Universal platforms to analyze biomolecules using sensor devices can address critical diagnostic challenges. Sensor devices like electrical-based field-effect transistors play an essential role in sensing biomolecules by charge probing. Graphene-based devices are more suitable for these applications. It has been previously reported that Graphene Field-Effect Transistor (GFET) devices detect DNA hybridization, pH sensors, and protein molecules. Graphene became a promising material for electrical-based field-effect transistor devices in sensing biomarkers, including biomolecules and proteins. In the last decade, FET devices have detected biomolecules such as DNA molecules, pH, glucose, and protein. These studies have suggested that the reference electrode is placed externally and measures the transfer characteristics. However, the external probing method damages the samples, requiring safety measurements and a substantial amount of time. To control this problem, the graphene field-effect transistor (GFET) device is fabricated with an inbuilt gate that acts as a reference electrode to measure the biomolecules. Herein, the monolayer graphene is exfoliated, and the GFET is designed with an in-built gate to detect the Interleukin-6 (IL-6) protein. IL-6 is a multifunctional cytokine which plays a significant role in immune regulation and metabolism. Additionally, IL-6 subsidizes a variability of disease states, including many types of cancer development, and metastasis, progression, and increased levels of IL-6 are associated with a higher risk of cancer and can also serve as a prognostic marker for cancer. Here, the protein is desiccated on the GFET device and measured, and Dirac point shifting in the transfer characteristics systematically evaluates the device’s performance. Our work yielded a conductive and electrical response with the IL-6 protein. This graphene-based transducer with an inbuilt gate gives a promising platform to enable low-cost, compact, facile, real-time, and sensitive amperometric sensors to detect IL-6. Targeting this pathway may help develop treatments for several other symptoms, such as neuromyelitis optica, uveitis, and, more recently, COVID-19 pneumonia. Recently, the detection of the electrical conduction of biological species and chemical sensors by advanced nanomaterial-based sensor devices, like carbon nanotubes, graphene, and silicon nanowires, has garnered substantial attention ,2 for clCarbon-based device characteristics face some problems in terms of reliability, and a carbon nanotube’s diameter controls are a significant problem . Efforts2 layer was a perfect match to investigate the biomolecules [Recently, sensing measurements have received considerable attention using graphene-based devices because of the direct exposure to the electrolyte. While sensing the biological species, it has to be noted that the electric window of the material is broad, which means that it should be hard to oxidize in solution. Electrolyte-gated GFETs have exposed good electrical characteristics . They alolecules . In elec2 layer (90 nm thick) and thermally grown on a silicon substrate. The inbuilt gate was fabricated as a reference electrode to avoid species damage.The basic principle of GFET sensors to identify the chemical or biological species is to adsorb the molecules on the graphene surface, which acts as a donor or acceptor electron, resulting in a change in conductance ,31,32. TIn this work, we have fabricated a GFET with an inbuilt gate and analyzed the conductance changes by Interleukin (IL-6) protein sample adsorption. Herein, the reference electrode was fabricated as an inbuilt gate to avoid sample damages, external disturbances, and to increase the effectiveness of the sensor. For the first time, we desiccated the IL-6 protein samples on the inbuilt gate GFET device. IL-6 is a kind of pleiotropic cytokine that is more important for immune regulation and exercise metabolism. For the inflammatory responses, cytokines play a significant role in the course of immunology, and they create an interaction between the cells. The major function of the cytokine is to transform the intercellular signals to regulate systemic inflammatory responses. It functions as an immunoregulator in the processes of wound healing and immunity. The transfer characteristics of the device have been studied after desiccating; the IL-6 protein has been desiccated on the substrate. The sensor responds to the charge transfer for the interaction of protein samples bound to the GFET substrate and it is reflected in the Dirac point shifting. It is observed that GFETs are promising sensor devices for developing real-time chemical and biological sensors.2/Si substrate (90 nm). The graphene sheets on the substrate were identified using an optical microscope. Optical microscopy  was used to determine the monolayer graphene on the SiO2/Si substrate, and it was confirmed by Raman spectroscopy . The Raman spectrum of monolayer graphene was explained in the results and discussion. The band structure of monolayer graphene was analyzed and confirmed, then CAD software  was used to design the electrodes interaction and contact pads utilized for the metal contact. We designed the source, drain, gate, and contact pads using a CAD tool based on the monolayer structure and then initiated the fabrication steps.The monolayer graphene was exfoliated with Kish graphite using mechanical exfoliation with the help of scotch tape and it was deposited onto a SiO2/Si substrate layer. The HMDS layer is a self-assembled protective layer, and it prevents contamination. Furthermore, it improves the electrical characteristics of the device. The complete fabrication steps were clearly demonstrated in this section, and it is schematically shown in −2 power at 405 nm and exposure with dose of 85 mJ cm−2, was developed for the proper AZ-resist pattern on the substrate. To create the suitable resist, the substrate was dipped into the standard developer  for about 2–3 min and rinsing the substrate for 30 s in deionized (DI) water. This step helps the substrate to obtain the perfect contact cut to develop the Source and Drain. The electron-gun evaporator  was used for the evaporation of metal to develop the Source and Drain electrodes (Ti/Au~10/200 nm) on the substrate. The Liftoff method had to be used to remove the metal deposition from the unfavorable regions of the substrate at 80 °C for 1 h using N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone  and the substrate was repeatedly washed with acetone and isopropanol. The insulating layer (Al2O3) was developed by atomic layer deposition (ALD) at 0.8 Å/cycle to passivate the electrodes on the substrate. The Source and Drain electrodes were fabricated on the substrate effectively.Initially, a hydrophobic hexamethyldisilazane  was uniformly coated on the SiOFurthermore, the gate electrode (Ti/Pt~150/50 nm) was fabricated on the substrate in an inbuilt approach. Similar fabrication methods were shadowed to develop the inbuilt gate electrode. Hence, the electrodes are developed on the substrate successfully. The working condition of the device was analyzed by the output and transfer characteristics using a semiconductor parameter analyzer . The detailed study of the device is explained in the 2/Si substrate, and the top-gate measurement was carried out with the Ti/Pt electrode. The electrical characteristics were analyzed for both the buffer solution and protein sample with proper calibration. Generally, the GFET device was operated at low voltage to prevent oxidization of the electrodes and the graphene channel. The schematic diagram of the complete GFET device desiccated with IL-6 is shown in The IL-6 was acquired from Greiner Bio-One, . The IL-6 protein samples (10 mM) were prepared appropriately for the phosphate-buffered saline (PBS). The graphene device was initially gestated for 2 h in phosphate-buffered saline . The transfer characteristics of the device were measured after a delicate wash with deionized water. The prepared protein samples were desiccated for 1 h 30 min on the GFET at room temperature. The device was completely washed with deionized water and the transfer characteristics were measured. The amperometric measurement of the device was carried out using a semiconductor parameter analyzer. Herein, the back-gate measurement was carried out with SiO2/Si substrate and identified using optical microscopy. The Raman spectrum analysis examined the monolayer structure. The Raman spectrum results of the monolayer structure are based on the position, intensity ratio, and width of the G and 2D peaks observed at 1600 and 2680 cm−1, respectively, as shown in Exfoliated monolayer graphene was placed on a SiO2O3) was developed using atomic layer deposition (ALD) to passivate the electrodes on the substrate, as shown in The monolayer graphene was identified by designing the electrodes as per the monolayer structure using a CAD tool, as shown in d = 0.01 V), as shown in d of bare graphene was decreased initially and then it was increased, exhibiting graphene’s electronic behavior, which matches the report of Ohno et al. [Graphene is a very sensitive and thin material; while handling the material for making a transistor, it may create Schottky contact between the interfacing metal and graphene. The advantage of the zero energy band gap in graphene and proper handling creates the ohmic contact. The two-dimensional graphene is very sensitive and more effective with metal contact. The interfacing metal Ti/Au was used for the graphene contact. The output characteristics were calculated using sweeping voltage, as shown in o et al. . The coro et al. .d) of the device measured in the buffer solution was plotted against the top-gate voltage VTG (for Vd = 0.01 V) and the source-drain voltage, as shown in d = 0.01 V. It was observed that the transportation of holes and electrons occurred, making the Id values initially decrease and then increase. The conduction of holes and electrons was observed on the device channel for the consequent Vg–. One possible reason for this behavior is due to the charge impurities present in the graphene underlying the silicon substrate. The instability of the Dirac point shifting reveals the presence of charge impurities. The transfer characteristics were measured separately for buffer solution (PBS) and IL-6 protein with PBS.Generally, for sensor applications, top-gate was comparatively good for device consistency. The top-gated GFETs were fabricated with dielectrics to improve the device’s reliability. The PBS buffer solution was dropped on the substrate and desiccated for 2 h at room temperature. The drain current  whenever it interacts with the positively (negatively) charged proteins. In contrast, the GFETs can equally detect positive charge and negative charge biomolecules, since a Schottky barrier is not produced at the interface between the graphene and electrodes due to its zero-gap nature. These subjects should be investigated for different adsorption protein molecules with other enzymes in order to advance the detection of biomolecules using GFET devices.The conductance increased for the buffer solution and proved that substantial charge transfer occurred. Moreover, the transfer characteristics were measured for protein samples; 2/Si substrate (90 nm) using a CAD tool for the electrode design. We demonstrated a GFET device with output characteristics and transfer characteristics. The output characterization results show that the device contacts are good and working correctly. In the transfer characteristics of the device, the Dirac point was measured and followed by the resistance measurement, showing reproducible results. It is thus suitable for further investigation of IL-6 protein samples. The GFETs measurements showed good transfer characteristics in IL-6 protein samples; their transconductances strongly represented the presence of biomolecules on the surface of the graphene. Moreover, the substantial charge transfer was observed and reflected in the Dirac point shifting, demonstrating the doping effects. The changes that occurred on the graphene channel and the phenomena make one believe that the GFETs can be used for protein detection, and are promising candidates for developing real-time applications such as chemical and biological sensors for detecting biomolecules like COVID-19 pneumonia. For future enhancements, creating an integrated, flexible device and an additional wireless data transfer system would make this device suitable for designing wearable sensor devices during the event of a pandemic.The inbuilt-gated GFET was fabricated and explored for sensing the IL-6 protein in this work. The sensor device was fabricated with a 2D exfoliated monolayer graphene material on the SiO


The synthesized materials were subject to standard characterisation processes to verify their morphological and structural details. The electrochemical performances of nanostructured Al2O3 and Al2O3- rGO hybrid were evaluated through computational and experimental analyses. Due to the superior electrical conductivity of reduced graphene oxide and the synergistic effect of both EDLC and pseudocapacitive behaviour, the Al2O3- rGO hybrid shows much improved electrochemical performance (~ 15-fold) as compared to bare Al2O3. Further, a symmetric supercapacitor device (SSD) was designed using the Al2O3- rGO hybrid electrodes, and detailed electrochemical performance was evaluated. The fabricated Al2O3- rGO hybrid-based SSD showed 98.56% capacity retention when subjected to ~ 10,000 charge–discharge cycles. Both the systems (Al2O3 and its rGO hybrid) have been analysed extensively with the help of Density Functional Theory simulation technique to provide detailed structural and electronic properties. With the introduction of reduced graphene oxide, the available electronic states near the Fermi level are greatly enhanced, imparting a significant increment in the conductivity of the hybrid system. The lower diffusion energy barrier for electrolyte ions and higher quantum capacitance for the hybrid structure compared to pristine Al2O3 justify improvement in charge storage performance for the hybrid structure, supporting our experimental findings.The advancements in electrochemical capacitors have noticed a remarkable enhancement in the performance for smart electronic device applications, which has led to the invention of novel and low-cost electroactive materials. Herein, we synthesized nanostructured Al Among miscellaneous electrical energy storage devices, rechargeable batteries and electrochemical capacitors have drawn significant interest, due to their widespread application in industries and our daily lives, for the last few years, because of their impressive electrochemical profile, characterised by excellent cyclic stability, high rate of charge/discharge, balanced specific energy, and power density values5. Supercapacitors (both electric double layer capacitors (EDLCs) and pseudocapacitors) have the advantage of releasing energy in a shorter time by using their fast surface or near surface electrochemical reactions (surface adsorption/diffusion processes)6. In the case of both EDLC and pseudocapacitive types of supercapacitors, the most frequently used materials (for electrode fabrication), for academia and industries, including both the carbon-based (for EDLC) and transition-metal-based compounds (for pseudocapacitor)8. Among various transition metal compounds, transition metal oxides usually have lower electrical conductivity than carbon-based materials. Likewise, in the case of carbon-based materials, we often observe uneven morphologies and wide pore size distributions. Compared to materials mentioned earlier, oxides of transition group metals are a prominent group of materials for supercapacitors9. Metal oxides have unique chemical, physical and electrochemical properties, such as mechanical, thermal stability, and high capacity. They can be easily synthesized and are quite cheaper than metal hydroxides, carbon-based active materials, and conducting polymers11.The conventional resources utilized to provide the world's energy requirements, such as coal, oil, natural gas, and petroleum products, are facing rapid exhaustion. On the other hand, the combustion of these fossil fuels creates severe environmental issues. Therefore, it is crucial to find alternative energy resources that are sustainable, clean, and abundant. In the current scenario, electrochemical energy storage devices are crucial in overcoming fossil fuel depletion and global warming. used commercial Al foil as the current collector for supercapacitor application. The laser-treated Al current collector shows better electrochemical performance (higher capacitance and cyclic stability) than the pristine-Al current collector due to lower internal resistances12. Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) has many distinctive and attractive behaviours, such as good thermal conductivity, inertness to most acids and alkalis, high mechanical strength, high adsorption capacity, good thermal stability, non-toxicity, and cost-effectiveness15. These fascinating properties compel Al2O3 nanostructures to be a potential material for catalysis, sensors, batteries, and supercapacitors. To use Al2O3 nanostructures as electrode material for supercapacitors, Dia et al.16 synthesized an Al2O3-ZnO composite using the solvent precipitation method for supercapacitor application. Even though the electrochemical behaviour of electroactive material Al2O3 nanostructures has been found suitable for energy storage applications, electrochemical performance in aspects of gravimetric capacitance, specific energy, and specific power, still needs further improvement. The combination of an EDLC material with a pseudocapacitive material can impart a balance between energy density and power density. The EDLC material typical has high power density with low energy density, while a pseudocapacitive material has high energy density with moderate power density. When integrated into composite or hybrids, EDLC and pseudocapacitive materials will provide significant improvement which is otherwise could not be obtained individually18. Reduced graphene oxide can enhance the electrical conductivity, mechanical stability, and surface area of electrochemically active metal oxides for supercapacitor application, the use of reduced graphene oxide hybrid is one of the most effective routes20.Aluminum (Al) has the highest abundance  in the earth's crust and is used in various research fields or day-to-day lives due to its low cost and lightweight nature. Previously, Huang et al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid for supercapacitor application. We performed detailed electrochemical characterisation of pristine Al2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid, along with computational analyses. Interestingly, the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid shows higher storage performance (~ 15-fold higher) than pristine Al2O3, which can be attributed to the synergistic effect of both EDLC and pseudocapacitive behaviour. To support our experimental data as well as to get theoretical insights regarding interactions between Al2O3 and reduced graphene oxide, we have done Density Functional Theory simulations for Al2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid.In the current work, we describe a low-cost, environmentally benign, and easily scalable method to prepare an Al3)3.9H2O], glucose anhydrous [C6H12O6], ammonia (NH3.H2O), and sodium sulfate (Na2SO4) were purchased from Merck, India. Activated carbon (AC) and PVDF were bought from Alfa Aesar (India). The commercial grade stainless steel  obtained from Amazon (India) was used as the substrate for the electrochemical study. All stainless-steel substrates were thoroughly cleaned with ethanol and DI water many times by ultra-sonication process and polished using sandpapers. Then they were dried in an electric hot-air oven at 60 ℃ for one hour and afterward used as the substrate for electroactive material coating.Aluminium nitrate nonahydrate [Al3.9H2O and 2.5 g of C6H12O6 were mixed in 60 mL of Millipore water using an ultrasonication mixer. Afterward, 10 mL of NH3·H2O solution was added to the above precursor solution, and the final mixture solution was subject to ultra-sonication for ~ 1.5 h. The mixture was then carefully transferred to a Teflon-lined stainless steel autoclave of 100 mL capacity and was kept for 24 h at 200 °C in a hot air oven. Precipitates were collected once the hydrothermal reaction was complete, repeatedly washed via several centrifugation steps (using absolute ethanol), and dried at 70 °C overnight. After drying, the as-synthesized sample was thermally treated at 1100 ºC for five hours to obtain the product.Nanostructured Al2O3 powder was added to the GO dispersion solution, which was subsequently kept under ultra-sonication for one hour. Finally, the mixture solution was transferred to a 100 mL autoclave (Teflon lined stainless steel) and kept in a hot air oven at 180 °C for 15 h. The precipitated Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid was centrifuged in absolute ethanol and kept inside a hot air oven to dry at 60 °C overnight. The details schematic representation of the synthesis process for both the Al2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid has been provided in Fig. The commercial grade graphene oxide (GO) powder (purity > 99%) was purchased from ULTRANANOTECH (India). In a typical approach, GO was dispersed in 50 mL of de-ionized water to form a homogeneous GO dispersion by ultra-sonication for about two hours. Then the prepared (aforementioned) Al2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid was obtained using a Bruker D8 Advance X-ray diffractometer instrument at 40 kV and 40 mA with Cu-Kα radiation. The surface morphology of the as-prepared Al2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid nanostructure was analyzed using field-emission scanning electron microscopy  under different magnifications and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) was carried out on Oxford instruments. The BET surface area analysis was done using Quanta chrome (Model: Quadrasorbevo 3), USA. The oxidation states of the constituent elements in the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid were confirmed with the help of X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy , USA (Model: PHI 5000 VERSA PROBE III)). High-Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (HR-TEM- JEOL JEM 2100 PLUS) analyses were performed for the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid to find morphological, crystallographic, and compositional information.The XRD analysis of the Al21. The process was carried out by preparing a slurry, where the electroactive material (Al2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid), AC, and PVDF (mixture weight ratio 85:10:5) were mixed and ground together with a viable proportion of N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) as the dispersing medium, using an agate-mortar. In the next step, the prepared slurry was coated on the surface of a pre-cleaned stainless-steel substrate of an area of 1 × 1 cm2 and was kept for drying in an electric oven. The mass loading in the case of both Al2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrodes was ~ 1 mg each, which was calculated by noting the difference in the weights of the bare and the coated stainless-steel electrode, with the help of a precision weighing balance .As reported previously, the fabrication of the working electrode was done with the help of the slurry coating method on stainless-steel substrates2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid coated stainless steel served as the working electrode, while Ag/AgCl and platinum were used as the reference and counter electrodes, respectively. The Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid based 2-electrode symmetric device (SSD) was assembled by using a Whatman filter paper, which electrically isolates the two Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrodes. The electrochemical performances of the Al2O3 electrode, Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode, and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid symmetric cell device (SSD) were evaluated through potentiodynamic cyclic voltammetry (CV), galvanostatic charge–discharge (CD), and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) techniques, using a multichannel Biologic electrochemical workstation (model no: VSP-300), by taking 1 M aqueous solution of Na2SO4 as the electrolyte. The gravimetric capacitance (Csp), specific energy (Es), and specific power (Ps) of the Al2O3 electrode, Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode, and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD were evaluated via the following Eqs.21:For three electrode measurements, AlCsp” denotes the gravimetric capacitance (F g−1), “I” represents the applied current (A), “∆V” is the electrochemically stable potential range, “s” is the sweep rate (mV s−1), “∆t” is the discharge duration (s), and “m” is the mass-loading in gram.Here, “23. The pseudopotentials employed for the present system were based on the projector-augmented wave (PAW) functional24. The GGA exchange-correlational functional was used to undertake ion–electron interactions26. For optimization and electronic calculations, the convergence criteria were set as 0.01 eV/Å and 10–5 eV for force and energy, respectively. For a plane-wave basis, kinetic energy cut-off was taken at 500 eV. The Brillouin zones were sampled using a K points mesh with the Monkhorst–Pack grid of 5 × 5 × 3 and 5 × 5 × 1 for bulk and surface optimization while a 7 × 7 × 3 and 7 × 7 × 1 for electronic energy calculations, respectively27.For electronic structure computations, we have implemented plane wave DFT package VASP(VIENNA ab initio simulation package) code2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid XRD comparison chart. The X-ray diffraction pattern for reduced graphene oxide has been provided in Fig. 2O3 XRD pattern, the peaks at 25.77°, 35.36°, 38.06°, 43.65°, 52.75°, 57.64°, 61.54°, 66.73°, 68.33°, and 77.23°, are ascribed to (012), (104), (110), (113), (024), (116), (018), (214), (300), and (119) reflections of rhombohedral Al2O3 (PDF:43-1484), respectively, demonstrating the successful formation of the Al2O3 nanostructure28. In the case of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid, all the peaks are well matched with rhombohedral Al2O3 with an additional broad peak at 2θ = 23°. The peak at 2θ = 23° indicates the (002) plane of reduced graphene oxide sheets via the hydrothermal reduction method. The XRD pattern suggests the formation of high-purity and high-crystalline Al2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was employed to examine the bonding situation and electronic states in the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid29. Figure 3+ in Al2O3. The peak observed  and elemental mapping of Al2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid have been illustrated in Figs. 2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid nanostructure. The elemental mapping reveals the homogeneous distribution of elements such as Al, O . It is intriguing to note that the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode can work at a much higher current range than the Al2O3 electrode, demonstrating the improved electrochemical performance of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode. The improvement in the electrochemical performance of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode compared to the bare Al2O3 electrode is due to the additional charge adsorption that occurs in the presence of an EDLC component like reduced graphene oxide content besides the pseudocapacitive contribution from the Al2O3. Also, the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode possesses a better electrode and electrolyte interface38. Figure 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode at various sweep rates (5–100 mV s−1) in the potential range of − 0.8 to 0.4 V (vs. Ag/AgCl). The CV profile of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode takes a quasi-rectangular shape, indicating the effective intralayer charge transfer and a nearly capacitive behaviour39. The effect of scan rate on the specific capacitance of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode is shown in Fig. 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode exhibits the highest gravimetric capacitance, 157.29 F g−1, at 5 mV s−1, which is ~ 15-fold higher than the bare Al2O3 electrode (11.06 F g−1 at 5 mV s−1). The specific capacitance of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode reduces at faster potential sweep rates, which can be attributed to the slower reaction kinetics and sluggish ion transportation inside the electrolytic medium41. The Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid retains about 62.76% of its initial capacitance, even when the potential sweep rate is increased 20-fold (100 mV s−1), indicating better rate performance of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode.Electrochemical characteristics of bare Al2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrodes' electrochemical behaviour was also quantitatively determined from the CD curves. Figure 2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrodes, which indicate that Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrodes need higher charge and discharge times than Al2O3 electrodes, thus suggesting improved electrochemical performance. The CD characteristics of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode at various applied currents (1–10 mA) are recorded and shown in Fig. 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode, which agrees with the CV profile42. Figure 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode obtained a maximum specific capacitance of about 159.28 F g−1 at an applied current of 1 mA, which is quite high compared to the bare Al2O3 electrode (10.38 F g−1). The electrochemical performance of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode is found to be higher than various electroactive materials listed in Table Moreover, Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode over the bare Al2O3 electrode43. Figure 2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrodes, recorded in the frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz. It is visible that the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode has a lower Warburg region (the straight line at low frequency) compared to the bare Al2O3 electrode, with solution resistance (Rs) and charge transfer resistance (Rct) values, 1.33 Ω and 16.67 Ω, respectively. The Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode obtained a short diffusion path length for ion transfer, which could be noticed from the low resistance of the capacitive part on the Nyquist plot44. The Nyquist plot reveals that the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode has a higher electrical conductivity than the bare Al2O3 electrode due to the inclusion of reduced graphene oxide, which greatly enhanced the overall electron transfer rate45. The Bode phase angle plot of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode is shown in Fig. 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode tail at the low-frequency region is about − 72.29°, which suggests that the charge storage occurs in terms of both EDLC and pseudocapacitive activities in the hybrid46. The electrode was then subject to continuous CD measurement for over 5000 cycles at a constant charge–discharge current of 7.5 mA, which is shown in Fig. 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode retained ~ 89% of the initial specific capacitance after 5000 CD cycles. To investigate the specific capacitance decay in the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode, we executed EIS measurement using the Nyquist plot before and after cyclic stability and presented in Fig. Rs (1.33 to 1.43) and Rct (16.67 to 23.07) values before and after the cyclic stability test, which may be the reason behind the observed capacitance decay. Detailed CV and CD tests were carried out on the bare Al2O3 electrode at various scan rates and normalised current values, as shown in Fig. 2O3 electrode and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode is provided in Fig. S748. To further identify the charge storage or capacitance contribution by EDLC and pseudocapacitance process, the Trasatti plot of the bare Al2O3 electrode and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode has been provided in Fig. S850. The overall capacitance of the electroactive material can be ascribed to the combined effect of the surface adsorbed electric double-layer process and the diffusion-controlled pseudocapacitive process. In Fig. sp vs. v1/2 at v = 0 indicates the total charge stored in the bare Al2O3 electrode and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode, respectively. Similarly, in Fig. csp vs. v-1/2 at v = ∞ illustrates the amount of charge stored due to the electric double-layer process in the bare Al2O3 electrode and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrode, respectively. The pseudocapacitive contribution can be estimated by subtracting the electric double-layer capacitance from the overall capacitance. According to the Trasatti method  in the potential range of 0.0–1.0 V. The CV profiles of Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD demonstrate typical rectangular behaviour, which remains almost the same with the increase in the sweep rate from 5 to 500 mV s−1, indicating the capacitive characteristic53. The specific capacitance values of Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD at various scan rates are shown in Fig. 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD has been calculated to be about 9.34 F g−1 at the scan rate of 5 mV s−1. The CD curves of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD are shown in Fig. 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD at a constant current of 1 mA and various applied currents from 0.25 to 2.50 mA. The CD profiles reveal that the charging and discharging profiles of CD curves possess good symmetry. The graph between gravimetric capacitance and different applied current values for Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD is shown in Fig. −1 can be obtained at an applied current of 0.25 mA. To further understand the charge transfer kinetics in the case of Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD, EIS measurement was performed in the frequency range of 0.01–100 kHz, using the Nyquist and Bode plot. Figure 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD, with an inset showing the Nyquist plot's enlarged view at the low-frequency region. The Nyquist analysis shows that the values of Rs and Rct are about 0.81 Ω and 23.55 Ω, respectively, indicating good electrical conductivity of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD. The Bode plot (phase angle as a function of frequency) of Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD is shown in Fig. 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD is about -67.90°, which signifies both EDLC and pseudocapacitive contributions46. To describe the specific energy and specific power characteristics of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD, Fig. 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD obtained a maximum energy density of about 1.49 Wh kg−1 with a corresponding power density of 78.125 W kg−1. The power density of SSD increases up to 1.562 kW kg−1 with an increased applied current of 5 mA. The Ragone plot clearly indicates higher specific energy of Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD compared to Ni2P (0.24 Wh kg−1)54, Cu3SbS4 (0.64 Wh kg−1), Cu3SbS3 (0.7 Wh kg−1), Cu12Sb4S13 (0.85 Wh kg−1)55, Mxene (0.089 Wh kg−1)56. Figure 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD, obtained at a constant current of 1 mA for over 10,000 cycles. The Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD demonstrates excellent cyclic stability with a retention of 98.56%. The obtained capacitance retention (98.56%) of Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD is higher compared to the previously reported SSD such as rGO-PMo12 (89–95%)57, Co3O4-VAGN (86.3%)58, MXene-reduced graphene oxide (90%)59, cobalt hexacyanoferrate-reduced graphene oxide (83%)60 and famatinite-reduced graphene oxide (95.5%)61. To support the excellent cyclic stability of Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD, we performed EIS analyses before and after 10,000 cycles and found no such variation in Rs and Rct values after the cyclic stability test, as shown in Fig. 2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid SSD. To demonstrate the real-time application of the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid, we have fabricated Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid based coin cell SSD and successfully powered a red LED by series connection , using Al2O3 having space group R-3C with the hexagonal unit cell containing 12 six-coordinated Al atoms and 18 four-coordinated O atoms. The relaxed bulk structure is displayed in Fig. 62. Figure 2O3. The symmetry between up-spin and down-spin channels indicates a non-magnetic signature where a large gap at the Fermi level indicates that Al2O3 is a wide band gap insulator. The computed band gap employing GGA exchange–correlation functional is 5.95 eV, matching well with PBE-based theoretical data of 6.045 eV from literature63. But, it is lower than the experimental value of 8.8 eV as DFT underestimates the band gap and more sophisticated methods like hybrid functional calculations are needed to match experimental data64. Using the relaxed structure of bulk Al2O3, we have generated (113) surface of Al2O3 since it has the most intense XRD peak. Further, we allowed the (113) surface of Al2O3 to relax for minimum energy configuration, and Fig. 2O3. From the relaxed (113) surface of the Al2O3 and reduced graphene oxide layer, we have generated a hybrid layer of Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide so that the lattice mismatch is negligible. The geometry-optimized hybrid layer of Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide is displayed in Fig. 2O3 and the hybrid layer of Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide in Fig. We have considered Al2O3 and reduced graphene oxide, in Fig. 2O3 and C 2p orbital of reduced graphene oxide for the hybrid system and corresponding pristine cases. We can notice that for the O 2p orbital of Al2O3, there is an enhancement in the electronic states in the hybrid system compared to pure Al2O3. Similarly, for the C 2p orbital of reduced graphene oxide, there is a reduction in the electronic states near the Fermi level in the hybrid system compared to pristine reduced graphene oxide. This enhancement in states for O 2p orbital and reduction in states for C 2p orbital of reduced graphene oxide indicate that the interaction is due to charge transfer from reduced graphene oxide to Al2O3. To find the quantitative charge transfer, we have performed Bader charge analysis. According to Bader charge partitioning, Al2O3 has a gain of 0.38e charge in the supercell. The difference in the charge density between Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide and Al2O3 has been plotted in Fig. 2O3 and is denoted by red colour.To find the orbital interactions between Al+ in Al2O3 and in hybrid Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide. The lower the diffusion energy barrier, the higher the mobility and the better the charge transfer capability. We can see from Fig. + ions is lower for the hybrid Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide system, justifying the superior charge storage performance in the hybrid system compared to Al2O3.We have also computed the diffusion energy barrier of the electrolytic ion Na65.Employing the electronic Density of States, we have calculated the quantum capacitance using the following relationshipD(E) denotes the density of states, FT (E), is the thermal broadening which can be written as;In the above equation, 2O3-reduced graphene oxide. Quantum capacitance is dominant for low dimensional systems, and the total capacitance is related to quantum capacitance through the relation66:CEDL indicates electric double-layer capacitance, which depends on the electrode–electrolyte interfacial interaction. The increased quantum capacitance value in the hybrid material suggests higher charge storage performance for the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide system than bare Al2O3.Figure 2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid were successfully synthesized through a two-step method comprising hydrothermal and post-hydrothermal calcination processes. Al2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrodes' supercapacitor performances were evaluated through both theoretical and experimental methods for the first time. Due to the synergistic effects of both EDLC and pseudocapacitance, the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid obtained higher electrochemical performance than the bare Al2O3 electrode. Remarkably, the Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid electrodes-based SSD manifests state-of-the-art capacitance retention of 98.56%, even after 10,000 cycles. Furthermore, we have presented the electronic properties, diffusion energy barrier, and quantum capacitance for Al2O3 and Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide hybrid using Density Functional Theory simulations. The interaction between Al2O3 and reduced graphene oxide is due to the charge transfer from reduced graphene oxide to Al2O3. The hybrid structure exhibits higher quantum capacitance and lower diffusion energy barrier for the electrolytic ions, which contribute to improved charge storage performance for the hybrid Al2O3-reduced graphene oxide system supporting our experimental observation. Therefore, this research might give some insights into exploring low-cost advanced electroactive materials for promising applications in energy storage devices with state-of-the-art performance metrics.In summary, nanostructured AlSupplementary Information.


Here, we investigated organic sulfur cycling in saltmarsh sediments and followed DMSO reduction in anoxic batch experiments. Compared to previous measurements from marine waters, DMSO concentrations in the saltmarsh sediments were up to ~300 fold higher. In batch experiments, DMSO was reduced to DMS and subsequently consumed with concomitant CH4 production. Changes in prokaryotic communities and DMSO reductase gene counts indicated a dominance of organisms containing the Dms-type DMSO reductases . In contrast, when sulfate reduction was inhibited by molybdate, Tor-type DMSO reductases  increased. Vibrionales increased in relative abundance in both treatments, and metagenome assembled genomes (MAGs) affiliated to Vibrio had all genes encoding the subunits of DMSO reductases. Molar conversion ratios of <1.3 CH4 per added DMSO were accompanied by a predominance of the methylotrophic methanogens Methanosarcinales. Enrichment of mtsDH genes, encoding for DMS methyl transferases in metagenomes of batch incubations indicate their role in DMS-dependent methanogenesis. MAGs affiliated to Methanolobus carried the complete set of genes encoding for the enzymes in methylotrophic methanogenesis.Saltmarshes are highly productive environments, exhibiting high abundances of organosulfur compounds. Dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP) is produced in large quantities by algae, plants, and bacteria and is a potential precursor for dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and dimethylsulfide (DMS). DMSO serves as electron acceptor for anaerobic respiration leading to DMS formation, which is either emitted or can be degraded by methylotrophic prokaryotes. Major products of these reactions are trace gases with positive (CO Saltmarshes are highly productive ecosystems important for coastal protection, biogeochemical cycling, and human nutrition , 2. They4 -hydrogenase (VhtGACD) were not found in any of the MAGs. Genes encoding for the soluble heterodisulfide reductase HdrABC were present in all MAGs. However, none of the genes for the enzymes that deliver the necessary electrons to this complex could be found in any of the three MAGs . The H+ and Na+ membrane potential, generated by their translocation in different steps of the suggested pathway, can be used for ADP phosphorylation by the ATPase (AtpVA-VK).In addition, three ogenesis , we wereAGs Fig. . In shorpossible , other emcrA and mtsDH in Methanococcoides and Methanolobus indicates their capability for DMS-dependent methanogenesis. In contrast, the mcrA gene was not detected in the taxon with the highest mtsD counts .The specificity of the BLASTp results were confirmed by calculating a phylogenetic tree with the identified MtsDFH sequences (>400 aa length) with a backbone of closely related reference sequences Fig. . The maj4 or CO2 [4 require a comprehensive understanding of their environmental fate. While DMSO concentrations have been measured in different marine and limnic waters with the highest values of 620 nmol∙L−1 [−1, calculated by the measured maximum of 106.2 nmol∙g−1 and a sediment weight of 1.83 g∙cm−3  followed by DMS degradation with methanogenesis (T1 to T2). Although these phases were stimulated by DMSO addition to enrich the organisms driving these processes, they overlapped in the incubations and most likely occur simultaneously in nature or potentially in neighboring regions of the sediment profile in natural settings.The observed succession of metabolites in our incubation experiments matched patterns found in previous studies , 36. Bas−1) observed on Spiekeroog and in the Stiffkey saltmarsh were within the range of previously reported values [dsyB in the lower saltmarsh (Low) hints at an increased contribution of bacterial DMSP production. In contrast, the pioneer zone and saltmarsh edge could be strongly influenced by other highly abundant DMSP producers, such as Spartina spp. (synonymous with Sporolobus spp.) and diatoms [DMSP is considered the main source of DMS in marine environments . Our obsd values , 80. Acr diatoms , 16, 18.Actinobacteriota, Proteobacteria, Halobacterota, see Tab. DMSO reduction is widespread across bacteria and archaea  increased in relative abundance in DMSO+Mo but decreased in DMSO treatments. The Zoogloeaceae were the group with the highest dmsA gene count in the Spiekeroog metagenomes but have not yet been tested for DMSO reduction in culture. On a lower taxonomic level, the Zoogloeaceae and Sporomusaceae were assigned to Thauera sp. MZ1T and Acetonema longum, which are not known for sulfate reduction [Desulfovibrio desulfuricans, for example, could not generate growth from DMSO reduction when sulfate reduction was inhibited. In contrast, the Tor-type-carrying bacteria detected in the DMSO + Mo incubations indicate a higher competitiveness of Rhodobacterales or Vibrionales under low sulfate conditions. In the three Vibrio MAGs assembled from the incubation experiment most of the additional genes of the DMSOR gene operons were found in addition to the chosen DMSOR marker genes  [Results of our incubation experiments suggest a negative effect of molybdate on the relative abundance of SRB and most of the other eduction , 94. Takeduction , where DA, torZ) . This suVibrionaceae and Shewanellaceae using one of the other DMSO reduction enzymes . As of today, there is no dedicated DorA KEGG ortholog, hence we tried to identify DorA homologs with hmm profiles provided within the DiTing-pipeline [In previous experiments, TorA was induced by DMSO addition and here it increased in gene counts in our treatments , however it was shown that it only has a low affinity to DMSO . Hence, pipeline . This apmtsDFH, and bias from stringent DIAMOND BLASTp search settings. While there might be additional, so far unknown methyltransferases involved, MtsDH seem to be the predominant known DMS methyltransferases. This is indicated by the absence of MtsAF and the enrichment of the MtsDH-carrying Methanosarcinaceae and the presence of MtsD in three Methanolobus sp. affiliated MAGs in our incubation experiments. While methylotrophic methanogenesis has been observed in Methanohalophilus cultures [M. zhilinae and M. oregonense were reclassified to Methanosalsum zhilinae and to Methanolobus oregonensis [mcrA gene is present in all ten publicly available genomes of Methanohalophilus (18.04.2023) on IMG , but we could not retrieve any MAGs affiliated to this genus. Based on our findings and the presence of mcrA genes in the publicly available genomes, we assume these archaea are also DMS-dependent methanogens, but their mcrA has not been detected in the metagenomic analysis. In most of our experiments, the CH4 yields were close to the stochiometric maximum of 1.5 for DMS-dependent methanogenesis [Methanosarcinales. This supports the findings from Tsola et al., [4 yields from DMS, especially when only 0.1 mM DMSO was added, points towards an additional sink for one of the compounds. This supports the hypothesis of higher competitiveness of non-methanogenic DMS degraders, such as SRBs, under low DMS conditions [4 yield observed in some incubations when sulfate reduction was inhibited offers additional evidence for DMS degradation by SRBs, although it is not entirely conclusive.DMS-dependent methanogenesis requires an initial methyl transfer from DMS to coenzyme M . The twocultures , the DMSgonensis , 99, 100ogenesis , 101 and et al., , who shonditions . The higThiotrichales in our anoxic incubation experiments do not contradict their general lifestyle. Primarily, Thiotrichales are aerobic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria [Methylophaga thiooxydans) is capable of aerobic methylotrophic growth on DMS and degradation of sulfide to tetrathionate [Methanosarcinales at CH4 seeps [The increasing relative abundances of bacteria , with sobacteria . One repthionate , 106. AlH4 seeps . WhethermtsDH-carrying Methanosarcinacaea under high DMS concentrations shows the role of DMS as non-competitive substrate for methylotrophic methanogens. However, methanogenesis as DMS-sink might be lower under natural conditions and must be quantified in future investigations. The supposed climate-cooling effect of DMS emissions would be negated by microbial transformation to the greenhouse gases CH4 and CO2.High DMSO concentrations in saltmarshes highlight its relevance for anaerobic respiration and subsequent DMS production. We found a widespread genetic potential for DMSO reduction in the environment, with a high prevalence of the Dms-type of DMSOR. The relative increase of Supplemental Material


Understanding how mutations impact a protein’s functions is valuable for many types of biological questions. High-throughput techniques such as deep-mutational scanning (DMS) have greatly expanded the number of mutation-function datasets. For instance, DMS has been used to determine how mutations to viral proteins affect antibody escape , receptodms-viz. With dms-viz, users can straightforwardly visualize mutation-based data such as those from DMS experiments in the context of a 3D protein model in an interactive format. See https://dms-viz.github.io/ to use dms-viz.The mutation-based data generated by these approaches is often best understood in the context of a protein’s 3D structure; for instance, to assess questions like how mutations that affect antibody escape relate to the physical antibody binding epitope on the protein. However, current approaches for visualizing mutation data in the context of a protein’s structure are often cumbersome and require multiple steps and softwares. To streamline the visualization of mutation-associated data in the context of a protein structure, we developed a web-based tool,  Additionally, it provides extensive control over the visual representation of the 3D structure.Accommodate diverse data types: Although analyzing DMS data is a key goal of dms-viz, there are many types of mutation data. The tool can handle diverse data types via a command line interface that simplifies the process of converting data into a common format for analysis.Display multiple conditions: With dms-viz, multiple experimental conditions can be visualized concurrently, facilitating comparisons. Researchers can, for instance, easily visualize deconvolved antibody binding footprints from polyclonal sera .Share findings with ease: Users of dms-viz can generate shareable URL links for a customized visualization view. They can also save and share the JSON specification files created by the command line interface, ensuring that data can be accessed easily.Preserve data privacy: dms-viz allows users to analyze proprietary and sensitive data by supporting local upload. This means researchers can view and analyze their confidential structures and datasets without the requirement to store them in a public repository.dms-view , the user formats their data into a JSON specification file. Then, the user uploads this specification file to dms-viz.github.io, a web-based interface written in Javascript, D3.js, and NGL.js  in complex with a bound ligand such as MAT-POS-e194df51-1 from the COVID Moonshot project , dms-vizdms-viz can be used to enhance structure-guided drug design here.See how 3.The influenza RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) is essential to viral replication, but little is known about the effects of mutations on RdRp function. To address this limitation, dms-viz enables facile visualization of these data in the context of PB1’s structure, and can provide stable URL links for easy sharing and access.dms-viz can provide this dataset as an interactive resource here.See how dms-viz as a practical and user-friendly approach to visualizing mutation-associated data in the context of protein structures. Because dms-viz is capable of handling various data types and has options for both sharing and privacy, it should be applicable to visualization of a wide range of datasets.We designed dms-viz is available at https://dms-viz.github.io/dms-viz is available at https://dms-viz.github.io/dms-viz-docs/The documentation and information about developing dms-viz.github.io is available at https://github.com/dms-viz/dms-viz.github.ioThe source code for configure-dms-viz is available at https://github.com/dms-viz/configure_dms_vizThe source code for


Multilayer graphene–paraffin composites with different contents of graphene (0–10 wt.%) were prepared using an ultra-high shear mixer. The aim is to improve the heat transfer in paraffin wax, which will lead to more-efficient thermal buffering in electronic applications. The multi-layer graphenes obtained by supercritical fluid exfoliation of graphite in alcohol were investigated by Raman spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. Interesting morphological features were found to be related to the intercalation of paraffins between the multilayer graphene flakes. Thermal properties were also investigated in terms of phase change transition temperatures, latent heat by differential scanning calorimetry and thermal conductivity. It was found that the addition of graphene resulted in a slight decrease in energy storage capacity but a 150% improvement in thermal conductivity at the highest graphene loading level. This phase-change material is then used as a thermal heat sink for an embedded electronic processor. The temperature of the processor during the execution of a pre-defined programme was used as a performance indicator. The use of materials with multilayer graphene contents of more than 5 wt.% was found to reduce the processor operating temperature by up to 20%. This indicates that the use of such composite materials can significantly improve the performance of processors. In response to environmental and climate change issues, the scientific community has been at the forefront of the search for the most sustainable technological solutions to energy problems. In addition to developing new solutions for generating electricity with low emissions, progress has also been made in developing ways to store energy. In this context, the management of thermal energy is an important piece of the puzzle. One challenging approach is to implement thermal energy management solutions using passive phase-change materials (PCMs) ,2,3. The3-(CH2)n-2 -CH3. They have a latent heat of 244 kJ/kg  up to a maximum of 285 kJ/kg  in the temperature interval 28–115 °C [3 and melting temperatures from RT to 100 °C and are non-toxic, non-corrosive, and low-cost. However, the low thermal conductivity is a major obstacle to their widespread use.For efficient cooling, a PCM should ideally have high latent heat, high specific heat, good thermal conductivity, chemical stability, non-flammability, and a low manufacturing cost . Most or2 [One possible approach is the use of various structures such as fins, metal foam and metal inserts to promote heat transfer ,13. In s2 , carbon 2 , carbon 2  or expan2 ,23,24,252  publishe2 . Due to 2 . Cheng e2  proposed2 ,31; othe2 . The mel2 .2-bonded monolayer 2D carbon sheet with a hexagonal honeycomb lattice, has received considerable attention over the past few years for its numerous extraordinary properties. These include a high theoretical specific surface area (2630 m2 g−1) and excellent thermal conductivity (3000–5000 W m−1 K−1) [Recent work has focused on understanding how graphene affects the effective thermal conductivity. Graphene, an spm−1 K−1) . The behm−1 K−1)  using moIn this context, this paper presents an in-depth study of the thermal behaviour of multilayer graphene–paraffin composites. We propose a reliable fabrication method: (I) obtaining the multilayer graphenes by exfoliation of graphite in supercritical fluids using an alcohol-based solvent, followed by (II) their incorporation into a paraffin matrix using an ultra-high-shear mixer. The novelty of the study derives from the environmentally friendly method in terms of the chemicals used to obtain the graphene, followed by their incorporation through a simple mixing process. Another aspect is the simple method of rapid evaluation of heat sink performance by analysing data provided by the processor. The aim is to improve the thermal transfer in paraffin wax, leading to more efficient thermal buffering in electronic applications. Structural and morphological analyses as well as thermal properties have been studied. Subsequently, composite phase change material has been tested as a heat sink on an integrated electronic circuit. The temperature of the processor was monitored during the execution of a predefined programme as a performance indicator.Pristine natural graphite (99%+ purity) was purchased from Asbury Carbons Inc. The PCM matrix and paraffin wax mp 58–62 °C were supplied by Sigma Aldrich. Other reagents: ethanol , sulfuric acid , and nitric acid , were used as delivered.The first step is graphene exfoliation in supercritical fluids (SCF) using an aqueous solution of ethanol. Previous studies have shown that the exfoliation process occurs when the energy required is compensated by the solvent –graphene interaction ,37. It rRaman spectroscopy was performed for identifying specific features of graphenes, i.e., G and 2D bands, with Jasco NRS 3100 Raman (Japan), at 532 nm with a power of approximately 3 mW. To investigate the effect of multilayer graphene dispersion in a paraffin matrix, morphological characterisation was performed using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) using a JIB-4600F system . Before imaging, samples were fractured after liquid nitrogen immersion and the surfaces were coated with 3 nm platinum. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) topography images were obtained using an SPM-NTegra Prima AFM , operated in semicontact mode, at a scanning rate of 1 Hz, using NSG01 probe series, with a 87–230 kHz resonant frequency and 1.45–15.1 N/m force constant. Samples were fractured after liquid nitrogen immersion and scanned in air at room temperature and with an approximately 40% relative humidity.Thermal analysis was performed using a differential scanning calorimeter  in a nitrogen atmosphere at a heating rate of 10 °C/min in the temperature range 20–90 °C. The 5–10 mg samples were sealed in aluminium pans. DSC curves were analysed with the DSC Standard Data Analysis Program associated with model Star1. Indium was used as a calibration reference of DSC. Each sample was treated for 30 min at 90 °C to lose the thermal memory effect.Thermal conductivity was determined by the transient hot bridge method using a THB 100 with a THB/Sensor/B, produced by Linseis Messgeräte GmbH, Germany. The composite phase change material was tested as a passive thermal buffer on a Raspberry Pi 3 Model B+ integrated processor. PCM samples were placed in a copper crucible and placed on top of the processor using thermoconductive paste. The processor temperature while running a predefined program was monitored for all samples under the same experimental conditions.−1) and 2D band (~2700 cm−1). Typical D, G and 2D peaks are present in all graphite exfoliation samples. The G band is a degenerate double phonon mode (E2g symmetry) in the centre of the Brillouin zone, which originates from the in-plane vibration of 2sp carbon atoms. The 2D band originates from a double-resonance Raman process. It is therefore closely related to the band structure of graphene layers, whereas that of graphite has a single peak. The G band is associated with double degenerate phonon modes in the Brillouin region of the Raman spectrum [Raman spectroscopy on the multilayer graphene obtained by supercritical fluid exfoliation presented in spectrum . The shaspectrum . As the The sample morphology is shown in In order to highlight the morphology of the sample, the surface under investigation was obtained by fracturing the sample after cooling in liquid nitrogen. AFM topography images reveal a typical morphology of paraffin, i.e., lamellar structure A. The lamt) and crystallisation (ct) temperature along with the activation energies calculated by the Kissinger model as described below. Melting and crystallisation temperatures do not change dramatically with the addition of graphene, in agreement with other studies [The paraffin and composite samples with graphenes obtained by synthesis in supercritical fluids at different concentrations  have been investigated in terms of thermal behaviour. The DSC melting and crystallisation curves obtained at a heating/cooling rate of 10 °C/min are shown in  studies ,49. HoweThe activation energy of the thermodynamic processes, i.e., solid–solid and solid–liquid transitions, respectively, was estimated using the Kissinger equation :(1)EavkT5 °C/min B. The acThe disorder effects generated by the multilayer graphene significantly affect the crystallisation properties of the composites. The internal interactions between the paraffin molecular chains are slightly inhibited, hindering the nucleation process and crystal network growth, as the multilayer graphene content increases. This leads to lower enthalpy of crystallisation and a reduction in the DSC crystallinity of the paraffin matrix. To obtain a more intuitive picture of the additive influence on matrix crystallinity, instead of estimating a degree of crystallinity, defined as the ratio between melting enthalpy and melting heat if the polymer was 100% crystalline, a relative DSC crystallinity, tionship :(2)Xc,reMoreover, the specific heat of the paraffin–graphene mixture should be lower than that of paraffin. This is also confirmed by the obtained results, except at higher temperatures, where it can be seen in Latent heat was also evaluated by integrating the corresponding peak on the DSC curves in It is evident that the latent heat decreases with the mass fraction of the additive. The experimental values confirm this within the 3% range. The local agglomeration that may occur in the composite mixture and the overall molecular potential energy of the material also affect the latent heat.The heat transfer rate during phase transitions is significantly inhibited and the charging and discharging time is extended due to the poor thermal conductivity of PCMs. A significant improvement in thermal conductivity can be achieved by adding graphene to paraffin. The thermal conductivities of the composite PCMs with the different mass fractions of the multilayer graphene are shown in Heat transfer tests were performed using a Raspberry Pi 3 model B+ motherboard. The motherboard was programmed to run a computational program so that the processor was loaded as close as possible to its maximum operating power, while also recording the processor temperature evolution over time. PCM samples were placed on top of the processor, as shown in Multilayer graphene–paraffin composite PCMs with different mass fractions were prepared, and their thermal behaviour was extensively investigated. The following conclusions can be drawn from the above research:(1) The morphology of the PCM composites, both SEM and AFM images, showed a uniform distribution of the multilayer graphene within the paraffin matrix. Paraffin molecular chains form interlayers of approximately 0.7 µm between the graphene flakes, demonstrating an intimate contact that promotes thermal contact.(2) The phase change temperatures, melting and crystallisation are only slightly changed by the addition of multilayer graphene compared with pure paraffin. With regard to the latent heat, the experimental results follow the theoretical estimation of the impact of the graphene weight percent in the PCM.(3) As expected, the thermal conductivities of composite PCMs show an upward trend with an increasing mass fraction of multilayer graphene. For example, 10 wt.% graphene in the PCM composite exhibited a 150% relative increase in thermal conductivity.(4) We have proposed an original experimental setup for testing the thermal buffering behaviour. Samples were placed in special crucibles directly on top of the processor of a Raspberry Pi 3 model B+ motherboard. A computational program was then run to load the processor as close as possible to its maximum operating power, and the internal temperature vs. time data was plotted under similar processor load conditions, in the same time interval. The results show that a 10 wt.% graphene load reduces the operating temperature by 10 °C, with a slower time evolution of the equilibrium temperature by about 3 min. Another important aspect is that temperature fluctuations are attenuated, an important factor in processor performance.


It was found that the graphene layer was partly intact after the desorption run and that the intercalated oxygen was removed. It was concluded that the oxygen-intercalated graphene layer was stable up to temperatures of about 700 K.Formation of graphene on Ru(0001) by exposure to ethylene and subsequent annealing has been studied by low-energy electron diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy. The stability of graphene/intercalated oxygen/Ru(0001) has been investigated by temperature programmed desorption spectroscopy. Desorption of CO and CO Ever since the publication of a method to prepare free-standing graphene , a large devices . In addi devices ,11,12,13 devices , however devices . A singl devices .One particular aspect in several studies has been to control the interaction between the graphene layer and the substrate. This may be achieved by using different substrates but also by the intercalation of atoms between the substrate and graphene layer. The focus of the present study is to investigate the temperature stability of the graphene layer in a system where oxygen atoms have been intercalated between the substrate and the graphene layer. Formation of graphene on metallic substrates may be obtained by heating so that carbon impurities in the bulk segregate to the surface ,16,17 orGraphene  and (23×23×23)Ru/×25GrapheGraphene ,14,29,31Graphene ,27,32 atIt has been demonstrated that a strongly interacting graphene layer on Ru(0001) may be decoupled from the substrate by intercalation of oxygen atoms. This decoupling results in strong p-doping of the graphene layer . The ban2H4 on Ru(0001) at ambient temperature followed by annealing to 1250 K. Similar results could be obtained by ethylene exposure at temperatures in the range from 1100 to 1250 K. The exposure and annealing cycle was repeated several times to obtain a saturated graphene layer. LEED images are shown in 2H4 (1 L(Langmuir) = In the present work, graphene layers were formed by exposure of CTo oxidize the system, the graphene/Ru(0001) sample was exposed to 200 L oxygen gas at a 675 K sample temperature. For lower sample temperatures, the graphene layer acts as a protection against oxidation of the Ru substrate. The corresponding LEED image is shown in ly shown ,35. It wfunction  which wafunction ,31. In tfunction . The XPSfunction ,31. It wfunction . As prevfunction , the lowXPS spectra (recorded using an electron exit angle near 70°) after exposure to 200 L oxygen at temperature 675 K are shown in 2O (mass 18 u), CO (mass 28 u), O2 (mass 32 u), and CO2 (mass 44 u) was monitored. The dominant desorption feature in the recorded spectra is related to CO which is displayed in panel (a) of 2 was observed. This is shown in panel (b) of 2 desorption was estimated to be about 5–10% of the amount of CO desorption by taking into account the mass spectrometer sensitivity, which was determined by monitoring the mass spectrometer signal at constant pressure at the ion gauge. These observations indicate that oxygen at the Ru interface reacts with carbon from the graphene layer to desorb as CO and to a lesser extent as CO2. It should be noted that no desorption of O2 was observed upon heating of the samples to 1000 K, see 2 which is contradicted by the present work. The stability of the oxidized graphene/Ru(0001) sample was investigated by TPD spectroscopy. The temperature was increased from 300 to 1000 K at a rate of 1 K/s, and desorption of HXPS spectra recorded after annealing to 1000 K are shown in In the case of one ethylene exposure cycle, that is, an incomplete graphene layer, a very sharp CO TPD peak is observed at about 780 K , k is the order of the desorption, T is the temperature. In general the desorption process is made complicated by desorption from lattice sites of different adsorption energies, and by that both the prefactor and desorption energy in general depend on the surface coverage as well as lateral interactions between adsorbates [A main goal of TPD studies is to determine the kinetic parameters for desorption from crystalline surfaces, that is, the order of desorption, the desorption energy, and the desorption prefactor. The desorption rate  Redhead , be descsorbates . First-oMethods of extracting desorption parameters may be grouped in (1) the integral approach where peak characteristics like temperature at peak maximum and half-width are used, and (2) the differential approach where desorption rate and temperature pairs obtained from several TPD spectra are used in an Arrhenius plot where the slope and intercept give the desorption parameters. The latter method must be used for coverage-dependent desorption parameters. It has been demonstrated that for high coverage the threshold TPD method may give reliable values for desorption parameters in a convenient way . The covn. The desorption rate may be thus written as:A simplified analysis of the TPD data may be performed by considering the temperature dependence of the desorption rate In the case of one exposure cycle, that is, an incomplete graphene layer, a linear region was not found when 2H4) at partial pressure All measurements were performed in situ in an ultra-high-vacuum chamber of base pressure about The stability of intercalated oxygen at the interface between graphene and Ru(0001) was investigated by TPD, XPS, UPS, and LEED. It was observed that the intercalated oxygen atoms interacted with the graphene layer and desorbed as CO and to a lesser extent as CO


Online communities are gaining importance in modern society by actively structuring public opinion and initiating discussions about various socio-economical issues. As information and communication technologies advance, the online communities are confronted with novel technological and societal hurdles . To boost their efficacy and productivity, it’s crucial to enhance our understanding of user behavior, communication avenues and potential future trends of development.Online platforms serve a function beyond simply sharing information or knowledge; they act as influential social networks affecting various societal sectors, including politics, culture and the economy. There is a need to recognize online communities not as static entities, but as dynamic, evolving systems of collective intelligence.A representative quantitative study was carried out between 1 to 30 of October 2022 through direct, in-person interviews conducted at the respondent’s residence (known as an Omnibus survey). The sample of respondents is representative of the entire population of Lithuania regarding essential socio-demographic characteristics. By thoroughly analyzing data gathered from a comprehensive quantitative study, the study raises awareness of the issues surrounding online communities, while also shedding light on social networking behavior within these virtual spaces.Despite the multitude of challenges inherent to virtual communication, there remains a significant knowledge gap in comprehending general user behavior within these online communities. The current research aims to bridge this gap by investigating user behavior in Lithuanian online communities. An online community takes this notion into the digital realm, where it describes a group of individuals united around a common purpose, interest or goal on the Internet. Different researchers have explored this concept through varying lenses. Some focus on the technological interaction between members  while otThe developments of both the digital technologies and how society uses such tools led to significant transformations in how the online communities function. Initially, these platforms primarily served as casual outlets for individuals to share unofficial information, personal concerns, or rumors. Such communities were often seen as secondary spaces to traditional forms of communication and not taken seriously in many instances. Over time, the nature of online communities started changing with the rise of Web 2.0 and social networking sites, enabling more dynamic interactions. As such platforms gained popularity and credibility, governments and corporations began recognizing the potential of online communication. In this regard, online communities have increasingly played pivotal roles in structuring public opinion and instigating discussions about various socio-economic issues . As we vDespite the recognized advantages they offer, online communities face a plethora of challenges that cannot be overlooked. One of the critical criticisms of virtual networks is the limited physical contact between participants, leading to a loss of interpersonal connection that is inherent in face-to-face interactions . FurtherAnother research question is related to deeper understanding of the motivations driving users to participate in online communities. Factors such as enhancing user engagement, improving online safety, increasing information reliability, and promoting respectful communication can be addressed more effectively by comprehending what compels users to interact within these communities. This knowledge can also aid community developers in devising strategies that maximize customer engagement while minimizing potential negative impacts. Many studies have concentrated on the motivations behind individuals’ active participation in online communities . These m2.Lithuania’s online communities offer a unique research platform for studying the potential of networked structures. With a solid foundation of information technology infrastructure, impressive Internet accessibility and a highly-educated population, Lithuania is well-positioned to evolve into an ideal networked society. Lithuania’s long-term plans reinforce this digital readiness, with the 2030 National Progress Strategy emphasizing the importance of a sound information and digital technology infrastructure. Additional strategic measures include the 2020–2030 Lithuanian Industry Digitalisation Roadmap and the National Cybersecurity Strategy for 2018–2023.However, a paradox emerges when considering Lithuania’s civic engagement. Despite high digital access, the annual Lithuanian Civic Empowerment Index  suggestsThe development of Lithuania’s online communities has been influenced by historical factors. The soviet occupation negatively affected non-governmental organizations, stifling civil activity . As resu3.The survey was carried out between 1 to 30 of October 2022. A representative quantitative study was carried out through direct, in-person interviews conducted at the respondent’s residence (known as an Omnibus survey), with the aid of computers . For these computer-facilitated surveys (CAPI), the survey tool – a pre-programmed questionnaire – was used. This software allowed automatic regulation of quotas, logic and typing errors, logical associations between queries, the progression of questions, and their responses. Interviewers ensured that the order of the questions remained consistent throughout. Data were stored directly in a digital format, reducing the potential for human error during data entry. A randomized multi-stage sampling method was employed to select the households and respondents to be included in the survey. The sample of respondents is representative of the entire population of Lithuania regarding essential socio-demographic characteristics . The target group in this study is the Lithuanian population aged 15–74. The household surveys (from which respondents will be selected) are selected in the following steps:Geographic distribution of the sample. Geographically, the sample proportions correspond to the overall population proportions in the different regions. The most recent data from the Statistical Office of the Republic of Lithuania are used;Randomly selecting the initial sampling points, i.e., the addresses from which the sampling route starts, from the Population Register of the Lithuanian Statistical Department database. A total of 117 initial sampling points were used;Households were selected using a route sampling approach. Every second apartment/house in an urban or rural area was visited starting from the initial sampling point. Respondents are selected using the ‘youngest male’ sampling rule.In total, 1,135 respondents were surveyed .3.1.The reliability of survey results depends to a large extent on the way the survey is conducted by the data collectors and on whether all quality control standards for data collection are met. To guarantee the validity and reliability of the gathered data, an independent Quality Control Unit was established. This unit’s role includes overseeing data quality and coding responses to open-ended questions. The data quality check included a check and assessment of compliance with the household selection rules, the respondent selection rules, the quality of the questionnaire, the quality of the route or other respondent record sheet, the general principles of the survey, and the interviewer’s behavior during the survey. Standardized verification techniques were used to check the quality of the data: (1) physical verification of the data series, (2) telephone verification, (3) verification of compliance with the rules of the methodology during the survey, and (4) on-site verification of the conduct of the interview. In addition, the reliability of the questionnaire was tested using test–retest reliability method, which evaluates the consistency of a measure across the time .χ2 test was used to calculate the dependence of one criterion on the other. A relationship was considered statistically significant if the χ2 criterion statistic  is less than or equal to 0.05 (p < =0.05); as a result, it can be said with 95% confidence that the values of the answers to one question are statistically significantly correlated with the values of the answers to the other question. When assessing the results, it will be necessary to pay attention to the statistical bias that arises from the fact that a sample of respondents is selected rather than from a continuous survey. This error is calculated mathematically. The maximum statistical error in the estimation of the responses of all respondents  is due to sampling. It is equal to ±3% at the 95% confidence level, i.e., it will not exceed ±5% at the 95% confidence level.Data analysis was carried out using SPSS/PC software. The All demographic data was collected adhering to the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) stipulated by the European Union, and was utilized exclusively for research and statistical purposes. Furthermore, to take part in the survey, all research participants were required to complete a consent form. This was incorporated into the introductory segment of the survey questionnaire, ensuring that participants understood and agreed to the data collection process.4.The questionnaire is based on the following constructs and their scales:I. Internet usage frequency: daily, once a week, several times a week, several times a month, once in three month, not using.frequency of involvement, most frequent online activities, motivation for engagement in online communities, reasons for not participating in online communities.II. Extent of involvement in online communities, motivation, and participation character/ activeness: frequency of involvement, motivation for engagement, areas of interest in online communities focused on societal issues, reasons for not participating.III. Extent of involvement of online communities focusing on social issues and civic initiatives motivation, and participation character/ activeness: level of satisfaction, benefits and disadvantages of online communication.IV. Quality evaluation of different aspects of online communication: The validity of measurement was estimated through expert judgment using on content validity method. Content validity evaluates the extent to which the measurement covers all aspects of the concept measured, and how well an instrument covers all relevant parts of the construct . This me4.1.Approximately 72% of respondents of the survey access the Internet at least weekly, while nearly one-third of Lithuanians between the ages of 15 and 74 either use the Internet less frequently than quarterly or not at all. Daily Internet usage is reported by 53% of respondents. Among Internet users, 63%  frequent various online community websites. Of these Internet users, one-third (35%) visit online communities daily, and a fifth (21%) visit at least once a week. However, over a third of Internet users express no interest in online communities – the majority of them never visit these sites, and 6% have accounts but do not utilize them. Daily participation in online communities is notably higher among Internet users aged between 15 and 29, individuals with primary and secondary education, students, schoolchildren, and single individuals. Those aged between 30 and 39 are more prone to use these sites weekly or less frequently.4.2.Participation in online communities  is exclusively related to the personal interests of the participant, who usually chooses communities groups or forums relevant to his lifestyle, hobbies, and interests . The second most popular topic is communities related to studies/scholarship  see . Pages rThe primary reasons for visiting online communities include maintaining social connections and seeking information on pertinent topics, with 64 and 44% of all responses, respectively. Online communities also serve as platforms for entertainment (28% of responses) and for finding information about products and services (26% of responses). They further facilitate contributions to ideas, initiatives, or projects initiated by others, decision-making processes (like voting for initiatives or selecting charitable causes), and the creation and proposition of new ideas, initiatives, or projects (1–3% of mentions). Single individuals and those living in two-person households are more inclined to participate in online communities to sustain social connections and to remain in contact with acquaintances. Residents of the three largest cities show a higher likelihood of utilizing these platforms to seek information on matters of concern  of all Internet users frequent online community websites centerd around public issues. Users who have one child in their household and those who participate in online community activities daily are statistically more likely to use websites focusing on societal matters. Based on the findings, online communities offer participants pertinent information, intriguing articles, commentary, and overall, expand their worldviews. Nearly half of the visitors to these sites also take the opportunity to express their viewpoints. Married and cohabitating individuals are significantly more likely to contribute to initiated projects by suggesting possible improvements and applying their knowledge to identify and solve various social issues. On the other hand, single individuals tend to seek like-minded people. Women show a higher likelihood of seeking relevant information, and those with one child in their household are more inclined towards reading articles and comments  express concerns over participating in virtual activities aimed at social problem-solving due to perceived dangers – such as fear of being accused of ulterior motives, threats, harassment, potential physical harm, or job loss. However, respondents underlined the importance of state oversight of Internet content and called for increased focus on data security and intellectual property protection. Single women are more likely to abstain from participation due to a perceived lack of appeal. Those claiming a lack of time are more likely to be aged 50–59 and to have two or more children  concur that online communities should bear strict liability for any infringements of others’ rights. They also believe that site administrators should be held accountable for disseminated content, that these administrators should scrutinize the information they share, and that virtual community activities should fall under detailed legal regulation. Most Internet users acknowledge the issue of identity theft in the virtual world, such as the creation of fraudulent profiles or blogs impersonating renowned individuals. They also agree that there is a greater prevalence of intolerance and defamation online than in real life.5.The vast majority of surveyed Internet users (63%) frequent these online communities, making them an ideal platform for civic engagement and interaction. The study also reveals that the level of participation in these communities is determined largely by personal interests. Online communities centerd around hobbies, lifestyle, and personal interests attract the highest levels of active participation. This active participation extends beyond passive engagement, with members actively contributing to content creation, discussion, and experience sharing. It suggests that online communities can be more effectively leveraged for civic participation by aligning them with people’s interests, thereby encouraging greater active involvement. The findings also indicate that there is a high level of engagement in communities focusing on academic or scholarly topics. This suggests an interest in learning and knowledge-sharing within the Lithuanian online community space. The research findings align with existing literature that sees online communities as a form of civic participation, bridging the gap between individual interests and broader societal issues . ZarifisHowever, it is also evident that participation in online communities oriented towards societal issues is limited, with only 18% of surveyed internet users, or 12% of the total population, engaging with such communities. This limited engagement in social or societal matters beyond personal interests presents a significant challenge to leveraging the potential of online communities as platforms for civic participation. While these platforms can facilitate connections and conversations on broader societal issues, their effectiveness is contingent on active and diverse participation. The results suggest that these communities must do more to attract and engage users if they are to realize their full potential as forums for civic engagement. Interestingly, daily online users and those with children in their households are the most likely to visit these socially-focused online communities. This suggests that these demographics may be more inclined towards societal engagement, potentially due to their daily interaction with digital platforms or their interest in societal issues impacting their children’s futures. Despite the limited participation, those who do engage with online communities centerd on societal issues find value in the information, engaging content and diverse commentary offered. These platforms serve to broaden their perspectives and almost half of the visitors take the opportunity to voice their opinions. The topics of highest interest include ecology, environmental challenges, climate change, education and social welfare. These results are in alignment with the study of Concerns over cybersecurity, including threats to personal data, intellectual property, and potential violations of rights and obligations, act as barriers to participation. These findings emphasize the need for online communities to prioritize the establishment of secure environments. Users need to feel safe when participating, contributing, and generating ideas that could benefit society at large. This is an area of concern in wider online community research as well. Issues surrounding data privacy and personal security have been identified as significant factors influencing individuals’ willingness to participate in online communities . The finFinally, results show that the platform creators should bear in mind the importance of simplicity and user-friendliness when devising technological solutions. Users of these websites express a longing for a genuine impact on socio-political issues, a valid representation for society, clarity and structure in topics, quality discourse, the freedom to voice their opinions, and user-friendly technological solutions. Interestingly, such views are prevalent across various socio-demographic user groups. One inference that can be drawn is that the advantages of virtual activities, such as openness, adaptability, and accessibility, may inadvertently contribute to additional psychological challenges for participants. The desire for user-friendly and straightforward technological solutions expressed by the users echoes the consensus in the wider research sphere that emphasizes the importance of usability in technology design. Numerous studies have found that simple, intuitive user interfaces enhance engagement and contribute to the overall success of online communities .6.This study contributes significantly to research on online communities by providing insights into how such communities function within Lithuania and how they may evolve elsewhere. It expands our understanding of participation dynamics, demonstrating that personal interest is a key driver of active involvement. In this regard, the data indicate that online communities in Lithuania are becoming an increasingly significant channel for societal participation. They offer a more relatable and modern approach to decision-making processes and involvement in societal issues, reflecting the evolving lifestyle and communication preferences of contemporary society.The study provides a comprehensive examination of participation dynamics within the unique context of online communities in Lithuania. It importantly highlights that personal interest serves as the central driver for active engagement, with communities focused on hobbies, lifestyle, and personal interests eliciting the highest levels of participation. Interestingly, despite the extensive adoption of online communities—observed in 63% of the surveyed Internet users—engagement in platforms focused on societal issues is limited, indicating a challenge that needs to be addressed to realize the full potential of these platforms as venues for civic participation in post-soviet countries. The study further illuminates concerns over cybersecurity, emphasizing the importance of secure environments in fostering participation and the generation of ideas for societal benefit.The originality of the paper is national socio-cultural context of one country. However, this is also one of the limitations of this research and the reason, why the conclusions can not be generalized or applied to other countries without additional research. Another limitation is that this study relies on the answers of individual users without considering the interaction between participants. Future studies could analyze participants’ communication and interaction habits or behavioral changes over time. Results are based on a limited dataset in Lithuania. Therefore, findings can only be generalized to online communities in Lithuania. Looking forward, there are several key areas that future research can delve into. The first is the exploration of strategies to increase user engagement in online communities concentrating on societal matters. This could involve identifying and overcoming barriers to participation. Secondly, there is a need for an in-depth understanding of users’ cybersecurity concerns and an investigation into the impact of various security measures on their willingness to engage. Lastly, it would be of interest to examine the potential psychological challenges posed by participation in online communities and how these can be mitigated. For practitioners, particularly those designing online communities, several key implications arise from the findings of this study. Firstly, there’s an identified need to align community themes with potential users’ personal interests as a strategy for encouraging participation. Secondly, designers must prioritize establishing robust cybersecurity measures to build trust and create a safe environment for users. Lastly, the study underscores the importance of usability in online community design. Users expressed a strong preference for simplicity and user-friendliness in their platforms—an aspect that should not be overlooked in the design process. Taken together, the insights from this study contribute significantly to our understanding of online communities, pointing to critical areas of focus for designers and researchers alike.The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.Ethical review and approval was not required for the study on human participants in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. Written informed consent from the patients/participants or patients/participants legal guardian/next of kin was not required to participate in this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.AS: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft. MM: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing – review & editing.