Structural distortion at low Mg2+ concentrations has been observed in an immature pre50S, while the structural changes in mature subunits have not yet been studied. Here, we purified the 30S subunits of E. coli cells under various Mg2+ concentrations and analyzed their structural distortion by cryo-electron microscopy. Upon systematically interrogating the structural heterogeneity within the 1 mM Mg2+ dataset, we observed 30S particles with different levels of structural distortion in the decoding center, h17, and the 30S head. Our model showed that, when the Mg2+ concentration decreases, the decoding center distorts, starting from h44 and followed by the shifting of h18 and h27, as well as the dissociation of ribosomal protein S12. Mg2+ deficiency also eliminates the interactions between h17, h10, h15, and S16, resulting in the movement of h17 towards the tip of h6. More flexible structures were observed in the 30S head and platform, showing high variability in these regions. In summary, the structures resolved here showed several prominent distortion events in the decoding center and h17. The requirement for Mg2+ in ribosomes suggests that the conformational changes reported here are likely shared due to a lack of cellular Mg2+ in all domains of life. Magnesium ions are abundant and play indispensable functions in the ribosome. A decrease in Mg Mg2+ is the most abundant multivalent cation in cells and plays an essential role in the assembly of ribosomes by neutralizing negative charges from phosphates present in the rRNA backbone and enabling the correct folding and compaction of rRNA [Metal ions are the second most abundant component after water molecules in living cells and are involved in all fundamental biological processes, including protein synthesis, enzymatic reactions, and others . Protein of rRNA . Escherichia coli (E. coli) contains at least 309 Mg2+ ions [2+ [2+ concentration [2+ concentration below 1 mM causes the dissociation and subsequent unfolding of 70S ribosomes [2+ causes irreversible structural distortions and even disassembly into individual ribosomal constituents [2+ from ribosomes and resulted in the conversion of 50S subunits into 21S particles via a 36S intermediate and the conversion of the 30S subunit into 16S particles via a 26S intermediate, in which the 36S and 26S particles were reversible through the readdition of Mg2+, whereas the 21S and 16S particles containing only 23S and 16S rRNA were irreversible [E. coli cells under conditions of Mg2+ starvation results in ribosome degradation [2+ stabilizes the codon–anticodon interaction at the A site and influences the binding of RRF to the ribosome [2+ can partly complement the functions of several ribosomal proteins, such as L1, L23, and L34 [2+ concentration suppresses the defects in 70S ribosome formation caused by a lack of ribosomal protein L34. Previous studies have also suggested that lower Mg2+ concentrations greatly increase the susceptibility of ribosomes to attack by ribonuclease [E. coli cells, the concentration of intracellular free Mg2+ ranges from 1 mM to 5 mM [2+ is essential for ribosomes, excess Mg2+ reduces their translation activity and accuracy [2+ is 10 times higher than that at 5 mM Mg2+ [The bacterial 70S ribosome is a complex macromolecule composed of small 30S) and large 50S) subunits. Recently, a high-resolution ribosome structure was determined, showing that a single ribosome in g2+ ions . It has 0S subunintration , and decibosomes . Meanwhi0S and laribosome ,11. In a and L34 . For insnuclease ,14. In E to 5 mM ,16. Althaccuracy ,18. For  mM Mg2+ . 2+ exposure on the 30S structure, we used cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) to explore the structures of 30S particles and characterize a series of unnatural 30S structures at 1 mM Mg2+. The 30S ribosomal subunit is composed of one rRNA molecule (16S rRNA) and approximately 21 r-proteins, which are organized into four distinct structural domains: the body (5′ domain), the platform , the head (3′ major domain), and helix 44 with h45 (3′ minor domain) [2+ or with Mg2+ of up to ~1 mM, the tertiary interactions of the 16S central domain are disrupted, resulting in expanded conformations containing only secondary structures [2+ facilitate the folding of rRNA fragments, especially the formation of tertiary contacts? In this study, our cryoEM structures showed that the 30S particles collected at 1 mM showed several missing structural features and conformation changes, including missing h44 and S12 and the movement of h17 and h27. These structural distortions in unfolding intermediates provide insight into ribosome biogenesis and should be taken into account in vitro assembling studies. In order to examine the impact of low Mg domain) . The ass domain) ,23,24. Athe body ′ domain,ructures . How doeE. coli strain with the mutant DbpA protein overexpressed, obtained from another project conducted by our research group. Since the structural distortion observed in these 30SDbpA at 1 mM Mg2+ was shown to be exactly the same as that of 30S purified from the wild-type BL21 strain (data not shown), the cryoEM data of 30SDbpA were used for reconstruction and designated as 30S1mM in this study. Wild-type E. coli BL21 and MRE600 were used for the sucrose gradients and purification of 30S at 2.5 and 10 mM Mg2+. In this study, 30S particles were purified from an E. coli cells of the strains BL21 and MRE600 were grown to an OD600 between 0.6 and 0.8 at 37 °C and 220 rpm in LB medium before harvesting. Yeast cells of the strain BY4742 were grown to an OD600 of 0.65 at 30 °C and 220 rpm in YPD medium. HEK293F cells were grown in suspension culture to approximately 2 × 106 cells per milliliter before harvesting. For the sucrose gradient and 30S purification, 4Cl, 4 mM β-mercaptoethanol) with different concentrations of Mg2+ and EDTA, according to the experimental requirements, and DNase I (RNase-free) was added at a final concentration of 20 U/mL. The cells were broken with a grinder, followed by centrifugation at 14,000 rpm at 4 °C for 20 min. Fifteen units of A260 of clarified lysates were loaded onto a twelve milliliters of sucrose gradient.For the sucrose gradient analysis, 50 mL of cells were collected by centrifugation at 3500 rpm at 4 °C for 10 min and were resuspended in 200 μL of lysis buffer  operating at 4 °C and 100% humidity.Samples of 30Sg, which yields a final pixel size of 1.095 Å on the object scale (defocus ranging from –1.5 μm to –2.5 μm). For each micrograph stack, 30 frames were collected, for a total dose of 30 electrons per pixel. For the EDTA-treated sample, micrographs were recorded on a Titan Krios G3i operating at 300 kV with a Gatan K2 Summit.Micrographs were collected on a Titan Krios G3i operating at 300 kV with a Gatan K3 Summit. Data acquisition was performed using the software EPU, with a nominal magnification of 81,000× Motion correction on the micrograph level was performed with MotionCorr2 . The pro1mM sample, a total of 497,673 particles were subject to a cascade of 2D and 3D classification. After one round of 3D classification, 440,474 particles were subjected to 3D auto-refine and then subjected to 3D classification with a mask on the decoding centers, S12 and h17, respectively, in which the alignment of the particles was omitted.For the 30S2.5mM and 30S10mM samples, a total of 360,621 and 349,073 particles were subjected to several rounds of 2D/3D classification to remove the non-ribosomes and bad particles. Finally, 139,475 and 146,689 particles, respectively, were used for the 3D reconstructions. For the 30SE. coli ribosome (PDB:7k00) was used as the initial model, and rigid-body fitted to the density map using Chimera and Coot 0.8.9 [A high-resolution cryo-EM structure of the ot 0.8.9 ,28,29. TTo study the correlations of the structural distortion between different blocks, we exploited cryoDRGN’s powerful generative model to analyze the structural heterogeneity . The parin and h17out). The generated atomic models were used to create masks corresponding to each of the rRNA helices and ribosomal proteins. Then, these 32 masks were applied to each of the 500 volumes in turn, and finally, the occupancy of the density was calculated for each block, and the correlation between them was calculated by hierarchical clustering analysis.For the subunit occupancy analysis, 500 volumes were sampled from the latent space. Then, the body domain of 30S was split into 32 blocks using a PDB file that was rigid-body-fitted to the refined map, including coordinates for two h17 helices  showed long-distance (~26 Å) shifting towards h18, and, accordingly, h18, h24, and h45 became more flexible  shifting compared to h27out-3 . Each structural block contained an individual rRNA helix, or ribosomal protein. The occupancy of the density was calculated for each block, and the correlation between them was calculated by hierarchical clustering analysis  and S12 is complete (S1210). On the other hand, h27 tends to shift outward, and S12 shifts away in the two h17in states. These results showed a negative correlation between the movements of h17 and h27/S12, similar to the hierarchical clustering results . With the Mg2+ decreasing to 1 mM, the rRNA helices h16, h18, and h27 in the decoding center also become unstable, and protein S12 starts to dissociate from the 30S subunit (2+). When there are no magnesium ions at all, that is, after EDTA treatment, the 23S rRNA becomes completely unfolded, with a loss of ribosomal proteins. Most likely, the secondary structures are still stable, except for those helices with only a few canonical Watson–Crick base pairs [2+ concentrations, reflecting differences in stability between different regions. This is consistent with the calculation showing that the midpoint, the Mg2+ concentration at which individual secondary or tertiary interactions occur, is not unique, and the coordination of Mg2+ with rRNA is nucleotide specific and does not occur in a random, diffusive manner [The data presented here, ranging from 1 mM to 10 mM Mgdecrease . Initial2+ from ribosomes results in a non-functional ribosome, especially in the case of EDTA-treated E. coli ribosomes, which show a different structural assembly manner [E. coli ribosome and showed a series of snapshots of the distortional 30S, which revealed a sequential movement of the rRNA helices and ribosomal proteins in the 30S subunits. Several cryoEM structures suggest that the pre30S/pre40S particles transit through a vibrating state [2+ concentration are correlated with the structural rearrangements observed during 30S/40S maturation.The magnesium ion, which is the most abundant of the divalent cations in living cells, has an irreplaceable function in stabilizing the secondary structure of ribosomal RNA, binding ribosomal proteins to the ribosome, and ribosomal interaction due to its high charge density and relatively small ionic radius (0.6 Å) ,41,42. Ing state ,44,45. W2+ concentration, although we could observe weak densities above the decoding center in some of the states responsible for the moved h44. The helix h44 is directly involved in mRNA decoding, as is the formation of two inter-subunit bridges (B2a and B3) that participate in association with the large ribosomal subunit [2+ concentration, also becomes more flexible than other helices. In addition to h27 and h44, the surrounding helices h18, h24, and h45 also showed significant movement under the 1 mM Mg2+ conditions.Firstly, all the reconstructions obtained in this study lacked a clear h44, which means that this helix is totally moved out at a 1 mM Mg subunit ,47. In t subunit . In the  subunit ,48. A re2+ concentrations of roughly 2 mM.Secondly, in part of the reconstruction, the ribosomal protein S12 dissociated from the decoding center. S12 is the third binding r-protein according to the Nomura assembly map ,50. The 2+, whereas this movement did not affect the connected h16. Furthermore, the 30S head and related helices in the neck region were too flexible to be defined in our reconstructions. In the translation process, large-scale rotation of the head domain is required for the movement of mRNA and tRNA translocation [Thirdly, an approximately 54 degree rotation was observed in h17, which generated novel interactions between the tip of h17 and h6. In the mature 30S, h16/h17 comprises one of the three long helices in the 30S subunit and interacts with h18/h15, which is situated beside it and forms the backbone of the entire body. The three major longitudinal elements, h44, h16/h17, and h7, act as structural pillars that extend over 110 Å, and not only stabilize the body but also transmit conformational changes and displacements over a very long distance . Here, wlocation ,34. E. coli, the Mg2+ concentration is reported to be approximately 1–5 mM, whereas the total Mg2+ concentration, including the Mg2+ chelated by biological molecules, is around 100 mM [2+ homeostasis [2+ ions bound tightly to the ribosome [E. coli ribosome identified 309 Mg2+ in 70S with 93 Mg2+ in 30S [2+ associated loosely or through out-sphere interactions showed that more than 585 Mg2+ are predicted to bind the elongation complex of the ribosome [B. subtilis showed that the total cellular Mg2+ concentration decreased in proportion to the amount of 70S ribosome when B. subtilis lacked an individual copy of the rRNA operons [2+, and when the cellular free Mg2+ decreases, the ribosome first releases the Mg2+ on the surface, which only involves a small portion of rRNA helices, such as h44 and h17 in the 30S, and this results in a reversible ribosome. Meanwhile, the mechanisms through which ribosomes actively participate in Mg2+ homeostasis should be elucidated in detail in future studies. In d 100 mM ,53. Receeostasis . A high-ribosome . Additio+ in 30S . Countinribosome . Studies operons ,15. Comb2+, has been suggested to be the structural origin of the ribosome [2+ is also essential for the small subunit functional regions. According to our structures, the E. coli 30S and 50S subunits separate and subsequently unfold when the Mg2+ concentration is below 1 mM. Ribosomes are usually purified at 10 mM Mg2+ to ensure that they are close to their natural state, but subunit separation occurs at 1 mM Mg2+ [2+ should be avoided. These results can provide guidance for studies of ribosome structural and functional stability as well as the process of ribosome assembly.It has been reported that the most ancient parts of the ribosome are the PTC and the ribonucleotides, which depend heavily on metal ions for their structural stability ,57. Moreribosome ,59,60. M mM Mg2+ ,62. One


Video recordings of patients may offer advantages to supplement patient assessment and clinical decision-making. However, little is known about the practice of video recording patients for direct care purposes.We aimed to synthesize empirical studies published internationally to explore the extent to which video recording patients is acceptable and effective in supporting direct care and, for the United Kingdom, to summarize the relevant guidance of professional and regulatory bodies.Five electronic databases  were searched from 2012 to 2022. Eligible studies evaluated an intervention involving video recording of adult patients (≥18 years) to support diagnosis, care, or treatment. All study designs and countries of publication were included. Websites of UK professional and regulatory bodies were searched to identify relevant guidance. The acceptability of video recording patients was evaluated using study recruitment and retention rates and a framework synthesis of patients’ and clinical staff’s perspectives based on the Theoretical Framework of Acceptability by Sekhon. Clinically relevant measures of impact were extracted and tabulated according to the study design. The framework approach was used to synthesize the reported ethico-legal considerations, and recommendations of professional and regulatory bodies were extracted and tabulated.Of the 14,221 abstracts screened, 27 studies met the inclusion criteria. Overall, 13 guidance documents were retrieved, of which 7 were retained for review. The views of patients and clinical staff (16 studies) were predominantly positive, although concerns were expressed about privacy, technical considerations, and integrating video recording into clinical workflows; some patients were anxious about their physical appearance. The mean recruitment rate was 68.2% , and the mean retention rate was 73.3% . Regarding effectiveness (10 studies), patients and clinical staff considered video recordings to be valuable in supporting assessment, care, and treatment; in promoting patient engagement; and in enhancing communication and recall of information. Observational studies (n=5) favored video recording, but randomized controlled trials (n=5) did not demonstrate that video recording was superior to the controls. UK guidelines are consistent in their recommendations around consent, privacy, and storage of recordings but lack detailed guidance on how to operationalize these recommendations in clinical practice.Video recording patients for direct care purposes appears to be acceptable, despite concerns about privacy, technical considerations, and how to incorporate recording into clinical workflows. Methodological quality prevents firm conclusions from being drawn; therefore, pragmatic trials (particularly in older adult care and the movement disorders field) should evaluate the impact of video recording on diagnosis, treatment monitoring, patient-clinician communication, and patient safety. Professional and regulatory documents should signpost to practical guidance on the implementation of video recording in routine practice.PROSPERO CRD42022331825: https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/display_record.php?RecordID=331825 Video-based documentation is a growing practice in health care, but both clinicians and patients have concerns about associated ethico-legal issues ,2. VideoVideo recording has demonstrated value across research, education, and performance assessment, as well as in clinical audit and quality improvement ,2. ReseaCertain aspects of a patient’s condition  can be challenging to convey to others involved in a person’s care, and recognizing changes in a patient’s condition over time can be difficult, particularly when a patient receives care from multiple different clinical staff . MoreoveOne of the proposed solutions is video recording. Video recordings offer a detailed and objective record that can be reviewed repeatedly as a longitudinal record by multiple clinical staff members . Video rAt a time when video technology is ubiquitous in everyday life, little is known about how video recordings can support the safety and quality of individual patient health care. The aim of this review was to synthesize the international empirical literature on video recording patients for direct care purposes to evaluate acceptability, effectiveness, and ethico-legal considerations and to summarize the relevant guidance of professional and regulatory bodies in the United Kingdom.The review protocol was specified in advance and registered in the PROSPERO database (CRD42022331825).Two separate search strategies were used: (1) empirical studies  and (2) professional and regulatory guidance (United Kingdom only).Empirical studies were identified by searching electronic databases  and by scanning the reference lists of relevant articles. The literature search was based on two broad concepts: (1) video recording and (2) patients . StudiesTo identify relevant recommendations of professional and regulatory bodies, we searched the following websites and archives: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence, Social Care Institute for Excellence, National Health Service Knowledge Library Hub, General Medical Council, Nursing & Midwifery Council, Health & Care Professions Council, Care Quality Commission, Parliamentary & Health Service Ombudsman, and Government publications. Similar to the search strategy for empirical studies, the search was underpinned by two concepts: (1) video recording and (2) patients. As we specified our review protocol in advance and anticipated that it would not be feasible to cover all countries, we opted to include professional and regulatory guidance documents issued in the United Kingdom where the authors are based.For both search strategies, the last search was conducted on December 13, 2022, and we excluded papers that were older than 10 years or not published in English [Two reviewers  independently screened all the records. The reviewers were blinded to each other’s screening decisions, and disagreements were resolved through discussion and consensus. Screening decisions were recorded using Covidence, a web-based systematic review management system.Both reviewers independently extracted the following data from the included studies: authors and year of publication; study design and type of publication ; country of publication and clinical setting; focus of the paper; details regarding the video recording intervention ; sample size and participant characteristics ; main findings relating to the outcomes of interest ; and study limitations. Acceptability was defined as the extent to which people delivering or receiving health care interventions consider it appropriate based on anticipated or experienced cognitive and emotional responses to the intervention . EffectiKey recommendations for video recording patients for direct care purposes were extracted independently by the reviewers.Owing to the inclusion of various types of evidence encompassing a variety of study designs and qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches, quality appraisal was undertaken using the Quality Assessment with Diverse Studies (QuADS) appraisal tool . The useWe used the Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist for Case Reports . For conThe study’s findings were synthesized using a narrative approach. To evaluate acceptability, recruitment and retention rates were extracted or calculated (reported data permitting), and the reported views and experiences of patients and clinical staff were analyzed thematically using a framework-based synthesis . The TheAffective attitudeHow an individual feels about the interventionBurdeneThe amount of effort required to participate in the interventionEthicalityThe extent to which the intervention has a good fit with an individual’s value systemIntervention coherenceThe extent to which the participant understands the intervention and how it worksOpportunity costsThe extent to which benefits, profits, or values must be given up to engage in the interventionPerceived effectivenessThe extent to which the intervention is perceived to achieve its purposeSelf-efficacyThe participant’s confidence that they can perform the behaviors required to participate in the interventionWe followed the reporting recommendations outlined in the PRISMA  statement  Multime.The searches of the MEDLINE, Embase, APA PsycINFO, CENTRAL, and HMIC databases yielded 14,218 study citations. Following the removal of duplicates, the titles with the addition or removal of abstracts of 8715 citations were screened. Of these, 5420 citations that clearly did not meet the inclusion criteria were discarded during the title screen, and a further 3205 were excluded on reviewing the abstracts. The full reports of the remaining 90 studies were retrieved and examined in detail. In total, 24 studies meeting the inclusion criteria were retained for review; 3 additional studies were identified through a hand search of reference lists . A totalOf the 27 studies, there were 5 RCTs , 17 obseThe studies involved 1551 patient participants. Patients were care home residents and older people with dementia ,38,39,42In 11 studies, patient video recordings were used to support assessment and diagnosis, including the evaluation of seizures ,44,50,52In total, 17 empirical studies were reported as full-text articles and were therefore suitable for methodological assessment using the QuADS appraisal tool -45,47,48The mean recruitment rate was 68.2%  operational pressures and (2) environment  were used ,38,39,45The mobile device app provided to review videos proved to be accessible and easy to use to facility staff.Results extract Others described an additional burden: for example, some clinical staff members were concerned about losing the mobile video recording devices in the clinical setting; others described technical problems in operationalizing the video recording intervention ,37,39,47Patients’ reports coded to this construct were from 1 study, which explored perspectives on home-based video recording for movement analysis in Parkinson disease ,48. For Other people should be kept out of the video as much as possible... but this is probably not possible, so my partner needs to consent as well.Participant-patient 7It was clear from some patients’ reports that they clearly understood how the video recording intervention worked ,33,45; fSome service-users showed curiosity about the iPad and appeared not to recognise or understand it. One person asked if it was a mirror and looked to brush her hair, another asked if it could continue to see him in another room.Results extractIn 1 study , therapiIn 1 study  in whichI don’t want a camera in every room at the same time, I need to have some privacy somewhere.Patient 8; patient with Parkinson diseaseHowever, in another study  where clVideo recordings were perceived to be valuable in supporting patient assessment, including assessing condition severity and monitoring changes ,33,45. SWhen you visit a neurologist you really need to describe the problem the right way and you never know exactly how often symptoms appear.Patient 10 Clinical staff members reported that patient videos supported multidisciplinary communication as well as referrals for advice or a second opinion . Video rFour studies reported factors affecting patients’ ability to engage with or participate in video recording interventions; these were as follows: cognitive impairment—“Cognitively impaired patients were less likely to engage with the tablet” (results extract) ; computeIn 1 study , operatiEffectiveness was quantitatively measured in 10 studies. Of these, 5 were observational and examined the use of home videos as adjunct tools in epilepsy diagnosis ,43,44 orEthico-legal considerations relating to video recording of patients for direct care purposes were described in all but 3 included studies; these considerations were broadly categorized into 8 themes .Some authors cited adherence to relevant local, regional, or national legislation and guidelines, including local institutional review boards and clinical information governance protocols, state legislation (US studies), national health service policy, and federal law; for example, the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act  ,42,45,47Other people should be kept out of the video as much as possible... but this is probably not possible, so my partner needs to consent as well.Patient 7Arrangements for secure transmission and storage of, and access to, video recordings were described, including the use of encryption, secure servers and local network storage devices, password protection and limiting access to certain personnel, file backup, and long-term storage ,45,47,51To compare a patient’s examination over time, one ideally would like to have the ability to access a video file quickly and easily in clinic. The desire for accessibility, however, must be balanced by the need for patient privacy and confidentiality.Results extractMeasures undertaken to protect the privacy of patients and health or care staff included careful consideration given to the video recording location—for example, avoiding placing cameras in bathrooms , capturiSeveral professional bodies in the United Kingdom have provided guidance on or relating to video recording patients for direct care purposes based on national legislation, such as the Data Protection Act 2018 , UK GeneUK General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) The principal legislation governing how records, information, and personal data are managed, including how personal information may be processed. It is based on seven key principles: (1) lawfulness, fairness, and transparency; (2) purpose limitation; (3) data minimization; (4) accuracy; (5) storage limitation; (6) integrity and confidentiality (security); and (7) accountability.Data Protection Act 2018 Sits alongside and supplements the UK GDPR—for example, by providing exemptions.Sets out the framework for how personal data must be collected, handled, and stored to protect people’s fundamental right to privacy.Supports organizations with their lawful processing of personal data.The Caldicott principles Eight principles that all health and social care staff members are expected to adhere to.Justify the purposes for using confidential information.Use confidential information only when it is necessary.Use the minimum necessary confidential information.Access to confidential information should be on a strict need-to-know basis.Everyone with access to confidential information should be aware of their responsibilities.Comply with the law.The duty to share information for individual care is as important as the duty to protect patient confidentiality.Inform patients and service users about how their confidential information is used.Video recording patients for direct care purposes appears to be acceptable, and this is evident in the recruitment and retention rates in studies evaluating a video recording intervention and the predominantly positive views and experiences of patients and clinical staff members. Concerns about privacy and physical appearance were voiced by some patients, whereas clinical staff members were concerned about device security, technical issues, and operational and environmental considerations associated with implementing video recording in a clinical setting. Video recordings were perceived to be valuable in supporting patient assessment, care, or treatment; in promoting patient engagement; and in enhancing communication and recall of information. The results of observational studies suggested that video-based patient records are effective in supporting direct care delivery; however, RCTs demonstrated that the video recording intervention was not superior to the controls. Of note, methodological and reporting quality was generally poor considering the studies collectively and worse in observational studies compared with RCTs. This review summarizes and discusses relevant professional guidance and national legislation for UK practice, including recommendations for obtaining consent, protecting privacy and confidentiality, and securing data transmission and storage.Although our review explored video recording in the context of direct care delivery, 2 previous literature reviews examined the evidence on video recording patients’ research and training purposes. A review of audio-visual recordings during general practitioner consultations for research purposes, published 15 years ago in 2008, found that patients who had not been videoed before were more likely to dislike the idea than patients who had previous experience with video recording during health care interactions . In contOur review found that the factors influencing acceptability among clinical staff were technical issues and mobile device security. Similarly, previous research has reported issues with the installation or usability of video recording equipment, images not being transmitted to patient records, and mobile devices being stolen ,64,65. TAlthough video-based records were perceived to enhance several aspects of direct care delivery, the methodological and reporting quality of the body of evidence was generally poor, which limits the conclusions that can be drawn regarding effectiveness. Among the 5 RCTs, video recording interventions were not associated with improvements in clinically relevant outcome measures, although most trials were underpowered. Of note, our study was concerned with direct care delivery, and the applicability of RCTs to real-world clinical practice has been debated . AlthougPertinent to video recording patients in health care, data protection legislation sets out how personal data must be collected, handled, and stored to protect people’s fundamental right to privacy. Although some countries, such as Canada, have complex data protection legislation at the federal and provincial levels, there is consistency in legislation across the globe pertaining to key issues, such as consent and data security, as laid out in the Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act  , the DatEnsuring public trust and confidence in how personal data are used by the health service is a central concern for health care organizations and policy makers -74. HighThe methodological and reporting quality of the studies included in this review was generally poor, and further research is needed, particularly for the effectiveness of video-based patient records in direct care delivery. Although RCTs are considered the “gold standard” of causal impact evaluation, they should adopt a pragmatic attitude to evaluating video-based records for direct care purposes and be reported according in line with the CONSORT  statement extension for pragmatic trials . Theory-A strength of this review lies in the comprehensive synthesis of qualitative and quantitative data and professional guidance to address a range of important considerations for the implementation of video-based patient records. A robust systematic review process was followed, with 2 reviewers independently undertaking screening, data extraction, quality appraisal, and coding of qualitative findings. We ensured rigor and transparency in the qualitative synthesis by applying the framework method to derive insights from the included studies . HoweverVideo technologies have been piloted in various health and care contexts to support diagnosis, care, and treatment. Video recording practices appear to be acceptable to patients and clinical staff despite concerns about privacy, technical considerations, and integration into clinical workflows. The methodological and reporting limitations of the studies included in this review prevented firm conclusions from being drawn. Pragmatic, mixed methods trials, particularly in the field of movement disorders, older adult care, and in patients’ homes, should evaluate how video recording impacts diagnosis and treatment monitoring, patient and care provider communication, and patient safety. Professional and regulatory documents should provide practical guidance for the secure, ethical implementation of video recording in routine practice.


N = 20) included DNA analysts, fingerprint examiners, forensic odontologists, forensic pathologists, and mortuary technicians who had experience in DVI operations. Participants were interviewed about their experiences and perceptions of the challenges of DVI. The findings provide valuable insights into the types of DVI operations in which Australian forensic practitioners have been involved internationally. Thematic analysis of interview data resulted in five main themes: the post-disaster work environment; DVI management and processes; political and financial influences; teamwork in intercultural and interdisciplinary contexts; and confronting the emotional realities of DVI work. The analysis highlights the interrelated challenges associated with DVI operations in international contexts. Practitioners also provided suggestions for improvement, which generally aligned with the themes and reflected an ethos of learning and continuous improvement in DVI. Further research on education and training and capacity-development initiatives is warranted.Disaster victim identification (DVI) is an important process in the aftermath of disasters to provide answers for the families and communities of victims. Australian forensic practitioners contribute to such processes internationally under difficult post-disaster circumstances. The aim of the study was to better understand the challenges experienced by forensic practitioners in international DVI operations. Participants ( Disaster victim identification (DVI) is often regarded as a category of humanitarian forensic action . HumanitThe vital work of DVI in the aftermath of a disaster is a complex undertaking. Leading a disaster response is typically the responsibility of the government in the affected area , 8. Howeper se, it aims to contribute to enhanced outcomes for such groups. Specifically, by identifying issues from practitioners’ perspectives, the findings from this study may stimulate further research to eliminate or alleviate issues and contribute to training and development to facilitate this important work. The paper begins with an overview of DVI processes, including some of the associated challenges. It then discusses the methodology of the study in which 20 Australian forensic practitioners from five forensic disciplines were interviewed about their experiences of DVI in international contexts. The paper concludes with a discussion of the findings and suggestions for further research that arise from this study.This paper reports the findings of a study that aimed to better understand the complexities of DVI. Specifically, it focuses on the challenges of DVI from the perspective of Australian forensic practitioners. The study adopted a critical forensic studies perspective, which is informed by social justice and human rights considerations in the use of forensic science to improve fairness for all . AlthougThe process of DVI involves many different types of practitioners, such as photographers, radiologists, interview teams, property managers, investigators, liaison offers, logistics officers, and various forensic practitioners . The forINTERPOL Disaster Victim Identification Guide . Specific organisations in three jurisdictions were then contacted for permission to undertake research with members who had experience in international DVI operations. Organizational approvals were received from the Australian Federal Police for fingerprint examiners and DNA analysts, from the Tasmanian Department of Police, Fire and Emergency Management for DNA analysts based at Forensic Science Service Tasmania, and from Western Australia Police Force for fingerprint examiners.Additionally, the National Institute of Forensic Science, which is a directorate of the Australian and New Zealand Policing Advisory Agency (ANZPAA) facilitated the research by requesting assistance from the ANZPAA DVI Committee (ADVIC). Its members include police representatives from each jurisdiction and scientific representatives from the biology Specialist Advisory Group, the odontology, anthropology, and mortuary Technical Advisory Groups, and the Royal College of Pathologists of Australasia. The chairs of forensic disciplines in ADVIC forwarded information about the study to their member forensic anthropologists, forensic pathologists, forensic odontologists, and mortuary technicians.via email, providing information and consent forms if they had not already received them. Mutually suitable times for interviews were arranged once consent forms were returned. A total of 20 participants were drawn from five forensic disciplines: DNA analysis (n = 4); fingerprint examination (n = 6); forensic odontology (n = 4); forensic pathology (n = 4); and mortuary services (n = 2). Of the 20 participants, 12 were female and eight were male forensic practitioners. Participants had experience in 1–11 separate DVI responses, with participation in 1 (n = 2), 2–4 (n = 9), 5–10 (n = 8), and 11 responses (n = 1). The most frequently mentioned DVI responses were the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami response in Thailand (n = 15), the 2002 Bali bombing (n = 11), and the 2009 bushfires in Victoria (n = 8).Once potential participants were nominated by their organisations, or had responded to the researcher directly, the first author contacted them via Zoom (n = 15), both to facilitate Australia-wide participation and to accommodate COVID-19 restrictions. The remainder of interviews (n = 5) were conducted face-to-face, in accordance with all recommended health measures. Participants were asked open-ended questions about their role and forensic expertise, their involvement and experience in DVI operations, the main challenges they had experienced during the DVI operation/s, and suggestions to improve DVI processes from their perspectives. Participants were asked follow-up questions as necessary to elicit further information or clarify points made and were encouraged to raise additional points that they considered relevant.Most interviews were conducted Interviews ranged in length from 41 min to 111 min (mean = 56 min). All interviews were recorded using an iPhone with the consent of participants. Interviews were transcribed verbatim. First, a list of DVI operations that participants had attended was compiled from the data. Next, interview transcripts were analysed thematically using the steps outlined by Braun and Clarke . This inThe results focus on three areas: an overview of DVI operations attended by participants, themes from interview data, and participants’ main suggestions for improvement.Interview data showed that collectively participants had experienced a broad range of DVI operations. As can be seen in Drawing upon their experience, participants discussed various types of challenges in DVI operations. Themes and subthemes are summarized in logistical challenges, such as getting to the disaster location and working in the post-disaster environment:Reflecting experiences mentioned in previous literature , 22, parThere’ll be logistical challenges you know that people haven’t got food, the power has gone down, the roads are flooded, the people haven’t got anywhere to live so they’re not focused on identifying the dead. It is very difficult to encompass the complexity of this when the numbers get large, and the disaster has affected the functioning of the society and the community. (Forensic Pathologist 1)lack of resources and equipment:Also reflecting previous literature , 21, theIn the Solomon Islands, we had to transport everything out to the remote sites by helicopter. Most of the places—there was no power at any of the places; there were no buildings, no running water. We had like creeks and the ocean and stuff, but no running water. And so, we had no decontamination facilities. I guess they were just all really remote, and everything pretty much had to be carried a fair distance by us—tables, bodies, bodies in bags, equipment, everything had to be carried to the site from the helicopter on our backs. So, we were quite limited in what we could take. And then we had to all be clean before we could get back on the helicopter, so it involved a swim in the ocean. (Fingerprint Examiner 8)feeling unprepared (often despite preparation) for the specific circumstances of the post-disaster environment, partly because each disaster was different and unexpected:Participants reported The Bali bombing … we were prepared, but we weren’t. There were so many things we could have and should have done better, and we learned. And then by the time we got to the bushfires, Victorian Bushfires, we used what we learnt in the Bali bombing with the Victorian bushfires. (Mortuary Technician 10)Forensic practitioners therefore had to work out how to do their work differently, under extremely challenging circumstances, by building on experience.DVI protocols were not always followed or well-understood by local authorities, at least in the initial stages of a response:The INTERPOL DVI Guide  aims to …No body bag is identified or has a number on it. So immediately, eight bodies from eight different locations—where the location might have said something crucial about who that dead body was, that’s immediately lost. A truck comes and the eight bodies get put on a truck. They go and pick up another eight bodies from another street—none of these are labelled and the bodies are taken off and put into a huge mass grave where lots of other bodies brought by lots of other trunks from lots of other locations are all mixed up in one big mass grave. And you have no idea at that point where any of these bodies have come from and at that point nobody has made a decision about [how to address the issue]. (Forensic Pathologist 1)This sentiment was compounded by challenges in the lack of clarity in systems and processes in place:When I got there, the handover was relatively short–very short really! It was just like, “Here’s the office, this is your team, this is the roster, these are the current files—do your best, we’ll see you later”. And then they went, so it wasn’t a lot, it didn’t take a whole day to handover or meet and greet people; you had to find your own ways. It was very rushed…it was like what I would imagine Wall Street would be like on a trading day—there are papers everywhere, noise, just chaos, really, in there. (Fingerprint Examiner 17).  which one of them has sufficient political power to be in charge of the response. (Forensic Pathologist 2)financial resources can increase reliance on international support in multiple domains, complicating questions of who is in charge  and who is making resourcing decisions (foreign governments):This kind of issue can be particularly relevant in developing countries , 16, 21.And in other (developing) countries, they certainly don’t have that sort of money to apply to DVI response. Therefore, we’ve got what we call scales of economy that are going to change the face of the DVI response, depending on which country you’re dealing with and their management style, the management culture, how much money is available, how much money or how much [in the way of] resources are provided to them by those that are assisting. (Fingerprint Examiner 19)This issue reflects what occurred in Thailand, where the Australian Government funded the information centre . Similarrelationships within and between teams was important because, as noted in previous research [It was noted that DVI work “brings out the best and worst in people” (Forensic Odontologist 3); the best due to working hard to achieve a common goal, and the worst due to frustrations and difficulties being hard to bear. However, fostering good research , teamworWell, it’s definitely teamwork. So, you really need to have a good team and they need to have the appropriate expertise underneath to be the type of personality that you can work with. We  need to have clear guidance on what’s going on. Because if you imagine going to a different country, it’s a different culture, might be different religions, different approaches to things, so we need parts of the teams going in who are going to be liaising with them and smoothing the way. (Forensic Odontologist 16)legal, cultural, and religious norms could influence their work:Reflecting previous observations on differences in care for the dead , forensiIf you’re in New Zealand, speed is the essence of an investigation into a death because of the Maori sort of cultural context. And of course, that’s true for a number of religions as well—Judaism and Islam, and so on, both have issues around speed. And many of these are historical. If you actually think about it, they are more historical because of the issue around the body being preserved and so on. Whereas, for example, in Victoria and in elsewhere in Australia, a lot of the issues have been because they’ve transformed their death legislation—they’ve moved it to being more about consultation with the family. (Forensic Pathologist 2)language differences:Additionally, whereas English was mostly used as a common language, differing levels of proficiency reportedly added to the complexities of communication (“and that has consequences” Forensic Pathologist 2). In reality, effective timely and accurate communication could pose challenges, with multiple Because it was 20 or 30 nationalities. . . so the communication involved is intensive—multiple languages, communication channels, involving embassies and international police forces and different procedures and tracking people down. (Forensic Pathologist 1)Participants comments suggested that various different aspects of the DVI experience combined to make it overwhelming at times:There is time away from home challenges. And time away from home compounded by seeing a never-ending stream of dead people or dead and decaying people and seeing bodies being opened up and jaws removed, then trying to fingerprint really rotten flesh and that constant stench of death. (Fingerprint Examiner 19)encountering victims’ relatives:This finding reflects research on disaster relief workers in general, which found that stress reactions can be generated, in part, by being away from home without one’s regular social support and experiencing culture shock amid the chaotic destruction . ForensiThere were a lot of relatives there, quite a lot of people that were there looking for their loved ones, you know, they’re trying to find people, so it was quite daunting. You know, there’s a lot of people upset. (Forensic Pathologist 18)psychological and physical impacts at the time of the DVI operation/s:This finding reflected sentiments from personal accounts  and fromA few of the guys did say, you know, little things that would be happening to them like they felt mood changes or weren’t sleeping well, or felt very short tempered, and they thought it was just trying to assimilate this, but it was the first time they’d done one. (Forensic Odontologist 16)Additionally, some reported that it was later that it may come up:. . .I was a nervous wreck. Stomach was churning and I was on edge. I couldn’t work it out. What is this all about? … and I had a reaction that I didn’t know was sitting there except I had known when I came back, I couldn’t really talk about it. I got emotional like I still am a bit now, but it was really something. And that was probably close to 10 years later. So various stuff affects you—and you don’t realise. Overall, reflecting the broader body of research on the psychological and physical impacts on disaster relief workers , 34, 35,n = 18) provided suggestions for how the DVI process could be improved in general. They focused on several key areas as follows:Participants ;(i) Planning effectively for disasters ;(ii) Developing protocols ; and(iii) Continuous learning and improvement .(iv) Managing expectations . The prviews by . FinallyThis cross-sectional study aimed to contribute to an understanding of the challenges faced by Australian forensic practitioners in DVI operations across a range of disasters. By identifying challenges for practitioners, the aim was to indirectly facilitate enhanced support for victims’ families and communities. Based on interviews with 20 practitioners with DVI experience from five forensic disciplines, the study revealed the involvement of Australian forensic practitioners in a range of DVI operations. The themes highlight the complexities of the DVI process, and the overlapping nature of challenges faced by forensic practitioners. The most prominent challenges include working together effectively in complex and often chaotic post-disaster environments, despite differences in political and financial, and cultural and legal norms. The findings suggest that forensic practitioners value ongoing efforts to improve and develop processes. Research on training, development, and capacity-building initiatives, both nationally and internationally, would be valuable to ensure that forensic science can be used as equitably as possible to assist families and communities in the aftermath of disasters.


Experimental methods using microRNA/target ligation have recently provided significant insights into microRNA functioning through generation of chimeric (hybrid) RNA sequences. Here, we introduce Hybkit, a Python3 API, and command-line toolkit for analysis of hybrid sequence data in the “hyb” file format to enable customizable evaluation and annotation of hybrid characteristics. The Hybkit API includes a suite of python objects for developing custom analyses of hybrid data as well as miRNA-specific analysis methods, built-in plotting of analysis results, and incorporation of predicted miRNA/target interactions in Vienna format.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7834299). Hybkit distributions are also provided via PyPI (pypi.org/project/hybkit), Conda (bioconda.github.io/recipes/hybkit/README.html), and Docker (quay.io/repository/biocontainers/hybkit).Hybkit is provided free and open source under the GNU GPL license at github.com/RenneLab/hybkit and archived on Zenodo (  MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short, ∼18 to 22 nucleotide sequences that play a major role in post-transcriptional gene regulation by binding and inhibiting or degrading target RNAs , 2009. OHere, we introduce Hybkit, a toolkit, and Python3 API for analysis of hyb-format chimeric sequence data from RNA-ligation experiments. Hybkit enables the flexible classification and annotation of identified hybrid segments, identification of miRNA-containing hybrids, and filtration of records based on sequence identifiers and other annotation information.Built-in plotting features allow visualization of analysis results, including plotting the distributions of segment types and miRNA targets. In addition to sequence data, Hybkit also includes methods for merging information from hyb files with corresponding predicted molecular secondary structure (“fold”) files in the Vienna format produced by ViennaRNA or UNAFold  files; hyb_eval for annotation of hybrid segment type, miRNA presence, and other details; hyb_filter for selection of hybrids with specific properties; and hyb_analyze for running descriptive analyses on annotated hyb files. Flags and settings are standardized across tools and correspond to associated settings in the Hybkit API, allowing for flexibility in implementing analyses using either method.In addition to the Python API, Hybkit includes several command-line tools for parsing, annotation, filtration, and analysis of hyb data within command-line workflows. These include To demonstrate usage of Hybkit functions, several example analysis workflows are included. Each analysis demonstrates parsing, annotation, and filtration of one or more hyb files and/or corresponding Vienna files using Hybkit. Analyses are conducted using a publicly available dataset (see “Data availability” section) and include production of plots for each example. Each analysis is implemented as both a Python script using the Hybkit API and as a shell script using Hybkit command-line tools to demonstrate usage of both approaches. Example analyses include:Analysis of type and miRNA characteristics across three qCLASH replicates.Analysis of targets of Kaposi’s Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus (KSHV) miRNA kshv-miR-k12-5 in hybrids.Grouped target analysis for all KSHV miRNAs for 6 qCLASH replicates.Analysis of predicted energy of binding and patterns of intermolecular folding between miRNAs and targets in a qCLASH dataset.github.com/RenneLab/hybkit) and archived on Zenodo (doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7834299). Hybkit distributions are also available via the python package index , an Anaconda module hosted by the Bioconda project (bioconda.github.io/recipes/hybkit/README.html) (quay.io/repository/biocontainers/hybkit) (hybkit.readthedocs.io) with a copy of the v0.3.4 documentation provided in the The Hybkit package is released free and open-source under the GNU GPL v3.0 license (or greater version) via GitHub at (Hybkit provides a flexible suite of tools for analysis of hybrid sequence data from RNA-ligation experiments. In addition to predefined analyses, the toolkit supports custom command-line and programmatic workflows via a parallel API interface and suite of command-line utilities, providing both textual and graphical outputs to meet a variety of use cases. To enhance reproducibility of results, the package GitHub repository is maintained using CI testing and provides containerized package distributions. Hybkit also includes a full documentation for Python API classes and methods to allow extension of the project codebase and incorporation into future projects for hybrid sequence analysis. As such, Hybkit provides new analysis capability and increased reproducibility for hybrid sequence analysis, expanding the potential utility of RNA-ligation methods in RNA biology.btad721_Supplementary_DataClick here for additional data file.


In this article, we examine our current understanding of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and the intersection of mental health challenges and substance use on sexual and non-sexual recidivism. This study uses administrative data and comprehensive case files of a sample of 626 individuals who were incarcerated for a sexual offense. Each case was standardized to a 10-year post-release follow-up time for criminal history review. Findings reveal that ACEs, mental health challenges, and substance use disorder, along with a variety of other factors, affect the pathway to re-offending differently. Interestingly, despite the recent legislative push to utilize one standardized predictor of risk, individuals who commit sexual offenses (ICSOs) had very different re-offending patterns based on historic life events. This research will inform the current legislative debate by providing relevant empirical data on a large sample of ICSOs followed for a substantial period of time. Sexual offenses evoke strong reactions among communities and within popular culture. They represent the most disliked and unforgiven population of individuals within the criminal justice system, and that feeling extends to all types of individuals who have been labeled as “sexual offenders”, regardless of the circumstances and degree of the crime. Interestingly, unlike other types of individuals convicted of violent offenses, individuals convicted of sexual offenses (ICSOs) are often represented as singular, unique entities, different from all other crimes and criminals . We see What we know in reality is that ICSOs do not represent as a singular typology, nor do they necessarily specialize in sexual offenses ,3,4. WhiIn this article, we examine our current understanding of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and the intersection of mental health challenges and substance use on the discussion of sexual and non-sexual recidivism. This study will inform current legislative debate by using an extensive dataset spanning numerous decades of collection and providing relevant empirical data that identifies whether any characteristics cease in their importance, maintain significance after twenty-five years of research, or emerge as significant. Additionally, we will examine the index offense variable, considering its substantial influence on current sex offense registration and notification law. In sum, understanding which offenders are likely to sexually or non-sexually re-offend is complicated by the heterogeneity of offender characteristics, targets, characteristics, and nature of the crimes.Although ICSOs generally fall into one legislative category in the United States, it is important to note that sexual offending can include a variety of criminal behaviors involving violence and nonviolence, adult or child victims , and physical contact  or no contact  ,13. The Research shows that the risk for ICSOs to sexually recidivate is generally low relative to the length of the follow-up period . Over the last few years, a growing body of empirical research has emerged pointing to the potential role adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) play in sexual offending ,34,35,36Early research on individuals who experienced ACEs has demonstrated these individuals had more psychological, behavioral, and health issues throughout their lives . Having Other research demonstrates that ICSOs exhibit high instances of ACEs ,42, moreAdditionally, mental health challenges, such as depression, anxiety, and personality disorders, can disrupt an individual’s ability to think rationally, control their impulses, and make healthy decisions, including decisions related to substance misuse. While it is true that not all people with mental health disorders or substance use disorders will commit violent or sexual offenses, extant research links these disorders with impaired judgment and engagement in risky behavior, including sexual re-offending. For example, in a study examining ICSOs released from prison, the odds to be reconvicted for a sexual offense after a follow-up period of between three and eight years were nearly double for ICSOs diagnosed with alcohol dependence, triple for those with drug use disorder, and ten times more for those with a personality disorder . Recent research suggests that substance use disorders may play a more substantial role in predicting recidivism than mental illness ,47,48. ZResearch also points to a possible connection between ACEs and issues related to mental health, substance use, and their co-occurrence with criminal offending . In a saIn conclusion, the reviewed research on the influence of ACEs, mental health, substance use, and their co-occurrence suggests a nuanced relationship with sexual and non-sexual re-offending, in which causal or direct associations are still unclear. This article will build upon the existing gaps in ACE and co-occurring mental and substance disorders, along with other potential indicators, to determine their influence on re-offending patterns over a lengthy period of follow-up. Additionally, we explore whether there should be considerations beyond what is relied upon in recent legislative efforts to standardize an ICSO’s risk level .Data were collected at a correctional facility devoted solely to individuals convicted of committing sexual offenses. Data collection occurred in 2018 and included administrative case-file reviews for males incarcerated at the facility from its inception in 1976 until 2010. The total study sample originally consisted of 777 individuals released from 1976 to 2010. This sample was later reduced to 626 cases due to a limited amount of missing data. Each individual had a 10-year standardized post-release follow-up time for criminal history review. Administrative case-record reviews were conducted by the first author, and a wide variety of data elements and indicators were extracted for each case in the study (approximately 450 data elements were collected for each case). The data included extensive demographic and descriptive background information , index offense information , criminal history information , sentencing information , and childhood experiences . The criminal history data were drawn from the State Police Computerized Criminal History System (CCH) and the National Crime Information Center’s Interstate Identification Unit (III). Through these sources, the researchers had the ability to track criminal history information for crimes committed as state, local, and municipal crimes, as well as for offenses that took place in all other U.S. jurisdictions. Sex offense recidivism. This dependent variable was coded as a binary variable  indicating whether the individuals in the sample were re-arrested due to another sex offense before the end of the 10-year observation window (ranging from ten years from the release date). As data collection and criminal histories were reviewed here, sexual offenses were defined by the United States New Jersey Code of Criminal Justice, Title 2C, 14. These offenses include all relationships and a wide variety of sexual acts. In New Jersey, a re-arrest generally results from a new offense rather than from a technical violation of community supervision/parole and is considered the individuals’ first stage of interaction with the criminal justice system. As such, re-arrest for a sexual offense is utilized as the measure for sexual recidivism in this study. For any offenses that took place outside the state of New Jersey, the crimes were coded from their classification and description.Non-sex offense recidivism. This dependent variable was also measured as a binary variable , indicating whether the individuals in the sample were re-arrested due to a non-sex offense before the end of the 10-year observation window (ranging from ten years from the release date). Similar to the above, these offenses were coded as non-sexual by using the New Jersey Code of Criminal Justice, Title 2C. These offenses include all offenses that are not Title 2C, 14 offenses in the state of New Jersey. For any offenses that took place outside the state of New Jersey, the crimes were coded from their classification and description. As with sexual recidivism, a re-arrest generally results from a new offense rather than from fa technical violation of community supervision/parole and is considered the individuals’ first stage of interaction with the criminal justice system. As such, re-arrest for a non-sexual offense is utilized as the measure for non-sexual recidivism in this study. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs). Following past practice [practice , we creaCo-occurring Disorders (CODs). As a central thesis of this analysis involved the influence of CODs on recidivism, the researchers created four subgroups: (1) those with both mental health and substance use disorders (a COD); (2) those with mental health issues only; (3) those with substance misuse only; and (4) those with neither mental health nor substance misuse issues. The required information to create the COD designations was retrieved from the detailed information available to the researchers in the individual’s administrative case files. These files included therapy reports on mental health challenges and diagnoses, as well as reports of past and current substance use.Denial and Minimization. This binary variable was created based on the individuals’ attitudes toward the sex offense that resulted in their current incarceration. The variable had a value of one when respondents denied themselves to be the aggressor and/or responsible for the crime and a value of zero otherwise. Similar to the other variables, the required information to create the dichotomy was retrieved from the detailed information available to the researchers in the individual’s administrative case files.Remorse. Remorse was represented by a binary variable tapping into individuals’ expression of remorse for the sex offense that resulted in their current incarceration. The variable had a value of one when respondents felt remorse for the victim and a value of zero otherwise. Similar to the other variables, the required information to create the dichotomy was retrieved from the detailed information available to the researchers in the individual’s therapy case files. Often, this variable represented the opposite of the denial/minimization variable above. Military experience was a binary variable indicating whether individuals had military experiences on their records. The effect of parole supervision on recidivism was adjusted as well. Parole supervision was a binary variable indicating whether respondents were released under parole supervision. Furthermore, the number of disciplinary prison violations/infractions during the index sexual offense incarceration was a numeric variable indicating the count of prison violations. The length of incarceration was represented by the number of days the individuals were incarcerated during the index sexual offense. Using a weapon against the victim was a binary variable representing whether the ICSOs used a weapon against the victim during the index sex offense. This information was retrieved from the police report, and when a weapon was utilized, it was most frequently represented by a blade or firearm. Individuals’ criminal histories were measured by three variables: prior arrests (numeric count variable), having been arrested during adolescence due to a non-sex offense (binary variable), and having been arrested during adolescence due to a sex offense (binary variable). Intellectual disability was represented by a binary variable indicating whether respondents were diagnosed to have an intellectual disability in either their childhood or at the institutional intake assessment. Lastly, the researchers controlled for demographic factors, which included age (numeric count variable), race , marital status before the current incarceration , employment status before the current incarceration , parental status , and educational attainment . To obtain an unbiased estimation of CODs and ACEs on recidivism, we controlled for the effect of potential confounding information. First, the research team controlled for the effect of military experiences. The analyses were conducted in three steps using Statistical Analysis Software (SAS) Version 9.3 . First, we examined the descriptive statistics of the sample to understand the distribution of the data. Second, we conducted a series of binary analyses to ascertain the effects of predictors on the acceleration of recidivism, represented by the length of time respondents “survived” from release to a re-arrest due to a new sex offense, without controlling for covariates. Lastly, using multivariate logistic regression, we examined the CODs’ and ACEs’ effects on both sexual and non-sexual offense recidivism, net of the effects of confounders. To examine whether the predictors in this study were associated with divergent survival times and the time between release and the re-arrest, we employed survival analysis. After creating the Kaplan–Meier (KM) survival plots between each predictor and sex offense recidivism, we found that subgroups of respondents characterized by four predictors had distinct rates of re-arrests . These dOR = 0.41, p < 0.01). Furthermore, although the difference was at a smaller scale, respondents with substance use disorders also only had significantly lower odds of sexual recidivism than those with CODs . Third, using a weapon against the victim was a significant predictor of a future sex offense. However, the direction of the effect was counterintuitive. Compared with those who did not use a weapon in their index sex offense, those who used a weapon had lower odds of recidivism . Education achieved significance in the model as well. Those who did not graduate from high school were less likely to recidivate compared with peers who had an educational attainment equivalent to or above a high school diploma . Lastly, we also found modest statistical evidence of two predictors’ effects on sex offense recidivism. There was modest evidence that those who committed sex offenses during adolescence were more likely to commit another sex offense after their release from current incarceration. Compared with those who did not have a record of sex offense arrest during adolescence, those who had this record were found to have higher odds of sex offense recidivism . Similarly, the length of their current incarceration achieved significance in the model, but with modest statistical evidence. The length of incarceration was found to be slightly negatively associated with the odds of sex offense recidivism .We performed two logistic regression analyses to assess the predictors’ effects on sex offense and non-sex offense recidivism, respectively. Model 1  assessedOR = 1.34, p < 0.01). Furthermore, not all family factors functioned as suppressors of non-sex offense recidivism: having children protected, while married but no children, facilitated recidivism. For those who were married but had no children, their odds of recidivism were significantly higher than their counterparts who were single . In contrast, having children was negatively associated with recidivism. Those who did not have children were found to have significantly higher odds of recidivism . We also found that the number of prison violations/disciplinary infractions during the current incarceration predicted the risk of recidivism. Each one-count increase in the number of prison violations was associated with a 5% increase in the odds of recidivism for a non-sex offense . Prior arrests were also associated with non-sex recidivism, with a one-count increase in prior arrests associated with a 5% increase in the odds of recidivism . Admitting one’s guilt of the index sex offense was associated with a higher risk of non-sex recidivism, although the statistical evidence was modest. For those who admitted their culpability of the index sex offense, these were more likely to commit a non-sex offense after release . Lastly, for demographic factors, race emerged as a significant predictor of non-sex recidivism. Compared with White respondents, Black respondents were found to have a 72% higher risk of recidivism for a non-sex offense .Model 2  summarizPrior research demonstrates that individuals convicted of sexual offenses as a group do not necessarily fit one mold, despite legislation that assumes otherwise, nor do they similarly recidivate at comparable rates to other non-sexual offenders ,17,26. ADescriptive findings revealed that overall recidivism rates for the sample of ICSOs were similar to those found in prior research, even after an average 10-year follow-up period  ,23,24,25Next, logistic regression models were utilized to determine which individual characteristics were associated with sexual recidivism and which were associated with non-sexual recidivism. The first model for sexual offense recidivism showed that ICSOs without either mental health or substance use disorder are least likely to be re-arrested for a sexual offense, whereas those experiencing co-occurring mental health and substance use disorder are most likely to recidivate. This finding supports the accepted risk assessment strategies, in which the concentration of supportive services ought to be matched to the criminogenic needs of each released individual rather than required of all ICSOs ,19. The The variables that resonate as significant for sexual recidivism over a 10-year follow-up period demonstrate as less criminogenic in nature, meaning that other than having a COD, the other variables are not considered “typical” predictors or their direction is somewhat counterintuitive. For example, ICSOs who were more likely to recommit a sexual offense demonstrated higher levels of education and did not use a weapon. Similarly, using a nationally representative sample of incarcerated men, one recent study showed that individuals with a high school diploma had a 1.5 times increased risk for a sexual conviction compared with individuals without one . It may Although the association between ACEs and sexual recidivism was not statistically significant, the second model for non-sexual recidivism revealed several statistically significant associations. The model for non-sexual recidivism showed that ICSOs with higher ACE scores were more likely to be re-arrested for a non-sexual crime than those who scored lower. This finding demonstrates that ICSOs with increased ACEs are more likely to exhibit various criminal behaviors, thus representing a need to address the underlying criminogenic issues one may be dealing with rather than solely addressing behavior related to the index crime or deviant sexual behavior in general. These findings support those found regarding a more generalized context of criminal  rather tAdditionally, the results confirm more traditional risk factors associated with criminal recidivism relating to prior criminal behavior . SpecifiA final implication raised from the findings is illustrated in the form of familial support post-incarceration. The results from the second model for non-sexual re-arrests suggest that familial support when received in the form of a spouse is not enough to prevent recidivism. Compared with ICSOs released who were single, those who were married without children were more likely to be re-arrested. On other hand, having to provide familial support to one’s children acted as a protective factor against recidivism for released ICSOs, in that ICSOs with children were less likely to be re-arrested for a non-sexual offense than those without. As stated previously, future studies may benefit from examining these dynamic post-incarceration factors.Lastly, this study is not without limitations. First, conducting a study of this type with sensitive sexual arrest data introduces a number of challenges. The most noted problem plaguing sexual offense research, i.e., the low base rate of reported sexual offenses, is likely tied to the under-representation of official data. Because sexual offenses are likely under-reported, as are many crimes, most measures of recidivism will under-represent the true offending rates ,27,52,53Despite the fact that empirical research shows that ICSOs exhibit a wide range of behaviors and characteristics, lawmakers and the general public frequently aggregate them into one category or group, supporting the idea that sexual offenders should all be treated equally because they all “look alike.” If categorizing offenders into known risk classes is going to be the basis for decision-making, such classifications must be established by empirically proven processes that are likely to correctly identify higher risk offenders. This study demonstrated that the indicator being used to standardize risk through the Sex Offender Registration and Notification Act  was not


The rapid advancement of ‘deepfake' video technology—which uses deep learning artificial intelligence algorithms to create fake videos that look real—has given urgency to the question of how policymakers and technology companies should moderate inauthentic content. We conduct an experiment to measure people's alertness to and ability to detect a high-quality deepfake among a set of videos. First, we find that in a natural setting with no content warnings, individuals who are exposed to a deepfake video of neutral content are no more likely to detect anything out of the ordinary (32.9%) compared to a control group who viewed only authentic videos (34.1%). Second, we find that when individuals are given a warning that at least one video in a set of five is a deepfake, only 21.6% of respondents correctly identify the deepfake as the only inauthentic video, while the remainder erroneously select at least one genuine video as a deepfake. Because of the still-nascent state of the technology, it is difficult to predict how deepfakes of individuals or events may be deployed and received. The possibility of bad actors using this technology for any number of deceptive ends—from  the FBI  and Euro the FBI  to issueLiar's Dividend—that is, genuine videos being written off as deepfakes by those with an interest in discrediting them [These warnings underscore the dual threat of deepfakes: first, the technology provides a new and potentially persuasive means of spreading false information; second, the difficulty of manually detecting real from fake videos (i.e. with the naked eye) threatens to lower the information value of video media entirely. As people internalize deepfakes' capacity to deceive, they may place less trust in all online videos, including authentic content . This maing them . The resing them ,6. This et al. [As concerns about the veracity of videos spread, it may fall on regulators and technology companies to serve as moderators of authenticity. If individuals lack the ability to discern deepfakes from genuine videos manually, detection algorithms could be the only way to consistently and accurately flag fake content. At the time of writing, state-of-the-art detection algorithms achieve roughly 65% accuracy when faced with videos ‘in the wild' , while Get al.  find humet al. ,10.Yet even as these technologies advance, it remains unclear what the best approach will be for dealing with deepfakes on prominent social media sites.  As with text- and photo-based misinformation, potential remedies include labelling deepfakes with content warnings or removing them from platforms entirely. The former approach has gained traction in recent years, with both Facebook and Twitter making efforts to flag fake or misleading content during the COVID-19 pandemic .a prior warning that at least one video they will view is a deepfake enable individuals to then scrutinize them more closely and distinguish between authentic and inauthentic videos? The latter is a critical question. If individuals cannot detect deepfakes even with content warnings, it renders faith in a third party's judgements essential: as detailed below, low manual detection ability would necessarily force people to rely on external sources of evaluation if they wish to hold accurate beliefs about the veracity of a specific video. Such is the purpose of this paper: in an experiment described below, we test how likely UK residents are to spot a deepfake from a genuine video in both natural contexts (i.e. without a warning) and when they have been given a content warning.If content warnings are to be among platforms' preferred strategies for informing users that a video is a deepfake, it is important to interrogate how such warnings affect subsequent perceptions of videos. Our research contributes to the literature on content warnings for misinformation and manual deepfake detection by addressing two questions: first, do people note something out of the ordinary when encountering a deepfake among a group of videos without a prior warning; second, does Our findings in the first treatment show that participants who view videos containing a deepfake with no prior warning are no more likely to spot something out of the ordinary than those who view only authentic videos. This suggests that participants have poor detection abilities when viewing multiple videos in natural settings without prior warnings. In the second treatment, participants are issued a direct warning that at least one of the five videos they will see is a deepfake, and asked to evaluate the veracity of all five videos in the set (which contains one deepfake and four authentic videos). We find participants correctly select the deepfake and only the deepfake in only 21.6% of cases, while nearly half erroneously believe one or more genuine videos to be deepfakes. This rate broadly aligns with past research: while people are better than random at determining whether an individual video is genuine or fake , manual These results show that people have an imperfect ability to classify genuine from fake videos, and thus human discernment alone cannot reliably yield accurate assessments of video veracity. A practical interpretation of the second treatment is that warning labels do not enable individuals to simply look closer and see the irregularities on their own. As such, successful content warnings on deepfakes may rely on trust in external sources of authentication, raising concerns that any such warnings may be discounted as politically motivated or biased.The rest of this paper proceeds as follows. Section 2 reviews the literatures on content warnings and manual deepfake detection. Section 3 develops a theoretical model examining deepfake detection and content warnings. Section 4 outlines our experimental design, and §5 presents our results. Section 6 concludes with a brief discussion of implications of our findings.. 2et al. [et al. [et al. [A growing literature assesses the public's capacity to detect deepfakes from genuine videos, and how various conditions—such as the perceived valence of a video or the presence of information about deepfakes—may affect detection. The results of this literature are mixed. This reflects, at least in part, heterogeneity in experimental design as well as the quality, content, and context of the videos presented to study participants. Groh et al.  find in  [et al.  show tha [et al.  show tha [et al.  find tha [et al.  find thaAnother strand of the literature examines the impact of deepfakes on mistrust of media more generally. Fallis  argues t. 3V that is either authentic (V = 1) or inauthentic (V = 0). Before watching the video, the viewer has a prior subjective probability Fπ that the video is inauthentic. After watching a video, the viewer forms beliefs about whether the video is authentic (B = 1) or inauthentic (B = 0). This judgement may be based on the characteristics of the specific viewer and video in question, and vary, for example, with the quality of the video, whether it is in fact authentic or inauthentic, or whether it contains a content warning.In this section, we develop a simple Bayesian model for understanding the potential impact of content warnings. Consider a viewer watching a video TdT| ≡ P(B = 1|V = 1) as the probability that the viewer believes the video is authentic after viewing it, conditional on it being authentic; and FdF| ≡ P(B = 0|V = 0) as the probability that the viewer believes the video is inauthentic when it is in fact inauthentic. The quantities TdT| and FdF| measure the ability of the viewer to accurately detect authentic and inauthentic content. Suppose that these detection rates are functions of whether or not the video contains a content warning, which is denoted by a binary variable C. Then the probability of being correct when believing a video to be inauthentic for a Bayesian decision-maker is given byWe are interested in the probability that a video is inauthentic when it is believed to be inauthentic by the viewer—that is, the probability that the viewer has correctly detected the deepfake. Define From this simple model, we can derive a number of predictions about the impact of deepfakes and the effectiveness of content warnings.∂P(V = 0|B = 0)T/∂dT|> 0) and the improved detection of inauthentic videos (∂P(V = 0|B = 0)F/∂dF|> 0). When detection is as good as random, FdF| = TdT| = 1/2, the probability that a video is inauthentic given one's belief that it is reduces to Fπ. That is, the viewer must rely entirely on prior beliefs that the video is true. It follows that improvements in detection can lead to more accurate beliefs among viewers. In the first treatment, we estimate the detection rate of false videos, that is FdF| = P(B = 0|V = 0).First, the model highlights the importance of detection abilities. The probability of holding correct beliefs about an inauthentic video is increasing in both the improved detection of authentic videos : while inauthentic videos are more likely to be flagged as deepfakes, authentic videos are now sometimes flagged as potential deepfakes. Content warnings therefore improve one margin of detection (F∂dF|/∂C > 0) while degrading the other (T∂dT|/∂C < 0). The net effect of content warnings on the probability of the viewer holding correct beliefs is therefore ambiguous, and depends on whether improvements from the former outweigh the costs of the latter.Second, the model can be used to highlight both the potential benefits and pitfalls of content warnings. Consider a social media platform that decides to implement content warnings TdT|(C = 1) T< dT|(C = 0). Note that the presence of content warnings could in principle decrease detection abilities for authentic videos for two reasons: (i) the specific video in question erroneously has a content warning, or (ii) the presence of content warnings on the platform reduces detection abilities for authentic videos more generally, that is, even for videos without content warnings. The second effect highlights the possibility that content warnings could engender wider scepticism in all online content.In the second treatment, we test whether content warnings improve detection. We also provide more suggestive evidence that increased knowledge of deepfakes is correlated with more scepticism in online content, in the sense that more authentic videos are erroneously identified as inauthentic, i.e. . 4Our design focuses on two key questions surrounding the public's capacity to detect deepfakes with and without warnings. First, do people note anything out of the ordinary when they encounter a deepfake in a natural environment? Second, when directly warned they will see at least one deepfake in a set of videos, are people able to tell if a specific video is real or fake? We address these questions using a survey experiment with three experimental arms.. 4.1No Deepfake, No Content Warning (C1) arm, participants watch five unaltered videos before being asked whether they have noted anything out of the ordinary. In the Presence of Deepfake, No Content Warning (T1) arm, participants watch four of these same five unaltered videos plus a deepfake (which is fourth in the sequence), then answer the same series of questions. In both cases, if individuals answer ‘yes' to noticing something out of the ordinary, they are further asked to indicate in which specific video(s) they thought something amiss, and to provide a short explanation of why. The comparison between C1 and T1 serves to answer the first question about deepfake detection without warnings: if people are alert to irregularities in deepfake videos in natural settings, we would expect to see a meaningful difference between these two groups in the proportion of participants reporting something out of the ordinary.In the . 4.2Presence of Deepfake, Content Warning (T2). Participants in this arm watch the same set of videos as those in the Presence of Deepfake, No Content Warning (T1) treatment arm—one of which is a deepfake. However, before watching the videos, they are briefly informed what deepfakes are  and told that at least one of the five videos they will see is a deepfake. After watching all five videos in sequence, they are then asked to select which video(s) they believe are fake. Only those participants who select the deepfake and only the deepfake are counted as having correctly distinguished the fake video from the genuine content.How do content warnings affect capacity for detection of false content? We address this question with a second treatment arm: . 4.3We make use of a deepfake video of the American actor Tom Cruise created and made public by the VFX artist Chris Ume. The clip is shown alongside a series of authentic video clips of Mr Cruise from publicly available YouTube channels. To control for past familiarity, all participants also watch a 1 min excerpt of an interview with Mr Cruise to provide a baseline acquaintance with the actor's appearance and speech patterns. All six videos can be viewed in our electronic supplementary material.. 4.4n = 1093) of UK-based participants through Lucid Marketplace, which provides subject pools balanced on key demographics. Past research evaluating Lucid's data quality suggests the platform is in line with other online sample providers and is ‘suitable for evaluating many social scientific theories' [We recruit a sample  and Presence of Deepfake, No Content Warning (T1). Participants in C1 watch five authentic videos, while those in T1 watch four of the same authentic videos and a deepfake. All participants are then asked if they have found anything to be ‘out of the ordinary’ in the videos they watched. If participants respond Yes to this question, they are then asked to indicate the video(s) in which they found something out of the ordinary.The first treatment aims to answer the question: do people spot something amiss when they encounter a deepfake without a content warning? Participants are randomized into two conditions, . 5.1.1iy is an indicator for reporting something is out of the ordinary in the set of videos viewed; iT is an indicator for viewing a set of videos that include the deepfake; ix is a vector of individual characteristics; and iε is an unobserved error term. The coefficient of interest, β, measures the adjusted mean difference between C1 and T1 in detecting something out of the ordinary. Standard errors for all regressions are robust to heteroscedasticity.No Deepfake, No Content Warning (C1) control arm, where all videos were authentic, only 34.1% of participants report having noted anything out of the ordinary. In the Presence of Deepfake, No Content Warning (T1) treatment arm, where one video was a deepfake, the fraction of participants reporting anything out of the ordinary was in fact slightly lower, at 32.9%. The difference in detection is small and not statistically significant at the 5 per cent level.Column 1 presents regression results with no covariates. In the Column 2 adds a set of covariates to the regression. As expected, the estimated treatment effect remains close to zero. However, the probability of reporting something out of the ordinary does vary with observable characteristics. Younger participants and those who were previously aware of deepfakes are more likely to report something is out of the ordinary. In particular, a 10-year reduction in age is associated with a 5.3 percentage point increase in reporting something is out of the ordinary. Those who were previously aware of deepfake technology were 11.6 percentage points more likely to report something out of the ordinary.Around one-third of participants in both the control and the treatment groups identified something as out of the ordinary in the videos they viewed. These participants were asked further to identify which video (or videos) struck them as out of the ordinary. The most frequently chosen video in both treatment and control groups was the second video, which was in fact authentic. However, in the treatment group, the second most commonly chosen video was the deepfake. Together, this provides some suggestive evidence that detection may be better than random guessing but far from perfect, even among the selected sample of people who spot something out of the ordinary and encounter a deepfake. For the full distribution of videos identified as out of the original by this selected sample, see the appendix .. 5.1.2iH is an indicator for the dimension of heterogeneity . The coefficient β measures the difference in reporting something out of the ordinary between the subgroups in C1 and T1 for whom iH = 1. If these subgroups are better able to detect something out of the ordinary, then β > 0. The coefficient γ measures the difference in means in C1 between those with iH = 0 and iH = 1 of reporting something out of the ordinary; this measures baseline difference in scepticism towards online content.Younger subjects and those aware of deepfake technology are more likely to report that something is out of the ordinary. This raises a natural question: are these groups better able to detect the presence of an inauthentic video, or do they simply exhibit a higher base-line level of scepticism for online content? To answer this question, we regressiH is a binary variable which equals 1 if i reports having a prior awareness of deepfakes. In column 2, iH = 1 if participant i is below the median age in the sample, and 0 otherwise. The results do not show a statistically significant difference in detecting something out of the ordinary between those in C1 and T1 who were previously aware of deepfake technology and those who were below the median age. These subgroups, however, do have a higher baseline probability of reporting something out of the ordinary  treatment arm, participants received the following warning: ‘On the following pages are a series of five additional videos of Mr Cruise, at least one of which is a deepfake video.' They were then asked to identify the video(s) they believed to be a deepfake; only one video was in fact a deepfake.Experimental participants are not more likely to spot something out of the ordinary when viewing a deepfake in a natural setting. Do content warnings enable detection? In the et al. [5 = 0.116 .et al. , who finThe second takeaway is that a large share of participants (45%) identified more than one video as a deepfake, despite the fact that there was only one deepfake. This implies that these participants incorrectly identified one or more authentic videos as a deepfake. The high share of participants selecting multiple videos provides suggestive evidence that content warnings may come at the cost of generating greater general scepticism, which spreads to authentic content. Policymakers should account for this potential cost when evaluating the efficacy of moderating online content.. 5.2.1older participants are more likely to correctly identify the deepfake. In particular, an increase in 10 years of age is associated with an 3.3 percentage point increase in detection. By contrast, prior awareness of deepfakes, self-reported confidence in detection,1 answering whether the deepfake was ‘obvious', proficiency with social media, high internet use, and familiarity with the actor, were not associated with better or worse detection. Overall, the majority of participants, regardless of their observed characteristics, were not able to correctly identify the single deepfake.Are some groups of people better able to detect deepfakes than others? . 6Even as deepfakes have begun to reach a broad audience, the technology continues to evolve. These advances are only making it easier and less costly to produce higher-quality deepfakes—which can now be made to a convincing standard using publicly available programs . As suchTo that end, our research makes two main contributions: first, we show that in natural browsing contexts, individuals are unlikely to note something unusual when they encounter a deepfake. This aligns with some previous findings indicating individuals struggle to detect high-quality deepfakes. Second, we present results on the effect of content warnings on detection, showing that the majority of individuals are still unable to spot a deepfake from a genuine video, even when they are told that at least one video in a series of videos they will view has been altered. Successful content moderation—for example, with specific videos flagged as fake by social media platforms—may therefore depend not on enhancing individuals' ability to detect irregularities in altered videos on their own, but instead on fostering trust in external sources of content authentication (particularly automated systems for deepfake detection).As the public becomes more aware of the existence and deceptiveness of deepfakes, it is possible there will be growing scepticism towards online videos. Moreover, increasingly accurate and frequent detection of false videos by content moderators could have the unintended effect of undermining public trust in video media, irrespective of the veracity of an individual video. Future research might examine the importance of this potential challenge faced by content moderators and policymakers, and seek to advance our understanding of how individual characteristics such as ideological predisposition may affect trust in content moderation efforts.Click here for additional data file.