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Historical Basis
Theories of Matter
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During the Middle Ages there existed a kind of primitive science called alchemy. Its objective was to discover a substance called the philosophers' stone. This elusive material was thought to transform common metals such as lead into silver or gold. Another objective of the alchemists' researches was the "elixir of life"—a potion that would cure all diseases and prolong life indefinitely.
Alchemy was based on ideas passed along by older cultures, including Chinese, Egyptian, East Indian, Greek, Syrian, and Islamic. These ancient peoples had learned how to extract metals from ores and knew how to make alloys, soap, glass, leather, alum, dyes, and fermented liquors.
Many alchemists were impostors and fakers who pretended to be able to produce gold. Others, however, were honest. They performed practical experiments in their quest for the philosophers' stone. They never found it, but they made contributions to chemistry and developed laboratory techniques. By heating the compound iron sulfate, for example, they produced "oil of vitriol," which is known today as sulfuric acid. They made hydrochloric and nitric acid and compounds such as potash and sodium carbonate. They also identified the elements arsenic, antimony, and bismuth.
One of the ancient ideas held by the alchemists was that matter was composed of four "elements"—earth, air, fire, and water—which came from one common source. Matter was thought to have a soul, which could be transferred from one element to another by means of the philosophers' stone.
Some alchemists believed that gold was formed when fire and water combined, under planetary influences, in the depths of the Earth. If the resulting product was only slightly impure, it was thought to become silver. If it was markedly impure, a base metal such as lead was believed to result. If, however, fire and water could be brought together in states of superfine quality, the philosophers' stone would at last have been found.