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Wuxia (武俠 [ù.ɕjǎ]), which literally means "martial heroes", is a genre of Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists in ancient China. Although wuxia is traditionally a form of fantasy literature, its popularity has caused it to be adapted for such diverse art forms as Chinese opera, mànhuà, films, television series, and video games. It forms part of popular culture in many Chinese-speaking communities around the world.
The word "wǔxiá" is a compound composed of the elements wǔ (武, literally "martial", "military", or "armed") and xiá (俠, literally "chivalrous", "vigilante" or "hero"). A martial artist who follows the code of xia is often referred to as a xiákè (俠客, literally "follower of xia") or yóuxiá (遊俠, literally "wandering xia"). In some translations, the martial artist is referred to as a "swordsman" or "swordswoman" even though they may not necessarily wield a sword.
The heroes in wuxia fiction typically do not serve a lord, wield military power, or belong to the aristocratic class. They often originate from the lower social classes of ancient Chinese society. A code of chivalry usually requires wuxia heroes to right and redress wrongs, fight for righteousness, remove oppressors, and bring retribution for past misdeeds. Chinese xia traditions can be compared to martial codes from other cultures, such as the Japanese samurai bushidō.
Earlier precedents
Even though the term "wuxia" as the name of a genre is a recent coinage, stories about xia date back more than 2,000 years. Wuxia stories have their roots in some early youxia tales from 300–200 BCE. The Legalist philosopher Han Fei spoke disparagingly of youxias in his book Han Feizi in the chapter On Five 'Maggot' Classes about five social classes in the Spring and Autumn period.[1] Some well-known stories include Zhuan Zhu's assassination of King Liao of Wu, and most notably, Jing Ke's attempt on the life of the King of Qin (who later became Qin Shi Huang). In Volume 86 of the Records of the Grand Historian (Shi Ji), Sima Qian mentioned five notable assassins – Cao Mo, Zhuan Zhu, Yu Rang, Nie Zheng and Jing Ke – in the Warring States period who undertook tasks of conducting political assassinations of aristocrats and nobles.[2]: 17–19 [3] These assassins were known as cike (刺客; literally "stabbing guests"). They usually rendered their loyalties and services to feudal lords and nobles in return for rewards such as riches and women. In Volume 124 of the Shi Ji, Sima Qian detailed several embryonic features of xia culture from his period. These popular phenomena were also documented in other historical records such as the Book of Han and the Book of the Later Han.
Xiake stories made a turning point in the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE) and returned in the form of chuanqi (傳奇; literally "legendary tales"). Stories from that era, such as Nie Yinniang (聶隱娘),[4] The Kunlun Slave, Thirteenth Madame Jing (荊十三娘),[5] Red String (紅線)[6] and The Bearded Warrior (虬髯客),[7] served as prototypes for modern wuxia stories.[8] They featured fantasies and isolated protagonists – usually loners – who performed daring heroic deeds. During the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE), similar stories circulated in the huaben, short works that were once thought to have served as prompt-books for shuochang (traditional Chinese storytelling).[2]: 19–20 [9]: 47–48
The genre of the martial or military romance also developed during the Tang dynasty. In the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 CE), Luo Guanzhong and Shi Nai'an wrote Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin respectively, which are among the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature. The former is a romanticised historical retelling of the events in the late Eastern Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period, while the latter criticises the deplorable socio-economic status of the late Northern Song dynasty. Water Margin is often seen as the first full-length wuxia novel: the portrayal of the 108 heroes, and their code of honour and willingness to become outlaws rather than serve a corrupt government, played an influential role in the development of jianghu culture in later centuries. Romance of the Three Kingdoms is also seen as a possible early antecedent and contains classic close-combat descriptions that were later emulated by wuxia writers in their works[2]: 20 [10]: 17, 263
In the Qing dynasty (1644-1911 CE), further developments were the gong'an (公案; literally "public case") and related detective novels, where xia and other heroes, in collaboration with a judge or magistrate, solved crimes and battled injustice. The Justice Bao stories from Sanxia Wuyi (三俠五義; later extended and renamed to Qixia Wuyi) and Xiaowuyi (小五義), incorporated much of social justice themes of later wuxia stories. Xiayi stories of chivalrous romance, which frequently featured female heroes and supernatural fighting abilities, also surfaced during the Qing dynasty. Novels such as Shi Gong'an Qiwen (施公案奇聞) and Ernü Yingxiong Zhuan (兒女英雄傳) have been cited as the clearest nascent wuxia novels.[2]: 20–21 [10]: 19
The term "wuxia" as a genre label itself first appeared at the end of the Qing dynasty, a calque of the Japanese "bukyō", a genre of oft-militaristic and bushido-influenced adventure fiction. The term was brought to China by writers and students who hoped that China would modernise its military and place emphasis on martial virtues, and it quickly became entrenched as the term used to refer to xiayi and other predecessors of wuxia proper. In Japan, however, the term "bukyō" faded into obscurity.[2]: 2–3 [10]: 11, 262
Many wuxia works produced during the Ming and Qing dynasties were lost due to the governments' crackdown on and banning of such works.[11] Wuxia works were deemed responsible for brewing anti-government sentiments, which led to rebellions in those eras.[citation needed] The departure from mainstream literature also meant that patronage of this genre was limited to the masses and not to the literati, which led to the stifling of the development of the wuxia genre. Nonetheless, the wuxia genre remained enormously popular with the common people.[9]: 49–50
The modern wuxia genre rose to prominence in the early 20th century after the May Fourth Movement of 1919. A new literature evolved, calling for a break with Confucian values, and the xia emerged as a symbol of personal freedom, defiance to Confucian tradition, and rejection of the Chinese family system.[11]
Xiang Kairan (pen name Pingjiang Buxiaosheng) became the first notable wuxia writer, with his debut novel being The Peculiar Knights-Errant of the Jianghu (江湖奇俠傳).[12][13][ISBN missing] It was serialised from 1921–28 and was adapted into the first wuxia film, The Burning of the Red Lotus Temple (1928).[14] Zhao Huanting (趙煥亭), who wrote Chronicles of the Loyal Knights-Errant (奇俠精忠傳, serialised 1923–27), was another well-known wuxia writer based in Shanghai.[15] Starting from the 1930s, wuxia works proliferated and its centre shifted to Beijing and Tianjin in northern China. The most prolific writers there were collectively referred to as the Five Great Masters of the Northern School (北派五大家): Huanzhulouzhu, who wrote The Swordspeople from Shu Mountains (蜀山劍俠傳); Gong Baiyu (宮白羽), who wrote Twelve Coin Darts (十二金錢鏢); Wang Dulu, who wrote The Crane-Iron Pentalogy (鹤鉄五部作); Zheng Zhengyin (郑証因), who wrote The King of Eagle Claws (鹰爪王); Zhu Zhenmu (朱貞木), who wrote The Seven 'Kill' Stele (七殺碑).[16]
Wuxia fiction was banned at various times during the Republican era and these restrictions stifled the growth of the genre.[11] In spite of this, wuxia writing prevailed in other Chinese-speaking regions, such as Taiwan and Hong Kong. Between the 1960s and 1980s, the genre entered a golden age.[17][unreliable source?] Writers such as Liang Yusheng and Louis Cha (Jin Yong) spearheaded the founding of a "new school" of the wuxia genre that differed largely from its predecessors. They wrote serials for newspapers and magazines. They also incorporated several fictional themes such as mystery and romance from other cultures. In Taiwan, Wolong Sheng, Sima Ling, Zhuge Qingyun (諸葛青雲), Shiao Yi (萧逸) and Gu Long became the region's best known wuxia writers. After them, writers such as Woon Swee Oan and Huang Yi rose to prominence in a later period. Chen Yu-hui is a contemporary female wuxia novelist who made her debut with the novel The Tian-Guan Duo Heroes (天觀雙俠).[18]
There have also been works created after the 1980s which attempt to create a post-wuxia genre. Yu Hua, one of the more notable writers from this period, published a counter-genre short story titled Blood and Plum Blossoms, in which the protagonist goes on a quest to avenge his murdered father.
Themes, plots and settings
A 17th-century woodblock print of a scene from a play on the Kunlun Nu story.
Modern wuxia stories are largely set in ancient or pre-modern China. The historical setting can range from being quite specific and important to the story, to being vaguely-defined, anachronistic, or mainly for use as a backdrop. Elements of fantasy, such as the use of magic powers and appearance of supernatural beings, are common in some wuxia stories but are not a prerequisite of the wuxia genre. However, the martial arts element is a definite part of a wuxia tale, as the characters must know some form of martial arts. Themes of romance are also strongly featured in some wuxia tales.
A typical wuxia story features a young male protagonist who experiences a tragedy – such as the loss of his loved ones – and goes on to undertake several trials and tribulations to learn several forms of martial arts from various fighters. At the end of the story, he emerges as a powerful fighter whom few can equal. He uses his abilities to follow the code of xia and mends the ills of the jianghu. For instance, the opening chapters of some of Jin Yong's works follow a certain pattern: a tragic event occurs, usually one that costs the lives of the newly introduced characters, and then it sets events into motion that will culminate in the primary action of the story.[19]
Other stories use different structures. For instance, the protagonist is denied admission into a martial arts sect. He experiences hardships and trains secretly and waits until there is an opportunity for him to show off his skills and surprise those who initially looked down on him. Some stories feature a mature hero with powerful martial arts abilities confronting an equally powerful antagonist as his nemesis. The plot will gradually meander to a final dramatic showdown between the protagonist and his nemesis. These types of stories were prevalent during the era of anti-Qing revolutionaries.[20]
Certain stories have unique plots, such as those by Gu Long and Huang Yi. Gu Long's works have an element of mystery and are written like detective stories. The protagonist, usually a formidable martial artist and intelligent problem-solver, embarks on a quest to solve a mystery such as a murder case. Huang Yi's stories are blended with science fiction.
Despite these genre-blending elements, wuxia is primarily a historical genre of fiction. Notwithstanding this, wuxia writers openly admit that they are unable to capture the entire history of a course of events and instead choose to structure their stories along the pattern of the protagonist's progression from childhood to adulthood instead.[citation needed] The progression may be symbolic rather than literal, as observed in Jin Yong's The Smiling, Proud Wanderer, where Linghu Chong progresses from childish concerns and dalliances into much more adult ones as his unwavering loyalty repeatedly thrusts him into the rocks of betrayal at the hands of his inhumane master.[19]
Code of xia
The eight common attributes of the xia are listed as benevolence, justice, individualism, loyalty, courage, truthfulness, disregard for wealth, and desire for glory. Apart from individualism, these characteristics are similar to Confucian values such as ren (仁; "benevolence", "kindness"), zhong (忠; "loyalty"), yong (勇; "courage", "bravery") and yi (義; "righteousness").[11] The code of xia also emphasises the importance of repaying benefactors after having received deeds of en (恩; "grace", "favour") from others, as well as seeking chou (仇; "vengeance", "revenge") to bring villains to justice. However, the importance of vengeance is controversial, as a number of wuxia works stress Buddhist ideals, which include forgiveness, compassion and a prohibition on killing.
In the jianghu, martial artists are expected to be loyal to their master (Shifu). This gives rise to the formation of several complex trees of master-apprentice relations as well as the various sects such as Shaolin and Wudang. If there are any disputes between fighters, they will choose the honourable way of settling their issues through fighting in duels.[21]
The martial arts in wuxia stories are based on wushu techniques and other real life Chinese martial arts. In wuxia tales, however, the mastery of such skills are highly exaggerated to superhuman levels of achievement and prowess.
The following is a list of skills and abilities a typical fighter in a wuxia story possesses:
Martial arts (武功): Fighting techniques in a codified sequence called zhaoshi (招式), which are based on real life Chinese martial arts.
Weapons and objects: Combatants use a wide range of weapons in combat. The most commonly used ones are the dao (broadsword or saber), jian (sword), gun (staff), and qiang (spear). Everyday objects such as abaci, benches, fans, ink brushes, smoking pipes, sewing needles, or various musical instruments, are also used as weapons as well.
Qinggong (轻功): A form of real Chinese martial arts.[22] In wuxia fiction, however, its use is exaggerated to the point that characters can circumvent gravity to fly, cover tremendous distances in a single stride, run across surfaces of water, mount trees, and jump over or scale high walls.
Neili (内力; lit "internal force" or "internal strength")/Neigong (內功; literally "internal skill" or "internal function"): The ability to build up and cultivate inner energy known as qi and utilise it for attack and defensive purposes. Characters use this energy to attain skills such as superhuman strength, speed, stamina, durability and healing as well as the ability to project energy beams and elemental forces from their bodies.
Dianxue (點穴; literally "touching acupuncture points"): Characters use various acupuncture techniques to kill, paralyse, immobilise or even manipulate opponents by attacking their acupressure points with their bare hands or weapons. Such techniques can also be used for healing purposes, such as halting excessive bleeding. Real life martial artists do use such techniques to paralyse or stun their opponents, however, their effectiveness is highly exaggerated in wuxia stories.
In wuxia stories, characters attain the above skills and abilities by devoting themselves to years of diligent study and exercise, but can also have such power conferred upon them by a master who transfers his energy to them. The instructions to mastering these skills through training are found in secret manuals known as miji (秘笈). In some stories, specific skills can be learned by spending several years in seclusion with a master or training with a group of fighters.
Jianghu
"Jianghu" redirects here. For other uses, see Jianghu (disambiguation).
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Evolving interpretations of the term jianghu
The meaning of the term jianghu (江湖; jiānghú; gong1wu4; 'rivers and lakes') has evolved over the course of Chinese history, but usually refers to the martial arts world of ancient China.[23] First coined by Zhuangzi in the late 4th century BC, it referred to a way of life different from that of being actively involved in politics. At the time, it referred to the way of life of underachieving or maligned scholar-officials who distanced themselves from the circles of political power. In this sense, jianghu could be loosely interpreted as the way of life of a hermit.
Over the centuries, jianghu gained greater acceptance among the common people and gradually became a term for a sub-society parallel to, and sometimes orthogonal to, mainstream society. This sub-society initially included merchants, craftsmen, beggars and vagabonds, but over time it assimilated bandits, outlaws and gangs who lived "outside the existing law". During the Song and Yuan dynasties, bards and novelists began using the term jianghu in the process of creating literature covering a fictional society of adventurers and rebels who lived not by existing societal laws, but by their own moral principles or extralegal code of conduct. The core of these moral principles encompassed xia (俠; 侠; xiá; 'chivalry'), yi (義; 义; yì; 'righteousness'), li (禮; 礼; lǐ; 'virtue'), zhong (忠; zhōng; 'loyalty') and chou (仇; chóu; 'vengeance/revenge'). Stories in this genre bloomed and enriched various interpretations of jianghu. At the same time, the term jianghu also developed intricate interconnections with gang culture because of outlaws' mutually shared distaste towards governments.
The inclusion of martial arts as a feature of jianghu was a recent development in the early 20th century. Novelists started creating a fantasy world of jianghu in which characters are martial artists and in which the characters' enforcement of righteousness is symbolised by conflicts between different martial artists or martial arts sects and the ultimate triumph of good over evil. Martial arts became a tool used by characters in a jianghu story to enforce their moral beliefs. On the other hand, there are characters who become corrupted by power derived from their formidable prowess in martial arts and end up abandoning their morality in their pursuit of power. Around this time, the term jianghu became closely related to a similar term, wulin (武林; wǔlín; mou5lam4; 'martial forest'), which referred exclusively to a community of martial artists. This fantasy world of jianghu remains as the mainstream definition of jianghu in modern Chinese popular culture, particularly wuxia culture.
Current interpretations of the term jianghu
The following description focuses more on the martial arts aspect of jianghu, its well-established social norms, and its close relation with wulin.
A common aspect of jianghu is that the courts of law are dysfunctional and that all disputes and differences (within the community) can only be resolved by members of the community, through the use of mediation, negotiation or force, predicating the need for the code of xia and acts of chivalry. Law and order within the jianghu are maintained by the various orthodox and righteous sects and heroes. Sometimes these sects may gather to form an alliance against a powerful evil organisation in the jianghu.
A leader, called the wulin mengzhu (武林盟主; literally "master of the wulin alliance"), is elected from among the sects in order to lead them and ensure law and order within the jianghu. The leader is usually someone with a high level of mastery in martial arts and a great reputation for righteousness who is often involved in some conspiracy and/or killed. In some stories, the leader may not be the greatest martial artist in the jianghu; in other stories, the position of the leader is hereditary. The leader is an arbiter who presides and adjudicates over all inequities and disputes. The leader is a de jure chief justice of the affairs of the jianghu.
Relationship with the government
Members of the jianghu are also expected to keep their distance from any government offices or officials, without necessarily being antagonistic. It was acceptable for jianghu members who are respectable members of society (usually owning properties or big businesses) to maintain respectful but formal and passive relationships with the officials, such as paying due taxes and attending local community events. Even then, they are expected to shield any fugitives from the law, or at the least not to turn over fugitives to the officials. Local officials who are savvier would know better than to expect co-operation from jianghu members and would refrain from seeking help except to apprehend the worst and most notorious criminals. If the crimes also violated some of the moral tenets of jianghu, jianghu members may assist the government officials.
An interesting aspect is that while senior officials are kept at a distance, jianghu members may freely associate with low-ranking staff such as runners, jailers, or clerks of the magistrates. The jianghu members maintained order among their own in the community and prevent any major disturbance, thus saving a lot of work for their associates in the yamen. In return, the runners turn a blind eye to certain jianghu activities that are officially disapproved, the jailers ensured incarcerated jianghu members are not mistreated, and the clerks pass on useful tips to the jianghu community. This reciprocal arrangement allowed their superiors to maintain order in their jurisdiction with the limited resources available and jianghu members greater freedom.
Norms of the jianghu
Although many jianghu members were Confucian-educated, their attitudes towards the way of life in the jianghu is largely overshadowed by pragmatism. In other words, they feel that Confucian values are to be respected and upheld if they are useful, and to be discarded if they are a hindrance.
The basic (spoken and unspoken) norms of the jianghu are:
No using of dirty tricks such as eye-gouging during fights unless one has a personal feud with the opponent.
Personal feuds do not extend to family members.
Always show respect for seniors and elders according to their status or age.
Complete obedience to one's shifu (martial arts teacher).
No learning of martial arts from another person without prior permission from one's shifu.
No using of martial arts against those who are not trained in martial arts.
No violating of women.
No sexual relationships with the wives of friends.
One's word is one's bond.
Jianghu in modern times
The term jianghu is linked to cultures other than those pertaining to martial arts in wuxia stories. It is also applied to anarchic societies. For instance, the triads and other Chinese secret societies use the term jianghu to describe their world of organised crime. Sometimes, the term jianghu may be replaced by the term "underworld" à la "criminal underworld".
In modern terminology, jianghu may mean any circle of interest, ranging from the entertainment industry to sports. Colloquially, retirement is also referred to as "leaving the jianghu" (退出江湖). In wuxia stories, when a reputable fighter decides to retire from the jianghu, he will do so in a ceremony known as "washing hands in the golden basin" (金盆洗手). He washes his hands in a golden basin filled with water, signifying that he will no longer be involved in the affairs of the jianghu. When a reclusive fighter who has retired from the jianghu reappears, his return is described as "re-entering the jianghu" (重出江湖).
Notable modern wuxia writers include:
Pen name
Some works
Louis Cha Leung-yung
Zha Liangyong
查良鏞 Jin Yong
金庸 1955–72 The Book and the Sword, Condor Trilogy, Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils, The Smiling, Proud Wanderer, The Deer and the Cauldron The most popular, and regarded by some as the most accomplished, writer to date. His works have been adapted into films and television series numerous times.
Chen Wentong
陳文統 Liang Yusheng
梁羽生 1954–83 Qijian Xia Tianshan, Datang Youxia Zhuan, Baifa Monü Zhuan, Saiwai Qixia Zhuan, Yunhai Yugong Yuan, Xiagu Danxin The pioneer of the "new school" wuxia genre. Some of his works were adapted into films and television series.
Xiong Yaohua
熊耀華 Gu Long
古龍 1960–85 Chu Liuxiang Series, Juedai Shuangjiao, Xiao Shiyi Lang, Xiaoli Feidao Series, Lu Xiaofeng Series A writer who blends elements of mystery in his works. He writes in short paragraphs and is influenced stylistically by Western and Japanese writers. Some of his works were adapted into films and television series.
Woon Liang Geok
Wen Liangyu
溫涼玉 Woon Swee Oan
Wen Rui'an
溫瑞安 1973–present Si Da Ming Bu, Buyi Shenxiang, Jingyan Yi Qiang His works were adapted into the television series The Four and Face to Fate, and the film The Four.
Huang Zuqiang
黃祖強 Huang Yi
黃易 1987–2017 Xunqin Ji, Fuyu Fanyun, Datang Shuanglong Zhuan Combines wuxia with science fiction in his works. His works were adapted into the television series A Step into the Past, Lethal Weapons of Love and Passion and Twin of Brothers.
New and original wuxia writings have dwindled significantly in modern times,[citation needed] particularly so as patronage and readerships of the genre decimated due to readily available alternatives in entertainment such as DVDs, gaming consoles and so forth.[citation needed] The genre has proliferated in manhua (Chinese comics) in places like Hong Kong and Taiwan, with the core essentials of the wuxia genre living on in weekly editions equivalent to the Japanese manga.[citation needed]
Some notable comic artists are listed as follows:
Ma Wing-shing
Ma Rongcheng
馬榮城 Ma Wing-shing
馬榮成 1980s–present Fung Wan, Chinese Hero, Black Leopard Some of his works were adapted into films and television series such as The Storm Riders, Wind and Cloud, The Blood Sword, and A Man Called Hero.
Wong Jan-lung
Huang Zhenlong
黃振隆 Wong Yuk-long
Huang Yulang
黃玉郎 1980s–present Oriental Heroes, Weapons of the Gods, Legend of Emperors, Buddha's Palm Some of his works were adapted into films and television series like Dragon Tiger Gate, Kung Fu VS Acrobatic, and The Buddhism Palm Strikes Back.
Khoo Fuk-lung
Qiu Fulong
邱福龍 1990s–present Saint, Solar Lord
See also: Category: Wuxia films, Category: Wuxia television series, and Category: Fantasy genres
The earliest wuxia films date back to the 1920s. Films directed by King Hu and produced by the Shaw Brothers Studio featured sophisticated action choreography using wire and trampoline assisted acrobatics combined with sped-up camera techniques.[24] The storylines in the early films were loosely adapted from existing literature.[25][26][27]
Cheng Pei-pei, Jimmy Wang and Connie Chan are among the better known wuxia movie stars in the 1960s–70s, when films made by King Hu and the Shaw Brothers Studio were most prominent. More recent wuxia movie actors and actresses include Jet Li, Brigitte Lin, Michelle Yeoh, Donnie Yen, Tony Leung and Zhang Ziyi. Yuen Woo-ping is a choreographer who achieved fame by crafting action-sequences in wuxia films.
Wuxia was introduced to Hollywood studios in 2000 by Ang Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, though influence of the genre was previously seen in the United States in the 1970s television series Kung Fu. Following in Lee's footsteps, Zhang Yimou made Hero, targeted for the international market in 2002, House of Flying Daggers in 2004 and Curse of the Golden Flower in 2006. Western audiences were also introduced to wuxia through Asian television stations in larger cities, which featured miniseries such as Warriors of the Yang Clan and Paradise, often with English subtitles.
Western attempts at the genre have been limited, such as the 2008 film The Forbidden Kingdom, which starred Jackie Chan, Jet Li and Michael Angarano. However, a major exception is DreamWorks Animation's media franchise Kung Fu Panda. Created as an earnest, if humorous, emulation by producers who were knowledgeable admirers of the genre, the series has been particularly hailed in China as an excellent contribution to the form.[28][29] More recently, 1990s–2000s Hong Kong stars Daniel Wu and Stephen Fung have worked with AMC Networks to bring wuxia to a US television audience with Into the Badlands, which premiered in 2015 and ran for three seasons.[30][31]
Some notable wuxia video games of the action RPG genre include The Legend of Sword and Fairy, Xuan-Yuan Sword, Jade Empire, and Kingdom of Paradise, all of which blend wuxia with elements of Chinese mythology and fantasy. The Legend of Sword and Fairy, in particular, expanded into a franchise of eight video games, two of which were adapted into the television series Chinese Paladin (2005) and Chinese Paladin 3 (2009). There are also MMORPGs, such as Heroes of Kung Fu[32] and Age of Wulin,[33] and hack and slash games, such as Bujingai[citation needed] and Heavenly Sword.[34]
Games adapted from the works of wuxia writers include Heroes of Jin Yong, an RPG based on characters in Jin Yong's novels; Dragon Oath, an MMORPG inspired by Jin Yong's Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils; and Martial Kingdoms, a strategy game featuring several martial arts sects which commonly appear in wuxia fiction.
List of organisations in wuxia fiction
Martial arts film
Sword and sorcery - a similar western fantasy genre
Xianxia – a subgenre of wuxia novel
Zhou Tong (archer)
^ Han, Fei. "五蠹第四十九 [Chapter 49: Five 'Maggots']". 韓非子 [Han Feizi] (in Chinese) ([Reproduced on Chinese Wikisource] ed.). Retrieved 25 December 2014. ... 俠以武犯禁,而人主兼禮之,此所以亂也。夫離法者罪,而諸先生以文學取;犯禁者誅,而羣俠以私劍養。
^ a b c d e Teo, Stephen (2009). Chinese Martial Arts Cinema: The Wuxia Tradition. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748632862.
^ Sima, Qian. "卷八十六 刺客列傳 第二十六 [Volume 86: Biographies of Assassins]". Shi Ji [Records of the Grand Historian] (in Chinese) ([Reproduced on Chinese Wikisource] ed.). Retrieved 25 December 2014.
^ "唐人傳奇 – 聶隱娘 [Tang Dynasty Legends – Nie Yinniang]". 中華武俠文化網 [Chinese Wusia [sic] Knight-errant] (in Chinese). Overseas Chinese Affairs Commission Taiwan, Republic of China. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
^ Sun, Guangxian. "卷八 [Chapter 8]". 北夢瑣言 [Beimeng Suoyan] (in Chinese) ([Reproduced on Chinese Wikisource] ed.). Retrieved 25 December 2014. 進士趙中行家於溫州,以豪俠為事。至蘇州,旅止支山禪院。僧戶有一女商荊十三娘, ... 至期,荊氏以囊盛妓兼致妓之父母首歸於李。後與趙進士同入浙中,不知所止。
^ Yuan, Jiao. 甘澤謠 [Gan Ze Yao] (in Chinese) ([Reproduced on Chinese Wikisource] ed.). Retrieved 25 December 2014. 紅線,潞州節度使薛嵩家青衣,善彈阮鹹,又通經史,嵩遣掌箋,表號曰「內記室」。 ... 歌畢,嵩不勝悲,紅線拜且泣,因偽醉離席,遂亡其所在。
^ Du, Guangting. 虯髯客傳 [Qiu Ran Ke Zhuan] (in Chinese) ([Reproduced on Chinese Wikisource] ed.).
^ Liang, Yusheng (February 2008). 筆花六照 [Bi Hua Liu Zhao] (in Chinese) (revised ed.). China: Guangxi Normal University Press. 唐代著名的武俠小說有《紅線傳》、《虯髯客傳》、《劉無雙傳》、《崑崙奴傳》、《聶隱娘傳》,等等(空空兒、精精兒則是附在《聶隱娘傳》中)。
^ a b Liu, Damu; Lau, Shing-hon; Leong, Mo-Ling (1996). A Study of the Hong Kong Swordplay Film (1945–1980). Hong Kong: Urban Council of Hong Kong. ISBN 9627040517.
^ a b c Hamm, John Christopher (2006). Paper Swordsmen: Jin Yong and the Modern Chinese Martial Arts Novel (Paperback ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 082482895X.
^ a b c d "An Introduction to the Wuxia Genre". Heroic-cinema.com. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
^ Doleželová-Velingerová, Milena (1988). Selective Guide to Chinese Literature 1900–1949: The Novel. Leiden: E.J. Brill. pp. 176–177. ISBN 9004078800.
^ Liu, James J. Y. (1976). The Chinese Knight Errant. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 135–136.
^ Xu, Yaping (9 November 2011). "平江不肖生的传奇生涯(二) [The Life of Pingjiang Buxiaosheng (Part 2)]". 中国国学网 [confucianism.com.cn] (in Chinese). China: Hunan Daily. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
^ "北趙: 趙煥亭 [Zhao of the North: Zhao Huanting]". 中華武俠文化網 [Chinese Wusia [sic] Knight-errant] (in Chinese). Overseas Chinese Affairs Commission Taiwan, Republic of China. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
^ "民初舊派武俠作家 ['Old School' Wuxia Writers of the Early Republican Era]". 中華武俠文化網 [Chinese Wusia [sic] Knight-errant] (in Chinese). Overseas Chinese Affairs Commission Taiwan, Republic of China. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
^ Stevens, Abi (2012). "Short guide to wuxia film". Mapping Contemporary Cinema. Queen Mary University of London. Archived from the original on 18 November 2021. Retrieved 18 November 2021.
^ Li, Junjie (29 August 2007). "台湾"女金庸"坐月子写巨著 [Taiwan's "Female Jin Yong" wrote her masterpiece in her post-pregnancy period]". 世界新闻报 [World News Journal] (in Chinese). Retrieved 25 December 2014.
^ a b McNeil, Simon. "The Anatomy of a Wuxia Novel". Kung Fu Magazine. Retrieved 25 December 2014.
^ "China - Reformist and revolutionist movements at the end of the dynasty". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
^ Chung, Barry C. (11 July 2022). "A matter of style". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 28 November 2021.
^ Elizabeth Reninger. "Qing Gong". About.com. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
^ the13th, friday. "Jianghu: A World of Martial Arts". SPCnet.TV. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
^ Walters, Mark (15 August 2007). Hong Kong New Wave Wuxia Pian Films and their Contribution to Hong Kong's National Agency During the 1980s and Early 1990s (Thesis thesis). Auburn University.
^ Zhouxiang, Lu; Zhang, Qi; Hong, Fan (11 February 2014). "Projecting the 'Chineseness': Nationalism, Identity and Chinese Martial Arts Films" (PDF). The International Journal of the History of Sport. 31 (3): 320–335. doi:10.1080/09523367.2013.866093. ISSN 0952-3367. S2CID 154825458.
^ Kolstee, Hugo (31 August 2018). "Righting Wrongs: A Study of Certain Socio-Legal Phenomena in Wuxia Films". hdl:1887/64383. Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Lee, Jing-Lan (7 November 2008). "Wuxia Film: A Qualitative Perspective of Chinese Legal Consciousness". ResearchWorks. Retrieved 16 May 2019.
^ Barboza, David (30 June 2008). "Kung Fu Panda is a success at the box office in China". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 9 July 2017.
^ Lee, Min (3 July 2008). "Kung Fu Panda reaches Chinese box office milestone". USA Today. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
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^ Tierney, Sean (18 May 2017). "Into the Badlands – Interview with Daniel Wu". JetLi.com. Retrieved 9 July 2017.
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^ "Age of Wulin – Legend of the Nine Scrolls is set in medieval China and based on the lore surrounding martial arts". Wulin.gpotato.eu. Retrieved 28 December 2013.
^ Purchese, Robert (19 November 2009). "Eurogamer Enslaved Interview". Eurogamer. Retrieved 15 March 2015.
Jenner, WJF. "Tough Guys, Mateship and Honour: Another Chinese Tradition". East Asian History 12 (1996): 1–34.
Liu, Petrus. Stateless Subjects: Chinese Martial Arts Fiction and Postcolonial History. Ithaca: Cornell University East Asia Series. (ISBN 978-1933947624)
McCloud, Aaron Matthew Gordon (2010). Papercuts: The Literary and the Martial in the Genre of Wuxia Fiction. Thesis (B.A.). Reed College. OCLC 643126927.
汪涌豪 《中国游侠史》 上海:上海文化出版社,1994 [Wang, Yonghao (1994): "History of Chinese Knight-errantry". Shanghai: Shanghai Wenhua Chubanshe]. OCLC 726816835. (in Chinese)
"HK Martial Arts Cinema" by David Bordwell—An article about wuxia films
Wuxia, sztylety i wielka miłość. O filmie "Dom Latających Sztyletów" (in Polish)
Information on the wuxia genre from a website about actress Zhang Ziyi
List of styles
Hard and soft
Regional origin
Mainland Southeast Asia
Unarmed
Chokehold
Elbow strike
Knee strike
Joint lock
Stick-fighting
Swordsmanship
Ranged weapons
Practice weapon
Pushing hands
Barróg
Luta Livre esportiva
Malla-yuddha
Pehlwani
Shuai Jiao
Greco-Roman
Chess boxing
Choi Kwang Do
Dambe
Lethwei
Northern Praying Mantis
Pradal serey
Russian boxing
Shaolin Kung Fu
Snake Kung Fu
Shoot boxing
Tien Shan Pai
Wudang quan
Yoshukai Karate
Aikijutsu
Xing Yi Quan
Full contact /
Professional boxing
Knockdown karate
Shootfighting
Submission wrestling
Vale tudo
Self-defense /
combatives
Arnis
Bartitsu
Kajukenbo
Jieitaikakutōjutsu
MCMAP
Silat Harimau
Systema
Taekkyon
To-Shin Do
Silat Melayu
Eclectic / hybrids
American Kenpo
Angampora
Chun Kuk Do
Hokutoryu Ju-Jutsu
Shooto
Unifight
Qwan Ki Do
Martial arts at the
Wrestling (freestyle, Greco-Roman)
Demonstration sports
Budō
Pistol dueling
Glima
Former official sports
Invitational sports
2018 Only
Stock characters
By ethics and morality
Classic hero
Action hero
Christ figure
Folk hero
Knight-errant
Legacy hero
Mythological king
Youngest son
Byronic hero
Man alone
Cyberhero
Supersoldier
Lovable rogue
Gentleman detective
Tricky slave
Zanni
Gentleman thief
Air pirate
Space pirate
Antivillains
False hero
Social Darwinist
Supervillain
Bug-eyed monster
Evil clown
Killer toy
Swamp monster
Alazon
Folk devil
Masked Mystery Villain
By sex and gender
Love interest
Bishōjo
Hooker with a heart of gold
Ingénue
Loosu ponnu
Magical girlfriend
Manic Pixie Dream Girl
Cat lady
Crone
Fairy godmother
La Ruffiana
Loathly lady
Hawksian woman
Tsundere
Woman warrior
Jungle girl
Princesse lointaine
Yamato nadeshiko
Class S
Laotong
Lady-in-waiting
Columbina
Mammy stereotype
Geek girl
Gamer girl
Princess and dragon
Father figure
Wise old man
Elderly martial arts master
Ivan the Fool
Little Johnny
Nice Jewish boy
Superfluous man
Himbo
Bishōnen
Feral child
Noble savage
Moleman
Seme and uke
Otokonoko
Pachuco
Adolescent cliques
Dragonslayer
Innamorati ("The Lovers")
Magical Negro
Pop icon
Straight man
Tokenism
Town drunk
Truck-kun
Village idiot
White savior
Heroic bloodshed
Hong Kong action
Commedia all'italiana
Bromantic
Mo lei tau
Calligrafismo
Commedia sexy all'italiana
Social guidance
Sword-and-sandal
see Exploitation film template
Neo-noir
Pulp noir
Tech noir
Chinese horror
German underground
Korean horror
Lovecraftian
Mumblegore
New French Extremity
Psycho-biddy
Maximalist film
Minimalist film
Mumblecore
Musicarello
Sceneggiata
Occult detective
Pop culture fiction
Hardcore pornography
Planetary romance
Transgressive
Cinema of Transgression
Extreme cinema
Body swap
Buddy cop
Chicano
Gokudō
Gong'an
Mafia comedy
Mumbai underworld
Poliziotteschi
Mexploitation
Turksploitation
Goona-goona epic
Tentacle erotica
Jidaigeki
Kaitō
Bruceploitation
Chopsocky
Gun fu
Giant monster
Jiangshi
Zombie comedy
Mouth of Garbage
Muslim social
Outlaw biker
Ozploitation
Partisan film
Rape and revenge
Rumberas
Bavarian porn
Mexican sex comedy
Nazi exploitation
Pornochanchada
Nunsploitation
Sex report
Shomin-geki
Eurospy
Euro War
Meat pie
Revisionist
By movement
or period
American Eccentric Cinema
Australian New Wave
Auteur films
Berlin School
Bourekas
Brighton School
British New Wave
Budapest school
Cannibal boom
Cinéma du look
Cinema Novo
Cinéma pur
Czechoslovak New Wave
Documentary Film Movement
Dogme 95
Erra Cinema
European art cinema
Film gris
German Expressionist
German underground horror
Nigerian Golden Age
Grupo Cine Liberación
Hollywood on the Tiber
Hong Kong New Wave
Iranian New Wave
Italian futurist
Italian neorealist
Kammerspielfilm
L.A. Rebellion
Lettrist
Modernist film
Neorealist
New German
New Hollywood
New Nollywood
New Queer
Nuevo Cine Mexicano
Pan-India films
Parallel cinema
Persian Film
Poetic realist
Polish Film School
Praška filmska škola
Prussian film
Pure Film Movement
Remodernist
Romanian New Wave
Socialist realist
Social realist
Soviet Parallel
Telefoni Bianchi
Third Cinema
Toronto New Wave
Vulgar auteurism
Yugoslav Black Wave
By demographic
Shōjo
By format,
approach,
or production
B movie
Black-and-white
Cinéma vérité
Classical Hollywood cinema
Computer screen
midnight movie
Database cinema
Ethnofiction
Featurette
Film à clef
Film-poem
Hyperlink cinema
Guerrilla filmmaking
Interstitial art
Low-budget
Major studio
Message picture
Meta-film
Mockbuster
Musical short
Mythopoeia
No-budget
Paracinema
Postmodernist
Reverse motion
Semidocumentary
Shinpa
Video nasty
Film portal
Lost world
Wuxia‎
Bangsian
Occult detective fiction‎
Dark romanticism
Splatterpunk
Fairy tale parodies‎
Fairytale fantasy‎
Fantasy of manners
Ghost stories‎
Gothic fiction
Grimdark
Hard fantasy
Historical fantasy
Low fantasy
Mythopoeia‎
Mythpunk
"Retro"
Gaslamp fantasy
Science fantasy‎
Sword and planet
Shenmo
Tokusatsu‎
New weird
West‎ern fantasy
Ballantine Adult Fantasy series
The Encyclopedia of Fantasy
Internet Speculative Fiction Database
List of novels (A–H)
(I–R)
(S–Z)
Newcastle Forgotten Fantasy Library
Science Fantasy
Fantasy podcast
Filk music
Harry Potter fandom
The Inklings
Mythopoeic Society
Tolkien fandom
Works inspired by J. R. R. Tolkien
British Fantasy
Gemmell
International Fantasy
Japan Fantasy
Méliès d'Or
Mythopoeic
Tähtifantasia
World Fantasy
Familiars
Giant animals
Genies in popular culture
Skin-walkers
Dark / Neutral / Light
Magical weapons
Magic sword
Runecraft
Thaumaturgy
Theurgy
Technomancy
Places and events
Astral plane
Epic poetry
Human–animal hybrid
LGBT themes in speculative fiction
Supernatural fiction
List of highest-grossing fantasy films
Chinese literary genres
Chinese martial arts terminology
Chinese warriors
Chinese words and phrases
Fantasy genres
Television genres