Mississippian culture Information
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippian_Culture
Mound-building Native American culture in Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States
Approximate areas of various Mississippian and related cultures
The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American civilization that flourished in what is now the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 800 to 1600, varying regionally. [1] [2] It was composed of a series of urban settlements and satellite villages (suburbs) linked together by loose trading networks. [3] The largest city was Cahokia, believed to be a major religious center.
The Mississippian way of life began to develop in the Mississippi River Valley (for which it is named). Cultures in the tributary Tennessee River Valley may have also begun to develop Mississippian characteristics at this point. Almost all dated Mississippian sites predate 1539–1540 (when Hernando de Soto explored the area), [4] with notable exceptions being Natchez communities that maintained Mississippian cultural practices into the 18th century. [5]
1 Cultural traits
3 Regional variations
3.1 Middle Mississippian
3.2 South Appalachian Mississippian
3.3 Caddoan Mississippian
3.4 Plaquemine Mississippian
4 Known Mississippian settlements
5 Related modern nations
6 Contact with Europeans
Cultural traits
A priest with a ceremonial flint mace and severed sacrificial head, based on a repoussé copper plate
Mississippian copper plates
Reconstruction of the Birdman burial at Cahokia.
Mass grave burial at Cahokia of fifty-three sacrificed Native American women
Shell tempered ceramic effigy jug with swirls painted in clay slip, Rose Mound, Cross County, Arkansas, U.S., 1400-1600 CE, 8" (20 cm) high
A number of cultural traits are recognized as being characteristic of the Mississippians. Although not all Mississippian peoples practiced all of the following activities, they were distinct from their ancestors in the adoption of some or all of these traits.
The construction of large, truncated earthwork pyramid mounds, or platform mounds. Such mounds were usually square, rectangular, or occasionally circular. Structures (domestic houses, temples, burial buildings, or other) were usually constructed atop such mounds.
Maize-based agriculture. In most places, the development of Mississippian culture coincided with the adoption of comparatively large-scale, intensive maize agriculture, which supported larger populations and craft specialization.
Shell-tempered pottery. The adoption and use of riverine (or more rarely marine) shells as tempering agents in ceramics.
Widespread trade networks extending as far west as the Rocky Mountains, north to the Great Lakes, south to the Gulf of Mexico, and east to the Atlantic Ocean.
The development of the chiefdom or complex chiefdom level of social complexity.
The development of institutionalized social inequality.
A centralization of control of combined political and religious power in the hands of few or one.
The beginnings of a settlement hierarchy, in which one major center (with mounds) has clear influence or control over a number of lesser communities, which may or may not possess a smaller number of mounds.
The adoption of the paraphernalia of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex (SECC), also called the Southern Cult. This is the belief system of the Mississippians as we know it. SECC items are found in Mississippian-culture sites from Wisconsin (see Aztalan State Park) to the Gulf Coast, and from Florida to Arkansas and Oklahoma. The SECC was frequently tied into ritual game-playing, as with chunkey.
The Mississippians had no writing system or stone architecture. They worked naturally occurring metal deposits, such as hammering and annealing copper for ritual objects such as Mississippian copper plates and other decorations, [6] but did not smelt iron or practice bronze metallurgy.
The Mississippi stage is usually divided into three or more chronological periods. Each period is an arbitrary historical distinction varying regionally. At a particular site, each period may be considered to begin earlier or later, depending on the speed of adoption or development of given Mississippian traits. The "Mississippi period" should not be confused with the "Mississippian culture". The Mississippi period is the chronological stage, while Mississippian culture refers to the cultural similarities that characterize this society.
The Early Mississippi period (c. 1000–1200 CE) had just transitioned from the Late Woodland period way of life (500–1000). Different groups abandoned tribal lifeways for increasing complexity, sedentism, centralization, and agriculture. Production of surplus corn and attractions of the regional chiefdoms led to rapid population concentrations in major centers.
The Middle Mississippi period (c. 1200–1400) is the apex of the Mississippi era. The expansion of the great metropolis and ceremonial complex at Cahokia (in present-day Illinois), the formation of other complex chiefdoms, and the spread and development of SECC art and symbolism are characteristic changes of this period. The Mississippian traits listed above came to be widespread throughout the region.
The Late Mississippi period (c. 1400–1540) is characterized by increasing warfare, political turmoil, and population movement. The population of Cahokia dispersed early in this period (1350–1400), perhaps migrating to other rising political centers. More defensive structures are often seen at sites, and sometimes a decline in mound-building and large-scale, public ceremonialism. Although some areas continued an essentially Middle Mississippian culture until the first significant contact with Europeans, the population of most areas had dispersed or were experiencing severe social stress by 1500. [7] [8] [9] Along with the contemporaneous Ancestral Pueblo peoples, these cultural collapses coincide with the global climate change of the Little Ice Age. Scholars theorize drought and the reduction of maize agriculture, together with possible deforestation and overhunting by the concentrated populations, forced them to move away from major sites. This period ended with European contact in the 16th century.
Regional variations
Middle Mississippian
Replica of a Mississippian house from over 1000 years ago excavated at the Aztalan site of the Oneota region in an exhibit at the Wisconsin Historical Museum
A mound diagram of the Mississippian cultural period showing the multiple layers of mound construction, mound structures such as temples or mortuaries, ramps with log stairs, and prior structures under later layers, multiple terraces, and intrusive burials.
Cahokia, the largest Mississippian culture site
Kincaid, showing its platform mounds and encircling palisade
The term Middle Mississippian is also used to describe the core of the classic Mississippian culture area. This area covers the central Mississippi River Valley, the lower Ohio River Valley, and most of the Mid-South area, including western and central Kentucky, western Tennessee, and northern Alabama and Mississippi. Sites in this area often contain large ceremonial platform mounds, residential complexes and are often encircled by earthen ditches and ramparts or palisades. [10]
Middle Mississippian cultures, especially the Cahokia polity located near East St. Louis, Illinois, was very influential on neighboring societies. High-status artifacts, including stone statuary and elite pottery associated with Cahokia, have been found far outside of the Middle Mississippian area. These items, especially the pottery, were also copied by local artists.
Cahokia: The largest and most complex Mississippian site and the largest Pre-Columbian settlement north of Mexico, Cahokia is considered to have been the most influential of the Mississippian culture centers. Discoveries found at the massive site include evidence of copper working ( Mound 34), astronomy ( Cahokia Woodhenge and the symbolic maximum southern moon rise aligned Rattlesnake Causeway), and ritual retainer burials ( Mound 72).
Angel Mounds: A chiefdom in southern Indiana near Evansville. It is thought by some archaeologists that the Late Mississippian Caborn-Welborn culture developed from the Angel Phase people around 1400 CE and lasted to around 1700 CE. [11]
Kincaid Site: A major Mississippian mound center in southern Illinois across the Ohio River from Paducah, Kentucky.
Moundville: Ranked with Cahokia as one of the two most important sites at the core of the Mississippian culture, [10] located near Tuscaloosa, Alabama.
The Parkin Site: The type site for the "Parkin phase", an expression of Late Mississippian culture, believed by many archaeologists to be the province of Casqui visited by Hernando de Soto in 1542. [12]
South Appalachian Mississippian
Stone effigies found at the Etowah Site
The term South Appalachian Province was originally used by W. H. Holmes in 1903 to describe a regional ceramic style in the southeast involving surface decorations applied with a carved wooden paddle. By the late 1960s, archaeological investigations had shown the similarity of the culture that produced the pottery and the midwestern Mississippian pattern defined in 1937 by the Midwestern Taxonomic System.
In 1967 James B. Griffin coined 'South Appalachian Mississippian' to describe the evolving understanding of the peoples of the Southeast. [13] South Appalachian Mississippian area sites are distributed across a contiguous area including Alabama, Georgia, northern Florida, South Carolina, central and western North Carolina, and Tennessee. Chronologically this area became influenced by Mississippian culture later than the Middle Mississippian area (about 1000 CE as compared to 800 CE) to its northwest. It is believed that the peoples of this area adopted Mississippian traits from their northwestern neighbors. [10]
Typical settlements were located on riverine floodplains and included villages with defensive palisades enclosing platform mounds and residential areas. [10] Etowah and Ocmulgee are prominent examples of the South Appalachian Mississippian settlements.
Caddoan Mississippian
Main article: Caddoan Mississippian culture
Map of the Caddoan Mississippian culture
Spiro, in eastern Oklahoma
The Caddoan Mississippian area, a regional variant of the Mississippian culture, covered a large territory, including what is now eastern Oklahoma, western Arkansas, northeastern Texas, and northwestern Louisiana. Archaeological evidence has led to a scholarly consensus that the cultural continuity is unbroken from prehistory to the present, and that the Caddo and related Caddo language speakers in prehistoric times and at first European contact are the direct ancestors of the modern Caddo Nation of Oklahoma. [14]
The climate in this area was drier than areas in the eastern woodlands, hindering maize production, and the lower population on the plains to the west may have meant fewer neighboring competing chiefdoms to contend with. Major sites such as Spiro and the Battle Mound Site are in the Arkansas River and Red River Valleys, the largest and most fertile of the waterways in the Caddoan region, where maize agriculture would have been the most productive. [15] The sites generally lacked wooden palisade fortifications often found in the major Middle Mississippian towns. Living on the western edge of the Mississippian world, the Caddoans may have faced fewer military threats from their neighbors. Their societies may also have had a somewhat lower level of social stratification.
The Caddoan people were speakers of one of the many Caddoan languages. [16] The Caddoan languages once had a broad geographic distribution, but many are now extinct. The modern languages in the Caddoan family include Caddo and Pawnee, now spoken mainly by elderly people.
Hernando de Soto led an expedition into the area in the early 1540s, he encountered several native groups now thought to have been Caddoan. Composed of many tribes, the Caddo were organized into three confederacies, the Hasinai, Kadohadacho, and Natchitoches, which were all linked by their similar languages.
Plaquemine Mississippian
Main article: Plaquemine culture
Map showing the geographical extent of the Plaquemine culture and some of its major sites
The Plaquemine culture was an archaeological culture in the lower Mississippi River Valley in western Mississippi and eastern Louisiana. Good examples of this culture are the Medora Site (the type site for the culture and period) in West Baton Rouge Parish, Louisiana, and the Anna, Emerald Mound, Winterville and Holly Bluff sites located in Mississippi. [10] Plaquemine culture was contemporaneous with the Middle Mississippian culture at the Cahokia site near St. Louis, Missouri. It is considered ancestral to the Natchez and Taensa Peoples. [17]
Emerald Mound: A Plaquemine Mississippian period archaeological site located on the Natchez Trace Parkway near Stanton, Mississippi. The site dates from the period between 1200 and 1730. The platform mound is the second-largest Pre-Columbian earthwork in the country, after Monks Mound at Cahokia.
Grand Village of the Natchez: The main village of the Natchez people, with three mounds. The only mound site to be used and maintained into historic times.
Known Mississippian settlements
Main article: List of Mississippian sites
Although the Mississippian culture was heavily disrupted before a complete understanding of the political landscape was written down, many Mississippian political bodies were documented and others have been discovered by research.
Related modern nations
Mississippian peoples were almost certainly ancestral to the majority of the American Indian nations living in this region in the historic era. The historic and modern day American Indian nations believed to have descended from the overarching Mississippian Culture include: the Alabama, Apalachee, Caddo, Chickasaw, Catawba, Choctaw, Muscogee Creek, Guale, Hitchiti, Houma, Kansa, Missouria, Mobilian, Natchez, Osage, Quapaw, Seminole, Tunica-Biloxi, Yamasee, and Yuchi.[ citation needed]
Contact with Europeans
A map showing the de Soto route through the Southeast
Scholars have studied the records of Hernando de Soto's expedition of 1539–1543 to learn of his contacts with Mississippians, as he traveled through their villages of the Southeast. He visited many villages, in some cases staying for a month or longer. The list of sites and peoples visited by the Hernando de Soto Expedition chronicles those villages. Some encounters were violent, while others were relatively peaceable. In some cases, de Soto seems to have been used as a tool or ally in long-standing native feuds. In one example, de Soto negotiated a truce between the Pacaha and the Casqui.
De Soto's later encounters left about half of the Spaniards and perhaps many hundreds of Native Americans dead. The chronicles of de Soto are among the first documents written about Mississippian peoples and are an invaluable source of information on their cultural practices. The chronicles of the Narváez expedition were written before the de Soto expedition; the Narváez expedition informed the Court of de Soto about the New World.
After the destruction and flight of the de Soto expedition, the Mississippian peoples continued their way of life with little direct European influence. Indirectly, however, European introductions dramatically changed native societies in the Eastern United States. Because the natives lacked immunity to infectious diseases unknowingly carried by the Europeans, such as measles and smallpox, epidemics caused so many fatalities that they undermined the social order of many chiefdoms. Some groups adopted European horses and changed to nomadism. [18] Political structures collapsed in many places.
At Joara, near Morganton, North Carolina, Native Americans of the Mississippian culture interacted with Spanish colonizers of the Juan Pardo expedition, who built a base there in 1567 called Fort San Juan. Expedition documentation and archaeological evidence of the fort and Native American culture both exist. The soldiers were at the fort about 18 months (1567–1568) before the natives killed them and destroyed the fort. (They killed soldiers stationed at five other forts as well; only one man of 120 survived.) Sixteenth-century Spanish artifacts have been recovered from the site, marking the first European colonization in the interior of what became the United States. [19]
By the time more documentary accounts were being written, the Mississippian way of life had changed irrevocably. Some groups maintained an oral tradition link to their mound-building past, such as the late 19th-century Cherokee. [20] Other Native American groups, having migrated many hundreds of miles and lost their elders to diseases, did not know their ancestors had built the mounds dotting the landscape. This contributed to the myth of the Mound Builders as a people distinct from Native Americans, which was rigorously debunked by Cyrus Thomas in 1894.
List of Mississippian sites
List of burial mounds in the United States
Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
^ Adam King (2002). "Mississippian Period: Overview". New Georgia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 15 Nov 2009.
^ John H. Blitz. "Mississippian Period". Encyclopedia of Alabama. Alabama Humanities Foundation.
^ "Metropolitan Life on the Mississippi". Washington Post.
^ "Mississippian Period Archaeological Sites". About.com Education. Retrieved 2016-12-13.
^ Barnett, Jim. "The Natchez Indians". Mississippi History Now. Retrieved 1 Oct 2013.
^ Chastaina, Matthew L.; Deymier-Black, Alix C.; Kelly, John E.; Brown, James A.; Dunand, David C. (July 2011). "Metallurgical analysis of copper artifacts from Cahokia". Journal of Archaeological Science. 38 (7): 1727–1736. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2011.03.004.
^ Pauketat, Timothy R. (2003) "Resettled Farmers and the Making of a Mississippian Polity," American Antiquity Vol. 68 No. 1.
^ Pauketat, Timothy R. (1998) "Refiguring the Archaeology of Greater Cahokia," Journal of Archaeological Research Vol. 6 No. 1
^ Sullivan, Lynne P., Archaeology of the Appalachian Highlands, University of Tennessee Press, 2001 ISBN 1-57233-142-9.
^ a b c d e "Southeastern Prehistory:Mississippian and Late Prehistoric Period". National Park Service. Retrieved 2011-06-16.
^ David Pollack (2004). Caborn-Welborn - Constructing a New Society after the Angel Chiefdom Collapse. University of Alabama Press. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-8173-5126-7.
^ Hudson, Charles M. (1997). Knights of Spain, Warriors of the Sun. University of Georgia Press.
^ Ferguson, Leland G. (October 25–26, 1974). Drexel A., Peterson (ed.). South Appalachian Mississippian: A Definition and Introduction (PDF). Thirty First Southeastern Archaeological Conference. Atlanta, Georgia. pp. 8–9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-14.
^ "Tejas-Caddo Fundamentals-Caddoan Languages and Peoples". Retrieved 2010-02-04.
^ "Tejas-Caddo Fundamentals-Mississippian World". Retrieved 2010-02-04.
^ "The Plaquemine Culture, A.D 1000". Cedar Mesa Project. Retrieved 2013-10-02.
^ Bense pp. 256–257, 275–279
^ Constance E. Richards, " Contact and Conflict", American Archaeologist, Spring 2004, accessed 26 Jun 2008
^ Hudson pp. 334
Bense, Judith A. Archaeology of the Southeastern United States: Paleoindian to World War I. Academic Press, New York, 1994. ISBN 0-12-089060-7.
Cheryl Anne Cox; and David H. Dye, eds; Towns and Temples along the Mississippi. University of Alabama Press, 1990
Hudson, Charles; The Southeastern Indians. University of Tennessee Press, Knoxville, 1976. ISBN 0-87049-248-9.
Keyes, Charles R. Prehistoric Man in Iowa. Palimpsest 8(6):185–229. (1927).
O'Connor, Mallory McCane. Lost Cities of the Ancient Southeast. University Press of Florida, Florida A & M University, Gainesville, Fla., 1995. ISBN 0-8130-1350-X.
Pauketat, Timothy R.; The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America. University of Alabama Press, 1994, ISBN 978-0-8173-0728-8.
Pauketat, Timothy R.; "The Forgotten History of the Mississippians" in North American Archaeology. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2005.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mississippian culture.
The Mississippian and Late Prehistoric Period, National Park Service Southeastern Archaeology Center
Mississippian World, Texas Beyond History
Cahokia Mounds
Etowah Indian Mounds State Historic Site
Indian Mounds of Mississippi, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
Moundville Archaeological Park
Chucalissa Museum and Archaeological site
Encyclopedia of Alabama: Mississippian Period
Animation: Towns and Temples of the Mississippian Culture-5 Sites
Mississippian and related cultures
Timeline of Mississippi valley
Mississippian
American Bottom
and Upper Mississippi
Aztalan
Big Eddy
Monks Mound
Mound 34
Woodhenge
Dickson Mounds
Emerald Acropolis
Emmons Cemetery
Kuhn Station
Lunsford-Pulcher
McCune
Orendorf
Sleeth
Steed-Kisker culture
Sugarloaf Mound
Lower Ohio River and
Confluence area
Dogtooth Bend
Kincaid Mounds
Millstone Bluff
Orr-Herl
Rowlandton Mound
Towosahgy
Twin Mounds
Wickliffe Mounds
Middle Ohio River
Angel Mounds
Angel Phase
Annis Mound
Bone Bank
Caborn-Welborn culture
Ellerbusch
Hovey Lake-Klein
Hovey Lake District
Slack Farm
Tolu
Welborn Village
Tennessee and
Backusburg
Beasley Mounds
Brentwood Library
Brick Church
Castalian Springs
Dunbar Cave
Fewkes Group
Mound Bottom
Swallow Bluff
Central and Lower
Boone's
Chucalissa
Eaker
Janet's
Menard-Hodges
Nodena
Nodena Phase
Owl Creek
Tipton Phase
Koroa
Walls Phase
South Appalachian
Beaverdam Creek
Bell Field Mound
Bussell Island
Chauga
Chiaha
Citico
Dallas Phase
Dyar
Garden Creek
Hoojah Branch
Jere Shine
Joara
Joe Bell
Lamar Phase
Little Egypt
Long Swamp
Mabila
McMahan
Moccasin Bend
Mouse Creek Phase
Muscogee (Creek)
Nacoochee
Nikwasi
Ocmulgee
Park Mound
Pisgah Phase
Punk Rock Shelter
Rembert
Roods Landing
Rucker's Bottom
Sixtoe
Summerour
Tomotley
Toqua
Waddells Mill Pond
Wilbanks
Fort Walton culture
Anhaica
Apalachee
Apalachee Province
Cayson
Corbin-Tucker
Fort Walton Mound
Leon-Jefferson culture
Pensacola culture
Bottle Creek
Fort Walton
Hickory Ridge Cemetery
Naval Live Oaks Cemetery
Pensacola people
Atchafalaya Basin
Fitzhugh
Grand Village of the Natchez
Holly Bluff
Jaketown
Julice
Mangum
Mazique
Mott
Taensa
Routh
Scott Place
Winterville
Caddoan
Blue Spring Shelter
Caddoan Mounds
Gahagan
Ka-Do-Ha Indian Village
Upper Mississippian
Oneota
Beattie Park Mound Group
Blood Run
Hartley Fort State Preserve
Roche-a-Cri Petroglyphs
Fort Ancient culture
Alligator Effigy Mound
Leo Petroglyph
Serpent Mound
Chenopodium
Little barley
Marshelder
Emmons mask
Copper plates
Rogan plates
Spiro plates
Wulfing cache
Long-nosed god maskette
Mill Creek chert
Shell gorget
Stone statuary
Central Algonquian
Mobilian Jargon
Muskogean
Siouan
Timucuan
Tunican
Ballgame (Southeastern)
Black drink
Burial mound
Ceremonial pipe
Chanunpa
Chunkey
Earth/fertility cult
Green Corn Ceremony
Horned Serpent
Platform mound
Sacred bundle
Village bundle
Stone box grave
Underwater panther
Chevron bead
Clarksdale bell
de Soto Expedition
Pre-Columbian North America
Lithic
Post-Classic
Ancient Beringian
Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi)
Buttermilk Creek Complex
Caborn-Welborn
Calf Creek
Caloosahatchee
Coles Creek
Comondú
Glacial Kame
Hohokam
List of Hopewell sites
Leon-Jefferson
Maritime Archaic
Old Cordilleran
Paleo-Arctic
Paleo-Indians
Patayan
Red Ocher
Santa Rosa-Swift Creek
Steed-Kisker
Tchefuncte
Tocobaga
Troyville
Weeden Island
Anzick Clovis burial
Bandelier National Monument
The Bluff Point Stoneworks
Candelaria Cave
Coso Rock Art District
Crystal River Archaeological State Park
Cuarenta Casas
Cueva de la Olla
El Vallecito
Effigy Mounds National Monument
Etowah Indian Mounds
Folsom Site
Fort Center
Fort Juelson
Four Mounds
Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument
Grimes Point
Holly Bluff Site
Hopewell Culture National Historical Park
Horr's Island archaeological site
Huápoca
Key Marco
Kimball Village
Kolomoki Mounds
Lake Jackson Mounds
L'Anse aux Meadows
Marmes Rockshelter
Meadowcroft Rockshelter
Moaning Cavern
Moorehead Circle
Morrison Mounds
Mummy Cave
Nodena Site
Ocmulgee National Monument
Old Stone Fort
Orwell Site
Paquime
Parkin Park
Pinson Mounds
Portsmouth Earthworks
Recapture Canyon
Rock Eagle
Rock Hawk
Rosenstock Village Site
Salmon Ruins
Sierra de San Francisco
Spiro Mounds
Toltec Mounds
Town Creek Indian Mound
Turkey River Mounds
Upward Sun River site
Velda Mound
West Oak Forest Earthlodge
Windover
Wupatki National Monument
Anzick-1
Arlington Springs Man
Buhl Woman
Kennewick Man
La Brea Woman
Leanderthal Lady
Minnesota Woman
Spirit Cave mummy
Aridoamerica
Clovis point
Container Revolution
Eastern Agricultural Complex
Eden point
Effigy mound
Falcon dancer
Folsom point
Medicine wheel
Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing
N.A.G.P.R.A.
Norse colonization of North America
Oasisamerica
Stickball
Three Sisters agriculture
Water glyphs
Genetic history
Pre-Columbian era
Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Mississippian_culture&oldid=906570684"
Mississippian culture
Mound builders (people)
Archaeological cultures of North America
History of indigenous peoples of North America
Formative period in the Americas
Indigenous peoples of the Southeastern Woodlands
Great Lakes tribes
Post-Archaic period in North America
8th-century establishments in North America
16th-century disestablishments in North America