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Indonesia has played a modest role in the world economy since the mid-20th century, and its importance has been considerably less than its size, resources, and geographic position would seem to warrant. The country is a major exporter of crude petroleum and natural gas. In addition, Indonesia is one of the world's main suppliers of rubber, coffee, cocoa, and palm oil; it also produces a wide range of other commodities, such as sugar, tea, tobacco, copra, and spices (e.g., cloves). Nearly all commodity production comes from large estates. Widespread exploration for deposits of oil and other minerals has resulted in a number of large-scale projects that have contributed substantially to general development funds.
Batak market on the shore of Lake Toba, Sumatra, Indonesia. Robert Harding Picture Library
Although Indonesia has remained a major importer of manufactured goods, high technology, and technical skills since the early 1970s, the country's economic base has shifted from the primary sector to secondary and tertiary industries—manufacturing, trade, and services. Manufacturing surpassed agriculture in terms of contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) in the early 1990s and has continued to be the largest single component of the country's economy. A significant portion of the national budget has continued to be allocated to agriculture, however; consequently, the country has remained self-sufficient in rice production since the mid-1980s.
During the early years of Indonesia's independence, economic mismanagement and the subordination of development to political ideals under the "Guided Economy" policy of the country's first president, Sukarno (1949–66), led to financial chaos and to a serious deterioration in the capital stock. With a major change of economic direction after Suharto assumed power in the mid-1960s, some measure of stability was regained, and the conditions for an orderly policy of rehabilitation and economic development were established.
From 1969 to 1998 a series of five-year plans emphasized the government's role in developing the economic infrastructure of the country, notably in agriculture, irrigation, transportation, and communications. Thus, the government, together with foreign aid, has been a major force in propelling development in areas where private enterprise has not been immediately forthcoming; the state-owned oil company Pertamina was a product of these government initiatives. In the late 20th century, the emphasis in the public sector tended increasingly toward independent, self-financing state enterprises.
Substantial expansion of the private sector has been evident since the mid-1990s. Prior to that time, growth generally had been confined to a rather small group of conglomerates, most benefiting from the government's favour. Small business was slower to develop. The deregulation of the capital market in the early 1980s triggered spectacular growth in the stock exchange, but despite the increase in domestic investment, direct participation in the stock market remained limited to a very small group of investors.
Foreign direct investment spiked in the 1990s but rapidly receded in the aftermath of the Asian economic crisis sparked by the collapse of the Thai baht in 1997. The government subsequently inaugurated a four-year national development plan that helped return the economy to its precrisis strength. By 2003 the country was stable enough to allow the expiration of an economic reform program that had been sponsored by the International Monetary Fund (IMF). A new development strategy involving liberalization in some areas and limitation of foreign ownership in others has aimed to establish Indonesia as a fully self-sufficient (swasembada) country in the 21st century.
The consistent monsoon climate and almost even distribution of rainfall in Indonesia make it possible for the same types of crops to be grown throughout the country. Less than one-fifth of the total land surface, however, is devoted to crop cultivation. Most agricultural land is dedicated to rice or to various cash crops. Intensive cultivation is restricted to Java, Bali, Lombok, and certain areas of Sumatra and Celebes. In Java much of the land of the northern coastal and central plains is planted with rice. In the drier section of eastern Java, crops such as corn (maize), cassava, sweet potatoes, peanuts (groundnuts), and soybeans dominate the small farms, although such cash crops as tobacco and coffee also are grown on plantations.
Irrigated rice terraces, Bali, Indonesia. Glen Allison/Getty Images
Development in Sumatra and in the outer islands is less intensive and consists primarily of estate-raised cash crops. Sumatra accounts for a major portion of the total area under estate production, and most plantations are located in the island's northeastern coastal region. Around Medan there are extensive plantations producing tobacco, rubber, palm oil, kapok, tea, cloves, and coffee, none of which is native to the region. Rice, corn, and cassava are grown in the Padang area in the west and around the oil fields near Palembang in the southeast.
Since the late 20th century there has been a shift from rice toward less-demanding subsistence crops, such as cassava. Rice has remained the cornerstone of small-scale agriculture, however, and increased production of it has been an important aim of every economic development plan. The government intervenes in the marketing of rice to maintain production at an economically viable level. Various "mass guidance" (bimbingan massal) schemes to broaden the availability of credit and to promote the use of fertilizers and high-yielding varieties have increased rice output. Although the country is self-sufficient in rice production, there has been a persistent tendency since the late 1990s to import additional rice.
Private enterprises have joined the government in developing Indonesia's palm oil and sugar industries, as well as its fisheries. Large-scale agribusiness is becoming a more important component of the country's economy, with increasing government investment. Export of cultivated shrimp from sizable farms in western Java and southern Sumatra has been a boon to middle-sized businesses. Milkfish also are bred through aquaculture. Scad, tuna, and mackerel are the primary products of open-sea fishing.
Indonesia has some of the world's largest tracts of exploitable tropical forest, especially in Kalimantan and Papua. There are several small areas of deciduous forest and plantations (mostly teak), but most of the trees are evergreen tropical hardwoods. The production of plywood and veneers has become important for both domestic consumption and export. Major timber operations are located primarily in Kalimantan, but logging also occurs on the other large islands; legitimate companies as well as illegal loggers target certain species, such as meranti (a subspecies of the genus Shorea), which yields an easily workable, relatively lightweight reddish wood. Teak is extracted mainly from Java.
Since the 1960s the timber industry has grown rapidly, but it has caused considerable damage through deforestation. Also a threat to the environment are frequent large-scale forest fires, most of which stem from "slash-and-burn" (swidden) subsistence agriculture or government clearing for plantations; these fires not only destroy vast areas of vegetation but also generate haze that frequently reaches as far as Singapore and peninsular Malaysia. Deforestation and air quality issues prompted environmentalists to urge the Indonesian government to curtail clear-cutting of trees, to control burning, and to implement reforestation programs.
Resources and power
Indonesia has a large, and in many cases unprospected, variety of mineral deposits. Mining, including the extraction of oil and natural gas, accounts for roughly one-tenth of the country's GDP, and through exports and taxation it contributes substantially to foreign-exchange earnings and development. The mining industry employs only a tiny fraction of the workforce, however.
Fossil fuels, including petroleum, natural gas, and coal, constitute a major source of revenue. They are produced primarily in Sumatra and Kalimantan and from offshore sites in the Java and South China seas. Although refinery production since 1968 has been in the hands of the government-owned petroleum company Pertamina, foreign oil companies operate under a production-sharing formula. Under this arrangement, the ownership of oil resources remains with the government of Indonesia, and the foreign companies act as contractors, supplying the necessary capital. Since the last decades of the 20th century, Indonesia has greatly expanded its production of coal, to become one of the world's leading exporters. The sale of liquefied natural gas is also increasingly important.
In addition to its hydrocarbon reserves, Indonesia's mineral resources contribute significantly to the economy. The country is one of the world's largest producers of tin, deposits of which are found on the islands of Bangka, Singkep, and Belitung and off the southwestern shore of Kalimantan. Bauxite is mined mostly on the Riau Islands and in western Kalimantan and is processed at an aluminum smelter—the first in Southeast Asia—at Kualatanjung in northern Sumatra. Celebes, Halmahera and other islands of the Moluccas, and Papua are sources of nickel. Manganese is present in central Java and on Sumatra, Kalimantan, Celebes, and Timor. Major copper deposits are mined in the Jayawijaya Mountains of Papua; smaller deposits have been found in Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, and Celebes. Most of Indonesia's gold comes from Papua.
The bulk of Indonesia's electrical power is generated from fossil fuels. Until the late 20th century, the majority of the country's power was provided by oil or gas. As the government stepped up its production of coal, however, it also strove to increase the domestic use of that resource. By the early 21st century, less than half the country's power stations were fueled by oil or gas. Many plants were coal-driven, some were hydroelectric, and a small portion of plants were powered by geothermal sources.
In the early 1970s import substitution (replacement of foreign-produced goods and services with those produced domestically) and support for the agricultural sector were the two major aims of industrial policy. Import substitution was geared to commodities such as food, textiles, fertilizers, and cement, and this required consistent government protection and controls. This policy proved to be both inefficient and expensive, however, and following the sharp decline in oil revenues in the 1980s, reforms were introduced to increase the competitive position of Indonesian manufactures in international markets. The government launched a series of deregulations and encouraged domestic and international private investment. Although many companies remained in government hands, the state also participated in joint ventures with the private sector.
As a result, the manufacturing sector has become the single largest contributor to the economy, constituting well over one-fourth of GDP and employing just over one-tenth of the labour force. A significant proportion of production is handled by medium- and small-scale privately owned enterprises, which supply consumer goods. Small-scale workshops manufacture such consumer goods and general products as furniture, household equipment, textiles, and printed matter. Since the mid-1980s there has been a major shift toward developing large-scale and high-technology industries, such as telecommunications and electronics; automobile manufacturing has expanded especially rapidly in the 21st century. The centre of private industry is in western Java, although considerable development has taken place in Jakarta.
One of the country's principal industries based on imported raw materials is textile manufacturing. Spinning mills are largely state owned or in the hands of foreign companies, while weaving and finishing factories, which are centred in Bandung, are generally small-scale and privately owned by local entrepreneurs. Batik production—an Indonesian method of hand-dyeing textiles—is concentrated in central Java. Although production of batik remains a major cottage industry, there are a number of larger-scale operations.
Bank Indonesia, the central bank, is responsible for issuing the rupiah, the national currency. Other major government-owned institutions include the state savings bank, banks specializing in rural and industrial development, and a large commercial bank with overseas branches. Each bank is diversified and operates independently. Private domestic banks and foreign banks also operate in Indonesia. Nonbanking financial institutions are restricted. Indonesia has stock exchanges in Jakarta and Surabaya.
Generally, the aims of the government's credit and fiscal policies have been to provide the conditions for private incentive within the context of financial orthodoxy. Before the 1980s, Indonesia's capital market had been limited to the state-dominated banking system. Subsidized credit and interest rates were used in accordance with general government priorities, and a credit ceiling was imposed to ensure monetary stability. The credit ceiling, however, resulted in excess reserves held by state banks and ultimately triggered a restructuring and deregulation of the banking system.
In 1983 a reform package decontrolled the interest rate and abolished the credit ceiling system. Further reforms in 1988 liberalized licensing for new banks and lowered reserve requirements. The result was a dramatic expansion in the number of private banks, their branches, and the banks' share of total deposits. The Jakarta Stock Exchange also experienced explosive growth.
The surge, however, was accompanied by a rise in interest rates (both for deposits and for lending), which effectively stifled domestic investment. In an effort to curb inflation, Bank Indonesia tightened the money supply, a move that further destabilized the country's financial sector. When the Asian monetary crisis struck in 1997, Indonesia's banking industry was among the first casualties.
In 1998 the government established the Indonesian Bank Restructuring Agency (IBRA) to extricate the financial sector from its monumental debt. IBRA accomplished this task largely through the closure and consolidation of financially precarious banks. The remaining banks then prioritized households and small businesses in their lending, which stimulated growth in the domestic private sphere. By 2004 the banking sector had stabilized, the country had returned to a general pattern of economic growth, and IBRA was dissolved—on schedule.
A complex and reasonably well-developed commercial sector has existed in Indonesia for many decades, if not centuries, based on the marketing and exporting of agricultural produce and on supplying consumer goods and services to the domestic market. Historically, trade has been dominated by Indonesian Chinese, although other segments of the population, especially people from western Sumatra and southern Celebes, also have made notable contributions.
Indonesia: Major import sources Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
No longer simply an exporter of agricultural produce, Indonesia has become an established international supplier of petroleum and petroleum products; rubber products; garments, shoes, and textiles; wood and wood products (including paper); machinery of various sorts (including automobiles); and other commodities, such as electronic products. Primary imports include petroleum and natural gas, machinery, chemicals, metals, and transport equipment. Indonesia's most important trading partners include Japan, the United States, Singapore, China, South Korea, Thailand, Malaysia, and Australia.
Indonesia: Major export destinations Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
Services constitute a major segment of the Indonesian economy, generating more than one-third of GDP. Tourism in particular has emerged as a major source of income, although the industry's growth suffered setbacks with the Asian economic crisis in 1997–98 and with multiple terrorist attacks and the outbreak of avian influenza (bird flu) in the early 21st century.
Indonesia's industrialization has not produced strong organized labour. This is attributable in part to a surplus of labour in the job market; most lower-class Indonesians work in traditional, informal, and marginal jobs. Political repression under the Suharto presidency (1967–98) also discouraged politically motivated associations of workers. Rather, the government sought to incorporate functional groups such as those of farmers and fishermen into a quasi-governmental political party.
Thomas R. Leinbach Goenawan Susatyo Mohamad
Transportation and telecommunications
Because Indonesia is an island country, sea transport plays a key role in the movement of raw materials and agricultural products from their sources to markets. Although the physical nature of the country has favoured the development of strong sea links for freight and strong air links for passengers, many parts of Indonesia have not been adequately served by the transport network, a factor that has critically hampered economic development. The rapid expansion of telecommunications networks, however, has helped mitigate the insularity of some regions.
Roads and railways
Road transport is the dominant mode of transportation on Indonesia's islands, especially the smaller ones, such as Java, Bali, and Madura. Some three-fifths of the country's roads are paved, and most of these are on Sumatra, Java, and Bali, where the network of highways meets traffic needs in most areas. Much of the remaining paved mileage is on Madura, Lombok, and Celebes. Western and central Kalimantan have some good roads, but in Papua road transport has not developed evenly, owing to the size of the territory and to the government's budgetary constraints.
Road traffic has been on the rise as roads have improved and as ownership of automobiles and motorcycles has increased. Trucks and intercity buses, operated by private enterprises, are central to the transportation system; using ferries to cross between islands, some cover distances as far as that between Medan in northern Sumatra and Surabaya in eastern Java. For traveling shorter distances, especially in the urban and semiurban areas, smaller buses and minivans are popular. In the larger cities, taxis are readily available, but most people opt to drive their own car, take a motorcycle, or, as a less expensive alternative, ride one of several types of minivan redesigned to accommodate additional passengers. The least expensive urban transportation services are provided by individual entrepreneurs who drive a single passenger on the back of a small motorcycle. In most towns, the becak (pedicab, or pedaled trishaw) remains a prominent feature of the streets, although this mode of transport is technically prohibited in Jakarta.
The railway, run by a public enterprise, operates mainly on Java and Madura, with less-extensive service on Sumatra. The demand for train services has remained strong, although geographic features limit the expansion of the railroads. Comfortable, reliable rail transport between major towns in Java has become a popular alternative to intercity buses and airlines.
Water and air transport
Most of the major population centres are close to the sea, where they can be served and linked by coastal and interisland shipping services. The adjacent seas are relatively calm because Indonesia is outside the belt of typhoons and high winds, and, even where docking facilities are not available, it is usually possible for ships to anchor and discharge and load from lighters and other craft.
There are numerous ports, some of which have facilities and water depths that allow large vessels to load and unload at quayside. The major dry-cargo ports are Tanjung Priok, the outport of Jakarta; Tanjungperak, the outport of Surabaya; and Belawan, the outport of Medan. Palembang, in southern Sumatra, is the major petroleum port. Other major ports include Semarang and Cirebon on Java, Telukbayur (the outport of Padang) on Sumatra, Manado on Celebes, Ambon in the Moluccas, Jayapura in Papua, and Banjarmasin on the south coast of Kalimantan.
Although Indonesia has scores of airports, few of them offer international service. Most international flights operate out of Jakarta and Yogyakarta in Java, Medan in Sumatra, Denpasar in Bali, and Balikpapan in Kalimantan. Major cities in Sumatra and Celebes also have limited service to Singapore and Malaysia. Scheduled services are provided by several companies, the most important of which are Garuda Indonesia (the national airline) and the privately owned Lion Air, both of which offer domestic and international flights. Merpati, also state owned, offers domestic service only.
Since the late 1970s, immediate links between distant places in Indonesia have been established through telecommunications technology. The use of satellites, purchased by Indonesian public and private telecommunications companies, revolutionized the system. A unique solution to the general lack of telecommunications facilities was the establishment of neighbourhood wartel ("telephone shops"), where customers can make domestic or international calls and send or receive faxes for a time-based fee. However, with the rapidly expanding use of cell phones—which has far outstripped that of standard telephones—the wartel are playing a less critical role in the Indonesian telecommunications system. An increase in Internet usage has been attributable largely to the introduction of warnet ("Internet shops") in major cities. Like wartel, these shops typically charge by the length of time used.
Introduction & Quick Facts
Islands of the Sunda Shelf
Islands of the Sahul Shelf
Celebes and the Moluccas
Plant and animal life
Western islands
Eastern islands
Chinese and other Indonesian peoples
Settlement patterns
Rural settlement
Urban settlement
Government and society
Constitutional framework
Cultural milieu
The archipelago: its prehistory and early historical records
Indonesian "Hinduism"
The arrival of Hindu religious conceptions
Indonesian religious conceptions
The Malay kingdom of Srivijaya-Palembang
Buddhism in Palembang
The maritime influence
Central Java from c. 700 to c. 1000
Eastern Java and the archipelago from c. 1000 to c. 1300
The empire of Kertanagara
The Majapahit era
Islamic influence in Indonesia
Muslim kingdoms of northern Sumatra
Muslims in Java
Expansion of European influence
Growth and impact of the Dutch East India Company
The French and the British in Java, 1806–15
Dutch rule from 1815 to c. 1920
The Culture System
Dutch territorial expansion
The Ethical Policy
The rise of nationalism
Japanese occupation
Independent Indonesia to 1965
The years of constitutional democracy
Introduction of Guided Democracy
Sukarno's policies
Indonesia from the coup to the end of the New Order
Suharto's New Order
Political developments
Changes in Indonesian society
Economic crisis, public unrest, and the fall of Suharto
Indonesia after Suharto
External Websites
Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - Indonesia
Official Tourism Site of Indonesia
Britannica Websites
Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.
Indonesia - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
Indonesia - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
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