Graphene and the following derivative 2D materials have been demonstrated to exhibit rich distinct optoelectronic properties, such as broadband optical response, strong and tunable light–mater interactions, and fast relaxations in the flexible nanoscale. Combining with optical platforms like fibers, waveguides, grating, and resonators, these materials has spurred a variety of active and passive applications recently. Herein, the optical and electrical properties of graphene, transition metal dichalcogenides, black phosphorus, MXene, and their derivative van der Waals heterostructures are comprehensively reviewed, followed by the design and fabrication of these 2D material‐based optical structures in implementation. Next, distinct devices, ranging from lasers to light emitters, frequency convertors, modulators, detectors, plasmonic generators, and sensors, are introduced. Finally, the state‐of‐art investigation progress of 2D material‐based optoelectronics offers a promising way to realize new conceptual and high‐performance applications for information science and nanotechnology. The outlook on the development trends and important research directions are also put forward. Herein, the latest research progress and development trends of optoelectronic information devices based on 2D materials are summarized. This work gives a comprehensive review of this field, covering the optoelectronic properties of 2D materials, preparation and composite processes, as well as specific applications and prospects, aiming to provide readers a communication platform with references. In the past decade, in addition to graphene, more and more 2D materials have been successfully introduced, including transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDs), black phosphorus (BP), MXenes, and their van der Waals heterostructures (vdWs). Up to date, the 2D material research system is increasingly perfect with the efforts of many researchers. The combination of 2D materials and optics has become a mainstream trend, attracting increasing attention for applications in electronics, photonics, and optoelectronics.A 2D material is a crystal in the form of a planar structure volume, which can be regarded as a 3D crystal with a negligible thickness in one dimension. The thickness of mono‐ or few‐atomic layer 2D materials is on the orders of magnitude smaller than the wavelength of light involved. Graphene, a material of monoatomic layer, which was successfully isolated by Geim's group in 2004,1 open Furthermore, they are easy to integrate with photonic structures such as fibers and chips, because their surfaces are naturally passivated without any dangling bonds. Finally, most 2D materials have excellent electrically tunable physical properties, so they are very suitable for functionalized photoelectric information devices.2D materials, fundamentally different from their bulk parents, exhibit a rich variety of physical properties thanks to their diverse electronic structures, ranging from large band insulators to narrow gap semiconductors, topological insulators, semimetals, and metals. The highly tunable bandgap offers an extremely wide range of optical responses.6 Furt However, the optoelectronic information devices based on 2D materials is undoubtedly an important topic in the field of information science, yet have not been comprehensively reviewed. Herein, the optical and photoelectric properties of various 2D materials are briefly introduced at first. Then, the commonly used 2D material preparation processes, including mechanical exfoliation (ME), liquid phase exfoliation (LPE), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and van der Waals composite preparation process, and the typical composite optical structures are analyzed and compared. After that, the up‐to‐date optoelectronic information devices based on 2D materials, including ultrafast lasers, light emitters, frequency convertors, modulators, detectors, plasmonic generators, and sensors, are reviewed. Finally, our prospects on the future perspectives of 2D layered materials and their applications are presented.To date, many experts in related fields have reviewed the application of 2D materials in optoelectronics.15 How2 Since then, graphene and other 2D materials have been widely studied on their unique and fascinating electrical, optical, mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties. So far, a number of 2D materials have been fabricated and many remarkable optical properties have been discovered , because of the diverse electronic properties and bandgap structures as shown in FigureThe research on 2D materials was initially triggered by the groundbreaking work on graphene.1 Sinc2.1 as shown in Figure And simultaneously, graphene exhibits strong light‐material interactions that a single layer of graphene absorbs 2.3% of the vertically incident light in the visible and near infrared spectrum, with absorption coefficient precisely defined by πα, where α = e2/ℏc denotes the fine‐structure constant . Since monolayer TMDs are typically semiconductor materials, their optical properties are different from those of graphene significantly, offering a broader and complementary application field. Their bandgaps cover the energy range from 1 to 2.5 eV, corresponding to the spectral range from near‐infrared to the visible , the most studied member of the 2D material family beyond graphene, are atomically thin semiconductors of the type MXe Figure . One of s Figure .22]222 , another direct bandgap semiconductor, can modulate the bandgap through changing the number of layers Figure . This la25 and2.4 MXenes represent 2D transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides, and have a general formula of Mn+1XnTx, where M is an early transition metal, X is C and/or N, T is surface terminations, and n = 1, 2, or 3. The first MXene Ti3C2Tx was isolated via selectively extract Al from its MAX parent Ti3AlC2 in aqueous HF solution. Since then, the aqueous acid etching method has been widely employed to synthesis new MXene materials, such as Ti2C, Ti3CN, Ta4C3, V2C, Nb2C, and so forth.In recently years, MXenes as a novel 2D material family member, has attracted significant attention from varies research communities since the first debut in 2011.34 MXeCompared to graphene, the easier of surface decorations may offers MXene a broader application vision in the chemical and biological area. However, the surface terminations might also hinder the exploration of basic physic properties of printing MXene. Recently, chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method has successfully applied to synthesis large size atomically thin MXene layer, which opens up the window for the investigation of more basic physics in MXene without surface terminations.36 The reported lowest work function was predicted in methoxylationized niobium carbide Nb3C2(OCH3)2 MXene with a value of 0.9 eV. The ultralow work function of MXenes is suggested to be promising as field emitter cathodes and thermionic devices. A low optical attenuation (2–3% per nanometer) of MXene has been experimentally observed on varies substrates. This value is comparable the well‐known graphene (2.3% for monolayer). Considering the high conductivity of ≈10 000 S cm−1, MXene is suggested to be a promising transparent conductive material. An excellent broadband nonlinear optical responses of MXene have recently been demonstrated, which offers the opportunity for ultrafast photonics, plasmonic as well as all‐light modulations.Typically, nonterminated MXenes are metallic with a high density of states (DOS) at the Fermi surface due to the out layer of transition metal elements. The passivation of the surface might draw the DOS to a lower level, leading to the metal to semiconductor, insulator or semimetal transfer of MXene Figure .34]34[32.5 There have been tremendous efforts to explore different 2D heterostructures, including but not limited to graphene‐hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), graphene‐BP, TMD‐hBN, graphene‐TMDs, and TMD–TMD heterostructures. The free combination of different materials via the van der Waals heterostructure may lead to more exciting discoveries of novel electronic and optical properties. For example, Under van der Waals forces, different atomically thin 2D materials can be easily vertically stacked together to make 2D heterostructures without the conventional “lattice mismatch” issue, offering a flexible and easy approach to design desired physical or optical properties. At the moment, van der Waals heterostructures reveals unusual properties and new phenomena and shows great potential in functional optoelectronic devices, but it is still at an exploratory stage.Atomically thin 2D materials with wide‐ranging properties can be manufactured and engineered independently and then stacked together to form van der Waals‐bonded heterostructures, as shown in Figure 44 The33.1 which has the advantages of low cost and easy operation with the trade‐off low yields and lacks controllability in uniformity, size, and thickness of the peeled flakes. To increase the yields, liquid phase exfoliation method with low cost and large‐scale production capacity has been developed, but it features the drawback of poor uniformity of layer thickness, and low yields of large flakes and single layers. Compared to the above two methods, chemical vapor deposition method was widely used to synthesize large area homogeneous 2D materials with controllable thickness and excellent properties. Here, we briefly discuss the merits of different synthesis processes. The fabrications and characterization techniques of 2D materials are of crucial for successful device realizations. In the following, the merits of above‐mentioned synthesis techniques are briefly elaborated and discussed, specifically for the functional information devices, in addition to the previous reviews. These techniques enable flexible implementation of 2D material‐based hybrid optical structures, such as fibers and chips.With the in‐depth study of 2D materials, a variety of methods have been developed to synthesize 2D materials, mainly including mechanical exfoliation, liquid phase exfoliation, chemical vapor deposition, and van der Waals epitaxial growth. Mechanical exfoliation method, commonly known as the scotch‐tape method which is popular for lab‐based studies, is a traditional technique to obtain atomically and few‐layer 2D materials,1 whic3.2The wet transfer method and the dry transfer method are two main methods to realize the composite structure of 2D material and optical components. Here, we briefly describe the operation flow of the two methods, and analyze their advantages and disadvantages as well as the appropriate applications.3 solution to dissolve copper layer by displacement. The PMMA/2D materials composite film with the copper layer removed floated on the surface of the solution. Then, PMMA/2D materials flexible films were soaked and cleaned in deionized water (DIW). Third, PMMA/2D materials composite film was combined with waveguide, as shown in FigureThe operation flow of wet transfer method: First, polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) was spun on the upper surface of the 2D materials/copper composite layer, and then solidified PMMA. Second, the PMMA/2D materials/copper composite layer was placed in FeClThe wet transfer technology is simple, easy to operate and has a high success rate, which is suitable for most of the current process requirements of 2D material‐based optoelectronic devices, especially waveguide structures  with curved surfaces. However, this method also has the following disadvantages: First, the surface tension generated by solution volatilization in the transfer process easily leads to the bending, stretching, and folding of the supporting layer, which leads to the folding and tearing of the 2D material film after the transfer. Second, PMMA residue is difficult to be completely removed and cleaned. The interface between the 2D material and the target substrate is contaminated with foreign substances and water molecules, which increases carrier scattering and affects device performance. Third, acetone is usually used to dissolve PMMA, limiting the use of partially soluble flexible polymer wood plaque substrates. First, the mechanical exfoliation 2D materials are pasted on the polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) with good viscoelasticity, and the glass slide/PDMS/2D materials and target substrate are fixed on the nanopositioning systems and sample table, respectively. Second, the 2D materials was precisely shifted to the target position and lowered to contact the sample. Third, the 2D material film would stay on the target substrate since the adhesion between the 2D material and the target substrate was greater than that between the PDMS and the 2D materials, when glass slide/PDMS was raised. Due to the weak adhesion of PDMS in exfoliating 2D materials, the exfoliating process is difficult and the success rate of transfer is not high. Ma et al. developed a capillary‐force‐assisted clean‐stamp technique that uses a thin layer of evaporative liquid  as an instant glue to increase the adhesion energy between 2D crystals and PDMS for the pick‐up step. After the liquid evaporates, the adhesion energy decreases, and the 2D crystal can be easily released to the target substrate. The thin liquid layer is condensed to the PDMS surface from its vapor phase, which ensures the low contamination level on the 2D materials and largely remains their chemical and electrical properties, the detailed fabrications produces are illustrated in Figure The operation flow of dry transfer method:51 FirAs a whole, compared to the wet transfer technology, this transfer method through physical adsorption does not introduce any chemical liquid in the transfer process, avoids chemical pollution, and better ensures the material surface clean and no residue after the transfer. Therefore, it is usually used in optical applications that require high surface cleanliness . Meanwhile, the transfer position can be precisely controlled to realize vertical superposition of different materials such as insulator, semiconductor and metal, which is an efficient laboratory method for constructing high‐quality 2D heterojunction.So far, the technology of transferring 2D materials to optical fibers and chips has been relatively mature, but some researchers still make efforts to improve the quality and success rate of transfer process.543.3FigureBased on the design of optical structure and material characteristics, we classify 2D material‐based optoelectronic devices into two categories according to structure: 2D material‐based optical fiber devices and 2D material‐based on‐chip devices. Among them, typical optical fiber/2D materials composite structure include: 1) fiber end‐facet deposited 2D materials Figure4a, 2) D2 substrate  has been used in lasers of various structures to achieve pulse output with different parameters including wavelength, repetition rate, and pulse duration, as well as different principles including passively mode‐locked, actively mode‐locked, passively Q‐switched, and actively Q‐switched. More detail, Bogusławski et al. reported an active mode‐locked laser that achieves electronic control repetition rate of generated pulses by using a graphene‐based electro‐optic modulator (GEOM). The active mode‐locking and active harmonic mode‐locking of the erbium‐doped fiber laser with output pulse duration of 1.44 ps and pulse energy of 844 pJ are achieved by the combination of the active mode‐locking technique and the intracavity nonlinear pulse compression effect. Yao et al. demonstrated single‐frequency passively Q‐switched in a compact graphene‐coated DFB fiber laser with a pulse energy of up to 10 nJ and a linewidth of hundreds of kHz. The pulses are near transform‐limited and with kHz repetition rates. Li et al. reported the first actively Q‐switched lasers with electrically tunable output parameters, such as repetition rate, pulse duration, and pulse energy by using a GEOM.Ultrafast lasers have been widely studied as important components of current optical communication systems. Currently, the commercial ultrafast lasers are realized by using semiconductor saturable absorber mirrors (SESAMs) as saturated absorbers. Its working bandwidth is limited, because the commercial SESAMs are based on resonant nonlinearity. Besides, high manufacturing costs also limit the further applications, which forced us to look for new saturated absorbing materials with ultrawide operating bandwidth and universality. In recent years, 2D materials have shown great potential in pulse laser generation due to their unique optical properties, such as broadband absorption, short recovery time, low saturation fluence, and high modulation depth. They have been used as saturable absorbers (SAs) for different lasers  operating at different wavelengths ranging from visible to MIR (500–2500 nm).56 In W Figure ,c. Follo The first pulsed laser based on TMDs material was reported by Wang et al. using the MoS2‐based SAs. This solid‐state Q‐switched pulse laser work at wavelengths of 1.06, 1.42, and 2.1 µm based on laser crystals of Nd:GdVO4, Nd:YGG, and Tm:Ho:YGG, respectively. Soon after, Xia et al. introduced the few‐layer MoS2 into the fiber laser to achieve a stable passive Q‐switched fiber laser with a pulse duration of 1.92 µs at 1560.5 nm. The output pulse repetition rate of the laser can be widely adjusted from 28.6 to 114.8 kHz by changing the input pump power from 42 to 204 mW. Using the same SAs and structure, Zhang et al. demonstrated an ultrafast mode‐locked fiber laser with stable picosecond pulses, that can be tuned from 1535 to 1565 nm. Other TMDs, such as WS2, MoSe2, WSe2, and WTe2, exhibit similar nonlinear optical (NLO) absorption, and SAs based on these materials are also used in Q‐switched and mode‐locked pulsed lasers. Because of the broadband ultrafast saturable absorption of TMDs, Luo et al. and Liu et al. demonstrated passively Q‐switched all‐fiber laser in visible (635 nm) and communication bands, respectively, by deposited few layers TMDs  on the end face of the fiber to form a SAs  laser with a modulation depth of 25.48% and a duration of 246 fs.With the successful demonstration of ultrafast lasers based on graphene as a saturation absorbers (SAs), more and more ultrafast lasers based on TMDs, BP, and MXenes including Q‐switching and mode‐locking lasers have been successfully demonstrated in the NIR and MIR region.64 Thes Figure –f. The m Mu et al. applied an optically transparent polymer matrix on BP to form a composite SAs, and demonstrated a highly stable Q‐switched fiber laser pulse generation with a modulation depth of 10.6% and a single pulse energy of 194 nJ, as shown in Figure  verified the broadband saturated absorption of BP from 639 nm, 1060 nm to 2100 nm.Due to similar bandgap structures, single‐layer or few‐layer BP displays similar nonlinear optical properties as that of 2D TMDs. Nevertheless, the bandgap of BP in few‐layer stacks is smaller than TMDs, that mean a much larger bandwidth for saturable absorption. Therefore, BP has shown to be an excellent MIR SAs for either Q‐switching or mode‐locking pulse generation in spectral region of 2 µm and longer.71 Mu  They found the modulation depth of the MXene samples increase with the incident laser intensity. The highest modulation depth of MXene based saturable can be as high as 40%. Moreover, multiphoton absorption might be induced under intense light illuminations, which leads to the decrease of optical transmission. By using MXene Ti3C2 as the saturable absorber, mode‐locked laser operations have been realized at 1.06 and 1.55 µm with femtosecond pulse durations in fiber resonators. Recently, MXene Ti3C2 ink has been prepared for versatile inkjet‐printing on varies substrates, including side‐polished fiber (D‐shape fiber) and gold mirror, that can be compatible to both fiber and solid‐state resonators. By means of printed MXene saturable absorbers, ultrabroad band pulsed lasers from 1.06 to 2.8 µm have been successfully achieved with pulse duration down to 100 fs. Besides, the use of MXene based saturable absorbers has expanded to solid‐state and ceramic lasers. Apart from ultrafast laser generations, MXenes can be combined with C60 to realize a nonreciprocal transmission photonic diode, due to the reverse saturable absorption properties of C60.Recently, the broadband saturable absorption properties from 800 to 1800 nm were systematically characterized by Jiang et al.40 The4.2 Suspending the graphene can significantly increase the spatial localization of hot electrons, and thus the thermal radiation efficiency. Bright visible light emission has been achieved in micrometer‐sized graphene‐silicon chips with hot electrons around 2800 K  regime, where the nontrail Dirac‐cone disappeared. Single‐photon emission from graphene quantum dots has been demonstrated at room temperature. Furthermore, the energy bandgap of graphene QDs can be tuned by chemical decorations or functionalization of the QDs' edges. Likewise, other 2D materials have followed the abovementioned principles and have been used to demonstrate light emission from visible to the mid‐infrared regime. 2D materials, like TMDs, BP, boron nitride, featuring direct bandgaps can ignore the bandgap opening, yet require certain atomic layers or strains to tune the indirect bandgap to be directly, or increase the emission efficiency and adjust the wavelength. For example, the quantum yield of monolayer MoS2 can be two‐order superior to the bilayer one, due to the direct to indirect bandgap transition. In TMDs, the Coulomb attraction between excited electrons and holes results in the formation of the exciton, trion, and biexciton, which are normally sensitive to the environmental temperature. Besides, the inversion symmetry breaking in monolayer TMDs offers the possibility of valley emission at K (and −K) point with circular dichroism  from visible to mid‐infrared. Indeed, the emission spectra of BP have been achieved to cover most of this expectation. Recently, widely tunable mid‐infrared light emission (3.7–7.7 µm) has been realized from one ≈10 nm thick BP flake. Besides, the emission shows linear polarization along the armchair direction under the biasing field . Therefore, it is of great significance for the development of photonics and optoelectronics to find new materials that are easy to integrate on chip and have higher nonlinear response. strong exciton effect) of 2D materials have gathered huge interest, and have successfully demonstrated second‐harmonic generation (SHG) in TMDs, third‐harmonic generation (THG), and four‐wave mixing (FWM) in graphene, TMDs, BP, and MXenes, and high harmonic generation (HHG) in graphene, TMDs, and BP, which shows the fundamental differences between novel 2D material‐based nonlinear devices and traditional bulk material‐based nonlinear devices. There are several nonlinear properties about 2D materials worth mentioning. First, there is almost no second‐order but a strong third‐order nonlinear optical effects in graphene due to the centrosymmetric crystal structure of graphene. Second, second‐order  and other even‐order nonlinear optical effects are allowed in TMDs with odd numbers of layers which are not present in TMDs with even number of layers due to the inversion symmetry in the crystal structure, unless breaking its centrosymmetric. Third, the centrosymmetric crystal structure of BP only allows third‐order nonlinearity, but its strong anisotropy and energy band structure of dependent layer will lead to very interesting nonlinear optical effects. Here, we give a brief review of the recent works.For the past few years, the NLO properties . Based on the third‐order nonlinearity, the FWM‐induced NLO effects in TMDs were first investigated in MoS2 thin films and MoS2‐graphene heterostructures with NLO microscopy. Furthermore, Langer et al. demonstrated HHG with odd orders up to 47 with a THz‐driven scheme in the same WSe2, because the mechanism of HHG in MoS2 (including other TMDs) is different from that in zero‐gap graphene due to the finite bandgap.Unlike graphene, we can obtain second‐order nonlinearity by controlling the number of layers of TMDs. Since the magnitude of the second‐order nonlinearity of TMDs depends on exciton resonance, Seyler et al.101 de observed and studied third harmonic generation in black phosphorus, the results show that both the direct mechanical exfoliation and the laser thinning method can obtain a third‐order susceptibility drastically and resonantly increases that is one order of magnitude higher than that of graphene. Furthermore, the third‐order nonlinear‐induced four‐wave mixing has been experimentally verified on BP by coating few layer BP on the surface of the microfiber , gallium arsenide (GaAs)), which are difficult to integrate, and the modulation bandwidth is limited to dozens of gigahertz. In contrast, 2D materials have shown their unique advantages in optical modulation, opening new opportunities for smaller and faster optical modulators and related devices. First, the atomic thickness makes it easy to combine with existing optical structures, as mentioned in Section  Second, the ultra‐broadband optical response makes it have the application potential of wideband optical modulation from ultraviolet to terahertz. Third, the ultrafast carrier relaxation time and the strong light–material interaction of 2D materials make them possible to achieve modulation rates above 200 GHz and modulation depths approaching 100%. In this section, we briefly summarize recent results of optical modulators and switchers enabled by a few representative 2D materials, covering graphene, BP, and MXenes.According to different modulation principles , optical modulators can be divided into electro‐optic, acousto‐optic, magneto‐optica, all‐optical modulators, etc. Traditional optical modulators are mainly based on bulk materials  configuration. It presents a modulation speed of 10 Gb s−1, a phase‐shifter length of 300 µm, extinction ratio of 35 dB, and a modulation efficiency of 0.28 V cm−1 at 1550 nm. Furthermore, Gao et al. demonstrated a GEOM based on a graphene‐hBN heterostructure integrated with a planar photonic crystal (PPC) cavity. The PPC cavity greatly enhances the interaction of light–matter with a modulation depth of 3.2 dB making efficient electrical tuning of cavity reflection possible. The electro‐optic graphene modulators reported above have been limited in bandwidth to a few gigahertz. In order to achieve a greater bandwidth, Phare et al. demonstrated a GEOM based on resonator loss modulation in a critically coupled by pasting a piece of 30 µm length graphene film on the surface of a waveguide are the most commonly used modulator in practical applications. The first graphene‐based modulators reported by Liu et al.114 in presented on graphene‐clad microfiber (GCM) all‐optical modulator, achieved a modulation depth of 38% and response time of about 2.2 ps which is only restricted by the intrinsic carrier relaxation time of graphene, through constructing pump‐detection delay system for all‐optical modulation, the biggest modulation rate for the Gaussian pulse up to 200 GHz. One way to increase the modulation depth is to increase the interaction distance between light and graphene. Based on this, a stereo graphene–microfiber all‐optical modulator was demonstrated with a modulation depth up to 7.5 dB by spirally winding the microfiber on a glass rod deposited with graphene on the surface to achieve an ultralong graphene–microfiber (GMF) interaction, as shown in Figure  with a 4.6‐fold improvement of modulation depth compared with amplitude modulation.All‐optical modulators can provide an ultrafast response based on optical nonlinear effects by using a switching beam  to control the propagation of another beam . In 2014, Li et al.112 pr proposed an all‐fiber phase modulators based on graphene's photothermal effect. Heating the graphene by 980 and 1540 nm pump light can effectively change the refractive index of the fiber and then change the interference phase shift of the MZI. The phase shift over 21 π is possible linear slopes of 0.091 and 0.192 π mW−1, which can be used as an all‐optical switcher. In addition, graphene is also used in magneto‐optic and acousto‐optic modulators.Owing to its high intrinsic thermal conductivity, graphene is very attractive for thermo‐optic modulators and graphene‐based thermo‐optic modulators have also been reported in recent years. Using the same structure as ref. , Gan et 116 pr designed a broadband THz modulator with a modulation depth greater than 90% between 0.15 and 0.4 THz by applying a gate voltage between 0.1 and 2 V to a graphene layer to change the attenuation during total internal reflection. Last year, Chen et al. of the same research group further improved the modulation depth to over 99.3% and extending modulation wavelength range to 0.5–1.6 THz by varying the conductivity of graphene to control the Brewster angle.Optical modulation techniques in the visible and near‐infrared regions are well established, but modulation of terahertz (THz) light is still a challenge we need to face. Since the conductivity of graphene can be tuned by the gate voltage, it is widely used in terahertz modulators. Utilizing the evanescent wave interacting with graphene during total internal reflection. Liu et al.119 de demonstrated a BP‐based electroabsorption modulator and verified the feasibility of BP film as an electro‐optic material for modulating the MIR frequency. Controlled by the quantum‐confined Franz–Keldysh (QCFK) effect and carrier‐induced Burstein–Moss shift (BMS), the absorption spectra of BP may undergo red, blue, or bidirectional shift depending on doping level, wavelength, and BP film thickness. Meanwhile, Whitney et al. reported the infrared optical response of thin black phosphorus under field‐effect modulation. Due to the combination of ambipolar BMS and QCFK behavior, the transmitted extinction modulation amplitude is greater than 2%. These two works indicate the potential application of black phosphorus in infrared photoelectricity modulators. Soon afterward, a BP‐based MIR electro‐optic modulator with higher modulation depth (5 dB) and smaller size (100 µm) was demonstrated by Peng et al.  techniques have been used to characterize the nonlinear refractive index of a bunch of 2D materials.130 Wu4.5High‐speed, broadband and high‐sensitive photodetectors that can convert optical signals into electrical ones are of great practical significance for communication, sensing, and digital imaging. Currently, high‐performance photodetectors are mainly made of crystal silicon (Si) with a detection range from visible light to near infrared (NIR). In addition, using InGaAs and related heterostructures can achieve longer wavelength photodetectors beyond the detection limit of Si‐based products. However, these detectors often have serious shortcomings, such as large amount of materials, expensive manufacturing process, strict control of manufacturing conditions, and strict operational requirements. The appearance of photodetectors based on 2D materials makes up for the deficiency of current Si‐based technology, with the advantages of high transparency, strong light substance interaction, good flexibility, and easy processing, which provide a broad prospect for the realization of high‐performance photodetectors. Compared to traditional semiconductor photodetectors, graphene‐based photodetectors demonstrated great advantages in terms of bandwidth, possibly exceed 500 GHz. However, although pure graphene‐based photodetectors show high performance in high frequency devices, their photoresponsivity has so far been limited to tens of mA W−1 due to the fast carrier dynamics and low light absorption by single layer graphene (SLG). Therefore, several methods are developed to improve the photoresponsivity.The first photodetector based on 2D material was reported by Xia et al. in 2009.131 Co waveguide, and plasmonic, but these methods restrict photodetection to narrowband. For example, Echtermeyer et al. utilized surface plasmon polariton generated by a plasmonic grating to transfer the collected photons to the junction of the metal graphene metal photodetector, realizing a 400% enhancement of responsivity. The other way is to improve responsivity significantly through integrating QDs in the light absorption layer. For example, a highly sensitive QD/graphene hybrid photodetector is demonstrated by Hu et al. in this year. When light is incident on the quantum dots, the photogenerated carriers in the quantum dots will increase the carrier concentration of graphene, which will bring the gain of the current, resulting an ultrahigh responsivity over 109 A W−1 and fW light detectivity. However, the improved responsivity comes at the expense of spectral bandwidth because light absorption occurs in the quantum dots. In order to simultaneously realize photodetectors with ultra‐wideband and high responsivity, in this year, Deng et al. rolled up 2D GFETs to form 3D tubular GFETs  technology with an inherent response time as short as 3 ps, meaning that the optical detection bandwidth can reach 30 GHz. TPPC technique contributes to promote the photoresponse because it is only sensitive to the total population of photoexcited carrier, including both bound and free carriers. Besides MoS2, photodetectors based on other TMDs including MoSe2, WS2, WSe2, MoTe2 materials have also been reported in recent years. Typically, Jo et al. demonstrated a high‐performance WSe2‐based optoelectronic transistor with a responsivity as high as 1.27 × 106 A W−1 and fast response times of 2.8 ms by inserting an h‐BN layer under WSe2 channel to further improve the performance and provide a charge‐free environment which can greatly improve carrier mobility.In 2015, Kufer et al.137 mae Figure . It reve demonstrated a multilayer BP‐based near‐infrared telecom band photodetector by integrating on a silicon photonic waveguide, which has a very low dark current and a high response bandwidth of over 3 GHz. The responsivity can be tuned from 135 to 657 mA W−1 by varying the black phosphorus thickness from 11.5 to 100 nm. Subsequently, the relationship between the optical response of BP‐based photodetectors and temperature, incident laser power density, photon energy, and channel length was systematically studied by Huang et al. They extended the detection wavelength to 400–900 nm  waveguides with BP photodetectors achieved a responsivity of 23 A W−1 at 3.68 µm and 2 A W−1 at 4 µm at bias of 1 V.The narrow bandgap renders few‐layer BP an appealing candidate for NIR photodetection, complementing the detection gap between zero‐bandgap graphene and large‐bandgap TMDs. In 2015, Youngblood et al.140 dem Figure  and gream Figure . More re graphene‐BP, TMDs–TMDs, TMD‐BP, and BP‐hBN. Brief introduction, Xu et al. demonstrated a transparent photodetector based on novel few layer graphene/MoS2 heterostructure with responsivity of 12.3 mA W−1 and detectivity of 1.8 × 1010 Jones at 532 nm. Liu et al. demonstrated a graphene‐BP heterostructure based highly efficient and air‐stable infrared (1550 nm) photodetector with an ultrahigh photoresponsivity of 3.3 × 103 A W−1, a photoconductive gain of 1.13 × 109 and a rise time of about 4 ms. Xue et al. demonstrated a telecommunication wavelength photodetector based on MoSe2/WSe2 heterostructure with a photoresponsivity up to 127 mA W−1. Deng et al. demonstrated a gate‐tunable MoS2‐BP heterostructure‐based p–n diode, in which BP is p‐doped and monolayer MoS2 is n‐doped. It showed a photodetection responsivity of 418 mA W−1 at 633 nm, which is nearly 100 times higher than the pure BP phototransistor. Viti et al. embedded a BP flake in multilayered hBN crystals to devise hBN/BP/hBN heterostructure THz photodetectors operating at 0.3–0.65 THz with high optical response, and an extremely good time‐dependent electrical stability.van der Waals materials also show high performance in photodetectors, and more and more photodetectors based on van der Waals materials have been reported in recent years including graphene‐TMDs,144 gr4.6On the surface of the ultrathin gold‐like and semiconductor layer, the photon‐induced high‐efficiency electron cluster resonance is called surface plasmon polaritons (SPP). Different from the traditional metal SPP, 2D material‐based SPP has excellent electrical tunability, high field confinement, long lifetimes, and strong light–matter interactions. In this section, we focus on the state‐of‐art of plasmonic generators based on 2D Materials. In single‐layer graphene (SLG) and plasmonic resonances possess relatively low oscillator strengths because of the low attainable carrier densities. To address this issue, Constant et al. reported a method of all‐optical generation of graphene plasmons, which can be excited over a large frequency range with a defined wavevector and direction by carefully matching the energy and momentum using difference frequency mixing. And Rodrigo et al. found that the carriers density of multilayer graphene is larger than monolayer, resulting in a higher frequency resonances, stronger plasmon intensity, and wider tuning ranges. Furthermore, Brar et al. demonstrated highly confined tunable midinfrared plasmonic in graphene nanoresonators and Fang et al. demonstrated a wide range of plasmon tunability in the infrared by controlling the Fermi level of graphene (through a top‐gated ion‐gel). Recent reports, Yao et al. presented a two‐layer graphene heterostructure  to form the hBN/graphene/hBN vdWs heterostructure and investigated the propagation of plasma. The results showed that such a structure made the scattering of impurities have little effect on the damping of the plasma, significantly reduced the damping and improved the field confinement of the graphene plasma. Afterward, Ni et al. used the similar heterostructure to activate infrared plasmons with femtosecond optical pulses and the ultrafast dynamics of plasmons in encapsulated graphene revealed by means of nano‐IR pump–probe spectroscopy. Based on the properties and related researches of graphene plasmonic, there has been a strong focus on developing new graphene‐based plasmonic devices, ranging from tight‐field‐enhanced modulators, detectors, lasers, polarizers, and perfect absorbers to biosensors.Because of its simultaneously high carrier mobility and high conductivity, graphene has also emerged to be a very promising candidate for terahertz to mid‐infrared plasmonic generators applications. However, it have only been observed at mid‐IR and longer wavelengths (THz).149 In successfully demonstrated plasmon resonances of MoS2 nanoflakes with high doping level from near UV to visible by the electrochemical intercalation/deintercalation of Li+ ions on MoS2. Recently, Dibos et al. reported a new electroplasmonic switcher by composing with a hBN‐WSe2 monolayer on top of a single‐crystalline silver substrate to enhance the coupling between excitons and plasmas, as shown in Figure So far, plasmonic devices based on TMDs are rarely reported. Here, we give a brief introduction to existing reports. In 2015, Wang et al.157 su This work proposes a practical high‐efficiency design for acoustic plasmon resonators, as shown in Figure Compared to graphene and TMDs, BP can be used as an alternative material to support long‐life plasmon excitons with extensive tunability, robustness to surface scattering. And even more interestingly, BP is studied as an anisotropic plasmonic device because it can provide polarization‐dependent anisotropic plasma response due to their strong in‐plane anisotropy. Recent research on BP‐based plasmas is about the acoustic plasmons supported in monolayer and multilayer BP placed above conductive plates.159 Th found the bulk plasmon and surface plasmon behavior reversely. The ratio of SP significantly increases as the MXene thickness decrease and dominate the screening process up to 45 nm thick flakes, due to the combination of efficient free‐electron dynamics, Begrenzungs effect, and reduced interband damping. MXene Ti3C2Tx nanosheets can be mixed with noble metals like Ag, Au, and Pd to achieve surface‐enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) with an enhancement factor of 105 for methylene blue dye. Furthermore, spray‐coated MXene substrates without noble metals were fabricated and used to detect rhodamine 6G, methylene blue, crystal violet, and acid blue, with enhancement factors reaching 106. A typical Kretschmann configuration prism‐coupled surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor has been proposed as an efficient optical sensor for the biological or chemical analyte. Metasurface of Ti3C2Tx nanodisk arrays was fabricated and demonstrated strong localized surface plasmon resonance at near‐infrared frequencies, plus the interband transitions in the visible regimes. This metasurface exhibits a high‐efficiency absorption (≈90%) over a broadband wavelength window of 1.55 µm, that may find applications in harvesting energy from light, biomedical imaging, and sensing.The metallic properties of 2D layered MXenes offer an excellent platform for light–carrier interactions at their surface. Several demonstrations have been realized to utilize the excellent plasmonic properties of MXenes. Mauchamp et al.160 fo4.7 gas, chemical, and biochemical sensing. The combination of optical sensors and 2D materials further makes it possible to realize selective, single‐molecular‐sensitive photobiochemical sensors, because 2D materials are both chemically sensitive media and optical response enhancers in sensing applications. In this section, we present some of the latest 2D material‐based sensors.In 2D material‐based optical devices, sensors are one of the most important branches, especially in gas sensing. Compared with electrochemical sensors, conventional optical sensors have achieved a breakthrough in detection sensitivity and response speed. In recent years, great progress has been made in sensor structure and devices. Various sensor structures had been proposed to realize physical,170 ga gas, and biochemical sensors. Moreover, benefiting from its atomic thickness with ultrahigh conductivity, graphene can also realize remarkable functionalities, such as wearable sensors for smart systems and switching‐sensing devices for high‐precision measurements with thermal compensation.Graphene combined with optical fiber sensing technology is a new way of sensing. Most of these sensors make use of the interaction between graphene and optical fiber evanescent wave. By integrating graphene into different optical fiber structures, such as microfiber, Mach–Zehnder interferometer, D‐shaped fiber, photonic crystal fiber, and so on, it can realize various sensor designs and various parameter detections including physical quantity,167 ga demonstrated a high‐sensitivity plasmonic biosensor for chemically specific label‐free detection of different protein molecules by electrically tuning the Fermi level of graphene to change the resonant frequency of the plasmons. Sun et al. verified the advantages of suspended graphene in gas sensing. Compared with traditional graphene coating on the surface of optical structures, there is a larger contact area between suspended graphene and gas molecules. The introduction of an electric field on the surface of graphene accelerates the adsorption process of the molecule in a low‐concentration CO2 environment, greatly improving the sensitivity to detect the individual physisorption while greatly reducing the response time. Yao et al. demonstrated a micro‐optical fiber integrated whispering gallery mode (WGM) bottle‐shaped cavity gas sensor, expanded the “electron–photon” interaction in traditional graphene optical devices to the “electron–phonon–photon” interaction process, and implemented the new promotion in the sensing performance by using a new sensing mechanism of interaction in the optomechanical microresonator. Figure3 gas detection, comparable to world‐class sensing indicators.In addition to the realization of more parameter sensing, further improving the sensing sensitivity through innovations in sensing structures and sensing mechanisms is the challenge that needs to be faced at present. In typical reports, Rodrigo et al.180 de TMD‐based gas sensors achieve sensing of gas through surface–gas molecular interactions and changes in conductivity due to charge‐transfer processes when molecules are adsorbed to the surface. As early as 2013, Late et al. reported the gas sensing performance of different thicknesses of MoS2 transistors under different gate bias, light irradiation for NO2, NH3, and humidity. The results show that transistors with fewer layers of MoS2 exhibit better sensitivity, recovery, and ability to be manipulated by gate bias and green light compared to single‐layer ones. Conversely, Zhao et al. implemented an integrated humidity sensing array using a large‐area, uniform monolayer of MoS2. The resistance of MoS2 FET greatly increased in an exponential manner with RH varying from 0% to 35% and the sensitivity can be tuned by applied gate voltages and the highest value more than 104. For the same use of a monolayer of MoS2, Pham et al. designed an Au/MoS2/Au optoelectronic gas sensor. Using red light illumination, whose photon energy matches the MoS2 direct bandgap to induce photocurrent, significantly enhances the device sensitivity up to 0.1 ppb of NO2 gas. Besides MoS2, other semiconductive 2D TMDs, such as MoSe2 and WS2, have also been applied for gas sensors with great performance.In addition to graphene, TMD‐based photoelectronic devices exhibited high sensitivity in gas sensors and sensing platforms of DNA, proteins, and biomolecules.175 TM demonstrated FET biosensors  sensor based on 2D TMDs was also established, because 2D TMD nanoparticles have strong fluorescence quenching ability and good recognition ability of biomolecules.Furthermore, TMD‐based biochemical sensors can be applied as label‐free detections of proteins, DNA, RNA, and small biomolecules. Using the similar structure and the same material of ref. , Sarkar 183 des Figure , which ps Figure  and sensy Figure . A year  and Miao et al. encapsulated BP in an ionophore and a 6 nm thick package layer of Al2O3, respectively, to ensure the long‐term air stability of BP, achieving highly selective multichannel ion detection and humidity sensing with a slightly reduced sensing sensitivity. For further improving the sensitivity, a multilayer BP‐based FET  (PDAC), recoverable MXene‐based strain sensors with a small bending radius (2.5 mm) and large stretching limit (40%) have fabricated for detecting human motions and topographical scanning. Due to the low impedance of MXene, biocompatible Ti3C2Tx neural electrodes exhibit higher sensitivity and resolution compared to gold electrodes. The active surface terminations and multilayer structures of MXenes can be utilized for the detection of various gas and biological molecules, e.g., H2O2, H2O, CO2, NH3, phenol, dopamine, acetaminophen, urea, etc. Typically, the capability of charge carrier transport in MXene will be hindered when a gas molecule was adsorbed. An MXene‐based sensor has significantly pushed the detecting limit of H2O2 to 0.7 × 10−9m with a response time of ≈10 s in a cathodic potential window.Stimuli such as pressures, strains, photon irradiations, electrochemical reactions, ionic/gas adsorptions, humidity, pH values, and temperatures that alter the electrical properties  of MXene based devices can be used to quantitatively manifest themselves. External pressure can decrease the interlayer of multilayered MXenes, in turn, reduce the internal resistance. This property can also be used to prepare a highly sensitive (gauge factor ≈180.1), fast response (<30 ms), and reversible MXene‐based piezoresistive sensor to detect human being's subtle bending‐release activities.190 Co2 with detection sensitivity of 1.2 ppm. And graphene‐BP heterostructure can be used in anisotropic SPR biosensors with detection sensitivity nearly 4.5 times that of single‐layer graphene‐based SPR sensors. In this structure, monolayer graphene not only provides binding sites for aromatic biomolecules via π–π stacking, but can also efficiently prevent BP layer degradation.In addition to pure 2D materials, van der Waals materials including graphene‐TMD and graphene‐BP show high sensitivity to gas and biomolecular sensing. More detailed, graphene‐TMD heterostructures can be used to detect the concentration of NO 1.2 ppm.201 An5Table1.Optoelectronic devices with materials other than graphene. So far, most research has focused on graphene, but the unique band structure and spectral response of TMDs and black phosphorus leave a lot of room for further development.2. high‐speed modulators, ultrasensitive sensors, ultrahigh responsivity photodetectors, and ultralow damping plasmonic.Design and development of new van der Waals heterostructure. According to the specific application requirements, functional optoelectronic devices based on van der Waals heterostructure are designed, such as ultrafast lasers,203 hi3. and topological insulator.Exploration of optoelectronics applications of new metamaterials, such as perovskite209 an4.Development of new 2D material preparation process, for instance, functional inks and printing of 2D materials.2125. and exceptional points (EPs).Exploration of new optical mechanisms and configurations for 2D material‐based optoelectronic devices, such as phonon laser213 an6.Development of an artificial intelligence brain‐like devices based on 2D materials, combined with the current research trend of artificial intelligence.7.Due to recent advances in the manufacturing process of 2D materials, various kinds of 2D materials can be relatively easily and economically embedded into PICs, thus achieving highly integrated, multifunctional optical devices.118.Modification is also a very important aspect in the development of 2D materials. By means of doping, chemical modification, electrostatic control, and alloy, the shortcomings of materials can be avoided and their advantages can be given play.9.Realization of the wide application of 2D material optoelectronic devices. So far, a large number of studies are still in the theoretical stage. For practical applications, there are still challenges, opportunities, and huge development potential.In the past decade, research on graphenes, TMDs, BP, MXenes, and other novel 2D materials has flourished in investigation community of functional information devices. So far, the 2D material‐based optoelectronic devices  have made great progress in almost all aspects, ranging from theoretical design, material preparation, integration technique, to device configurations. All these contributions indicate the great potential of 2D materials in optoelectronic devices. Here, we summarize the properties of current 2D materials and their specific applications, as shown in The authors declare no conflict of interest.


Here we studied whether the development of pain hypersensitivity induced by sphingolipids in the spinal cord can be prevented by pharmacological inhibition of potential downstream mechanisms that we hypothesized to include TRPM3, σN,N-dimethylsphingosine (DMS) was administered to induce pain hypersensitivity. Ononetin, isosakuranetin, naringenin (TRPM3 antagonists), BD-1047 (σ1 receptor antagonist), carbenoxolone (a gap junction decoupler), MK-801 (NMDA receptor antagonist) and AS-057278  were used to prevent the DMS-induced hypersensitivity, and pregnenolone sulphate (TRPM3 agonist) to recapitulate hypersensitivity.Experiments were performed in adult male rats with a chronic intrathecal catheter for spinal drug administrations. Mechanical nociception was assessed with monofilaments and heat nociception with radiant heat. DMS alone produced within 15 min a dose-related mechanical hypersensitivity that lasted at least 24 h, without effect on heat nociception. Preemptive treatments with ononetin, isosakuranetin, naringenin, BD-1047, carbenoxolone, MK-801 or AS-057278 attenuated the development of the DMS-induced hypersensitivity, but had no effects when administered alone. Pregnenolone sulphate (TRPM3 agonist) alone induced a dose-related mechanical hypersensitivity that was prevented by ononetin, isosakuranetin and naringenin.1 and NMDA receptors, and DAAO.Among spinal pronociceptive mechanisms activated by DMS are TRPM3, gap junction coupling, the σ N,N-dimethylsphingosine (DMS) that can cause activation of astrocytes, release of proinflammatory cytokines and mechanical hypersensitivity [Dysregulation of sphingolipid metabolism has been associated with pathophysiological pain conditions . Among ssitivity . In the sitivity .1 receptor [1 receptors are expressed on astrocytes, where their activation is accompanied by astroglial release of D-serine, a co-agonist of the N-methyl D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor that promotes pain hypersensitivity [1 receptors or NMDA receptors are involved in mediating the spinal DMS-induced pain hypersensitivity. Astrocyte activation has been associated also with upregulation of D-amino acid oxidase (DAAO), an astroglial enzyme that has a dual role in nociception [Among spinal receptors that sphingolipids, including DMS, can activate is the transient receptor potential melastatin-3 channel (TRPM3) . TRPM3 ireceptor . In the sitivity , 8. Whilsitivity , it is niception . On one iception  and thatiception .1 receptor, astrocyte activation, the NMDA receptor or DAAO influences the development of the DMS-induced facilitation of pain behavior.Here we studied the potential role of the spinal TRPM3 in the DMS-induced facilitation of pain behavior by assessing whether TRPM3 antagonists attenuate development of the DMS-induced pain hypersensitivity and whether pregnenolone sulphate  recapitulates the DMS-induced hypersensitivity. Moreover, we determined whether spinal pretreatment with drugs inhibiting the astroglial σThe experiments were performed with 116 male Hannover-Wistar rats  in Biomedicum Helsinki. The ethical committee for experimental animal studies of the State Provincial Office of Southern Finland (Permission # ESAVI/10218/04.10.07/2016) approved the experimental procedures. The experiments were performed according to the guidelines of European Communities Council Directive of 24 November 1986 (86/609/EEC). All efforts were made to minimize animal suffering, to reduce the number of animals used, and to utilize alternatives to in vivo techniques, if available. The animals were housed in polycarbonate cages with a deep layer of sawdust, two to three animals in each cage, in a thermostatically controlled room at 24.0 ± 0.5 °C. The room was artificially illuminated from 8.30 AM to 8.30 PM. The animals received commercial pelleted rat feed  and tap water ad libitum.it; Intramedic PE-10, Becton Dickinson and Company, Sparks, MD, USA) under pentobarbital anesthesia at the dose of 60 mg/kg ip as described elsewhere [For spinal administration of drugs, animals were installed an intrathecal (lsewhere . After ripl). Ipl injections were performed at a volume of 20 µl using using a BD Micro Fine insulin syringe with the 30G × 6.0 mm needle (Becton Dickinson and Company).In one control experiments, drugs were administered intraplantarly . Stimulus forces ranged from 2 to 26 g. Time course effects are reported only at the stimulus force of 6 g that induced no response, unless DMS had induced hypersensitivity. During testing, rats were on a grid inside a transparent box covering the grid. At each time point, the monofilament was applied to the plantar skin of the hind paw five times at a frequency of about 0.5 Hz. If the animal does not respond to monofilaments at all, its response rate is 0%, and if the animal withdraws its paw every time the filament is delivered, its response rate is 100%. An increase in the response rate represents pain hypersensitivity.Heat nociception was assessed by determining withdrawal latency to noxious heat applied to the plantar skin using a radiant heat device . In the device, the rat is placed unrestrained on a glass panel and radiant heat is applied from a movable infrared generator below the glass panel to the hind paw until limb withdrawal that is detected automatically by a fiber optic sensor. The cut-off point was set at 15 s. Each measurement was replicated once at 1-min interval, and the average of the two successive measurements was used in further calculations.N,N-dimethylsphingosine (DMS) [1 receptor antagonist [it) was chosen based on earlier studies [it), isosakuranetin (10 µg it), naringenin (50 µg and 100 µg), PS  and MK-801 (5 µg it) were chosen based on our preliminary experiments. BD-1047 was used at the dose of 0.5 µg it that has attenuated neuropathic pain hypersensitivity [it that has attenuated pain hypersensitivity induced by sleep deprivation [ne (DMS) , ononetine (DMS) ) and prene (DMS) ) were putagonist ), carben studies , 13. Dosrivation , 15. Carit catheter under general anesthesia was followed by 1 week recovery. Habituation of the animals to the experimental conditions (1 hour for 3 days) was performed during the recovery period. When assessing the effects of ononetin, isosakuranetin, naringenin, BD-1047, carbenoxolone, MK-801 or AS-057278 pretreatments on the development of DMS-induced facilitation of pain, these compounds or vehicle (phosphate buffer) were administered 15 min before administration of DMS (0.5 µg) or vehicle (DMSO), and pain behavior was assessed up to 48 h as shown in Fig. Figure ipl, and pain behavior was assessed by stimulating the treated limb at various time points before and after ipl treatment.In one control group, DMS (0.5 µg) or vehicle (DMSO) was administered n = 5. Since the effects of isosakuranetin and naringenin on DMS were tested several months later than other compounds, there was an additional (Vehicle +) DMS alone group (n = 6) to be tested in parallel with isosakuranetin and naringenin, the results of which were pooled with earlier tested (Vehicle +) DMS alone groups. The experiments were performed in blinded fashion. Each animal participated in 2–4 experiments. When testing the same animal more than once, the interval between tests was at least 1 week and the order of testing counterbalanced.The group size was 6–7, except that in the “vehicle followed by vehicle” groups t-test, one-way ANOVA or two-way mixed-design ANOVA followed by t-test with a Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. p < 0.05 was considered to represent a significant difference.Data were analyzed using F2, 14 = 5.81, p = 0.015; Fig. it failed to influence heat nociception  that was maximal 60 min after DMS administration and disappeared 48 h after DMS administration. The DMS-induced mechanical hypersensitivity was dose-related  on pain behavior. DMS at a dose producing significant mechanical hypersensitivity effect following it administration did not have a significant effect on mechanically induced responses following ipl administration . The hypersensitivity effect was dose-related  was administered alone it), the animals were pretreated 15 min earlier with ononetin, a TRPM3 antagonist (100 µg it). Spinal treatments  and post-injection time  had significant effects on mechanical sensitivity that varied with the treatment group  had a significant effects on mechanical sensitivity  using pretreatments with various TRPM3 antagonists. Ononetin at the dose of 100 µg it significantly attenuated PS-induced hypersensitivity  attenuated the PS-induced mechanical hypersensitivity effect .To assess further the potential role of spinal TRPM3 in pain hypersensitivity, we attempted to prevent pain hypersensitivity induced by PS , treatment  and their interaction  were significant , treatment  and their interaction  were significant , treatment  and their interaction  were significant  and treatment  had significant main effects on hypersensitivity. Moreover, also interaction  between these main factors was significant , isosakuranetin alone (10 µg), naringenin alone , BD-1047 alone , carbenoxolone alone , MK-801 alone  or AS-057278 alone  had no effect on mechanical sensitivity (after all these drugs, the response rates overlapped with those in vehicle-treated animals; for the sake of clarity, data with these drugs alone are not shown in Fig. Administration of ononetin alone (100 µg 1 receptor antagonist, gap junction decoupler, NMDA receptor antagonist or DAAO inhibitor. Moreover, spinally administered PS, a TRPM3 agonist, recapitulated the DMS-induced hypersensitivity in a TRPM3 antagonist-reversible fashion. Spinally administered DMS or PS selectively facilitated withdrawal responses evoked by mechanical but not thermal stimulation. Further, DMS or PS application did not evoke any apparent motor responses. Thus, current findings reflect actions on the sensory rather than motor system.In line with previous results, spinal administration of DMS induced in a dose-related fashion mechanical hypersensitivity , 13. HypEarlier studies indicate that TRPM3 expressed on peripheral terminals of nociceptive primary afferents nerve fibers is involved in transduction of heat . The pre1 receptor, a receptor expressed on astrocytes [1 receptor is also expressed on oligodendrocytes [1 receptor-mediated release of endogenous DMS that promotes activation of astrocytes and thereby also release of proinflammatory cytokines [Astrocytes are the most common cell type in the central nervous system. They can respond to neuronal signals, or astrocytes can be activated by various cytokines from microglia . Astrocytrocytes , 8 and ftrocytes . In the drocytes , a sourcdrocytes . Therebyytokines .Pretreatment with an NMDA receptor antagonist attenuated the development of the DMS-induced hypersensitivity. This finding is in line with the hypothesis that an increased astroglial release of D-serine that is a co-agonist of the pronociceptive NMDA receptor contributed to the DMS-induced pronociceptive action similarly as in neuropathic pain conditions .In the central nervous system, DAAO is predominantly located in the astrocytes and it has a dual role in pain modulation . The proConcerning other potential mechanisms, a recent study showed that among key mechanisms mediating pronociceptive actions of sphingosines is sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor expressed on astrocytes .1 receptor-mediated activation of astrocytes and/or oligodendrocytes, drive of NMDA receptors due to net increase and release of astroglial D-serine, and activation of astroglial DAAO that is expected to have its potential pronociceptive effect due to drive of hydrogen peroxide—TRPA1 pathway.The present behavioral results are in line with the hypothesis that among spinal mechanisms contributing to the DMS-induced pain hypersensitivity are TRPM3 channels, the σ


The graphene nanoribbons were used to implement field-effect transistors in a bottom-gated configuration. Such approaches could realistically yield a relatively improved current on–off ratio of ~30 higher than those associated with the usual micro-ribbon strategy, with the clear potential to realize reproducible high-performance devices.Graphene nanoribbons are a greatly intriguing form of nanomaterials owing to their unique properties that overcome the limitations associated with a zero bandgap of two-dimensional graphene at room temperature. Thus, the fabrication of graphene nanoribbons has garnered much attention for building high-performance field-effect transistors. Consequently, various methodologies reported previously have brought significant progress in the development of highly ordered graphene nanoribbons. Nonetheless, easy control in spatial arrangement and alignment of graphene nanoribbons on a large scale is still limited. In this study, we explored a facile, yet effective method for the fabrication of graphene nanoribbons by employing orientationally controlled electrospun polymeric nanowire etch-mask. We started with a thermal chemical vapor deposition process to prepare graphene monolayer, which was conveniently transferred onto a receiving substrate for electrospun polymer nanowires. The polymeric nanowires act as a robust etching barrier underlying graphene sheets to harvest arrays of the graphene nanoribbons. On varying the parametric control in the process, the size, morphology, and width of electrospun polymer nanowires were easily manipulated. Upon O Howes (FETs) , which is (FETs) ,18,19,20s (FETs) ,22,23. Is (FETs) ,25,26. Ts (FETs) , whereass (FETs) . Thus, bs (FETs) . The rels (FETs) . Ideallyr scales .2) plasma. A simple route to produce GNRs is still required due to the complexity of multiple processing steps or other limitations in currently available manufacturing methods. Consequently, these technical issues inspire alternative nondestructive lithographical methods to assemble micro- or nano-objects into well-ordered structures, overcoming the fundamental and economic limitations.In this context, much effort has made on the fabrication process to evaluate the charge confinement and the edge effect on the electrical properties of the GNR-based FETs. The most commonly used method involved lithography to pattern the graphene film in nanoscale with a standard electron-beam (e-beam) source to produce individual or aligned arrays of GNRs. However, the e-beam exposure on the graphene surface often causes irradiation-induced damages and degrades the electronic transport properties of GNRs. It is therefore essential and timely to study efficient graphene patterning methods that define nanometer widths at high throughput without the use of e-beam irradiation or other cumbersome steps. To date, several advanced strategies have been suggested in patterning techniques using nanoscale masks such as metallic nanoribbons , nanowir2 plasma process successfully matched the underlying graphene sheet on the nanowire etch-masks, facilitating the conformal secure protection from the reactive irradiation. Finally, the removal of polymeric nanowires with organic solvent constructed neat and clean edges of the GNRs on a substrate. On varying the polymer solution concentration in the electrospinning process, the size, morphology, and width of GNRs were easily manipulated on a large scale. Indeed, taking advantage of this approach, highly aligned arrays of GNRs could be built with micro-contact electrodes defined by conventional photolithography to integrate them into multi- or single-channel FETs. The IOn/IOff ratio for the FET fabricated from the extremely narrow GNR increased to ~30 on a single active channel, which suggest appreciable bandgap opening at room temperature. We believe that our simple strategy for the transfer printed nanopatterns of highly controllable polymeric nanostructures can extend their potential applications in cost-effective flexible electronics with easily accessible manner.Here, we developed a simple and efficient method to create aligned arrays of GNRs masked by highly oriented polymeric nanowires from the electrospinning process with a unique geometry. This utilization directed the polymeric nanowires in highly ordered configurations and allowed to fabricate robust etch-masks on a receiving substrate covered with the monolayer graphene produced by thermal chemical vapor deposition (CVD). The subsequent controlled ON,N-dimethylformamide  and acetone (6:4 ratio) to prepare the stock solution; the polymer solution was thoroughly stirred (800 rpm) at 40 °C for 12 h. For the electrospinning process, the stock solution was diluted in 10, 15, 17, 18, and 20 wt% by adding the additional solvent. A 10 mL polypropylene syringe with a 0.2 mm nozzle (inner diameter) was filled with the prepared PMMA solution, which was loaded into the electrospinning machine  with a constant feeding of the polymer solution (0.2 mL h−1) using a syringe pump. High voltage  was then applied between the nozzle and the counterelectrodes  at the optimum distance of 6.5 cm.The poly(methyl methacrylate)  was dissolved in a mixed solvent of 2/Ar (20/50 sccm) gas was flown for the reduction of Cu. Next, a reaction gas mixture (CH4/H2/Ar = 20/60/50 sccm) was introduced in the reaction tube for 20 min to grow the graphene sheet on the catalytic surface . Finally, the reaction tube was rapidly cooled (3 °C s−1) until it reached room temperature. For the graphene transfer on the desired substrate, PMMA solution  was spun on the surface of a graphene/Cu foil . The PMMA coated graphene/Cu foil was baked on the hot plate at 70 °C for 10 min, and the Cu foil was then completely removed by using an etching solution . After the removal of Cu foil, the PMMA/graphene film floating on the DI water was scooped and transferred onto the SiO2 /Si substrates. The processing substrate was then placed on a hot plate at 130 °C for 15 min to evaporate the trapped water at the interface. Finally, the transfer medium film (PMMA) was removed by dipping in an organic solvent and rinsed with IPA.The thermal CVD process was used to synthesize a graphene sheet from Cu foil  using a typical tube furnace. As a first step, the annealing was performed for 50 min at 1050 °C under constant pressure (100 mTorr), and the mixture of H2 (dielectric)/highly doped Si (gate) substrate via thermally deposited Ti (5 nm) and Au (20 nm) and subsequent lift-off process. In the FET geometry, channel length (Lc) and channel width (W) were designed with 3 μm and 80 μm, respectively. Separately, the CVD grown graphene sheet was transferred onto the pairs of the electrodes to form a tight conformal contact. Subsequently, arrays of the PMMA etch-mask  aligned on the graphene were then formed by using an electrospinning process. Finally, the O2 plasma etching process was performed on the prepared samples to remove the unprotected regions for 30 s at 100 W with O2 gas of 100 sccm to create GNR active channels between the electric pads. After the etching process, the p-NWs were fully removed by an organic solvent.For the integration of GNRs into FETs, standard photolithography  was used. The arrays of the electric pads  were defined on a SiOThe structured surface of the samples was observed by scanning electron microscope  and optical microscope . The topological images were collected by using atomic force microscopy (AFM) in non-contact mode . The quality of graphene was verified by Raman spectroscopy with a laser excitation and spatial mapping process . The graphene-based FET measurement was carried out using a semiconductor parameter analyzer  in ambient condition. The transmittance of the graphene sheet was measured by UV-Vis .2 (280 nm) dielectric. Next, a CVD-grown monolayer graphene sheet was transferred onto the prepared electrode/SiO2/Si substrate, assisted by the thermal release tape or typical spin-casted polymer film [−1) at the supplied voltage of 15 kV. The substrate covered with aligned arrays of p-NWs was then placed in the O2 plasma chamber to etch the unmasked area, followed by the removal of p-NWs using an organic solvent . Finally, the monolithically integrated GNR FETs in multichannel arrays could be produced with an electrically isolated configuration within the channel. As presented in Tg of PMMA (140–150 °C) to be completely sagged by filling the surrounding nanogaps, prior to use the O2 plasma. This step enables to unfold randomly coiled or aligned chains of p-NWs  with the significantly increased mobility of the polymer chains [mer film . After tr chains . The eve2/Si substrate, where the perfectly matched features macroscopically observed with the underlying etch-masks after the O2 plasma process. To determine the width of the p-NWs was critical at the initial stage of the electrospinning experiment, especially for the highly aligned features, the typical trial-and-error methodology was employed to produce the p-NWs in bridged collector geometry. For this optimization, the concentration of polymer solution played an important role in controlling the alignment, width, and morphology of p-NWs onto a constringent collecting area. As guided by the previous reports, starting with a 10 wt.% concentrated PMMA solution, the nanowires were randomly distributed and disconnected in a short-wire form in the structure, while the regular nanowires appeared with a large number of bead-like morphologies were produced with the increased concentration (15 wt.%), and the appearance of such beads lasted until the concentration reached to 17 wt.%. With a slight modulation of the concentration of the polymer solution up to 18 wt.%, the beads disappeared, and eventually finely tuned requisite p-NWs could be generated in the range of 18 to 20 wt% . Subsequent O2 plasma  and removal of p-NWs with toluene successfully patterned the graphene sheet into the GNRs in a fast processing time  as presented in 2 plasma etching effect were clearly evaluated, where the size distribution of the generated GNR was reduced by more than 30% over the entire arrangement, compared to the originally formed p-NW; the insets of the representative AFM images shows an examples.o 20 wt% . Figure 2 plasma etching condition based on the estimated etch-resistance of the p-NWs. In fact, the electrospun nanowires were formed with cylindrical geometries on a flat surface in their nature; therefore, the effective masking regions should be defined only by the contact-area on the graphene surface. The cross-sectional view of the SEM image in 2 plasma environment. As reported previously, the profile of the sacrificial polymeric masking layer  can be diminished, but utilized on the underlying patternable materials, maintaining the critical dimensions, by the accurate changes of the plasma settings [2 plasma condition started with the identical width of the p-NWs on the graphene surface. Surprisingly, the much deeper plasma treatment  reduced the width-scale of the GNRs from the original profile of 303 ± 23 nm to up to 120 ± 16 nm. It is important to note that once a perfect etch-mask array  was formed on the graphene surface with conformal passivation, the exposed graphene regions were firstly removed by O2 plasma, then the passivated p-NWs and graphene were simultaneously etched progressively via a rigorous ion bombardment  [−1), G (1588 cm−1), and D (1352 cm−1) peaks, where the I2D/IG found to be 1.82, indicating a monolayer graphene of high quality with a minimum detection of D peak; the inset shows an optical micrograph of the graphene transferred on the SiO2/Si substrate. As presented in 2/Si substrate, implying the effective removal of graphene exposed area to the O2 plasma process.To explore the plasma etching effect for the optimized GNR fabrication, the correlation of the etch-masks  and the resulted width of GNRs were monitored as illustrated in settings . In our  I2D/IG) ,47. Figu2 plasma, which leads to the electrically confined GNR-array with the width over the range from 80 to 230 nm  may induce p-doped behavior in the graphene-based FETs. Though GNR array FET is preferred in terms of on-current characteristics, misalignment and slight variations in the width of the individual GNRs degrade quantum confinement of charge carriers by providing the multiple electron transport pathways.The patterned GNRs were readily integrated for bottom-gated FETs on a highly doped Si substrate as schematically illustrated in o 230 nm . Electrio 230 nm . The devAu or Pt . In addi2 plasma flushed on the prepared substrate to reduce the initial diameter of the p-NWs at the same time as the graphene width, the extremely harsh conditions on the etch-mask enabled to create a single GNR channel formed between source/drain electrodes. Notably, the FETs consisting of 20 GNRs exhibited current on/off ratio of ~4 . When the Oio of ~4 d, which io of ~4 ). Nevertductance . As a tyectively . Within  for 2 h g. Unlike for 2 h h. It was for 2 h j–l. When for 2 h j. The me for 2 h k; no not for 2 h l. Conclu2 plasma etching process. Detailed characterization of the GNRs by AFM, SEM, and electrical measurements on single- and multi-channel devices reveal the key features of the related properties of the GNR arrays. The improved gate-modulation has proved a beneficial effect on devices built with the GNR arrays. Our strategy is compatible with various optimized dry etching processes described in the recent literature. Moreover, the p-NW could act as passivation masks underlying GNR to drive current capability and charge neutral point shift. The presence of both electron and hole conduction is a unique feature of our strategy to build GNR-based FETs. The current study represents the great potential of 2D electronics from graphene sheet to large-scale integration of GNRs into nanoelectronics [In summary, we developed a facile but robust method to fabricate GNRs by employing highly aligned arrays of polymeric etch-mask. Tailored configuration of p-NWs such as size, alignment, and width was fully demonstrated using a modified electrospinning process with a bridged collector. As a result, well-aligned narrow GNR has been produced by the p-NW protected Octronics .


Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive disease of the lungs that leads to parenchymal scarring and death due to respiratory failure within a few years despite the recent therapeutic advances . DiagnosTwo main aspects are noteworthy in a critical view of IPF: first, truly idiopathic diseases do not exist in biology, but they are classified as such due to an incomplete understanding of their underlying mechanisms; second, fibrosis is a physiological process that follows repair after injury when complete regeneration is not achievable, thus it only turns into disease when it becomes disproportionate and/or progressive. Indeed, it is not the UIP pattern itself that distinguishes IPF from other interstitial lung diseases most, but its progressive behavior.The currently prevailing hypothesis for IPF pathogenesis holds that the fibrotic cascade starts from defective alveolar epithelial type-II (ATII) cells, which are not able to trans-differentiate into the more widespread alveolar epithelial type-I (ATI) cells and consequently to regenerate the alveolar epithelium like they normally do after injury or during turnover.We have reviewed some of the dramatic progresses that have been recently made in the understanding of the pathogenic mechanisms of IPF, with special regard to the role of epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT) .EMT is a biological process in which, under several stimuli, epithelial cells lose their normal polarity and shape to acquire mesenchymal features of migration and extracellular matrix production . DespiteOne milestone on this topic is the lineage-tracing study by Rock et al., who found that only a relatively small number of fibroblasts derive from epithelial cells and that myofibroblast markers (α-smooth muscle actin) do not co-localize with EMT-derived cells in the bleomycin-induced mouse model of lung fibrosis. The authors conclude that no contribution to the expansion of mesenchymal population comes from EMT in this experimental setting .On the contrary, Chilosi and coauthors gave the first demonstration that, in human tissue samples of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, known markers of major EMT signaling pathways (ZEB1 and β-catenin) are concurrently expressed both in fibroblast foci and in damaged epithelial cells, providing indirect evidence that EMT plays a role in human pathology. While this finding contrasts what was previously observed in vivo with the robust technique of lineage tracing, it must be stressed that the bleomycin-induced mouse model of IPF is possibly a suboptimal one, as fibrosis develops in response to acute inflammatory damage and tends to be self-resolving, contrary to what happens in human disease .Subsequent studies reported that platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGFβ1), tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and other mediators that play a role in the migration, proliferation and activation of fibroblasts, are expressed by hyperactivated lung epithelial cells. Furthermore, TGFβ1 has been shown to interact with developmental pathways that are overexpressed in IPF epithelial cells , converging to EMT via the activation of SMAD3  and receThe sum of this evidence supports the new interpretative key for IPF pathogenesis that has emerged in recent years: ATII stemness failure, as a consequence of the ATII-to-ATI trans-differentiation blockade, seems to be responsible for the hyperactivation of ATII cells and the upregulation of several upstream pathways that are major drivers of EMT, besides directly stimulating fibroblast proliferation and collagen secretion in a paracrine fashion .In other words, according to this hypothesis, the abnormal occurrence of EMT contributing to lung fibrosis is thought to be indirectly stimulated by an impairment in the process that physiologically allows for the regeneration of the alveolar epithelium, which could be properly named “epithelial-to-epithelial transition (EET)”.Important knowledge was added to the field after the publication of our review paper. Notably, Su et al. found that RAS-responsive element binding protein 1 (RREB1) is a key partner of TGF-β-activated SMAD transcription factors in EMT , while QGiven the tight relationship between the epithelium and endothelium in the alveolus, future research should also be directed towards investigating the mechanisms of endothelial–mesenchymal transition (endoMT) and, in general, the possible contribution of endothelial cells to the development of fibrosis.It is likely that the increasing recognition of precise molecular mechanisms and factors of genetic susceptibility will soon allow for both the removal of the wording “idiopathic” from “IPF” and the identification of more effective therapeutic targets. In fact, the two commercially available drugs for IPF, Pirfenidone and Nintedanib, decelerate the progression of the disease by interfering with EMT among several other processes; however, any future therapeutic approach will likely be a game-changer only if it will be able to restore the normal epithelial function instead of just blocking the late function of fibrosis.In conclusion, despite the fact that huge advances in the understanding of IPF are still needed to pave the way for the development of new and more effective therapies, we have re-analyzed the concept of EMT and discussed its contribution to the pathogenesis of fibrosis, supporting the most recent hypothesis, according to which it may be considered not as a primitive mechanism of disease, but rather as an alternative process to dysfunctional EET.