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1. Science, Technology, and the Constitution September 1987 NTIS order #PB88-142534
2. Recommended Citation: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, Science, Technology, and the Constitution–Background Paper, OTA-BP-CIT-43 (Washington, DC: U.S. Govern- ment Printing Office, September 1987). Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 87-619873 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402-9325 (order form can be found in the back of this report)
3. Foreword In honor of the Bicentennial of the United States Constitution, OTA has under- taken a study of Science, Technology, and the Constitution in an Information Age. The project was requested by the Committee on the Judiciary of the House of Representatives and its Subcommittee on Courts, Civil Liberties, and the Adminis- tration of Justice. Science and technology have, throughout our history, been major factors in shaping American society and our way of life. By changing the ways in which we interact with one another, science and technology often affect the way in which we define the general welfare, the way in which we view the realm of government, and the nature of the rights we exercise as American citizens. As we enter our third century of constitutional history, several areas of technology are undergo- ing rapid development and promise to have especially profound effects; micro- electronics, biology, and chemistry, for example, are transforming the practice of medicine, criminal justice, newsgathering, and other social activities and insti- tutions. This background paper summarizes and discusses major themes that are be- ing explored in special reports the project on Science, Technology, and the Constitution. Several on these themes are scheduled for release later this year. JOHN H. Director GIBBONS ,.,///
4. Science, Technology, and the Constitution Project Review Panel William Carey Advisor to the Carnegie Foundation of New York Washington, DC James Duggan Director New Hampshire Appellate Defender Program Concord, NH Judith Lichtenberg Center for Philosophy and Public Policy University of Maryland College Park, MD Peter Low Hardy Cross Dillard Professor of Law and John V. Ray Research Professor of Law School of Law University of Virginia Charlottesville, VA The Honorable Pauline Newman United States Circuit Judge United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit Washington, DC Monroe Price Benjamin Cardozo Law School New York, NY Mark Rothstein Director of Health Law University of Houston Houston, TX Thomas Smith, Esquire Assistant Director Criminal Justice Section American Bar Association Washington, DC Paul Stephen University of Virginia School of Law Charlottesville, VA Laurence R. Tancredi Kraft Eidman Professor of Medicine and the Law University of Texas Health Sciences Center Houston, TX NOTE: OTA appreciates and is grateful for the valuable assistance and thoughtful critiques provided by the reviewers. The reviewers do not, however, necessarily approve, disapprove, or endorse this report. OTA assumes full responsibility for the report and the accuracy of its contents. iv
5. Science, Technology, and the Constitution Project Staff John Andelin, Assistant Director, OTA Science, Information, and Natural Resources Division Fred W. Weingarten, Program Manager Communication and Information Technologies Program Program Staff Vary T. Coates, Project Director Benjamin C. Amick III, Analyst Robert Kost, Analyst Mary Ann Madison, Research Administrative Staff Liz Emanuel Sandra Serbinoff Analyst Becky Battle
6. Contents Page The Centrality of Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 The Principles of Constitutional Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 National Sovereignty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 A Democratic Republic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Federalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Separation of Powers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 The Bill of Rights and Civil War Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 The First Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Freedom of the Electronic Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 The Fourth Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 The Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Other Amendments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Equal Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Use Process of Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 The Penumbra of Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Acknowledgments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 vi
7. SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND THE CONSTITUTION The centrality of science and technology to American society argues that Congress and the courts will repeatedly be asked to reexam- ine constitutional principles in the context of new scientific knowledge and new technical capabilities. This paper seeks to stimulate con- tinuing public discussion of the relationships between science, technology, and basic con- stitutional provisions. The United States Constitution is entering its third century as our Nation's basic politi- cal and legal framework. It has guided our de- velopment as a democratic, free society for ZOO years during which both the economy and sci- ence have flourished. It has not only proven resilient to dramatic changes accompanying the industrial revolution and the development of modern telecommunications and transpor- tation systems; it has also created a structure in which the scientific and technological in- genuity of the American people continues to flourish. The pace of scientific and technological prog- ress is relentless, offering us powers not dreamed of in 1787. Day by day, scientific re- search reveals more of the universe beyond the earth, the universe within the atom, and that further universe of possibilities within the hu- man gene and the human brain. Technology gives us the tools to explore these frontiers, allowing us to modify not just our environ- ment, as man has always done, but the human body, behavior, brain and the whole of our genetic heritage on a scale that is unprece- dented. We can manipulate chemical factors in human behavior, measure human abilities, and predict human performance with increas- ing power and precision. With chemical and biological tests, we can both detect past be- haviors and assess future risks to specific people from disease, pollutants, or their own genetic inheritance. The social sciences also are improving our ability to monitor, predict, and modify human behavior and attitudes. We use the techniques of statistical analysis, modeling, simulation, and expert systems to decide who goes to prison and who is released, who exercises parental rights, who gets into college or a pres- tigious profession, and who gets a new heart. We can intervene at the boundaries of life and death. Indeed, because of medical technol- ogy we have been forced to reconsider the def- inition of both. Advances in these technologies are insistently raising questions about the right to die; the sometimes conflicting rights of mothers and unborn children; and the right to impose the consequences of those decisions on parents, families, friends, and society at large. Power, scale, precision, invasiveness, per- vasiveness, persistence, and imperfection— these are inescapable characteristics of late 20th century technology. Nearly all facets of our life, including our work, play, homes, and health, are strongly affected by technology. Our economic strength and our national secu- rity depend on our continuing to be among the leaders in science and technology. How will these world-shaking advances in human knowledge and capability change the context in which the Constitution's enduring principles of democratic governance and indi- vidual liberty operate? Can we look to the world of 2087 with confidence that the Con- stitution will meet the challenges of its third century and will continue to be a strong bul- wark against abuse of both political and tech- nological power? These are the questions ex- amined in a series of OTA reports on science, technology, and the Constitution. These re- ports begin with the observation that we are moving into an era in which information, in all of its varied forms, has become the agent of vast social and scientific change. 1
8. THE CENTRALITY OF INFORMATION Is technology changing what can be said to be a "reasonable expectation of privacy?" A central theme in all areas of science and technology is radical improvement in our abil- ity to gather, store, combine, and use informa- tion—especially information about people. This improvement is the result of continuing prog- ress in such diverse fields of inquiry as com- puter science, molecular biology, chemistry, and cognitive psychology. In some cases, this new ability to gather and use information raises troubling questions about the scope and protection of that sphere of personal autonomy and privacy that the Founding Fathers could assume was beyond the effective reach of the state. Electronic surveillance, for instance, is dra- matically shrinking the locations and activi- ties in which one has a recognized expectation of privacy. Techniques that derive information from an individual's body fluids, body struc- ture, mental habits, voice timbre, eye motions, temperature change, and scores of other non- controllable attributes generate knowledge about past behavior, allow monitoring and measurement of present activities, and may make possible predictions about future per- formance. We can electronically monitor crimi- nals, or persons awaiting trial, in their homes. We can call up information about one person from a multitude of government or commer- cial databases, compare and integrate it and, in effect, reveal new information about that person without their knowledge. There are bright promises and troubling un- certainties about established, emerging, or po- tential technical capabilities. But difficult questions may also be raised by the informa- tion or power that science cannot yet provide. For example, science can reveal and measure some threats that it cannot remove. It can tell us who has been exposed to the deadly HIV virus that causes AIDS, but not as yet how to remove the infection or cure the disease. Such questions as whom to test and how to use the results of testing create real tensions between the constitutional imperatives of in- dividual rights and the general welfare. Science can also reveal the presence of envi- ronmental toxins at ever lower levels, but cannot tell us whether the risks outweigh the benefits of which they are a byproduct. That judgment involves values and choices about which science has little useful to say. Here too the question of how to translate available sci- entific information into public policy involves important tensions to which the Constitution speaks. Is "blacklisting" by means of com- puterized government information systems constitutional? While information has immense benefits and capabilities to improve our lives both individu- ally and as a Nation, it also has dangers. In- formation about a person is potentially a means of influencing and controlling that per- son. Information challenges traditional sources of authority and institutions built on that au- thority. Experience, training, and education may be rendered useless by new information. Information can also erode responsibility: what was once considered a sin to be condemned or a crime to be punished may, with fuller knowl- edge, appear to some as an illness to be treated or a genetic defect to be repaired. This percep- tion can lead to imposingly difficult questions about the limits on social engineering in the context of constitutional values of personal freedom and privacy. It is for these reasons that information, and the electronic, chemical, biological, and social technologies that generate and give access to it, often affect constitutional relationships that 2
9. 3 we are accustomed to think of as political, eco- rectly or indirectly, information often gener- nomic, or legal in nature. Constitutional rela- ates that power, informs its limitations, or af- tionships deal with power, with limitations on fects their proper balance. power, and with the balance between them. Di-
10. THE PRINCIPLES OF CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNANCE The seven Articles of the Constitution rest on a few fundamental principles of governance that were created and tested through centu- ries of struggle in the countries of Europe and in the American colonies. As articulated in the Constitution, these principles have proven ro- bust enough to provide for order and social sta- bility, yet capable of considerable flexibility and responsiveness in a changing society. The fundamental principles of constitutional gover- nance include the concepts of national sover- eignty, limited government, democratic repre- sentation, federalism with reserved State powers, and separation of powers within the three branches of the national government. Each of these principles is affected by mod- ern technology. National sovereignty is funda- mentally challenged by the effects of extensive international transactions and transborder data flows, and by the necessity of multina- tional cooperation to cope with environmental problems related to technology. The structure of the relationships between elected represent- atives and their constituents, the various in- terest groups, and the other branches of gov- ernment has been substantively changed by the use of communications and information technologies. Federalism continues to change as effects of technologies continually override jurisdictional boundaries. Cooperation in using databases and communications systems could erode some of the checks and balances protect- ing separation of powers. National Sovereignty Sovereignty may be defined as the exclusive and supreme control by a government over its territory and inhabitants. Under the Consti- tution, sovereignty in the United States is shared between the State and Federal Govern- ments. The powers of the Federal Government are primarily those "necessary and proper' to carry out the functions listed in Article I, sec- tion 8. Under the 10th Amendment, the re- mainder of the power that can be exercised by government is reserved to the States. Do powerful translational businesses, using global networks, make the con- cept of "national sovereignty" ob- solete? Since the mid-1800s, the scale of technology and the scope of its impacts have changed American life; first in transportation systems (e.g., the railroad), then in manufacturing and production (the steel industry, the automobile industry), and in communications systems (tel- egraph and telephone lines, radio, television). A concomitant broadening of the role of Fed- eral Government and diminution of the auton- omy of State governments in controlling tech- nology has occurred in each instance. Federal power was used first to build and regulate national transportation and communications systems, then to protect health, safety, and employee welfare as manufacturing and com- merce have matured. Federal power has been used to recover economic stability during the economic crisis of the 1930s, to set up a com- plex social security system, to deal with global wars, to put men on the moon. Just as the development of a national trans- portation and communications infrastructure in past centuries expanded the Federal Gov- ernment role in local and State affairs, tech- nology is today expanding the theater of commerce and politics to global dimensions. In the process, it is diminishing the degree to which any nation, including the United States, may act as an autonomous sovereign. Today, large-scale enterprises and the con- sequences of industrialization continue to force issues from the local to the national to the international level. Global communications networks are contracting the Federal Govern- ment's power by interlocking national econ- omies, facilitating transnational business, and increasing the necessity of political and eco- nomic cooperation among nations. The world- 4
11. 5 wide nature of today's technology-oriented problems, such as pollution of air and water, depletion of natural resources, global drug traf- fic, and intercontinental weaponry, all combine to force cooperative actions in the international arena and surrender of some national sover- eignty. The evolution of the translational corpora- tion over the last 20 years illustrates the shift of power away from sovereign nations that ac- companies global technology. Transnational enterprise is subtly but significantly different from the post-World War II multinational cor- poration that was or is still essentially based in and identified with one country —i.e., an "American multinational. " New transporta- tion and communications technologies, includ- ing high-speed air travel, bulk shipping facil- ities, flexible manufacturing and automation, distributed data processing and communica- tions capabilities, and high-speed transmission of information, have allowed transnational cor- porations to shift operations between coun- tries, depending on contingencies such as la- bor costs, availability of resources, and the political and economic climate of their host na- tion. These developments have increased the power of the transnational corporation, as economies of scale have allowed the interna- tionalization and vertical integration of their markets. Deregulation of the international monetary system, rapid movement of investment funds around the world, the trading of stock on for- eign exchanges, and international corporate ownership and mergers make transnational businesses even more independent of national policies. In addition, the exchange of television shows, movies, fashions, music, and other forms of entertainment tends to homogenize cultures and consumer demand throughout the world, and could erode national loyalties and dependencies. These developments parallel the rise of na- tional corporations during the 19th and early 20th centuries, which brought about the ex- pansion of Federal power and the resulting shift from the private power of corporations to the public power of the Federal Government. The internationalization of economic power may now be causing at least a temporary shift back from public power to private power at the international level. The United States has responded to the de- velopment of translational corporate power by trying to extend the exercise of sovereignty outside of its own borders, by, for example, con- trolling or regulating foreign subsidiaries of U.S. corporations. But, as nationality of cor- porations has faded, these efforts have proved ineffective. Companies move. The nationalities or loyalties of their top management are not necessarily coincident with where they are headquartered. Some corporations become es- sentially independent of geographic sites, pro- duction facilities, and national charters. However, in spite of this erosion of sover- eignty, national boundaries remain very real economical and political limitations. Private corporations may be caught in intolerable binds between conflicting laws and policies in the different countries in which they do busi- ness. The control of databanks and flow of information by, for example, the Council of Europe, can impact adversely on American companies doing business in Europe. The picture of national sovereignty that emerges in 1987 is thus very different from the picture that was accepted in 1787. The chal- lenges to national sovereignty in the future will be very different from those that were possi- ble in the past, and will be shaped by the need for international response to continuing tech- nological development. A Democratic Republic The United States was not the first nation in history to try constitutional government, but it set the pattern for those that followed. It was the first successfully to establish a sta- ble union of what were then sovereign States. The Founders, men of their times, did not en- vision universal suffrage or equal opportunist y for all, yet they gave us the means to move in that direction. As James Madison said, when proposing on June 8, 1789, that the first Con- gress adopt a Bill of Rights:
12. 6 . . . the people have an indubitable, unalien- able, and indefeasible right to reform or change their Government, whenever it be found ad- verse or inadequate to the purposes of its in- stitution. "A more perfect union" was needed in 1787 because of the economic chaos caused by the constant competition between the 13 original States, because of the threat of alliances be- tween States and foreign countries eager to regain control in the New World, and because of the inability of the existing Confederation to finance itself or to control the actions of in- dividual States. A strong union was needed to provide the stability and cooperation nec- essary for the economic and technological de- velopment of the vast resources of the new country. At the same time, the Founders greatly feared a strong national government that might abuse its power. Constitutional his- tory since that day in many ways reflects the effort to maintain a balance between these con- flicting goals. The principle of representation, whereby one individual gave voice to the interests of his con- stituency, was already well established in 1787, both in England and on this continent. Since then, the United States has steadily broadened the franchise to all adults and enabled people to make more direct choices, by eliminating the indirect election of Senators, creating primaries to select Presidential candidates, en- forcing a principle of equal weight for each per- son's ballot, and putting decision propositions on State and local ballots. These changes have helped to compensate for the unavoidable di- lution of representation as population grew and the number of States increased. Modern technology has however introduced complexities that have a serious impact on the representative process. The effect of technol- ogy on government structure has been most noticeable in the development of a massive Federal bureaucracy to provide the expertise for applying, using, and regulating technol- ogies. The constitutional problems of such a structure have been alleviated in part by the application by the Supreme Court of the due process clause to administrative procedures. Are information systems changing the nature of congressional represen- tation? But the growth of a "non-elected branch" of government has inevitably distanced the peo- ple from the day-to-day operations of govern- ment. The use of independent agencies—the Federal Communications Commission, the In- terstate Commerce Commission, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission—to regulate technol- ogies has also placed a serious strain on the boundary between legislative and executive functions. This further dilutes the represen- tation process by diffusing responsibility within the government itself. But effects of technology on representation are not limited to fostering the growth of a Fed- eral bureaucracy. Technology also has direct effects on the very functions of representation, such as communicating with constituents, for- mulating policy, legislating, and overseeing ex- ecutive agencies. The use of computerized mail systems, for example, has allowed the collec- tion and analysis of data on constituent demo- graphics and interests, and thus the segmenta- tion and targeting of audiences to give political messages greater impact and saliency. The in- formation available in computerized databases allows newly arrived Members to be more im- mediately knowledgeable and effective. Over- sight of executive agencies can potentially be greatly enhanced by the use of electronic in- formation and computer models to analyze budgets and evaluate programs, but it also be- comes more difficult to evaluate highly tech- nical management decisions about costly in- formation systems operating at the edge of technological advance. The mass media-newspaper, television, and radio—is a potent influence on the nature of representative democracy. The use of media to present a political image or personally to articulate and frame an issue has been ex- panded by C-Span and by the use of videotape by local stations, but has also been shaped by
13. 7 the demands of the TV news format. The reporting of political news affects attitudes of the public and may distort the process of de- termining winners and setting agendas. Com- puterized analyses of voting trends in selected districts aid networks in predicting winners and losers long before the voting is finished, playing on the psychological tendencies of some people to jump on the bandwagon. Television has also led to what might be called the industry of "image-making," in which more attention is paid to projecting a carefully designed political image than to ex- plaining controversial policy positions. Critics charge that tracking and surveying public opinion has changed the focus of political news away from the substance of issues and rea- soned analysis, and towards attention-grab- bing headlines. The ability to inform and in- fluence Congress may also have shifted from party loyalists with cross-cutting interests and motivations, towards organized interest groups —especially those that have the technological resources to mobilize public opinion in their favor—and towards "single-issue politics" un- der which organized groups of voters are able to exercise an influence greater than their num- ber would suggest. Does the proliferation of communications be tween elected representatives and their con- stituents enhance democracy? The Founding Fathers debated whether elected representa- tives were to reach decisions based on instruc- tions from the public or were, by deliberation and debate, to arrive at some higher common good. The question of whether a representa- tive should be 'instructed' by the sentiments of constituents, or whether he or she should lead popular opinion in a deliberative role con- tinued in the First Congress, where Mr. Clymer, a member of the House of Representatives, said, If they have a constitutional right to in- struct us, it infers that we are bound by those instructions. . . .This is a most dangerous prin- ciple, utterly destructive of all ideas of an in- dependent and deliberative body. Two hundred years later, this question con- tinues to be debated. The use of telecommuni- cations, either to survey public opinion or to Would "electronic direct democracy" —public voting on issues by electronic systems —fit the constitutional con- cept of representative democracy? send messages or protests to Congress, in- creases the likelihood of instructed represen- tation. But the complexity of administering a technologically advanced society, the growth of population, the rise of bureaucracy, and the difficulty of maintaining public interest in po- litical issues far removed from one's everyday life, tend to counter this trend toward in- structed representation. They distance elected officials from the people, thereby allowing greater room for deliberation and independent judgment. Technology may in the very near future present the Congress with a dramatic choice between these two theories of representation. New technologies, such as interactive TV and videotex, raise the possibility of direct voting by citizens on some national policy issues. Whether these methods should be used merely to collect in-depth opinions or to register ac- tual binding votes is highly debatable. Advocates of direct electronic democracy claim that people would take more interest in government and become better educated on the issues, and that democracy would be the better for it. Where limited trials have been made, people do show increased interest in pol- icy issues. But these issues have been local, and relatively simple ones. There has never been a national referendum, though one was proposed in 1907. Those against the idea of direct voting on issues cite the assumed disinterest and in- ability of the average citizen to understand the complex subjects involved. This in turn could make the voice of educated, socioeconomic elites stronger. Alternatively, it could make for uninformed resolution of important mat- ters of policy. But technology may allow a move to direct democracy in incremental steps, rather than
14. 8 all at once. Other methods of electronic par- ticipation, including electronic town meetings, public teleconferencing, and public access to legislative databases are being used in some State and local governments. This kind of ac- cess to government could increase greatly in the future as information technologies become more usable and more accessible to more people. The impact of technology on the principle of representative government thus can cut both ways. The increased complexity of gov- ernment, in the 21st century and beyond, leads to governmental structures that can dilute its representative character. Yet technology offers compensating advantages that can increase the ability of government to serve the people it represents. Federalism Federalism in the United States is marked by: q q q q q q q a union of autonomous political entities for common purposes; divided powers, with the Federal Govern- ment having enumerated powers and the States retaining residual power; operation of each of these governments within its assigned sphere upon all per- sons and property within its territorial limits; law enforcement powers for each level of government; supremacy for the national government within its assigned sphere in any conflict with state power; a dual system of State and Federal courts; and dual citizenship, national and state. Since the Civil War, Federal power has clearly been in the ascendancy, and the same trends that are now challenging national sovereignty-expanding markets and centers of production, telecommunications networks, a mobile citizenry, and the homogenization of culture across boundaries-have contributed to the shrinkage in the role and authority of State governments. Transportation and communications sys- tems, tying this nation together physically, also tied the country together economically and politically, requiring an interdependence and cooperation that could only come from national action. Autonomous States could not coordi- nate the commercial development of naviga- ble waterways, interstate roads, railways, and airports. The lack of uniformity in laws and the competition among State interests has led to Federal Government preemption of many areas of commerce, and precluded State con- trol of nationwide systems necessary to ensure orderly and efficient economic development. Today, as a practical matter, the government of commerce is national and not local. Current technological problems, such as nu- clear and toxic waste disposal, water rights in the semi-arid areas of the West, and air pollu- tion spreading from one region to another, need cooperation between the States and leadership, refereeing, and adjudication by the Federal Government. This does not mean that federalism is thwarted or that there is no major role for St ate govern- ment. The criminal justice system, particularly as it relates to violent crime, remains within State control. Property ownership, the law of descent and distribution, and family relations are largely the province of State or local law. Fundamental government services—fire, po- lice, water, zoning–by and large are provided by State or local government. Technological change will however influence how the States will govern in these respects and how the Con- stitution will guide that governing. Moreover, new information and telecommu- nications technologies may again operate to change the balance within federalism by en- hancing the ability of States to act independ- ently or cooperatively, reducing the need for national solutions to problems. Information systems, for example, have allowed States to cooperate much more effectively in the areas of civil and criminal justice and public health. Future technologies will, as they have in the past, most likely cut both ways; concentrat- ing some powers in the Federal Government and enabling the States to retain and expand
15. 9 — Has technology undermined the prov- ince of the legislature to "make and declare war?" others. While the use of information systems and computerized databases provides addi- tional power to the States, additional Federal regulation may be required to protect individ- uals' privacy rights in an era of nearly un- limited surveillance ability and ability to com- bine information. This tension, too, presents challenges to constitutional interpretation. Separation of Powers In framing a government. . . you must first enable the government to control the governed and in the next place, oblige it to control itself. –Federalist, No. 51 The hard-won power of the English Parlia- ment to control the excesses of the Throne was for the Founding Fathers a valuable heritage. As structured by the Constitution, political power and function in the Federal Government is separated among three distinct and mutu- ally dependent branches—the legislature, the executive branch, and the courts. Moreover, a set of institutional and procedural checks was created to make it difficult for one branch to act rashly or independently of the other two branches. The power balance in the U.S. Government has shifted many times, sometimes by a Presi- dent's initiative, at other times by Congress' reassertion of its powers or duties, at yet other In an emergency, need Congress as- semble in Washington to act, or could it use telecommunications? times by the intervention of the courts. War and technological change have been two dra- matic factors in changing the locus of power between the President and Congress. Both have tended to pose threats to public safety that required swift, decisive action based on expert knowledge, and thus to shift responsi- bility toward the Executive rather than the more deliberative Legislative Branch of Gov- ernment. War has been the greatest promoter of presidential power, but until World War II, this was usually temporary. More recently, the power, the range, and the speed of modern weapons have favored a continued shift in power toward the Presidency. As technological advances give rise to con- stitutional challenges, moreover, the powers exerted by the Supreme Court are likely to in- crease. Never before in our history have so many aspects of daily life been subject to liti- gation, both over the respective powers of the President and Congress and over the relation- ship of government to the individual. It is a unique feature of American democracy to rely so extensively on courts to monitor the author- ity of elected branches of government. Exer- cise of this power will likely ebb and flow as it has in the past, but it is nonetheless certain that technological change will place new and continuing demands on the courts to interpret the fundamental charter of American gov- ernment.
16. THE BILL OF RIGHTS AND CIVIL WAR AMENDMENTS The first ten amendments to the Constitu- tion spell out those inalienable rights for which the 13 colonies, in 1776, had defied England; and for the greater security of which, 11 years later, they gave up some of the powers of nation- statehood to create a more perfect union. Many of these rights were already deeply rooted in English common law and in the aspirations and struggles of the peoples of many countries who came to the New World. Although these rights have been interpreted as limitations only against the exercise of power by the Federal Government, the three amendments added af- ter the Civil War-the 13th, 14th, and 15th– mean that most of them limit the powers of State governments as well. These 13 amend- ments together are the great American char- ter of individual liberty against potential op- pression by government. The Bill of Rights embodies the most funda- mental political, intellectual, and religious rights in the 45 words of the First Amendment. It also forbids arbitrary and lawless govern- mental actions that threaten life, liberty, or individual property, and has been interpreted to recognize a zone of privacy on which gov- ernment has no right to intrude. The rights of those suspected of or convicted of crime are spelled out and the criteria for citizenship and enjoyment of these rights and protections are set forth. The Bill of Rights and Civil War amendments have proven triumphantly robust through the confounding technological, social, economic, and political changes of the past two centu- ries. They are deeply involved in issues aris- ing from technological change as it affects rela- tionships between people and government. The First Amendment Freedom of speech and press, the right to assembly, and the right to petition the gov- ernment for redress of grievances are embod- ied in the First Amendment: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. The provisions of the First Amendment have been interpreted to provide a bulwark against government intervention in the most basic ele- ments of our democracy—the expression of thought, opinion, and belief. As necessary con- ditions to democratic governance, the rights embodied in the First Amendment occupy a "preferred position " in the hierarchy of con- stitutional rights. As Justice Rutledge, speak- ing for the majority of the Supreme Court, said in 1945: This case confronts us with the duty . . . to say where the individual's freedom ends and the State's power begins. Choice on that bor- der, now as always delicate, is perhaps more so where the usual presumption supporting legislation is balanced by the preferred place given in our scheme to the great, the indispens- able democratic freedoms secured by the First Amendment . . . That priority gives these lib- erties a sanctity and a sanction not permitting dubious intrusions . . . Thomas v. Collins, 1945 In spite of this preferred position, the Su- preme Court has never interpreted the free- doms of religion, speech, press, or assembly to be without limits. Government can prohibit speech that threatens national security, that is obscene, or that is an incitement to violence or to the overthrow of the government. It can place reasonable restrictions on the time, place, and manner of speech, and can regulate speech that takes place over the airwaves. This often involves a balancing of individual rights against the interest of government, in the con- text of contemporary economic, political, ethi- cal, legal, and scientific or technological values. Science acts as arbiter of what can be done to change and exploit the physical world. It thereby renders speech more potent, and moves back the threshold at which the gov- ernment can claim a compelling reason for limiting freedom of expression. When the con- nection between science and technology is di- 10
17. 11 Do national security restrictions and Does a scientist have a constitutional export controls effectively negate the right to do research on any subject? First Amendment protection for sci- Or are there topics that should be "for- entific communication? bidden knowledge?" rect enough to pose a risk to national security or economic stability, the government may and does restrain scientific communications. It may do so either by making research fund- ing conditional on secrecy, by prohibiting speech or publication on specific scientific topics, by withholding patents, or by control- ling exports of either products or production know-how. The question to be considered now and for the future is when those modes of re- straint, taken together, place an intolerable burden on the exercise of First Amendment freedoms. Knowledge can be misused, and technology can be abused, by being turned to ends that threaten life or defy cherished values. The ques- tion arises, therefore, whether there are areas of scientific and technological research that should not be undertaken. Should the pursuit of certain kinds of knowledge be forbidden? The question has been raised at various times about research on atomic energy, recombinant DNA, neuroscience, eugenics, birth control, and fetal tissue. Some thoughtful people, lay- men and scientists alike, argue that science and technology are not neutral; that, once un- leashed, they may have pernicious effects. They believe that some kinds of knowledge, or some methods of experimentation are ethi- cally unacceptable and ought therefore to be curbed. Other equally thoughtful people argue that all knowledge is valuable and necessary to the continued progress of civilization. Advocates of this view argue that the First Amendment guarantees of free speech and press, and its prohibition against government establishment of religion reflected the Founding Fathers' confidence, born of Enlightenment accounts of Galileo and Newton, that science is a benefi- cent force, not to be interfered with by gov- ernment or by religious institutions. Yet there have been few judicial decisions that address directly the implications of the First Amendment for the constitutional sta- tus of scientific research, and there are no court decisions that establish definitively a First Amendment right to conduct research on any topic, without limitation or restriction. The pre- vailing assumption is that scientific activity has general protection, subject to limitation where a clear national interest is involved. Even where prohibitions on research are not involved, however, science and technology may eventually raise constitutional issues. The Fed- eral Government is often the only source of adequate funding for scientific research in which industry has no interest. There is no con- stitutional right to Government research fund- ing. But objections to some areas of research, such as those involved in interspecies genetic exchange and perhaps someday human clon- ing, are sometimes rooted in values that are intrinsically religious in nature yet not univer- sally shared. Government restrictions on fund- ing particular research projects in these sen- sitive areas may in the future be challenged as suspect under the establishment clause of the First Amendment, or the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. Freedom of the Electronic Press As it first did with the printing press and again with radio and television, new technol- ogy will give rise to new ways of communicat- ing, which amplify the ways in which individ- uals and organizations express themselves. Information and communications technol- ogies, such as satellites, computers, and digi-
18. 12 Does "freedom of the press" apply to electronic bulletin boards or to media satellites? tal transmission lines, are, like the telegraph, telephone, radio, and television before them, changing the range, cost, and quality of com- munications. Taken together, advances in computers and telecommunications may change the concept of "the press. Today, the term usually refers to a formal organization that gathers and pub- lishes or broadcasts news. Such communica- tions generally take the form of one-to-many exchange. In the future, that exchange may shift to many-to-many communications in which people with common interests share in- formation amongst themselves, as with elec- tronic bulletin boards. With these changes will come the prospect of new First Amendment challenges to the power of government to regulate access to and ownership of communications media. New technologies, such as electronic publishing, may not fit easily into old models of regula- tion, and distinctions between the First Amendment rights of print publishers, tele- vision or radio broadcasters, and common car- riers will become increasingly difficult to justify. New capabilities for the press to gather, store, and retrieve information on individuals may require that rules of Liability for constitu- tionally protected speech be reexamined. The potential for technology to decentralize the editorial function may raise questions of edito- ial control and liability under the First Amend- ment. And, in an era of global communications, the question will be raised of whether First Amendment rights extends to speech trans- mitted to this country by foreign speakers. Has the notion that broadcasting fre- quencies are scarce, and thus subject to regulation, been outmoded by tech- nology? The Fourth Amendment The Fourth Amendment is a strong affirma- tion of individual privacy and a barrier to the exercise of arbitrary power. It says: The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or af- firmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched and the persons or things to be seized. This right had a long history in English com- mon law. Sometimes colloquially expressed as "a man's house is his castle, " it meant that one had a right to expect that one's home, pos- sessions, and person were safe against arbi- trary and forceful intrusion by the King's agents. At the same time, it recognized that the lawful agents of the state can intrude on private property to execute or enforce the law, so long as they obey certain procedural rules that protect the subject of the search. This protection was understood in 1787 to limit and regulate physical trespass, and the seizing of papers, effects, or "things." Tech- nology began to threaten the effectiveness of this protection about a century ago. The tele- graph and telephone allowed information about oneself to be separated from person, places, paper, and objects because it could exist in the form of pulses of electricity. In 1928 (and again in 1942) the Supreme Court declared that wire- tapping was not forbidden by the Fourth Amendment because there was no physical
19. 13 —. Does the Fourth Amendment prohibi- tion on "unreasonable searches and seizures" cover all kinds of electronic surveillance? trespass and physical "papers or effects" were not seized. Congress grappled with this question in the debate that led to the Federal Communications Act of 1934 without finding a solution that fully satisfied either itself or the courts. Not until 1967 did the Supreme Court say that the intent of the Fourth Amendment was to pro- tect people and their privacy, rather than places or property as such. The Court said that electronic snooping should be considered a form of search and seizure governed by rules and procedures adopted from traditional safe- guards but adapted to new technological ca- pabilities. Now, there are nearly unlimited means of electronic surveillance, some from great dis- tances (even from satellites) and with almost no risk of detection by those being watched. Intelligence agencies and law enforcement forces can locate, identify, track, and monitor people or vehicles by using devices that pick up and analyze images, sound waves, vibra- tions, heat, or light. Electronic devices can be fixed to people, their clothing, or their vehicles—and possibly in the future could be embedded in their bodies-so that their move- ments are tracked or recorded. Some local juris- dictions, for example, already use house arrest, continually monitored by electronic anklets or bracelets worn by prisoners, as an alternative to prison. The rule laid down in 1967, and later reaffirmed by the Supreme Court, was that one is protected against surveillance where there is "a reasonable expectation of privacy. " With the remote sensing devices of today or tomor- row, the places or situations in which there is a reasonable expectation of privacy, in the sense that being watched or overheard would Do you have a privacy interest or a property interest in your blood, urine, breath, or DNA? not be feasible or even easy, are drastically shrinking. The Congress has already taken steps in the Electronic Communications Pri- vacy Act of 1986, to bring many new electronic technologies under statutes spelling out the applications of constitutional principles of pro- tection against unreasonable searches and sei- zures. Almost surely, the Congress and the Courts will be asked to consider other new tech- nologies in the future. At the opposite extreme from remote sens- ing is what may be called intimate sensing. Modern technologies use the substance of, or emanations from, the human body and its cells and tissues to detect the presence or the iden- tity of a person, track one's movements, or pro- vide evidence of one's past behavior. Such tech- nologies can be applied to, for example, the use of drugs, sexual activities, or exposure to dis- ease. There are new techniques for finding fin- gerprints, and computer systems that match them against huge banks of prints on file. Bi- ometric security systems can identify a per- son by hand geometry, voice patterns, retinal blood vessel patterns, or other physical char- acteristics. Analysis of DNA, the genetic ma- terial within all living cells, also can be used in identification. Blood, semen, and other body fluids can be tested for a variety of factors asso- ciated with past experience or present per- formance. Until 1967, the courts did not allow the sei- zure of "mere evidence" (i.e., things that were not themselves "the fruits or instrumentali- ties of crime" or contraband). But it is now well established that blood, semen, fingerprints, hair, handwriting samples, and other such evi- dence can be taken. Moreover, such seizures have been held not to violate the Fourth Amendment or other constitutional prohibi- tions against forced self-incrimination, if their disclosure is otherwise reasonable.
20. 14 If law enforcement officers have ef- fective "non-lethal weapons," will any use of deadly force become unconsti- tutional? Questions about privacy and the reasonable- ness of searches will continue to arise. We have not, for example, fully probed applications of the Fourth Amendment to computer memory or to future testing, screening, and analytical capabilities applied to the human body and brain. The Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Amendments The rights of those suspected, accused, or convicted of crimes are set out in three of the ten amendments that make up the Bill of Rights, and elsewhere in the Constitution. This strong emphasis on the rights of the suspect or criminal was not because the Founding Fathers were unconcerned about crime, but rather because they were well aware that tyran- nical Governments can use accusations of com- mon crimes to rid themselves of rebels or dis- sidents. The Fifth Amendment guarantees the right to a grand jury and prohibits double jeopardy, compelled self-incrimination, and the taking of life, liberty, or property without due proc- ess of law. The Sixth Amendment guarantees a speedy and public trial by impartial jury of one's peers, the right to have and to compel the testimony of witnesses, and to have the assistance of counsel in all criminal prosecu- tions. The Eighth Amendment forbids the im- position of excessive bail and fines, or cruel and unusual punishments. All aspects of law enforcement and criminal justice have been profoundly affected by tech- nology over the last decade, and this techno- logical transformation is continuing. At the heart of it are computer and telecommunica- tion technologies, computerized databases, and communications networks. But two other pri- mary areas of science and technology are also of great importance. The first is forensic sci- ence, which is especially important in the de- tection of crime and in the development of le- gal evidence of crime and guilt. The second involves social science methods of statistical analysis, computer models, simulation, and ex- pert systems. These advances are being used in prediction of criminal behavior and recidi- vism, for more effective targeting of enforce- ment resources, and for support of legal, ju- dicial, and administrative decisionmaking, including decisions about bail, jury selection, sentencing, and probation. The Sixth Amendment guarantees a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury, and the right of defendants to have the advice of trained counsel, to confront and cross-examine prosecution witnesses, and to compel the tes- timony of defense witnesses. One of the most controversial contributions of social science to criminal justice procedure has been recent at- tempts at "scientific selection' of juries. There have also been experiments with the use of telecommunications in taking testimony from witnesses not physically present in the court- room, such as abused children. Significant changes are now occurring in the treatment of convicted felons for reasons hav- ing to do with both technological and social factors. These changes are likely to result in challenges to conventional understanding of Eighth Amendment protections against exces- sive bail or fines, and cruel and unusual punish- ments. The changes are driven by growing de- termination to reduce crime, particularly successive crimes of repeat offenders, and by the counter pressure of overcrowding in pri- sons. But social decisions in this area are be- coming more complex and difficult because of: scientific research on criminal behavior patterns; the emergence of technological alterna- tives to imprisonment; and the growing possibility that biochemical and genetic research will identify deter- minants of (or strong forces on) criminal
21. 15 Can a judge give you a choice of prison, or home arrest wearing an elec- tronic anklet? What if you are re- quired to pay for the use of the anklet? behavior that are beyond the control of the offender, and thus challenge assump- tions underlying concepts of both punish- ment and rehabilitation. The emphasis on reducing crime by effective law enforcement and punishment (or rehabili- tation or, at a minimum, incapacitation) has led to the greater use of preventive detention. This, in turn, led to a constitutional challenge, using the principle of prohibition of excessive bail, recently resolved by the Supreme Court. The pressure of overcrowding, which has been found by some courts to constitute cruel and unusual punishment, is leading many local jurisdictions to experiment with alternatives to prison. These include electronically moni- tored house arrest, at least for non-violent offenders who have a home and a job; and for some other offenders, chemical, psychological, and behavioral treatments aimed at behavior modification. Even surgical intervention-e. g., castration—has been proposed by one court as an alternative to prison. Alternatives to prison maybe challenged as ''cruel and unusual punishment. Courts have generally interpreted "cruel" to mean the im- position of bodily pain, but have recognized that this definition may change over time. Or the alternatives may be challenged as inva- sions of the rights of prisoners, who are con- sidered to retain some privacy rights. As these techniques have been used so far, they always require the consent of the subject and are con- sidered a benefit or privilege for the offender, who would otherwise go to prison or remain there longer. Some, however, question the re- ality of informed consent when the alternative is imprisonment. Finally, to the degree that alternatives to prison are desirable options for the offender, there are questions about availability on an equitable basis and hence potential constitu- tional issues of discrimination. These issues arise because at least some of the alternatives to prison, such as electronically monitored home arrest and privately operated prisons, require prisoners either to pay the costs of the program or to have steady employment and assets, such as a fixed abode with telephone connections. Thus, those without means are likely to be ineligible. Challenges based on this factor could become even more insistent if risks of incarceration become significantly worse be- cause of the spread of AIDS in prisons. The use of science to gather, analyze, and present evidence in criminal proceedings can raise troublesome questions about the ac- curacy, reliability, and credibility of the meth- ods used. Questions are also raised about the ability of jurors, lawyers, and judges to under- stand fully both the significance and the limi- tations of such evidence. These questions, in turn, may raise due process issues. Computer models and statistical analyses used to sup- port judicial and administrative decisions may also be challenged on constitutional grounds, particularly if used in a predictive mode (what is the probability of this offender committing another crime if he or she is paroled?). Such models are necessarily based on information about characteristics of or past behavior of cat- egories of people, and are then used to predict or assign probabilities to the behavior of an individual. Thus they are suspect of discrimi- nation. Law enforcement agencies are trying to de- velop technology to reduce the need for deadly force when subduing or arresting subjects. The goal is to reduce both the loss of life and the liabilities or penalties being levied on local jurisdictions when lives are lost. If nonlethal weapons become widely available and effective, then use of lethal weapons in all but the most compelling circumstances could be challenged as unconstitutional, because it could be dispro- portionate to the need or risk. A fundamental assumption underlying con- stitutional provisions related to crime and punishment—and indeed, a basic assumption
22. 16 of western civilization-is that people have free will or self-determination. They can be punished for crime or can be offered the op- portunity for rehabilitation because they chose to break the law and can thus choose not to break the law. With a growing, although still very early and spotty, knowledge about ge- netic, biochemical, and environmental influ- ences on behavior, cognitive processes, and per- sonality, the assumption of self-determination is being, if not eroded, at least reexamined and qualified. Courts and legislatures are partici- pating in that reexamination. Other Amendments Several of the other amendments within the Bill of Rights have receded in importance over the last two centuries, perhaps again in part because of changing technology. The Second Amendment says that a militia is "necessary to the security of a free State, " and guaran- tees "the right of the people to keep and bear Arms. " The Third Amendment strictly limits the quartering of soldiers in private houses in time of peace. Neither of these amendments has been applied very often since 1792, al- though the Second Amendment is often cited by those opposing gun control laws. These amendments were intended to safeguard the ability of citizens to resist both hostile inva- sion and tyrannical domestic government, and to establish the primacy of civilian rights over a (professional) military force. The growth in power, scale, destructiveness, and cost of mil- itary weapons, and even of law enforcement weapons, has effectively nullified the objec- tives of these two amendments. The right of trial by jury in civil cases is en- shrined in the Seventh Amendment, primar- ily to preserve the common law distinction be- tween the province of the court (which decides issues of law) and the province of the jury (which decides questions of fact), a distinction of great importance in the 18th century, al- though taken for granted now. Equal Protection The Fourteenth Amendment provides that "No State shall. . . deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." Once the last resort of constitutional argument, this phrase assumed modem impor- tance in the 1954 decision in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka that segregated schools were unconstitutional. Since that time, the jurisprudence of equal protection has ex- panded considerably. Modern interpretations of the equal protection clause subject govern- mental categorizations of people to various levels of scrutiny, with classifications along race and alienage receiving the strictest scru- tiny, and then gender. The prohibition against invidious discrimi- nation contained in the equal protection clause is based, in large part, on the moral and politi- cal conviction that people are essentially equal, and that government action cannot be based on designations of a group that are arbitrary from a moral and political point of view. Although science and technology were prob- ably not directly responsible for the emergence of equality as an important constitutional value, they have contributed greatly in its im- plementation. The Brown decision relied heav- ily on the findings of social science to support its reasoning, and modern technology has helped to reduce many of the barriers to em- ployment and military service that were once thought to be justifications for discrimination based on gender. In the future, science and technology will contribute to ongoing debate over the mean- ing of, and basis for, equal protection of the law. Thanks to science and technology, peo- ple are living longer, and continue to be produc- tive well into old age. It is possible, therefore, that classifications based on age will become ever more suspect. Furthermore, as our knowledge of the ge- netic component of ability, aptitude, and be- havior grows, it may be possible to identify
23. 17 not only what is common to all human beings, but also what is different. Should science estab- lish characteristics belonging to distinct cate- gories of people, we may face constitutional dilemmas between moral value and scientific truth. Science may test the concept of "equal- ity," which has been left an undefined postu- late of the law, and require that it be better articulated and more firmly rooted in moral and legal discourse. Due Process of Law One of the most well known and cherished of constitutional phrases appears in the Fifth Amendment: " . . . nor [shall any person] be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law. . . ." It is repeated in the Fourteenthth Amendment, this time as a spe- cific restraint on State governments. The phrase or its equivalent in English com- mon law and some State constitutions, often expressed as "the law of the land, " is derived from Magna Carta. As they have evolved in the jurisprudence of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments, the due process clauses have come to stand for two independent protections: an assurance of procedural rationality, con- sistency, and integrity in any government ac- tion that could deprive a person of "life, lib- erty, or property"; and certain substantive rights not laid out explicitly in the Constitu- tion but deemed essential to the principles of American democracy. In its procedural meaning, "due process" does not turn entirely on the existence of rules laid out by legislatures or administrative agen- cies. It is instead an independent protection against the deprivation of rights established by the Constitution or by State or Federal law. It forbids capricious governmental actions. The Supreme Court has held, for example, that due process standards must be met in such var- ied contexts as the allocation of welfare pay- ments, aspects of criminal trials not covered by more explicit provisions, the suspension or expulsion of children from public schools, and the dismissal of persons in the employment of State or Federal Government. As a source of substantive rights, the con- cept of "due process" has had a more check- ered history. From the turn of the century into the 1930s it stood for a right to contract, and was used by the Supreme Court to negate many laws, such as laws aimed at occupational health and safety or conditions of employment. In more recent times it has been used, for ex- ample, to protect the liberty to educate one's children in a school of one's choice, to study a foreign language, to use contraceptives, and to travel across state lines. The due process clause of the Fifth Amendment, moreover, is the source of the substantive protection against invidious discrimination by the Fed- eral government, a right explicitly protected by the Fourteenth Amendment against intru- sion by the States. Technological change has affected both di- mensions of due process. On the procedural side, for example, pretrial publicity facilitated by modem means of mass communications pre- sents complexities in criminal trial procedures that were unknown when the due process clauses were added to the Constitution. In terms of substantive rights, science and technology have developed new ways of intruding on per- sonal autonomy protected by due process. The Penumbra of Privacy The rights and protections spelled out in the ten amendments of the Bill of Rights and in the Fourteenth Amendment affirm and define a sphere of personal autonomy that is pro- tected against any but the most powerful over- riding interests of state. This principle was a basic tenet of 18th century political thought and was and is a cornerstone of constitutional government. But this right to privacy was seldom articu- lated until 1965. Then, in the case of Griswold v. Connecticut, the Supreme Court struck down an anticontraceptive statute as an in- fringement of the fundamental right of 'mar- ital privacy. The reasoning in this and sub- sequent cases is that the intent of the Bill of Rights as a whole and hence of the Four- teenth Amendment, was to provide an addi-
24. 18 If your life can be maintained indef- initely by a machine, do you have a constitutional right to treatment? to refuse treatment? Would life-long quarantine of AIDS sufferers be unconstitutional? What about mandatory AIDS testing? tional bulwark against governmental intrusion on rights so fundamental that one need not or could not list them. They were inherent in the idea of free men banding together of their own accord to form a government. The extent of this sphere of personal auton- omy is now being tested, and nowhere more urgently than in regard to decisions about one's own body —i.e., decisions about life, death, and reproduction. Medical science and technology, and even more fundamental ad- vances in biological sciences, are significantly extending the range of choices and decisions that individuals and society have, or may have in the future, involving values and trade-offs that are both intensely personal and value laden. The decision to acceptor reject life-support systems is one that more and more people are already having to make; and the decision of whether and when to terminate the use of such systems may be all the more difficult, since it must usually be made by someone other than the user. In the future "life-support systems" may be entirely internal-e. g., a totally im- plantable heart. Will the ethical, legal, and con- stitutional questions be the same? The capa- bility of saving, maintaining, and enhancing life with technological systems that, because of their complexity, risk, and cost, are inher- ently and necessarily limited resources will raise public policy issues, as did kidney dialy- sis. Is the opportunity to continue living to be a market good or will there be another means of allocating or rationing these technological capabilities? These painful choices, however made, will likely be challenged on constitu- tional grounds, as have the funding of other advanced medical technologies. At the beginning of life, also, constitutional challenges are likely to arise from new repro- ductive technologies such as third-party sur- rogacy, use of donated frozen embryos, and fe- tal surgery and other interventions in utero. The common thread in extreme medical inter- ventions at the beginning and end of life is that new and enhanced medical capabilities force new decisions on individuals and families, or change the balance of risks and benefits in- volved in traditional decisions, and by so do- ing, force legislators and courts to reexamine the interest of the State in those decisions. In public health programs also, new constitu- tional issues are emerging that require reex- amination of the traditional balance between individual rights and the general welfare. En- hanced capability to test individuals for expo- sure to risk, for infectivity, for use of prohibited or controlled substances, and for vulnerability to disease or injury are raising serious ques- tions about the government use of such tech- niques and its obligation to protect the privacy of the subjects. Even more intrusive or restric- tive social control measures may be proposed in the future, ranging from quarantine of indi- viduals to regulation of critical industries, whenever our technological capability to man- age or reduce or remove risks lags behind our scientific capability to identify and track them. The power to intrude effectively into the core of personal privacy and autonomy in order to protect the interests of society was technologi- cally limited in 1787. The ability of government to know about, and to act with regard to a spe- cific individual, was in most cases slow, cum- bersome, and highly visible, and so in most cases was effectively constrained by the sim- ple prohibitions listed in the Bill of Rights. The power of government to investigate, monitor,
25. If a violent psychotic murderer could be reliably cured with surgery or long- acting implantation of drugs, would he or she have a constitutional right to refuse treatment? and manipulate the behavior of specific indi- viduals is not now so technologically limited, and it will be less so in the future. Biological, 19 chemical, electronic, social, and behavioral technologies can be expected to extend and strengthen those capabilities. The limits on their use must be found in law and policy, and in the continued reliance on the Constitution as the supreme law of the land. Strong legisla- tive and judicial actions may be necessary to protect that sphere of individual, private activ- ity that the Founding Fathers cherished and that the Constitution has always implicitly protected. CONCLUSION This brief review of the principles of the United States Constitution highlights some of the ways in which advanced technology will test the basic premises of American govern- ment in the years to come. More detail will be provided in a series of Special Bicentennial Reports by the Office of Technology Assess- ment. These reports seek to stimulate serious consideration of some of the difficult constitu- tional problems that must be faced as our Con- stitution enters its third century. The Consti- tution has proved to be enormously resilient in the past as technological change has altered the basic functions and responsibilities of gov- ernment. It will need to be equally resilient in the future.
26. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Workshop Participants Science, Technology, and the Constitution in the Information Age Workshop Feb. 26, 1987 Tom Cavanagh National Academy of Sciences Committee on the Status of Black Americans Ira Chaleff Congressional Management Foundation Mary Culnan Associate Professor The American University Kogod College of Business Administration Christopher Deering Department of Political Science George Washington University Stephen Frantzich Congressional Data Associates Judith Lichtenberg Center for Philosophy and Public Policy University of Maryland Paul Light National Academy of Public Administration Michael Malbin Department of Government and Political Science University of Maryland Thomas Mann American Political Science Association Mark Mellman Information Associates Norman Ornstein American Enterprise Institute Mark Rovner Rossevelt Center for American Policy Studies Gary Serota Congressional Management Foundation Scientific Communications, National Security, and the First Amendment Workshop Mar. 11, 1987 Allan Adler American Civil Liberties Union Kenneth Allen Information Industry Association Jerry J. Berman Director, Project on Privacy and Technology American Civil Liberties Union Daniel DeSimone Executive Director American Association of Engineering Societies Diane Fountaine Director, Information Systems U.S. Department of Defense Harlow Freitag Chairman, Technology Transfer Committee Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Stephen Gould Committee on Scientific Freedom and Responsibility AAAS Harold P. Green National Law Center George Washington University Richard Kleeman Association of American Publishers Jonathan Knight American Association of University Professors Harold C. Relyea Specialist in American National Government Congressional Research Service Frank Sobieszczyk Chief, Research Programs Office (DTAO) U.S. Department of Defense Paul Stephan University of Virginia Tom Suttle Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers Mitchell B. Wallerstein National Academy of Sciences Criminal Justice Workshop, Apr. 21, 1987 S.S. Ashton, Jr. Assistant Director Bureau of Justice Statistics U.S. Department of Justice Robert R. Belair Partner Kirkpatrick & Lockhart Alfred Blumstein Dean School of Urban and Public Affairs Carnegie Mellon University 20
27. 27 — . James Duggan Director New Hampshire Appellate Defender Program Stephen Goldsmith Office of the Prosecuting Attorney of Marion Count y Joe Graino School of Law Wayne State University Kay Knapp Executive Director U.S. Sentencing Commission Henry Lee Chief Connecticut Forensic Laboratory Peter Low Hardy Cross Dillard Professor of Law and John V. Ray Research Professor of Law School of Law University of Virginia Dan Mansfield Research Associate ACLU Prison Project Clinton Pagano Superintendent of State Police New Jersey State Police Richard Saferstein Chief Chemist Forensic Science Bureau New Jersey State Police Tom Smith Assistant Director Criminal Justice Section American Bar Association James Starrs National Law Center The George Washington University William Stunz School of Law University of Virginia Historical Perspectives: Technology and the Constitution Workshop, Apr.25, 1987 David Allison Natural Museum of American History Smithsonian Institute Gordon Bermant Federal Judicial Center Research Division Ronald Calinger Department of History Catholic University of America Ed Ezell Curator of the Division of Armed Forces History National Museum of American History Smithsonian Institution William Haskett Professor of History University of the District of Columbia John Holmfeld Committee on Science and Technology U.S. House of Representatives John Langan Woodstock Theological Center Lilly Kay American Philosophical Society Library Ray Kondratas Medical Science Director National Museum of American History Peter Kuznick Professor of History American University Wayne McGovern Chief Mesocale Branch National Weather Service U.S. Department of Commerce James Mohr Kerry Morgan Director Bicentennial Project CBN University Phil Mundo Political Science Department Drew University Robert Oleson Institute for Alternative Futures Emily Van Tassel Associate Editor The Documentary History of the Supreme Court Supreme Court of the United States William A. Thomas Law& Science Associates James Wallace University of Maryland College of Computer, Mathematical and Physical Sciences Biological and Medical Technologies Workshop, May 6 and 7,1987 M. Les Benedict Golieb Visiting Fellow New York University School of Law
28. 22 Pat Browder Professor of Surgery University of North Carolina Ira Carmen Professor of Political Science Department of Political Science University of Illinois William Chech Medical & Scientific Communications, Inc. Tom Christofel Associate Professor Health Resources Management School of Public Health University of Illinois at Chicago John Duffy Professor of History, Retired University of Maryland Daniel Fox Professor of Humanities in Medicine State University of New York at Stony Brook Larry Gostin Executive Director American Society of Law and Medicine Howard Kaye Assistant Professor Department of Sociology Franklin and Marshall College Arthur Kohrman Professor of Pediatrics University of Chicago LaRabida Children's Hospital Gretchen Kolsrud Program Manager Biological Applications Program Office of Technology Assessment U.S. Congress Maeva Marcus Resident Director Documentary History Project Supreme Court of the United States Katie Maslow Analyst Biological Applications Program Office of Technology Assessment U.S. Congress Larry Miike Project Director Health Program Office of Technology Assessment U.S. Congress David Strauss Assistant Professor University of Chicago Law School Laurence R. Tancredi Kraft Eidman Professor of Medicine and Law Director of the Health Law Program University of Texas Health Science Center Robert S. Wachbroit Research Associate Center for Philosophy and Public Policy University of Maryland Dan Wikler University of Wisconsin Medical School Contractors George Annas Schools of Medical and Public Health Boston University Christopher Arterton Dean Graduate School of Political Management Christopher Burns President Christopher Burns, Inc. Jeffrey P. Cohn Editor Bernard Davis Professor Emeritus Harvard University John Duffy Professor Emeritus Harvard University John Dwyer School of Law University of California, Berkeley William N. Eskridge, Jr. Assistant Professor of Law University of Virginia Leonard Glantz Associate Director Boston University School of Public Health Harold Green Professor of Law National Law Center George Washington University Sheila Jasanoff Program on Science. Technology, and Society Cornell University Irene Jillson-Boostrom Policy Research, Inc. Carl Malamud Consultant
29. Michael Marien Editor Futures Survey Richard Merriman Executive Director The Jefferson Foundation Abbe Mowshowitz Department of Computer Science Technology Impact Research June Osborn Dean School of Public Health University of Michigan Harry N. Scheiber School of Law University of California Search Group, Inc. Sacramento, California Cass Sunstein, J.D. Professor of Law University of Chicago Law School Eric Uslaner Professor of Government and Politics University of Maryland Clyde Behney Program Manager Health Program Audrey Buyrn Program Manager Industry, Technology, and Employment Program Alto Charo Analyst Biological Applications Program Richard Dalbello Senior Anlayst (Project Director) International Security and Commerce Program 23 — Bob Friedman Senior Associate (Project Director) Oceans and Environment Program Val Giddings Analyst Biological Applications Program Lisa Heinz Analyst Science, Education, and Transportation Program Sue Koch Analyst Communication and Information Technologies Program Gretchen Kolsrud Program Manager Biological Applications Program Katie Maslow Analyst (Project Director) Biological Applications Program Larry Miike Senior Associate (Project Director) Health Program Nancy Naismith Program Manager Science, Education, and Transportation Program Priscilla Regan Analyst Communication and Information Technologies Program Peter Sharfman Program Manager International Security and Commerce Program Joan Winston Analyst Communication and Information Technologies Program o
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