The Internet is commonly used by patients to acquire health information. To date, no studies have evaluated the quality of information available on YouTube regarding lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM). Our aim was to determine the quality and content of YouTube videos regarding LAM and to compare the information provided with current knowledge and guidelines about the disease.The first 200 video hits on YouTube in English for the search term “lymphangioleiomyomatosis” were recorded. All videos suitable for patient education on LAM were included. Video quality was analyzed independently by two investigators utilizing the Health on the Net (HONcode) score, which assesses whether websites provide understandable, accessible, and trustworthy health information; the DISCERN score, which evaluates the quality of information about treatment decisions; and a newly developed LAM-related content score (LRCS) with 31 guideline elements.The search identified 64 eligible videos. The “engagement rate” of 0.3 was low, with a median number of views of 408 , a median of 4 likes (range 0–2082), and the majority (53%) receiving a low HONcode score (≤ 2) and only 10% of videos achieving a high score (> 5). The median DISCERN score was 28 , indicating poor video quality and reliability. The median LRCS was 8  and videos frequently failed to provide sources of information.Online resources could contribute to the limited and often inaccurate information available to patients with LAM, with only a few YouTube videos providing high-quality patient-relevant information.The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12931-022-02022-9. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis (LAM) is a rare and incurable lung disease that occurs mainly in women as either sporadic (S-LAM) or tuberous sclerosis complex-associated LAM (TSC-LAM) , 2. LAM Despite existing guidelines , physiciThe objectives of this study were to analyze the content and quality of the most frequently accessed YouTube videos on the topic of LAM, and to compare the content of these videos to clinical practice guidelines , 8. We hThis was a retrospective systematic assessment of YouTube videos about LAM that were targeted to patients.This work was part of an investigation in LAM with patient involvement. An ethics approval was obtained accordingly (EK Number S-758/2020).On the cut-off date of April 20, 2020, the first 200 video hits on YouTube were recorded for the search term “lymphangioleiomyomatosis”. The search was performed on a Windows system  with a newly installed browser (Mozilla Firefox) after deleting the browser history and cookies to avoid influencing the results by previous searches. USA was chosen as the location of the English-language search. Videos were downloaded and saved. Any video containing information for laypersons suitable for patient education about LAM was included, which required that a video includes at least one of the following: definition, symptoms, risk factors, diagnostic tests, management, and/or long-term sequelae. In the case of a video playlist with multiple videos, only the first video in each case was included, unless it was a playlist with consecutive chapters on LAM education. Videos were excluded if they were presented in a language other than English, were duplicates or videos without audio. If inclusion or exclusion criteria were not clearly met, the video was re-evaluated by the second reviewer (HW) and a consensus decision was made.The metadata of each video  were recorded for each video when available. The “viewing rate” (number of views/number of days since upload × 100) and “engagement rate” ([number of likes + dislikes + comments]/number of views × 100) were calculated for each video . Videos The DISCERN instrument is a validated set of 16 questions used to assess the quality of written consumer information about treatment decisions, with each answer ranging from 1  to 5   .Data are presented as absolute numbers and percentages, and medians and ranges (minimum–maximum) as appropriate.Chi-squared tests were used to analyze contingency table distributions. Between-group comparisons were made using t-tests, Wilcoxon rank sum tests, ANOVA, or Kruskal–Wallis H tests, as appropriate. Multiple linear regression was performed to evaluate the association of video characteristics  with both quality  and content (sum of the LRCS). Unsupervised hierarchical clustering (R package ‘ComplexHeatmap’) by video and HON code score, DISCERN, and LRCS items was performed to identify associations between website category and video quality or content. A p ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant for all analyses.The video selection process is shown in Fig. The number of views were higher for videos from academic institutions and governmental organizations  and news or media  than from independent medical professional  or independent nonmedical users  (p = 0.02) . Unsupervised hierarchical clustering demonstrated that few videos achieved high scores, especially for questions related to treatment and risks of therapy, further resources for information, and publication date Fig. .Fig. 2DIUsing the HONcode score to assess general video quality, the criteria authoritativeness and complementarity were met in 80% and 78% of the videos. Each of the other six HONcode principles were fulfilled in less than 35% of videos. Source data was not referenced in 70% of videos and 88% of videos provided no transparency or contact information for further information or support. Privacy and accurate authorship disclosures were made in only 8% and 13% of the videos, respectively. Figure Videos mentioned a median of 8 (range 0 to 29) out of the 31 content items of the LRCS, corresponding to 26% of the essential information contained in the guidelines Fig. . Most viComparison of videos across categories demonstrated a trend towards a higher median content score in videos provided by academic institutions or governmental organizations  and by independent medical professionals , compared to videos provided by news or media  or by independent non-medical users  (p = 0.19).2 = 0.142, Fig. 2 = 0.003, Additional file 2 < 0.030), Additional file 2 < 0.01, Additional file Unadjusted linear regression revealed a weak positive correlation between content score and viewing rate (R2 = 0.0287) contribution of the content score, but not HONcode score or sum DISCERN score, to the engagement rate . In models assigned constant values for the HONcode score and sum DISCERN score, an increase in the content score by one point was associated with an increase of the engagement rate of 0.006 (p = 0.01).On multivariable linear regression, no explanation for the video ranking  or viewing rate  was found, when considering the HONcode score, sum DISCERN score, and content score as independent variables. There was a low (adjusted RThere was no specific information available on coronavirus infection for LAM patients (Covid-19) in any video 3 months after the first cases in Europe .Our study is the first to investigate the content and quality of YouTube videos as a source of information for patients with LAM. Our data show that there is limited information available on YouTube for patients with LAM, with relevant differences in quality between the available videos that are unrelated to search rank or video source. Videos from independent medical professional tended to have a slightly higher HON foundation score, whereas News and media were consistently rated as “low”. Regarding the DISCERN score, highest rating was achieved for independent medical professional and lowest rating for news/media. Within the LRCS, videos from independent medical professional and academic/governmental institutions tended to perform slightly better compared to videos provided by news and media or by independent non-medical users.We found considerable deficits in video quality scores by HONcode and DISCERN evaluation for all source types. The majority of videos had low to moderate adherence to HONcode principles, with only ten out of 64 videos (16%) having a high total HONcode score. This is similar to findings in a previous study of information on YouTube regarding IPF, another rare respiratory disease, where only 7% of videos reached a high score . HoweverVideo content was assessed using a newly created LAM-related content score (LRCS), which evaluated features of and therapies for LAM. On average, only 25% of all content items were mentioned in videos, and the majority of LAM-related content items were incompletely addressed. In a similar study evaluating patient education videos in IPF, only a median of 17% of content items were addressed , with noThe diagnosis of LAM can lead to considerable uncertainty and anxiety , 30. TheA comparison between YouTube and vimeo analysing the frequency of use and the content and quality of health information should be a topic for further research.More suitable patient education videos may be found on the LAM-foundation homepage , but theMost evaluated videos were outdated, with only six uploaded in the year preceding analysis. The only available medical therapy for LAM, sirolimus, was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in May 2015 and by the European Medicines Agency (EMA) in September 2018 , 36. TweSome limitations may apply to our study. Our data can only be applied to English speaking people and countries, where YouTube is available. YouTube’s search algorithm leads to user-dependent results in a dynamic system with inherent limitations such that each user may get different search results . Since YThe lack of knowledge about LAM as a rare disease is challenging for patients and physicians. LAM-related videos on YouTube frequently provide incomplete and low-quality information, especially regarding treatment options. Clinicians and patient advocacy organizations should collaborate to provide the best available sources of information for their patients with this rare disease.Additional file 1. Additional figures and Tables.


Short videos play a key role in the process of tourism destination promotion, and attractive short videos can bring tourist flow and economic income growth to tourist attractions. Many tourist attractions in China have achieved remarkable success through short video promotion.via short tourism videos in order to shed light on tourism destination strategy and facilitate adaptation to market development trends.The purpose of this study was to investigate the behavioral characteristics of short video users browsing short tourism videos and explore what factors of short video affected users’ tourism intention. This study also compared which factors were most important in triggering users’ tourism intention in marketing communication This study developed a conceptual model by extending the stimulus-organism-response (SOR) model with technology acceptance factors  and short video factors  to examine users’ tourism intention. A convenience random sampling technique was used to distribute the questionnaire in Chinese city of Nanjing. Four hundred twenty-one respondents participated in the questionnaire, with 395 providing valid data.The results of the SEM analysis show that all posed hypotheses  are confirmed except for (Perceived usefulness - > Tourism intention), which is not confirmed.The findings of this study will help fill the gap in previous research on the relationship between short video influencing factors and users’ tourism intention, thus contributing to the academic research on emerging short videos and the endorsement of destinations promoted by technological innovation. ConsumeHigh-quality short tourism videos display the natural scenery and cultural highlights of tourist attractions through short video platforms such as TikTok , and pacFrom the perspective of tourism destinations and short video creators, it is important to understand how to develop video content based on potential consumers and what factors make the media effective . After iIn this study, we investigated the basic information about the population, content and habits involved in browsing short tourism videos, as well as the impact of the technology and content of short videos on tourism intention . We consTo develop the conceptual model by extending the SOR model with external factors related to short video and investigate the impact of short video on tourism intention.To investigate the proposed study framework using AMOS 26.0 and structural equation modeling (SEM).The rest of this study is organized as follows: Section 2 provides a literature review through the lenses of short videos, tourism intention, and the SOR model. Section 3 tackles hypothesis development and the research model. Section 4 presents the research methodology, and Section 5 shows the results, which are discussed in Section 6. Section 7 provides the theoretical and practical implications. Section 8 demonstrates the limitations and offers future recommendations, and Section 9 concludes the study.2.2.1.Research Report on the Development of Short Video Industry  and the environmental perspective . At present, there are relatively few studies on the influence of short-video-related factors on tourism intention. As a new media form, short videos have great advantages in recording real performance of events and highlighting beautiful scenery, but it is unknown whether they can attract tourists. In addition, perceived ease of use (PEOU) and perceived usefulness (PU) from the TAM are often used as prerequisites for the study of behavioral intention. By combining the content characteristics of short videos with the theoretical factors of technology acceptance, this paper constructs an extended SOR model to explain and predict users’ tourism intention.2.3.Although the SOR theory was proposed prior to the advent of the Internet for offline behavior, it is now widely used in research into online user behavior. For example, In keeping with previous studies, we choose the SOR model to explore the impact of short videos on tourism intention, using short videos factors as stimulus variables, telepresence and flow experience as organism variables, and tourism intention as the response variable. The research model for this study was the extended SOR model with the addition of the technology acceptance factors and short video variables.In this paper, perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) in the TAM model are used as perceptual variables to measure the flow experience and telepresence of users when watching tourism short videos, so as to judge the impact on travel intention.2.4.Based on TAM and flow theory, this paper extends the SOR model by using the characteristic variables of short videos and constructs a research model of users’ tourism intention to verify the impact of perceived enjoyment (PE), perceived professionalism (PP), perceived usefulness (PU), perceived interactivity (PI), perceived ease of use (PEOU), telepresence (TP) and flow experience (FL) on users’ tourism intention (TI). The research model is shown in According to the tourism intention model, the following hypotheses are:H1a: Telepresence (TP) has a positive impact on users’ travel intention (TI).H1b: Telepresence (TP) has a positive impact on flow experience (FL).H2: Flow experience (FL) has a positive impact on users’ tourism intention (TI).H3a: Perceived enjoyment (PE) has a positive impact on telepresence (TP).H3b: Perceived enjoyment (PE) has a positive impact on flow experience (FL).H4a: Perceived professionalism (PP) has a positive impact on telepresence (TP).H4b: Perceived professionalism (PP) has a positive impact on flow experience (FL).H5a: Perceived interactivity (PI) has a positive impact on telepresence (TP).H5b: Perceived interactivity (PI) has a positive impact on flow experience (FL).H6a: Perceived usefulness (PU) has a positive impact on telepresence (TP).H6b: Perceived usefulness (PU) has a positive impact on flow experience (FL).H7a: Perceived ease of use (PEOU) has a positive impact on telepresence (TP).H7b: Perceived ease of use (PEOU) has a positive impact on flow experience (FL).3.3.1.The participants in this study are short video lovers—defined here as people of any age who often browse various new media platforms . Short video lovers are divided into two main categories: creators of original video content and the audience watching the videos. It has been found that the vast majority of users believe that they have the freedom to choose short video apps in terms of time, place and content—including relevance to personal interests and hobbies . TherefoThe participants were required to meet the following criteria: (1) they were short video lovers who often browsed short video and (2) they volunteered for the study. We used the convenience sampling technique in collecting the primary data, which were from the Chinese city of Nanjing. 3.2.In order to explore the influencing factors of short tourism videos on users’ tourism intention, this paper conducts a questionnaire survey of people who have a habit of browsing short videos. Based on previous studies, the authors understood the possible initial measurement items, conducted small-scale interviews with short tourism video lovers and professionals in relevant research fields, and then designed a questionnaire. The questionnaire partly adopted a Chinese translation of the scale from previous study, with some new items designed according to the interview results. The resulting closed questionnaire includes an item on “whether you have watched short tourism videos,” so as to eliminate invalid responses. To ensure the quality of the questionnaire, a small-scale pre-survey was carried out with 30 college students who often browse short videos, and the reliability and validity of the questionnaire were analyzed. In combination with the opinions of five professionals in the field, some measurement items involved in the questionnaire were modified to produce a formal questionnaire.The questionnaire is divided into two parts, the first of which collects users’ basic information: gender, age, interest in tourism and viewing situation of short tourism videos. The second part surveys users’ tourism intention after browsing short tourism videos. The indicators representing the constructs were adopted from previous studies . The que3.3.www.wjx.cn), which was unconnected to any institutional system from which the research samples were collected. In order to protect the confidentiality and anonymity of the respondents, the questionnaire data did not collect the names, email addresses or phone numbers of the respondents. In addition, demographic data are collected by grade and subject.The data was collected using a third-party online survey software “questionnaire star”  is a multivariate analysis technique used to estimate various relationships among observed variables and latent variables . A full 3.5.3.5.1.Short tourism videos can create a better experience for users to participate interactively in a strongly telepresent setting . When us3.5.2.The concept of the flow experience originates from flow theory as proposed by psychologist When browsing a short tourism video, users will be continually stimulated by the scenery and characters in the video. Spectacular scenery and rich scene switching make it easier to stimulate the enjoyment of the audience and make them enter a committed flow experience . Moreove3.5.3.The previous research on short video content mainly involves enjoyment, professionalism and interactivity .Perceived enjoyment, also known as perceived pleasure, is an internal motivation with a significant impact on users’ engaging in a certain activity; it can also be used to measure the change of flow . It is tContent professionalism reflects the knowledge, experience and ability of video creators in a certain field and affects the evaluation and perception of users . When stPerceived interactivity refers to the communication and interaction between short video users . Short v3.5.4.In TAM, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use significantly affect the intention of using technology . When usIn this study, perceived usefulness refers to users’ perception that short tourism videos are not only interesting, but also useful for individuals to obtain information, learn about tourism options and improve cultural literacy . Users aPerceived ease of use answers the question of how convenient it is to use short video apps or platforms. As mobile media that integrate editing, sorting, sharing and viewing, short video apps have simple operation and strong functionality . Smooth 4.4.1.Of the 395 participants who submitted a valid questionnaire, 186 were male (47.1%) and 209 were female (52.9%). Among them, the users of tourism short videos are mainly people under the age of 30, who accounted for 69.5% of our valid respondents; 22.1% were in the age group 30–50, and the remaining 8.4% were over 55. 80.6% of users said they like traveling, while only 6.3% of users said they do not. In terms of video browsing frequency, 28.9% of users often browse tourism short videos, 35.1% do so occasionally, 31.7% rarely, and only 4.3% never browse them. Most short video lovers browse tourism scenery (78.6%) and tourism strategies (82.6%), while fewer browse tourism history stories (49.1%) and other categories (19.4%). Most spend 5 to 30 min (69.4%) in a single browsing session, but some users indulge in short video for a long time (23.7%).4.2.The reliability of the scale is determined by the internal consistency coefficient (Cronbach’s α), average variance extracted (AVE) and composite reliability (CR). As shown in It can be seen from the above 4.3.Amos26.0 is used to study the overall fitting evaluation and hypothesis test of the model. It can be seen from p value, as shown in p is less than 0.05; these hypotheses are accepted. The absolute value of the critical ratio C.R. of 4 paths is less than 1.96, and the significance probability value p is greater than 0.05; these hypotheses are rejected  on tourism intention by extending the SOR model with these factors. The findings revealed that perceived enjoyment and perceived ease of use are significant determinants of both telepresence and flow experience, which in turn positively associate with users’ tourism intention. This implies that the expectations for perceived enjoyment and perceived ease of use are significantly correlated with telepresence and flow experience in browsing short tourism videos. These results support the findings of a recent preliminary study which revealed that the convenience of a short video app or platform can significantly improve users’ sense of experience when browsing short videos, and smooth, instinctive operation can help them enter a state of high telepresence and strong flow experience faster . These fAt the same time, the results show that perceived professionalism and perceived interactivity have a significant positive impact on telepresence, consistent with prior studies that found these same factors to have a positive impact on people’s intention to use websites . Ma and Although most relevant studies show that users’ perceived usefulness of new technologies or systems will generate flow experience and telepresence in some settings , the resMoreover, the results revealed that telepresence not only has a direct and significant positive impact on tourism intention, but also has an indirect impact on flow experience through significant prediction. The telepresence-intention link has previously been confirmed in consumer behavior research , and its6.With the development of science and technology, new technologies such as 5G and virtual reality have entered people’s daily life. Short tourism videos have already had an impact on users’ tourism intentions, and new media and technologies have promoted the development of tourism in China and around the world. This research shows that the operation of short video platforms and users’ short video experiences have a significant relationship with users’ tourism intention. Short video platforms provide convenient operation, easy communication and sharing, and high-quality services to promote the tourism intentions of Chinese users. The findings show that short video characteristics and perceived ease of use have a significant impact on telepresence and flow experience, and thus have a significant impact on tourism intention. This study is noteworthy because short video has become an important way for most prospective visitors to understand tourist attractions in the post-pandemic era. Promoting the development of short tourism videos will be the key path to improve users’ tourism intention.7.This study holds several theoretical implications. First, the developed conceptual model is considered the first to combine short video factors and technology acceptance factors to extend the SOR model to predict users’ tourism intention. Second, the constructed model explains the changes in users’ tourism intention in the context of the global short video boom. Third, most of the established paths in the developed model are statistically positive. Thus, it is assumed that the short video factors and the SOR model are matched, which is one of the contributions of this study. Fourth, considering that few studies have extended the SOR model to address short video, future researchers may use this model to explore the impact of short video factors in other settings. Fifth, the outcomes of this study enhance the understanding of the key role that short video factors play in improving users’ tourism intention.There are also several practical implications of this study. First, the outcomes of this study will support developers and practitioners in considering technology acceptance factors while designing and developing short video platforms for online social media companies. Second, the marketing departments of tourism destinations may also use the results of this study in designing and creating short videos by combining the factors of short video content construction to enrich their publicity channels. Third, since perceived usefulness was found not to support users’ tourism intention, short video producers need to pay more attention to the creation of short video content to obtain greater attention and promote better flow.8.This work may also be subject to some limitations. First, more factors that influence users’ tourism intention, such as celebrity effect, social environment, etc., need to be addressed to comprehensively examine the factors by which short videos influence users’ tourism intention. Second, while the respondents in this study are all Chinese, short video platforms such as TikTok and Kwai are already in the process of globalization. It is thus worth studying whether different cultural backgrounds will affect user experience after browsing short tourism videos, which necessitates a future program of cross-country multi-sample research. Third, this study employs stratified sampling in selecting the respondents, which in turn may hinder the generalizability of the results. Thus, further attempts could consider other sampling techniques. Fourth, the short video industry is still making breakthroughs and innovations: VR, AR, and other technologies are being integrated, all of which require further theoretical research.The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.In accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements, the questionnaire can only be carried out after fully explaining to the participants, after their agreement they begin to answer the questions. The whole survey process and results will not involve the disclosure of the participants’ personal identity information.JL and YW: conceptualization. JL: methodology and project administration. YW: software, investigation, and writing—original draft preparation. LC: validation and writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.


With the advent of COVID-19, many healthcare workers (HWs) in Australia requested access to powered air purifying respirators (PAPR) for improved respiratory protection, comfort and visibility. The urgency of the response at our hospital required rapid deployment of innovative training to ensure the safe use of PAPRs, in particular, a video-feedback training option to prepare HWs for PAPR competency.To explore the feasibility, acceptability, and utility of video-feedback in PAPR training and competency assessment.Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 HWs, including clinicians from Intensive Care, Anaesthetics and Respiratory Medicine, at a large teaching hospital in Australia.Participants believed that the use of video-feedback in PAPR training was feasible, acceptable and useful. They described a variety of benefits to learning and retention, from a variety of ways in which they engaged with the personal video-feedback. Participants also described the impact of reviewing personalised practice footage, compared to generic footage of an ideal performance.By conceptualising video-feedback using a pedagogical approach, this study contributes to knowledge around optimising methods for training HWs in PPE use, particularly when introducing a new and complex PPE device during an infectious disease outbreak. The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has presented many challenges for infection prevention and control (IPC), including changes to routine protocols for the use of personal protective equipment (PPE). The rapidly emerging pandemic, and uncertainty about disease risks, contributed to healthcare workers’ (HWs) anxiety about their own health and safety when caring for COVID-19 patients , many HWHWs conventionally use P2/N95 particulate respirators as protection against airborne infections, such as pulmonary tuberculosis, measles or chickenpox and for aerosol-generating procedures in patients with other respiratory diseases –8. A PAPUnlike disposable P2/N95 respirators, PAPRs comprise multiple components that must be assembled, donned correctly, and removed safely, in correct order. This adds complexity and exposes HWs to increased risk of self-contamination and occupationally-acquired infection , 13. OptDuring the first half of 2020, the Biopreparedness team at a designated HCID referral hospital in Australia offered a video-feedback option in the PAPR training program, for HWs from ICU, anaesthesiology, and respiratory medicine. HWs were required to pass a competency assessment before using PAPRs independently. To prepare for the assessment, they were sent a generic, commercial video to watch before face-to-face practical training. During the practical session, HWs were offered the opportunity to have their practice videoed by the trainer. The video footage (a 10–15 min clip) was subsequently shared with them privately to view in their own time, as a source of feedback. This option was intended to augment their learning and preparation for PAPR competency assessment, without the need for repeated face-to-face training sessions, and as a reference for future use.own practice, which enhances learning and self-knowledge through the personal salience of the feedback . Just to go through what you actually did [...]. I’m pretty time poor [...] and I really don’t have time to sit down and go over all these things [...] and being able to sit there and watch the video, I thought was [...] much better than me sitting down and reading it. It’s not all that straightforward, like, you know, just don PPE. Because you have this equipment which needs to go on and then other layers of PPE on top and underneath etc. Many participants reported that re-watching the PAPR donning and doffing processes on video was more engaging than reviewing a written protocol. It was not only a faster way of revising but also the audio-visual format represented complex elements better than they could be explained in writing.stick in my memory a bit more” . A similar point was made about verbal prompts from the trainer, captured on the footage.The video focused on me undergoing training and the trainer being around and explaining the steps [...] voicing and prompting in the background, which also helped [...]. Little prompts here and there about whether the fit was adequate or not and things like that. Participants felt the format was suitable for ‘visual learners’, and easier to remember, allowing the process to “This sub-theme describes how the video, as a modality, represented the complex donning and doffing process, as well as the training experience, in greater detail for participants.So, I watched it immediately when I got the link [...] and then actually I went back to it in a few days to watch it again. And then after, I almost forgot about it, but then [when] we had to use [it], I went back to it, and I watched it again The ability to view the footage on demand was also beneficial. For instance, several participants watched (or re-watched) the footage to prepare for their competency assessments, or when they needed to use the PAPR in practice. This helped them quickly recall the process and reminded them of parts they had found difficult during training.I couldn’t actually remember half of the stuff I was being told, because there was a lot of information to absorb…and particularly during COVID, there was just so much new information coming all at the same time. But [...] the most useful part I found was that I was able to access [the video] the night before and I could watch it. The ability to review the footage was particularly helpful for some, who felt they had forgotten much of the information given during training, because of the quantity of new information shared during the pandemic, and the passing of time.You can stop [the video]. […] you can think. And then go back. If you look at the video multiple times, you are going to remember the steps when you are doing it by yourself. I could look at the video and then go through the steps without having anyone else there, so to speak. So instead of having to come to work, find someone who is trained in training, I could watch the video and go, oh, that’s right, that’s the second step not the third step. Another benefit of on-demand access was that participants could replay their footage as frequently as needed, and pause to cement or to refresh their understanding of the procedure.Well, if we have to go and start using [PAPRs], then yes, I believe I will [review the video] [...] as long as the actual procedure doesn’t change much One caveat noted, however, was that the continued use of the footage depended on protocols remaining the same.This sub-theme highlights that HWs valued the video as a learning resource, as they could review it when, and as often as they wished, to cement or refresh their learning.themselves donning and doffing was important, rather than a generic video of someone else. In the first instance, awareness of being videoed made some participants more attentive to detail during the training itself.While I was doing it, [I was] being filmed…so obviously [I was] a bit more conscious about it [...] I just wanted to make sure I’m doing it right [...]. So, try and remember, trying to be as best I can be. So, I think the video is probably good in that purpose (#3 Nurse)Most participants agreed that being videoed and watching footage of It is hugely insightful, I found, when you see yourself. You do it every day, and you don’t really realise sometimes you might be doing something just that ever so slightly different. Not necessarily wrong, but just different, and it maybe there may be an easier way of doing it perhaps or like a better way. Or sometimes you could be doing it wrong, and you don’t realise it. Another effect was that participants felt they learned something about their own practice. Participants commented on this, not just for the video-feedback of PAPR training, but also how it might be used to improve other aspects of their work.personal experience, which may have been more salient, and therefore impactful, than a generic ‘perfect’ procedure.I was able to recall what happened on that day. Unlike watching someone else just going through the motions […] And then it brought back memories, at certain juncture, where I had made a mistake and they could have corrected me there. So that refreshed my memory and I probably did not repeat that mistake again during assessment. (#5 Doctor)Importantly, the video footage included not only the participant’s donning and doffing practice, but also feedback given, such as verbal prompts, where the educator might point out issues particular to the learner, or actions that other people found difficult. This meant that participants were reviewing and recalling a (sometimes imperfect) This sub-theme describes the particular salience, for HWs, of being featured in the footage – in both filming and watching it – as being valuable for learning.I had trouble…getting a certain clip on something. And I remember [Educator] said to me at the time [...] “People have difficulty with this bit, they always sort of do it wrong and you’ve just got to do ‘that’”. And when I watched the video – watched the error that I made, that made me take note to remember that [...]. It sort of personalises it for you [...]. I think [it is a] more informative learning tool than watching someone else make a mistake [...] there’s nothing like watching yourself making a mistake and remembering that. Participants reported different opinions about having ‘practice’, rather than ‘perfect’, footage to review. As noted, many participants identified the particular salience of watching themselves make mistakes, or perform actions needing improvement, as valuable for their learning.I do like a generic video [...]. They’ve made sure that [...] all the steps are correct. And then you can kind of recreate it. While [in my own footage] I might be pausing for a second, listening, and then fiddling around the wrong way. A few participants, including the two who had not watched their own footage, suggested that a generic video demonstrating the correct procedure could have been more useful, particularly as a refresher.Watching myself do it, gave me some confidence in the fact that, “Yes I can do it!”. And whilst it might not be perfect, I was still getting it as perfectly as possible and certainly I knew at the end of watching the video that I was not going to be breaching any kind of protection to myself or to the patient. And I knew the points where I had to be careful, that I had to be more mindful. For other participants, watching their own practice, even if imperfect, gave them confidence in their ability to perform the procedure safely, both during their competency assessment, and when caring for an infectious patient.This sub-theme describes the different potential benefits for learners, of capturing an imperfect learning experience on video, as compared to an idealised demonstration, for subsequent review.So, if you video a person and you send their video to them it’s the best way forward. But I don’t think people will agree, not everyone, to be videoed and then to be sent out widely for education purposes. Although our participants did not express concerns about being videoed or the way their personal footage was sent to them, some suggested others might have concerns about the potential for the footage to be distributed more widely.I’ve got something like 8000 [emails] stored so, I would need a way of finding it. All participants reported being able to easily access the video link sent by email, although one noted it might be difficult to find in future, given the volume of emails received by staff.So, the reason I honestly didn’t watch it is I just didn’t have time [...]. With COVID happening, we’re all just trying to train the staff. [...] also I was pretty confident in putting it on the first time [...]. [I thought] “Do I really need to watch myself do it again?” Most participants viewed the footage in the days after receiving it—usually the entire clip. Participants who did not view the clips gave time constraints as their main reason, although some also already felt confident in their practice.I guess my concern would be how practical [videoing individuals] would be in the day-to-day training of people because, again, it requires a bit of resources to set that up, and I think a better use of resources would be in training a buddy. I think now, because we’ve integrated more online learning – because of COVID – into our way of teaching, […] I’d sit there and watch [videos] a bit more regularly now. Participants recognised the extra time and resources involved in educators’ adopting video-feedback, while also noting its suitability, given the increase in online learning due to the pandemic.So, this year, during COVID […] we used our SIM Centre [to] run OSCEs. And you know, it hasn’t occurred to us yet about recording it, but it’s probably something that could be done, and I wonder whether that adds an additional element for people to self-assess their performance. Look, the bottom line is that with regards to the videoing it and playing it back and allowing you to watch it, I think it’s a good idea. I think it’s really useful for PAPR or any other training, that you want to [do]. Future uses of video-feedback suggested included training in the use of other devices or close-up footage of difficult PAPR actions, like unclipping the mask from the motor unit, or expanding its bellows. Participants also saw value in using video for self-assessment in simulated exercises and formal assessments.The above three sub-themes describe the logistical and ethical considerations in using video-feedback, as well as its potential uses for training in other topics, and in combination with other training methods in health professional education.Our findings generally support the use of video-feedback in PAPR training as feasible and acceptable. Participants in the study received face-to-face and video-feedback combined, which was described as an engaging and meaningful way to learn – as found in other studies of video-assisted learning in healthcare . NeverthHeavy workloads and associated time pressures are often described as barriers to continuing education and training in healthcare , which hFor educators, the time and resources involved in providing VF are not significantly more than those necessary for face-to face training. It requires an initial investment in equipment (camera and tripod), secure data storage and file sharing software but, once established, it takes no extra time to record training. Downloading and sharing footage over the internet requires much less time than repeated training face-to-face sessions . Anotherresponse to being confronted with habituated ways of practice. Video footage of everyday practices is shown to participants and their colleagues, in facilitated discussions, enabling them to grapple with the complexity of their work, and increase their understanding, agency and control over what practices work well, and what needs to change ) The video-reflexive underpinnings are also reflected in recording participants’ practice sessions, including teaching prompts, mistakes, and other personal details, rather than generic footage of an ‘ideal’ performance. While a few participants expressed a preference for an ideal performance for revision, many acknowledged the value of personalised footage, which made it possible for them to “hear again, to feel again and to think, question and remember again” . collaborative principle of video-reflexive methodology [Our findings are limited by the small sample size and one training program, in one hospital. Nonetheless, they contribute to the scant research on the acceptability, feasibility, and utility of video-feedback on skill-based learning, that has been primarily conducted using surveys . In-depthodology , and canhodology .Based on our findings, we make the following recommendations for educators who wish to incorporate personalised video-feedback into education and training programs. It was suggested that some people might object to being videoed for training purposes, so consent should be obtained, and an alternative provided, such as a generic video demonstration . Since healthcare procedures are regularly revised, an advantage of a generic video is that it can be updated and accessed readily, if HWs need to tweak their practice and there is delay in accessing face-to-face refresher training or competency.Factors that could improve learning, when reviewing the footage, include showing close-ups of fiddly or awkward actions , and retaining auditory teaching prompts in the video footage. The addition of a self-scoring tool that learners can complete when watching their training video has recently been found to result in a measurable and sustained improvement in the safety behaviours around PPE . EducatoBy conceptualising video-feedback within a pedagogical approach, this study contributes to knowledge around optimising methods for HWs’ PPE training, particularly when introducing a complex new device during an emerging infectious disease outbreak/pandemic, as well as in routine training.


The intelligent tracking and detection of athletes' actions and the improvement of action standardization are of great practical significance to reducing the injury caused by sports in the sports industry. For the problems of nonstandard movement and single movement mode, this exploration takes the video of sports events as the object and combines it with the video general feature extraction of convolutional neural network (CNN) in the field of deep learning and the filtering detection algorithm of motion trajectory. Then, a target detection and tracking system model is proposed to track and detect targets in sports in real-time. Moreover, through experiments, the performance of the proposed system model is analyzed. After testing the detection quantity, response rate, data loss rate, and target detection accuracy of the model, the results show that the model can track and monitor 50 targets with a loss rate of 3%, a response speed of 4 s and a target detection accuracy of 80%. It can play an excellent role in sports events and postgame video analysis, and provide a good basis and certain design ideas for the goal tracking of the sports industry. Recently, rich achievements have been made in researching electronic information detection technology . VariousAs an efficient detection technology for detected images, the artificial intelligence algorithm named DL has been studied by multiple scholars. Fu et al. believed that some current target detection algorithms could not meet accuracy and speed requirements. Hence, the advantages of DL in big data feature learning should be fully used to suppress the weight of invalid features and improve the detection accuracy . Remote The research innovation is to start with lightweight DL, and use the error back propagation algorithm in lightweight DL as the technical core of this exploration. The application of DL technology in sports target tracking technology is studied, and the application of this real-time tracking technology in the sports industry is explored. First, the related concepts of DL and development and application are described. After that, the principle of target tracking technology will be described. Next, the target management and collection module of sports are analyzed. Finally, the stability of tracking technology is tested to judge whether tracking technology can run stably in sports. It is hoped that a relevant experimental basis can be provided for the tracking and monitoring technology of sports goals in the follow-up sports field.First, how to learn a general image feature extractor based on a cascade noise reduction autoencoder from massive auxiliary data in an unsupervised and off-line way is introduced in detail. A cascading noise reduction autoencoder is obtained by stacking several single-layer noise reduction autoencoder networks .  FigureA cascading noise reduction autoencoder can be obtained by training and stacking the noise reduction autoencoder layer-by-layer. This layer-by-layer training process is called the pretraining process. The training results will be used as the initial value of the feedforward neural network when the cascade noise reduction autoencoder is spread into a multilayer feedforward neural network. According to the specific follow-up tasks , the parameters of this feedforward neural network will be fine-tuned by an error feedback algorithm.The samples of the tracking target in each frame are represented by the image pixels marked by a rectangular bounding box. Here, the gray image block with a size of 32 × 32 is used. After the two-dimensional image block is pulled into a vector with a size of 1024, it is used as the input of the neural network .  Figureyi is the predicted observation of the trajectory, dj is the result state of the j-th, and Si is the covariance matrix obtained through the filter.Target tracking involves the processing and matching of the state and motion trajectory of the target object. The state of an object is to describe the trajectory state at a certain time in an 8-dimensional space. The matching of motion trajectory is to use the Mahalanobis distance of the positioning position predicted in the filter by the detection result and tracking result to express its degree . The equThe apparent matching degree is the phenomenon of data deformation after only using the Mahalanobis distance to predict. If the camera moves, it may cause the failure of the Mahalanobis distance prediction, which needs to be remedied to the apparent degree.The development of DL is inseparable from the support of open-source software frameworks. At present, most neural network models need many samples for training. With a neural network as an example, multiple matrix operations are needed to calculate many floating-point numbers. The traditional central processing unit cannot deal with this situation efficiently. The graphics processing unit (GPU) is very suitable for parallel computing of large-scale matrices . In receThere are relatively more datasets of scene classification tasks in the above datasets. However, the datasets for remote sensing image target detection are few, which is also a matter of course, because target detection requires many images to select boxes and label categories, which is much more cumbersome than classification tasks and consumes a lot of manpower and time.The application of CNN in the field of machine vision has achieved fruitful results. Research has shown that multilayer CNN can learn different levels of feature abstraction of the original input image , and hasThe traditional target detection method is mainly based on a machine learning algorithm , which iThere are two important problems with traditional target detection algorithms. First, the complexity of the region selection algorithm is high, the resulting window is easy to be redundant, and the detection speed is very slow. Second, the features designed by hand are not robust , and it A moving object detection and tracking system for sports video needs to carry out unified detection and tracking management of moving objects in sports video. How to analyze and manage sports video conveniently is a problem that needs to be solved in the current application management system . TherefoThe users of the sports video moving target detection and tracking system mainly include system video managers, ordinary users, video analysts, and collectors. Users access the external network through Ethernet and connect to the router through the firewall. Then, the router is connected to the gateway. The gateway is connected with the application system server and data access server through Ethernet. In this way, the interaction process between the client and the server is completed. The system is a sports video moving target detection and tracking system with simple function, practicality, and operation. It mainly aims to solve specific problems in sports video management. In the system development and design, the modular development method is adopted, that is, the whole system is divided into multiple relatively independent functions according to the functions. The sports video moving target detection and tracking system is designed in detail according to the above requirements. It is mainly composed of sports video management function, video acquisition management function, target detection management function and target tracking management function. In the whole management system, sports video data management is very important. All video information is streaming media, so it is necessary to carry out unified collection, tracking, and detection, and then get the analysis data to assist athletes' training.At present, there are two main moving target detection algorithms: the interframe difference processing method and the background subtraction processing method. The two are generally used for moving target detection in a static background . The optThe operators of the video information management function are mainly video administrators, video personnel, and acquisition personnel. The sports video management function is mainly to maintain sports video, such as adding, modifying, deleting, and querying. Among them, the video administrator has the operation authority over all subfunctions in this function, and other personnel only have the operation authority over the video viewing function.The use of this function is as follows: first, the collector collects the video of an athlete's sports process or training process. Then, the collected video data is maintained and processed. The video manager completes the operation of adding the video's basic information by inputting the video's basic information. Basic video information includes: video shot, video number, video name, video acquisition time, video size, acquisition method, video content information, and collector information.In the system, any video is linked by shots, so shots are the basic unit of video retrieval. The video sequence is mainly composed of video shots. The content of each shot occurs in one scene, or one scene can be listed in multiple shots. Video sequence processing is to process the objects or images contained in the lens. Video data mainly includes story units, scenes, shots, and frames .The user needs are basically mastered through the demand analysis of sports video moving target detection and tracking systems in the previous section. This section will design the system prototype based on the analysis. The sports video moving object detection and tracking system mainly has a three-layer structure, namely the application layer, data access layer, and data connection layer. The sports video management module mainly includes video maintenance and management functions, video upload functions, video download functions, and video retrieval functions. The video acquisition module includes video input and initialization, acquiring camera video, reading in AVI files and acquiring sequence images. The target detection management module mainly includes target detection, establishing a target model, updating a target model, and displaying detection results. The target tracking management module includes the establishment of a tracking target instance, the establishment of a target template, target matching processing, loss tracking processing, and parameter result display.The sports target detection technology based on this can monitor the sports target in real-time. In the next research process, the system's performance will be tested to judge the universality and excellence of target tracking technology.The video retrieval function is tested in the submodule of sports video management. The administrator logs in to the system, clicks on sports video management to enter the interface of sports video management, and clicks video retrieval to enter the interface of video retrieval. In this link, the system's stability and real-time error correction performance are tested by testing the response rate, time, server performance, interface traffic, and data loss rate of the target detection system under the condition of a different number of users. In the test, it is essential to continuously improve the number of concurrent users, detect the network speed and traffic, and record the response data changes. The data in In the last section, the performance of the target tracking system is verified, which mainly tests the performance values of the system in three aspects: system response time, response rate, and data loss rate when detecting different numbers of targets. Through the discussion of the results, the premise of the high stability of the system model is determined. Therefore, this section will test the real-time monitoring accuracy of the tracking system. Two schemes are tested. Scheme A determines 30 detection targets and Scheme B determines 50 detection targets. The results are analyzed by testing the monitoring accuracy, as shown in The target tracking and monitoring accuracy value in With the emergence of various new tracking technologies, the combination of computer technology and various electronic detection technologies has become mature. The application of diversified target detection technology in all walks of life has become a popular research direction. For the problems of nonstandard movement and single movement mode, with the video of sports events as the object, a target detection and tracking system model is proposed to track and detect the targets in sports in real-time. Experimental analysis shows that the proposed model can maintain high stability with a loss rate of 3% and a response speed of 4 s and can track and monitor the moving target with 80% target detection accuracy. It is expected to provide reference ideas for the follow-up sports events and postgame video analysis through experiments. However, this exploration also has some deficiencies. For example, the method studied is only a part of the intelligent video surveillance system, and the relevant theoretical research work is insufficient. The system architecture, video codec algorithm, and target recognition are also important components for the specific system. Therefore, it can be considered to be studied from the perspective of the whole intelligent video surveillance system. Next, the proposed model algorithm optimizes the target-dense scene. Hence, the large field of vision, complex background, target scale transformation and deformation will be further studied. Moreover, relevant information mining should be conducted to further optimize the proposed model algorithm and apply it to the detection and analysis of moving targets in actual sports events as soon as possible.


Mobile multimedia communication requires considerable resources such as bandwidth and efficiency to support Quality-of-Service (QoS) and user Quality-of-Experience (QoE). To increase the available bandwidth, 5G network designers have incorporated Cognitive Radio (CR), which can adjust communication parameters according to the needs of an application. The transmission errors occur in wireless networks, which, without remedial action, will result in degraded video quality. Secure transmission is also a challenge for such channels. Therefore, this paper’s innovative scheme “VQProtect” focuses on the visual quality protection of compressed videos by detecting and correcting channel errors while at the same time maintaining video end-to-end confidentiality so that the content remains unwatchable. For the purpose, a two-round secure process is implemented on selected syntax elements of the compressed H.264/AVC bitstreams. To uphold the visual quality of data affected by channel errors, a computationally efficient Forward Error Correction (FEC) method using Random Linear Block coding (with complexity of  The substantial developments in 5G network technology and the cellular devices’ computing capabilities have made mobile multimedia communication appealing to users. As a result, standard video-streaming applications along with numerous multimodal multimedia applications, such as online gaming and immersive 360end-user . Consequend-user  remains Despite the presence of codecs, there remains competition for bandwidth, which essentially depends on access to a sufficient spectrum. Prior licensed spectrum usage is usually quite uneven and depends heavily on the specific wireless applications and their market penetration. Within a Cognitive Radio Network (CRN) , an unevIn addition to the risk to video content confidentiality and sensitivity, during all wireless transmission, including over CRN channels, channel impairments will ineluctably cause changes to the signal characteristics during transmission. The most common causes are noise and competing traffic across the channel, leading to signal attenuation, cross-talk, electromagnetic intrusions, and bandwidth restrictions . As a reQ1: What will happen to the selectively encrypted video data after transmitting over wireless channels, which are prone to errors?Q2: Will it be possible to recover the multimedia content with an equivalent visual quality?Q3: Will the decryption of error-corrupted video still succeed at the receiver end, or will it fail?Aside from the need for video content protection in the interests of multimedia providers, with the growing enforcement of privacy laws, privacy protection of transmitted data is of primary importance . Encrypt1.This paper provides a novel and pioneer prototype (to the best of the authors’ knowledge) for protecting the video quality of selectively encrypted H.264/AVC compressed videos while transferring over erroneous wireless networks.2.Selective Encryption (SE) using two-round secure process is applied to the selected syntax elements of an H.264/AVC CABAC encoder to achieve video privacy, and it maintains the video’s format compliancy and compression efficiency for effective channel bandwidth utilization.3.The Gilbert–Elliot model is implemented for the simulation of an error-prone channel.4.A Random Linear Block coding-based FEC mechanism is deployed on the encrypted H.264/AVC bitstreams for the recovery of bit-errors. The results are verified using various Video Quality Metrics and evaluation criteria.Considering these research questions, the contributions of this paper are as follows:The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Several techniques have been investigated in the literature to address video quality issues over wireless channels ,20,21,22In , the autPreviously, instead of error concealment, Chen et al.  had propError bursts frequently occur in wireless channels due to slow or fast fading. They are also potentially more damaging to compressed video streams compared to isolated errors due to the fragile nature of a highly compressed video bitstream. The Gilbert–Elliot (GE) ,27 is exPrior work has also focused on different video error control techniques including source and channel rate control , adaptivThe authors  analyzedIn , an ExclTo assess the impact of error control schemes, the authors of  studied However, the error method proposed in this paper is a bit-inversion technique, which, by detecting the errors in encoded bitstreams and simply inverting bit errors, results in an improved, reduced computational cost. It can be concluded from related studies that although many schemes have been proposed to improve the quality of videos, little work is currently being undertaken on video security and error recovery applied jointly, specifically for Multimedia CRNs. This paper proposes a pioneer mechanism (to the best of the authors’ knowledge) equipped with error correction for selectively encrypted compressed videos. The comparative analysis of the proposed scheme using different parameters is given in This paper proposes a joint protection and error recovery mechanism for compressed videos against transmission losses and unauthorized access to the content while preserving the video quality intact of the original video and utilizing a minimum of bandwidth. The proposed scheme is implemented in following three phases; the details are discussed in the subsequent subsections.first phase, video content is compressed and protected at the same time. The privacy protection is implemented using a two-round secure process. First, data diffusion is achieved by applying permutation on selected residuals data of compressed H.264/AVC bitstreams, and later, the XOR encryption algorithm is applied to the permuted data. The compressed selectively encrypted video bitstreams are produced as an output of this phase.In the second phase, channel modeling is performed through the Markov-Chain based Gilbert–Elliot model, which introduces bit errors inside the selectively encrypted videos (output of Phase 1) and enables simulations of the burst error effects of communications links.In the last phase, an FEC mechanism is applied (on both the encoder and decoder side) to detect and correct bit errors from the H.264/AVC selectively encrypted bitstreams (output of Phase 2) for their error-free transmission.In the The two-round secure process is applied within the compression stage of a H.264/AVC encoder. Entropy coding is the last compression stage of the H.264/AVC hybrid encoder. There are multiple residual parameters output from a CABAC entropy coder  that areFor computationally efficient encryption rounds, a simple XOR cipher is used, which, however, can be easily compromised. Therefore, a further layer of data diffusion is added with a permutation round on selected sign bits of Motion Vector Differences (MVDs) and Transform Coefficients (TCs) levels. It is important to notice that in the software implementation of CABAC encoder, sign bits are allocated a byte, so that within the software code, actually bits within sign bytes are permuted. In each byte of chosen syntax elements, the bits are right-shifted circularly by three bit positions, as shown in n bit encryption key is used, with at least 128 bits in length. Lower values of n increase the risk of a brute-force attack being applied, and some may prefer a 256-bit key for additional protection. Let, After applying a permutation round on selected bytes, XOR encryption is applied on permuted data bytes. An On the receiver side, the reverse process takes place, i.e.,The ciphered data are then transmitted through a channel to the receiver, where it is again XORed with the key to decipher the original data before reverse permutation.In this paper, the noisy channel is simulated with Gilbert–Elliot (GE) channel, which refers to a wide class of finite-state fading channels that model communication links with memory. This model is extensively simulated in research studies to find packet losses , frame lG) state and the Bad or Burst (B) state. Let G and B states are considered as G state is fixed. Accordingly, G state will not happen, and all bits will be transferred correctly in the G state, while B state will happen. For inducing a small number of error bits, we assume G state has a higher probability compared to the probability of error occurrence in the B state. Along with the probability of error occurrence, the transition probability (probability of switching from one state to another state) is also considered, which are of two types, i.e., self-transition and cross-transition probability. In self-transition probabilities, G to G state again, while the probability of a transition from B to B state again is The GE model is based on a discrete-time hidden Markov chain with two states that are the Good or Gap  and the previous bit was transmitted correctly (G), the transition from G state to B state takes place and vice versa for B state to G state. The sum of all the probabilities for a particular state is always 1, such as In the  G state . For exaThe channel states will evolve according to a Markov chain. The self-transition probabilities (3) and cross-transition probabilities (4) are computed as follows:G and B, at time T, to determine the state transition probabilities.Moreover, GE Model uses a G and B states are denoted by Furthermore, the stationary probabilities for the  Π=Mx⊤×Π . Now, πGG or B)) of being in that state was also calculated. As in this work, the channel is assumed to be in one of the two states only, i.e., G or B, so the mean sojourn time of state G and state B denoted by The mean sojourn time  were also calculated. The steady-state probability of being in state lated as :(9)PGG=TG or B), the Bit Error Rate (BER) at each time is calculated. Hence, the probability of being in a G or B state is dependent on the number of bit errors per unit time known as Mean Bit Error Rate  in the B state only.Step 8: Forward the data with errors added toward the decryption and decoder modules.In this paper, when the communication channel is in one of two states  and some redundant bits of length ‘r’ . These check bits are added to each dataword block to form a larger block of total length ‘n’, which is the codeword. Redundancies can be added either to the start, at the end of the frame, or somewhere in between. Hence, The input data stream consists of two segments, i.e., information bits with length ‘k bits. Similarly, n bits. Codewords contain more bits than datawords due to the additional check bits, i.e., Thus, The receiver .L is the generator matrix consisting of k rows and n columns, given in (10).L is constructed by combining the identity matrix and the parity-bits matrix as:I is the P is the L in our case, i.e., for In the implemented FEC, matrices are used for codeword generation rather than generating codewords manually. Thus, for k bits are denoted by F and expressed in vector form as n bits sent over transmission channel are denoted by ‘C’, and can be expressed in vector form as E, and here, there may be up to n errors in a number, which can be represented in vector form as For D is the generator matrix consisting of n columns.D is constructed by combining a parity bits matrix and identity matrix in such a way that I is the identity matrix of D for For a single received word, the word will be calculated as S be the error syndrome  was used for the compression of videos as a single-layer H.264/AVC bitstream. The Main/High profile was chosen, as the Baseline profile of JSVM does not support CABAC encoding. The Intra and Inter frames (I+P+B) were encoded and selectively encrypted in a bitstream generated for a Group of Pictures (GOP) size and Intra period, which was equal to 16 and with a chroma subsampling pattern of 4:2:0. Experiments were performed at different Quantization Parameter (QP) values . The proposed scheme was tested on ten (10) test videos having different color pixels, motion activity, texture, and resolution. The results are taken on different resolutions, such as Common Intermediate Format (CIF) (352 × 288 pixels/frame), 4CIF (704 × 480 pixels/frame), and High Definition (HD) (1280 × 720 pixels/frame) with different frame rates . All test videos are publicly available at Derf’s collection [The visual results and subjective quality of the videos are shown in Experiments were also performed at five QP values . QP, which is reciprocal to the video quality, is also a representation of the quality of perception, with lower QPs representing higher quality video from a range for H.264/AVC and HEVC from 0 to 51. The selectively encrypted test videos with channel errors (induced using the GE channel model) were evaluated before and after the application of FEC. The quantitative evaluation employed various video quality metrics such as Peak Signal to Noise Ratio (PSNR) , StructuPSNR  is used The PSNR values given in x and y frames being compared. The SSIM calculates the similarity of the two images using structural distortions to evaluate the perceptual distortion based on the difference in the luminance values as given in Equation . It rangm, n represents the width and height of the video frame, respectively, while X is the original frame and Y denotes the reconstructed frame.MSE is compared across each of the three channels in an RGB image and is the average of the squared differences between the luminance (Y) and chrominance  values of corresponding pixels in two frames . It may range from 0 to 65025, but a smaller value indicates a resulting better video quality. ∞. Zero VQM means no difference between a particular video and the original one. The higher the VQM value, then the higher the difference between the original video and the video under consideration. It can be observed from VQM is a reduced-reference quality metric in which seven parameters related to the video quality are extracted and linearly combined to estimate the VQM quality score. Thus, it includes a combination of objective parameters to evaluate the perceptual effects of an extensive range of distortions. The value of VQM may vary from 0 to A histogram can show the frequency distribution of color component pixel values  before and after encryption and correction of errors. A histogram also determines the correlation of sample video frames with the original frames, before processing by encryption, and the application of FEC. A low correlation represents a more significant variance and vice versa. To further validate the adopted FEC’s performance, the no-reference video quality metrics were computed to estimate the blocking and blurriness. The blocking problem occurs along the horizontal and vertical edges of a regular blocking grid. That grid in turn arises from the block-based processing of video codecs, including H.264/AVC. In contrast, blurriness is caused by the removal of high-frequency content from the original video/image signal. One way that may occur is if the quantization of frequency transform coefficients reduces high-frequency components to zero. Blurring is calculated by estimating the color variance in a pixel’s neighborhood after which the average variance is computed. Higher values indicate more significant blurring within transmitted video frames. The blurring and blocking metrics for test videos decoded with FEC are compared with the original videos, as shown in n bits of matrix L which have the dimension of n, sent over the transmission channel, is at most In our proposed scheme, the complexity of the encoded heme, in , the autgiven in  is depenThe execution time was calculated for all the test videos to evaluate the run-time performance with and without FEC. The proposed scheme can help protect video content both against unauthorized access and transmission errors while maintaining the video quality similar to that of the original video. In this paper, FEC is used to recover the bit errors that occurred during transmission to eliminate the need for retransmitting data, which, if retransmission is not needed, makes broadcasting, video streaming, and real-time applications more efficient. The work utilized Random Linear Block Codes to detect and correct errors with a single-bit error handling strategy. However, other methods for error recovery using convolution codes for burst errors can be designed in the future. In the future also, the implemented FEC method can be tuned to adjust the redundancy rate by predicting the loss rate or loss probability of the communication channel. One can adapt the redundancy rate via these predictions, which may allow lower bandwidth utilization if the predictions allow that. Given that a fixed redundancy overhead is a major compromising factor when using FEC, effective prediction of the loss rate would be particularly advantageous.Cognitive Radio (CR) works by sensing the ambient wireless environment for a possibly temporarily vacant licensed bandwidth or by consulting online spectrum databases or by a combination of both methods of accessing additional bandwidth resources. In this paper, CRN channels are taken as an example, while channel error simulation is performed using the Gilbert–Elliot model. In the future also, the proposed scheme can be deployed over an experimental wireless testbed, which will allow comparative experiments, the results of which can be compared with software network simulation. Software network simulation can also be extended to encompass a variety of typical multimedia network setups.To avoid complex encryption processing, combined bit permutation and XORing techniques were used. In the future, for testing the performance of the implemented FEC method, complex ciphers such as Chacha20  and AdvaFor experimentation in this paper, the authors selected the H.264/AVC standardized codec because of its suitability to a wide range of interactive and non-interactive applications over various network configurations. In addition, the codec brings relative ease of software deployment as well as a range of supported low-cost hardware  for rapid compression and decompression. On the other hand, both H.264/AVC and H.265/High-Efficiency Video Coding (HEVC) codecs use the same structures to stream and store video. However, the encoding process of HEVC and VP9 is more complex than the H.264/AVC coding standard in terms of execution time, CPU consumption, and hardware implementation . AnotherDuring data transmission over 5G wireless networks incorporating CR, errors may propagate because of unwanted noise within the communication channels that may flip the bits of transmitted data from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0, or it can be corrupted due to various other network artifacts, all of which can harm the video content. In today’s insecure environments, encryption is vital, but it can make the recovery of the original video data all the more difficult because of the corruption due to transmission and network errors. Considering these transmission scenarios of compressed videos, this paper proposed an effective scheme for protecting the visual quality of selectively encrypted compressed videos by utilizing the block coding-based FEC method. The FEC method corrects corrupted bits after locating them within blocks of the encrypted video bitstream. For securing the videos, selected syntax elements output by the CABAC entropy coder of H.264/AVC were encrypted by a two-round secure process, which permits real-time operation by low-complexity processing devices, such as those now being deployed within sensor networks. The visual and VQA results  from appion time  shows thion time  in terms


A general theoretical framework is proposed to quantifythe thermodynamicproperties of multicomponent hard colloidal mixtures. This frameworkis used to predict the phase behavior of mixtures of rods with spheresand rods with plates taking into account (liquid) crystal phases ofboth components. We demonstrate a rich and complex range of phasebehaviors featuring a large variety of different multiphase coexistenceregions, including two five-phase coexistence regions for hard rod/spheremixtures, and even a six-phase equilibrium for hard rod/plate dispersions.The various multiphase coexistences featured in a particular mixtureare in line with a recently proposed generalized phase rule and canbe tuned through subtle variations of the particle shape and sizeratio. Our approach qualitatively accounts for certain multiphaseequilibria observed in rod/plate mixtures of clay colloids and willbe a useful guide in tuning the phase behavior of shape-disperse mixturesin general. Such coexistences are very challengingto reproduce in numerical simulations; however, with a theoreticalapproach, the multiphase coexistence behavior of colloidal mixturescan be qualitatively predicted in a quick and relatively easy manneras shown in this Letter.Multicomponent colloidal dispersionscontaining anisotropic particles exhibit fascinating phase behavior.25 and food26 and are present in natural systems such as opals27 and crowded living cells,28 where phase transitions play an important role in severalintracellular processes.30 Knowledge of colloidalphase behavior is also a key input for the development of novel applicationssuch as high-performance photovoltaic materials,31 energy storage materials,32 andnovel types of batteries33 and fuel cells.34 The wide variety of phases emerging in colloidalmixtures makes them of potential interest for the fabrication of phase-changematerials.35 Moreover, excluded volumeinteractions have been used to generate novel structures such as superlattices36 or quasi-crystals.37 Insights into colloidal phase behavior can also be of use for theseparation or purification of colloidal components such as bacteria,38 viruses,39 clay,40 or nanoparticles42 in complex mixtures.Predicting the phase behavior is ofpractical importance becausecolloidal multicomponent mixtures are ubiquitous in products suchas paint44 Parsons–Lee theory (PL),12 and free volumetheory (FVT).46 However, these studies include positionally ordered phases of onlyone component. This imposes a limitation on the range of applicabilitywith regard to size ratios and concentrations and does not allow computationof the coexistence between a phase in which one component exhibitspositional order and a phase in which the other component exhibitspositional order. In this study, we overcome this limitation and includephases in which either one of the components is allowed to adopt orientationaland positional ordered states and we showcase a wide range of possiblemultiphase coexistences that can be reconfigured by tuning the principalsize ratios of the mixture.Here,we present a simple and general framework that enables oneto compute the phase behavior of colloidal mixtures, including anisotropicparticles, and we apply this to the case of rods (spherocylinders)mixed with spheres and also show results for binary mixtures of platelets(disks) and rods. The phase behavior of binary mixtures of colloidalparticles has been investigated previously with a variety of theoreticalmethods such as density functional theory (DFT),49 In the future, it willbe of interest to compare the relative stability of phase states inwhich both components exhibit order with respect to the (multiphase)demixing regions discussed here.With the general theoretical methodoutlined in this Letter, itis not possible to account for phase states in which both componentsare ordered simultaneously. It is important to point out that ourphase diagrams consistently feature strong demixing and fractionationeffects and the phase states coexisting at any of the multiphase equilibriaare all strongly enriched in one component while the other speciesis present at only relatively small volume fractions. Under such conditions,the orientational or positional order of the minor component willhave an only minor influence on the free energy of any phase stateof the binary mixture. In dense mixtures with different types of anisotropicparticles, there are likely conditions under which both componentsremain well-mixed and generate structures in which both componentsare ordered. Theoretically, these cases could be addressed using DFT of interest. A varietyof theoretical methods for obtaining accurate approximations for theequations of state of one-component systems such as DFT,58 PL,60 scaled particle theory (SPT),63 virial expansions,65 and Lennard-Jones–Devonshire(LJD) cell theory are available.6853 The expressions used for section 4 of the Supporting Information.Defining the free energy of the binarysystem as a perturbationon the free energy of a one-component system 1 allows 71 Although there areways to improve the expressions for 72 there is no general theoretical method for determining the workof insertion in ordered phases, to the best of our knowledge. A summaryof the general SPT method employed in this Letter for obtaining expressionsfor section 5 of the Supporting Information.We make use of SPT to estimate the work of insertion Lr and diameter Dr. The hard sphere diameter equals Ds. section 6 of the Supporting Information. The locations of the differenttriple regions in the phase diagrams of rod/sphere mixtures stronglydepend on the Ds/Dr size ratio and Dr/Lr (inverse) aspect ratio. Changing the size ratio or therod aspect ratio can thus result in two contiguous triple regions,leading to a quadruple region. The curves, marked by numbers in brackets,indicate the parameters for which coexistence among four differentphases can occur. An overview of the different three-phase and four-phasecoexistence regions found in First, we study thephase behavior of mixtures of colloidal hardrods and hard spheres. The rods are modeled as spherocylinders withlength 74 that affect the phase behavior:The size ratio at which four-phase coexistence isfound dependson the rod aspect ratio. For two specific sets of parameters, indicatedby the star and square symbols, quadruple curves intersect, resultingin the possibility of coexistence among five different phases. Thephase diagrams corresponding to these particular quintuple regionsare shown in panels b and c of 74 In their work, they also reported a stable ABC–AAA–Sm–N–Iquintuple phase coexistence region, although at a slightly lower Ds/Dr size ratioand Dr/Lr inverserod aspect ratio. For small spherical depletants, the excluded volumebetween the spheres themselves does not strongly affect the phasebehavior because phase transitions already occur at very low sphereconcentrations, and therefore, one can expect that the phase behaviorof rod/sphere mixtures and rod/polymer mixtures is similar in thisregion. When the spheres become large with respect to the rods, thephase where the spheres are ordered in an FCC crystal already appearat relatively low rod volume fractions. The four-phase coexistencecurves (1)–(3) and (7)–(8) involve the ordered FCC phaseand therefore do not occur in rod/polymer mixtures.The bottom part of 75 For binary colloidal mixtures, this does not hold because orderedphase states are expected whenever one of the particles is much largerthan the other particles. Hence, we find that a certain anisotropyin particle shape is needed to induce a depletion interaction witha sufficient strength and range to obtain a stable I–I coexistenceregion in a binary colloidal mixture. For binary hard sphere mixtures,such I–I coexistence is metastable for all size ratios.76Anotheraspect in which the phase behavior of binary colloidalmixtures significantly deviates from that of colloid/polymer mixturesis the stability region of isotropic fluid–fluid (I–I)coexistence. A long-range interaction is generally needed to stabilizeI–I equilibria. Therefore, in colloid/polymer mixtures, I–Icoexistence generally occurs only above a certain relative polymersize and the extent of the I–I coexistence region (the liquidwindow) increases with relative polymer size.Lr/Dr = 37.5), I–I coexistence is metastable (dashed curvein panel a) with respect to I–FCC coexistence. At a certaincomposition, the fluid branches of the N–I and I–FCCcoexistence curves meet, which denotes the onset of a triple N–I–FCCcoexistence region. This triple region is bordered by the I–FCC,N–I, and N–FCC two-phase coexistence regions at relativelylow rod concentrations, low sphere concentrations, and high totalconcentrations, respectively. When the relative rod length is increasedto Lr/Dr =50, there is a small stable region of I–I coexistence and anI–I–FCC three-phase coexistence region at concentrationsbelow the N–I–FCC coexistence region. With an increasein the relative rod length to Lr/Dr = 53.5, the I–I–FCC coexistenceregion connects with the N–I–FCC coexistence regionand a four-phase N–I–I–FCC region is found. Forlarger Lr/Dr values, the I–I region is no longer connected to the solidFCC phase, but instead, an N–I–I triple region appears.Finally, for very long rods (Lr/Dr = 93.8), the I–I region becomes metastableagain but this time with respect to N–I coexistence.The phase diagrams in Lp and a diameter Dp. The phasebehavior of rods and plates has been studied previously with a focuson a specific set of parameters77 or on the stability region ofa specific phase coexistence.78 An illustrativephase diagram for a mixture of hard rods and hard plates, includingphases with translational ordering, is shown in Lr/Dr = 10, and Lp/Dp = 1/15, respectively. The size ratio between the particles(Lr/Dp) isset to 4/3. Similar to colloidal mixtures of rods and spheres, demixinginto strongly fractionated phases occurs when the concentration ofrods or plates increases and the phase diagrams can be characterizedby a number of three-phase coexistence regions that span the phasediagram. The slope of these regions and the coexistence tie-linesdepends strongly on the size ratio between the rods and the plates.A steep slope is expected if the plates are relatively small, anda gentle slope is expected if the plates are relatively large.Next, wediscuss the multiphase coexistence behavior of colloidalmixtures containing two anisotropic particles: rods and plates. Theplatelets are described as hard disks with a thickness 43 usedDFT to computea phase diagram for a rod/plate mixture with the same parameters asin r–I–Np coexistence region are similar toour predictions; however, the stability regions of the homogeneousNp and Nr phases are larger than the correspondingregions in Eckert et al.24 of a mixtureof rod-like boehmite and plate-like gibbsite colloids with particlesizes that correspond roughly to the parameters in p coexistenceregion is found. At slightly higher concentrations, Nr–I–Np, Nr–Np–C, and Nr–I–Np–C multiphase coexistence regionsare found. The same three-phase coexistence regions are present inthe theoretical predictions, which also show that the parameters arevery close to the parameters for which the four-phase coexistenceregion is expected. At concentrations above the multiphase coexistenceregions, Nr–C coexistence is reported24 similar to our theoretical prediction. The experimental phase diagramalso shows a region where a five-phase coexistence was observed withan additional phase denoted as “X”, which could notbe unambiguously defined3 but somewhatresembles the smectic A phase considered in our theoretical framework.24The experimentally observed quintuple phase coexistence regionwas attributed to the polydispersity of the colloidal rods and platesbecause the classical Gibbs phase rule does not allow for coexistenceamong five different phases in a two-component mixture. However, asexplained above, the generalized Gibbs phase rule 3 does alp–C equilibrium for certain parameters as shown in The generalized Gibbs phaserule predicts that even a sextuplephase coexistence region is theoretically possible in a mixture ofcolloidal rods and plates, because such mixtures have three additionalparameters that affect the phase behavior 70 can potentially be applied toimprove the predictions for the work of insertion for the minor component.The presented theory can also be extended to multicomponent mixtures,which increases the complexity of the phase behavior by adding furtherdimensions to the phase diagrams. Furthermore, for future work, incorporationof mixed phases in which both components are ordered in the presentedtheoretical framework such as biaxial phases or binary crystals isdesired. These colloidal phases have characteristics that are of interestfor varying applications; however, developing a general method forobtaining approximate equations of state for phases of colloidal mixturesin which multiple components are ordered remains challenging.The general theoretical framework outlined in this Letter was usedto showcase the rich phase behavior of binary colloidal mixtures.The possibility of both colloidal components forming ordered phasesallows for a wide variety of multiphase coexistence regions, includingtwo quintuple phase coexistence regions for rod/sphere mixtures andeven a sextuple phase coexistence region for rod/plate mixtures. Thepresented theory is of general interest for applications of colloidalmixtures and can be used for example to find size ratios and shapeparameters for which the stability region of the homogeneous binaryfluid phase is largest or for which parameters it is likely to findmultiple different phases with similar thermodynamic properties. Foraccurate quantitative predictions of the phase boundaries, it shouldbe noted that the accuracy of the equations of state used for thecolloidal mixtures is crucial. Further verification of the free energyexpressions used in this Letter with computer simulations is desirable;however, reports of such studies are scarce. For ordered phases ofspecific colloidal mixtures, a combination of cell theory and scaledparticle theory