Evasive entrepreneurship (circumvention and exploitation of institutions by entrepreneurs) is a prevalent practice in many developing economies. Extant literature on the topic falls short of providing adequate theories to explain its triggers, mechanisms, and consequences. Leveraging extensive survey data from the World Bank, we used structural equation modeling to examine the relationship between evasive entrepreneurial behavior—tax evasion and bribery—and the relative payoff of such practices. Of the 2599 Nigerian entrepreneurs in our sample, the majority admitted to engaging in evasive entrepreneurship. The data suggest that institutional factors thought to constrain entrepreneurship in emerging markets are counter-intuitively perceived by founders as opportunities to earn large rents and improve firm performance. Our results emphasize the urgent need to eliminate institutional constraints that paradoxically enable the growth of evasive entrepreneurship in emerging economies. Our results also suggest that prevailing local conventions involving evasive behavior may motivate nascent entrepreneurs to imitate bribery and tax evasion, normalizing malfeasance as ‘best practice.’ Despite a large and engaging literature extolling productive entrepreneurship and its positive effects on economic growth, innovation and job creation, there is a deficit of research about evasive entrepreneurship and its consequences. Boettke and Coyne , Coyne aMany studies , 8–13 haEvasive entrepreneurship research is therefore limited by these and other fundamental, unanswered questions, for which there does not exist a cohesive explanatory or predictive theory. This state of research is surprising given the documented extent of evasive entrepreneurship–especially in emerging economies, such as Africa–and spirited calls for academic inquiry about them , 15, 16.There is a paucity of market-specific empirical research on the nexus of evasive entrepreneurship and institutional context , 3, 9–anTo address this gap, we explore the general research question: What is the performance implication of evasive entrepreneurship in a developing country? This general question can be further broken up into these important and more granular questions identified above as missing from extent literature. We pursue these questions by examining the 2009 World Bank Enterprise Survey (WBES) data, collected from 2599 firms, to shed light on the nature and extent of evasive practices by entrepreneurs, and factors that contribute to its prevalence and persistence.Nigeria is one of the world’s highest ranked nations in terms of corruption and tax evasion , 21 and Entrepreneurs who own SMEs enjoy greater opportunity for bribery and tax evasion than larger firms and seem largely undeterred by the risk of detection and payment of penalties . The width out of 190 countries with regard to the ease of paying taxes. Nigeria was also ranked 184th for registering new property, 182nd for trading across borders, and 171st for getting electricity. At the national level, tax evasion reduces revenue to fund critically needed social and economic development programs and, at the firm level, competition is impeded if tax evaders can undersell taxpayers [Failing to pay taxes by under-reporting revenues or wages associated with tax payments is illegal in Nigeria. Intentional tax evasion is pervasive in Nigeria because much of the nation’s economic activity takes place in SMEs or is conducted by individual entrepreneurs in retail and service businesses , 27; theaxpayers .th of 180 nations. While general causes of bribery in developing markets have been well-researched [e.g., Bribery is endemic in Nigeria, evidenced by its ranking on scales published annually by Transparency International (TI), an international NGO dedicated to raising public awareness of corruption. On its 2018 Corruption Perception Index, TI ranked Nigeria 144ed e.g., , scant aed e.g., .Intense competition for lucrative government contracts, permits, and licenses has long fueled bribery in Nigeria , 32 wherEntrepreneurship has been characterized from the perspective of innovation , arbitraImplicit in the emphasis scholars and policy makers ascribe to entrepreneurship in emerging and transition economies  is the nUnder certain conditions, however, entrepreneurial practices may reduce rather than enhance economic development. Baumol , for exaInstitutional theorists e.g., –45 argueWe conjectured that financial performance of small and medium sized firms in Nigeria will vary by the extent to which they engage in evasive entrepreneurship—enacting bribery and tax evasion to evade institutions—such that the more the firm engages in evasive acts, the higher performance it will achieve. As summarized in We define legal constraints as the degree to which the legal system and law enforcement are obstacles to doing business. Legal constraints can create a culture conducive for individuals to act evasively by influencing beliefs about the benefits and risks of unlawful behavior . In NigeHypothesis 1a. Legal constraints increase the perception of evasive culture.Hypothesis 1b. Legal constraints increase the enactment of evasive behavior.Regarding the effect running from legal constraints to culture, there is likely a bidirectional relationship (laws reflect culture à la Hayek), in that culture can also affect the law. According to Williamson , culturaWe define bureaucratic demand as the level of regulatory demands placed on entrepreneurial activity. In a cross-national study of 30 developed and developing countries, Picur and Riahi‐Belkaoui  found taIn Nigeria, 84% of entrepreneurs report spending up to 30% of their time dealing with government requirements—many imposed by rent-seeking bureaucrats at local, state and/or federal levels , 57. OppHypothesis 2. Bureaucratic demands increase the perception of an evasive culture.We define economic constraints as the extent of financial and tax obstacles faced by entrepreneurs and their firms. WBES  data sugHypothesis 3a. Economic constraints increase the perception of an evasive culture.Hypothesis 3b. Economic constraints increase the enactment of evasive behavior.We define entrepreneurial agency as the level of intentional and purposive action taken by an entrepreneur to discover, evaluate, decide and exploit profit opportunities created by the institutional environment. Bandura  argues tFurther, the literature on choice behavior  suggestsHypothesis 4. The extent of enablement of entrepreneurial agency will increase the enactment of evasive behaviors.Scholars have long suggested that culture influences individual decision-making to enact illegal and evasive behavior –75. ThisHypothesis 5. A more evasive culture will increase the enactment of evasive behaviors.How entrepreneurial evasive practices affect firm performance is a relatively unexplored area of inquiry. Rose-Ackerman , 78, 79 In a previous qualitative study based on semi-structured interviews, Nigerian entrepreneurs self-identified as active collaborators rather than victims in evasive bribery schemes with significant upside potential for their firms . SimilarHypothesis 6. The enactment of evasive behavior will increase firm performance.Scholars differentiate ‘opportunity’ and ‘necessity’ entrepreneurship . OpportuHypothesis 7. The strength of the positive relationship between enactment of evasive behavior and firm performance will be stronger for necessity entrepreneurs versus opportunity entrepreneur.The WBES , our souSensitive questions about evasive practices are scattered in the survey to minimize potential respondent reticence. While a major concern with self-reported evasive behaviors such as bribery and tax evasion is whether reliable data can be collected given the secretive nature of the transactions, WBES informants candidly reported it. To avoid implicating respondents, emotionally charged words such as ‘corruption,’ ‘bribe’ and ‘tax evasion’ did not appear in the survey. Rather, respondents were asked, for example, ‘when establishments like this one do business with the government, what percentage of the contract value would typically be paid in informal payments to secure the contract?’ The Nigerian survey was conducted in cooperation with respected business organizations and industry associations, legitimizing it to respondents, thus minimizing the potential for non-response and false response .The Nigerian sample consisted of small and medium sized enterprises identified as such in the survey questionnaire. Small private firms were those characterized by less than 20 workers, medium private firms were those with 20 to 100 workers, and large private firms were those with more than 100 workers. Although the WBES sample consisted of a total of 3157 cases, we extracted 1,939 small and 660 medium sized firms for further analysis since they met our criteria as SME government registered entities operating in the formal economy. We focus our analysis on formal entrepreneurship—those officially registered in Nigerian government statistics. Whereas informal entrepreneurs operate in the shadow economy outside the purview of the government. A recent study by Ogbuabor and Malaolu  estimateAs shown in The distribution of evasive behavior by firm size and across industries is pervasive and presented in The research model was tested using Partial Least Squares . PLS is R2 of endogenous latent variables [f2 [Further, no distributional assumptions apply − the data may be non-normal, skewed, kurtotic, and the observations may be interrelated. As a result, it is robust to violations of multivariate normal distributions. Lastly, PLS allows more flexibility in analyzing theoretical models. Our PLS structural model will be evaluated by ariables , effect bles [f2 , and by Formative indicators have advantages from a theoretical and nomological perspective which make them suitable for theory-building: (1) formative measurement provides a means of modelling all the complex phenomena in our model from a diverse and potentially disparate set of observable indicators , 90, andThe measurement and structural models were estimated using 2000 bootstrap samples. Estimates reported are the mean of subsamples. Because our factors were formative, we used the regular PLS algorithm (rather than PLS Consistent). For the multigroup analysis, we used the built-in MGA functions in SmartPLS 3.2.8, including the metric invariance tests for invariance across groups for the measurement model. PLS estimates weights that measure the contribution of each formative indicator to the variance of the latent variable and are indicative of construct validity . As showModel fit was not assessed for the measurement model , as model fit is a set of measures associated with and founded on the assumptions of covariance-based SEM. PLS, however, is not founded on these same assumptions, and therefore does not appropriately lend itself to measures of model fit .Endogeneity can have various roots, such as measurement errors, simultaneous causality, common method variance, omitted variables, and unobserved heterogeneity –98. EndoIn the context of our study, endogeneity with regards to main effect—Evasive Behavior → Firm Performance—may be the result of common performance antecedents, such as firm size  or firm Endogeneity can also manifest as common method bias. We assessed common method bias using the modified  Lindell f2) and R2. We examined Cook’s D and found no influential cases, and checked VIFs (variance inflation factor) and found no substantial multicollinearity .f2 = 0.01). Thus, H3b is not supported. Multi-group analysis was conducted to determine whether the model was the same across entrepreneur type and industry sector. The result shows that entrepreneur type (‘necessity’ vs. ‘opportunity’) was not a useful moderator in explaining the relationship in the model. Thus, H7 is not supported. Therefore, our structural model is invariant between opportunity and necessity-driven entrepreneurs except for the effect economic constraint has on evasive culture.The results support our main effect (H6): the enactment of evasive behavior is positively (and strongly) related to firm performance . Entrepreneurial enablement  and evasive culture  are positively related to enactment of evasive behavior, confirming support for H4 and H5. In support of H1a, H2 and H3a, economic constraints , bureaucratic demands  and legal constraints  have positive relationships with evasive culture. However, the relationship between legal constraints and enactment of evasive behavior is not significant ; thus, H1b is not supported. Economic constraints  is negatively related to enactment of evasive behavior, though deemed not practically significant (2 = 0.193), enactment of evasive behavior (R2 = 0.152) and firm performance (R2 = 0.251). Moreover, legal constraints, bureaucratic demands and economic constraints demonstrate nomological validity through their strong relationship to evasive culture. Similarly, entrepreneurial enablement demonstrates nomological validity through its strong relationship with enactment of evasive behavior.We found that the model accounted adequately for variance in evasive culture  and medium (firms with 20–100 employees) has a positive effect on firm performance, and firm age (measured as number of years since company founded) is negatively related to performance, consistent with extant literature [f2 statistic is based on the differences in R2 between two models − with and without the particular predictor. Cohen [2, of 0.023 (Q2>0) indicated our model has predictive relevance.The r. Cohen  recommenr. Cohen , 110 tesOur paper builds on previous work and makes several important contributions. First, we show that evasive entrepreneurship has a pecuniary value to the entrepreneur who earns profits by exploiting existing institutional constraints through the mechanisms of bribery and tax evasion. Second, in contrast to Elert and Henrekson , who theOur study provides empirical evidence–for the first time to our knowledge–that, in developing economies like Nigeria, evasive behavior by entrepreneurs pays off for the individual firm in the form of enhanced firm performance. We showed a direct positive relationship between the performance of firms whose owners pay bribes and evade taxes and the prevalence of those behaviors. Scholars have suggested that the legal system in economies like Nigeria is flawed and law enforcement is weak , 80, minPrevious research on evasive behavior has focused narrowly on institutional constraints and government officers who demand bribes from entrepreneurs to circumvent them e.g., , 37, 62.Baumol theorized that entrepreneurial individuals channel their effort in different directions depending on the quality of prevailing formal institutions. Where institutional rules of the game incentivize innovation, entrepreneurs engage in innovative entrepreneurship; where the institutional framework incentivizes rent-seeking behavior such as bribery and tax evasion, entrepreneurs will enact evasive entrepreneurship , 113–115In proposing these implications, we also caution that our findings may not be generalizable across all emerging economies. Our analysis focused solely on the Nigerian sample, and did not attempt any weighting scheme to produce estimates at the population level. Additionally, the World Bank data we used was self-reported using a cross-sectional design and thus the direction of causality cannot be fully substantiated, though we employed three-year averages for the firm performance measure. In our case, only entrepreneurs themselves have knowledge of their own illegal evasive behavior. Additionally, drawing on existing research, we identified a set of key variables from the WBES, but we recognize there may be other factors and measures that impact enactment of evasive behavior and firm performance and these should be considered in future research–we simply used those variables available to us in the WBES dataset.We opted to use data from 2009, as this was the most complete available at the time. The survey instrument changed in subsequent iterations, and these changes removed or altered certain measures (such as culture and necessity vs. opportunity entrepreneurship), preventing us from testing the desired theory with newer iterations of this data. Therefore, we chose to use an older dataset to measure more precisely. However, this creates a limitation, particularly as the Nigerian economy has moved towards more global inclusivity since the global financial collapse of 2008 and then was rebased in 2014. While these events and actions may have bearing on entrepreneurial behavior, we expect these institutional issues to be robust to these events in the long run. Nevertheless, without a comparative analysis, we cannot be certain our theory is generalizable to systems dissimilar to the context we analyzed with the data we had available.Due to data limitations, we could not conduct comprehensive endogeneity tests . As such, the approach we adopted may not necessarily account for all of endogeneity in the model. This is a limitation when interpreting the results. As noted by Tonoyan et al : “The prHowever, regarding reverse-causality, the view that high performing firms pay bribes because they are more likely to be extorted by bureaucrats due to their financial attractiveness is inconclusive. There is even strong evidence that underperforming firms are more pressured to engage in bribery and tax evasion to improve firm performance than high performing firms . While CAdditionally, our measure for firm performance is limited by the available data. We used growth in sales and employees. While this is not ideal, these were the two variables that best represented firm performance within that dataset. Our measure of firm performance is similar to many influential papers which measure the effect of corruption on firm performance c.f.., , 120–124Lastly, we did not examine informal entrepreneurship in our study due to the scope of data collected by World Bank. Data on informal entrepreneurship simply was not accounted for in this dataset. Although there is a healthy body of literature already on informal entrepreneurship, future studies might benefit from comparing and contrasting evasive behavior by formal and informal entrepreneurs in institutionally constrained environments.In summary, our findings reveal that firm performance is positively influenced by evasive behavior enacted by entrepreneurs who proactively discover and deliberately exploit institutions for private gain. Rewards associated with evasive entrepreneurship may institutionalize this type of entrepreneurship as normative. These results, and our finding that evasive culture increase with bureaucratic and regulatory intervention in entrepreneurial activities, have implications for policymakers who seek to deter bribery and tax evasion through expanding government oversight. Excessive intervention may, paradoxically, but powerfully, provoke evasive behavior. Previous research has often cast entrepreneurs as victims of institutional constraints and bribe demanding and high-taxing officials, but our results highlight their self-interested engagement in perpetuating illegal evasion to boost firm performance.While previous research has focused on cultural, political, institutional and economic factors that affect entrepreneurial behavior, the role of entrepreneurial agency  has been largely ignored. Empirical evidence of evasive proclivity by entrepreneurs and the positive effects on the performance of their firms should provoke the concern of policy makers, government officials and institutions that have historically focused on institutional governance to stem bribery and tax evasion. Exposing entrepreneurs as agents of illegal evasive behavior offers a non-traditional perspective of the problem and invites alternative thinking about it. The indisputably critical role of entrepreneurs in transforming emerging economies, such as those in Africa, provides an extraordinary opportunity for researchers to produce scholarly work with practical relevance and high societal impact.


Both ASD groups also showed reduced connectivity between right inferior lateral prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortices that could reflect an atypical information transmission to the mentalizing network. In contrast, with mentalizing both ADHD groups showed decreasing connectivity between the medial prefrontal and left temporoparietal cortices when compared to TD controls. Therefore, despite the complex pattern of atypical brain function underpinning ToM across the three disorders, some neurofunctional abnormalities during ToM are associated with ASD and appeared differentiable from those associated with ADHD, with the comorbid group displaying combined abnormalities found in each condition.Theory of mind (ToM) or mentalizing difficulties is reported in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but the mechanism underpinning these apparently shared deficits is relatively unknown. Eighty-three young adult males, 19 with ASD alone, 21 with ADHD alone, 18 with dual diagnosis of ASD and ADHD, and 25 typically developing (TD) controls completed the functional magnetic resonance imaging version of the Frith-Happé animated-triangle ToM task. We compared neural function during ToM with two non-ToM conditions, random and goal directed motions, using whole-brain and region-of-interest analysis of brain activation and functional connectivity analyses. The groups showed comparable ToM task performance. All three clinical groups lacked local connectivity increase shown by TD controls during ToM in the right temporoparietal cortex, a key mentalizing region, with a differentially  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by social communication difficulties and stereotypical/repetitive behaviors, while attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is characterized by age-inappropriate symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity . DespiteIn ASD, mentalizing problems are conceptualized as a core symptom  or a conDuring mentalizing, children and adults with ASD also showed reduced functional connectivity (FC) , 26, 27 In ADHD, social cognition, and mentalizing deficits are increasingly reported, mostly in children –39 but aIn the context of neuroimaging of ADHD, altered orbitofrontal and lateral fronto-striatal activation, which is typicaly linked to executive function deficits –48, has local  temporo-limbic FC in the ASD and ASD+ADHD groups relative to TD and ADHD, and shared precuneus overconnectivity across all clinical groups  ≥70, estimated using the Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence , took paThe clinical groups were recruited through specialist adult ASD and ADHD clinics, support organizations, social media, and from a well-characterized population-based cohort of young adults with ASD, the Special Needs and Autism Project (SNAP), who were followed up since 10–12 years and are now young adults . PsychosThe ASD group consisted of 14 participants with clinical diagnoses  and five participants with research diagnoses from SNAP , based on the International Classification of Diseases criteria (ICD-10) . All butIn the ASD+ADHD group, 14 subjects had clinical diagnoses  and four had research diagnoses of ASD from SNAP  based on the ICD-10. All but one ASD diagnoses were accompanied by the ADOS or the ADI-R , one with SSRIs alone  and one with both .The TD participants were from local communities, were non-medicated, and scored below clinical cut-off on the Conners' Adult ADHD Rating Scale (CAARS)  and the http://www.sdqinfo.com) indexed ADHD traits, while total algorithm score of SRS-2 indexed ASD traits. The participants completed self-report measures, corroborated by informant  for those in the clinical groups.The CAARS ADHD index and the hyperactivity/inattention domain of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaires (SDQ) for adults  were given by the examiner when the answer was not forthcoming. Responses were transcribed and rated by the first author DI, blinded to the participants' diagnoses, yielding scores for intention attributions (0–5), their appropriateness (0–3), the primary measures; and response length  and number of prompts, our secondary measure of ToM ability  was shown to the participants, followed by the question “ ability . Forty-e ability  using , co-registered with individual activation maps during pre-processing, was acquired in the inter-commissural plane with TE = 3.016 s, TR = 7.312 s, 196 slices, FOV = 27 cm × 27 cm, 256 × 256 matrix, and slice thickness of 1.2 mm.Data were acquired using a General Electric (GE) MR750 3T scanner  at the Center for Neuroimaging Sciences, King's College London. The scanner's body coil was used for RF transmission, while an eight-channel head coil was used for signal reception. An echo planar image (EPI) gradient-echo pulse sequence  was used to acquire 40 slices of T2fMRI data were corrected for slice timing, realigned, co-registered to the individual T1-weighted scan, segmented, normalized to the Montreal Neurological Institute EPI template, and smoothed using an 8-mm Gaussian kernel. Statistical analyses were completed in two steps on the Statistical Parametric Mapping (SPM8). At the subject-level analyses, BOLD response was predicted using a vector of onsets and durations convolved with the canonical hemodynamic response function (HRF). Six nuisance motion regressors  controlled for volume-to-volume head motion and abrupt movements. A high-pass filter was applied at the cut-off of 128 s and a first-order autoregressive model corrected for time series correlation. Investigations were carried out in the orthogonal contrast ToM > RD, typical of past studies , 74–76, p <.05, family-wise error corrected (FWEcor), and a cluster-forming voxel threshold of p < 0.001 . Between-group activation was modeled with group as predictor, covarying for total frame-wise head displacement to control for residual motion variation. The group differences were analyzed, first, using an exploratory whole-brain analysis  and, second, using a hypothesis-driven region-of-interest (ROI) analyses, by means of small-volume correction, using 10-mm radius spherical ROIs in the bilateral inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), bilateral medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), bilateral posterior cingulate cortex (PCC), bilateral angular gyrus (ANG), and bilateral temporo-parietal junction/superior-temporal sulcus (TPJ/STS). The ROIs were centered on independently derived coordinates from a whole-brain activation map of ToM > RD  and their appropriateness . A group effect was found on the length of description  and prompts required , appropriateness scores , length of description  and prompts . Post-hoc t-tests suggested that intentionality scores and length of description were higher in ToM than GD across all groups (p < 0.001); appropriateness scores were lower in ToM than GD in the TD, ASD, and ADHD groups (p < 0.001); and more prompts were needed during ToM than the GD condition (p < 0.0001).In the performance data from the out-of-scanner task, there were no significant group × condition interactions . No grouF = 2.49, p = 0.07] and a significant effect of condition  were found for motion type identification (Post-hoc t-tests showed GD motion were identified more accurately by the ADHD than the ASD and ASD+ADHD groups (p < 0.01), and that RD and ToM motions were identified more accurately than GD motions (p < 0.001) by the TD, ASD and ASD+ADHD groups. RT comparisons showed a trend effect of group , with the clinical groups being slower than the TD group, although this was only statistically significant in RD and ToM conditions for the ASD+ADHD group (p < 0.05) and in GD for the ASD and ADHD groups (p < 0.05) when tested post-hoc.During the fMRI task, a participant with ADHD answered eight out of 12 questions (others answered ≥11 questions), which could reflect ToM difficulties. The participant was included in all analysis. There were no significant group × condition interactions . A trendfication . Post-hoF = 0.74, p = 0.53].Total volume-to-volume head movement in the x, y, and z rotation and translation did not differ across groups . Post-hoc pairwise comparisons revealed lower right ANG activation in the ADHD than the ASD (p < 0.001) and ASD+ADHD (p = 0.009) groups, and a trend-level increase in ASD relative to TD , k = 78 voxels] and rANG . Post-hoc t-tests revealed significant higher activation in ASD than ADHD (ps ≤ 0.016) in both regions and a trend-level increase in rANG in ASD+ADHD relative to ADHD (p = 0.070). Corresponding analyses of ToM > GD contrast showed a trend-level group effect in rTPJ/STS  and rANG , with higher activation in ASD than ADHD (ps ≤ 0.004) for both regions, and a higher increase in ASD+ADHD than ADHD in rTPJ/STS (p = 0.025) and a trend-level increase rANG , prescription of SSRI alone (ps ≥ 0.38), psychostimulant alone (ps ≥ 0.49), and all medication together (ps ≥ 0.17) were non-significant.In all analyses, the effects of FSIQ  and rTPJ/STS  and in the whole-brain analysis based rANG cluster for ToM > RD . In the ASD group, the number of prompts during ToM was significantly positively correlated with activation in rANG , and at trend-level, in the whole-brain rANG cluster  in the ToM > RD contrast; and with ROI activation in rANG  and, at a trend-level, in rTPJ  for the ToM > GD contrast.In the TD group, RT to ToM clips showed significant positive correlation with ROI-based activation, for the ToM > RD and ToM > GD contrasts, respectively, in rANG (ps ≥ 0.26).None of the activation clusters correlated with the severity of ASD or ADHD traits (2(2) = 7.79, p = 0.02] and of group × condition interaction  but not group. Post-hoc t-test showed increased overall FC during ToM relative to RD or GD in TD controls only (ps ≤ 0.001), although the pattern of findings subtly differed for the individual FC pairs.Analyses of overall averaged FC revealed significant effects of condition ; and between rANG with lTPJ  and rTPJ  (see 2(2) = 36.4, p < 0.0001], qualified by increased FC during ToM relative to RD or GD in the TD (ps ≤ 0.0004) and the ADHD groups (ps ≤ 0.04). Between mPFC and lTPJ, a significant group × condition interaction  due to increased FC in TD controls during ToM relative to RD or GD (ps ≤ 0.025) between rANG and rTPJ; and during ToM relative to GD (p = 0.002) between rANG and lTPJ. No other effects or interactions were significant.Among the ROI pairs, a significant mixed-effect model fit was found between rIFG and PCC, [χ076] see . Betweenps ≥ 0.10), SSRIs alone (ps ≥ 0.72), psychostimulants alone (ps ≥ 0.42), and all medications together (ps ≥ 0.38) exerted non-significant effects in the models.The FSIQ (ps >0.39) nor task performance measures (ps > 0.11).The FC strength neither correlated with the severity of ASD and ADHD traits  and analysis types . Specifically, the ToM > GD contrast, relative to ToM > RD in whole-brain and ROI analyses, reduced some brain activation differences to non-significance. Thus, GD motion seems to evoke temporoparietal activation at intermediate level between RD and ToM, which could express parametric modulation of right temporoparietal activation when observing interaction based on goal pursuit alone compared to interaction involving the attribution of mental states in others.Discrepancies of findings were observed across contrasts  can be found at: The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by National Health Service Research Ethics Committee (NHS REC 13/LO/0373). The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.SL, KR, and ES conceptualized the study. CMM, KA, and VS contributed to recruitment. SL conducted the recruitment and data collection. SL, DI, OO'D, and CM contributed to the analysis of the data. SL and DI drafted the manuscript. DL, CMM, CM, KA, VS, KR, and ES contributed to the manuscript preparation. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.DI has received honoraria and travel support from Otsuka-Lundbeck and Janssen. KR has received a grant from Shire/Takeda for another study. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


The GO/Bi2S3 NPs were synthesized in a one-step way and the PVDF/TPU nanofibers were obtained from a uniformly mixed co-solution by electrospinning. GO nanoparticles with excellent solar harvesting endow the GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU membrane with favorable photothermal conversion. In addition, the introduction of Bi2S3 NPs further enhances the broadband absorption and photothermal conversion properties of the GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU composite membrane due to its perfect broadband absorption performance and coordination with GO. Finally, the results show that the GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU composite membrane has the highest light absorption rate (about 95%) in the wavelength range of 400–2500 nm. In the 300 s irradiation process, the temperature changes in the GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU composite membrane were the most significant and rapid, and the equilibrium temperature of the same irradiation time was 81 °C. Due to the presence of TPU, the mechanical strength of the composite film was enhanced, which is beneficial for its operational performance. Besides this, the morphology, composition, and thermal property of the membranes were evaluated by corresponding test methods.Photothermal conversion materials have attracted wide attention due to their efficient utilization of light energy. In this study, a (GO)/Bi Photothermal conversion is an emerging approach using light energy which can be widely used in the fields of heat therapy, domestic water heating, photocatalysis, and others ,2,3. HowSo far, photothermal conversion materials are generally divided into the following three categories: (1) metal nanoparticles/metal oxides, (2) carbon-based materials, (3) polymer materials . Xu et a2S3 NPs) possess high cost performance, outstanding biocompatibility, and the great absorption of near-infrared and visible light (UV-NIR) [2S3 NPs is 1.3–1.7 ev, which makes the Bi2S3 NPs have a high near-infrared absorption coefficient [2S3 NPs can be excited to generate heat and have a high conversion efficiency [2S3) is widely used in electricity, optics, electrochemistry, biology, and chemo-photothermal therapy for cancer, Bi2S3 NPs being applied as a photothermal conversion material is seldom discussed. Unfortunately, the low specific surface area of Bi2S3 NPs leads to its poor solar harvesting performance. However, Bi2S3 NPs are difficult to spin with polymer materials because they tend to aggregate and have poor dispersion in electrospun solutions. Graphene oxide (GO) has a fantastic large specific surface area and is capable of loading various nanoparticles. Therefore, by loading Bi2S3 NPs into GO, the resulting GO/Bi2S3 composite nanoparticles (GO/Bi2S3 NPs) are an ideal solar harvesting and photothermal conversion agent. Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) nanofiber membrane is widely used in lithium battery separators, air filtration, sensors, and other fields because of its superior chemical stability, high specific surface area, and high porosity. However, the mechanical performance of the PVDF nanofiber membrane is unsatisfactory. Meanwhile, thermoplastic polyurethane, with strong polar groups, excellent mechanical properties, and ageing resistance, has been widely used in many fields requiring high mechanical properties.Recent studies have shown that bismuth sulfide nanoparticles (Bi(UV-NIR) ,12,13. Tfficient ,15. Undeficiency ,17. Alth2S3 NPs as a photothermal conversion material. Considering the requirement of mechanical strength for application, PVDF and TPU electrospun solutions were blended and prepared as the substrate of the photothermal membrane. The PVDF/TPU composite nanofiber membrane can thoroughly combine the advantages of the two polymers. The prepared GO/Bi2S3 NPs were added to the PVDF/TPU mixed spinning solution to prepare GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU composite nanofibers by electrospinning. The composite nanofiber membrane was expected to possess excellent mechanical properties and absorbance and be used for cancer photothermal therapy, energy collection, and the distillation of seawater.In this study, a one-step way was employed to prepare GO/Bi2S3 nanoparticles (NPs). In the synthesis process, Bi(NO3)3 and thioacetamide (TAA) served as the sources of bismuth and sulfur and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) acted as a surfactant to enhance the stability of GO/Bi2S3 NPs. 2S3 NPs. Compared with the standard powder diffraction card (JCPDS 17-0320), the diffraction peaks of Bi2S3 are observed at 2θ = 22.40°, 24.92°, 28.60°, 31.80°, and 45.66°, which correspond to the (220), (130), (211), (221), and (002) planes of Bi2S3, respectively. The results indicated that the product produced by hydrothermal synthesis is orthorhombic phase Bi2S3. The diffraction peak of the GO (100) plane at 10.02° is observed in the GO/Bi2S3 diffraction pattern, indicating that GO and Bi2S3 have successfully combined. The XPS elemental survey scan  and (220), respectively. The regular lattice pattern indicates that GO/Bi2S3 has great crystallinity. HAADF and EDS mapping images (2S3 NPs can be uniformly dispersed on GO.The TEM image a shows tg images b show th2S3-PVDF/TPU nanofiber (left) and elements mapping of the F, N, Bi, and S (right); the elements mapping image demonstrates the uniform distribution of GO/Bi2S3 NPs among the PVDF/TPU nanofibers. The SEM images of pristine PVDF and TPU, PVDF/TPU, GO-PVDF/TPU, and GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU nanofibers are shown in 2S3-PVDF/TPU nanofibers are relatively rough. The compositions and structural parameters averages of different samples are exhibited in 2S3-PVDF/TPU are smaller than those of PVDF, TPU, and PVDF/TPU, which also supports the conclusion mentioned above.2S3-PVDF/TPU membraned. The results manifest that the thinner the diameter of the nanofibers, the smaller the pore diameter but the higher the porosity. The GO-PVDF/TPU and GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU composite membranes have similar pore sizes of 1.3 and 1.2 μm; both are significantly smaller than the membranes without additives. The porosities of the GO-PVDF/TPU and GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU composite membranes are the same (83%) and evidently higher than the membranes without additives. These results are still consistent with our previous conclusions [clusions ,19.2S3-PVDF/TPU composite membranes, as shown in −1, 1174 cm−1, and 1402 cm−1, which are attributed to the skeletal vibration of the C–C bonds and the stretching vibrations of the C–F and C–H groups, respectively. For the TPU membrane, typical peaks around 1599 and 1716cm−1 are observed due to the N-H flexural absorption and stretching vibration of the carbonyl group in the amide, respectively. The absorption peaks at 2943 and 3325 cm−1 are attributed to the –CH2– asymmetric stretching vibration and the stretching vibration of N–H in the urethane group, respectively. Other characteristic bands of TPU can also be observed in the FTIR spectra of TPU. Compared with the FTIR spectrum of pristine PVDF and TPU, the FTIR spectra of PVDF/TPU contains all the characteristic peaks of both PVDF and TPU, proving the formation of PVDF/TPU composite membranes. In comparison with PVDF/TPU, a new peak appeared at 3428 cm−1 caused by the stretching vibration of C=C in GO, illustrating the presence of GO in PVDF and TPU. Other absorption peaks related to GO vanished in the FTIR spectra of GO-PVDF/TPU due to coinciding with the peaks of other components. Moreover, the stretching vibration of Bi–S is observed in the FTIR spectra of the GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU, indicating that the Bi2S3 NPs were favorably embedded on the surface of GO [Furthermore, the FTIR spectrum was used to verify the formation of the PVDF/TPU, GO-PVDF/TPU, and GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU membranes were evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and TGA, as shown in 2S3 NPs, the melting temperatures of the GO-PVDF/TPU and GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU composite membranes increased correspondingly.The thermal behaviors of the PVDF, TPU, PVDF/TPU, GO-PVDF/TPU, and GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU composite membranes began to decompose increasingly with the addition of GO and GO/Bi2S3. Obviously, the residue rate increased due to the presence of inorganic materials. This means that the GO-PVDF/TPU and GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU composite membranes have better thermal stabilities than PVDF, TPU, and PVDF/TPU, which may be attributed to the GO or GO/Bi2S3 serving as nucleation agents and contributing to the increasing crystallization of PVDF [2S3 NPs and polymers [2S3 in the film, the TG curves of the GO-PVDF/TPU and GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU almost coincide. From the analysis of the thermal stability of the membranes, it can be concluded that the composite membranes with inorganic material can improve the thermal stability and are suitable for some medium temperature conditions.A TG measurement was used to further characterize the thermal properties of different membranes. As shown in  of PVDF . Anotherpolymers . Due to 2S3-PVDF/TPU membranes, and the maximum strengths and elongations at break of the various membranes are listed in 2S3, compared with the PVDF/TPU membrane, the mechanical performance of the GO-PVDF/TPU and GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU membranes further evidently improved. This can be explained by the formation of hydrogen bonds or other covalent bonds between nanoparticles and polymer molecules, which makes the interface interaction strongly conducive to effective stress transfer in the process of stretching, thus improving the mechanical properties. In fact, GO has excellent mechanical properties and can improve the mechanical properties of the membrane [In the process of production, cutting, and transportation, photothermal conversion materials are required to have some strength. Thus, the mechanical property of photothermal conversion material is an important parameter to evaluate the material properties. membrane ,31.2S3-PVDF/TPU, which have 2% and 1%, respectively. GO has a high reflectance due to its dependence on the incident light angle and high refraction, resulting in a higher reflectance of the GO-PVDF/TPU membrane (approximately 30%) than that of the GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU membrane (approximately 5%) [2S3-PVDF/TPU has the highest light absorption (nearly 95%), followed by GO-PVDF/TPU, as shown in 2S3 NPs in GO/Bi2S3 composite NPs can interact with each other to increase the reflection and resonance scattering, thereby increasing the absorption rate of the membrane.When a semiconductor material is illuminated, electron holes pairs are created with the energy similar to the bandgap. The excited electrons eventually return to the lower energy level through a non-radiative relaxation and release heat as phonons, thereby establishing a temperature distribution based on light absorption and volume/surface composite properties ,33. Figutely 5%) . Accordi2S3-PVDF/TPU membrane at every 30 s, with a total irradiation time of 300 s. In the absence of GO or GO/Bi2S3, the temperatures of PVDF, TPU, and PVDF/TPU membranes rose slowly and slightly; the equilibrium temperature of these membranes was around 50 °C, which was due to the poor solar harvestability. During the irradiation of 300 s, the temperatures of the GO-PVDF/TPU and GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU membranes increased significantly and rapidly, and the equilibrium temperatures were 67 °C and 81 °C at the same irradiation time, respectively. In comparison with the GO-PVDF/TPU membrane, the equilibrium temperature of the GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU membrane was further improved, indicating that the GO/Bi2S3 NPs have a better photothermal conversion performance than single-component GO, which benefits from the outstanding light absorbance of the Bi2S3 NPs. The temperature change in the GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU membrane was significantly increased compared to other reports, as shown in The data of temperature changes  on different membranes surfaces are shown in 2S3-PVDF/TPU membranes, the temperature cycle tests of different membranes were carried out by radiation 300 s, naturally cooling for 300 s, and no irradiation subsequently. As shown in 2S3-PVDF/TPU membrane heated up rapidly, which is attributed to the narrow bandgap and wide band absorption characteristics of Bi2S3. The final temperatures of the samples  were similar to the GO-PVDF/TPU and GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU membranes, which is attributed to the low specific heat capacity of GO and Bi2S3 NPs. After five cycles of irradiation, the temperatures of the samples did not decrease significantly, and the initial temperature of each cycle increased slightly, which was caused by the increasing of the ambient temperature due to the irradiation time.Stability is another important index by which to evaluate the performance of membrane applications. In order to study the stability of the PVDF, TPU, PVDF/TPU, GO-PVDF/TPU, and GO/BiwM = 1,100,000) and thermoplastic polyurethane  were supplied by Solef Co. Ltd.  and Basf Co. Ltd. . Bismuth nitrate pentahydrate (Bi (NO3)3·5H2O) and polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) were provided by Nona technology Co. Ltd.  and Zhengkun chemical Co. Ltd. . Thioacetamide (TAA) and ethylene glycol (EG) were obtained from Jiuding chemical Co. Ltd. . N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), acetone, and ethanol were provided by Aladdin reagent Co., Ltd. .Graphene oxide (GO) aqueous solution was obtained from JCNANO, Inc. . Poly (vinylidene fluoride)  were prepared by adding 5 mL of GO aqueous solution and 5 mL of ethanol into a centrifuge tube (20 mL) via centrifugation. The centrifugation lasted until the mixture solution was layered, then we poured out the supernatant. An amount of 5 mL of ethanol was added to the above precipitate. The GO NPs were obtained by centrifugation and washing with ethanol several times to remove all the remnants, followed by drying at 120 °C for 2 h.2S3 (GO/Bi2S3) was prepared via a facile hydrothermal synthesis process (as shown in 3)3·5H2O was dissolved in 5 mL of EG containing 0.640 g PVP and stirred at room temperature for 30 min until a transparent solution was formed. EG (50 mL) containing GO NPs (0.1 g) was added to the above mixture solution under stirring for 30 min and ultrasonic treatment for 10 min. Subsequently, TAA (0.207 g) was mixed with the above solution. The resulting mixture solution was transferred into a high-temperature and high-pressure reaction caldron with a Teflon liner and treated under 120 °C for 2 h. Finally, the target product GO/Bi2S3 NPs were obtained by naturally cooling, centrifugation, and washing with ethanol at least 3 times.The GO-supported Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU were labeled. The preparation methods of the different membranes are described in detail below. For clarity, the compositions of the different membranes are also available in Based on the compositions, PVDF, TPU, PVDF/TPU, GO-PVDF/TPU, and GO/BiThe TPU electrospun solution (24 wt%) was obtained by dissolving TPU particles of 0.24 g into a mixed solvent of DMF and acetone  with magnetic stirring for 1 h at 60 °C. The applied voltage was 35 kV, the distance between the needle and collector was 38 cm, and the feeding rate was 1.2 mL/h. TPU electrospinning solutions with concentrations of 23 wt% and 25 wt% were also prepared. By comparing the morphology of TPU nanofibers, it can be concluded that the fiber morphology is better when the concentration of the electrospinning solution is 24 wt%  into the mixture solution of PVDF/TPU, respectively . The crystallographic structure of the GO/Bi2S3 NPs was analyzed by using powder x-ray diffraction patterns  at a scanning rate of 5° min−1 in the 2θ range of 5°–90°. A transmission electron microscope  was used to observe and analyze the morphology, particle size, dispersion, and crystal structure of the GO/Bi2S3 NPs. The morphologies of the nanofiber samples were evaluated by field emission scanning electron microscopy . The diameter of the nanofibers was measured using the Image Pro software. The preparation of the GO-PVDF/TPU and GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU nanofibers was further confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy  Analytical Instruments Co., LTD, Shanghai, China) in the range of 400–4000 cm−1. The capillary flow porometer  was used to measure the pore size of the membranes. The porosity of membrane was obtained by immersing the specimens (2 cm circle in diameter) into n-butanol for 2 h and based on the Equation (1):dm and wm represent the mass before and after soaking the n-butanol, respectively. ρ is the density of the n-butanol. s and d are the area and thickness of the sample.The elemental composition and chemical information of the GO/Bi−1, with the specimen dimension about 2 × 10 cm2. The thermal stability of the membrane was evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry . The measurement was performed at 30–350 °C with a heating rate of 10 °C·min−1 under a flow of 75 mL·min−1 high purity nitrogen. A thermogravimetric analysis  was performed to measure the thermogravimetric curves of the various samples. The study was performed under a flow of 75 mL·min−1 high purity nitrogen at 30–800 °C, with a heating rate of 20 °C·min−1. The reflectance (R) and transmittance (T) of the nanofiber membrane was recorded by the ultraviolet-visible-near-infrared (UV-Vis-NIR) spectrometer  over the full wavelength. The absorption (A) was calculated according to Equation (2).The mechanical property of the as-prepared membrane was tested by an Instron 3369 Universal Strength Tester at a speed of 20 mm·s−2 [To investigate the photothermal conversion property of the membranes, circular samples with a diameter of 30 mm were added into a polypropylene (PP) container and irradiated by a xenon lamp  with a light intensity of 1 kW·m−2  at the t2S3-PVDF/TPU composite nanofiber membrane with prominent light absorption and a photothermal conversion property. Due to the introduction of the Bi2S3 NPs, the absorbance and temperature changes of the GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU composite membrane were markedly improved. The GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU composite membrane has the highest light absorption rate (about 95%) in the wavelength range of 400–2500 nm. After 300 s of solar irradiation, the GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU membrane temperature can reach as high as 81 °C, while the final equilibrium temperature is only about 50 °C for the PVDF, TPU, and PVDF/TPU membranes. The result means that the photothermal conversion performance will be significantly improved. Moreover, because of the addition of TPU, the mechanical property of the GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU membrane was significantly ameliorated. The existence of Bi2S3 NPs also contributed to improving the mechanical properties and thermal stability. The improvement of the mechanical property and thermal stability means that the composite membrane has a longer service life and more applications. In a word, our results shed light on a promising use of a GO/Bi2S3-PVDF/TPU composite nanofiber membrane as a photothermal conversion material.In conclusion, we designed and fabricated a GO/Bi


Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is a common neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity and or impulsivity. Since the development of the concept, a reliable biomarker to aid diagnosis has been sought. One potential method is the use of electroencephalogram to measure neuronal activity. The aim of this review is to provide an up to date synthesis of the literature surrounding the potential use of electroencephalogram for diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in adulthood.A search of PsycINFO, PubMed, and EMBASE was undertaken in February 2019 for peer-reviewed articles exploring electroencephalogram patterns in adults (18 years with no upper limit) diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.Differences in electroencephalogram activity are potentially unique to adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder populations. Strongest support was derived for elevated levels of both absolute and relative theta power, alongside the observation that alpha activity is able to typically differentiate between adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and normative populations.Electroencephalogram can have a use in clinical settings to aid adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder diagnosis, but areas of inconsistency are apparent. Having discovered that the mode of function of the human central nervous system is based on electric activity , 2 the iAlongside its use to better understand organic pathology, developments in its application saw an emphasis upon mapping neural correlates believed to be associated with psychiatric disorders. For instance, in schizophrenia, EEG patterns were studied as early as the 1960s , with evMore recently, EEG has been used to identify possible biomarkers in neurodevelopmental disorders. For example, it has recently been suggested that EEG can be used for the diagnosis of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)  and evenHowever, despite the proliferation of research into EEG and childhood ADHD, a significantly smaller number of studies have sought to determine neural correlates and biomarkers in adulthood. These are the ones we are focusing on in this review. The possibility of differentiating adult ADHD specific biomarkers remains a potentially important means of diagnosing the condition in this group and would be considered a welcome development by clinicians . Given tThis review synthesized research which used EEG to map cortical activity in adults with a formal diagnosis of ADHD. The aims of this review was to (i) discern whether there are any differences between resting state and event related potential (ERP) cortical activity in the adult ADHD brain from the normative population, and (ii) to ascertain whether this evidence may lend itself to position EEG in clinical practice to aid diagnosis.Quantitative reports of EEG used in the adult ADHD population were included. Criteria stipulated that studies appear in peer-reviewed journals in English language. Studies must present EEG neurophysiological outcome data, and concern subjects with a confirmed diagnosis of ADHD. Case studies are excluded. Due to the relative infancy of research in this area studies of controlled and noncontrolled design are included. No time limits were applied to the search parameters.This review considers all outcomes relating to primary symptoms of ADHD. Studies may or may not include follow-up of various lengths. For the purposes of the review, adulthood is defined from 18 years old with no upper limit. Participants must have met diagnostic criteria for ADHD confirmed either by clinical assessment, or as reported using a cut off on at least one recognized diagnostic tool. Studies were excluded if ADHD was a secondary diagnosis, if the focus was on psychopharmacological or neuro-feedback outcomes. Participants could also report any comorbidity commonly associated with ADHD (e.g. bipolar); however, any diagnosis that might take precedent  was excluded here. Studies were assessed independently by two authors; any uncertainty of appropriateness was discussed in order to achieve a consensus.Where reported, the following data were extracted from each article: author, year of publication, country, methodological approach, demographics, number of subjects, and main findings.r = .90).The study quality was assessed using a standardized quality-rating tool. The Downs and Black  method pPapers rated as poor quality were included in data extraction as our primary search objective was of including all available research. Poor quality papers were notably limited in the quality of reporting and internal validity due to lack of controlling for confounding variables. The tool was employed using a modification in order to be applicable to the nature of the studies included in the review. Therefore maximum score was 22, classified as excellent were scores of 18–22, good 15–17, fair 12–14, and poor <11. Quality was assessed by one author; any uncertainty of rating was discussed with other authors in order to achieve a consensus. While quality rating is useful in giving an overall evaluation of the literature, it was not a used as an exclusion criterion.The following terms were used in the title, ADHD and EEG; ADD and EEG, ADD and Encephal*, ADHD and Encephal*, Encephal* and Hyperkin*, Hyperkin*, and EEG and adult* in the abstract field. No time limits were applied to the search.In order to identify relevant primary studies, databases germane to the research area  were searched. Final searches were conducted in February 2019. In addition, hand searches of published systematic reviews, and of key journal publications were undertaken. Finally, following the application of the inclusion criteria, citation searches concluded the search. The initial search yielded 179. After duplicates were removed, studies were assessed for eligibility using PICOS methodology and exclusion-inclusion criteria was applied. Finally, 21 studies were included in this review (SD ± 7.05) years. Study design varied significantly. From the twenty-one studies included, only one did not employ a control group , with a range of 295. The largest study included 309 participants, the smallest 14. The mean age of participants (adult subgroups only) was 33.7  levels for adult ADHD would be usually associated with focused attention and difficulty of task. Indeed, the studies show evidence for elevated absolute and relative power in adult ADHD populations; however, these observations are seemingly dependent on the developmental phase hence not consistent. For example, there is evidence for elevated theta waves “at rest” comparative to control subjects, as well as observed elevated theta in Event Related Brain Potentials (ERP) analysis. Further to this, quantitative EEG allowed differentiation between not only adults with ADHD and controls, but also those with ADHD symptoms who did not meet the criteria to be given a diagnosis of ADHD, demonstrating the potential sensitivity that would be required in order to use EEG for diagnostic purposes . This suCollectively, it is difficult to synthesize the findings in relation to alpha waves, as again, inconsistency is apparent in the findings of the studies included in this review. In summary, there is evidence of increased absolute power and decreased relative power to alpha waves alongside slower frequency in adulthood ADHD. More specifically, in terms of “at rest” studies, there is evidence of decreased alpha activity, and increased alpha activity. For instance, Poil et al.  found thAs for beta waves (12–25 Hz), which are typically higher when a person is active, busy, anxious or concentrating for example, it is apparent that beta activity patterns are not unique in adult ADHD profiles and cannot be useful in differentiating ADHD in adulthood from normative populations based on evidence included in this review , 31. YetFurthermore, a similar picture emerges when considering the information available regarding delta waves; there is no clear narrative regarding a potentially unique pattern of delta activity for adult ADHD populations when considering the information derived from this review, which suggests that, as yet, delta activity is not insightful for this population.In terms of gamma activity, Tombor et al.  reports In general, the observed cortical under arousal reflected in the decreased contingent negative variation (CNV) in the EEG waves supports the notion of a reduced CNV amplitude as a possible biomarker for ADHD . This paConsidering reports from ERP studies, a collective evaluation shows slowing or reduced EEG activity in adults with ADHD, comparative to controls. EPRs are a small section of the continuous EEG recording, which have been induced by a response to cognitive processing, such as viewing of stimuli during a test battery. ERP studies are particularly useful in exploring the evoked neurological response to specific cognition. The recording will demonstrate the electrical activity for a particular task at a particular moment in time. Of the studies included in this review, Leroy et al.  in a visBased on our discussion relating to the changes to theta and beta waves in ADHD, we would expect to find some results relating to TBR namely elevation as there is increase in theta waves and rightward beta asymmetry in inferior parietal regions. Indeed this knowledge has been used to develop a commercial product called Neuropsychiatric Electroencephalograph-Based ADHD Assessment Aid (NEBA) system, which received FDA approval   for chilA potential important explanation for the discrepancy in EEG activity in adult ADHD comes from the issue of the differences in neurological activity according to maturation. It seems there is evidence to suggest that the TBR is more reliable in childhood , albeit Neurotypical populations consistently present with a decrease in theta activity and an increase in alpha activity as development progresses , with EEThe notion of age is a seemingly complex one, and a confounding factor that requires clarity if EEG is to be useful in a clinical settings. van Dongen-Boomsma et al.  suggest When Ponomarev, Mueller, Candrian, Grin-Yatsenko, & Kropotov  investigClearly, EEG as a diagnostic tool for adults with ADHD has discrepancies that require clarification. Leading themes here have surrounded the complexity of the maturation process and how this is a confounder in establishing a clear narrative of how EEG can be useful in adult ADHD. Further, the describing of raw EEG data without a theory driven study and standardized protocol, is problematic. It is possible that this approach is inhibiting the development of useful information regarding this potentially valuable method to aid diagnosis. A call for longitudinal research is required, mainly to unpick how cortical activity changes in this atypical population and how EEG can help us determine this. Also, mediating factors such as comorbidity and ADHD heterogeneity can significantly influence the inconsistencies found in these studies. This highlights that method is extremely important in EEG studies, in that age, subtype of ADHD and comorbidity need to be accounted for, otherwise, we should expect to see differing and contradictory results. Again, this observation links to our conclusions surrounding age and its’ effect on the value of EEG measures. Replication is needed to gain consistency across findings for particular waves, within this, research should be theory driven, rather than describing EEG data patterns. Finally, there is evidence to suggest that EEG abnormalities in ADHD are influenced by biological sex in childhood , a concetheta power and alpha activity as having potential to differentiate between adult ADHD and normative populations along with a general reduction in neural activity for tasks requiring attention, these findings are not consistent among studies to recommend it use.There is potential the EEG can be used as a clinical diagnostic tool in Adult ADHD. However, with the current level of knowledge, it cannot be recommended. Although most studies point to elevated levels of both absolute and relative In addition, the studies included in this review used differing paradigms and different samples so the exact nature of the EEG profile in adult ADHD remains unclear. However, one observation that is steadfast is the discrepancy in findings when comparing childhood and adulthood EEG activity which indicates developmental changes are atypical in ADHD.It is also clear that the once considered robust measure, TBR, is highly inconsistent in adult ADHD and a new wave of research that considers and adds clarity to these discrepancies is required in order for this potentially valuable measure of ADHD in adulthood to be introduced.The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/supplementary material; further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.MA, TF, and SJ contributed equally. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Collectively, these data demonstrated that VB1 reduces UVA-induced senescence by targeting MAPK1 and alleviates skin photoaging in mice, suggesting that VB1 may be applicable for the prevention and treatment of skin photoaging.Purified vitexin compound 1 (VB1), a novel lignanoid isolated from the seeds of the Chinese herb Vitex negundo, has strong antioxidant abilities and broad antitumor activities. However, little is known about its anti-photoaging effect on the skin and the underlying mechanism. Here, we demonstrated that VB1 significantly attenuates ultraviolet A (UVA)-induced senescence in human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs), as evidenced by senescence-associated β-gal staining, MTT assays, and western blot analysis of the expression of p16 and matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1). Furthermore, mass spectrometry revealed that VB1 could directly bind to Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase 1 (MAPK1). Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulation methods confirmed the mass spectroscopy results and predicted six possible binding amino acids of MAPK1 that most likely interacted with VB1. Subsequent immunoprecipitation analysis, including different MAPK1 mutants, revealed that VB1 directly interacted with the residues, glutamic acid 58 (E58) and arginine 65 (R65) of MAPK1, leading to the partial reversal of UVA-induced senescence in HEK293T cells. Finally, we demonstrated that the topical application of VB1 to the skin of mice significantly reduced photoaging phenotypes  Chronic exposure to ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is the major cause of skin damage leading to premature aging of the skin, a condition called photoaging . ClinicaTo date, the mechanisms of skin photoaging is still unknown, however, it is mainly associated with oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, and DNA damage . OxidatiVitex negundo, has strong antioxidant abilities and broad antitumor activities in many cancer cell lines and xenograft models (Purified vitexin compound 1 (VB1), a novel lignanoid isolated from the seeds of the Chinese herb, t models . VB1 supt models . Howevert models . HoweverIn this study, we found that VB1 significantly inhibited UVA-induced senescence in human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs). Using mass spectrometry, we also revealed that VB1 could directly bind to MAPK1. Computer-aided methods and immunoprecipitation demonstrated that VB1 binds to MAPK1 in 293T cells by interacting with the residues E58 and R65. We further verified that VB1 partially reverses UVA-induced senescence by the above-mentioned binding to MAPK1. Finally, topical VB1 gel remarkably reduced the phenotype of skin photoaging in mice. For the first time, we demonstrate that VB1 reduces UVA-induced senescence in HDFs by targeting the residues E58 and R65 in MAPK1 and alleviates skin photoaging in mice. Our results indicate that VB1 is a potential new drug for the prevention and treatment of skin photoaging in the future.VB1  was a kind gift from the School of Pharmacy at Central South University . The gel containing 2% VB1 or the vehicle gel lacking VB1 were also given from the School of Pharmacy at Central South University. Primary antibodies specific for human against MMP-1, p16, MAPK1, and p-MAPK1 were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology .2 in a humidified incubator in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle media , supplemented with penicillin (100 U/mL), streptomycin (100 ng/mL), and 10% fetal bovine serum . Primary HDFs were obtained with written consent from voluntary, informed donors, following a protocol approved by the Clinical Research Ethics Committee at the Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in Changsha, China.Primary HDFs were isolated from circumcised foreskins of healthy human donors aged from 5 to 12 years. Primary HDFs were cultured at 37°C and 5% CO2 per day, as verified with a UV light meter  for 3 days. Following each UVA irradiation, cells were incubated in complete medium, supplemented with indicated compounds.Before UVA irradiation, HDFs cells were rinsed and submerged under a thin layer of PBS to prevent UVA absorption by components of the medium, such as VB1. Cells were then irradiated using a Philips UVA lamp with an emission spectrum between 320 and 400 nm. Mock-irradiated cells were manipulated identically, except that they were not exposed to UVA. The dose of UVA irradiation was 10 J/cmThirty micrograms of protein from each cell lysate was resolved by 10% SDS-PAGE, followed by electrotransfer to PVDF membranes . Blots were probed with primary antibodies at 4°C overnight, followed by incubation with an HRP-conjugated secondary antibody for 1 h at room temperature. Bands of interest in western blots were visualized with a western blot HRP substrate .Senescence-associated β-galactosidase  activity was measured with a β-galactosidase staining kit  according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Briefly, cells were washed in PBS, fixed at room temperature for 15 min in fixing solution, and incubated overnight at 37°C in staining solution. Relative SA-β-gal activities under each studied condition were determined by calculating the percentages of cells with SA-β-gal activity out of all cells counted in four continuous visual fields under a microscope (200x).Cell viabilities were determined by performing 3--2,5 -diphenyltetrazoliumbromide (MTT) assays. Briefly, cells were seeded into 96-well plates at a density of 2,000 cells/well. After adhesion, cells were exposed to UVA irradiation and grown in complete medium containing VB1 (0.6 μM). At 1, 3, or 5 days post-irradiation, the medium was aspirated, and cells were incubated for 4 h in fresh medium containing 0.5 mg/mL of MTT . Subsequently, the medium was removed and purple formazan crystals were dissolved in DMSO (150 μl/well) with a brief vortexing step. Absorbance at 570 nm was measured using a Synergy 2 Multi-Mode Microplate Reader . All experiments were performed in triplicate, and the data presented represent the means of 3 independent experiments ± SD.The crystal structure of the wild type MAPK1 protein was obtained from Protein Data Bank (PDB code: 5BVF) . The misGold nanoparticles were synthesized according to following procedures. Briefly, 3 mL sodium citrate  was added to 100 mL boiling HAuCl4 (0.01%) solution and kept heated for 10 min. With continuous stirring until cooled to room temperature, the gold nanoparticles were synthesized. To conjugate lignin onto gold nanoparticles, cysteamine was first linked onto gold nanoparticles through the thiol group on the cysteamine to introduce amino group onto gold nanoparticles. Cysteamine was added into gold nanoparticles  and reacted for 2 h. After centrifuge, the gold nanoparticles were reacted with 1-(3-Dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride  and N-hydroxysuccinimide  for 30 min. Then, lignin was added into the solution to reach a concentration of 10 g/mL. After another 2 h of reaction, the gold nanoparticles were centrifuged and re-dispersed into water for further use.Each sample of enriched nanogold-VB1 compound was reconstituted in 7 μl of HPLC buffer A (0.1%(v/v) formic acid in water), and 5 μl was injected into a Nano-LC system . Each sample was separated by a C18 column  with a 125 min HPLC-gradient. The mass spectrometric analysis was carried out in a data-dependent mode with an automatic switch between a full MS scan and an MS/MS scan in the orbitrap. The resulting MS/MS data were searched against UniProt P. mirabilis ATCC 29906 database using MaxQuant software (v1.5.2.8).The plasmid MAPK1-pENTER was purchased from vigenebio . Mutants of MAPK1 were generated with a QuickChange II XL Site-Directed Mutagenesis Kit  according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The primers used for the Mutants were used were shown in HEK293 cells were transfected with MAPK1 or mut-MAPK1. The cells were collected and washed with ice-cold PBS and lysed in buffer, and the VB1 modified by gold nanoparticles was added and incubation continued overnight at 4°C. Precipitates were washed three times with ice-cold lysis buffer at 400 g for 10 min. Bound proteins were separated on an SDS – polyacrylamide gel and analyzed by western blotting using the anti-MAPK1 antibodies.2 doses under a Philips UVA lamp placed 20 cm away (emission spectrum: 320–400 nm). The dorsal skin of mice was washed with 75% ethanol before each irradiation exposure to avoid blocking or absorption of UVA rays by previous applications of the VB1 gel. UVA doses were verified with a UV light meter. A Carbomer substrate gel containing 2% VB1 or vehicle gel lacking VB1 was applied dorsally to the mice accordingly every day. No topical application or irradiation was performed in the control group.Eight-week-old female FVB mice were obtained from the National Key Laboratory of Genetics . Animals were housed at 23 ± 1°C and 50 ± 10% relative humidity in a specific pathogen-free environment. Animal experiments were approved by the Animal Research Committee at the Xiang Ya Hospital of Central South University. The dorsal skin area of mice was shaved before and during experiments. Mice were divided into control, UVA,vehicle gel and VB1 groups, with 10 mice in each group. All Mice except control group were irradiated 3 times/week for 12 weeks with 20 J/cmMice were sacrificed by cervical dislocation under chloral hydrate anesthesia at the end of experiments. For histological analyses, central dorsum skin specimens were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde and sectioned after paraffin embedding. Hematoxylin-eosin staining and Masson-trichrome staining was then performed. Photographs of 5 randomly-chosen fields in each section were taken under a microscope (200x). Epidermal thicknesses were measured as the distance from the basement membrane to the bottom of the stratum corneum.P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.All data presented are representative of at least 3 independent experiments and are expressed as means ± SD. Statistical significances were determined by a one-way analysis of variance, followed by further analysis by the LSD (least significant difference) test. SA-β-gal activity was measured in HDFs to investigate the effects of VB1 on cellular senescence induced by UVA. Our results showed that the percentage of senescent cells  was significantly increased in UVA-irradiated HDFs compared with that in non-irradiated control cells. VB1 inhibited UVA-induced SA-β-gal activity in a dose-dependent manner . Additioin silico results showed that VB1 could directly bind MAPK1  or VB1-linked nanogold particles were used for immunoprecipitation, and MAPK1 was then detected by western blotting. The results showed that MAPK1 was detectable in the nanogold-VB1-immunoprecipitated complexes but not in the control nanogold immunocomplexes , revealio method . These fOnly phosphorylated MAPK1 (p-MAPK1), which is the active form of MAPK1, can activate the activity of a series of downstream transcription factors, thereby regulating cell function. To clarify the effect of VB1 on the MAPK1 pathway, p-MAPK1 was detected in HDFs by western blotting in HDFs. The results revealed that p-MAPK1 expression was significantly increased after UVA irradiation, however, VB1 could significantly reverse this UVA-mediated effect .To examine whether VB1 reduces UVA-induced senescence through MAPK1 binding, we co-transfected HEK293T cells, with down-regulated endogenous MAPK1, with VB1 and wild-type or mutant MAPK1 (E58- or R65-mutants) and irradiated the cells with UVA rays. We found that the UVA-induced expression of p16 and MMP1 was significantly decreased in HEK293T cells transfected with wild-type MAPK1 and VB1. In contrast, the UVA-induced expression of these proteins was partially reversed in cells co-transfected with both MAPK1 mutants and VB1 . These din vivo.To further evaluate the anti-photoaging ability of VB1, we applied a gel containing 2% VB1 or a vehicle gel lacking VB1 topically on the UVA-irradiated dorsal skin of mice. In the vehicle group, the dorsal skin of the animals was rough and scaly, showing increased thickness and deep wrinkles after 12 weeks of UVA-irradiation compared with the corresponding parameters in the non-irradiated control group. In contrast, the skin conditions of VB1-treated mice were visibly improved, and the formation of skin wrinkles was significantly reduced . Mouse dSkin photoaging, an essential aspect of skin aging, is mainly characterized by skin relaxation, wrinkle formation, pigmentation, and telangiectasia, etc. Recent evidence has shown that UVA irradiation produces ROS and induces cell senescence, ultimately leading to skin photoaging . Thus, fPrevious studies have demonstrated that VB1 acts as a novel antitumor agent by regulating the cell cycle arrest and apoptosis induction in various cancers. Some studies have shown that VB1 has a strong antioxidant effect and can inhibit multiple protein kinases and signal transduction pathways . Howeverin silico experiments to identify potential VB1-binding sites.How does VB1 protect HDFs from UVA-induced senescence? To answer this question, we explored potential target proteins of VB1 via mass spectrometry and nanogold-based immunoprecipitation. Nanogold particles, also called gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), have been widely used for the identification of both biological and chemical materials . When itin silico results, we concluded that VB1 could directly target MAPK1 by interacting with several amino acid residues . Then, through transfection of HEK293T cells with MAPK1 vectors containing mutant residues and subsequent immunoprecipitation, we discovered that VB1 delayed UVA-induced cellular senescence by binding to the residues E58 and R65. Thus, we hypothesized that VB1 reduced cellular senescence by regulating the expression of phosphorylated MAPK1 expression through direct interaction with MAPK1. Previous studies have shown that TGF-β alone induced Ras-Raf-MEK1 and phosphorylated MAPK1 to increase the expression of MMP1, so we speculate that VB1 could decrease MMP1 and p16 by reducing p-MAPK1  is the only topical drug that is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of photoaged skin . HoweverIn summary, we demonstrated that VB1 significantly inhibits UVA-induced senescence in HDFs by targeting the E58 and R65 residues of MAPK1 and effectively reduces skin photoaging in UVA-irradiated mice, indicating that VB1 could serve as a novel agent for the prevention and the potential treatment of photoaging.All datasets generated for this study are included in the article/The animal study was reviewed and approved by the Clinical Research Ethics Committee at the Xiangya Hospital of Central South University.BW and SY performed all the experiments and prepared the figures and tables. SY, QZ, ZD, YZ, and YY provided with the technical and statistical assistance. BW, HX, and YH analyzed and interpreted the data. JL provided all the theoretical direction. BW, SY, HX, and JL wrote and edited the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.


Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders, affecting individuals in all stages of their lives and leading to a variety of negative quality of life outcomes. The disorder is associated with marked differences related to time perception and time perspectives, and this area of research is currently becoming more prominent and gaining ground in showing new aspects of ADHD that were considered secondary . In this study, we looked at ADHD symptoms in adults, correlated lifestyles, and time perspectives as defined by the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory (ZTPI). The ZTPI is a useful standardized scale to measure one’s time perspective anchoring in the categories of past positive, past negative, present fatalistic, present hedonistic, and future oriented. This is the first study on adult ADHD and time perspectives conducted in the Czechia.A national representative sample of Czech adults aged 18–65 was recruited by the STEM/MARK Agency. The individuals were assessed for ADHD symptoms with the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS v.1.1). Furthermore, a demographic and lifestyle questionnaire was administered along with the ZTPI to assess time perspectives. Statistical calculations were conducted to find correlations between ADHD symptoms as assessed by the ASRS and the various categories of the ZTPI.ADHD symptoms were found to be positively correlated with the present hedonistic perspective along with the past negative perspective. Gender was a strong factor in both ADHD symptoms, with males being more likely to show symptoms and to have a present hedonistic perspective. In females, the past negative perspective was most prominent. Education and age were negatively correlated with ADHD symptomatology and the present hedonistic perspective also decreased with age unlike the past negative perspective. Other time perspectives such as future orientation was seen in individuals with lower ADHD symptoms and higher levels of educational achievement.Researching ADHD symptoms and their connection to time perspectives can increase knowledge of both the disorder and how time perspectives tie into it. We wish to also raise awareness of the possible utility of the ZTPI scale when working with individuals with ADHD. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is currently the most common neurodevelopmental disorder in the world. It is estimated to affect between 5 and 7% of the world population in terms of diagnosis, and it impacts individuals in all stages of life . The disThe ZTPI is a standardized scale devised by Zimbardo and Boyd in 1999, which aims to understand people’s time perspective in terms of cognitive and affective attention toward the past, present, or future. The categories in the questionnaire are the past positive, past negative, present fatalistic, present hedonistic, and future orientation. Individuals who have had negative or traumatic experiences in the past tend to score higher in the past negative; others base their current experiences on past positive events whether real or imagined. The present fatalistic category describes people who feel that their life is ruled by outside forces and have an external locus of control. The present hedonist is ruled by pleasure-seeking activities and enjoying the moment, and the future-oriented individual tends to be making plans for the future and effectively is able to postpone gratification . In 2016N = 1,518 consisting of 766 males and 752 females.A sample of adults aged 18–65 years from the Czechia was recruited by the professional polling and statistics agency STEM/MARK, a.s. The subjects were randomly chosen from a Czech National Panel, and the questioning was done through a computer-assisted web interviewing method. The sample of Czech adults was The following were all included as the exclusion criteria for the sample: the presence of a severe neuropsychiatric disorder such as intellectual disability, schizophrenia, psychosis, dementia, substance dependence or behavioral addiction, or neurodegenerative diseases. Other exclusionary aspects were severe somatic disorders with a direct effect on cognitive function such as cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and/or endocrinological diseases as well as the use of drugs that affect cognitive functioning.The CAWI method of online questioning was used to administer the questionnaires. The program was deemed the most effective for our cross-sectional study. Informed consent in the study was ensured and respondents were informed about the possibility to not answer questions and their right to withdraw from the study altogether. The study was approved by the Ethical Committee of the First Faculty of Medicine of Charles University in Prague. The participants were administered with the ASRS to determine ADHD symptoms and severity. The scale is intended for adults and divides scores from 0 to 6 with 0 representing no ADHD symptoms to 6 being very severe symptoms. Score ranges of 0–3 usually imply that the person does not have ADHD; score ranges of 4–6 require clinicians to investigate as the person is very likely to have ADHD. The questionnaire has been validated and found a reliable tool for assessing ADHD symptoms in adults . Alongsit-tests for sex and a one-way ANOVA for education).The data were analyzed with the statistical software R . The anaIn the case of the ASRS questionnaire, we used two approaches. First, we computed the correlations of the ASRS score (range of 0–6) with the ZTPI scale categories. Second, we divided the participants into low (0–3 score) and high (4–6 score) ADHD symptoms and tested the relationship between ZTPI categories and demographic variables. This approach led to two-way ANOVA (in the case of sex and education) and one-way ANCOVA (in the case of age) .From the total amount of participants, 119 (or 7.8%) scored as high on ADHD symptoms. Similar percentages were obtained for both males (8.2%) and females (7.45%). Furthermore, there was a statistically significant reverse relationship between age and ASRS scores. Similarly, when looking at people’s educational level, the higher the levels achieved , the lower the ADHD symptoms , Present Fatalism , and Future .Past Negative, Present Fatalism, and Present Hedonism showed high reliability (Cronbach’s α ≥ 0.81); Positive Past and Future showed reliability just above acceptance (Cronbach’s α ≥ 0.66). Multivariate analysis variances between males and females revealed significant differences . Differences between achieved education was significant for each scale (p’s ≤ 0.027). In general, Past Positive and Future increased with education, while Past Negative, Present Fatalism, and Present Hedonism decreased with education as described in Multivariate analysis of variance showed significant differences between achieved education , while the other three categories did not change with age. The full correlation table between categories is shown in The analysis of correlation forage and ZTPI categories revealed that both Past Negative and Present Hedonism decreased with age ; the remaining three increased with ASRS score . In the following text, we will focus on the differences between the ZTPI categories when we divide participants into high and low ADHD symptom groups. From the profile graphs in p’s ≤ 0.044). When the participant’s sex is added as an additional factor, the present hedonistic time perspective is predominant only in males with high ADHD symptoms, while in females, the Past Negative is the most predominant time perspective (p’s ≤ 0.044), and the differences between males and females showed the same significance as described before. The interaction of ADHD symptoms and sex was significant only for the Present Hedonism category (p = 0.001).The correlation between ZTPI categories and ASRS scores is shown in spective . Again, p’s ≤ 0.016), and also the differences between education were significant in similar pattern as without ADHD symptomatology. Moreover, the interaction between ADHD symptoms and education was significant for Past Negative and Future as shown in By testing the differences in participants with high/low ADHD symptomatology and achieved education, the differences between low/high ADHD subgroups remained significant . The relationship between age and Past Negative decreased for Past Negative and Present Hedonism. In Finally, we explored the relationship between age and ZTPI categories when we add ADHD symptomatology into the model. The differences between ADHD symptomatology subgroups remained significant  = 2.73, p = 0.043] and becomes non-significant after correcting for multiple comparisons; thus, we did not explore this relationship further.Because we analyzed differences between participants with low/high ADHD symptoms using only one variable, we created a single large model with all the factors added at once  including all the interactions (this would lead to a four-way ANOVA). With the exception of one three-way interaction between ADHD symptomatology, sex, and education in the Past Positive category, all high-level interactions were non-significant, while lower level interactions showed the same results as a simpler analysis. The interaction in the case of Past Positive was slightly below significance [Additionally, we also analyzed percentages of responses of “I do not know” in the ZTPI. The aim of this study was to investigate the connection between ADHD symptoms in adults and time perspectives as measured by the ASRS and the ZTPI, respectively. We believe that time perspective can be a useful tool that can have future use in the clinical and psychological realm. In the case of ADHD, the association to an altered sense of time or time perception is well known, but a more concrete and applicable psychometric tool such as the ZTPI could be quite helpful in both the diagnosis stage as well as in the treatment of the disorder. Our study partially confirmed a previous hypothesis article that we wrote in 2016 where we stated that the most likely time perspective from the ZTPI that individuals with ADHD would be anchored in is the present hedonistic category . This waThis study had a few limitations including its cross-sectional design and some of the exclusion criteria for the participants. There will be a follow-up to this study but with only 899 of the total 1,518 participants who have agreed to take part exploring other aspects of time perception such as time estimation and discrimination and its connection to ADHD symptoms. The exclusionary criteria included some of the comorbid conditions often seen in ADHD such as other serious mental health conditions and serious addictions. This was necessary to get a more accurate analysis of ADHD symptoms and to not misrepresent the data. Another possible limitation was that unlike the study conducted by Carelli and Wilber in 2012, we relied on the original ZTPI, which has a future orientation but does not differentiate among Future Positive and Future Negative. Also, unlike other studies, we focused on symptomatology in the general adult population rather than focusing on ADHD diagnosed individuals. This is because there is still a strong bias in seeing ADHD as a childhood condition among Czech mental health practitioners. Many adults with ADHD symptoms in the Czechia may never be diagnosed with the condition and may suffer because of this bias. This was one of the main reasons for our previous study on the widespread of ADHD symptoms in Czech adults and their associated lifestyles in 2018; please see There is a clear connection between ADHD symptoms in adults and a present hedonistic time perspective in males and a past negative time perspective in females. Present hedonism was negatively correlated with advanced age, while the past negative perspective had a positive correlation. Individuals with higher levels of education were also more likely to have a future time perspective. In terms of furthering research and improving treatment outcomes for ADHD, we strongly recommend the inclusion of time perspectives when working with individuals with ADHD. This can help foster new therapeutic methods and also raise better awareness of the disorder.All datasets generated for this study are included in the article/supplementary material.The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by First Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Charles University Ethics Committee. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.SW contributed to ideating the research, literature review, and analysis of data. FD contributed to the statistical analysis and analysis of data. MK-B contributed to the literature review and data analysis. MV involved in data analysis and manuscript revisions. PZ, JR, MA, and EB contributed as research grants. RP involved in supervising the research and analysis of data.The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.