receive the content data. We proposed a clone node selection algorithm to solve this problem by reasonably selecting the relay nodes as clone nodes based on the CNQI. Furthermore, the content must be distributed over the relay and clone nodes owing to extensiveness of the content data in video streaming transmission. Therefore, we suggested packet distribution optimization of the received data. The CNQI information from the user vehicle, such as trajectory, speed, and request content size, is used to select the clone nodes. In addition, the information of the relay node is crucial for choosing the clone nodes. The information obtained from the localization devices added to the user vehicle is variable, owing to the geographic distribution of the nodes.After the clone nodes are selected based on the mobility of the user vehicle, node distribution, bandwidth usage of the nodes, and other information, the source node, which contains the contents, distributes the content data and subsequently forwards them to each clone node. All clone nodes receive the distributed packets respectively in order by time, which depends on the synchronization time of the user vehicle with each clone node and the time computed when the source node requests neighbor nodes on the user vehicle trajectory. To process the packet distribution optimization, we denote Using the factors we mentioned above, we can calculate the packet amount for the transmission to the user vehicle from each clone node. The content data are distributed and forwarded to each node based on the equation. The amount, Equation .(4)ICloBased on Equation , the amoThe distributed content packets are forwarded to the selected clone node through the calculated path, which is composed of the selected relay nodes based on the CNQI. Each selected relay node has a time table for forwarding the distributed content packet, in order for the the packets to get distributed. Even if the user vehicle has high mobility, the selected relay nodes and the clone nodes can form a link connection based on the time table of the nodes and the trajectory of the vehicle. The method to obtain a seamless link connection between the user vehicle and the clone nodes is explained in the next After the content packets are forwarded to each clone node, the user vehicle moving toward its destination based on its trajectory receives the content packets from the clone nodes when it passes through the connection area of the clone nodes. In urban road-map distinct features, vehicles naturally experience traffic interruption due to signal lights, traffic, and other factors.The message exchange task is the first step of the synchronization phase. In the topology, there are various vehicles on the road within the communication range of a clone node. We have to identify the right vehicle to transmit the streaming data to the user. To satisfy the conditions, when a random vehicle enters the clone node communication range, the clone node exchanges an ID qualifying message with the vehicle to determine if the vehicle is the target. The basis is the data packet header with the ID of the data-requested vehicle.After the massage exchange, we calculate the data forwarding delay in the user vehicle to support the mobility of the vehicle based on the query and reply packets, which is one signal time. The existing protocols do not support the mobility of a vehicle in live streaming services ,30. FinaPacket calibration is conducted for a seamless link connection with the user vehicle after the next step of the data forwarding delay calculation. Packet calibration considers two scenarios: when the user vehicle is slower and faster than the states based on the estimated time owing to the urban map features, respectively. The allocated content data, Equation  expresseWe consider two conditions for seamless transmission with high QoS and QoE. Condition In this section, we present the evaluation of the performance of the proposed scheme called Clone by comparing with the existing protocols. For this, we implemented both the existing protocols and Clone in the NS-3 simulator. In the next subsections, we first explain the simple basic concepts of the existing protocols for implementing them in the simulator, and subsequently describe the simulation model and scenario. Finally, we compare the performance of Clone with those of the existing protocols in diverse aspects based on the simulation results.For evaluating the performance of Clone, we use four existing protocols as comparison protocols. The first one is BAHG , which pThe Clone scheme is compared to four other schemes: a basic non-streaming service for the TSF scheme, mobility prediction scheme for the BAHG scheme, streaming service for the DQLTV scheme, and QoE-based streaming service scheme. The comparisons are conducted to show the advantages of our clone-based proposed scheme in high-packet live video streaming service with mobility support as well as the performance improvements over the other categorized schemes. Video streaming through VANETs is challenging, primarily owing to the amount of data forwarding. A high-definition quality video streaming service under the Internet scheme has a required maximum flow of 6 Mbps. Thus, with the WLAN network using the 802.11p standard, the binary throughput is approximately 54 Mbps for providing QoS and QoE over VANETs. However, using an ideal environment for obtaining the best QoS and QoE performance in real VANETs is unrealistic. Consequently, we focus on real map data for location setting of the RSUs and relay nodes for the simulation.Regarding basic non-streaming service, TSF is the representative scheme using vehicle trajectory for comparison to the proposed scheme. In TSF, a localization system is installed in vehicles to provide the movement path of a vehicle moving toward the destination. Using the mobility information from the localization system in the TSF scheme, TSF calculates the expected delay of a road segment for video packet forwarding. For basic streaming service, DQLTV is the representative protocol for comparison to the proposed scheme. DQLTV utilizes multi-hop level forwarding and delay, quality of the link, and a link lifetime aware routing protocol suitable for video streaming service. DQLTV adopts the role of maximizing the link quality and the link lifetime as well as minimizing the distance between the hops and the overall delay for reducing the frame loss. However, there are unconsidered factors that affect the overall performance of the video transmission, such as QoS and QoE. The Geo-QoE scheme is an improved scheme using QoS and QoE factors to enhance the QoE of a user vehicle. For the mobility support scheme, BAHG is the representative protocol for comparison of the mobility support part for video streaming services. BAHG derives the trajectory of a vehicle for minimizing the number of intermediate intersection nodes while considering connectivity. Moreover, backbone nodes track the movement of a source and a destination vehicle for providing the connectivity status around an intersection. We consider three of the challenges in a video streaming service in the experiments. Our proposed scheme is compared against multiple QoS and QoE factors, respectively.In VANETs with video streaming services, wireless communication systems encounter challenges due to the characteristic of the wireless environment. First, a wireless communication cannot provide the same satisfaction level to all users in terms of the QoS and the QoE, and it cannot cover extensive content in a vehicle, such as infotainment, which is composed of massive data content. Moreover, the massive data content is associated with a risk of packet duplication, forwarding error, and other problems that decline the user satisfaction. Second, mobility changes of the vehicles in VANETs are inevitable, and a wireless communication channel can change rapidly owing to the variation in the distance between the source and the user vehicle, which have high mobility. Interference is caused by mobility changes, and urban map characteristics are distinct consequences of the mobility of a vehicle. Third, the video streaming service can be conducted on a support, such as 802.11p. Furthermore, delivering each chunk to the relay and clone nodes in real time is susceptible if the protocol is derived from other standards.However, the 802.11p norm is the third standard using waveband 5.835 GHz to 5.923 GHz frequency band with orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) signaling. The communication protocol used in the existing ITS environment is DSRC, mainly used for short-distance communication. However, with the ever-changing Internet of Things environment and the development of smart cars, it was necessary to develop a communication technology that can recognize traffic conditions on the road in real-time to prevent traffic accidents in advance and smoothly adjust the traffic flow. Wireless Access in Vehicular Environment (WAVE) is a standard developed to meet these requirements. WAVE is a wireless communication technology that delivers dangerous situations on roads or vehicles to vehicles in a vehicle network with high-speed mobility (up to 200 km/h) and short communication exchange time. V2X  communication is possible in real-time, even in high-speed driving conditions. It is a source technology that prevents accidents by processing real-time information such as road conditions and vehicle accidents.The video content structure used for the experiments, H264 AVC flux, is composed of image frames. H264 AVC is a global video structure also known as MPGE-4 part 10, and it is a successor of earlier standards MPEG-2 and MPEG-4. The simulation model used H264 AVC for video streaming scenarios to forward the content packets. H264 AVC has variable bit rates depending on the color of the composed image in the video. It is suitable for comparing with various color bind videos based on QoS and QoE factors.QoS is a video content quality measurement based on user experiences. QoS parameters can be categorized as opportunities to provide high-performance video streaming services. To maximize the QoS that a user experiences, several parameters—bandwidth media, control of jitter and controlled period, and decreased packet loss—must be considered and tuned. In our simulations, end-to-end delay and packet delivery ratios based on the jitter as well as the packet loss that results when forwarding the video content data were considered as QoS parameters. As already mentioned about the QoE, if video streaming does not consider the QoS in packet forwarding, the protocol will encounter crucial problems in the transfer and routing process of voice and video quality.The perceived video quality is measured by the two most commonly used QoE parameters: MOS and peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR). The PSNR is the standard metric for measuring the objective video quality. This parameter is expressed as a function of the mean standard error between the original and received video frames. If a video frame experiences either transmission or overdue loss, it is considered to be dropped and may be concealed by copying the payload from the last received frame before it. Metric SSIM used as an image/video metric to measure the received frame quality based on its structural, luminance, and contrast similarity. The SSIM, measured using MSU tools, improves the MOS and PSNR metrics by revealing the perceived quality of the received video sequences. The SSIM differs from the PSNR because it approximates structural distortion, instead of the pixel-by-pixel errors, to evaluate useful information to human eyes.In our experiments, the 802.11p standard for ad-hoc network QoS is derived. Three classes of video files with variable bit rates of 30 fps are considered. Each video file is composed of night view scenes (which combine multiple colors), ocean scenes (combining blue colors), and sunset scenes (combining red colors). The resolutions of the three videos are 720P high definition (HD), 1280 × 720 progressive scan, and 923,600 pixels (0.92 MP) per frame. The routing protocol for the packet transmission to the relay and clone nodes uses GPCR and AODV. We consider two binary flows: 11 Mbps as the minimum speed and 54 Mbps as the maximum speed. The detail of the parameters are in We use a network simulator (NS-3) to simulate the video streaming service with high packet data on the Seattle city map. The vehicles requesting messages and receiving the video content are placed on the Seattle city map of the network. A set of 50 requesting vehicles is placed in an area of 3000 m × 3000 m, and the 300 nodes that take the roles of relay and clone nodes located in the network area follow the features of the urban map. The mobility model of the vehicles on the map follow random mobility with the Manhattan mobility model. The CNQI information is already computed and shared with the neighbor nodes when a scenario is initiated, such as a real-map scenario, for the proposed scheme experiments. Therefore, we ignore the delay of the topology setting time for the overall delay estimation time.However, Using the same experimental conditions in In this article, we have proposed live video streaming services that support the mobility of the vehicle by the Clone scheme. We have formulated CNQI to figure out the topology and status of the nodes in video transmission to select the best relay nodes, a packet distribution optimization method with guard band for mobility support, and a link connection phase for a seamless video streaming service that reacts to various unforeseeable circumstances. Based on the CNQI algorithm, we developed high QoS and QoE video streaming services with high mobility situations in real-time.The proposed protocol, called Clone, derives a conclusion from the various processes in this paper to solve the three challenging issues in the video streaming service of VANETs. In large video streaming circumstances with high mobility, such as in moving vehicles, the video data should be divided into many chunks. The divided chunks have to be forwarded to one of the nodes on the requested vehicle trajectory. The Clone protocol has a process to distribute the requested video content data forward to the clone APs. The data distribution algorithm from the proposed protocol gives enormous advantages in load balance in the topology and the seamless data transmission. The proposed protocol considers the overall topology information to deliver the distributed video content data to Clone APs. It prevents intermittent data loss while the relay node is delivering the requested video data. This leads to a stable transmission of the proposed protocol.Moreover, the proposed protocol calculates the topology QoS and QoE information by CNQI measurement. The load balancing of the topology in the video streaming service shows better performance from the proposed protocol than other topology measurement protocols in the simulation results. Various factors that do not get the eye in the compared protocols, such as the energy of the APs, the number of subscribers, the bandwidth of the AP, and others from the CNQI measurement factors, accepted the proposed protocol to analyze the topology information. To improve the QoS and QoE in a video streaming service with a high mobility situation, the CNQI measurement in the proposed protocol gives better results than other compared protocols in QoS and QoE. As the proposed protocol distributes the contents data to forward the video packets, the data caching process should be stored until the requested vehicle receives the data. The compared protocols do not have an effective caching mechanism for QoS and QoE. Hence, the simulation results show that the proposed protocol is adaptable in various topology changes such as density, mobility, and energy of APs.The experiments have been tested under various conditions such as communication range changes, video file sizes, hop counts, speed of the vehicles, and AP density in the topology. Thus, we draw simulation results about the end-to-end delay, PDR, PSNR, MOS, and SSIM. The results show that the Clone scheme gives 10% to 20% better results than other video streaming services in overall performance with QoS and QoE and 60% to 80% better results than other comparison packet delivery routings. The simulation results have verified better QoS and QoE in the massive mobility changes of urban map features. Besides, the results have demonstrated that our proposed scheme could perform much better than other schemes in QoS and QoE with load balancing.