Deutsche Zeitschrift für die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin due to the war ended with volume 39 for the years 1948/1949. Until volume 66/1969, the journal appeared unchanged under the historical title. The 912 publications contained in the 28 volumes of these two decades cover topics from the main fields of forensic medicine, but also from related and unrelated disciplines. The topic-specific analysis of the publications shows a shift of the research focus in the German institutes since the post-war period. This is most evident in the decline in the number of publications from the fields of scientific and technical criminalistics as well as forensic psychiatry and psychology. An opposite trend with a significant increase in scientific papers was observed in alcohology, forensic genetics and traffic medicine. While the evaluated publications on most topics contain new findings that are still valid today, the use of blood group characteristics for forensic purposes came to an end as a result of the introduction of DNA analysis.The interruption of the publication of the  Deutsche Zeitschrift für die gesamte gerichtliche Medizin  was completed on 25 June 1948. With its publication, the almost 100-year-old tradition of this periodical was revived  The new name “Legal Medicine” is intended to provide a uniform name for the discipline and, of course, also for the specialised institutes’ (65/61).The decisive contribution to the Deutsche Zeitschrift was the periodical in which outstanding representatives of the Association and their life’s work were lauded. During the period under review, 23 obituaries of distinguished scholars from Germany and abroad were published, as well as 2 commemorations of milestone birthdays. Of these, the commemorative article by Victor Müller-Heß for his predecessor, ‘Fritz Strassmann, on his one hundredth birthday’ (48/177), deserves special mention. Strassmann had been deprived of all functions at the end of 1935 because of his Jewish descent  (39/378), Hermann Roer introduced this term into the forensic literature and at the same time triggered a controversy about the pathophysiology .The articles on gunshot wounds. A paper on the characteristics of the bullet entrance wound contains a collective case study of proven long-distance shots in which typical radial bursting of the skin was observed, as in a contact shot (61/48). As the mechanism of origin, it is assumed that bone splinters at the bullet entrance site are flung back from the inside to the outside. A case report on a homicide also concerns a bullet entrance wound that appeared to be the result of a contact shot (66/153). However, through numerous test shots, it could be shown that the unusual bullet entrance wound had been caused by a deformed bullet in a ricochet shot. Experimental studies on the effects of handguns have shown that, in addition to the direct impact and centrifugal effect, pressure differences can be demonstrated which have a suction effect in the direction opposite to the movement of the projectile, even when no contact shot is fired (45/414). As a result, tissue particles, debris and foreign bodies are sucked into the bullet track from the area of the exit wound (47/603). To determine the nature and extent of the backspatter of blood and tissue particles onto the shooter’s clothing or body, test shots were fired with a pistol (54/258). From the experiments, evidence as to the direction of the shot could only be derived for contact shots, while the images for near close-range shots were inconsistent. Several publications on gunshot injuries deal with the effects of small calibre weapons and captive bolt guns. In addition, a study was published on the occurrence of signs of close-range shots when using practice ammunition (56/1). As was to be expected in the post-war period, late effects of war injuries were reported in 3 publications. The majority of these are bullet and splinter injuries , while the paper on ‘deaths from air raids’ (42/282) naturally also describes other consequences of violence in addition to such injuries.Only a few publications have appeared on the major issues of investigation in electrical fatalities, the physical laws of electrical energy have to be considered in conjunction with the physiological and pathological-anatomical consequences for the human organism. This complex of problems was comprehensively presented in a critical review under the title ‘The medico-legal diagnosis of electrocution’ (47/29). The most important finding is the electric mark, the detection methods of which have been the subject of 8 publications. In addition to macroscopic examinations and examinations using a magnifier microscope (56/318), analyses with polarized light (57/431) as well as histological and histochemical techniques  were used to reliably identify a pathological skin change as an electric mark. Differences of differential diagnostic significance between electric and thermal marks have been thoroughly investigated by Ekkehardt Böhm in several experimental studies. The criteria are specific morphological characteristics  and additionally metallisations of the skin . As the case report on an electrical injury of the oral cavity (39/349) shows, changes resembling an electric mark also occur on the mucous membranes. The physiologist Hans Schaefer has described in detail the manifold consequences on the internal organs when an electric current flows through a body (47/5). Death from high-voltage current can occur as a result of exposure to technical electricity with corresponding voltage values (56/81) and also from natural causes in the event of a lightning strike .For the assessment of heat manifests itself in typical externally visible changes, but also on the internal organs. In a study on ‘corpses shrunken by heat’ (43/428), experiments have shown that the heat-induced shortening of the tendons and not of the muscles is the decisive factor in the post-mortem shrinkage processes on the corpse. Most of the publications reviewed concern thermally induced changes in the lungs. In animal experiments, serous inflammatory changes of the lung parenchyma and severe signs of decay of the elastic fibres could be observed as vital reactions after hot air inhalation of 600 ºC (45/394). In 3 papers on changes of the lungs after exposure to fire , the question was to what extent fat and soot particles in the lungs are to be regarded as an indicator of vital burning. The ‘brain damage in an acute fire-related death’ and its consequences for the dying process are extensively explained in a paper (41/129).The physical damage caused by cold. It describes experimentally produced pulmonary haemorrhages after local exposure of the open brain of the experimental animals to cold (45/236).Only one paper is available on organ changes due to starvation, the killing of infants by deprivation of food is reported (64/93).In a case report on death by radiation showed a level of strontium 90 in young people that was higher by a factor of about 10 compared with the age groups from 20 to 90 years (49/242). The detected long-lived β-emitter originated from the fallout of atomic bomb experiments, the health risks of which were still largely unexplored at that time, especially with regard to the genesis of malignant diseases. Table In 1958, a series of studies on human bones conducted in Kiel on health damage caused by forensic obstetrics covers the medico-legal problems of pregnancy and birth as well as the physical condition of new-borns. There are 4 papers on the course of pregnancy, one of which concerns the influence of electrical accidents and of lightning strikes on the development of gravidity (56/101). Seven papers deal with the determination of body length and age of human foetuses on the basis of different skeletal parts. With the exception of the first published article (40/567), all publications are by the Hungarian authors István Gyula Fazekas and Ferenc Kósa. In systematic studies, they analysed data from some flat bones (58/127), limb bones (58/142), skull base (60/48), skullcap (60/149), facial bones (61/13) and some small bones (61/29). Seven publications deal with birth trauma and postnatal injuries of new-borns, the main focus of which is the differential diagnosis of infanticide and spontaneous physical damage. Six publications have appeared on questions arising from Sect. 90 of the Code of Criminal Procedure on the opening of the corpse of a new-born child. Practically usable proof of life birth can be found in the umbilical region . The achieved status of the histological lung test around the mid-1950s is presented in a review (45/386), which was preceded by systematic studies on the development of elastic fibres in the human lung (45/381). The authors point out that microscopic examination of the lungs, in particular the morphology of the elastic fibres, can be of decisive importance in determining infanticide. Finally, a study is available on the gas content in the lungs and the gastrointestinal tract of new-borns of different levels of maturity (65/73). Radiological and autopsy examinations showed that as a result of artificial respiration with a mask, considerable amounts of air can enter the lungs, the stomach and also the intestines. There are 12 publications on practices, health hazards and proof of abortion, the majority of which date from the post-war period. In a compilation of cases on filicide by the mother (51/1), homicides of children aged between 6 weeks and 23 months are described.The speciality of medical malpractice (42/349), the medical issues and tasks of the medical expert are primarily explained. Of the individual topics, the 7 publications on the dangers of blood transfusions form the largest group. Of these, 3 papers deal with the classical problem of transfusion incidents due to incompatibility of group characteristics ; another 3 papers address various health problems caused by transfusion , and one case report concerns transfusion syphilis (43/263). Vaccinations leading to death in children are the subject of 2 publications , and 2 papers also deal with fatal complications of tracheotomy . Under the title ‘Mors in tabula’ (42/385), Wilhelm Holczabek described such deaths from the autopsy material of the Vienna Institute in the first post-war years. A case report describes a death due to bilateral pneumothorax during plexus anaesthesia (42/438). The heterogeneous group of cases involving damage caused by toxic substances includes complications following the administration of drugs and contrast media. Except for insulin (44/386), these preparations are no longer in use today.In a review of sudden deaths from an internal cause in adults were due to pathological changes in the cardiovascular system. Of these, 10 articles deal with findings in coronary heart disease, 3 with congenital heart and vascular malformations and 2 with myocarditis as the cause of death. In all deaths in a collective case study, ‘sudden cardiac failure was undoubtedly caused by the changes in the conduction system of the heart’ (63/199). Among the 8 publications on brain diseases are 2 articles on the forensic significance of epilepsy . Four publications report on rather rare diseases of the gastrointestinal tract. From the broad spectrum of other pathologies, the sudden deaths from influenza in the 1950s are worth mentioning . Compared to the adult age, only very few reports on sudden natural deaths of children appeared, with a total of 8 publications. Among these, only the diagnosis of inflammatory changes of the respiratory tract was found several times, namely in 3 cases. In 4 deceased children, various rare diseases were the cause of death. In another article, bacteriological findings were presented (56/167), which may contribute to the clarification of the pathologies in sudden deaths of children.By far the most frequently described diseases and Problems of Forensic Toxicology (56/125), Emil Weinig presented a comprehensive overview in which the situation in the mid-1960s is critically examined. The first part deals with the significance of this special field within forensic medicine; the second part discusses toxicological analysis, taking into account all the proven special methods after sampling, separation, identification and evaluation; the third part addresses in detail the influences of biological and biochemical processes on the interpretation of the measurement results; and the fourth part calls for systematic scientific research in close cooperation between the forensic pathologist and the chemist with expertise in toxicological analysis.Under the title clinical signs of poisoning. In addition to toxicokinetics, the majority of them describe primarily the symptoms of poisoning. The small group of 11 publications on inorganic poisons includes a first report on ‘6 years of experience with detoxified cooking gas’ (58/122). Among the 26 papers on organic poisons, 11 articles are about plant poisons, of which nicotine is the most frequently mentioned. In addition, a study on experimental nicotine intoxication (49/169), 2 compilations of cases from abroad  and a case collection on ‘Three murders with nicotine’ were published (55/40). On poisoning with insecticides such as parathion (E 605®), there was a review ‘on the toxicology of some new pesticides’ (40/335) and 2 animal experimental studies on gastric peristalsis in parathion intoxication .There have been 37 publications on the pathological anatomical findings in tissues and organs is part of the diagnosis of poisoning. In 28 papers, morphological findings in cases of poisoning with agents from different substance groups are presented. Several publications concern carbon monoxide causing changes in the spleen (40/392), the brain , the liver (52/258) and the heart muscle . In acute fatal nicotine poisoning, morphological changes in the kidneys, the brain and the lungs can be found (54/304). The damaging effect of nicotine on the organism is also shown by changes in the blood count (56/62) and the eyeground (61/95). The morphological findings in parathion poisoning were studied in salivary glands (45/510) and in human oocytes (58/248). In cases of poisoning with the death cap , typical histological changes of the liver are seen (50/417), which is a valuable additional finding in diagnosing the phalloidin syndrome.Irrespective of the necessary toxicological and chemical analyses, the determination of toxicological chemical analyses. Accordingly, the 61 publications on poison analysis describe procedures for various substances. From a methodological point of view, there are papers on the ‘Testfleckenmethode’ [test spot method] (41/243), the crystal precipitation method (43/252), the chromometric gas analysis , gas chromatography , thin layer chromatography , spectrophotometry (54/320) and the flame detector (63/154). In terms of the material to be investigated, the techniques for the detection of carbon monoxide dominate with 11 papers. Three articles have been published on the analysis of poisoning with phosphoric acid esters such as parathion . Noteworthy are 2 individual publications from the end of the 1960s on the problem of doping with metamphetamine (64/235) and on the use of the hypnotic drug methyprylon for knockout drops (65/44). Furthermore, it is noticeable that in addition to narcotics analysis , the detection of drugs of different groups of active substances is addressed relatively frequently in 15 publications.The broad spectrum of potentially toxic substances requires a differentiated arsenal of methods for the detection of poisoning by alcohology, a first thematic focus of 49 publications is on alcohol metabolism. In these studies, problems of all phases of the pharmacokinetics of alcohol are examined. Some special circumstances in the absorption phase are pointed out in 3 papers . Regarding distribution, there are studies on the distribution of alcohol in the blood (46/10), on the importance of body water for the distribution in the organism  and on the distribution of alcohol between water and body fat (49/235). Questions of elimination are dealt with in 3 papers, one of which concerns the enzymology of alcohol metabolism (42/555) and the other two the varying values of alcohol breakdown . The factor β60, which is significant for the expert opinion, varies depending on the physical condition of a person. Apart from malnutrition in the post-war period , β60 values deviating from the average are observed after the impact of external force  and depending on the blood alcohol concentration (44/374). The differently influenced metabolic processes inevitably affect the course of the blood alcohol curve, as shown in 6 papers. These include skull injuries (44/610), blood loss (44/615), shifts of blood and body water , ‘accident-related stress effects’ (48/4) and drinking habits (55/265). Among the 4 publications on the toxic effect of methanol is a paper on the metabolic processes involved in the development of poisoning based on pathological anatomical findings.Of the articles on The second thematic focus includes 52 publications on alcohol analysis of blood samples, body fluids and breath. Among them are articles on all routine methods of forensic alcohology. Various modifications have been described for the Widmark method . Several publications are also available on the ADH method . In the period under review, one publication on blood alcohol determination using only the gas chromatograph appeared (62/212). With regard to the sources of error of the individual methods, the analytical results of the Widmark and ADH methods were compared using different sample materials . In another comparative study, gas chromatography was included as a third method (54/150). As with the analytical methods, there have also been systematic studies on the validity of alcohol determination in various blood samples. Experiments with putrid blood have shown that both alcohol loss and new alcohol formation can occur . Studies on blood samples stored for longer periods  and on sera stored for longer periods (52/424) showed a decrease in alcohol content with increasing storage time. Blood alcohol determination on coagulated blood yielded lower alcohol concentrations compared to whole blood and blood serum . For correct determination of the blood alcohol content in the corpse, blood must be taken from a femoral vein because of the post-mortem diffusion of alcohol in the abdominal cavity . A large number of papers deal with the determination of the blood alcohol concentration in the presence of additional exogenous noxious substances, e.g. by inhalation of propellant gas (39/280) or by oral ingestion of camphor (47/289). A larger study led to fundamental findings in the evaluation of alcohol results in the cerebrospinal fluid (48/257). Apart from the fact that alcohol is neither normally detectable in cerebrospinal fluid nor formed post-mortem, the cerebrospinal fluid/blood alcohol concentration is forensically significant for the assessment of the metabolic phase of alcohol. In a report, first practical experiences with the breath alcohol tube Alcotest® are described, which were collected on several hundred test persons (48/417). The test tube provided reliable results when used as a pre-test.identification methods concern forensic osteological findings. Two microscopic comparative anatomical studies are available to distinguish human and animal bones . There are several regions on the human skeleton that allow sex estimation , age estimation  and reconstruction of body height . In a complex investigation to determine the resting time of skeletal remains, a wide range of macro- and micromorphological, chemical and physical methods were used (47/209). Among the other papers are several case reports and some studies on the suitability of various characteristics for the identification of unknown dead bodies, such as the microscopic detection of sex chromatin (46/242) and a photographic method for skull identification (48/247).The majority of publications on Table blood group science in the half century since the discovery of the AB0 groups in 1901. This increase in knowledge is reflected in the publications on test methods, occurrence and distribution as well as inheritance of the erythrocytic systems and factors. Of these, 10 studies deal with the AB0 groups, 8 with the A subgroups, 8 with the Rh system and 5 with the MN system. In the results of an experimental study, it is reported that the antigens A, B and M, N can be reliably detected using the mixed cell agglutination method on bone, muscle and kidney tissue (63/162). As a ‘new agglutinable blood cell trait’, the S trait was added (40/160), which represents an extension of the MN system. The ‘Q-blood factor’ (44/356) is interpreted by the authors as an independent trait, but according to the majority opinion, it is identical with the P-factor . Another paper contains methodological guidance on ‘securing Kell findings’ (19/59), which are rare blood group characteristics.A comprehensive review by Franz Josef Holzer (42/416) shows the rapid progress of serum groups. In the 4 papers on this system, different electrophoretic techniques are described for the depiction of the Hp groups. Three publications each appeared on the immunoglobulin system Gm, a gamma chain marker and on the Gc system, a group-specific component found in the α2-globulin region. Lipoproteins also show a genetically determined polymorphism (60/90), but the Lp system proved to be problematic in practical application.The haptoglobin types used in early forensics belong to the human erythrocytic enzyme groups, 5 relate to the polymorphism of erythrocyte acid phosphatase. The two articles first published on the enzyme system abbreviated acP were by Georg Radam and Hansjürg Strauch (60/39) as well as by Otto Prokop (61/59) from the Institute of Forensic Medicine in East Berlin. The only paper on the genetically controlled isoenzyme patterns of adenylate kinase (63/166) was also published by Radam and Strauch, in which they presented a method for determining AK types that is suitable for forensic purposes.Of the papers on trace analysis, the examination of material with suspected traces of blood still required the hierarchical sequence of steps according to the scheme: attempt to detect blood — determine species specificity — identify group characteristics. The 3 articles on the detection of blood are concerned with the acetone-chlorohaemin reaction (39/495) from the group of crystal reactions and the porphyrin test . Among the publications on the determination of species specificity, descriptions of the precipitation reaction according to Uhlenhuth, whose personal memoirs were published at the beginning of 1949, dominate (39/309). An antiglobulin test (45/527) and a micromethod for the detection of eserine-sensitive esterases (61/137) were developed as alternative techniques for the detection of human blood. Other papers are devoted to special research questions, such as the determination of the age of blood traces (40/478) and the detection of birth blood (45/62). In the publications on the individualisation of blood traces, hereditary characteristics of agglutinable erythrocyte systems as well as serum and enzyme groups are described. The status reached at the end of the period under review is summarised in a critical analysis of blood groups used in trace analysis (66/130). The papers on agglutinable traits show that in addition to the AB0 and MN systems, the factor P (41/451) and the A subgroups (45/355) can also be used in forensic trace investigations. Of the serum groups, the Gm system (53/18) has proved to be particularly suitable for blood trace investigations. Among the erythrocytic enzyme groups, the phosphoglucomutase (PGM) types (66/31) are among the preferred and proven isoenzyme patterns.In sperm traces, in addition to the crystal reactions, which are susceptible to interference, there is the detection of acid phosphatase as an enzymatic laboratory test sample . Another publication (42/605) describes methods for the detection of traces of semen, vaginal secretions and blood of genital origin. The only article found on group traits contains the results of a series of experiments on the typing of the Gma trait in human semen (52/610).For the examination of hair traces often involves the demonstration of external influences on the hair, for example heat (39/1) or cosmetics (40/553). One article has been published on the occurrence of the group substances A, B, 0 and AB in human head hair (42/395). Steffen Berg has critically discussed the range of methods and the interpretation of findings in forensic hair examination in a detailed overview (46/531).The examination of Only a few publications deal with meconium traces (56/57), saliva traces (56/221) and urine traces (58/222).parentage testing comprised the forensic assessment of fertility, but also morphological and functional hereditary traits and, increasingly, genetically determined group characteristics of erythrocytes and blood serum. Among the publications on usable blood group systems, the 16 papers on agglutinable erythrocyte characteristics form the largest group of topics. While mostly individual blood group systems and their evidential value are considered, an article by Paul Speiser illustrates the status around the mid-1950s (45/50). Using the criteria A1, A2, B, 0, A1B, A2B, M–N, S, P, K, Fy, C–c, D-dd, E-e, Lewis and secretor status, a general paternity exclusion probability of 70% was achievable. This value represents a significant achievement, as when A1, A2, B, 0 and M–N were used alone; the general paternity exclusion probability was 30% just a few years earlier. Since the 1960s, the serum groups Gm , Hp (53/186) and Gc (62/261) as well as the acP polymorphism (64/127) have been typed in cases of disputed paternity. The mathematical and statistical problems of parentage testing are the subject of 7 articles. Two of these papers compare the calculated probability based on the blood group characteristics with the genetic expert opinion. While the older publication of 1958 (47/484) holds the view that the Essen-Möller values ‘never permit a valid conclusion in isolation’, the more recent work of 1968 (63/53) argues in favour of ‘the routine application of the Essen-Möller procedure’.In the period under review, ballistics, which, in addition to problems of trace analysis, deal with methods of determining the firing distance by spectrographic analysis (56/39) and by radiographic examination (65/112). The four papers on forensic biology concern the use of luminol in forensic practice  and traces of semen on textiles . The subject of the ‘Signalementslehre’ is the methodology of describing persons, the characteristics of which also include dynamic features such as gait (43/11).In the years since the end of the war, only 11 publications from 3 subfields of scientific-technical criminalistics were found. There are 6 articles on external force. One is about a war injury with subsequent bullet embolism (39/139), and the other is about the burning of a woman’s genitals by her jealous husband (66/13). Causes and consequences of drug addiction are reported in 2 articles where cliradone (43/242) and codeine (47/246) were the abused substances. A collective case study (64/229) contains several cases of self-harm by means of artificially induced subcutaneous skin emphysema of the face, which was intended to simulate trauma or illness.Only a few articles deal with forensic findings on living persons. Two publications describe survived injuries caused by psychopathology in his essay On the change of the concept of psychopathy (51/588). In this context, the multifaceted ‘psychopathology of the arsonist’ is a special case (49/64). Other aetiological factors discussed in several articles with regard to becoming a criminal are delays in psychosexual maturation and psychiatric illnesses. Two papers on the significance of depth psychology and narcoanalysis have been published on the psychology of evidence . The use of psychotropic drugs in criminal proceedings is rejected by both lawyers and psychiatrists as a prohibited interrogation method because of its ‘inadequacy and ethical reprehensibility’.Wilhelm Hallermann considered a fundamental problem of suicidology are concerned with various factors influencing the decision to commit suicide, such as ‘foehn and suicide’ (47/271), ‘alcoholic motivation’ in suicides (55/67) and ‘suicide and pregnancy’ (56/172). The transcript of the ‘tape recording of a suicide’ by inhalation of coal gas after previous ingestion of sleeping pills (58/18) was published by Gerhard Dietz. The compilation of cases ‘Suicidal jumps from the Little Belt Bridge’ (63/223) is another example of the preference for certain building structures to commit suicide.Most of the publications on paraphilias are primarily concerned with incest relevant to criminal law, whereby this delinquency of the post-war period is analysed as a peculiarity of the time . One case report deals with the repeated sexual abuse of ‘1 to 5-month-old infants by a paedophile’ (60/163), who was assessed by an expert as a psychosexually infantile offender. Another crime is described in the report on the rape of a 10-year-old girl by a 15-year-old youth (54/231). In the 2 publications on auto-erotic accidents, similar deaths by electric current during sexual activity are reported.The publications on The present status of blood alcohol research (41/1), Berthold Mueller published a review paper on the problems of alcohol and traffic safety in 1952. In addition, 14 papers deal with individual issues of alcohol-related impaired performance in drivers and pedestrians. Other influences on road safety are described as feeling tired or falling asleep at the wheel , spontaneous (44/594) and drug-induced hypoglycaemia (64/217) and short-acting narcotics (49/187). Another study explains how the ‘change in performance in old age’ (49/100) affects the fitness to drive. According to the results of a Munich study (49/187), sudden cardiac death in connection with road traffic became increasingly important as early as the 1950s. The sequels of road traffic injuries are the subject of 11 publications explaining patterns of injury to the head, neck, chest and legs. Other publications include reviews of the necessary examination findings and investigation results to determine the position of the occupants and in particular the driver in the vehicle at the time of the accident (49/247) and to reconstruct the course of events (63/218).Under the title occupational activities and specifically on occupational diseases of workers in corundum plants (39/577) as well as of miners and other workers exposed to the risk of silicosis .In 3 of the only 5 publications, the focus is on criminal aetiology is represented by 2 publications. One article is entitled The film as a template for capital crimes (48/576), and the other paper analyses the ‘criminogenic significance of loneliness and isolation’ (51/595). The only publication on criminal phenomenology concerns ‘criminality in the brain-injured’ (43/59). Likewise, only one article (53/55) has been published on victimology, with which the authors have made a contribution to the analysis of the victim types of persons who have been killed. The criminological analyses of individual offence groups are devoted to the special features of juvenile delinquency  and the fight against drug addiction (44/14). Publications on prisons and the penal system include 2 compilations of cases of rare self-harm in prisons  and a report on criminal biology investigations in the Baden juvenile penal system (42/1).Of the subfields of criminology, The period under review begins a good 4 years after the end of the Second World War and extends over a little more than 2 decades until the turn of the year 1969/1970. The aftermath of the war led to sometimes serious social problems, which inevitably had an impact on crime and consequently provided the motivation for scientific studies on contemporary issues . On the other hand, some publications illustrate the difficulties of fighting crime under the conditions of the post-war period . Overall, the publications that appeared in the analysed period show a change in the professional profile of forensic medicine, which is characterised by a departure from both the psychological and psychiatric content and the scientific-criminalistic orientation of the discipline, with a simultaneous increased focus on morphological and even more on haemogenetic topics.The history of forensic medicine in Germany during the twentieth century is characterised by changing development trends, which have led to links with social medicine, with insurance medicine and not least with scientific and technical criminalistics. Logically, Wolfgang Schwerd argued in the explanatory memorandum to the change of the name of forensic medicine to legal medicine: ‘This name change took place in the context of comprehensive efforts to rethink the position and tasks of the discipline and — where necessary — to reform it. These considerations initially focussed on efforts to reformulate the discipline’s spectrum of tasks in teaching, research and practice in order to provide the Federal Ministry of Health, the Science Council and the West German Medical Faculty Association with a clear idea of the discipline’s concerns for their work on the reform of the study of medicine and on the new licensing regulations’ 61/65). This well-formulated intention is nothing other than part of the on-going struggle of legal medicine for its existence, since the Science Council, in its ‘Recommendations for the Reorganisation of Studies at Universities’ of 14 May 1966, had defined the concentration of the curriculum as an essential goal of a reorganisation of clinical studies and arrived at the following conclusions: ‘It is therefore recommended that teaching in the main clinical subjects be intensified, while that in the other subjects be streamlined or, as far as possible, incorporated as an integral part of teaching in the basic clinical subjects. According to this, subjects such as […] legal medicine […] should no longer be taught as special subjects in special lectures and exercises, but as part of the complex of internal medicine, surgery or other integrating subjects of clinical medicine’ 1/65. Thi.In the post-war period, it was necessary to eliminate the National Socialist injustice through changes in the law and thus to restore the basis of the rule of law for the fulfilment of the forensic and medical tasks. An example of this is the Marriage Act, enacted as Control Council Act No. 16 on 20 February 1946, from which the terms mental disorder and mental illness are explained in a publication (45/420) in accordance with Sects. 44/45 of the Marriage Act. In spite of the decades-old demand for the introduction of officially ordered autopsies in Germany  It will be necessary to explore in detail the limits of the usability of the findings, taking into account local conditions.’ Subsequent investigations (64/21) confirmed the presence of diatoms in the systemic circulation of non-drowned persons, but in lower numbers than in drowned persons. As a way out of the diagnostic dilemma, the determination of a ‘minimum number of diatoms; was demanded, which, if exceeded, would be ‘usable as an essential clue for a drowning death’.The term ‘Blaukommen der Taucher’ [barotrauma of descent — lung squeeze] (39/378), introduced by Hermann Roer, is still used today, and its explanation has also been confirmed in its basic features, despite exceptionally extensive criticism . Massive facial cyanosis occurs mainly due to compression of the diving suit when the diver descends too quickly to a greater depth, causing a strong negative pressure in the helmet (‘suction in the helmet/lung space’).In electrical fatalities, an electric mark may appear on the skin or mucous membrane as an indicative finding. Subtle diagnostic procedures are necessary to distinguish electrothermal damage from other thermal damage. In this context, a comprehensive spectrum of methods has been described, including macroscopic examinations and examinations using a magnifier microscope (56/318), analyses with polarized light (57/431) as well as histological and histochemical techniques . In several experimental studies, Ekkehardt Böhm investigated differences between electric and thermal marks that were significant for differential diagnosis. Morphological characteristics  and additional specific differences in metallisation in the skin  were found to be useful diagnostic criteria.One of the striking changes in charred corpses is the heat-induced shrinkage of the body. In a series of basic experiments 43/428) on these changes, it was found that tendons shorten by a maximum of 61.5% of their original length on average under increasing dry heat. Consequently, ‘the tendons, not the muscles, play the decisive role in the processes that lead to the fixed dislocations of the extremities’. The criminal trial of the dentist Dr. Richard Müller for the fire-related death of his wife [ on theseBeyond forensic obstetrical questions, the Hungarian authors István Gyula Fazekas and Ferenc Kósa also opened a new chapter for the identification of unknown dead bodies with their investigations on the determination of body length and age of human foetuses on the basis of various skeletal parts . In systIn sudden deaths from an internal cause, there is a dominance of cardiovascular diseases among the publications reviewed, which has been unchanged in the cause of death statistics since the beginning of the 1950s . The expCarbon monoxide intoxication was still one of the most frequent forms of poisoning during the period under review, and town gas, also known as cooking gas or coal gas, was usually the source of the poison. To counteract this situation, a detoxification plant was put into operation in Basel in 1958. The report on ‘6 years of experience with detoxified cooking gas’ 58/122) shows that no more suicides with cooking gas were recorded in the Basel Medico-Legal Institute during that period, but that fatal accidents continued to occur despite the gas conversion. Even with the conversion of the gas supply to natural gas, the risk of CO formation during incomplete combustion due to oxygen depletion in the atmospheric air remained, and there was also the risk that explosive natural gas-air mixtures might form . Most pu2 shows t60, which is significant for expert opinions, is not a constant, but varies depending on the physical conditions of a person. Deviating β60 values were found after the impact of external force  and depending on the blood alcohol concentration (44/374). With rising blood alcohol content, the determined β60 values increased and reached a mean value of 0.203‰ at blood alcohol content above 2‰. For alcohol analysis, methods for determining concentrations in blood samples and body fluids with the routinely used examination techniques were described. These publications were aimed at minimising the sources of error of the original technique of the Widmark method [The studies on alcohol metabolism cover all phases of the pharmacokinetics of ethanol. The knowledge gained about special features of absorption , distribution  and elimination  allowed the forensic assessment of alcoholic influence to be further elaborated. Several studies have shown that factor βk method , the ADHk method  and gas k method  by methok method . In a reforce 43/, 47/599 The spectrum of physical characteristics for the identification of unknown dead persons was enriched above all by osteological examination findings. The index acetabulo-ischiadicus (47/442) and the thickness of the skullcap are suitable for sex identification (54/227). In addition to pelvic bones (41/147) and femur (58/205), other skeletal parts and the teeth (51/161) can be used for age estimation. The estimation formulas for the reconstruction of body height were validated using the long limb bones (42/189) and the foot and hand length (48/378). Progress was also made in the examination techniques used to identify skulls. The original method of verifying the identity of skulls by graphic means  was follSince the discovery of the AB0 groups by Karl Landsteiner in 1901 , a numbe2-globulins have proved to be forensically useful.With the discovery of the haptoglobin polymorphism , the eraOf the erythrocytic enzyme groups, the isoenzymes of erythrocyte acid phosphatase  were thea in human sperm (52/610).In trace analysis, the acetone-chlorohemine reaction (39/495) from the group of crystal reactions and the porphyrin test  were still in use for the detection of blood. The precipitation reaction according to Uhlenhuth was the preferred method for determining species specificity (39/309). A further individualisation of blood traces had become possible because, in addition to the AB0 and MN systems, factor P (41/451) and the A subgroups (45/355) could also be successfully typed on dried blood. Of the serum groups, the Gm system (53/18) and among the erythrocytic enzyme groups the PGM characteristics (66/31) had proved to be particularly suitable for tracing purposes. The group substances A, B, 0 and AB could be detected in human head hair (42/395) and the characteristic Gm1, A2, B, 0 and M–N were used and reached a value of 70% in the mid-1950s with the blood group mosaic A1, A2, B, 0, A1B, A2B, M–N, S, P, K, Fy, C–c, D-dd, E-e, Lewis and secretor status. A further increase in the overall chance of paternity exclusion has been achieved since the 1960s, when the serum groups Hp, Gm and Gc as well as the acP polymorphism were typed in cases of disputed paternity [The rapid progress in haemogenetics was particularly evident in the assessment of parentage. In the 1920s, when the first expert opinions on blood groups in cases of disputed paternity were given solely on the basis of the AB0 system, the overall chance of paternity exclusion was 20% . After taternity .In the post-war period, research priorities in the Institutes of Forensic Medicine began to shift. As a result of this development, scientific work on problems relating to scientific-technical criminalistics took a back seat. Thus, the 113 out of 1762 publications on forensic topics in the period from 1922 to 1944 [The few publications available on forensic findings in living persons do not even rudimentarily reflect the diversity of topics in clinical legal medicine. They are all exclusive case histories describing individual cases of external violence, drug abuse and self-harm. Analytical papers on such widespread crimes like sexual violence and child abuse have not been published.The shift in the research focus of the Institutes of Forensic Medicine since the post-war period has also caused a decline in the number of publications in the fields of forensic psychiatry and psychology. From 75 publications in the years 1922 to 1944 [The publications relating to sexual medicine complement the case reports on paraphilias, especially the phenomenology of the offences of incest and paedophilia. Similarly, the publications found on autoerotic accidents supplement the case reports on the appearance of electrocution during sexual activity.The rapid increase in motorised road traffic created dangers that inevitably had an impact on the scientific problems in traffic medicine. A priority topic was research into alcohol-related performance impairments in drivers and pedestrians (41/1). In addition, endogenous and other exogenous influences on the fitness to drive were also investigated. The knowledge gained, for example on feeling tired and falling asleep at the wheel  or on the influence of pharmaceuticals on road users , was essential for the prevention of accidents. The analysis of sequelae of injuries after traffic accidents formed an essential basis for the forensic and medical assessment of accident victims. It often involved complex issues regarding the reconstruction of accidents .The film as a template for capital crimes (48/576) brings to mind the intolerably accurate reports in the mass media that prompted concrete copycat acts [From the field of criminology, especially the articles on the aetiology of crime have a current relevance that can hardly be overlooked. The one article entitled cat acts . In the


In order to explore the monitoring technique of concrete carbonation in various temperatures, longitudinal ultrasonic nonlinear parameters of carbonated concrete are measured by using an embedded composite piezoelectric transducer (ECPT) and a surface-mounted transducer. The effect of temperature from −20  Ultrasonic measurement as non-destructive testing technology has been widely used to determine the characterization of concrete structures for a long time. Nonlinear resonance ultrasonic spectroscopy (NRUS) technology has been used in the testing of progressive damage occurring in concrete, such as alkali–silica reaction , thermalAt present, health inspection of concrete structures is usually performed by manually carrying external ultrasonic probes. However, the use of large external probes requires extensive work preparation, which not only hinders the use of this technique for monitoring but also greatly limits the measurement area of concrete structures . In contIn this paper, the ultrasonic transmission detection method was taken with an embedded transducer and a surface-mounted transducer. The embedded composite piezoelectric transducer (ECPT) which was composited with four materials was developed and used to detect the evolution of ultrasonic parameters in carbonated concrete by the SHG  techniquIn this experiment, concrete specimens  with different water–cement ratios were designed. The coarse aggregate used in the concrete was a continuous grade of natural gravel from 5 mm to 25 mm and the fine aggregate was natural river sand with a fineness modulus of 2.56. C is capacitance, The structure of the embedded composite piezoelectric transducer (ECPT) is shown in This kind of composite increased the structural strength of the transducer and made it have good waterproofing and working performance. In addition, the ECPT could resist certain electromagnetic wave interference and suppress the interference of some noise to the signal during operation. The ECPT vibrated along the poling direction to generate mechanical waves when connected with the electric field. As shown in There were three specimens for each kind of concrete. Each size of the concrete specimen was 100 mm × 100 mm × 100 mm. As shown in e S wave .As shown in Concrete specimens were cured in an environmental chamber with a temperature of 20 ± 3 °C and a relative humidity of 95%. After 28 days of curing, all surfaces of the specimens were sealed with paraffin wax except for the surface which COThe specimens were removed from the carbonation chamber after 3, 7, 14, and 21 days of concrete carbonation, respectively. In order to test the ultrasonic parameters of carbonated concrete under different temperature environments, the concrete was placed in an environment chamber at the temperature from −20 The received time domain signal (the blue squares indicate the width of the Hann window) of carbonated concrete acquired by the oscilloscope is shown in The carbonation depth was measured with phenolphthalein in spare samples after 0, 7, and 21 days of carbonation. During the concrete carbonation progress, the existing pores and microcracks were deposited by the carbonation product CaCO3 ,35. The m et al. ,7. The rAfter 3, 7, 14, and 21 days of concrete carbonation, specimens were placed in an environment chamber at the temperature from −20 It can be seen from As shown in Though only one ECPT was embedded in the concrete specimen as a transmitter, the nonlinear parameters of the ultrasonic radial propagation in carbonated concrete could also be obtained by the surface-mounted transducer fixed on the surface in which COThe relative nonlinear parameter of carbonated concrete can be affected by the water–cement ratio of the concrete. There is a more significant variation of the nonlinear parameters in the same carbonation time for the specimens with a high water–cement ratio than that with a low one. It indicates that the change of relative nonlinear parameters is closely related to the concrete carbonation depth.At the same ambient relative humidity (RH = 0.7), the fundamental amplitudes  as the transmitter, and the effect of temperature on the nonlinear parameters of carbonated concrete is investigated. Conclusions are drawn from the experimental results as follows:It can be seen from the results that the relative nonlinear parameters change significantly at the temperature from 0


The topic of sustainability of reinforced concrete structures is strictly related with their durability in aggressive environments. In particular, at equal environmental impact, the higher the durability of construction materials, the higher the sustainability. The present review deals with the possible strategies aimed at producing sustainable and durable reinforced concrete structures in different environments. It focuses on the design methodologies as well as the use of unconventional corrosion-resistant reinforcements, alternative binders to Portland cement, and innovative or traditional solutions for reinforced concrete protection and prevention against rebars corrosion such as corrosion inhibitors, coatings, self-healing techniques, and waterproofing aggregates. Analysis of the scientific literature highlights that there is no preferential way for the production of “green” concrete but that the sustainability of the building materials can only be achieved by implementing simultaneous multiple strategies aimed at reducing environmental impact and improving both durability and performances. Additional protection methods are necessary for reinforced concrete structures operating in severe field conditions or when very long service life is required: corrosion-resistant reinforcements, cathodic prevention, corrosion inhibitors, and surface treatments represent suitable “tools” to prevent corrosion in very aggressive environments .(a)Hydrophobic treatments, based on silanes, siloxanes and silicones;(b)Treatments able to seal the capillary pores, based on sodium silicate or magnesium fluorosilicates;(c)Organic coatings forming a continuous film, with a thickness between 0.1–0.3 mm, thermoplastic  or thermosetting ;(d)Cementitious mortars containing acrylic or vinyl polymers with polymer/cement ratio in the range of 0.3–0.6 and thickness between 1 and 5 mm.Surface treatments to apply on the surface of reinforced concrete elements are efficient protective methods at a relatively low cost. The European Standard EN 1504-2 identifies:The effect of these treatments is for two reasons: they reduce the transport of aggressive agents in concrete , delaying corrosion initiation; they decrease the concrete water content, reducing the corrosion rate.Many laboratory tests have been carried out to study their effectiveness, even if they are mainly short-term tests on water absorption, vapor permeability, adhesion, and accelerated chloride corrosion ,35,36,37Corrosion inhibitors can be used to both prevent and stop chloride induced corrosion and as a remedial for structures exposed to carbonation. They can be divided in two groups: admixed inhibitors (mass inhibitors), directly added as a constituent to fresh concrete, and as preventive techniques; migrating inhibitors, applied on the concrete surface which can penetrate into the hardened cement matrix, usually adopted in rehabilitation ,42,43,443) they guarantee an increase in the critical chloride content up to 3% by cement mass. They also have an effect on carbonation corrosion if dosed at 3% by cement mass. In particular, nitrites were found effective in accelerating the passivation process of active galvanized steel in fresh concrete, which is a significant aspect to consider for these types of reinforcements [Nitrite-based inhibitors ,45, actircements . Concern3. Few data are available on long-term efficiency; in any case, they are not as efficient as nitrite. Migrating organic inhibitors, based on similar compounds, in most cases do not reduce corrosion rate after initiation, they only delay the initiation of corrosion due to a pore blocking effect [Organic commercial inhibitors  ,47,48 acg effect ,49.In the last 20 years there has been a growing interest in the study of new compounds, and to understand the mechanism of inhibition: both inorganic  and organic compounds  have been tested ,50,51.Concrete is a low-tensile strength and fragile material that is very susceptible to cracking mainly due to shrinkage, tensile stress, and freezing and thawing cycles. Generally, microcracks do not significantly jeopardize the elastomechanical performance of concrete but promote an easier penetration of external matters such as water and other chemical agents  resulting in cement matrix degradation followed by a corrosion of steel rebars ,53,54. IThe autogenous self-healing is defined as the natural recovery process of concretes not specifically designed for self-healing  and it oWhen concrete is manufactured with engineered additions able to improve the self-healing capability of mixtures, it is called autonomic self-healing or activated repairing. Several techniques have been proposed in this field, as reported in The use of bacteria  has been shown to be effective in repairing cracks in concrete, promoting both a reduction in water penetration and chloride ion permeability with small recovery in mechanical strength ,64. In pA technique similar to the bacterial concreting involves the use of polymeric-based repairing agents  stored in hollow glass fibers , ceramicCrack healing capability of concrete can be also be enhanced by adding in the mixture cross-linked polymers  that have the ability to absorb huge amount of water from the environment and to retain the liquid within their structure without dissolving. When cracks occur, these materials are exposed to the external environment and the subsequent contact with water or moisture promotes the swelling of polymers and the formation of a soft gel that prevents the ingress of external agents into concrete ,82. The The most promising technique for autonomic self-healing is the addition of expansive agents, mineral additives , admixtures and fibers as well as their combination during the mixing ,85,86. SWhen the concrete cover is not able to provide the proper protection against corrosion of the traditional carbon steel reinforcement, e.g., in highly aggressive environmental conditions  or when a long service life is required, it is possible to use additional prevention/protection systems in order to guarantee the required durability . The useThe corrosion resistant reinforcement should fulfil the requirements settled for the traditional carbon steel bars, such as strength, ductility, weldability, and bond to concrete. These rebars are characterized by different corrosion behavior and costs. Their related benefits can be evaluated with performance-based approaches for the design of durability . As far In carbon steel coated rebars the coating thickness and its quality (integrity) are crucial to guarantee the effectiveness of the protection ,95. In gIn epoxy coated rebars, the epoxy resin can provide a barrier protection. This kind of resin is suitable for use in concrete . In the presence of defects, when concrete is carbonated or in the presence of chlorides with a content higher than the chloride threshold, corrosion can occur. In carbonated concrete the attacks are, generally, limited to the area of the defects, thus also the consequences are limited . In chloIn stainless steel reinforcement the corrosion resistance is given by their chemical composition . These rebars, if properly selected, can guarantee also long service lives in harsh environmental conditions without maintenance thanks to their high resistance to corrosion. These steels do not suffer corrosion in carbonated concrete and can resist to chloride induced corrosion also in the presence of very high chloride content  ,105,106.The use of FRP reinforcement, generally GFRP (Glass Fiber Reinforced Polymers), is still to be considered in the experimental phase. Long-term data on their behavior under different exposure conditions are not available. Despite the fact they do not suffer electrochemical corrosion as steel does, they are subjected to other deterioration phenomena, e.g., due to concrete alkalinity, temperature, and humidity .fib) in 2010, a level of approximation is a design strategy where the accuracy of the prevision can be, if necessary, progressively refined through a better estimation of the parameters related to the considered phenomenon [Worldwide, corrosion of embedded steel is the main form of premature damage of reinforced concrete structures, hence there is the need to prevent it since the design stage ,113,114.enomenon . A low lDealing with durability, a low level of approximation can correspond to the prescriptive approach, that needs the fulfillments of minimum requirements, whilst through a performance-based approach, which consists of a real durability design, the accuracy of the prevision can be increased.w/c) ratio and the minimum cement content, according to the EN 206 [The prescriptive approach is based on the definition of an exposure class, that describes the aggressiveness of the environment to which concrete will be exposed during its service life, and the subsequent prescriptions regarding the maximum water/cement . These processes dramatically affect the durability of the concrete structures since they: (a) expose them to freeze and thaw deterioration, (b) alter cement paste composition/microstructure by dissolution and removal of its ionic compounds, (c) promote the ingress of aggressive ionic agents such as sulfates and/or chlorides.S (kg/(m2·s0.5):r is the mean radius of the capillary pore, σ the surface tension of the liquid, ϑ the water contact angle. Thus S is higher as the pore size increases and as the contact angle decreases, so when dealing with porous and hydrophilic materials [An important characteristic of a porous material is the capillary water absorption expressed with the absorption coefficient aterials . The cematerials . On the aterials ,133. Foraterials .Replacing natural sand in cementitious mortars with grains of end-of-life tyre rubber, containing isoprene/butadiene chains, strongly reduces the penetration of water drops both in sound and cracked materials. In fact, the hydrophobic character of the aggregates is dispersed in the whole mass of the composite and exerts its effect both on the surface and in the bulk . Fast war reported in Equation (1). Nevertheless, the effectiveness of these aggregates in hindering the water ingress has been proved in terms of both water absorption rate of microliter water drops [S (Equation (1)). From However, the different surface energy of polymeric aggregates with respect to traditional concrete constituents determines a reduction in aggregate-cement bond, thus increasing both the porosity of the material and the parameter er drops  and wateer drops . The fir2 emissions for cement and ceramic materials productions. This new class of materials is based on alkali activation of low calcium aluminosilicate precursors able to consolidate at room or slightly higher temperatures. One of the main advantages of AAM and geopolymers is the possibility to use waste-based powders as for example coal fly ashes derived from coal fired power stations, thus promoting a circular economy approach. Many aspects of geopolymers have been studied, from the synthesis and optimization of aluminosilicate precursors to the properties of the developed products  [A new class of materials known as geopolymers, which are part of the broad class of inorganic matrices named alkali-activated materials (AAM) has rapidly grown in interest in the last two decades in order to reduce the COrmances) ,145,146.As far as geopolymers durability is concerned, interesting results have been obtained about their resistance to sulfate attack  and alkaThe addition of sodium silicate to sodium hydroxide stimulated network formation in geopolymers leading to improved mechanical strength, lowering chloride ion mobility and slightly improving corrosion performances ,173. StuAlkali-activated materials are a recent family of binders. In the last decades, they received growing attention from academic research institutions as promising candidates in specific civil applications, such as refractory structures and concrete sewers ,176,177.2SiO3 is used as activator [2 molar ratio than calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) produced by PC hydration. When exposed to sulfate attack, its durability strictly depends on cation accompanying the sulfate ions. Bakharev et al. [2SiO3 or 50 g/L MgSO4 solution for 12 months. No sign of deterioration was visible after sodium sulfate attack, whereas matrix degradation with formation of gypsum was observed under magnesium sulfate attack. Similar trend was found by Ye et al. [Results published by several researchers, even in the presence of a multitude of evaluation criteria and methods  and testing conditions  clearly corroborate that AAM exhibit a higher resistance to sulfate attack than that of Portland cement (PC) materials ,188,189.ctivator . When Blv et al. , using Ae et al. .2SO4, KOH, and NaOH were used as activators traces of ettringite, a little expansion of the samples was visible and traces of ettringite as well as a reduction in the intensity peak of C-A-S-H gel were detected by XRD diffractometry. This behavior was related to limited gel decalcification and dealkalization, whereas, when Na2CO3 was used, the presence of CO32− suppressed ettringite formation. Under magnesium sulfate attack a more sever degradation process was observed with mechanisms that depend on the activators’ type. When NaOH or sodium silicate were used, firstly brucite was formed. It acted as a protective surface layer by delaying external ion migration, but lowered the pH of the pores solution to 10.5 thus promoting C-A-S-H gel decalcification, but not its dealumination, and gypsum production. The further migration of Mg2+ and SO42− and their reaction with decalcified C-A-S-H produced a magnesium-aluminosilicate-hydrate (M-A-S-H) and/or silica gels. The absence of ettringite was ascribed to the unfavorable pH and limited amount leached aluminum. The AAM obtained using Na2SO4 showed the weakest resistance against MgSO4 attack, due to lack of brucite protective layer due to the absence of hydroxide ions.When Na2SO4 solution and a more severe damage in MgSO4 solution, with matrix degradation and loss of samples integrity.Ismail et al.  also inv2 emissions. Furthermore, CSA clinker, which can be produced also by using industrial wastes often difficult to reuse, is more friable than PC clinker and is blended with relatively high amounts of calcium sulfates to produce CSA cements [Calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) cements are special hydraulic binders generally produced from limestone, bauxite, and gypsum and they represent an important alternative to Portland cement (PC). Compared to PC, CSA cements exhibit more pronounced environmentally friendly features mainly thanks to lower synthesis temperatures (~1350 °C) and reduced limestone content (~40%) both determining a strong decrease of kiln thermal input and CO cements ,192,193.4A3$ , calcium sulfates and a variety of calcium aluminates and silicoaluminates. The most important properties of these binders are regulated by ettringite (C6A$3H32), generated upon hydration of C4A3$ together with calcium sulfates. Depending on the conditions of C6A$3H32 formation, several technical properties can be attained  [CSA cements contain Cehavior) ,197,198.Compared to PC, there are relatively few durability studies on CSA-based cements. These mixtures have proved to be highly resistant to freeze–thaw and chemical attacks promoted by sulfates, chlorides, magnesium, and ammonium salts ,202,203.As far as the carbonation is concerned, it has been found that it is due to ettringite decomposition into calcite, gypsum, and aluminum hydroxide. By now, the results obtained from carbonation tests are contradictory. In fact, a few studies state that CSA cements carbonate faster than PC ,206,207;The behavior of CSA-based binders in relation to the durability of reinforced concrete structures is still not clear. Nevertheless, recent studies have shown that steel bars in CSA reinforced concretes, when put in chloride-free environments, seem to be protected from corrosion, despite that their alkalinity (pH = 11.5–12.0) is lower than that of PC (pH = 12.5–13.5) but sufficient to promote the passivation of embedded steel . MoreoveThis paper highlights the possible strategies for obtaining sustainable and durable concretes. In particular, it is shown how it is possible to realize durable reinforced concrete structures in different aggressive environments through an appropriate design that starts from a proper concrete composition , passes through the choice of reinforcements , and ends with the selection of additional solutions such as inhibitors, coating, self-healing techniques or waterproofing aggregates.


Objective: Researchers are studying the use of antimicrobial peptides as functional biomaterials to prevent and treat dental caries. This study aims to investigate the global research interest in antimicrobial peptides for caries management. Methods: Two independent investigators systematically searched with keywords  AND  on Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus. They removed duplicate publications and screened the titles and abstracts to identify relevant publications. The included publications were summarized and classified as laboratory studies, clinical trials or reviews. The citation count and citation density of the three publication types were compared using a one-way analysis of variance. The publications’ bibliometric data were analyzed using the Bibliometrix program. Results: This study included 163 publications with 115 laboratory studies (71%), 29 clinical trials (18%) and 19 reviews (11%). The number of publications per year have increased steadily since 2002. The citation densities (mean ± SD) of laboratory study publications (3.67 ± 2.73) and clinical trial publications (2.63 ± 1.85) were less than that of review articles (5.79 ± 1.27) (p = 0.002). The three publication types had no significant difference in citation count (p = 0.54). Most publications  reported the development of a novel antimicrobial peptide. China  and the US  contributed to 50% (81/163) of the publications. Conclusion: This bibliometric analysis identified an increasing trend in global interest in antimicrobial peptides for caries management since 2002. The main research topic was the development of novel antimicrobial peptides. Most publications were laboratory studies, as were the three publications with the highest citation counts. Laboratory studies had high citation counts, whereas reviews had high citation density. The application of antimicrobial peptides in managing various diseases has attracted significant interest from researchers over the past two decades . In geneThe mechanisms of antimicrobial peptides against microbes could be described as directly bactericidal, functioning by inducing pore formation on the cytoplasmic membrane or by splitting the microbes’ cytoplasmic membrane . The antStreptococcus mutans. C16G2 [S. mutans. SspB (390–T400K–402) [S. mutans to the salivary pellicle on hydroxyapatite. in addition, GA-KR12, with antimicrobial and mineralising properties, is a novel antimicrobial peptide made by fusing the broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptide KR12 and the mineralising molecule gallic acid [In dentistry, antimicrobial peptides play multifaceted roles in various oral diseases . Naturals. C16G2  is a spe00K–402)  is a comlic acid . Although different kinds of bioactive materials could be used in caries management , not manBibliometric data is quantitative data from published scientific works. The quantitative indices of bibliometric analyses include citation counts; citation density by year; and lists of works by author, country and paper types . A compuhttps://www.webofscience.com/, accessed on 1 August 2022), PubMed  and Scopus  to identify publications on antimicrobial peptides for caries management. The search keywords were  AND . The full search strategy on Web of Science was “TS =  AND )”. The full search strategy on PubMed was “ AND ”. In addition, the full search strategy on Scopus was “TITLE-ABS-KEY  AND )”. In August 2022, a literature search was conducted on the Web of Science (Two independent investigators (I.X.Y. and O.L.Z.) found and removed duplicate publications. Then, they screened titles and abstracts to exclude unrelated publications. After the first exclusion round, they retrieved the full texts and selected publications on antimicrobial peptides for caries management. In addition, the reference lists were manually screened to identify potentially missed publications. The inclusion criteria were the journal papers on the use of antimicrobial peptides for caries management. The exclusion criteria included: (1) a publication did not relate to dental caries and/or antimicrobial peptides, (2) a publication was not a research paper  or (3) a publication had been retracted. Finally, the two investigators had an in-depth discussion to achieve agreement on the list of included publications. https://www.bibliometrix.org, accessed on 1 August 2022) was used to extract and analyse the bibliometric data [The full record of included publications was obtained from Web of Science, PubMed and Scopus. All the data were locally preserved. The R package program Biblioshiny (ric data . KeywordBradford’s law and the Hirsch index (h-index) were used to assess the ‘core’ journals and their impact on the field of antimicrobial peptides for caries management. Bradford’s law describes the scatter of the number of papers published in a given field . The ‘fiDifferences between the citation data of the different publication types were assessed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS Statistics 20 . Multiple comparisons were also conducted using Bonferroni method. The cut-off level was set at 5% significance.n = 293), PubMed (n = 280) and Scopus (n = 226). Duplicate publications (n = 379) were removed, so that the remaining number was n = 420. After screening the title and abstracts, 271 publications unrelated to caries and/or antimicrobial peptides were excluded.The initial literature search revealed 799 publications  from Webn = 9), unrelated to antimicrobial peptides (n = 1), not a research paper (n = 2) and retracted paper (n = 1). Finally, the remaining 163 publications on antimicrobial peptides for caries management were included in this study , clinical trials (n = 19) and reviews (n = 29). The mean citation counts for laboratory studies, clinical trials and reviews were 29 ± 36, 22 ± 27 and 31 ± 34, respectively. There was no significant difference in the mean citation counts. The mean citation densities for laboratory studies, clinical trials and reviews were 3.67 ± 2.73, 2.63 ± 1.85 and 5.79 ± 1.27, respectively. Multiple comparisons using Bonferroni methods showed that the citation density of the reviews was significantly higher than that of laboratory studies and clinical trials (p = 0.002).Streptococcus mutans’, ‘dental caries’, ‘antimicrobial peptides’, ‘biofilm’, ‘saliva’ and ‘mineralisation’. For all the publications, the top keywords included ‘n = 129) and natural antimicrobial peptides as biomarkers of caries risk (n = 34). Regarding the publications about novel antimicrobial peptides as anti-caries agents for caries management, the primary study objects were S. mutans in planktic or biofilm conditions.In summary, the two main topics of these publications were novel antimicrobial peptides as anti-caries agents for caries management (n = 33) also investigated the novel antimicrobial peptides’ mineralisation effect. For the publications about natural antimicrobial peptides as biomarkers of caries risk, the focus was the relationship between genetic polymorphisms of saliva antimicrobial peptides and the risk of caries.Several publications  of the studies focused on the design, selection and application of antimicrobial peptides. Only ten of them (8%) tried to explain the mechanism. For example, Niu et al. used a transmission electron microscope to investigate the target for antimicrobial peptides attacking the bacterial membrane . Wang etArchives of Oral Biology (n = 12), Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (n = 10), Peptides (n = 10), Caries Research (n = 8), Clinical Oral Investigations (n = 5), Journal of Oral Microbiology (n = 5) and Chemical Biology & Drug Design (n = 4)  .Peptides (h-index = 10) and Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (h-index = 10) had the highest scientific impact. They were followed by Archives of Oral Biology (h-index = 9), Caries Research (h-index = 6), Molecular Oral Microbiology (h-index = 4) and Chemical Biology & Drug Design (h-index = 4)  . The h-in = 52) and the US (n = 29) contributed almost half of the included publications . In addition, global collaborations for research on antimicrobial peptides for caries management were common in China (MCP/SCP = 8/44). Other counties such as the US (MCP/SCP = 8/29) and Canada (MCP/SCP = 8/29) were also involved in international collaborations (China (orations .n = 41), followed by the University of California, Los Angeles (n = 15); Sun Yat-sen University (n = 13); Federal University of Ceará (n = 12); Fourth Military Medical University (n = 11); and Seoul National University (n = 11).The Sichuan University reported the greatest number of publications on antimicrobial peptides for caries management  of the publications were laboratory studies. The citation counts of laboratory study publications were lower than were those of the review publications (no significant difference). However, the average citation density of reviews was significantly higher than that of laboratory studies and clinical trials. Citation density reflects the average number of citations each year [S. mutans and other oral pathogens obtained the highest number of citations [This study included 163 publications for analysis. Most (ach year . A laboritations . This eaS. mutans [Among the other top five high-citation publications, three were laboratory studies and one was a review. Ouhara et al. investigated the antimicrobial properties against oral pathogens of another natural antimicrobial peptide, LL37 . Wei et . mutans . This pe. mutans . In 2011. mutans .S. mutans [A systematic review on the application of antimicrobial peptides for caries prevention and treatment obtained the highest average citation density, cited 21 times in one year . This is. mutans .Interestingly, different from four laboratory studies and a review among the top five high-citation counts publications, four reviews and one laboratory study constituted the top five high-citation density publications. Over time, older papers with earlier findings obtained more citations. In addition, a review with sufficient data/results and a persuasive language style could provide the readers substantial new innovative ideas . These pS. mutans as research subjects to investigate antimicrobial peptides’ antimicrobial properties. However, it should be noted that cariogenic species should not be limited to S. mutans [Candida albicans may contribute to the progressing of dental caries [Among the included publications were two main topics: novel antimicrobial peptides as anti-caries agents for caries management and natural antimicrobial peptides as biomarkers of caries risk. The laboratory studies mainly focused on novel antimicrobial peptides as anti-caries agents for caries management. All the publications used . mutans . Besidesl caries . This isl caries ,46. Howel caries ,46. To al caries  in futurl caries .Streptococcus mutans’, ‘dental caries’, ‘antimicrobial peptides’, ‘biofilm’, ‘saliva’, and ‘mineralisation’, we detected from the bibliometric analysis.The other clinical trials mainly focused on natural antimicrobial peptides as biomarkers of caries risk. These studies observed some association between genetic polymorphisms of saliva antimicrobial peptides and risk of caries, but the definite relationship is still unclear ,49. In aArchives of Oral Biology, but this journal’s h-index was 9. Clinical Oral Investigations is another journal in which the number of publications was higher than its h-index. The focus of Bradford’s law and that of the h-index is different. Bradford’s law focuses on the number of publications, whereas the h-index reflects the impact of the publications [According to Bradford’s law, ‘core’ journals are those that publish one-third of the publications in a particular field . Interesications ,27. ThusArchives of Oral Biology and Caries Research [The tools we used for this bibliometric analysis could determine both indexes simultaneously. Notably, from the list of journals determined as based on the indexes mentioned above, publications on antimicrobial peptides for caries management were published in dental journals and some molecular biology and microbiology journals. In addition, even in dental journals, most studies on antimicrobial peptides for caries management were only published in top middle journals such as Research . This inThis study also assessed the collaboration network of research on antimicrobial peptides in caries management worldwide. The scientific community encourages international co-authorship because publications resulting from international collaboration usually obtain higher citation counts and impacts ,52. HoweThis study also had some limitations. We assessed the citation data of included publications. However, a high citation count does not suggest the publication’s high quality . CitatioDespite these limitations, we did a bibliometric analysis to offer a global overview of the extant trend of the research on antimicrobial peptides for caries management. The bibliometric analysis is necessary for readers and other researchers interested in this field. This bibliometric analysis indicated an increasing trend in global interest in antimicrobial peptides for caries management. Scholars majorly focus on the novel antimicrobial peptides as anti-caries agents for caries management and natural antimicrobial peptides as biomarkers of caries risk. The development of novel antimicrobial peptides is inspired by the ideal antimicrobial properties and flexible structures of natural antimicrobial peptides. Whereas the use of natural antimicrobial peptides as biomarkers of caries risk is inspired by the essential role of natural antimicrobial peptides in innate immunity. A series of laboratory, clinical, and literature reviews have been established. More and more new researchers have started to research this topic. However, the research on antimicrobial peptides for caries management still not does not break through the barriers from basic research to application in the actual world. That is why the review articles obtained more citations than that laboratory studies followed by clinical trials. In addition, the limited quality and quantity of studies limit the generation of high-quality evidence and clear conclusion. Overall, developing a standard research process for studying antimicrobial peptides for caries management is necessary. On the other hand, further pre-clinical and clinical trials should be conducted immediately after developing novel antimicrobial peptides. And multicentred studies with large sample sizes are also necessary for research on natural antimicrobial peptides as biomarkers of caries risk.This bibliometric analysis identified an increasing trend in global interest in antimicrobial peptides for caries management since 2002. Development of novel antimicrobial peptides was the main research topic. Most publications were laboratory studies and they had high citation counts. The three publications with the highest citation counts were all laboratory studies. Reviews had high citation density among the publications.


The occurrence and distribution of antibiotics in the environment has received increasing attention due to their potential adverse effects on human health and ecosystems. Humic substances (HS) influence the mobility, reactivity, and bioavailability of antibiotics in the environment significantly due to their interaction. As a result, HS can affect the dissemination of antibiotic-resistance genes, which is one of the main problems arising from contamination with antibiotics. The review provides quantitative data on the binding of HS with fluoroquinolones, macrolides, sulfonamides, and tetracyclines and reports the proposed mechanisms of their interaction. The main issues of the quantification of antibiotic–HS interaction are discussed, which are a development of standard approaches and the accumulation of a dataset using a standard methodology. This would allow the implementation of a meta-analysis of data to reveal the patterns of the binding of antibiotics to HS. Examples of successful development of humic-based sorbents for fluoroquinolone and tetracycline removal from environmental water systems or polluted wastewaters were given. Data on the various effects of HS on the dissemination of antibiotic-resistance genes (ARGs) were summarized. The detailed characterization of HS properties as a key point of assessing the environmental consequences of the formation of antibiotic–HS complexes, such as the dissemination of antibiotic resistance, was proposed. Antibiotics are a substance able to inhibit or kill microorganisms . As emerGlobal antibiotic consumption by humans alone increased by 36% between 2000 and 2010  and worlAs in the case of many other organic pollutants, the behavior of antibiotics is significantly influenced by natural organic matter and, in particular, its most reactive component—humic substances (HS). The mobility, reactivity, and bioavailability of antibiotics in the environment are influenced by HS ,12,13. NWith this in view, the review paper focused on the systematization and analysis of data on (1) the effect of HS on the main processes of transformation of antibiotics in nature and (2) the technologies developed on their basis for the purification of media contaminated with antibiotics.Three major pathways for antibiotics entering into the environment are generally considered: effluents from Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs), chemical manufacturing plants, and animal husbandry and aquaculture . Howeverdevelopment of antibiotic resistance ,52,68,70disruption microbial communities by favoring the growth of resistant or tolerant microbial lineages ;negative impact on freshwater organisms including bacteria, cyanobacteria, diatom algae, plants, crustacean, mollusks, and fish ,67,75;negative impacts on soil microorganisms and soil enzyme activity ,74,76;phytotoxicity in relation to crops ,77;vegetable pollution with antibiotics ,78,79.A tremendous amount of attention to the issue of environmental pollution with antibiotics in recent years is due to the negative consequences of their presence in nature. Nowadays, antibiotics are being considered as ubiquitously occurring persistent bioactive chemicals that are potentially hazardous to soil bacteria and other organisms . The maiThe most important issue of antibiotic release into the environment is related to the development of antibiotic resistance, which has resulted in the reduction of therapeutic potential against human and animal pathogens ,52,70. AAmong antibiotic classes, fluoroquinolones (FQ), macrolides (MA), sulfonamides (SU), and tetracyclines (TE) can be detected in waste effluents most frequently . Their cThe data presented in The life-cycle of antibiotics in the environment is governed by a number of biological and physicochemical processes in soil–water systems, and these compounds may persist through a cycle of partial transformation, bioaccumulation, and gradual deposition in soil, surface water, and groundwater . EliminaCurrently, the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) database contains information on more than 100 different antibiotics , but onl2+ (pH 4–5) or a single-charge cation FQ+ (pH 7–8). At pH values close to neutral, these antibiotics do not seem to carry a charge, as indicated by the values of their isoelectric point, which is in the range from 6.9 to 7.4 2) group which is able to gain a proton and so this particular group is believed to correspond to the pKa of TYL [+ and TYL0 species, while at pH < 6 it can be found mainly as TYL+ [A 16-membered macrolide, TYL, is tylonolide, with mono- and diglycosyl moieties attached to two of its hydroxy groups . It is aa of TYL   that is able to gain a proton and one acidic amide group (–NH–), which correspond to pKa1 and pKa2, respectively [−, while the cationic form of sulfonamides SU+ can be detected at very low pH values of less than 3 [2 and the deprotonation of −NH [A sulfonamide antibiotic molecule contains one basic amine group  and its quencher (HS). Quenching refers to various processes that decrease the fluorescence intensity, including excited state reactions, energy transfer, and static and dynamic quenching. The main quenching mechanism for antibiotic–HS interaction is supposed to be static quenching , occurri follows :(1)F0F=1so found .b is the binding constant and x is the binding site number. If the appropriate HS concentration range that provides a linear Stern–Volmer plot is selected, the binding constant and sorption site amounts can be evaluated by comparing the intercept and slope of the plot directly [In addition, in the static quenching process, the Stern–Volmer equation changes as the site-binding equation :(2)loglog, ultra violet-visible (UV-vis), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) techniques can be applied to prove the proposed mechanisms ,101,108.SV. In the static quenching process, on the other hand, the temperature increase tends to dissociate the fluorophore–quencher complex, resulting in a decrease of KSV [SV values of antibiotic–HS systems decrease with increasing temperature. This has been demonstrated for fluoroquinolones , tetracnes (CIP ), and sones (CIP ). Therefnes (CIP ) and somnes (CIP  and SMX nes (CIP ), the soTo further consider the nature of intermolecular forces, the thermodynamic parameters can be determined from the temperature dependence, including the enthalpy changes ΔH, the entropy change ΔS, and the free-energy change ΔG.d or the binding constant Kb [Gibbs free-energy change can be calculated using the Gibbs free-energy isotherm equation:stant Kb . The negstant Kb .On the other hand, the Gibbs free energy of reaction can be expressed in terms of the enthalpy change ΔH and the entropy change ΔS using the deformed van’t Hoff equation :(8)ΔG=ΔHCombining (7) and (8), one can obtainProvided that ΔH and ΔS are constant, the preceding equation provides lnK as a linear function of 1/T, and the latter is known as the linear form of the van’t Hoff equation. The slope of the line may be multiplied by the ideal gas constant R to obtain ΔH, and the intercept may be multiplied by R to obtain ΔS.−1) and chemisorption (ΔH > 40 kJ mol−1) [In accordance with the attribution of thermodynamic parameters to various types of interactions summarized by Ross and Subramanian , positivJ mol−1) ,28.The fluoroquinolones CIP, ENO, ENR, FLE, NOR, and OFL were demonstrated to have the negative values ΔH and ΔS for the interactions with HS, indicating both van der Waals force and hydrogen bonding were responsible for the reactions ,101. HowThe negative values of ΔH for the fluoroquinolones and HS binding were also attributed to the electrostatic interaction . The negAntibiotics and HS are both ionic organic compounds containing one or more functional groups. Therefore, ionic species of these chemicals vary depending on pH values, which results in different sorption capacities of HS for antibiotics. Electrostatic interactions are often supposed to be the main interaction mechanisms between antibiotics and HS .For macrolide TYL, a decrease in binding by HS with an increase in pH was demonstrated. The finding was related to the ionic species of antibiotic at different pH values . At pH vMore often, a complicated pH-dependence of the binding of antibiotics by HS is reported ,28,101. +/NOR0 species and the negatively charged functional groups of HA. FTIR, and 13C NMR spectroscopy of NOR–HA complexes demonstrated that the piperazinyl moiety of NOR was responsible for sorption onto HA, while the carbonyl group and the aromatic structure of HA participated in complexing NOR.For fluoroquinolones in the range from acidic pH values to circumneutral (6–8), an increase in binding constants is usually observed followed by a decrease. The reported values of binding constants between CIP and soil or peat HA followed an ascending trend as pH increased from 4 to 6 (corresponds to pKa2 of CIP), whereas at higher pH there was either a decrease or no significant change in binding . The obsF values were lower by an average factor of 2. At pH 7.5, the KF values of SAA and SPY were similar to those at pH 4.5, whereas the sorption of SDM to HA further declined, and KF values were the smallest at pH 7.5 [The effect of pH on sulfonamide interaction with HS depends greatly on the antibiotic-specific speciation and cannot be generalized for all of them . For exat pH 7.5 . These ft pH 7.5 . A decret pH 7.5 ,20.b values were shown to be stable when the pH value increased from 4 to 6. Then, the binding constants rose with the increase of pH in the pH range 6–8. A further increase of the pH to 10 related to lower binding constants [For tetracycline OTC, Konstants . Tetracyonstants . The catonstants , while ionstants . Additioonstants . At an aonstants , which honstants .Another way to further investigate the mechanism of antibiotic–HS interaction is to monitor the binding at varying ionic strengths. An increase in ionic strength is believed to cause shrinkage and a decrease in HS pore size, leading to a decrease in the total number of sorption sites. In addition, the shielding of the inert electrolyte in binding reactions containing opposite charged reactants emerged, which inhibited the formation of antibiotic–HS complexes . TherefoNegative effects of ionic strength on adsorption of antibiotics on HS are usually reported ,22,101. The effect of the addition of multivalent metal, in its turn, is of interest when the cation-bridging mechanism of antibiotic–HS interaction is considered. For tetracycline antibiotics, greater sorption in the Ca systems was demonstrated ,104, esp2+ on antibiotic binding to HS is negative due to Ca2+ competing with the antibiotic for binding to the HS sites [For fluoroquinolones, however, the effect of CaHS sites ,101. A sHS sites .ionic interaction (cation exchange);formation of metal bridges;hydrogen bonding;Pi-stacking;hydrophobic interaction.The analysis of published studies on the interaction of antibiotics with HS showed that the main mechanisms of interaction of antibiotics with humic substances are as follows :ionic inSome of the mechanisms listed above both have been repeatedly demonstrated for different types of antibiotics and proved using physical–chemical methods by studying the antibiotic–HS complexes.However, a number of proposed mechanisms have not been sufficiently studied. An example of this is the possibility of interaction of HS with antibiotics by the mechanism of covalent binding. There are scarce works on this topic, although this type of interaction can lead to the complete detoxification of antibiotics in the environment. Gulkowska and co-authors demonstrated that sulfonamide antibiotic SMZ forms stable covalent bonds with quinone moieties in organic matter via nucleophilic addition reactions . This prAnother insufficiently studied field is the assessment of the dependence of the dominant interaction mechanism on the properties of HS. In most cases, commercially available HS of coal origin are studied. However, as ref.  very cleThe high binding ability of HS in relation to antibiotics has been demonstrated, which has made it possible to create a number of promising sorbents based on humic materials. To date, about 10 such sorbents have been described in the literature .In most cases, the developed sorbents are mineral or organic bases enriched with HS. HS coating introduces more oxygen-containing functional groups on the surface of the adsorbents, promoting their adsorption capacity. The developed humic-based sorbents were demonstrated to be efficient for the removal of fluoroquinolones and tetracyclines from environmental water systems  or pollusulI, sulII, sulIII), TE , and MA (ermB) is analyzed.One of the main problems arising from environmental pollution with antibiotics is the dissemination of ARGs ,52. In mEscherichia coli in the presence of soil and peat HS at the concentration 5–50 mg OC L−1 [Enterobacter aeruginosa when a reduced antimicrobial activity of CIP–metal complexes by at least 2-fold due to Sigma-Aldrich HA presence in the broth media at 10 mg L−1 was detected [Bacillus subtilis, indicating that the HS adsorption on the bacterial outer membrane may also be of importance in hindering the antibiotic diffusion [Proteobacteria with an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharides facilitating HS sorption [Actinobacteria [In theory, the binding of antibiotics with HS should lead to a decrease in their bioavailability and, as a consequence, a decrease in the abundance of ARGs ,50,51. Cg OC L−1 . Similardetected . Howeveriffusion . This obsorption . The latbacteria .The complexity of the ongoing interactions in the antibiotic–HS–bacteria systems leads to the ambiguity of the effect of HS on the dissemination of ARGs .tetG was enriched by 28% [tetA gene photodegradation in the presence of Suwannee River Dissolved Organic Matter (SRDOM) was demonstrated due to photosensitization, resulting in a lowered transformation frequency [Li and co-workers demonstrated a reduction of the most target ARGs in the Zn(II)-contaminated manure-soil samples by 11–88% due to treatment with struvite-HA-loaded biochar/bentonite composite (HMCC), while the abundance of d by 28% . Howeverrequency .sulI, sulII, and sulIII gene abundance and dissemination because of their sorption of antibiotics and heavy metals [tetA, tetW, sulI, and sulII can adsorb with various organic colloidal particles [Conversely, an increased abundance of ARGs in the presence of HS in the wastewaters or landfill leachates is usually reported ,117, thoy metals . Sun andarticles ,41,45,46articles . Therefo−1 of HA induced 1.9- and 2.9-fold higher expression levels of tetC and tetM, respectively. Further increasing the concentration of HA to 25 mg L−1 did not influence the expression level of tetM, while the expression level of tetC decreased by 4.9-fold. The expression levels of tetG, tetO, tetW, and tetX were not influenced by the addition of 5 mg L−1 HA. However, except for tetO, increasing the HA concentration to 25 mg L−1 significantly reduced the expression levels of tetG, tetW, and tetX.The complex influence of HS on the expression of ARGs is well illustrated by the results of ref. , where v• formation, thus enhancing plasmid strand breaks [E. coli could be inhibited by Sigma-Aldrich HA at 10–120 mg L−1 [IntI1 and transposons traA, tnp-A/Tn21 with HA concentration, but negative correlations with FA concentration. On the other hand, HA negatively correlated to the genetic marker of the insertion sequence IS-CR3, while FA correlated positively [Another important issue is the possible interaction of HS with mobile-genetic elements (MGEs) associated with ARGs, including plasmids, integrons, transposons, and insertions. They can spread ARGs between microorganisms through horizontal gene transfer (HGT), which takes place through conjugation, transduction, and transformation . The phod breaks . Wu and 0 mg L−1 . The stusitively .toxicity of the antibiotic–HS complex for bacteria, which depends both on peculiarities of bacteria and HS;effects of HS on the rate of degradation of ARGs, which depends on HS properties;a final effect of HS on the efficiency of HGT.Overall, based on data available, one can conclude that there are still insufficient data to predict the effect of HS on the dissemination of ARGs. Despite a sufficient amount of evidence of intensive interaction of HS with antibiotics, this knowledge alone is not enough to understand the complex processes leading to a decrease or acceleration of the dissemination of ARGs. Obviously, in parallel with the assessment of binding, it is also necessary to take into account a number of other factors:Thus, in this area, it is necessary to conduct comprehensive studies of the interaction of HS with the potential host bacteria for ARGs, ARGs, and MGEs.A review of the existing data showed that, to date, a significant number of studies have been conducted aimed at quantifying and establishing the mechanisms of the interaction of antibiotics with HS. The obtained data on the binding of antibiotics with HS provided the development of a number of effective sorbents for antibiotic purification of both natural waters and wastewater. A more intensive development of this direction may be hindered by the lack of a sufficient number of studies on the possibility of covalent binding of antibiotics to HS. In addition, when conducting research, high concentrations of both antibiotics and HS are often used, significantly exceeding those determined in natural objects. This makes it difficult to predict the behavior of antibiotics in natural environments. Therefore, an important direction in this area should be conducting research in close-to-natural conditions.The lack of a unified approach for obtaining quantitative indicators of the interaction of antibiotics with HS greatly complicates the unification of data and, as a consequence, the meta-analysis, which would reveal the patterns of binding of antibiotics to HS. The situation is also complicated by the fact that research often does not pay enough attention to the characteristics of HS, although, as a number of studies have shown, the results obtained are directly determined by their properties. The study of the properties of HS is also a key point in assessing the environmental consequences of the formation of antibiotic–HS complexes such as the dissemination of antibiotic resistance, which is considered as a critical One Health issue being one of the biggest threats to health today . A sprea