What is Parkinsons Disease
The Parkinson's-Reversing Breakthrough
By Pauline Banes on Fri, 12 Jul 2019
The Parkinson's Breakthrough Program entails the most effective and natural strategies people can use to heal the root cause of Parkinson's Disease. It is a digital manual aimed at showing the users the most effective method for overcoming Parkinson's without high-priced prescription drugs riddled with harmful side effects.The program was not created to be a quick fix. In fact, like different programs, it is tasking. Yet, you will not have to spend a lot of time dealing with it. The system requires your full attention, perseverance, and discipline. For the period of its usage, you will have the opportunity to use to eat some food ingredients that will detoxify you.The methods employed in this book are natural ones that have been proven by many specialists. The users will be privy to what to do and what not to do to treat the underlying root cause of their Parkinson's and the way they can reverse the symptoms naturally and effectively. The system comes with bonus E-books- Lessons from The Miracle Doctors, Mind Control in the USA', and 10 Deadly Health Myths of The 21st Century. The book is in a digital format (PDF) and has been created at a very affordable price. Read more...
The ParkinsonsReversing Breakthrough Summary
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The Overdose Hypothesis In Parkinsons Disease Its Relevance To Cognition And The Inverted Ushaped Dopamine Function
An alternative approach to assessing the role of DA in human cognition is to study those clinical disorders in which the DA system is highly compromised. Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, mainly characterized by motor symptoms. The primary pathology is cell loss in the substantia nigra leading to severe DA loss in the dorsal parts of the striatum as well as additional DA loss in the PFC. Although the disease is mainly a movement disorder, patients also exhibit significant cognitive deficits, even in the earliest stages of the disease. Given strong connections between the dorsal parts of striatum and the dorsal parts of the PFC (Alexander et al., 1986), it is not surprising that the pattern of cognitive deficits resembles that seen in patients with dorsal frontal lobe damage (Owen et al., 1992). Thus, like frontal lobe patients, mild PD patients exhibit significant impairment on tests of attentional set shifting (Downes et al., 1989 Owen et al.,...
Drug Induced Parkinsonian Syndrome
Mon, 12 Dec 2016 | Personality Disorder
Patients with Parkinsonian syndrome secondary to neuroleptics present with cogwheel rigidity, mask-like facies, bradykinesia, and shuffling gait. This is similar to patients with idiopathic Parkinson's disease. b. Drug-induced Parkinsonism is treated by adding an anticholinergic agent such as benztropine (Cogentin) or trihexyphenidyl (Artane). d. Parkinsonian symptoms may also improve with a lower dose of neuroleptic or after switching to a low-potency agent such as thioridazine.
Prospective Memory in Parkinsons Disease
Last Updated on Wed, 19 Jun 2019 | Prospective Memory
Overview Patients suffering from Parkinson's disease have been found to develop severe cognitive deficits predominantly in terms of executive dysfunction. Parkinson's disease also results in retrospective memory problems, but these deficits are generally milder than in dementia (Zgaljardic, Borod, Foldi, & Mattis, 2003). The primary site of pathology among patients with Parkinson's disease lies in the midbrain, where a loss of dopamine-producing neurons is observed. Until recently, it remained unclear whether the disease disrupts prospective memory as well, although such a deficit was expected in the light of the neuropsychological profile of patients with Parkinson's disease (Knight, 1998). Relevant Findings So far only two studies have addressed prospective memory abilities in Parkinson's disease. Katai, Maruyama, Hashimoto, and Ikeda (2003) administered a time-based and an event-based task and found that the patients were significantly impaired only in the latter task relative...
Alzheimer Dementia Memory Healer Program
Parkinsons Syndromes
Last Updated on Mon, 14 Mar 2016 | Psychoanalysis
Changes in dream frequency and contents and the occurrence of nightmares, hallucinations and RBD (see above) are frequently seen in patients with Parkinson's syndromes. A correlation with the presence of other sleep-wake disturbances, cognitive changes, axial motor symptoms and medication (dopaminergic drugs, anticholinergics) has been recognized 55,118,119 . Visual hallucinations are reported by about 25-50 of patients with Parkinson's syndromes and predict Lewy body pathology with involvement of the parieto-occipital and limbic cortices 57,119 . In Parkinson's disease (PD) hallucinations typically occur in the second half of the disease course, whereas they can occur early in the course of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB). They usually arise at the end of the day without trigger or voluntary effort and persist for seconds or minutes, and insight is usually preserved. Visual hallucinations in PD have been linked with a higher risk of institu-tionalization 120 . Reduction of...
JM Tepper1 ED Abercrombie1 and JP Bolam2
Last Updated on Fri, 08 May 2015 | Brain Research
Keywords neostriatum globus pallidus substantia nigra subthalamic nucleus The basal ganglia are traditionally seen to be composed of four major nuclei the neostriatum, the globus pallidus (GP), the substantia nigra (SN) and the subthalamic nucleus (STN). The neostriatum is Fig. 1. Simplified diagram of the macrocircuits of the dorsal components of the basal ganglia. The nuclei of the basal ganglia are included in the light blue box and consist of the neostriatum (Striatum), the external segment of the globus pallidus (GPe), the subthalamic nucleus (STN), the substantia nigra pars reticulata and the internal segment of the globus pallidus (SNr GPi) which together constitute the output nuclei of the basal ganglia and the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc). The two major inputs to the basal ganglia are from the neocortex and the thalamus (mainly the intralaminar nuclei). The basal ganglia influence behaviour by the output nuclei projecting to the thalamus (mainly the ventral) and...
T Goetz1 A Arslan1 W Wisden2 and P Wulff1
Last Updated on Fri, 21 Sep 2018 | Brain Research
Abstract g-Aminobutyric acid type A (GABAA) receptors, the major inhibitory neurotransmitter receptors responsible for fast inhibition in the basal ganglia, belong to the superfamily of cys-cys loop'' ligand-gated ion channels. GABAA receptors form as pentameric assemblies of subunits, with a central Cl permeable pore. On binding of two GABA molecules to the extracellular receptor domain, a conformational change is induced in the oligomer and Cl, in most adult neurons, moves into the cell leading to an inhibitory hyperpolarization. Nineteen mammalian subunit genes have been identified, each showing distinct regional and cell-type-specific expression. The combinatorial assembly of the subunits generates considerable functional diversity. Here we place the focus on GABAA receptor expression in the basal ganglia striatum, globus pallidus, substantia nigra and subthalamic nucleus, where, in addition to the standard a1p2 3g2 receptor subtype, significant levels of other subunits (a2, a3,...
'The masqueraders can be grouped into primary and secondary groups. The primary (most common) masqueraders are depression, diabetes mellitus, drugs, anemia, thyroid disease, spinal dysfunction, and urinary tract infection. A secondary (less common) list includes chronic renal failure, HIV AIDS, rare bacterial infections (e.g. subacute bacterial endocarditis, tuberculosis), systemic viral infections (e.g. infectious mononucleosis, hepatitis A, B, C, D, E), neurological dilemmas (e.g. Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis), connective tissue disorders (e.g. systemic lupus erythe-matosus, polymyalgia rheumatica).
There have been many software schemes to correct visible image nonuniformity. These data-driven approaches have been called retrospective schemes, as opposed to prospective schemes which gather physical information about the instrument (Collewet et al., 2002). For example the N3 method (Sled et al., 1998) adjusts the postulated nonuniformity (expressed as a slowly varying function of position) to minimize the heterogeneity of corrected image intensity values. Such software methods are not, in the author's opinion, suitable for quantitative work (although as a pre-processor for image registration they can be useful). The signal at a particular location may be reduced because of a reduction in PD, or because of a reduction in coil sensitivity, and without other information these two possibilities cannot be distinguished. The principle of reciprocity (see Section 2.1.9) and a measurement of the transmit field amplitude enable the receive sensitivity to be measured. Changes in PD and in...
It is important to reduce cerebrovascular risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes, smoking, hyperlipidemia, and coronary artery disease in patients with vascular dementia. Dementia resulting from neurologic conditions (Parkinson's disease, normal-pressure hydrocephalus, brain lesions, carotid artery disease) requires a neurological workup. Dementia related to a hereditary condition requires referral for genetic counseling.
Druginduced effects on gastric emptying
Last Updated on Fri, 08 May 2015 | Drug Delivery
Drugs contained within the formulations may also alter gastric motility. For example adrenergic agonists, particularly E2-agonists such as salbutamol, delay gastric emptying. In asthmatic subjects an variable quantity of the inhaled drug may be swallowed, and hence even though the drug is not taken by the oral route, it may still have an effect on the gastric emptying of other drugs. Tricyclic antidepressants and some anti-Parkinsonian drugs depress gastrointestinal motility. Dopaminergic antagonists e.g. domperidone, and cholinergic agonists e.g. bethanechol, enhance gastric motor activity.
Future Development Of Biomarkers
Last Updated on Fri, 08 May 2015 | Pharmacology
And was used in an innovative dose-ranging study to demonstrate that a 0.48 mg kg dose of a reversible monamine oxidase type B (MAO-B) inhibitor was needed to achieve more than 90 blockade of irreversible l- 11C deprenyl binding to central nervous system MAO-B (54). Here blockade of irreversible l- 11C deprenyl binding was used as the biomarker, and it was estimated that a 1-year Phase II study in patients with Parkinson's disease would have been required had conventional clinical endpoints been used for dose-ranging studies.
Diagnosis And Investigations
Last Updated on Tue, 11 Jun 2019 | Rotator Cuff
Primary or idiopathic frozen shoulder is diagnosed from the history and investigation. As has been stated, it is a diagnosis of exclusion after other causes of painful shoulder stiffness are precluded. As part of the assessment, an attempt should be made to define the particular stage that the disease is presenting. This designation is invaluable in informing the patient about their individual prognosis and their best treatment. Codman's original description of the condition is still valid (7). Pain, in the early stages, can be severe and usually radiates to the deltoid insertion. It is worse when the affected shoulder attempts movement but can also be present at rest, invariably interfering with sleep. The patient often notices a gradual loss of motion specifically, movements overhead and behind the back become difficult. Patients with rotator cuff pathology can also present with these complaints, which can lead to difficulties in diagnosis. Enquiries should be directed at...
Mixed GABAa receptors in the striatum synaptic a1fi2y2 a2fi3y2 a3fi23y2 and extrasynaptic a4fi38
Substantia nigra reticulata Substantia nigra neurons express mainly a1, p2 and g2 mRNA and protein (Wisden et al., 1992 Fujiyama et al., 2002) post-embedding immunogold labelling showed that these subunits are enriched in symmetrical (GABAergic) synapses (Fujiyama et al., 2002). The main receptor subtype in all cell types in the reticulata will thus be
Principles of Measuring PD
Last Updated on Fri, 08 May 2015 | Multiple Sclerosis
If the signal is known to increase linearly with PD (as is usually the case, unless the receiver gain is being altered in order to keep within a particular dynamic range), then a single concentration standard will usually suffice. Water (doped to reduce its T1 value) is the obvious choice.
Understanding Parkinson's Disease A Self-Help Guide. Omaha, Nebr. Addicus Books, 1999. A physician, Cram provides a well-written account of the symptoms and progression of the disease from his personal perspective and also discusses present and future treatments. Jahanshahi, Marian, and C. David Marsden. Parkinson's Disease A Self-Help (Guide. New York Demos Medical Publishing, 2000. This book is an excellent self-help guide. In addition to chapters on the basic medical facts about Parkinson's disease, there are chapters dealing with living and coping with the disease from the personal and family point of view. Kondracks, Morton. SavingMilly Love, Politics, and Parkinson's Disease. New York Public Affairs, 2001. The author provides a moving memoir of his life with his wife, Milly, and the development and impact of Parkinson's disease. Lanad, Anthony E., and Andres M. Lozano. Parkinson's Disease The First of Two Parts. The New England Journal of Medicine 339, no. 15...
Lipofuscin and Melanin
Melanin pigment is localized primarily in the locus ceruleus and substantia nigra, where it imparts a dark coloring to the catecholaminergic, especially dopaminergic, cells of these regions. Melanin increases until about 60 years of age and then decreases, probably in parallel with the progressive loss of the heavily pigmented cells.
Dreaming in Neurological Patients
Last Updated on Mon, 20 Jun 2016 | Psychoanalysis
The exact pathophysiology is expected to vary according to the specific form of altered dreaming. In patients with narcolepsy and Parkinson's disease, visual hallucinations may represent, at least on some occasions, the intrusion of REM sleep mentation into wakefulness 39 . In out of
Neuroprotective Strategies
Last Updated on Fri, 08 May 2015 | Aging and Geriatrics
Another approach in Parkinson's therapy is the administration of substances that may prevent death of striatal neurons. Such preservation has been accomplished by injection of growth factors into the brain (humans) or by their delivery with a lentiviral vector (in aged rhesus monkeys). One such promising growth factor candidate is of glial origin, the glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), related to other members of the transforming growth factor superfamily (90,91). GDNF can facilitate the survival of dopaminergic cells in vitro and possibly also in vivo. Nurr1 is a molecule that plays a critical role during embryonic development in the formation of DA-producing cells that are lost in PD. Nurr1 also appears to help keep these cells active throughout life and to assist them in producing appropriate amounts of DA. It may be possible to find drugs that may increase or decrease Nurr1 activity and prevent or cure PD (92). However, to date, a specific therapy has not been...
Surgical and Electrostimulatory Strategies
Last Updated on Mon, 25 Jan 2016 | Aging and Geriatrics
Surgical techniques in Parkinson's patients leading to ablation of the pallidum nucleus or the thalamus were employed for many years but were superseded by L-dopa treatment. Currently, focus on surgical interventions has awakened again. Ventromedial pallidotomy reduces overactivity of the globus pallidus, which had been implicated in the motor disability associated with PD (93). Deep brain stimulation (DBS) has become the surgical treatment of choice. Despite the effectiveness of the surgery, it is important to bear in mind that such surgeries are drastic measures a part of the brain, once ablated, cannot be replaced. So although these therapies may yield symptomatic alleviation of the disease, they may cause other complications later or eventually become ineffectual as dop-aminergic neurons continue to be lost. Another approach to addressing Parkinsonism uses electrical stimulation to specific brain areas with the intent of reestablishing normal electrical circuitry. These techniques...
Dream Like Experiences During Wakefulness Hallucinations
Last Updated on Fri, 08 May 2015 | Psychoanalysis
Visual hallucinations can sometimes be highly complex and colorful (movie-like). This is well illustrated by the following episode (audiotaped) reported by a 48-year-old man with peduncular hallucinosis due to tegmental midbrain stroke that had appeared after coronary arteriography (Fig. 4)
Last Updated on Fri, 21 Sep 2018 | Pharmacology
It is important to separate age-related and disease-related changes in central nervous system (CNS) function. A number of changes have been noted in the absence of dementing illness, Parkinson's disease, and primary psychiatric disease. Brain aging proceeds in a relatively selective fashion, with the prefrontal cortex and the subcortical monoaminergic nuclei most affected. In the case of the prefrontal cortex, progressive loss of volume with aging is consistently shown. Age-related slowing in mental-processing function is a consistent finding, but the mechanism is uncertain. Aging has been associated with changes in brain activation during encoding and retrieval processes of memory function. Older individuals have more widespread task-related brain activation to conduct the same tasks as compared to younger individuals. One postulate has been that older individuals need to recruit greater brain resources to conduct the same memory function (20). Even in the absence of parkin-sonism,...
Cognitive Performance And Its Relationship To Dopamine Levels In Humans
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) analysis of subjects performing the n-back task has revealed that there is a relationship between this common functional polymorphism and overall PFC activity. Thus, subjects with the low enzyme activity Met allele have the greatest task-related signal increases while subjects with the high enzyme activity Val allele have the smallest task-related increases. Treatment with dextroamphetamine, which improved performance in Val-Val subjects, induced task-related decreases in their PFC activity compared with placebo. In contrast, the reduction in performance following dextroamphetamine in the Met-Met subjects was accompanied by task-related increases in the PFC compared with placebo (Mattay et al., 2002b). The authors' interpretation of these results was that administration of DA decreased PFC activity in subjects with low baseline DA levels (in Val-Val subjects), by increasing task-relevant neuronal activity, and suppressing task-irrelevant...
These failures have dampened but have not destroyed interest in the role of ACh in memory (75,76). Thus, the interest in galantamine, an ACHE inhibitor and potential ACh agonist. Galantamine acts not only by inhibiting the activity of the enzyme ACHE, thereby reducing the breakdown of ACh and prolonging its action at the synapse, but also increases ACh release from the presynaptic neuron through its agonistic role on CNS nicotinic cholinergic receptors (77,78). Other attempts to bolster cholinergic inputs have involved transplanting embryonal stem cells in critical cholinergic areas, akin to the transplantation of dopaminergic cells in Parkinson's disease (Chapter 6). As with Parkinson's, results of cholinergic cell transplantation are still uncertain. The neurotransmitter serotonin has also been implicated in activation of sensory neurons (79).
Effects of Alcohol and Drugs
Numerous classes of drugs have been associated with nightmares, including sedative hypnotics, beta-blockers, amphetamines and dopamine agonists 166 . Suppression of REM sleep with subsequent increased intensity of the REM episodes is thought to be the pharmacological mechanism responsible for nightmares induced by beta-blockers 167 . Dopamine receptor stimulation may be another common mechanism involved in the generation of hallucinations and nightmares, accounting for the effects of amphetamines and dopamine agonists such as levodopa, pergolide and cabergoline.
The prevalence of neurodegenerative disorders is growing exponentially in developed countries, as the result of an increasing life span in the general population. Neurodegenerative disorders include a wide range of abnormalities, such as Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD), Huntington's disease (HD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and various neurodegenerative dementias. These diseases generally begin late in life and slowly but inexorably cause progressive neuronal degeneration and result in disability or death. Their diagnosis is difficult for several reasons. These include One hallmark of neurodegenerative disorders is the presence of protein deposits in the nervous system. These exist either in the form of extracellular plaques - amyloid plaques in AD or prion protein deposits in CJD - or in the form of intracellular filamentous inclusions - neurofibrillary tangles in AD or Lewy bodies in PD) (Armstrong et al. 2005). Recently,...
Extrapyramidal Motor System And Thalamus
Last Updated on Fri, 08 May 2015 | Brain Anatomy
The definition extrapyramidal system dates back to the first decades of the last century, when two main, independent motor systems were defined the pyramidal and the other one, called extrapyramidal. However, this definition has become inadequate by now, and no longer represents the complexity of motor system regulation. Yet, the term extrapyramidal is still used to define motor neurons and pathways relating to the basal ganglia. The basal ganglia comprise the caudate nucleus, the putamen, the globus pallidus, the claustrum, the nucleus accumbens, the subtalamic nucleus, the substantia nigra, the red nucleus, and the periaqueductal gray matter. Other smaller nuclei are also attributed to the extrapyramidal system. The ventral basal thalamus is also considered part of the extrapyramidal system. Because of limits due to imaging cuts, illustrations in this chapter also include thalamic nuclei. Therefore, thalamic anatomy has been improperly included, and will be briefly discussed in the...
Pharmacological Strategies
Neurosurgery was the first therapeutic approach to parkinsonism. Replacement by L-DOPA of the lost striatal DA (adopted in the early 1960s) was welcomed as a safer alternative to surgery. In the neuronal pathway of catecholamine biosynthesis, the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase catalyzes the conversion of the amino acid tyrosine to dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-dopa, levodopa), which is then converted to DA by the action of dopa-decarboxylase. L-Dopa, unlike DA, can pass the BBB (see below), and when Substantia nigra to corpus striatum Substantia nigra FIGURE 12 Dopaminergic nigral-striatal pathway in the normal (left dark arrow) and in parkinsonism (right dashed line). In parkinsonism, dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra are lost, reducing dopamine (right dashed line) to putamen-caudate (striatum) and subsequent control of cortical stimulatory effects. Increased excitatory transmission to extrapyramidal system (broad open arrow) is associated with tremor and rigor. FIGURE 12...
Include other brain diseases (e.g., Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis), psychiatric disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, depression), substance abuse (e.g., alcohol, cannabis, MDMA), viral infections (e.g., HIV and Herpes Simplex Encephalitis), and developmental disorders (e.g., ADHD, autism). The patient groups were chosen in these studies mainly because they were reported to have prospective memory problems or because their pathology is related to brain areas that are supposed to be related to prospective memory. Most of these studies compared the performance of clinical groups and matched controls on one or more types of prospective memory (e.g., time-, event-, or activity-based) using tasks developed in the experimental literature. Typically, the results of these studies indicate that these patients tend to be impaired on one or more types of prospective memory (refer to Table 13.1). Although it is important to know that individuals with different clinical...
Measurement Of Stomatal Aperture And Stomatal Resistance
Last Updated on Fri, 30 Nov 2018 | Water Potential | 1 comment
Day (1977) and Parkinson and Day (1980) give theory associated with the steady-state porometer, and Chapman and Parker (1981) supply theory for the transient-state porometer. Of all the methods used to measure stomatal resistance only (i.e., photosynthetic rate is not measured), diffusion porometers (transient and steady-state types) are most widely used for quantitative measurements (Livingston et al., 1984). They are commercially available (Figs. 22.9 and 22.10). In the United States, only the steady-state porometer
Potential of Nonregenerating Tissues
Second, regenerative responses have been induced or enhanced in a number of tissues of experimental animals. Biodegradable, cell-free artificial regeneration templates have been used to induce dermal regeneration in excisional skin wounds and improve regeneration across gaps in peripheral nerves, though the results have been far from perfect (Yannas, 2001). A variety of neuroprotective agents, as well as agents that neutralize molecules inhibitory to axon regeneration, and enzymes that degrade glial scar, have been used to improve spinal cord regeneration and slow the loss of neurons in Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Cell-free ceramic templates can induce bone regeneration across large gaps (Constanz et al., 1995 Yaszemski et al., 1995). Attempts to induce epimorphic limb regeneration from the non- or poorly regenerating limbs of adult frogs have also elicited or enhanced regenerative responses.
Genetic Principles and Technologies in the Study of Immune Disorders
Last Updated on Sun, 27 Jan 2019 | Immunodeficiency Diseases
This model for dominant inheritance is called haploinsufficiency. In contrast, more than two copies of a gene may also cause disease inherited in an autosomal dominant manner, as is seen with duplication of the PMP22 gene in Charcot-Marie-Tooth IA peripheral neuropathy (Boerkel et al., 2002) or triplication of the a-synuclein gene in familial Parkinson disease (Singleton et al., 2003).
Demyelinating disorders, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and amyo-trophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are neurodegenerative diseases that strike humans at different ages and show variable courses of progression. Huntington's disease is clearly due to a single gene mutation, as are a small percentage of ALS and Parkinson's cases. The vast majority of ALS cases, demyelinating disorders, and Parkinson's disease, however, are multifactorial in origin. Currently, about 10 of the population suffers from neurodegenerative diseases. The over-60 population will double by 2050, greatly increasing this 2. Parkinson's Disease pathway known as the striatopallidothalamic output pathway (SPTOP) (FIGURE 6.12). The SPTOP begins with dopaminergic neurons (DANS) in the substantia nigra that project to the basal ganglia, The DANs secrete dopamine, which stimulates electrical output by the basal ganglia to the thalamus and from there to the motor cortex. Parkinson's disease is...
FIGURE 7 Lewy bodies, intraneuronal cytoplasmic inclusions. The dense core is composed of apparently random, tightly packed aggregations of filaments, vesicular profiles, and poorly resolved granular material containing neurofilament antigens. These bodies are found in substantia nigra as well as in other CNS regions. Abbreviation. CNS, central nervous system. Source. Courtesy of Dr. L. S. Forno. FIGURE 7 Lewy bodies, intraneuronal cytoplasmic inclusions. The dense core is composed of apparently random, tightly packed aggregations of filaments, vesicular profiles, and poorly resolved granular material containing neurofilament antigens. These bodies are found in substantia nigra as well as in other CNS regions. Abbreviation. CNS, central nervous system. Source. Courtesy of Dr. L. S. Forno. The presence of abnormal protein aggregates, such as those found in the NFTs and NPs (and abundant in AD), stimulates the ubiquitin-dependent protein degradation system. Thus, ubiquitin accumulates...
Lewy bodies may be present in aged individuals (60 years of age and older) without clinical evidence of PD, but are more numerous in those individuals affected by this disease. Indeed, the accumulation of such bodies, especially in the dopaminergic cells of the locus ceruleus and the substantia nigra, is considered a hallmark of PD (52). The accumulation of larger numbers of Lewy bodies in the cerebral cortical neurons of many demented individuals has led to the identification of a diffuse Lewy body dementia, in which the severity of the dementia correlates with the increasing number of Lewy bodies (53).
Methyl4phenyl1236tetrahydropyridine Mptp
Last Updated on Mon, 17 Oct 2016 | Metabolic Activation
It was found that the contaminant MPTP was responsible for the symptoms. When monkeys were exposed to MPTP they showed similar symptoms to the human victims. Furthermore, it was found that MPTP caused destruction of dopamine cell bodies in the substantia nigra of the brain. Although this example is similar to 6-hyroxydopamine, it also illustrates other important factors which determine the target organ and particular cell type which is affected by the toxicity. MPTP is not directly neurotoxic but must first be metabolically activated to MPP+ in a two-step reaction (figure 7.30). As MPP+ is charged, and therefore should not cross the blood-brain barrier, it is presumed to be formed in the brain itself. MPTP is metabolized by monoamine oxidase B to MPDP+ in astrocytes and is then oxidized to MPP+ (figure 7.30). Although the MPP+ is formed outside the neurone, it is then taken up by the dopamine reuptake system into dopaminergic neurones where it accumulates and...
Wed, 23 Mar 2016 | Cognitive Therapy
Von Franz was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease in 1984, but she continued to write and publish with the help of a secretary until her death in 1998. Her books are published in both English and German by the Stiftung f r Jung'sche Psychologie (Foundation for Jungian Psychology) in Switzerland. Von Franz established the foundation in 1974 with the assistance of several of her students. As of the early 2000s, the foundation organized conferences for Jungian therapists, underwrote research in Jungian psychology, reissued out-of-print books by Jung and von Franz, and prepared von Franz's unpublished manuscripts for eventual publication.
Last Updated on Fri, 21 Sep 2018 | Psychoanalysis
The pathophysiology of RBD corresponds, as first shown experimentally in the cat by Jouvet 19 , to a dysfunction of pontomedullary REM mechanisms of atonia. Approximately 60 of RBDs are idiopathic. Idiopathic RBD usually presents in the sixth or seventh decade of life and predominates in males. In these patients cognitive (visuospatial, constructive) disturbances, slowing of occipital EEG activity and decreased striatal dopaminergic availability during wakefulness have been reported 88-91 . A significant proportion of patients with idiopathic RBD later develop a parkinsonian disorder 92 . In about 40 of cases RBD is due to narcolepsy or neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease, multisystem atrophy, Lewy body disease and, less commonly, brainstem dysfunction of other origin (e.g., multiple sclerosis, stroke, limbic
Rice Husks As Prodrug
Last Updated on Tue, 26 Feb 2019 | Prodrugs
The best historical example of this concept is L-dopa (48), a prodrug of dopamine (47), a natural neurotransmitter whose CNS deficiency as has been linked to Parkinson's disease. Dopamine can be replaced by administering L-dopa, which in the CNS and peripherally is readily decarboxylated by dopa decarboxylase. L-dopa appears to be a substrate for the L-aromatic amino acid transporter (Shindo et al., 1973 Wade et al., 1973 Tsuji, 1999 ) both in the intestine and at the blood-brain barrier (Shindo et al., 1971).
Differential Diagnosis of Dysthymic Disorder
Last Updated on Fri, 21 Sep 2018 | Personality Disorder
Mood Disorder Due to a General Medical Condition. Depressive symptoms consistent with dysthymia occur in a variety of medical conditions. These disorders include stroke, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, Huntington's disease, vitamin B12 deficiency, hypothyroidism, Cushing's disease, pancreatic carcinoma, HIV and others. Rule out with history, physical exam and labs as indicated.
Neurotransmission and Cell Communication
Last Updated on Tue, 22 Jan 2019 | Aging and Geriatrics
Information processing in the nervous system involves neurons talking to each other or with target cells. Research in neurotransmission, including neurotransmitter turnover, release, and binding to receptor is central to our understanding of CNS aging. Chemical transmission requires a series of events (Box 3). One of the most studied aspects of aging of the nervous system involves neurotransmitter changes at the synapse. In the healthy elderly, neurotransmitter levels and number, and the affinity of their receptors, and the activity of their metabolic enzymes undergo modest changes circumscribed to specific brain structures and individual neurotransmitter systems. In some diseases, however, a definite relationship exists between loss of one (or several) neurotransmitter(s) and abnormal brain function. For example, dopamine (DA) deficit in the nigros-triatal pathway is associated with PD, and acetylcholine (ACh) deficit in the Meynert nucleus is associated with AD.
Last Updated on Fri, 28 Sep 2018 | Smooth Muscle
Dopaminergic neurons and D2 receptors are deficient in people with Parkinson's disease. Schizophrenia involves increased levels of D2 receptors. Myasthenia gravis and curare poisoning involve the neuromuscular junction, which uses acetylcholine (ACh) as a neurotransmitter.
Last Updated on Mon, 17 Sep 2018 | Psychiatric
The burden of side effects can be illustrated by looking at two common and very troubling side effects associated with antipsychotic medication pseudo-parkinsonism and tardive dyskinesia. Antipsychotic medication, because it affects the functioning of the neurotransmitter, dopamine (discussed in Chapter 2), interferes significantly with motor functions. Some patients, regardless of age, develop the symptoms (but not the actual disease) of Parkinson's disease resting tremors, poor control of their own movements, and shuffling movements. Another side effect that may occur from use of these medications is tardive dyskinesia, which involves an uncontrollable twisting or writhing movement of the mouth and limbs. Unlike some of the other side effects, tardive dyskinesia is usually not reversible once it appears. As if it were not enough to endure the symptoms and behaviors associated with psychosis, the involuntary movements of tardive dyskinesia can make someone appear bizarre to others,...
Learn more about the underlying pathophysiology, nowhere more so than in geropsychiatry. It is now being increasingly recognized that degenerative changes underlined by cell loss occur in schizophrenias, and that partially correctable biochemical neurotransmitter abnormalities occur in dementias. Moreover, other mental disorders such as mood and anxiety disorders, in addition to neurological disorders such as Parkinson's disease and Lewy body dementia, have an impact on cognition, with psychotic or pseudo-dementia-like end results.
Dopamine Controls LTP Induction and Expression
Last Updated on Tue, 07 Aug 2018 | Working Memory
Comparable in vivo studies investigating the interactions of dopamine inputs from the substantia nigra and the excitatory inputs from the cerebral cortex have also pointed out an up-regulation by dopamine of corticostriatal LTD (Reynolds and Wickens, 2000). This form of synaptic plasticity that follows high-frequency stimulation is prevented or reversed by concurrent stimulation of the substantia nigra. Other investigators, using PFC slices, have shown that dopamine favors the emergence of LTD over LTP and produces LTD when tetanic stimulation alone does not induce any synaptic plasticity (Law-Tho et al., 1995 Otani et al., 1998). However, in a recent study, these authors reported that a second application of dopamine when coupled to high-frequency stimuli induces LTP instead of LTD on the layer I-II to layer V glutamatergic synapses (Blond et al., 2002 also see Chapter 4 of this volume). Thus, dopamine in the PFC can induce either LTD or LTP, at least in vitro. The effects of...
Technical Issues for Gene Therapy
Another important factor in a gene therapy trial is the nature of the disease being treated. For some diseases the pathology affects the function of a particular organ, which must be directly treated, for example, cystic fibrosis in lungs 7 or Parkinson's disease in corpus striatum of brain 8 . Other diseases are systemic (for example, hemophilia or adenosine deami-nase deficiency), for which the common sites of therapy are relatively accessible organs like the liver or gut 6, 9 . It is also important whether the disease is caused by a single dominant gene, a single recessive gene or multiple genes. Most genetic disorders are multigenic, with more than one gene being responsible
Monitoring Biochemical Changes in the Brain
Dopamine transporter to measure changes in Parkinson's disease 25 . She also reviewed the use of a radioligand for the vesicular monoamine transporter system (VMAT2), a measure of the number of dopa-mine terminals. Many of the clinical assessments are qualitative and are not specific for dopamine dysfunction, which makes evaluating these radioligands against these gold standards difficult. The recommendation is to combine several radiotracers with the clinical parameters to increase the sensitivity to small changes in function. Kapur has proposed a number of paradigms for making decisions on the unprecedented number of potential therapeutic agents that have been made available through molecular biology and combinatorial chemistry 26 . Although the cause of many neuropsychiatric disorders is not known, molecular alterations have been identified and can be targets for neuroimaging. The altered brain function leads to system pathophysiology. Functional neuroimaging can be indexed by a...
Brainstem and Cerebellum
Last Updated on Tue, 11 Jun 2019 | Brain Anatomy
The midbrain is about 2 cm in length. The posterior part is represented by the tectum, or quadrigeminal plate. This contains two pairs of tubercles (superior and inferior), also termed collides. They are separated from the tegmentum by a virtual plane passing through the cerebral aqueduct of Sylvius. In front of the tegmentum, the pes of the brainstem is constituted of the cerebral peduncles, also called crura, two thick bundles of fibers diverging upward from below, rostrally limited by the substantia nigra. Between them, the interpeduncular fossa is found. Anteriorly, it is limited by the two mammillary bodies (part of the hypothalamus), while in its depth is the posterior perforated substance through which perforating arteries pass.
Last Updated on Sat, 08 Sep 2018 | Drug Therapy
For years, patients suffering from orphan diseases such as Gaucher's disease, rare cancers, hemophilia, multiple sclerosis, and Parkinson's disease simply were out of luck. Without financial incentives, pharmaceutical companies said they could not risk the time and money to develop orphan products. Other possible drug developers, such as universities or research hospitals, lacked the capital or business acumen to develop treatments for small patient groups.
Stem Cell Behaviors and Functions
Wed, 03 Oct 2018 | Neural Crest
As a result of their unique properties of self-renewal and differentiation into various mature cell types, stem cells not only provide great opportunities for studying tissue and organ development, but they also hold important therapeutic potentials for regenerative medicine. Encouraging therapeutic examples include the transplantation of HSCs or specific neural stem and progenitor cells for the treatment of hematologic diseases or Parkinson disease in humans, respectively. More efficient and highly selective methods of controlling stem cell fate for producing homogenous populations of particular cell types will be essential for the therapeutic use of stem cells this will facilitate studies of the molecular mechanisms of development.
Glutamate Receptor Channels
Mon, 21 Jan 2019 | Protein Kinase
Excessive activation of glutamate receptors by glutamate or glutamate analogs causes neuronal damage, a phenomenon referred to as excitotoxicity. It is also likely that NMDA receptors play an important role in glutamate excitotoxicity, a process thought to be involved in stroke, Parkinson's, Huntington's, and Alzheimer's diseases, as well as in schizophrenia and epilepsy. One of the major pathways leading from
Radiofrequency Transmit Field fix
Mon, 21 Jan 2019 | Multiple Sclerosis
The transmitter output is adjusted, either manually or automatically, by adjusting attenuators in the amplifier. If the stated values of the attenuator are to be used (for example for a reciprocity correction to determine the receive sensitivity in PD or MRS studies), then their values need to be known to within 1 .11 Their accuracy should be checked with the manufacturer. The values can be determined directly, using the same procedure as for checking transmitter linearity (see below). In spectroscopy, values of transmitter gain (called TG12 on General Electric systems) have been used to make reciprocity corrections in the calculation of metabolite concentrations, without any reports of failure (see Figure 4.4).
Shortterm memory
Both biological and environmental factors have been studied in regard to aging and cognition. An environment that induces apathy or depression has been found to have a lowering effect on cognitive abilities. Environments that provide stimuli to interest the individual can reduce cognitive decline. Moreover, at least one study has found that providing challenging stimuli can even reverse cognitive declines that have been observed. There is a tremendous range of aging effects from individual to individual, with some showing virtually no changes and others showing serious decay of functions. It should be noted that this discussion concerns cognition in healthy individuals diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease and events such as strokes (cardiovascular accidents) have effects on memory that are considered separately from the normal effects of aging.
Drug Absorption
Biopharmaceutic factors include drug solubility and formulation characteristics that impact the rate of drug disintegration and dissolution. From the physiologic standpoint, passive nonionic diffusion is the mechanism by which most drugs are absorbed once they are in solution. However, attention also has been focused on the role that specialized small-intestine transport systems play in the absorption of some drugs (1). Thus, levodopa, a-methyldopa, and baclofen are amino acid analogs that are absorbed from the small intestine by the large neutral amino acid (LNAA) transporter. Similarly, some amino-p-lactam antibiotics, captopril, and other angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors are absorbed via an oligopeptide transporter (PEPT-1), and salicylic acid and pravastatin via a monocar-boxylic acid transporter.
The Midbrain
Last Updated on Mon, 14 Mar 2016 | Psychology Basics
Beneath the tectum is the tegmentum, which includes some structures involved in movement. Red nucleus activity is high during twisting movements, especially of the hands and fingers. The substantia nigra smooths out movements and is influential in maintaining good posture. The characteristic limb trembling and posture difficulties of Parkinson's disease are attributable to neuronal damage in the substantia nigra.
Last Updated on Sun, 16 Sep 2018 | Psychology Basics
Dementia may be reversible or irreversible. Reversible causes include brain tumors, subdural hematoma, slowly progressive or normal-pressure hydro-cephalus head trauma endocrine conditions (such as hypothyroidism, hypercalcemia, hypoglycemia) vitamin deficiencies (of thiamin, niacin, or vitamin B12) thyroid disease ethanol abuse infections metabolic abnormalities effects of medications renal, hepatic, and neurological conditions and depression. Irreversible dementia is more common in the elderly. Irreversible causes of dementia include diseases of the brain such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, Pick's, Creutzfeldt-Jakob, and Huntington's diseases human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection vascular dementia and head trauma.
Last Updated on Thu, 11 Feb 2016 | Prostate Cancer
Barton J, Blackledge G, Wakeling A (2001) Growth factors and their receptors New targets for prostate cancer therapy. Urology 58 114-122. Fabbro D, Parkinson D, Matter A (2002) Protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors New treatment modalities Curr Opin Pharmacol 2 374-381. Scher HI, Sarkis A, Reuter V et al. (1995) Changing pattern of expression of the epidermal growth factor receptor and transforming growth factor alpha in the progression of prostatic neoplasms. Clin Cancer Res 1 545-550. Olapade-Olaopa EO, Moscatello DK, MacKay EH, et al. (2000) Evidence for the differential expression of a variant EGF receptor protein in human prostate cancer. Br J Cancer 82 186-194. 130. Sato S, Fujita N, Tsuruo T (2002) Interference with PDK1-Akt survival signaling pathway by UCN-01 (7-hydroxystaurosporine). Oncogene 21 1727-1738.
Last Updated on Fri, 08 May 2015 | Metabolic Activation
The nervous system, both peripheral and central, is a common target for toxic compounds, and the cells which make up the system are particularly susceptible to changes in their environment. Thus, anoxia, lack of glucose and other essential metabolites, restriction of blood flow, and inhibition of intermediary metabolism, may all underlie damage to cells of the nervous system as well as direct, cytotoxic damage. The nervous system is a highly complex network of specialized cells, and damage to parts of this system may have permanent and serious effects on the organism as there is little capacity to regenerate and little reserve functional capacity. Peripheral neuropathy is a toxic response to a variety of foreign compounds such as organophosphorus compounds, methyl mercury and isoniazid for example. The 'designer drug' contaminant, 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1, 2, 3, 6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) causes specific damage to the dopamine containing cells in the substantia nigra area of the brain....
Last Updated on Tue, 11 Jun 2019 | Blood Pressure
The locus ceruleus, which is situated in the pons, is one the the two pigmented areas of the brain (the other is the substantia nigra in the midbrain). The locus ceruleus is a norepinephrine-producing nucleus that sends widespread excitatory projections to many brain areas, but inhibitory projections to others, and may be important in facilitating wakefulness and attention, as well as the active (REM) phase of sleep. It has been called the adrenal gland of the brain. Deficiency of dopamine occurs in Parkinson's disease, where there is degeneration of the pigmented cells of the substantia nigra of the midbrain.
Clinical Relevance
Are associated with profound hypometabolism, involving the medial PFC in particular. Similarly, it has been reported that both bipolar and unipolar depressives are characterized by decreases in cerebral blood flow and the rate of glucose metabolism in the PFC (Drevets et al., 1997). Furthermore, agents such as bupropion that enhance DA transmission have been successfully used as antidepressants (Calabrese and Markovitz, 1991). Various other serotonergic antidepressants, such as fluoxetine, clomipramine, and imipramine, also increase the release of DA as well as 5-HT in the rat PFC (Tanda et al., 1994), indicating that the PFC is a target site of antidepressants. These findings implicate a reduction in dopaminergic and serotonergic transmission in the PFC in the pathogenesis of depression. A similar association has been suggested in patients with Parkinson's disease who suffer from depression (Cummings, 1992 Deutch, 1993). Depression occurs in large populations of patients with...
Noradrenaline
Last Updated on Thu, 04 Oct 2018 | Plasticity
Primary visual cortex has a similar laminar distribution of alpha1, beta1, and beta2 subunits with high densities of receptors in superficial layers, low densities in the middle layers and intermediate densities in the infragranular layers. This overall distribution pattern is seen in the cat (Aoki et al., 1986 Parkinson et al., 1988a Jia et al., 1994), the New World common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus) (Gebhard et al., 1993), and the Old World rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) (Bigham and Lidow, 1995). The alpha2 receptor shows a different distribution in cats alpha2 receptor density is lowest in layer VI (Jia et al., 1994), and in one study this receptor was only observed in a single band occupying layers II and III (Parkinson et al., 1988a). The laminar distribution pattern of NA fibers in the cat visual cortex resembles that of beta-adrenergic receptors, and differs from the distribution pattern of alpha-adrenergic receptors (Liu and Cynader, 1994), suggesting that beta-receptors are...
Last Updated on Fri, 08 May 2015 | Plasticity
These different nAChR subtypes not only serve distinct functions, but they show a different cortical distribution. Low-affinity nAChRs occur mainly within supragranular and infragranular layers, while high-affinity nAChRs are densest in the middle cortical layers (Clarke et al., 1985). Some nAChRs are located on thalamocortical afferent terminals primarily within cortical layer IV, but most receptors appear to be postsynaptic (Prusky et al., 1987 Parkinson et al., 1988b Lavine et al., 1997). Most nAChRs appear on pyramidal cells and spiny stellate cells and, at lower frequencies, on inhibitory interneurons. Subcellular localization on pyramidal cells emphasized receptor placement on cell bodies and apical dendrites (Zilles et al., 1989). dopamine 6-OHDA), shifts of ocular dominance were preserved. Conversely, dual ablation of ACh and NA transmission severely delayed this form of plasticity, suggesting a synergistic effect between acetylcholine and noradrenaline enabling this form of...
Last Updated on Sun, 13 Mar 2016 | Psychology Basics
Parkinson's disease is one of the most common neurological disorders, affecting one person in every thousand. James Parkinson, in 1817, aptly described some of the classic symptoms in his book An Essay on the Shaking Palsy. Parkinson reported the patients as having a chronic and progressive disorder of the nervous system that had a late-age onset, with the first mild symptoms not appearing until middle age. He also noted a tremor or shaking which typically appeared in the hand or one side and later spread to the other side. The disease progressed for a variable number of years, eventually leading to disability and death. A significant contribution was his ability to recognize the disorder as a disease distinct from previously described diseases. Although Parkinson's disease is thought of as a disease with its onset in middle age, there is a considerable variation in the age of onset, and there are other forms of the disease in addition to the classical form. The average age of onset...
Neural Cell Number
Last Updated on Thu, 12 May 2016 | Aging and Geriatrics
Aging affects nervous structures differentially. One striking example of this diversity involves neuronal loss. In the brain of old persons without apparent functional or pathologic deficits, loss of neurons is limited to discrete areas and shows considerable individual variability (35). In some areas of the cerebral cortex and in the cerebellum, the number of neurons remains essentially unchanged throughout life, except perhaps at very old ages (36). Other areas where losses may occur are the locus ceruleus (catecholaminergic neurons), the substantia nigra (dopaminergic neurons), the nucleus basalis of Meynert, and the hippocampus (cholinergic neurons). In all brain areas, neuronal loss appears modest compared to the redundancy of existing neurons. Although new neurons actually continue to form in some areas of the brain in adult primates (37), neuronal loss may become quite severe in some aging-associated diseases, as for example, the marked loss of cholinergic neurons in the...
Last Updated on Mon, 03 Sep 2018 | Infertility
Pergolide is a dopamine agonist used to treat Parkinson's disease. It is less commonly used than bromocriptine but appears to be as effective. Another dopamine agonist, not available in the United States, but with efficacy comparable to that of bromocriptine, is quinagolide.
N References
Freed CR, Leehey MA, Zawada M, et al. Do patients with Parkinson's disease benefit from embryonic dopamine cell transplantation J Neurol 2003 250(suppl 3) 44-46. 23. Weber W, Butcher J. Doubts over cell therapy for Parkinson's disease. Lancet 2001 357(9259) 859. 24. Vogel G. Parkinson's research fetal cell transplant trial draws fire. Science 2001 291(5511) 2060-2061. 39. Sian J, Gerlach M, Youdim MB, et al. Parkinson's disease a major hypokinetic basal ganglia disorder. J Neural Transm 1999 106(5-6) 443-476. 52. Forno LS. Neuropathology of Parkinson's disease. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1996 55(3) 259-272. 67. Andersen JK. What causes the build-up of ubiquitin-containing inclusions in Parkinson's disease Mech Ageing Dev 2000 118 (1-2) 15-22. 75. Andersen JK. Does neuronal loss in Parkinson's disease involve programmed cell death Bioessays 2001 23(7) 640-646. 80. Nadeau SE. Clinical decisions Parkinson's disease. J Am Geriatr Soc 1997 45(2) 233-240. 81. Gerlach M, Riederer P. Animal...
Clinical Need
Last Updated on Tue, 11 Jun 2019 | Tissue Engineering
Tions, including osteoporosis (10 million U.S. patients), Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases (5.5 million patients), severe burns (0.3 million), spinal cord injuries (0.25 million), and birth defects (0.15 million), as targets of regenerative medicine (Research, 2002).
Last Updated on Fri, 08 May 2015 | Personality Disorder
Anticholinergics are drugs of choice for acute dystonias and for drug-induced Parkinsonism. 4. Antiparkinsonian agents are usually initiated when a patient develops neuroleptic-related extrapyramidal side effects, but they may be given prophylactically in high-risk patients. The anticholinergic agent should be tapered and discontinued after one to six months if possible. Classification of Anticholinergic Antiparkinsonian Agents
Last Updated on Fri, 07 Apr 2017 | Metabolic Activation
Meperidine analogue, synthesized illegally, causes a syndrome similar to Parkinson's disease in both humans and monkeys. It does this by destroying the dopamine cell bodies in the substantia nigra area of the brain. After absorption into the brain MPTP is metabolized first to MPDP+ then to MPP+ by the enzyme monoamine oxidase B. These compounds, being charged, do not go back across the blood-brain barrier and remain trapped in the brain. MPP+ is taken up actively into the dopaminergic neurone and then into the mitochondria. The high concentrations reached in this organelle lead to inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation, depletion of GSH and increased cellular calcium. The result is the destruction of the dopaminergic neurones.
Primate research
Last Updated on Fri, 08 May 2015 | Cognitive Therapy
Today, the Yerkes laboratory is one of eight National Primate Research Centers funded by the National Institutes of Health. The goal of these centers is to establish nonhuman primate models of human health and disease for biomedical research. All of the current centers are affiliated with academic institutions. They are devoted to primate research related to major human diseases, such as AIDS, cancer, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and cardiovascular disease. At the Yerkes National Primate Research Center, current research interests include aging, AIDS, drug addiction, malaria, Parkinson's disease, transplantation, and vision disorders. They also include primate evolution and social behavior two subjects that have long been at the core of comparative psychology.
Other cytochemical studies have employed ISH to examine the distribution of mRNA for GAD65 and GAD67 155 . In the prefrontal cortex of patients with schizophrenia, a reduction in the number of cells expressing GAD67 mRNA has been reported by two different groups. More recently, a decrease in expression of GAD67 mRNA, but not that of GAD65, has been noted 156 . A variety of studies have suggested that GAD67 is regulated through transcriptional mechanisms. For example, increased expression of mRNA for this protein has been found in relation to lesioning of the substantia nigra 156 , or of climbing fibres of the cerebellum 157 , and in response to systemic treatment with kainic acid 158 . In contrast, expression of GAD65 159,160 and immunoreactivity for GAD65 protein appear to be relatively stable 161 and to be controlled primarily through post-trans-lational mechanisms 162 . In the hippocampus, ISH has shown decreased expression of GADg7 and GAD65 163 however, immunoreactivity for GAD65...
Last Updated on Wed, 27 Feb 2019 | Multiple Sclerosis
Pathologists and surgeons have measured water content for many decades, using biopsy or postmortem tissue. Although water content is intrinsically different from proton density, its measurement gives some confirmation that changes in PD measured in disease are approximately correct, and values are remarkably similar, particularly in white matter (see Tables 4.1 and 4.2). Nonetheless, there are two principle reasons why the value of water content can, in principle, differ from free PD (i.e. PD measured with MRI).
Neuroferritinopathy
Mon, 16 May 2016 | Haemolytic Anaemia
A previously unknown, dominantly inherited, late-onset basal ganglia disease, variably presenting with extrapyramidal features similar to those of Huntington's disease or Parkinsonism also shows iron accumulation in the forebrain and cerebellum. The disorder was mapped 19q13.3, which contains the gene for ferritin light-chain polypeptide (FTL). An adenine insertion at position 460-461 was found that was predicted to alter carboxy-terminal residues of the gene product. Abnormal aggregates of ferritin and iron in the brain contrasted with low serum ferritin levels. These diseases may serve as a model for complex neurodegen-erative diseases, such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's disease, in which accumulation of iron in the brain is also observed. Possession of the C282Y mutation of the HFE gene does not appear to be a risk factor for these conditions.
The Forebrain
Last Updated on Sun, 16 Jun 2019 | Psychology Basics | 1 comment
One system called the basal ganglia, which is most prominently involved in movements and muscle tone. The basal ganglia deteriorate in Parkinson's and Huntington's diseases, both disorders of motor activity. The three major structures of the basal ganglia are the caudate nucleus and putamen, which form the striatum, and the globus pallidus. The activities of the basal ganglia extend beyond motor control. The striatum, for instance, plays a significant role in the learning of habits as well as in obsessive-compulsive disorder, a disorder of excessive habits. In addition, disorders of memory, attention, and emotional expression (especially depression) frequently involve abnormal functioning of the basal ganglia.
Last Updated on Sat, 08 Sep 2018 | Prodrugs
If a drug is subject to extensive presystemic metabolism, it is likely that there will be high levels of metabolites generated and appearing in the systemic circulation. These metabolites may have pharmacologic effects or unwanted side effects. Another reason to strive for the greatest bioavailability is to reduce the exposure to metabolites and to limit the effects caused by metabolites. For example, oral administration of oxybutynin resulted in plasma AUC of des-ethyl-oxybutynin more than 10-fold greater than the plasma AUC of oxybutynin. Following oxybutynin administration using an alternative delivery method that reduced the extent of presystemic metabolism, the plasma AUC of the metabolite was only 2-fold greater than that of oxybutynin, and fewer systemic side effects resulted (Buyse et al.,1998). Similarly, Clarke et al. (2003) showed that plasma concentrations of selegiline metabolites were significantly reduced when selegiline was administered using a transmucosal delivery...
Sat, 07 Jan 2017 | Psychology Basics
The disease that subsequently became known as Parkinson's disease was called shaking palsy by Parkinson. The shaking refers to the tremor which, although it is thought by many people to be invariably associated with Parkinson's disease, may be completely absent, or present to a minor degree, in some patients. Four symptoms which are present in many patients are a progressive tremor, bradykinesia and even akinesia, muscular rigidity, and loss of postural reflexes. There still is no specific test that can be used to diagnose Parkinson's disease. No biochemical, electrophysiologic, or radiologic test has been found to be completely reliable. As a result, misdiagnosis and underdiagnosis have been common with the disease. The situation is complicated further as a number of other diseases and conditions share some of the same symptoms, including Wilson's disease, familial Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, and encephalitis, as well as responses to certain drugs. Symptoms of...
Parkinson's disease is an insidious, slow, progressive neurological condition that begins in middle to late life. It is characterized by tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and postural instability. Dementia is also present in 20 percent to 60 percent of those with Parkinson's disease. It is characterized by diminishing cognitive function, diminishing motor and executive function, and memory impairment. Lewy body disease is similar to Alzheimer's disease. Visual hallucinations and Parkinson's-like features progress quickly. Lewy bodies are found in the cerebral cortex. Patients exhibit psychotic symptoms and have a sensitivity to antipsychotic medications.
Basal Ganglia
Wed, 22 Feb 2017 | Brain Anatomy
The striatum is made up of caudate nucleus and putamen. Its volume is approximately 10 cc. The caudate nucleus and the putamen are connected to each other anteriorly, where the head of the former continues with the latter. Posteriorly, they are separated by the anterior limb of the internal capsule, while the posterior limb separates the putamen from the thalamus. The pallidus lies medially to the putamen. Putamen plus pallidus form the lentiform nucleus. The globus pallidus can be divided into an external and an internal segment, separated by the medial medullary lamina. The claustrum is a thin lamina of gray matter lying between the insular cortex and the striatum, separated from the former by the extreme capsule, and from the latter by the external capsule. The nucleus accumbens lies adjacent to the rostromedial part of the striatum. The subthalamic nucleus is situated in the most caudal part of the diencephalon, dorsomedial to the posterior limb of the internal capsule, overlying...
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