Energy that is collected from renewable resources
For the academic journal, see Renewable Energy (journal).
Renewable energy capacity additions in 2020 expanded by more than 45% from 2019, including 90% more new wind power (green) and a 23% expansion of new solar photovoltaic installations (yellow).[1]
Renewable electricity generation breakdown (+nuclear) as of 2018.[2]
Hydro (45%)
Nuclear (28%)
Wind (13%)
Solar (6%)
Biofuels (5%)
Other (3%)
Efficient energy use
Microgeneration
Carbon-neutral fuel
Renewable energy transition
Marine energy
Green vehicle
Hybrid vehicle
Fossil fuel phase-out
Renewable energy portal
Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale. It includes sources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves, and geothermal heat.[3] Renewable energy stands in contrast to fossil fuels, which are being used far more quickly than they are being replenished. Although most renewable energy sources are sustainable, some are not. For example, some biomass sources are considered unsustainable at current rates of exploitation.[4][5]
Renewable energy often provides energy in four important areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services.[6] About 20% of humans' global energy consumption is renewables, including almost 30% of electricity.[7] About 8% of energy consumption is traditional biomass, but this is declining.[8] Over 4% of energy consumption is heat energy from modern renewables, such as solar water heating, and over 6% electricity.[8]
Globally there are over 10 million jobs associated with the renewable energy industries, with solar photovoltaics being the largest renewable employer.[9] Renewable energy systems are rapidly becoming more efficient and cheaper and their share of total energy consumption is increasing,[10] with a large majority of worldwide newly installed electricity capacity being renewable.[11] In most countries, photovoltaic solar or onshore wind are the cheapest new-build electricity.[12]
Many nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of their energy supply, with some generating over half their electricity from renewables.[13][14][15] National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.[16] A few countries generate all their electricity using renewable energy.[17] Renewable energy resources exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to fossil fuels, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency technologies is resulting in significant energy security, climate change mitigation, and economic benefits.[18] However renewables are being hindered by hundreds of billions of dollars of fossil fuel subsidies.[19] In international public opinion surveys there is strong support for promoting renewable sources such as solar power and wind power.[20][21]
While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human development.[22][23] As most of the renewable energy technologies provide electricity, renewable energy is often deployed together with further electrification, which has several benefits: electricity can be converted to heat, can be converted into mechanical energy with high efficiency, and is clean at the point of consumption.[24][25] In addition, electrification with renewable energy is more efficient and therefore leads to significant reductions in primary energy requirements.[26] In 2021, China accounted for almost half of the increase in renewable electricity.[27] In 2021, Norway, known for its production of hydroelectricity, consumed hydro energy worth 45% of its total energy supply.[28]
See also: Outline of solar energy, Lists of renewable energy topics, and Sustainable energy
Coal, oil, and natural gas remain the primary global energy sources even as renewables have begun rapidly increasing.[29]
PlanetSolar, the world's largest solar-powered boat and the first ever solar electric vehicle to circumnavigate the globe (in 2012)
Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides, plant growth, and geothermal heat, as the International Energy Agency explains:[30]
Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.
Renewable energy resources and significant opportunities for energy efficiency exist over wide geographical areas, in contrast to other energy sources, which are concentrated in a limited number of countries. Rapid deployment of renewable energy and energy efficiency, and technological diversification of energy sources, would result in significant energy security and economic benefits.[18] It would also reduce environmental pollution such as air pollution caused by the burning of fossil fuels, and improve public health, reduce premature mortalities due to pollution and save associated health costs that could amount to trillions of dollars annually.[31][32] Multiple analyses of decarbonization strategies have found that quantified health benefits can significantly offset the costs of implementing these strategies.[33][34] Renewable energy sources, that derive their energy from the sun, either directly or indirectly, such as hydro and wind, are expected to be capable of supplying humanity energy for almost another 1 billion years, at which point the predicted increase in heat from the Sun is expected to make the surface of the Earth too hot for liquid water to exist.[35][36][37]
Climate change and global warming concerns, coupled with the continuing fall in the costs of some renewable energy equipment, such as wind turbines and solar panels, are driving increased use of renewables.[20] New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the global financial crisis better than many other sectors.[38] As of 2019, however, according to the International Renewable Energy Agency, renewables overall share in the energy mix (including power, heat and transport) needs to grow six times faster, in order to keep the rise in average global temperatures "well below" 2.0 °C (3.6 °F) during the present century, compared to pre-industrial levels.[39]
As of 2011, small solar PV systems provide electricity to a few million households, and micro-hydro configured into mini-grids serves many more.[needs update] Over 44 million households use biogas made in household-scale digesters for lighting and/or cooking, and more than 166 million households rely on a new generation of more-efficient biomass cookstoves.[40] United Nations' eighth Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity.[41] At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply.[42] National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond, and some 120 countries have various policy targets for longer-term shares of renewable energy, including a 20% target of all electricity generated for the European Union by 2020.[needs update] Some countries have much higher long-term policy targets of up to 100% renewables. Outside Europe, a diverse group of 20 or more other countries targets renewable energy shares[clarification needed] in the 2020–2030 time frame that range from 10% to 50%.[16]
Renewable energy often displaces conventional fuels in four areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, transportation, and rural (off-grid) energy services:[6]
By 2040, renewable energy is projected to equal coal and natural gas electricity generation. Several jurisdictions, including Denmark, Germany, the state of South Australia and some US states have achieved high integration of variable renewables. For example, in 2015 wind power met 42% of electricity demand in Denmark, 23.2% in Portugal and 15.5% in Uruguay. Interconnectors enable countries to balance electricity systems by allowing the import and export of renewable energy. Innovative hybrid systems have emerged between countries and regions.[43]
Solar water heating makes an important contribution to renewable heat in many countries, most notably in China, which now has 70% of the global total (180 GWth). Most of these systems are installed on multi-family apartment buildings and meet a portion of the hot water needs of an estimated 50–60 million households in China. Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households. The use of biomass for heating continues to grow as well. In Sweden, national use of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil. Direct geothermal for heating is also growing rapidly.[44] The newest addition to heating is from geothermal heat pumps which provide both heating and cooling, and also flatten the electric demand curve and are thus an increasing national priority[45][46] (see also renewable thermal energy).
A bus fueled by biodiesel
Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn, sugarcane, or sweet sorghum. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources such as trees and grasses is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe.
A solar vehicle is an electric vehicle powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy. Usually, photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels convert the sun's energy directly into electric energy. The term "solar vehicle" usually implies that solar energy is used to power all or part of a vehicle's propulsion. Solar power may be also used to provide power for communications or controls or other auxiliary functions. Solar vehicles are not sold as practical day-to-day transportation devices at present but are primarily demonstration vehicles and engineering exercises, often sponsored by government agencies. High-profile examples include PlanetSolar and Solar Impulse. However, indirectly solar-charged vehicles are widespread and solar boats are available commercially.
Prior to the development of coal in the mid 19th century, nearly all energy used was renewable. The oldest known use of renewable energy, in the form of traditional biomass to fuel fires, dates from more than a million years ago. The use of biomass for fire did not become commonplace until many hundreds of thousands of years later.[47] Probably the second oldest usage of renewable energy is harnessing the wind in order to drive ships over water. This practice can be traced back some 7000 years, to ships in the Persian Gulf and on the Nile.[48] From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times.[49] Moving into the time of recorded history, the primary sources of traditional renewable energy were human labor, animal power, water power, wind, in grain crushing windmills, and firewood, a traditional biomass.
In the 1860s and 1870s, there were already fears that civilization would run out of fossil fuels and the need was felt for a better source. In 1873 Augustin Mouchot wrote:
The time will arrive when the industry of Europe will cease to find those natural resources, so necessary for it. Petroleum springs and coal mines are not inexhaustible but are rapidly diminishing in many places. Will man, then, return to the power of water and wind? Or will he emigrate where the most powerful source of heat sends its rays to all? History will show what will come.[50]
In 1885, Werner von Siemens, commenting on the discovery of the photovoltaic effect in the solid state, wrote:
In conclusion, I would say that however great the scientific importance of this discovery may be, its practical value will be no less obvious when we reflect that the supply of solar energy is both without limit and without cost, and that it will continue to pour down upon us for countless ages after all the coal deposits of the earth have been exhausted and forgotten.[51]
Max Weber mentioned the end of fossil fuel in the concluding paragraphs of his Die protestantische Ethik und der Geist des Kapitalismus (The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism), published in 1905.[52] Development of solar engines continued until the outbreak of World War I. The importance of solar energy was recognized in a 1911 Scientific American article: "in the far distant future, natural fuels having been exhausted [solar power] will remain as the only means of existence of the human race".[53]
The theory of peak oil was published in 1956.[54] In the 1970s environmentalists promoted the development of renewable energy both as a replacement for the eventual depletion of oil, as well as for an escape from dependence on oil, and the first electricity-generating wind turbines appeared. Solar had long been used for heating and cooling, but solar panels were too costly to build solar farms until 1980.[55]
Since the 21st century, many parts of the world have transitioned to sources of renewable energy from fossil fuels.
Mainstream technologies
Main articles: Hydroelectricity and Hydropower
The Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River in China
Global electricity power generation capacity 1,211 GW (2020)[56]
Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 2.7% (2011-2020)[57]
Share of global electricity generation 16% (2018)[58]
Levelized cost per megawatt hour USD 65.581 (2019)[59]
Primary technology Dam
Other energy applications Pumped storage, mechanical power
Since water is about 800 times denser than air, even a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea swell, can yield considerable amounts of energy. There are many forms of water energy:
Historically, hydroelectric power came from constructing large hydroelectric dams and reservoirs, which are still popular in developing countries.[60] The largest of them are the Three Gorges Dam (2003) in China and the Itaipu Dam (1984) built by Brazil and Paraguay.
Small hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 50 MW of power. They are often used on small rivers or as a low-impact development on larger rivers. China is the largest producer of hydroelectricity in the world and has more than 45,000 small hydro installations.[61]
Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity plants derive energy from rivers without the creation of a large reservoir. The water is typically conveyed along the side of the river valley (using channels, pipes and/or tunnels) until it is high above the valley floor, whereupon it can be allowed to fall through a penstock to drive a turbine. This style of generation may still produce a large amount of electricity, such as the Chief Joseph Dam on the Columbia River in the United States.[62] Many run-of-the-river hydro power plants are micro hydro or pico hydro plants.
Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. Of the top 50 countries by percentage of electicity generated from renewables, 46 are primarily hydroelectric.[63] China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity stations larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.[64]
Wave power, which captures the energy of ocean surface waves, and tidal power, converting the energy of tides, are two forms of hydropower with future potential; however, they are not yet widely employed commercially. According to the Energy Information Administration, the theoretical annual energy potential of waves off the coasts of the United States is estimated to be as much as 2.64 trillion kilowatthours, or the equivalent of about 66% of U.S. electricity generation in 2020.[65] A demonstration project operated by the Ocean Renewable Power Company on the coast of Maine, and connected to the grid, harnesses tidal power from the Bay of Fundy, location of the world's highest tidal flow. Ocean thermal energy conversion, which uses the temperature difference between cooler deep and warmer surface waters, currently has no economic feasibility.[66][67]
Main article: Wind power
Wind energy generation by region over time.[68]
Global map of wind power density potential.[69]
Global electricity power generation capacity 733 GW (2020)[70]
Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 14% (2011-2020)[71]
Share of global electricity generation 5% (2018)[58]
Levelized cost per megawatt hour Land-based wind: USD 30.165 (2019)[72]
Primary technology Wind turbine
Other energy applications Windmill, windpump
Air flow can be used to run wind turbines. Modern utility-scale wind turbines range from around 600 kW to 9 MW of rated power. The power available from the wind is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed increases, power output increases up to the maximum output for the particular turbine.[73] Areas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high-altitude sites, are preferred locations for wind farms. Typically, full load hours of wind turbines vary between 16 and 57 percent annually but might be higher in particularly favorable offshore sites.[74]
Wind-generated electricity met nearly 4% of global electricity demand in 2015, with nearly 63 GW of new wind power capacity installed. Wind energy was the leading source of new capacity in Europe, the US and Canada, and the second largest in China. In Denmark, wind energy met more than 40% of its electricity demand while Ireland, Portugal and Spain each met nearly 20%.[75]
Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five times total current global energy production, or 40 times current electricity demand, assuming all practical barriers needed were overcome. This would require wind turbines to be installed over large areas, particularly in areas of higher wind resources, such as offshore. As offshore wind speeds average ~90% greater than that of land, so offshore resources can contribute substantially more energy than land-stationed turbines.[76]
Main articles: Solar energy and Solar power
Satellite image of the Bhadla Solar Park in India, it is the largest Solar Park in the world
Global map of horizontal irradiation.[77]
Levelized cost per megawatt hour Utility-scale photovoltaics: USD 38.343 (2019)[80]
Primary technologies Photovoltaics, concentrated solar power, solar thermal collector
Other energy applications Water heating; heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC); cooking; process heat; water treatment
Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, is harnessed using a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating, photovoltaics, concentrated solar power (CSP), concentrator photovoltaics (CPV), solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis.[81][82] Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert, and distribute solar energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. Active solar technologies encompass solar thermal energy, using solar collectors for heating, and solar power, converting sunlight into electricity either directly using photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP).
A photovoltaic system converts light into electrical direct current (DC) by taking advantage of the photoelectric effect.[83] Solar PV has turned into a multi-billion, fast-growing industry, continues to improve its cost-effectiveness, and has the most potential of any renewable technologies together with CSP.[84][85] Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. CSP-Stirling has by far the highest efficiency among all solar energy technologies.
In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries' energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared".[81] Solar power accounts for 505 GW annually, which is about 2% of the world's electricity. Solar energy can be harnessed anywhere that receives sunlight; however, the amount of solar energy that can be harnessed for electricity generation is influenced by weather conditions, geographic location and time of day. [86]Australia has the largest proportion of solar electricity in the world, supplying 9.9% of the country's electrical demand in 2020.[87]
Main articles: Bioenergy, Biomass, Biogas, and Biofuel
Sugarcane plantation to produce ethanol in Brazil
A CHP power station using wood to supply 30,000 households in France
Levelized cost per megawatt hour USD 118.908 (2019)[90]
Primary technologies Biomass, biofuel
Other energy applications Heating, cooking, transportation fuels
Biomass is biological material derived from living, or recently living organisms. It most often refers to plants or plant-derived materials which are specifically called lignocellulosic biomass.[91] As an energy source, biomass can either be used directly via combustion to produce heat, or indirectly after converting it to various forms of biofuel. Conversion of biomass to biofuel can be achieved by different methods which are broadly classified into: thermal, chemical, and biochemical methods. Wood was the largest biomass energy source as of 2012;[92] examples include forest residues – such as dead trees, branches and tree stumps –, yard clippings, wood chips and even municipal solid waste. In the second sense, biomass includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fibers or other industrial chemicals, including biofuels. Industrial biomass can be grown from numerous types of plants, including miscanthus, switchgrass, hemp, corn, poplar, willow, sorghum, sugarcane, bamboo,[93] and a variety of tree species, ranging from eucalyptus to oil palm (palm oil).
Plant energy is produced by crops specifically grown for use as fuel that offer high biomass output per hectare with low input energy.[94] The grain can be used for liquid transportation fuels while the straw can be burned to produce heat or electricity. Plant biomass can also be degraded from cellulose to glucose through a series of chemical treatments, and the resulting sugar can then be used as a first-generation biofuel.
Biomass can be converted to other usable forms of energy such as methane gas[95] or transportation fuels such as ethanol and biodiesel. Rotting garbage, and agricultural and human waste, all release methane gas – also called landfill gas or biogas. Crops, such as corn and sugarcane, can be fermented to produce the transportation fuel, ethanol. Biodiesel, another transportation fuel, can be produced from left-over food products such as vegetable oils and animal fats.[96] Also, biomass to liquids (BTLs) and cellulosic ethanol are still[citation needed] under research.[97][98] There is a great deal of research involving algal fuel or algae-derived biomass due to the fact that it is a non-food resource and can be produced at rates 5 to 10 times those of other types of land-based agriculture, such as corn and soy. Once harvested, it can be fermented to produce biofuels such as ethanol, butanol, and methane, as well as biodiesel and hydrogen. The biomass used for electricity generation varies by region. Forest by-products, such as wood residues, are common in the United States. Agricultural waste is common in Mauritius (sugar cane residue) and Southeast Asia (rice husks). Animal husbandry residues, such as poultry litter, are common in the United Kingdom.[99][better source needed]
Biofuels include a wide range of fuels which are derived from biomass. The term covers solid, liquid, and gaseous fuels.[100] Liquid biofuels include bioalcohols, such as bioethanol, and oils, such as biodiesel. Gaseous biofuels include biogas, landfill gas and synthetic gas. Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops. These include maize, sugarcane and, more recently, sweet sorghum. The latter crop is particularly suitable for growing in dryland conditions, and is being investigated by International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics for its potential to provide fuel, along with food and animal feed, in arid parts of Asia and Africa.[101]
With advanced technology being developed, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feedstocks for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the United States and in Brazil. The energy costs for producing bio-ethanol are almost equal to, the energy yields from bio-ethanol. However, according to the European Environment Agency, biofuels do not address global warming concerns.[102] Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. It can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, or more commonly as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe. Biofuels provided 2.7% of the world's transport fuel in 2010.[103][needs update]
Biomass, biogas and biofuels are burned to produce heat/power and in doing so harm the environment. Pollutants such as sulphurous oxides (SOx), nitrous oxides (NOx), and particulate matter (PM) are produced from the combustion of biomass. The World Health Organization estimates that 3.7 million prematurely died from outdoor air pollution in 2012 while indoor pollution from biomass burning effects over 3 billion people worldwide.[104][105]
Main articles: Geothermal energy, Geothermal power, and Renewable thermal energy
Steam rising from the Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Station in Iceland
Global electricity power generation capacity 14 GW (2020)[106]
Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate 3.7% (2011-2020)[107]
Share of global electricity generation <1% (2018)[58]
Levelized cost per megawatt hour USD 58.257 (2019)[108]
Primary technologies Dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle power stations
Other energy applications Heating
High temperature geothermal energy is from thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. Earth's geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet and from radioactive decay of minerals (in currently uncertain[109] but possibly roughly equal[110] proportions). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth, and thermos, meaning heat.
The heat that is used for geothermal energy can be from deep within the Earth, all the way down to Earth's core – 4,000 miles (6,400 km) down. At the core, temperatures may reach over 9,000 °F (5,000 °C). Heat conducts from the core to the surrounding rock. Extremely high temperature and pressure cause some rock to melt, which is commonly known as magma. Magma convects upward since it is lighter than the solid rock. This magma then heats rock and water in the crust, sometimes up to 700 °F (371 °C).[111]
Low temperature geothermal[45] refers to the use of the outer crust of the Earth as a thermal battery to facilitate renewable thermal energy for heating and cooling buildings, and other refrigeration and industrial uses. In this form of geothermal, a geothermal heat pump and ground-coupled heat exchanger are used together to move heat energy into the Earth (for cooling) and out of the Earth (for heating) on a varying seasonal basis. Low-temperature geothermal (generally referred to as "GHP") is an increasingly important renewable technology because it both reduces total annual energy loads associated with heating and cooling, and it also flattens the electric demand curve eliminating the extreme summer and winter peak electric supply requirements. Thus low temperature geothermal/GHP is becoming an increasing national priority with multiple tax credit support[112] and focus as part of the ongoing movement toward net zero energy.[46]
There are also other renewable energy technologies that are still under development, including cellulosic ethanol, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and marine energy.[113] These technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization. Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and research, development and demonstration (RD&D) funding.[113]
There are numerous organizations within the academic, federal, and commercial sectors conducting large-scale advanced research in the field of renewable energy. This research spans several areas of focus across the renewable energy spectrum. Most of the research is targeted at improving efficiency and increasing overall energy yields.[114] Multiple federally supported research organizations have focused on renewable energy in recent years. Two of the most prominent of these labs are Sandia National Laboratories and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), both of which are funded by the United States Department of Energy and supported by various corporate partners.[115] Sandia has a total budget of $2.4 billion[116] while NREL has a budget of $375 million.[117]
Enhanced geothermal system
Enhanced geothermal system (see file description for details)
Main article: Enhanced geothermal systems
Enhanced geothermal systems (EGS) are a new type of geothermal power technology that does not require natural convective hydrothermal resources. The vast majority of geothermal energy within drilling reach is in dry and non-porous rock.[118] EGS technologies "enhance" and/or create geothermal resources in this "hot dry rock (HDR)" through hydraulic fracturing. EGS and HDR technologies, such as hydrothermal geothermal, are expected to be baseload resources that produce power 24 hours a day like a fossil plant. Distinct from hydrothermal, HDR and EGS may be feasible anywhere in the world, depending on the economic limits of drill depth. Good locations are over deep granite covered by a thick (3–5 km) layer of insulating sediments which slow heat loss.[119] There are HDR and EGS systems currently being developed and tested in France, Australia, Japan, Germany, the U.S., and Switzerland. The largest EGS project in the world is a 25 megawatt demonstration plant currently being developed in the Cooper Basin, Australia. The Cooper Basin has the potential to generate 5,000–10,000 MW.
Cellulosic ethanol
Main article: Cellulosic ethanol
Several refineries that can process biomass and turn it into ethanol are built by companies such as Iogen, POET, and Abengoa, while other companies such as the Verenium Corporation, Novozymes, and Dyadic International[120] are producing enzymes which could enable future commercialization. The shift from food crop feedstocks to waste residues and native grasses offers significant opportunities for a range of players, from farmers to biotechnology firms, and from project developers to investors.[121][better source needed]
Rance Tidal Power Station, France
Main article: Marine energy
Marine energy (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy) is the energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity, and ocean temperature differences. The movement of water in the world's oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy, or energy in motion. This energy can be harnessed to generate electricity to power homes, transport and industries. The term marine energy encompasses both wave power – power from surface waves, and tidal power – obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Reverse electrodialysis (RED) is a technology for generating electricity by mixing fresh river water and salty sea water in large power cells designed for this purpose; as of 2016, it is being tested at a small scale (50 kW). Offshore wind power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind turbines are placed over water. The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world.[122][better source needed]
1. Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station South Korea 37°18′47″N 126°36′46″E / 37.31306°N 126.61278°E / 37.31306; 126.61278 (Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station) 254 MW [123]
2. Rance Tidal Power Station France 48°37′05″N 02°01′24″W / 48.61806°N 2.02333°W / 48.61806; -2.02333 (Rance Tidal Power Station) 240 MW [124]
3. Annapolis Royal Generating Station Canada 44°45′07″N 65°30′40″W / 44.75194°N 65.51111°W / 44.75194; -65.51111 (Annapolis Royal Generating Station) 20 MW [124]
Solar energy developments
Experimental solar power
Main article: Solar power § Emerging technologies
Concentrated photovoltaics (CPV) systems employ sunlight concentrated onto photovoltaic surfaces for the purpose of electricity generation. Thermoelectric, or "thermovoltaic" devices convert a temperature difference between dissimilar materials into an electric current.
Floating solar arrays
Main article: Floating solar
Floating solar arrays are PV systems that float on the surface of drinking water reservoirs, quarry lakes, irrigation canals or remediation and tailing ponds. A small number of such systems exist in France, India, Japan, South Korea, the United Kingdom, Singapore, and the United States.[125][126][127][128][129] The systems are said to have advantages over photovoltaics on land. The cost of land is more expensive, and there are fewer rules and regulations for structures built on bodies of water not used for recreation. Unlike most land-based solar plants, floating arrays can be unobtrusive because they are hidden from public view. They achieve higher efficiencies than PV panels on land, because water cools the panels. The panels have a special coating to prevent rust or corrosion.[130] In May 2008, the Far Niente Winery in Oakville, California, pioneered the world's first floatovoltaic system by installing 994 solar PV modules with a total capacity of 477 kW onto 130 pontoons and floating them on the winery's irrigation pond.[131] Utility-scale floating PV farms are starting to be built. Kyocera will develop the world's largest, a 13.4 MW farm on the reservoir above Yamakura Dam in Chiba Prefecture[132] using 50,000 solar panels.[133][134] Salt-water resistant floating farms are also being constructed for ocean use.[135] The largest so far announced floatovoltaic project is a 350 MW power station in the Amazon region of Brazil.[136]
This section is an excerpt from Perovskite solar cell.[]
A perovskite solar cell (PSC) is a type of solar cell which includes a perovskite-structured compound, most commonly a hybrid organic-inorganic lead or tin halide-based material, as the light-harvesting active layer.[137][138] Perovskite materials, such as methylammonium lead halides and all-inorganic cesium lead halide, are cheap to produce and simple to manufacture.
Solar cell efficiencies of laboratory-scale devices using these materials have increased from 3.8% in 2009[139] to 25.5% in 2020 in single-junction architectures,[140] and, in silicon-based tandem cells, to 29.15%,[140] exceeding the maximum efficiency achieved in single-junction silicon solar cells. Perovskite solar cells have therefore been the fastest-advancing solar technology as of 2016.[137] With the potential of achieving even higher efficiencies and very low production costs, perovskite solar cells have become commercially attractive. Core problems and research subjects include their short- and long-term stability.[141]
Solar-assisted heat pump
Main article: Solar-assisted heat pump
A heat pump is a device that provides heat energy from a source of heat to a destination called a "heat sink". Heat pumps are designed to move thermal energy opposite to the direction of spontaneous heat flow by absorbing heat from a cold space and releasing it to a warmer one. A solar-assisted heat pump represents the integration of a heat pump and thermal solar panels in a single integrated system. Typically these two technologies are used separately (or only placing them in parallel) to produce hot water.[142] In this system the solar thermal panel performs the function of the low temperature heat source and the heat produced is used to feed the heat pump's evaporator.[143] The goal of this system is to get high COP and then produce energy in a more efficient and less expensive way.
It is possible to use any type of solar thermal panel (sheet and tubes, roll-bond, heat pipe, thermal plates) or hybrid (mono/polycrystalline, thin film) in combination with the heat pump. The use of a hybrid panel is preferable because it allows covering a part of the electricity demand of the heat pump and reduces the power consumption and consequently the variable costs of the system.
Solar aircraft
In 2016, Solar Impulse 2 was the first solar-powered aircraft to complete a circumnavigation of the world.
See also: Solar Impulse
An electric aircraft is an aircraft that runs on electric motors rather than internal combustion engines, with electricity coming from fuel cells, solar cells, ultracapacitors, power beaming,[144] or batteries.
Currently, flying manned electric aircraft are mostly experimental demonstrators, though many small unmanned aerial vehicles are powered by batteries. Electrically powered model aircraft have been flown since the 1970s, with one report in 1957.[145][146] The first man-carrying electrically powered flights were made in 1973.[147] Between 2015 and 2016, a manned, solar-powered plane, Solar Impulse 2, completed a circumnavigation of the Earth.[148]
Solar updraft tower
Main article: Solar updraft tower
A solar updraft tower is a renewable-energy power plant for generating electricity from low-temperature solar heat. Sunshine heats the air beneath a very wide greenhouse-like roofed collector structure surrounding the central base of a very tall chimney tower. The resulting convection causes a hot air updraft in the tower by the chimney effect. This airflow drives wind turbines placed in the chimney updraft or around the chimney base to produce electricity. Plans for scaled-up versions of demonstration models will allow significant power generation and may allow the development of other applications, such as water extraction or distillation, and agriculture or horticulture. A more advanced version of a similarly themed technology is the Vortex engine which aims to replace large physical chimneys with a vortex of air created by a shorter, less-expensive structure.
Space-based solar power
Main article: Space-based solar power
For either photovoltaic or thermal systems, one option is to loft them into space, particularly Geosynchronous orbit. To be competitive with Earth-based solar power systems, the specific mass (kg/kW) times the cost to loft mass plus the cost of the parts needs to be $2400 or less. I.e., for a parts cost plus rectenna of $1100/kW, the product of the $/kg and kg/kW must be $1300/kW or less.[149] Thus for 6.5 kg/kW, the transport cost cannot exceed $200/kg. While that will require a 100 to one reduction, SpaceX is targeting a ten to one reduction, Reaction Engines may make a 100 to one reduction possible.[citation needed]
Main article: Artificial photosynthesis
Artificial photosynthesis uses techniques including nanotechnology to store solar electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds by splitting water to produce hydrogen and then using carbon dioxide to make methanol.[150] Researchers in this field are striving to design molecular mimics of photosynthesis that use a wider region of the solar spectrum, employ catalytic systems made from abundant, inexpensive materials that are robust, readily repaired, non-toxic, stable in a variety of environmental conditions and perform more efficiently allowing a greater proportion of photon energy to end up in the storage compounds, i.e., carbohydrates (rather than building and sustaining living cells).[151] However, prominent research faces hurdles, Sun Catalytix a MIT spin-off stopped scaling up their prototype fuel-cell in 2012, because it offers few savings over other ways to make hydrogen from sunlight.[152]
Algae fuels
Main article: Algae fuels
Producing liquid fuels from oil-rich varieties of algae is an ongoing research topic. Various microalgae grown in open or closed systems are being tried including some systems that can be set up in brownfield and desert lands.[153]
Collection of static electricity charges from water droplets on metal surfaces is an experimental technology that would be especially useful in low-income countries with relative air humidity over 60%.[154]
Crop wastes
AuREUS devices (Aurora Renewable Energy & UV Sequestration),[155] which are based on crop wastes can absorb ultraviolet light from the sun and turn it into renewable energy.[156][157]
Integration into the energy system
Main article: Variable renewable energy
Estimated power demand over a week in 2012 and 2020, Germany, showing the need for dispatchable generation rather than baseload generation in the grid.
Renewable energy production from some sources such as wind and solar is more variable and more geographically spread than technology based on fossil fuels and nuclear. While integrating it into the wider energy system is feasible, it does lead to some additional challenges such as increased production volatility and decreased system inertia.[158] In order for the energy system to remain stable, a set of measurements can be taken. Thus, the use of electronic power converters allows the adjustment of the levels and waveform of energy from renewable sources. Furthermore, the use of the energy storage device is essential for the operation of the isolated system,[clarification needed] when it has an intermittent source in its composition. This allows the uninterrupted power supply to loads while within their operational limits.[159] Implementation of energy storage, using a wide variety of renewable energy technologies, and implementing a smart grid in which energy is automatically used at the moment it is produced can reduce risks and costs of renewable energy implementation.[158][160]
Electrical energy storage
Main articles: Energy storage and Grid energy storage
Electrical energy storage is a collection of methods used to store electrical energy. Electrical energy is stored during times when production (especially from intermittent sources such as wind power, tidal power, solar power) exceeds consumption, and returned to the grid when production falls below consumption. Pumped-storage hydroelectricity accounts for more than 90% of all grid power storage. Costs of lithium-ion batteries are dropping rapidly, and are increasingly being deployed grid ancillary services and for domestic storage. Additionally, power can be stored in hydrogen fuel cells.
High costs and limited life still make batteries a "weak substitute" for dispatchable power sources, and are unable to cover for variable renewable power gaps lasting for days, weeks or months. In grid models with high VRE share, the excessive cost of storage tends to dominate the costs of the whole grid — for example, in California alone 80% share of VRE would require 9.6 TWh of storage but 100% would require 36.3 TWh.[citation needed] As of 2018 the state only had 150 GWh of storage, primarily in pumped storage and a small fraction in batteries. According to another study, supplying 80% of US demand from VRE would require a smart grid covering the whole country or battery storage capable to supply the whole system for 12 hours, both at cost estimated at $2.5 trillion.[161][162][better source needed]
Market and industry trends
Main article: Renewable energy commercialization
Renewable power has been more effective in creating jobs than coal or oil in the United States.[163] In 2016, employment in the sector increased 6% in the United States while employment in the oil and gas sector decreased 18%. Worldwide, renewables employ about 8.1 million people as of 2016.[164]
Growth of renewables
Investment: Companies, governments and households committed $501.3 billion to decarbonization in 2020, including renewable energy (solar, wind), electric vehicles and associated charging infrastructure, energy storage, energy-efficient heating systems, carbon capture and storage, and hydrogen.[165]
The countries most reliant on fossil fuels for electricity vary widely on how great a portion of that electricity is generated from renewables, leaving wide variation in renewables' growth potential.[166]
Past costs of producing renewable energy declined significantly, with 62% of total renewable power generation added in 2020 having lower costs than the cheapest new fossil fuel option.[167]
Levelized cost: With increasingly widespread implementation of renewable energy sources, costs have declined, most notably for energy generated by solar panels.[168]
Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is a measure of the average net present cost of electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime.
In 2020, renewables overtook fossil fuels as the European Union's main source of electricity for the first time.[169]
Comparing worldwide energy use, the growth of renewable energy is shown by the green line[170]
From the end of 2004, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10–60% annually for many technologies. In 2015 global investment in renewables rose 5% to $285.9 billion, breaking the previous record of $278.5 billion in 2011. 2015 was also the first year that saw renewables, excluding large hydro, account for the majority of all new power capacity (134 GW, making up 54% of the total).[citation needed] Of the renewables total, wind accounted for 72 GW and solar photovoltaics 56 GW; both record-breaking numbers and sharply up from 2014 figures (49 GW and 45 GW respectively). In financial terms, solar made up 56% of total new investment and wind accounted for 38%.
In 2014 global wind power capacity expanded 16% to 369,553 MW.[171] Yearly wind energy production is also growing rapidly and has reached around 4% of worldwide electricity usage,[172] 11.4% in the EU,[173] and it is widely used in Asia, and the United States. In 2015, worldwide installed photovoltaics capacity increased to 227 gigawatts (GW), sufficient to supply 1 percent of global electricity demands.[174] Solar thermal energy stations operate in the United States and Spain, and as of 2016, the largest of these is the 392 MW Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System in California.[175][176] The world's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW. Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18% of the country's automotive fuel. Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the United States.
In 2017, investments in renewable energy amounted to US$279.8 billion worldwide, with China accounting for US$126.6 billion or 45% of the global investments, the United States for US$40.5 billion, and Europe for US$40.9 billion.[177] The results of a recent review of the literature concluded that as greenhouse gas (GHG) emitters begin to be held liable for damages resulting from GHG emissions resulting in climate change, a high value for liability mitigation would provide powerful incentives for deployment of renewable energy technologies.[178]
In the decade of 2010–2019, worldwide investment in renewable energy capacity excluding large hydropower amounted to US$2.7 trillion, of which the top countries China contributed US$818 billion, the United States contributed US$392.3 billion, Japan contributed US$210.9 billion, Germany contributed US$183.4 billion, and the United Kingdom contributed US$126.5 billion.[179] This was an increase of over three and possibly four times the equivalent amount invested in the decade of 2000–2009 (no data is available for 2000–2003).[179]
Selected renewable energy global indicators
Investment in new renewable capacity
(annual) (billion USD) 182 178 237 279 256 232 270 285.9 241.6 279.8 289 302 304
Renewables power capacity (existing) (GWe) 1,140 1,230 1,320 1,360 1,470 1,578 1,712 1,849 2,017 2,195 2,378 2,588 2,839
Hydropower capacity (existing) (GWe) 885 915 945 970 990 1,018 1,055 1,064 1,096 1,114 1,132 1,150 1,170
Solar PV capacity (grid-connected) (GWe) 16 23 40 70 100 138 177 227 303 402 505 627 760
Wind power capacity (existing) (GWe) 121 159 198 238 283 319 370 433 487 539 591 651 743
Solar hot water capacity (existing)
(2008-2018 GWth, 2019-2020 EJ) 130 160 185 232 255 373 406 435 456 472 480 GWth
(1.4 EJ[180]) 1.4 1.5
Ethanol production (annual) (billion litres) 67 76 86 86 83 87 94 98.8 98.6 106 112 114 105
Biodiesel production, fatty acid methyl ester
(annual) (billion litres) 12 17.8 18.5 21.4 22.5 26 29.7 30.1 30.8 31 34 47 39
Countries with renewable energy targets 79 89 98 118 138 144 164 173 176 179 169 172 165
Source: REN21[181][6][182][183][184][185][186][187][188][189][190][180][191]
Future projections
Projection of levelized cost for wind in the U.S. (left)[192][193]
Renewable energy technologies are getting cheaper, through technological change and through the benefits of mass production and market competition. A 2018 report from the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), found that the cost of renewable energy is quickly falling, and will likely be equal to or less than the cost of non-renewables such as fossil fuels by 2020. The report found that solar power costs have dropped 73% since 2010 and onshore wind costs have dropped by 23% in that same timeframe.[194]
Current projections concerning the future cost of renewables vary, however. The EIA has predicted that almost two-thirds of net additions to power capacity will come from renewables by 2020 due to the combined policy benefits of local pollution, decarbonisation and energy diversification.
According to a 2018 report by Bloomberg New Energy Finance, wind and solar power are expected to generate roughly 50% of the world's energy needs by 2050, while coal powered electricity plants are expected to drop to just 11%.[195] Renewable energy costs continue to drop, and the levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) is declining for wind power, solar photovoltaic (PV), concentrated solar power (CSP) and some biomass technologies.[196] Renewable energy is also the most economic solution for new grid-connected capacity in areas with good resources. As the cost of renewable power falls, the scope of economically viable applications increases. Renewable technologies are now often the most economic solution for new generating capacity. Where "oil-fired generation is the predominant power generation source (e.g. on islands, off-grid and in some countries) a lower-cost renewable solution almost always exists today".[196]
In July 2014, WWF and the World Resources Institute convened a discussion among a number of major US companies who had declared their intention to increase their use of renewable energy. These discussions identified a number of "principles" which companies seeking greater access to renewable energy considered important market deliverables. These principles included choice (between suppliers and between products), cost competitiveness, longer term fixed price supplies, access to third-party financing vehicles, and collaboration.[197]
UK statistics released in September 2020 noted that "the proportion of demand met from renewables varies from a low of 3.4 per cent (for transport, mainly from biofuels) to highs of over 20 per cent for 'other final users', which is largely the service and commercial sectors that consume relatively large quantities of electricity, and industry".[198]
In some locations, individual households can opt to purchase renewable energy through a consumer green energy program.
Trends for individual technologies
In 2017 the world renewable hydropower capacity was 1,154 GW.[14] Only a quarter of the worlds estimated hydroelectric potential of 14,000 TWh/year has been developed, the regional potentials for the growth of hydropower around the world are, 71% Europe, 75% North America, 79% South America, 95% Africa, 95% Middle East, 82% Asia Pacific.[citation needed] New hydropower projects face opposition from local communities due to their large impact, including relocation of communities and flooding of wildlife habitats and farming land.[199] High cost and lead times from permission process, including environmental and risk assessments, with lack of environmental and social acceptance are therefore the primary challenges for new developments.[200] In addition, economic limitations in the third world and the lack of a transmission system in undeveloped areas result in the possibility of developing 25% of the remaining potential before 2050, with the bulk of that being in the Asia Pacific area.[201] There is slow growth taking place in Western counties,[citation needed] but not in the conventional dam and reservoir style of the past. New projects take the form of run-of-the-river and small hydro, neither using large reservoirs. It is popular to repower old dams thereby increasing their efficiency and capacity as well as quicker responsiveness on the grid.[202] Where circumstances permit existing dams such as the Russell Dam built in 1985 may be updated with "pump back" facilities for pumped-storage which is useful for peak loads or to support intermittent wind and solar power. Countries with large hydroelectric developments such as Canada and Norway are spending billions to expand their grids to trade with neighboring countries having limited hydro.[203]
Wind power development
Main article: Wind power by country
Worldwide growth of wind capacity (1996–2018)
Four offshore wind farms are in the Thames Estuary area: Kentish Flats, Gunfleet Sands, Thanet and London Array. The latter is the largest in the world as of April 2013.
Wind power is widely used in Europe, China, and the United States. From 2004 to 2017, worldwide installed capacity of wind power has been growing from 47 GW to 514 GW—a more than tenfold increase within 13 years[14] As of the end of 2014, China, the United States and Germany combined accounted for half of total global capacity.[171] Several other countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 21% of stationary electricity production in Denmark, 18% in Portugal, 16% in Spain, and 14% in Ireland in 2010 and have since continued to expand their installed capacity.[204][205] More than 80 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.[103]
Wind turbines are increasing in power with some commercially deployed models generating over 8MW per turbine.[206][207][208] More powerful models are in development, see list of most powerful wind turbines.
Offshore wind power
As of 2017, offshore wind power amounted to 18.7 GW of global installed capacity, accounting for only 3.6% of the total wind power capacity.[14]
List of offshore and onshore wind farms
As of 2013, the Alta Wind Energy Center (California, 1.5 GW) is the world's largest single wind farm.[209] The Walney Extension (London, 0.7 GW) is the largest offshore wind farm in the world. Gansu Wind Farm (China, 7.9 GW) is the largest wind energy project generating project consisting of 18 wind farms.[210]
Main article: List of solar thermal power stations
The 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System with all three towers under load, February 2014. Taken from I-15.
Solar towers of the PS10 and PS20 solar thermal plants in Spain
Solar thermal energy capacity has increased from 1.3 GW in 2012 to 5.0 GW in 2017.[14]
Spain is the world leader in solar thermal power deployment with 2.3 GW deployed.[14] The United States has 1.8 GW,[14] most of it in California where 1.4 GW of solar thermal power projects are operational.[211] Several power plants have been constructed in the Mojave Desert, Southwestern United States. As of 2017 only 4 other countries have deployments above 100 MW:[14] South Africa (300 MW) India (229 MW) Morocco (180 MW) and United Arab Emirates (100 MW).
The United States conducted much early research in photovoltaics and concentrated solar power. The U.S. is among the top countries in the world in electricity generated by the Sun and several of the world's largest utility-scale installations are located in the desert Southwest.
The oldest solar thermal power plant in the world is the 354 megawatt (MW) SEGS thermal power plant, in California.[212] The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System is a solar thermal power project in the California Mojave Desert, 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Las Vegas, with a gross capacity of 377 MW.[213] The 280 MW Solana Generating Station is a solar power plant near Gila Bend, Arizona, about 70 miles (110 km) southwest of Phoenix, completed in 2013. When commissioned it was the largest parabolic trough plant in the world and the first U.S. solar plant with molten salt thermal energy storage.[214]
In developing countries, three World Bank projects for integrated solar thermal/combined-cycle gas-turbine power plants in Egypt, Mexico, and Morocco have been approved.[215]
Photovoltaic development
Main articles: Growth of photovoltaics, Solar power by country, and List of photovoltaic power stations
Worldwide growth of PV capacity grouped by region in MW (2006–2014)
Photovoltaics (PV) is rapidly-growing with global capacity increasing from 177 GW at the end of 2014 to 385 GW in 2017.[14]
PV uses solar cells assembled into solar panels to convert sunlight into electricity. PV systems range from small, residential and commercial rooftop or building integrated installations, to large utility-scale photovoltaic power station. The predominant PV technology is crystalline silicon, while thin-film solar cell technology accounts for about 10 percent of global photovoltaic deployment. In recent years, PV technology has improved its electricity generating efficiency, reduced the installation cost per watt as well as its energy payback time, and reached grid parity in at least 30 different markets by 2014.[216] Building-integrated photovoltaics or "onsite" PV systems use existing land and structures and generate power close to where it is consumed.[217]
Photovoltaics grew fastest in China, followed by Japan and the United States. Solar power is forecasted to become the world's largest source of electricity by 2050, with solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power contributing 16% and 11%, respectively. This requires an increase of installed PV capacity to 4,600 GW, of which more than half is expected to be deployed in China and India.[218]
Solar panels at the 550 MW Topaz Solar Farm
Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s. As the cost of solar electricity has fallen, the number of grid-connected solar PV systems has grown into the millions and utility-scale solar power stations with hundreds of megawatts are being built. Many solar photovoltaic power stations have been built, mainly in Europe, China and the United States.[219] The 1.5 GW Tengger Desert Solar Park, in China is the world's largest PV power station. Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than fixed-mounted systems.
Biofuel development
See also: Ethanol fuel, Sustainable biofuel, and Issues relating to biofuels
Brazil produces bioethanol made from sugarcane available throughout the country. A typical gas station with dual fuel service is marked "A" for alcohol (ethanol) and "G" for gasoline.
Bioenergy global capacity in 2017 was 109 GW.[14] Biofuels provided 3% of the world's transport fuel in 2017.[220]
Mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level and in 29 states/provinces.[103] According to the International Energy Agency, biofuels have the potential to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050.[221]
Since the 1970s, Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to become the world's second largest producer of ethanol (after the United States) and the world's largest exporter.[222] Brazil's ethanol fuel program uses modern equipment and cheap sugarcane as feedstock, and the residual cane-waste (bagasse) is used to produce heat and power.[223] There are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. By the end of 2008 there were 35,000 filling stations throughout Brazil with at least one ethanol pump.[224] Unfortunately, Operation Car Wash has seriously eroded public trust in oil companies and has implicated several high ranking Brazilian officials.
Nearly all the gasoline sold in the United States today is mixed with 10% ethanol,[225] and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. Ford, Daimler AG, and GM are among the automobile companies that sell "flexible-fuel" cars, trucks, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol. By mid-2006, there were approximately 6 million ethanol compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.[226]
Geothermal development
See also: Geothermal energy in the United States
Geothermal plant at The Geysers, California, US
Global geothermal capacity in 2017 was 12.9 GW.[14]
Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly,[227] but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advances have expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are usually much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.
In 2017, the United States led the world in geothermal electricity production with 12.9 GW of installed capacity.[14] The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California.[228] The Philippines follows the US as the second highest producer of geothermal power in the world, with 1.9 GW of capacity online.[14]
Main article: Renewable energy in developing countries
Solar cookers use sunlight as an energy source for outdoor cooking.
Renewable energy technology has sometimes been seen as a costly luxury item by critics, and affordable only in the affluent developed world. This erroneous view has persisted for many years, however between 2016 and 2017, investments in renewable energy were higher in developing countries than in developed countries, with China leading global investment with a record 126.6 billion dollars. Many Latin American and African countries increased their investments significantly as well.[229] Renewable energy can be particularly suitable for developing countries. In rural and remote areas, transmission and distribution of energy generated from fossil fuels can be difficult and expensive. Producing renewable energy locally can offer a viable alternative.[230]
Technology advances are opening up a huge new market for solar power: the approximately 1.3 billion people around the world who do not have access to grid electricity. Even though they are typically very poor, these people have to pay far more for lighting than people in rich countries because they use inefficient kerosene lamps. Solar power costs half as much as lighting with kerosene.[231] As of 2010, an estimated 3 million households get power from small solar PV systems.[232] Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita. More than 30,000 very small solar panels, each producing 1[233] 2 to 30 watts, are sold in Kenya annually. Some Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are also turning to solar power to reduce their costs and increase their sustainability.
Micro-hydro configured into mini-grids also provide power. Over 44 million households use biogas made in household-scale digesters for lighting and/or cooking, and more than 166 million households rely on a new generation of more-efficient biomass cookstoves.[40] Clean liquid fuel sourced from renewable feedstocks are used for cooking and lighting in energy-poor areas of the developing world. Alcohol fuels (ethanol and methanol) can be produced sustainably from non-food sugary, starchy, and cellulosic feedstocks. Project Gaia, Inc. and CleanStar Mozambique are implementing clean cooking programs with liquid ethanol stoves in Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria and Mozambique.[234]
Renewable energy projects in many developing countries have demonstrated that renewable energy can directly contribute to poverty reduction by providing the energy needed for creating businesses and employment. Renewable energy technologies can also make indirect contributions to alleviating poverty by providing energy for cooking, space heating, and lighting. Renewable energy can also contribute to education, by providing electricity to schools.[235]
Policies to support renewable energy have been vital in their expansion. Where Europe dominated in establishing energy policy in early 2000s, most countries around the world now have some form of energy policy.[236]
Policy trends
The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organization for promoting the adoption of renewable energy worldwide. It aims to provide concrete policy advice and facilitate capacity building and technology transfer. IRENA was formed in 2009, by 75 countries signing the charter of IRENA.[237] As of April 2019, IRENA has 160 member states.[238] The then United Nations' Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon has said that renewable energy has the ability to lift the poorest nations to new levels of prosperity,[41] and in September 2011 he launched the UN Sustainable Energy for All initiative to improve energy access, efficiency and the deployment of renewable energy.[239]
The 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change motivated many countries to develop or improve renewable energy policies.[16] In 2017, a total of 121 countries have adapted some form of renewable energy policy.[236] National targets that year existed in at 176 countries.[16] In addition, there is also a wide range of policies at state/provincial and local levels.[103] Some public utilities help plan or install residential energy upgrades.
Many national, state, and local governments have created green banks. A green bank is a quasi-public financial institution that uses public capital to leverage private investment in clean energy technologies.[240] Green banks use a variety of financial tools to bridge market gaps that hinder the deployment of clean energy. The US military has also focused on the use of renewable fuels for military vehicles. Unlike fossil fuels, renewable fuels can be produced in any country, creating a strategic advantage. The US military has already committed itself to have 50% of its energy consumption come from alternative sources.[241][better source needed]
Climate neutrality by the year of 2050 is the main goal of the European Green Deal.[242] For the European union to reach their target of climate neutrality, one goal is to decarbonise their energy system by aiming to achieve "net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050."[243]
Full renewable energy
These paragraphs are an excerpt from 100% renewable energy.[]
100% renewable energy is where all energy use is sourced from renewable energy sources. The endeavor to use 100% renewable energy for electricity, heating/cooling and transport is motivated by climate change, pollution and other environmental issues, as well as economic and energy security concerns. Shifting the total global primary energy supply to renewable sources requires a transition of the energy system, since most of today's energy is derived from non-renewable fossil fuels. 100% renewable energy in a country is typically a more challenging goal than carbon neutrality.[citation needed] The latter is a climate mitigation target, politically decided by many countries, and may also be achieved by balancing the total carbon footprint of the country (not only emissions from energy and fuel) with carbon dioxide removal and carbon projects abroad. 100% renewable energy and net-zero greenhouse gas definitions are political in nature and vary by place and time.
While there are still many publications which focus on electricity only, there is a growing number of papers that cover different energy sectors and sector-coupled, integrated energy systems. This cross-sectoral, holistic approach is seen as an important feature of 100% renewable energy systems and is based on the assumption "that the best solutions can be found only if one focuses on the synergies between the sectors" of the energy system such as electricity, heat, transport or industry.[244] Stephen W. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow have developed a series of "climate stabilization wedges" that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change, and "renewable energy sources," in aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges."[245] Mark Z. Jacobson, professor of civil and environmental engineering at Stanford University and director of its Atmosphere and Energy program, says that producing all new energy with wind power, solar power, and hydropower by 2030 is feasible, and that existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050.[246] Although disputed by other researchers, Jacobson says that energy costs today with a wind, solar, and water system should be similar to today's energy costs from other optimally cost-effective strategies and he has rebutted their criticisms.[247][248][249]
The main barriers to the widespread implementation of large-scale renewable energy and low-carbon energy strategies are seen to be primarily social and political rather than technological or economic.[250][251] According to the 2013 Post Carbon Pathways report, which reviewed many international studies, the key roadblocks are: climate change denial, the fossil fuels lobby, political inaction, unsustainable energy consumption, outdated energy infrastructure, and financial constraints.[252] However, recent studies show that a global transition to 100% renewable energy across all sectors – power, heat, transport and desalination well before 2050 is feasible.[253][254][255] According to a review of the 181 peer-reviewed papers on 100% renewable energy which were published until 2018, "[t]he great majority of all publications highlights the technical feasibility and economic viability of 100% RE systems."[244] Existing technologies, including storage, are capable of generating a secure energy supply at every hour throughout the year. The sustainable energy system is more efficient and cost effective than the existing system.[256] The IPCC stated in their 2011 report that there is little limiting integrating renewable technologies for satisfying the total global energy demand.
In 2014, renewable sources such as wind, geothermal, solar, biomass, and burnt waste provided 19% of the total energy consumed worldwide, with roughly half of that coming from traditional use of biomass.[257] The largest sector in terms of energy consumption is electricity with a renewable share of 22.8%, most of it coming from hydropower with a share of 16.6%, followed by wind with 3.1%.[257] As of 2018, according to REN21, transformation is picking up speed in the power sector, but urgent action is required in heating, cooling and transport.[258] There are many places around the world with grids that are run almost exclusively on renewable energy. At the national level, at least 30 nations already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of the energy supply.[259] Renewable energy use has grown more quickly than even advocates anticipated.[260] As of 2019, however, it needs to grow six times faster to limit global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F).[261]
Main articles: Renewable energy debate, Nuclear power proposed as renewable energy, Green job, and Intermittent power source
Renewable electricity production, from sources such as wind power and solar power, is variable which results in reduced capacity factor and require energy storage, dispatchable generation and/or base load power sources from non-intermittent sources like hydropower, fossil fuels, nuclear power or bioenergy.
Since renewable energy sources power density per land area is at best three orders of magnitude smaller than fossil or nuclear power,[262] renewable power plants tends to occupy thousands of hectares causing environmental concerns and opposition from local residents, especially in densely populated countries. Solar power plants are competing with arable land and nature reserves,[263][need quotation to verify] while on-shore wind farms face opposition due to aesthetic concerns and noise, which is impacting both humans and wildlife.[264][265][266][267] In the United States, the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns. However, residents in other areas have been more positive. According to a town councilor, the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area.[268] These concerns, when directed against renewable energy, are sometimes described as "not in my back yard" attitude (NIMBY).
A 2011 UK Government document states that "projects are generally more likely to succeed if they have broad public support and the consent of local communities. This means giving communities both a say and a stake".[269] In countries such as Germany and Denmark many renewable projects are owned by communities, particularly through cooperative structures, and contribute significantly to overall levels of renewable energy deployment.[270][271]
The market for renewable energy technologies has continued to grow. Climate change concerns and increasing in green jobs, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, oil wars, oil spills, promotion of electric vehicles and renewable electricity, nuclear disasters and increasing government support, are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization.[20] New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the 2009 economic crisis better than many other sectors.[38]
While renewables have been very successful in their ever-growing contribution to electrical power, only Scotland and Ontario have stopped burning coal, largely due to good natural gas supplies. In the area of transportation, fossil fuels are even more entrenched and solutions harder to find.[272][better source needed] It's unclear if there are failures with policy or renewable energy, but twenty years after the Kyoto Protocol fossil fuels are still our primary energy source and consumption continues to grow.[273][better source needed]
Further information: Climate change mitigation § Overviews, strategies and comparisons of measures
The International Energy Agency has stated that deployment of renewable technologies usually increases the diversity of electricity sources and, through local generation, contributes to the flexibility of the system and its resistance to central shocks.[274]
In October 2021, European Commissioner for Climate Action Frans Timmermans suggested "the best answer" to the 2021 global energy crisis is "to reduce our reliance on fossil fuels."[275] He said those blaming the European Green Deal were doing so "for perhaps ideological reasons or sometimes economic reasons in protecting their vested interests."[275] Some critics blamed the European Union Emissions Trading System (EU ETS) and closure of nuclear plants for contributing to the energy crisis.[276][277][278] European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen said that Europe is "too reliant" on natural gas and too dependent on natural gas imports. According to Von der Leyen, "The answer has to do with diversifying our suppliers ... and, crucially, with speeding up the transition to clean energy."[279]
Geopolitics of renewable energy
Main article: Geopolitics of decarbonization
In the United States, Democrats (blue) and Republicans (red) have long differed in views of the importance of addressing climate change, with the gap widening in the late 2010s mainly through Democrats' share increasing by more than 30 points.[280]
(Discontinuity resulted from survey changing in 2015 from reciting "global warming" to "climate change".)
A concept of a super grid.
From around 2010 onwards, there was increasing discussion about the geopolitical impact of the growing use of renewable energy.[281] It was argued that former fossil fuels exporters would experience a weakening of their position in international affairs, while countries with abundant renewable energy resources would be strengthened.[282] Also countries rich in critical materials for renewable energy technologies were expected to rise in importance in international affairs.[283]
The GeGaLo index of geopolitical gains and losses assesses how the geopolitical position of 156 countries may change if the world fully transitions to renewable energy resources. Former fossil fuels exporters are expected to lose power, while the positions of former fossil fuel importers and countries rich in renewable energy resources is expected to strengthen.[284]
Several requirements and decisions that may be tied with geopolitical considerations are the sourcing of required materials, ownership of key infrastructure assets and the design of grids, including super grids.[285][286][287][288][289][290]
Transitions to renewable energy have many geopolitical implications such as the potential of revenue losses to lead to political instability in insufficiently prepared fossil-fuel-exporting economies, albeit it is unclear whether the transition will increase or reduce conflict overall. Analysis of current geopolitical and economic implications of and incentives for a swift renewable energy transition, suggests that i.a. how fast fossil energy markets decline is primarily decided by the major energy importers China, India, Japan and the EU and that transition dynamics may reverse the free-rider problem in the case of energy sectors, specifically from strategic national standpoints which are not short-term. In particular, the study hypothesizes that a "configuration emerges in which fossil fuel importers are better off decarbonizing, competitive fossil fuel exporters are better off flooding markets and uncompetitive fossil fuel producers—rather than benefitting from 'free-riding'—suffer from their exposure to stranded assets and lack of investment in decarbonization technologies".[291][292]
A study found that transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy systems reduces risks from mining, trade and political dependence because renewable energy systems don't need fuel – they depend on trade only for the acquisition of materials and components during construction.[293]
Nations rich in solar and wind energy could become major energy exporters.[294]
Trade in hydrogen could fundamentally redraw the geography of the global energy trade, and international governance and investments that seek to scale up the hydrogen economy could reduce "the risk of market fragmentation, carbon lock-in, and intensified geo-economic rivalry".[295][294][296]
Different policy areas of geopolitics, as well as policy areas interlinked with geopolitics, can contribute to a stable, effective, swift,[297][298] peaceful and just transition.[296][clarification needed][additional citation(s) needed]
Further information: Rare-earth element § Environmental considerations
Renewable sources other than biomass such as wind power, photovoltaics, and hydroelectricity have the advantage of being able to conserve water, lower pollution and reduce CO2 emissions.
Solar panels change the albedo of the surface, so if used on a very large scale (such as covering 20% of the Sahara Desert), could change global weather patterns.[299]
Further information: Biomass § Environmental damage
The ability of biomass and biofuels to contribute to a reduction in CO2 emissions is limited because both biomass and biofuels emit large amounts of air pollution when burned and in some cases compete with food supply. Furthermore, biomass and biofuels consume large amounts of water[300] and land (sometimes land that could be used for food production).[301][302] Furthermore, there can be carbon leakage from biomass production.[302] Nevertheless, it could still help reduce carbon dioxide emissions[303] and play an important role as a method of dispatchable generation.[304][305][306][307][308]
Conservation areas, recycling and rare-earth elements
See also: Environmental aspects of the electric car
The installations used to produce wind, solar and hydropower are an increasing threat to key conservation areas, with facilities built in areas set aside for nature conservation and other environmentally sensitive areas. They are often much larger than fossil fuel power plants, needing areas of land up to 10 times greater than coal or gas to produce equivalent energy amounts.[309] More than 2000 renewable energy facilities are built, and more are under construction, in areas of environmental importance and threaten the habitats of plant and animal species across the globe. The authors' team emphasized that their work should not be interpreted as anti-renewables because renewable energy is crucial for reducing carbon emissions. The key is ensuring that renewable energy facilities are built in places where they do not damage biodiversity.[310]
Renewable energy devices depend on non-renewable resources such as mined metals and use vast amounts of land due to their small surface power density. Manufacturing of photovoltaic panels, wind turbines and batteries requires significant amounts of rare-earth elements[311] and increases mining operations,[citation needed] which has significant social and environmental impact if mined in forests and protected areas.[312] Due to co-occurrence of rare-earth and radioactive elements (thorium, uranium and radium), rare-earth mining results in production of low-level radioactive waste.[313]
Mining for materials needed for renewable energy production is expected to increase threats to biodiversity. In September 2020 scientists published a world map of areas that contain renewable energy materials as well as estimations of their overlaps with "Key Biodiversity Areas", "Remaining Wilderness" and "Protected Areas". The authors assessed that careful strategic planning is needed.[314][315][316] There is research into ways to recycle solar panels (including the emerging perovskite solar cells) as recycling solar panels could reduce electronic waste and create a source for materials that would otherwise need to be mined.[317][318][319]
Burbo, NW-England
Sunrise at the Fenton Wind Farm in Minnesota, US
The CSP-station Andasol in Andalusia, Spain
Ivanpah solar plant in the Mojave Desert, California, United States
Three Gorges Dam and Gezhouba Dam, China
Shop selling PV panels in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Stump harvesting increases recovery of biomass from forests
A small, roof-top mounted PV system in Bonn, Germany
The community-owned Westmill Solar Park in South East England
Komekurayama photovoltaic power station in Kofu, Japan
Krafla, a geothermal power station in Iceland
Environment portal
Society portal
Mass production in renewable energy sector
Renewable energy by country
^ "Renewable Energy Market Update 2021 / Renewable electricity / Renewables deployment geared up in 2020, establishing a "new normal" for capacity additions in 2021 and 2022". IEA.org. International Energy Agency. May 2021. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021.
^ "Electricity generation by source". International Energy Agency. Archived from the original on 7 March 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2021.
^ Ellabban, Omar; Abu-Rub, Haitham; Blaabjerg, Frede (2014). "Renewable energy resources: Current status, future prospects and their enabling technology". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 39: 748–764 [749]. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2014.07.113.
^ Timperly, Jocelyn (23 February 2017). "Biomass subsidies 'not fit for purpose', says Chatham House". Carbon Brief Ltd © 2020 - Company No. 07222041. Archived from the original on 6 November 2020. Retrieved 31 October 2020.
^ Harvey, Chelsea; Heikkinen, Niina (23 March 2018). "Congress Says Biomass Is Carbon Neutral but Scientists Disagree - Using wood as fuel source could actually increase CO2 emissions". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 31 October 2020.
^ a b c REN21 Renewables Global Status Report 2010.
^ "Renewable Power – Analysis". IEA. Archived from the original on 22 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
^ a b REN21 Renewables Global Status Report 2021.
^ "Renewable Energy and Jobs – Annual Review 2020". irena.org. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
^ "Global renewable energy trends". Deloitte Insights. Archived from the original on 29 January 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
^ "Renewable Energy Now Accounts for a Third of Global Power Capacity". irena.org. Archived from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
^ IEA (2020). Renewables 2020 Analysis and forecast to 2025 (Report). p. 12. Archived from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
^ "12 Countries Leading the Way in Renewable Energy". Click Energy. Archived from the original on 29 January 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Renewable Electricity Capacity And Generation Statistics June 2018". Archived from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
^ "Renewable Electricity Capacity And Generation Statistics June 2018". Archived from the original on 28 June 2019. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
^ a b c d REN21 Renewables Global Futures Report 2017.
^ Sensiba, Jennifer (28 October 2021). "Some Good News: 10 Countries Generate Almost 100% Renewable Electricity". CleanTechnica. Archived from the original on 17 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
^ a b International Energy Agency (2012). "Energy Technology Perspectives 2012". Archived from the original on 28 May 2020. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
^ Timperley, Jocelyn (20 October 2021). "Why fossil fuel subsidies are so hard to kill". Nature. 598 (7881): 403–405. Bibcode:2021Natur.598..403T. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-02847-2. PMID 34671143. S2CID 239052649. Archived from the original on 17 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
^ a b c "Global Trends in Sustainable Energy Investment 2007: Analysis of Trends and Issues in the Financing of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency in OECD and Developing Countries" (PDF). unep.org. United Nations Environment Programme. 2007. p. 3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
^ Sütterlin, B.; Siegrist, Michael (2017). "Public acceptance of renewable energy technologies from an abstract versus concrete perspective and the positive imagery of solar power". Energy Policy. 106: 356–366. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2017.03.061.
^ Alazraque-Cherni, Judith (1 April 2008). "Renewable Energy for Rural Sustainability in Developing Countries". Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society. 28 (2): 105–114. doi:10.1177/0270467607313956. S2CID 67817602. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 2 December 2020.
^ World Energy Assessment (2001). Renewable energy technologies Archived 9 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine, p. 221.
^ Armaroli, Nicola; Balzani, Vincenzo (2011). "Towards an electricity-powered world". Energy and Environmental Science. 4 (9): 3193–3222. doi:10.1039/c1ee01249e.
^ Armaroli, Nicola; Balzani, Vincenzo (2016). "Solar Electricity and Solar Fuels: Status and Perspectives in the Context of the Energy Transition". Chemistry – A European Journal. 22 (1): 32–57. doi:10.1002/chem.201503580. PMID 26584653.
^ Volker Quaschning, Regenerative Energiesysteme. Technologie – Berechnung – Simulation. 8th. Edition. Hanser (Munich) 2013, p. 49.
^ "Renewables – Global Energy Review 2021 – Analysis". IEA. Archived from the original on 23 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
^ "Powering the World". Utility Bidder. 16 June 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
^ Friedlingstein, Pierre; Jones, Matthew W.; O'Sullivan, Michael; Andrew, Robbie M.; Hauck, Judith; Peters, Glen P.; Peters, Wouter; Pongratz, Julia; Sitch, Stephen; Le Quéré, Corinne; Bakker, Dorothee C. E. (2019). "Global Carbon Budget 2019". Earth System Science Data. 11 (4): 1783–1838. Bibcode:2019ESSD...11.1783F. doi:10.5194/essd-11-1783-2019. ISSN 1866-3508. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 15 February 2021.
^ IEA (2002). IEA. Renewable Energy... ... into the Mainstream (PDF). IEA. p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 9 December 2020.
^ Jacobson, Mark Z.; et al. (2015). "100% clean and renewable wind, water, and sunlight (WWS) all-sector energy roadmaps for the 50 United States". Energy and Environmental Science. 8 (7): 2093–2117. doi:10.1039/C5EE01283J.
^ Scovronick, Noah; Budolfson, Mark; Dennig, Francis; Errickson, Frank; Fleurbaey, Marc; Peng, Wei; Socolow, Robert H.; Spears, Dean; Wagner, Fabian (7 May 2019). "The impact of human health co-benefits on evaluations of global climate policy". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 2095. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.2095S. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-09499-x. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6504956. PMID 31064982.
^ Gallagher CL, Holloway T (2020). "Integrating Air Quality and Public Health Benefits in U.S. Decarbonization Strategies". Front Public Health. 8: 563358. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.563358. PMC 7717953. PMID 33330312.
^ Luderer, Gunnar; Pehl, Michaja; Arvesen, Anders; Gibon, Thomas; Bodirsky, Benjamin L.; de Boer, Harmen Sytze; Fricko, Oliver; Hejazi, Mohamad; Humpenöder, Florian; Iyer, Gokul; Mima, Silvana (19 November 2019). "Environmental co-benefits and adverse side-effects of alternative power sector decarbonization strategies". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 5229. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.5229L. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-13067-8. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6864079. PMID 31745077.
^ Schröder, K.-P.; Smith, R.C. (2008). "Distant future of the Sun and Earth revisited". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 386 (1): 155–163. arXiv:0801.4031. Bibcode:2008MNRAS.386..155S. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.13022.x. S2CID 10073988.
^ Palmer, J. (2008). "Hope dims that Earth will survive Sun's death". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 6 August 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2008.
^ Carrington, D. (21 February 2000). "Date set for desert Earth". BBC News. Archived from the original on 10 July 2012. Retrieved 31 March 2007.
^ a b Clean Edge (2009). Clean Energy Trends 2009 Archived 18 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine pp. 1–4.
^ "Global energy transformation: A roadmap to 2050 (2019 edition)". /publications/2019/Apr/Global-energy-transformation-A-roadmap-to-2050-2019Edition. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 9 December 2020.
^ a b REN21 Renewables Global Status Report 2011, p. 14.
^ a b Leone, Steve (25 August 2011). "U.N. Secretary-General: Renewables Can End Energy Poverty". Renewable Energy World. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2011.
^ "Renewable Energy by Country 2021". worldpopulationreview.com. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
^ REN21 Renewables Global Status Report 2016.
^ "Fast Growth for Copper-Based Geothermal Heating & Cooling". Archived from the original on 26 April 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2019.
^ a b "Geothermal Heat Pumps - Department of Energy". energy.gov. Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved 14 January 2016.
^ a b "Net Zero Foundation". netzerofoundation.org. Archived from the original on 22 February 2021. Retrieved 23 November 2021.
^ K. Kris Hirst. "The Discovery of Fire". About.com. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
^ "wind energy". The Encyclopedia of Alternative Energy and Sustainable Living. Archived from the original on 26 January 2013. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
^ "Geothermal Energy". faculty.fairfield.edu. Archived from the original on 25 March 2017. Retrieved 17 January 2017.
^ Kovarik, Bill (29 March 2011). "The surprising history of sustainable energy". History of sustainable energy. Archived from the original on 28 February 2021. Retrieved 11 December 2020.
^ Siemens, Werner (June 1885). "On the electro motive action of illuminated selenium, discovered by Mr. Fritts, of New York". Journal of the Franklin Institute. 119 (6): 453–IN6. doi:10.1016/0016-0032(85)90176-0. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 26 February 2021.
^ Weber suggests that the modern economic world will determine the lifestyle of everyone born into it "until the last hundredweight of fossil fuel is burned" (bis der letzte Zentner fossilen Brennstoffs verglüht ist Archived 25 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine).
^ "Power from Sunshine": A Business History of Solar Energy Archived 10 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine 25 May 2012
^ Hubbert, M. King (June 1956). "Nuclear Energy and the Fossil Fuels" (PDF). Shell Oil Company/American Petroleum Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 May 2008. Retrieved 10 November 2014.
^ "History of PV Solar". Solarstartechnologies.com. Archived from the original on 6 December 2013. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
^ IRENA 2021, p. 8. Note: Excludes pure pumped storage.
^ IRENA 2021, p. 8. Note: Excludes pure pumped storage. Compound annual growth rate 2011-2020.
^ a b c d e "Electricity". International Energy Agency. 2020. Data Browser section, Electricity Generation by Source indicator. Archived from the original on 7 June 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
^ NREL ATB 2021, Hydropower.
^ Moran, Emilio F.; Lopez, Maria Claudia; Moore, Nathan; Müller, Norbert; Hyndman, David W. (2018). "Sustainable hydropower in the 21st century". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (47): 11891–11898. doi:10.1073/pnas.1809426115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 6255148. PMID 30397145.
^ "DocHdl2OnPN-PRINTRDY-01tmpTarget" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2018. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
^ Afework, Bethel (3 September 2018). "Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity". Energy Education. Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
^ "Renewable Electricity Capacity and Generation Statistics, June 2018". Archived from the original on 28 November 2018.
^ Institute, Worldwatch (January 2012). "Use and Capacity of Global Hydropower Increases". Archived from the original on 24 September 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
^ "Wave power - U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". www.eia.gov. Retrieved 10 December 2021.
^ "How Does Ocean Wave Power Work?". Energy Informative. Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
^ Unwin, Jack (12 March 2019). "Top five trends in wave power". Archived from the original on 27 April 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
^ "Wind energy generation by region". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 10 March 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
^ "Global Wind Atlas". Archived from the original on 18 January 2019. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
^ IRENA 2021, p. 13.
^ IRENA 2021, p. 13. Note: Compound annual growth rate 2011-2020.
^ NREL ATB 2021, Land-Based Wind.
^ "Analysis of Wind Energy in the EU-25" (PDF). European Wind Energy Association. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 March 2007. Retrieved 11 March 2007.
^ Martin Kaltschmitt, Wolfgang Streicher, Andreas Wiese (eds.): Erneuerbare Energien. Systemtechnik, Wirtschaftlichkeit, Umweltaspekte. Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 2013, p. 819.
^ "Electricity – from other renewable sources - The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. Archived from the original on 27 October 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2021.
^ "Offshore stations experience mean wind speeds at 80 m that are 90% greater than over land on average." Evaluation of global wind power Archived 25 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine "Overall, the researchers calculated winds at 80 meters [300 feet] above sea level traveled over the ocean at approximately 8.6 meters per second and at nearly 4.5 meters per second over land [20 and 10 miles per hour, respectively]." Global Wind Map Shows Best Wind Farm Locations Archived 24 May 2005 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 30 January 2006.
^ "Global Solar Atlas". Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 14 June 2019.
^ NREL ATB 2021, Utility-Scale PV.
^ a b Solar energy perspectives. Philibert, Cédric., International Energy Agency., Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Paris: OECD/IEA. 2011. ISBN 978-92-64-12458-5. OCLC 778434303. Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 26 December 2020. CS1 maint: others (link)
^ "Solar Fuels and Artificial Photosynthesis". Royal Society of Chemistry. 2012. Archived from the original on 2 August 2014. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
^ "Energy Sources: Solar". Department of Energy. Archived from the original on 14 April 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
^ NREL.gov U.S. Renewable Energy Technical Potentials: A GIS-Based Analysis Archived 14 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, July 2013 : iv
^ thinkprogress.org National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Solar Has The Most Potential Of Any Renewable Energy Source Archived 22 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine, 30 July 2013
^ "Renewable Energy". Center for Climate and Energy Solutions. 27 October 2021. Archived from the original on 18 November 2021. Retrieved 22 November 2021.
^ Clean Energy Council Australia. "Clean Energy Australia Report 2021" (PDF). Clean Energy Australia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 April 2021. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
^ NREL ATB 2021, Other Technologies (EIA).
^ Biomass Energy Center. Biomassenergycentre.org.uk. Retrieved on 28 February 2012.
^ Scheck, Justin; Dugan, Ianthe Jeanne (23 July 2012). "Wood-Fired Plants Generate Violations". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
^ T.A. Volk, L.P. Abrahamson (January 2000). "Developing a Willow Biomass Crop Enterprise for Bioenergy and Bioproducts in the United States". North East Regional Biomass Program. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 4 June 2015. CS1 maint: uses authors parameter (link)
^ "Energy crops". crops are grown specifically for use as fuel. BIOMASS Energy Centre. Archived from the original on 10 March 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
^ Howard, Brian (28 January 2020). "Turning cow waste into clean power on a national scale". TheHill. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
^ Energy Kids Archived 5 September 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Eia.doe.gov. Retrieved on 28 February 2012.
^ "Fuel Ethanol Production: GSP Systems Biology Research". U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science. 19 April 2010. Archived from the original on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 2 August 2010.
^ "Breaking the Biological Barriers to Cellulosic Ethanol: A Joint Research Agenda" (PDF). June 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 May 2010. Retrieved 2 August 2010.
^ Frauke Urban and Tom Mitchell 2011. Climate change, disasters and electricity generation Archived 20 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine. London: Overseas Development Institute and Institute of Development Studies
^ Demirbas, A. (2009). "Political, economic and environmental impacts of biofuels: A review". Applied Energy. 86: S108–S117. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2009.04.036.
^ Sweet sorghum for food, feed and fuel Archived 4 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine New Agriculturalist, January 2008.
^ "Opinion of the EEA Scientific Committee on Greenhouse Gas Accounting in Relation to Bioenergy". Archived from the original on 3 March 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
^ a b c d REN21 Renewables Global Status Report 2011, pp. 13–14.
^ "WHO - Ambient (outdoor) air quality and health". Archived from the original on 4 January 2016.
^ "WHO - Household air pollution and health". Who.int. Archived from the original on 20 April 2018. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
^ NREL ATB 2021, Geothermal.
^ Dye, S. T. (2012). "Geoneutrinos and the radioactive power of the Earth". Reviews of Geophysics. 50 (3): 3. arXiv:1111.6099. Bibcode:2012RvGeo..50.3007D. doi:10.1029/2012rg000400. S2CID 118667366.
^ Gando, A.; Dwyer, D. A.; McKeown, R. D.; Zhang, C. (2011). "Partial radiogenic heat model for Earth revealed by geoneutrino measurements" (PDF). Nature Geoscience. 4 (9): 647–651. Bibcode:2011NatGe...4..647K. doi:10.1038/ngeo1205. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 August 2017. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
^ Nemzer, J. "Geothermal heating and cooling". Archived from the original on 11 January 1998.
^ "Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency® - DSIRE". DSIRE. Archived from the original on 22 February 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2006.
^ a b International Energy Agency (2007). Renewables in global energy supply: An IEA facts sheet (PDF), OECD, p. 3. Archived 12 October 2009 at the Wayback Machine
^ S.C.E. Jupe; A. Michiorri; P.C. Taylor (2007). "Increasing the energy yield of generation from new and renewable energy sources". Renewable Energy. 14 (2): 37–62.
^ "Defense-scale supercomputing comes to renewable energy research". Sandia National Laboratories. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
^ "Sandia National Laboratories" (PDF). Sandia National Laboratories. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
^ * Chakrabarty, Gargi, 16 April 2009. "Stimulus leaves NREL in cold" Denver Post
^ Duchane, Dave; Brown, Don (December 2002). "Hot Dry Rock (HDR) Geothermal Energy Research and Development at Fenton Hill, New Mexico" (PDF). Geo-Heat Centre Quarterly Bulletin. 23 (4). Klamath Falls, Oregon: Oregon Institute of Technology. pp. 13–19. ISSN 0276-1084. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2010. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
^ "Australia's Renewable Energy Future inc Cooper Basin & geothermal map of Australia Retrieved 15 August 2015" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2015.
^ "Dyadic International - Bioenergy, Biopharmaceutical Enzymes". Archived from the original on 12 February 2014. Retrieved 6 March 2014.
^ Pernick, Ron and Wilder, Clint (2007). The Clean Tech Revolution p. 96.
^ Carbon Trust, Future Marine Energy. Results of the Marine Energy Challenge: Cost competitiveness and growth of wave and tidal stream energy, January 2006
^ "Sihwa Tidal Power Plant". Renewable Energy News and Articles. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015.
^ a b Tidal power (PDF), retrieved 20 March 2010 [permanent dead link]
^ "Kyocera, partners announce construction of the world's largest floating solar PV Plant in Hyogo prefecture, Japan". SolarServer.com. 4 September 2014. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
^ "Running Out of Precious Land? Floating Solar PV Systems May Be a Solution". EnergyWorld.com. 7 November 2013. Archived from the original on 26 December 2014. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
^ "Vikram Solar commissions India's first floating PV plant". SolarServer.com. 13 January 2015. Archived from the original on 2 March 2015.
^ "Sunflower Floating Solar Power Plant In Korea". CleanTechnica. 21 December 2014. Archived from the original on 15 May 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
^ "Short Of Land, Singapore Opts For Floating Solar Power Systems". CleanTechnica. 5 May 2014. Archived from the original on 14 March 2016. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
^ Erica Goodemay, New Solar Plants Generate Floating Green Power Archived 27 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine, New York Times, 20 May 2016.
^ "Winery goes solar with Floatovoltaics". SFGate. 29 May 2008. Archived from the original on 7 May 2013. Retrieved 31 May 2013.
^ "Yamakura Dam in Chiba Prefecture". The Japan Dam Foundation. Archived from the original on 2 February 2015. Retrieved 1 February 2015.
^ Kyocera and Century Tokyo Leasing to Develop 13.4MW Floating Solar Power Plant on Reservoir in Chiba Prefecture, Japan Archived 25 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Kyocera, 22 December 2014
^ New Solar Plants Generate Floating Green Power Archived 28 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine NYT 20 May 2016
^ Solar Panels Floating on Water Could Power Japan's Homes Archived 11 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine, National Geographic, Bryan Lufkin, 16 January 2015
^ Upadhyay, Anand (6 April 2015). "Brazil Announces Huge 350 MW Floating Solar Power Plant". CleanTechnica.com. Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2016.
^ a b Manser, Joseph S. and Christians, Jeffrey A. and Kamat, Prashant V. (2016). "Intriguing Optoelectronic Properties of Metal Halide Perovskites". Chemical Reviews. 116 (21): 12956–13008. doi:10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00136. PMID 27327168. CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ Hamers, Laurel (26 July 2017). "Perovskites power up the solar industry". Science News.
^ Kojima, Akihiro; Teshima, Kenjiro; Shirai, Yasuo; Miyasaka, Tsutomu (6 May 2009). "Organometal Halide Perovskites as Visible-Light Sensitizers for Photovoltaic Cells". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 131 (17): 6050–6051. doi:10.1021/ja809598r. PMID 19366264.
^ a b "NREL efficiency chart" (PDF).
^ Sun, Kai; Wang, Yanyan; Xu, Haoyuan; Zhang, Jing; Zhu, Yuejin; Hu, Ziyang (2019). "Short-Term Stability of Perovskite Solar Cells Affected by In Situ Interface Modification". Solar RRL. 3 (9): 1900089. doi:10.1002/solr.201900089. S2CID 202229877.
^ "Solar-assisted heat pumps". Archived from the original on 28 February 2020. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
^ "Pompe di calore elio-assistite" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
^ Power Beaming Archived 17 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine
^ Noth, André (July 2008). "History of Solar Flight" (PDF). Autonomous Systems Lab. Zürich: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology. p. 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 February 2012. Retrieved 8 July 2010. Günter Rochelt was the designer and builder of Solair I, a 16 m wingspan solar airplane ... 21st of August 1983 he flew in Solair I, mostly on solar energy and also thermals, during 5 hours 41 minutes.
^ "Infographic: A Timeline Of The Present And Future Of Electric Flight". Popular Science. 20 August 2015. Archived from the original on 14 January 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
^ Taylor, John W R (1974). Jane's All the World's Aircraft 1974-75. London: Jane's Yearbooks. p. 573. ISBN 0-354-00502-2.
^ Batrawy, Aya (9 March 2015). "Solar-powered plane takes off for flight around the world". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 14 March 2015.
^ Communication, Online Journal of Space. "Online Journal of Space Communication". spacejournal.ohio.edu. Archived from the original on 2 May 2016. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
^ Collings AF and Critchley C (eds). Artificial Photosynthesis – From Basic Biology to Industrial Application (Wiley-VCH Weinheim 2005) p ix.
^ Faunce, Thomas A.; Lubitz, Wolfgang; Rutherford, A. W. (Bill); MacFarlane, Douglas; Moore, Gary F.; Yang, Peidong; Nocera, Daniel G.; Moore, Tom A.; Gregory, Duncan H.; Fukuzumi, Shunichi; Yoon, Kyung Byung; Armstrong, Fraser A.; Wasielewski, Michael R.; Styring, Stenbjorn (2013). "Energy and environment policy case for a global project on artificial photosynthesis". Energy & Environmental Science. RSC Publishing. 6 (3): 695. doi:10.1039/C3EE00063J.
^ jobs (23 May 2012). "'Artificial leaf' faces economic hurdle: Nature News & Comment". Nature News. Nature.com. doi:10.1038/nature.2012.10703. Archived from the original on 1 December 2012. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
^ "In bloom: growing algae for biofuel". 9 October 2008. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
^ "Water vapor in the atmosphere may be prime renewable energy source". techxplore.com. Archived from the original on 9 June 2020. Retrieved 9 June 2020.
^ "Mapua's Carvey Maigue shortlisted in James Dyson Award for solar device". Good News Pilipinas. 11 November 2020. Archived from the original on 6 December 2020. Retrieved 23 November 2020.
^ "AuREUS Aurora Renewable Energy UV Sequestration". James Dyson Award. Archived from the original on 23 November 2020. Retrieved 23 November 2020.
^ "Mapua student wins international design award for invention made from crop waste". CNN. 20 November 2020. Archived from the original on 21 November 2020. Retrieved 23 November 2020.
^ a b Olauson, Jon; Ayob, Mohd Nasir; Bergkvist, Mikael; Carpman, Nicole; Castellucci, Valeria; Goude, Anders; Lingfors, David; Waters, Rafael; Widén, Joakim (December 2016). "Net load variability in Nordic countries with a highly or fully renewable power system". Nature Energy. 1 (12): 16175. doi:10.1038/nenergy.2016.175. ISSN 2058-7546. Archived from the original on 4 October 2021. Retrieved 4 October 2021.
^ Mughis, Mochamad Abdul; Sudiharto, Indhana; Ferdiansyah, Indra; Yanaratri, Diah Septi (October 2018). "Design and Implementation of Partial M-Type Zero Voltage Resonant Circuit Interleaved Bidirectional DC-DC Converter (Energy Storage and Load Sharing)". 2018 International Electronics Symposium on Engineering Technology and Applications (IES-ETA). Bali: IEEE: 123–128. doi:10.1109/ELECSYM.2018.8615465. ISBN 978-1-5386-8083-4. S2CID 58670429. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 1 October 2021.
^ IPCC 2011, pp. 15–16
^ "The $2.5 trillion reason we can't rely on batteries to clean up the grid". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 24 August 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
^ "Relying on renewables alone significantly inflates the cost of overhauling energy". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 13 August 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
^ Gunter, Linda Pentz. "Trump Is Foolish to Ignore the Flourishing Renewable Energy Sector". Truthout. Archived from the original on 6 February 2017. Retrieved 6 February 2017.
^ "Renewable Energy Employs 8.1 Million People Worldwide". United Nations Framework Group on Climate Change. 26 May 2016. Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
^ "Energy Transition Investment Hit $500 Billion in 2020 – For First Time". BloombergNEF. (Bloomberg New Energy Finance). 19 January 2021. Archived from the original on 19 January 2021.
^ Data: BP Statistical Review of World Energy, and Ember Climate (3 November 2021). "Electricity consumption from fossil fuels, nuclear and renewables, 2020". OurWorldInData.org. Our World in Data consolidated data from BP and Ember. Archived from the original on 3 November 2021.
^ "Majority of New Renewables Undercut Cheapest Fossil Fuel on Cost". IRENA.org. International Renewable Energy Agency. 22 June 2021. Archived from the original on 22 June 2021. ● Infographic (with numerical data) and archive thereof
^ Chrobak, Ula (author); Chodosh, Sara (infographic) (28 January 2021). "Solar power got cheap. So why aren't we using it more?". Popular Science. Archived from the original on 29 January 2021. Chodosh's graphic is derived from data in "Lazard's Levelized Cost of Energy Version 14.0" (PDF). Lazard.com. Lazard. 19 October 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 January 2021.
^ "The European Power Sector in 2020 / Up-to-Date Analysis on the Electricity Transition" (PDF). ember-climate.org. Ember and Agora Energiewende. 25 January 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 January 2021.
^ Statistical Review of World Energy Archived 6 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Workbook (xlsx), London, 2016
^ a b "GWEC Global Wind Statistics 2014" (PDF). GWEC. 10 February 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
^ The World Wind Energy Association (2014). 2014 Half-year Report. WWEA. pp. 1–8.
^ "Wind in power: 2015 European statistics- EWEA" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 November 2019. Retrieved 1 March 2016.
^ Hunt, Tam (9 March 2015). "The Solar Singularity Is Nigh". Greentech Media. Archived from the original on 10 March 2020. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
^ "World largest solar thermal plant syncs to the grid". Spectrum.ieee.org. 26 September 2013. Archived from the original on 17 October 2014. Retrieved 28 November 2014.
^ "World's Largest Solar Thermal Power Project at Ivanpah Achieves Commercial Operation" Archived 29 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine, NRG press release, 13 February 2014.
^ Frankfurt School – UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance (2018). Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2018 Archived 8 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine
^ Heidari, Negin; Pearce, Joshua M. (2016). "A Review of Greenhouse Gas Emission Liabilities as the Value of Renewable Energy for Mitigating Lawsuits for Climate Change Related Damages". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 55C: 899–908. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.11.025. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 26 February 2016.
^ a b "Global Trends in Renewable Energy Investment 2020". Capacity4dev / European Commission. Frankfurt School-UNEP Collaborating Centre for Climate & Sustainable Energy Finance; BloombergNEF. 2020. Archived from the original on 11 May 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2021.
^ REN21 Renewables Global Status Report 2016, p. 19.
^ E. Lantz, M. Hand, and R. Wiser ( 13–17 May 2012) "The Past and Future Cost of Wind Energy," Archived 24 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine National Renewable Energy Laboratory conference paper no. 6A20-54526, page 4
^ "Solar Photovoltaics Competing in the Energy Sector—On the road to competitiveness" (PDF). European Photovoltaic Industry Association. September 2011. p. 18. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2013. Note: Germany already reached cost-range of €0.08–0.14/kWh in 2013.
^ Dominic, Dominic (13 January 2018). "Renewable Energy Will Be Consistently Cheaper Than Fossil Fuels By 2020, Report Claims". Forbes. Archived from the original on 23 April 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
^ "New Energy Outlook 2018". Bloomberg New Energy Finance. Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 25 March 2019. Retrieved 18 April 2019.
^ a b International Renewable Energy Agency (2012). "Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2012: An Overview" (PDF). irena.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2019. Retrieved 23 April 2013.
^ WWF and World Resources Institute, Corporate Renewable Enegy Buyers Principles Archived 11 July 2021 at the Wayback Machine, published July 2014, accessed 12 July 2021
^ This article incorporates text published under the British Open Government Licence: Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy, Aggregated energy balances showing proportion of renewables in supply and demand, published 24 September 2020, accessed 12 July 2021
^ "Environmental Impacts of Hydroelectric Power | Union of Concerned Scientists". www.ucsusa.org. Archived from the original on 15 July 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
^ "Hydropower Special Market Report" (PDF). IEA. pp. 34–36. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2021. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
^ "Renewable Energy Essentials : Hydropower" (PDF). Iea.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 March 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
^ L. Lia; T. Jensen; K.E. Stensbyand; G. Holm; A.M. Ruud. "The current status of hydropower development and dam construction in Norway" (PDF). Ntnu.no. Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
^ "New Transmission Line Reaches Milestone". Vpr.net. Archived from the original on 3 February 2017. Retrieved 3 February 2017.
^ "World Wind Energy Report 2010" (PDF). Report. World Wind Energy Association. February 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 September 2011. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
^ "Renewables". eirgrid.com. Archived from the original on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 22 November 2010.
^ "European Offshore Wind Deployment Centre". 10 April 2018. Archived from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 23 September 2018.
^ "World's Most Powerful Wind Turbine Installed". Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 23 September 2018.
^ "Dong vælger Vestas' supermølle". Archived from the original on 13 August 2018. Retrieved 22 September 2018.
^ Terra-Gen Closes on Financing for Phases VII and IX Archived 10 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Business Wire, 17 April 2012
^ Vyas, Kashyap (15 February 2018). "The 11 Biggest Wind Farms and Wind Power Constructions That Reduce Carbon Footprint". Interesting Engineering. Archived from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 20 December 2018.
^ "Solar Energy Projects in California". energy.ca.gov. Archived from the original on 14 July 2016. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
^ "Segs Iii, Iv, V, Vi, Vii, Viii & Ix". Fplenergy.com. Archived from the original on 5 August 2014. Retrieved 31 January 2012.
^ "Brightsource Ivanpah". ivanpahsolar.com. Archived from the original on 11 January 2013. Retrieved 16 May 2014.
^ Mearian, Lucas. U.S. flips switch on massive solar power array that also stores electricity: The array is first large U.S. solar plant with a thermal energy storage system Archived 2 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine, 10 October 2013. Retrieved 18 October 2013.
^ "Crossing the Chasm" (PDF). Deutsche Bank Markets Research. 27 February 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 March 2015.
^ "Solar Integrated in New Jersey". Jcwinnie.biz. Archived from the original on 19 July 2013. Retrieved 20 August 2013.
^ iea.org (2014). "Technology Roadmap: Solar Photovoltaic Energy" (PDF). IEA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2014. Retrieved 7 October 2014.
^ Denis Lenardic. Large-scale photovoltaic power plants ranking 1 - 50 Archived 1 January 2016 at the Wayback Machine PVresources.com, 2010.
^ "Biofuels". www.iea.org. Archived from the original on 2 June 2019. Retrieved 9 April 2019.
^ "IEA says biofuels can displace 27% of transportation fuels by 2050 Washington". Platts. 20 April 2011. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
^ "Industry Statistics: Annual World Ethanol Production by Country". Renewable Fuels Association. Archived from the original on 8 April 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2008.
^ Macedo Isaias, M. Lima Verde Leal and J. Azevedo Ramos da Silva (2004). "Assessment of greenhouse gas emissions in the production and use of fuel ethanol in Brazil" (PDF). Secretariat of the Environment, Government of the State of São Paulo. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2008. Retrieved 9 May 2008.
^ Daniel Budny and Paulo Sotero, editor (April 2007). "Brazil Institute Special Report: The Global Dynamics of Biofuels" (PDF). Brazil Institute of the Woodrow Wilson Center. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2008. Retrieved 3 May 2008.
^ Erica Gies. As Ethanol Booms, Critics Warn of Environmental Effect Archived 1 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times, 24 June 2010.
^ "American Energy: The Renewable Path to Energy Security" (PDF). Worldwatch Institute. September 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 11 March 2007.
^ William E. Glassley. Geothermal Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment Archived 16 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine CRC Press, 2010.
^ Khan, M. Ali (2007). "The Geysers Geothermal Field, an Injection Success Story" (PDF). Annual Forum of the Groundwater Protection Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2010.
^ Goodwin, Johnathan (27 August 2018). "The Developing World Is Taking Over Renewable Energy". Sustainable Brands. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
^ Power for the People p. 3. Archived 30 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine
^ Bullis, Kevin (27 January 2012). "In the Developing World, Solar Is Cheaper than Fossil Fuels". Technology Review.
^ Fry, Carolyn. 28 June 2012. Anguilla moves towards cleaner energy Archived 29 July 2012 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Ethiopia". Projectgaia.com. Archived from the original on 11 November 2012. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
^ Energy for Development: The Potential Role of Renewable Energy in Meeting the Millennium Development Goals Archived 27 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine pp. 7–9.
^ a b "Policies". www.iea.org. Archived from the original on 8 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
^ Signatory States Archived 26 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine
^ "IRENA Membership". /irenamembership. Archived from the original on 6 April 2019. Retrieved 8 April 2019.
^ Tran, Mark (2 November 2011). "UN calls for universal access to renewable energy". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 8 April 2016. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
^ Ken Berlin, Reed Hundt, Marko Muro, and Devashree Saha. "State Clean Energy Banks: New Investment Facilities for Clean Energy Deployment"
^ Hooper, Craig (2011). "Air Force cedes the Green lead–and the lede–to Navy". nextnavy.com. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2011.
^ "Putin promises gas to a Europe struggling with soaring prices". Politico. 13 October 2021. Archived from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
^ Simon, Frédéric (12 December 2019). "The EU releases its Green Deal. Here are the key points". Climate Home News. Archived from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
^ a b Hansen, Kenneth; et al. (2019). "Status and perspectives on 100% renewable energy systems". Energy. 175: 471–480. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2019.03.092.
^ Pacala, S; Socolow, R (2004). "Stabilization Wedges: Solving the Climate Problem for the Next 50 Years with Current Technologies". Science. 305 (5686): 968–72. Bibcode:2004Sci...305..968P. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.642.8472. doi:10.1126/science.1100103. PMID 15310891. S2CID 2203046.
^ Jacobson, Mark Z.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Cameron, Mary A.; Coughlin, Stephen J.; Hay, Catherine A.; Manogaran, Indu Priya; Shu, Yanbo; Krauland, Anna-Katharina von (20 December 2019). "Impacts of Green New Deal Energy Plans on Grid Stability, Costs, Jobs, Health, and Climate in 143 Countries". One Earth. 1 (4): 449–463. Bibcode:2019AGUFMPA32A..01J. doi:10.1016/j.oneear.2019.12.003. ISSN 2590-3330.
^ Delucchi, Mark A; Jacobson, Mark Z (2011). "Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, Part II: Reliability, system and transmission costs, and policies". Energy Policy. 39 (3): 1170–90. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2010.11.045.
^ "Scientists Sharply Rebut Influential Renewable-Energy Plan".
^ Frew, Bethany A.; Cameron, Mary A.; Delucchi, Mark A.; Jacobson, Mark Z. (27 June 2017). "The United States can keep the grid stable at low cost with 100% clean, renewable energy in all sectors despite inaccurate claims". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 114 (26): E5021–E5023. Bibcode:2017PNAS..114E5021J. doi:10.1073/pnas.1708069114. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5495290. PMID 28630350.
^ Koumoundouros, Tessa (27 December 2019). "Stanford Researchers Have an Exciting Plan to Tackle The Climate Emergency Worldwide". ScienceAlert. Retrieved 5 January 2020.
^ Armaroli, Nicola; Balzani, Vincenzo (2011). "Towards an electricity-powered world". Energy and Environmental Science. 4 (9): 3193–3222 [3216]. doi:10.1039/c1ee01249e. S2CID 1752800.
^ Wiseman, John; et al. (April 2013). "Post Carbon Pathways" (PDF). University of Melbourne.
^ "Cheap, safe 100% renewable energy possible before 2050, says Finnish uni study". Yle Uutiset. Retrieved 18 June 2021.
^ Bogdanov, Dmitrii; Gulagi, Ashish; Fasihi, Mahdi; Breyer, Christian (1 February 2021). "Full energy sector transition towards 100% renewable energy supply: Integrating power, heat, transport and industry sectors including desalination". Applied Energy. 283: 116273. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.116273. ISSN 0306-2619.
^ Gulagi, Ashish; Alcanzare, Myron; Bogdanov, Dmitrii; Esparcia, Eugene; Ocon, Joey; Breyer, Christian (1 July 2021). "Transition pathway towards 100% renewable energy across the sectors of power, heat, transport, and desalination for the Philippines". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 144: 110934. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2021.110934. ISSN 1364-0321.
^ Ram, M.; Bogdanov, D.; Aghahosseini, A.; Gulagi, A. (2019). Global Energy System based on 100% Renewable Energy – Power, Heat, Transport and Desalination Sectors (PDF). Lappeenranta University of Technology | Energy Watch Group. ISBN 978-952-335-339-8. ISSN 2243-3376.
^ a b Armaroli, Nicola; Balzani, Vincenzo (2016). "Solar Electricity and Solar Fuels: Status and Perspectives in the Context of the Energy Transition". Chemistry – A European Journal. 22 (1): 32–57. doi:10.1002/chem.201503580. PMID 26584653.
^ "Renewables Global Status Report". REN21. Retrieved 15 May 2019.
^ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (17 December 2020). "Renewable Energy". Our World in Data.
^ Gipe, Paul (4 April 2013). "100 Percent Renewable Vision Building". Renewable Energy World.
^ "Global energy transformation: A roadmap to 2050 (2019 edition)". Archived from the original on 18 April 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
^ van Zalk, John; Behrens, Paul (1 December 2018). "The spatial extent of renewable and non-renewable power generation: A review and meta-analysis of power densities and their application in the U.S." Energy Policy. 123: 83–91. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.08.023. ISSN 0301-4215.
^ Editor, Jonathan Leake, Environment. "UK's largest solar farm 'will destroy north Kent landscape'". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Archived from the original on 20 June 2020. Retrieved 21 June 2020. CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
^ McGwin, Kevin (20 April 2018). "Sámi mount new challenge to legality of Norway's largest wind farm". ArcticToday. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
^ "Whatever Happened to Wind Energy?". LiveScience. 14 January 2008. Archived from the original on 6 July 2008. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
^ "Why do so many people in France hate wind farms?". The Local. France. 7 August 2018. Archived from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
^ "Norway's public backlash against onshore wind threatens sector growth". Reuters. 25 September 2019. Archived from the original on 23 June 2020. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
^ Gourlay, Simon (12 August 2008). "Wind farms are not only beautiful, they're absolutely necessary". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 5 October 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
^ Department of Energy & Climate Change (2011). UK Renewable Energy Roadmap (PDF) Archived 10 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine p. 35.
^ DTI, Co-operative Energy: Lessons from Denmark and Sweden[permanent dead link], Report of a DTI Global Watch Mission, October 2004
^ Morris C & Pehnt M, German Energy Transition: Arguments for a Renewable Energy Future Archived 3 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Heinrich Böll Foundation, November 2012
^ "Renewable energy in transport" (PDF). Iea.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2019. Retrieved 26 March 2019.
^ "Statistical Review of World Energy - Home - BP". BP global. Archived from the original on 6 January 2009. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
^ International Energy Agency (2007). Contribution of Renewables to Energy Security IEA Information Paper, p. 5. Archived 18 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine
^ a b "EU countries look to Brussels for help with 'unprecedented' energy crisis". Politico. 6 October 2021. Archived from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
^ "European Energy Crisis Fuels Carbon Trading Expansion Concerns". Bloomberg. 6 October 2021. Archived from the original on 22 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
^ "The Green Brief: East-West EU split again over climate". Euractiv. 20 October 2021. Archived from the original on 20 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
^ "In Global Energy Crisis, Anti-Nuclear Chickens Come Home to Roost". Foreign Policy. 8 October 2021. Archived from the original on 22 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
^ "Europe's energy crisis: Continent 'too reliant on gas,' says von der Leyen". Euronews. 20 October 2021. Archived from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 23 October 2021.
^ "As Economic Concerns Recede, Environmental Protection Rises on the Public's Policy Agenda / Partisan gap on dealing with climate change gets even wider". PewResearch.org. Pew Research Center. 13 February 2020. Archived from the original on 16 January 2021.
^ "The Geopolitics of Renewable Energy". ResearchGate. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
^ "Future Petroleum Geopolitics: Consequences of Climate Policy and Unconventional Oil and Gas". ResearchGate. Archived from the original on 18 June 2018. Retrieved 26 June 2019.
^ Overland, Indra (1 March 2019). "The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths". Energy Research & Social Science. 49: 36–40. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018. ISSN 2214-6296.
^ Overland, Indra; Bazilian, Morgan; Ilimbek Uulu, Talgat; Vakulchuk, Roman; Westphal, Kirsten (2019). "The GeGaLo index: Geopolitical gains and losses after energy transition". Energy Strategy Reviews. 26: 100406. doi:10.1016/j.esr.2019.100406.
^ Vakulchuk, Roman; Overland, Indra; Scholten, Daniel (1 April 2020). "Renewable energy and geopolitics: A review". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 122: 109547. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2019.109547. ISSN 1364-0321. S2CID 213515030.
^ "Asian "super grid" the first step towards a global, interconnected, renewable energy grid". New Atlas. 14 November 2016. Archived from the original on 6 November 2021. Retrieved 6 November 2021.
^ Blondeel, Mathieu; Bradshaw, Michael J.; Bridge, Gavin; Kuzemko, Caroline (2021). "The geopolitics of energy system transformation: A review". Geography Compass. 15 (7): e12580. doi:10.1111/gec3.12580. ISSN 1749-8198. S2CID 237821588.
^ Scholten, Daniel; Bazilian, Morgan; Overland, Indra; Westphal, Kirsten (1 March 2020). "The geopolitics of renewables: New board, new game". Energy Policy. 138: 111059. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2019.111059. ISSN 0301-4215. S2CID 213907107.
^ "The Geopolitics of Renewable Energy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 6 November 2021.
^ "The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions" (PDF). International Energy Agency. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 6 November 2021.
^ Watts, Jonathan; Kirk, Ashley; McIntyre, Niamh; Gutiérrez, Pablo; Kommenda, Niko. "Half world's fossil fuel assets could become worthless by 2036 in net zero transition". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 December 2021.
^ Mercure, J.-F.; Salas, P.; Vercoulen, P.; Semieniuk, G.; Lam, A.; Pollitt, H.; Holden, P. B.; Vakilifard, N.; Chewpreecha, U.; Edwards, N. R.; Vinuales, J. E. (4 November 2021). "Reframing incentives for climate policy action". Nature Energy. 6 (12): 1133–1143. doi:10.1038/s41560-021-00934-2. ISSN 2058-7546. S2CID 243792305.
^ Krane, Jim; Idel, Robert (1 December 2021). "More transitions, less risk: How renewable energy reduces risks from mining, trade and political dependence". Energy Research & Social Science. 82: 102311. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2021.102311. ISSN 2214-6296. S2CID 244187364.
^ a b "In-depth Q&A: Does the world need hydrogen to solve climate change?". Carbon Brief. 30 November 2020. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
^ Van de Graaf, Thijs; Overland, Indra; Scholten, Daniel; Westphal, Kirsten (1 December 2020). "The new oil? The geopolitics and international governance of hydrogen". Energy Research & Social Science. 70: 101667. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101667. ISSN 2214-6296. PMC 7326412. PMID 32835007.
^ a b "The New Geopolitics of a Decarbonizing World | Wilson Center". www.wilsoncenter.org. Archived from the original on 10 November 2021. Retrieved 10 November 2021.
^ Bazilian, Morgan; Bradshaw, Michael; Gabriel, Johannes; Goldthau, Andreas; Westphal, Kirsten (2020). "Four scenarios of the energy transition: Drivers, consequences, and implications for geopolitics" (PDF). WIREs Climate Change. 11 (2): e625. doi:10.1002/wcc.625. ISSN 1757-7799. S2CID 207910004.
^ "What's Next for the Geopolitics of Energy Transformation?" (PDF). Retrieved 18 December 2021.
^ Lu, Zhengyao; Zhang, Qiong; Miller, Paul A.; Zhang, Qiang; Berntell, Ellen; Smith, Benjamin (2021). "Impacts of Large-Scale Sahara Solar Farms on Global Climate and Vegetation Cover". Geophysical Research Letters. 48 (2): e2020GL090789. Bibcode:2021GeoRL..4890789L. doi:10.1029/2020GL090789. ISSN 1944-8007. S2CID 230567825.
^ Ketzer, Daniel; Weinberger, Nora; Rösch, Christine; Seitz, Stefanie B. (3 May 2020). "Land use conflicts between biomass and power production – citizens' participation in the technology development of Agrophotovoltaics". Journal of Responsible Innovation. 7 (2): 193–216. doi:10.1080/23299460.2019.1647085. ISSN 2329-9460. S2CID 203305602.
^ The National Academies Press (2008). "Water Issues of Biofuel Production Plants". The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/12039. ISBN 978-0-309-11361-8. Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 31 March 2017.
^ a b Bilgili, Faik; Koçak, Emrah; Bulut, Ümit; Kuşkaya, Sevda (1 May 2017). "Can biomass energy be an efficient policy tool for sustainable development?". Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 71: 830–845. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2016.12.109. ISSN 1364-0321.
^ Magazzino, Cosimo; Mele, Marco; Schneider, Nicolas; Shahbaz, Muhammad (1 June 2021). "Can biomass energy curtail environmental pollution? A quantum model approach to Germany". Journal of Environmental Management. 287: 112293. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.112293. ISSN 0301-4797. PMID 33714048. S2CID 232223051.
^ Li, Mengyu; Lenzen, Manfred; Yousefzadeh, Moslem; Ximenes, Fabiano A. (1 December 2020). "The roles of biomass and CSP in a 100 % renewable electricity supply in Australia". Biomass and Bioenergy. 143: 105802. doi:10.1016/j.biombioe.2020.105802. ISSN 0961-9534. S2CID 225173118.
^ Perkins, Greg (13 August 2018). "Integration of biocrude production from fast pyrolysis of biomass with solar PV for dispatchable electricity production". Clean Energy. doi:10.1093/ce/zky013.
^ Stark, Matthias; Sonnleitner, Matthias; Zörner, Wilfried; Greenough, Rick (2017). "Approaches for Dispatchable Biomass Plants with Particular Focus on Steam Storage Devices". Chemical Engineering & Technology. 40 (2): 227–237. doi:10.1002/ceat.201600190. ISSN 1521-4125.
^ Mensah, Theophilus Nii Odai (2019). "The role of modern bioenergy in solar photovoltaic driven and defossilised power systems : The case of Ghana". Archived from the original on 9 November 2021. Retrieved 9 November 2021.
^ Hakkarainen, Elina; Hannula, Ilkka; Vakkilainen, Esa (2019). "Bioenergy RES hybrids − assessment of status in Finland, Austria, Germany, and Denmark". Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining. 13 (6): 1402–1416. doi:10.1002/bbb.2019. ISSN 1932-1031. S2CID 164274938.
^ McGrath, Matt (25 March 2020). "Climate change: Green energy plant threat to wilderness areas". bbc.com. Archived from the original on 30 May 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
^ "Habitats Under Threat From Renewable Energy Development". technologynetworks.com. 27 March 2020. Archived from the original on 27 March 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2020.
^ Månberger, André; Stenqvist, Björn (1 August 2018). "Global metal flows in the renewable energy transition: Exploring the effects of substitutes, technological mix and development". Energy Policy. 119: 226–241. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2018.04.056. ISSN 0301-4215.
^ Thomas, Tobi (1 September 2020). "Mining needed for renewable energy 'could harm biodiversity'". Nature Communications. The Guardian. Archived from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 18 October 2020.
^ LawApr. 1, Yao-Hua; 2019; Pm, 4:25 (1 April 2019). "Radioactive waste standoff could slash high tech's supply of rare earth elements". Science | AAAS. Archived from the original on 1 April 2020. Retrieved 23 April 2020. CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
^ "Mining needed for renewable energy 'could harm biodiversity'". The Guardian. 1 September 2020. Archived from the original on 6 October 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
^ "Mining for renewable energy could be another threat to the environment". phys.org. Archived from the original on 3 October 2020. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
^ Sonter, Laura J.; Dade, Marie C.; Watson, James E. M.; Valenta, Rick K. (1 September 2020). "Renewable energy production will exacerbate mining threats to biodiversity". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 4174. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.4174S. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-17928-5. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7463236. PMID 32873789. S2CID 221467922. Text and images are available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License Archived 16 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine.
^ "Solar panels are a pain to recycle. These companies are trying to fix that". MIT Technology Review. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
^ Heath, Garvin A.; Silverman, Timothy J.; Kempe, Michael; Deceglie, Michael; Ravikumar, Dwarakanath; Remo, Timothy; Cui, Hao; Sinha, Parikhit; Libby, Cara; Shaw, Stephanie; Komoto, Keiichi; Wambach, Karsten; Butler, Evelyn; Barnes, Teresa; Wade, Andreas (July 2020). "Research and development priorities for silicon photovoltaic module recycling to support a circular economy". Nature Energy. 5 (7): 502–510. Bibcode:2020NatEn...5..502H. doi:10.1038/s41560-020-0645-2. ISSN 2058-7546. S2CID 220505135. Archived from the original on 21 August 2021. Retrieved 26 June 2021.
^ Domínguez, Adriana; Geyer, Roland (1 April 2019). "Photovoltaic waste assessment of major photovoltaic installations in the United States of America". Renewable Energy. 133: 1188–1200. doi:10.1016/j.renene.2018.08.063. ISSN 0960-1481. S2CID 117685414.
"2021 Electricity Annual Technology Baseline (ATB) Technologies". United States National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 2021. Archived from the original on 18 July 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
Aitken, Donald W. (2010). Transitioning to a Renewable Energy Future, International Solar Energy Society, January, 54 pages.
Nicola Armaroli, Vincenzo Balzani: Energy for a Sustainable World – From the Oil Age to a Sun-Powered Future, Wiley-VCH 2011, ISBN 978-3-527-32540-5.
Armstrong, Robert C., Catherine Wolfram, Robert Gross, Nathan S. Lewis, and M.V. Ramana et al. The Frontiers of Energy Archived 23 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Nature Energy, Vol 1, 11 January 2016.
ESMAP (2016). Assessing and Mapping Renewable Energy Resources Archived 11 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, The World Bank: Washington, DC.
HM Treasury (2006). Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change, 575 pages.
International Council for Science (c2006). Discussion Paper by the Scientific and Technological Community for the 14th session of the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, 17 pages.
International Energy Agency (2006). World Energy Outlook 2006: Summary and Conclusions, OECD, 11 pages.
International Energy Agency (2007). Renewables in global energy supply: An IEA facts sheet, OECD, 34 pages.
International Energy Agency (2008). Deploying Renewables: Principles for Effective Policies, OECD, 8 pages.
International Energy Agency (2011). Deploying Renewables 2011: Best and Future Policy Practice, OECD.
International Energy Agency (2011). Solar Energy Perspectives, OECD.
IPCC (2011), Edenhofer, O.; Pichs-Madruga, P.; Sokona, Y.; Seyboth, K.; Matschoss, P.; Kadner, S.; Zwickel, T.; Eickemeier, P.; Hansen, G.; Schlömer, S.; von Stechow, C. (eds.), Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (PDF), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9789291691319, archived (PDF) from the original on 12 April 2019, retrieved 19 April 2019
Martin Kaltschmitt, Wolfgang Streicher, Andreas Wiese (ed): Renewable energy. Technology, economics and environment, Springer, Berlin/Heidelberg 2007, ISBN 978-3-540-70947-3.
Lovins, Amory (2011). Reinventing Fire: Bold Business Solutions for the New Energy Era, Chelsea Green Publishing, 334 pages.
Makower, Joel, and Ron Pernick and Clint Wilder (2009). Clean Energy Trends 2009, Clean Edge.
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (2006). Non-technical Barriers to Solar Energy Use: Review of Recent Literature, Technical Report, NREL/TP-520-40116, September, 30 pages.
Volker Quaschning: Understanding Renewable Energy Systems. Earthscan, London, 2nd edition 2016, ISBN 978-1-138-78196-2.
Renewable Capacity Statistics 2021. Abu Dhabi: International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). March 2021. ISBN 978-92-9260-342-7. Archived from the original on 13 May 2021. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2014 Archived 11 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine (February 2015), International Renewable Energy Agency. Executive summary Archived 21 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine (8 pages). More concise summary Archived 11 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine (3 pages).
Renewables 2007 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris and Washington, DC: REN21 Secretariat and Worldwatch Institute. 2008. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 April 2008. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
Renewables Global Status Report: 2009 Update (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2009. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
Renewables 2010 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
Renewables 2013 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2013. ISBN 978-3-9815934-0-2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
Renewables 2016 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2016. ISBN 978-3-9818107-0-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 December 2020. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
Renewables 2017 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2017. ISBN 978-3-9818107-6-9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 July 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
Renewables 2018 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2018. ISBN 978-3-9818911-3-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
Renewables 2019 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2019. ISBN 978-3-9818911-7-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 June 2021. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
Renewables 2020 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2020. ISBN 978-3-948393-00-7. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 September 2020. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
Renewables 2021 Global Status Report (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2021. ISBN 978-3-948393-03-8. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 June 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
Renewables Global Futures Report: Great debates towards 100% renewable energy (PDF). Paris: REN21 Secretariat. 2017. ISBN 978-3-9818107-4-5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 June 2021. Retrieved 25 July 2021.
Overview of clean energy from the United States Department of Energy
Energypedia - a wiki platform for collaborative knowledge exchange on renewable energy in developing countries
Lists of renewable energy topics
Wind farm lists
List of onshore wind farms
List of onshore wind farms in the United Kingdom
List of offshore wind farms in the United Kingdom
List of offshore wind farms in the United States
Lists of offshore wind farms by country
Lists of offshore wind farms by water area
Lists of wind farms by country
List of wind farms in Australia
List of wind farms in Canada
List of wind farms in Iran
List of wind farms in Kosovo
List of wind farms in New Zealand
List of wind farms in Romania
List of wind farms in Sweden
List of wind farms in the United States
List of wind turbine manufacturers
Solar power lists
Index of solar energy articles
List of concentrating solar thermal power companies
List of photovoltaics companies
List of photovoltaic power stations
List of pioneering solar buildings
List of rooftop photovoltaic installations
List of solar car teams
List of solar powered products
List of solar thermal power stations
People associated with solar power
List of books about renewable energy
List of countries by electricity production from renewable sources
List of geothermal power stations
Lists of hydroelectric power stations
List of largest hydroelectric power stations
List of people associated with renewable energy
List of renewable energy companies by stock exchange
List of renewable energy organizations
List of renewable energy topics by country
List of U.S. states by electricity production from renewable sources
Renewable energy by country and territory
Energy condition
Negative mass
Mass–energy equivalence
Quantum thermodynamics
Laws of thermodynamics
Thermodynamic system
Thermodynamic state
Thermodynamic potential
Thermodynamic free energy
Irreversible process
Thermal reservoir
Volume (thermodynamics)
Thermodynamic equilibrium
Thermal equilibrium
Thermodynamic temperature
Free entropy
Entropic force
Negentropy
Enthalpy
Interatomic potential
Quantum potential
Nuclear binding energy
Gravitational binding energy
Quantum chromodynamics binding energy
Sound energy
Surface energy
Vacuum energy
Zero-point energy
Quantum fluctuation
Mechanical wave
Primary energy
Nuclear fuel
Natural uranium
Radiant energy
Gravitational energy
Fossil fuel power station
Integrated gasification combined cycle
Nuclear power plant
Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
Photovoltaic system
Solar thermal energy
Solar power tower
Solar furnace
Airborne wind energy
Wave farm
Tidal power
Geothermal power
Use and
World energy consumption
Energy development
Worldwide energy supply
Jevons paradox
WikiProject
on public display
Community-owned
Farms by country
Offshore farms
Onshore farms
Crosswind kite
Pitch bearing
QBlade
Vertical axis
Savonius
Darrieus
Yaw system
Yaw bearing
Yaw drive
Wind power industry
Consulting companies
Windmade
GE Wind Energy
including GE Wind offshore
Goldwind
Senvion
Suzlon
Betz's law
Blade element momentum theory
Capacity factor
Energy return on investment
Wind power forecasting
Grid energy storage
HVDC
Intermittency
Laddermill
Net energy gain
Resource assessment
Tip-speed ratio
Wind hybrid power systems
Wind profile power law
Wind power portal
Additional portals:
Solar irradiance
Active and passive solar energy
Passive solar building design
Solar chimney
Thermal mass
Solar pond
and related topics
Photovoltaic effect
Polymer solar cell
Nanocrystal solar cell
Photovoltaic module (solar panel)
Photovoltaic array (and systems)
Photovoltaic power station
Floating solar
Heliostat
Solar tracker
Parabolic trough
and proposed
Solar-pumped laser
Thermoelectric generator
Solar chemical and artificial photosynthesis
Solar sail
Magnetic sail
Solar thermal rocket
Solar Shade Control Act
and uses
Phase change material
Financial incentives for photovoltaics
Solar vehicle
Solar balloon
and horticulture
Agrivoltaic
Solar-powered pump
Building-integrated photovoltaics
Urban heat island
Hybrid solar lighting
Solar Tuki
Light tube
Daylighting
Process heat
Salt evaporation pond
Solar cooker
Solar water disinfection
Soil solarization
Solar still
Solar combisystem
Zero carbon solar controller
Photovoltaics topics
Solar power by country