Title: Paper
Subject: Pulp (paper), Economy of Chile, Tissue paper, Bookbinding, History of printing
Collection: Art Materials, Chinese Inventions, Materials, Packaging Materials, Paper, Paper Art, Papermaking, Printing Materials, Stationery, Writing Media
Different types of paper: carton, tissue paper
Paper is a thin material produced by pressing together moist fibres of cellulose pulp derived from wood, rags or grasses, and drying them into flexible sheets. It is a versatile material with many uses, including writing, printing, packaging, cleaning, and a number of industrial and construction processes.
It and the pulp papermaking process is said to have been developed in China during the early 2nd century AD, possibly as early as the year 105 A.D.,[1] by the Han court eunuch Cai Lun, although the earliest archaeological fragments of paper derive from the 2nd century BC in China.[2] The modern pulp and paper industry is global, with China leading its production and the United States right behind it.
Papermaking 3
Chemical pulping 3.1
Mechanical pulping 3.2
De-inked pulp 3.3
Additives 3.4
Producing paper 3.5
Types, thickness and weight 5
Paper stability 6
Environmental impact of paper 7
Future of paper 8
References and notes 10
Further reading 11
Hemp wrapping paper, China, circa 100 BC.
The oldest known archaeological fragments of the immediate precursor to modern paper, date to the 2nd century BC in China. The pulp papermaking process is ascribed to Cai Lun, a 2nd-century AD Han court eunuch.[2] With paper as an effective substitute for silk in many applications, China could export silk in greater quantity, contributing to a Golden Age.
Its knowledge and uses spread from China through the Middle East to medieval Europe in the 13th century, where the first water powered paper mills were built.[3] Because of paper's introduction to the West through the city of Baghdad, it was first called bagdatikos.[4] In the 19th century, industrial manufacture greatly lowered its cost, enabling mass exchange of information and contributing to significant cultural shifts. In 1844, the Canadian inventor Charles Fenerty and the German F. G. Keller independently developed processes for pulping wood fibres.[5]
The word "paper" is etymologically derived from Latin papyrus, which comes from the Greek πάπυρος (papuros), the word for the Cyperus papyrus plant.[6][7] Papyrus is a thick, paper-like material produced from the pith of the Cyperus papyrus plant, which was used in ancient Egypt and other Mediterranean cultures for writing before the introduction of paper into the Middle East and Europe.[8] Although the word paper is etymologically derived from papyrus, the two are produced very differently and the development of the first is distinct from the development of the second. Papyrus is a lamination of natural plant fibres, while paper is manufactured from fibres whose properties have been changed by maceration.[2]
To make pulp from wood, a chemical pulping process separates lignin from cellulose fibres. This is accomplished by dissolving lignin in a cooking liquor, so that it may be washed from the cellulose; this preserves the length of the cellulose fibres. Paper made from chemical pulps are also known as wood-free papers–not to be confused with tree-free paper; this is because they do not contain lignin, which deteriorates over time. The pulp can also be bleached to produce white paper, but this consumes 5% of the fibres; chemical pulping processes are not used to make paper made from cotton, which is already 90% cellulose.
The microscopic structure of paper: Micrograph of paper autofluorescing under ultraviolet illumination. The individual fibres in this sample are around 10 µm in diameter.
There are three main chemical pulping processes: the Soda pulping is another specialty process used to pulp straws, bagasse and hardwoods with high silicate content.
There are two major mechanical pulps, the thermomechanical one (TMP) and groundwood pulp (GW). In the TMP process, wood is chipped and then fed into large steam heated refiners, where the chips are squeezed and converted to fibres between two steel discs. In the groundwood process, debarked logs are fed into grinders where they are pressed against rotating stones to be made into fibres. Mechanical pulping does not remove the lignin, so the yield is very high, >95%, however it causes the paper thus produced to turn yellow and become brittle over time. Mechanical pulps have rather short fibres, thus producing weak paper. Although large amounts of electrical energy are required to produce mechanical pulp, it costs less than the chemical kind.
De-inked pulp
Paper recycling processes can use either chemically or mechanically produced pulp; by mixing it with water and applying mechanical action the hydrogen bonds in the paper can be broken and fibres separated again. Most recycled paper contains a proportion of virgin fibre for the sake of quality; generally speaking, de-inked pulp is of the same quality or lower than the collected paper it was made from.
There are three main classifications of recycled fibre:.
Mill broke or internal mill waste – This incorporates any substandard or grade-change paper made within the paper mill itself, which then goes back into the manufacturing system to be re-pulped back into paper. Such out-of-specification paper is not sold and is therefore often not classified as genuine reclaimed recycled fibre, however most paper mills have been reusing their own waste fibre for many years, long before recycling become popular.
Preconsumer waste – This is offcut and processing waste, such as guillotine trims and envelope blank waste; it is generated outside the paper mill and could potentially go to landfill, and is a genuine recycled fibre source; it includes de-inked preconsumer (recycled material that has been printed but did not reach its intended end use, such as waste from printers and unsold publications).[9]
Postconsumer waste – This is fibre from paper that has been used for its intended end use and includes office waste, magazine papers and newsprint. As the vast majority of this material has been printed – either digitally or by more conventional means such as lithography or rotogravure – it will either be recycled as printed paper or go through a de-inking process first.
Recycled papers can be made from 100% recycled materials or blended with virgin pulp, although they are (generally) not as strong nor as bright as papers made from the latter.
Besides the fibres, pulps may contain fillers such as chalk or china clay, which improve its characteristics for printing or writing. Additives for sizing purposes may be mixed with it and/or applied to the paper web later in the manufacturing process; the purpose of such sizing is to establish the correct level of surface absorbency to suit ink or paint.
Producing paper
The pulp is fed to a paper machine where it is formed as a paper web and the water is removed from it by pressing and drying.
Pressing the sheet removes the water by force; once the water is forced from the sheet, a special kind of felt, which is not to be confused with the traditional one, is used to collect the water; whereas when making paper by hand, a blotter sheet is used instead.
Drying involves using air and/or heat to remove water from the paper sheets; in the earliest days of paper making this was done by hanging the sheets like laundry; in more modern times various forms of heated drying mechanisms are used. On the paper machine the most common is the steam heated can dryer. These can reach temperatures above 200 °F (93 °C) and are used in long sequences of more than 40 cans; where the heat produced by these can easily dry the paper to less than 6% moisture.
The paper may then undergo sizing to alter its physical properties for use in various applications.
Paper at this point is uncoated. Coated paper has a thin layer of material such as calcium carbonate or china clay applied to one or both sides in order to create a surface more suitable for high-resolution halftone screens. (Uncoated papers are rarely suitable for screens above 150 lpi.) Coated or uncoated papers may have their surfaces polished by calendering. Coated papers are divided into matte, semi-matte or silk, and gloss. Gloss papers give the highest optical density in the printed image.
The paper is then fed onto reels if it is to be used on web printing presses, or cut into sheets for other printing processes or other purposes. The fibres in the paper basically run in the machine direction. Sheets are usually cut "long-grain", i.e. with the grain parallel to the longer dimension of the sheet.
All paper produced by paper machines as the Fourdrinier Machine are wove paper, i.e. the wire mesh that transports the web leaves a pattern that has the same density along the paper grain and across the grain. Textured finishes, watermarks and wire patterns imitating hand-made laid paper can be created by the use of appropriate rollers in the later stages of the machine.
Wove paper does not exhibit "laidlines", which are small regular lines left behind on paper when it was handmade in a mould made from rows of metal wires or bamboo. Laidlines are very close together. They run perpendicular to the "chainlines", which are further apart. Handmade paper similarly exhibits "deckle edges", or rough and feathery borders.[10]
Paper can be produced with a wide variety of properties, depending on its intended use.
For representing value: paper money, bank note, cheque, security (see security paper), voucher and ticket
For storing information: book, notebook, magazine, newspaper, art, zine, letter
For personal use: diary, note to remind oneself, etc.; for temporary personal use: scratch paper
For communication: between individuals and/or groups of people.
For packaging: corrugated box, paper bag, envelope, Packing & Wrapping Paper, Paper string, Charta emporetica and wallpaper
For cleaning: toilet paper, handkerchiefs, paper towels, facial tissue and cat litter
For construction: papier-mâché, origami, paper planes, quilling, paper honeycomb, used as a core material in composite materials, paper engineering, construction paper and paper clothing
For other uses: emery paper, sandpaper, blotting paper, litmus paper, universal indicator paper, paper chromatography, electrical insulation paper (see also dielectric and permittivity) and filter paper
Types, thickness and weight
Card and paper stock for crafts use comes in a wide variety of textures and colors.
The thickness of paper is often measured by caliper, which is typically given in thousandths of an inch in the United States and in thousandths of a mm in the rest of the world.[11] Paper may be between 0.07 and 0.18 millimetres (0.0028 and 0.0071 in) thick.[12]
Paper is often characterized by weight. In the United States, the weight assigned to a paper is the weight of a ream, 500 sheets, of varying "basic sizes", before the paper is cut into the size it is sold to end customers. For example, a ream of 20 lb, 8.5 in × 11 in (216 mm × 279 mm) paper weighs 5 pounds, because it has been cut from a larger sheet into four pieces.[13] In the United States, printing paper is generally 20 lb, 24 lb, or 32 lb at most. Cover stock is generally 68 lb, and 110 lb or more is considered card stock.
In Europe, and other regions using the ISO 216 paper sizing system, the weight is expressed in grammes per square metre (g/m2 or usually just g) of the paper. Printing paper is generally between 60 g and 120 g. Anything heavier than 160 g is considered card. The weight of a ream therefore depends on the dimensions of the paper and its thickness.
Most commercial paper sold in North America is cut to standard paper sizes based on customary units and is defined by the length and width of a sheet of paper.
The ISO 216 system used in most other countries is based on the surface area of a sheet of paper, not on a sheet's width and length. It was first adopted in Germany in 1922 and generally spread as nations adopted the metric system. The largest standard size paper is A0 (A zero), measuring one square meter (approx. 1189 × 841 mm). Two sheets of A1, placed upright side by side fit exactly into one sheet of A0 laid on its side. Similarly, two sheets of A2 fit into one sheet of A1 and so forth. Common sizes used in the office and the home are A4 and A3 (A3 is the size of two A4 sheets).
The density of paper ranges from 250 kg/m3 (16 lb/cu ft) for tissue paper to 1,500 kg/m3 (94 lb/cu ft) for some speciality paper. Printing paper is about 800 kg/m3 (50 lb/cu ft).[14]
Paper may be classified into seven categories:[15]
Printing papers of wide variety.
Wrapping papers for the protection of goods and merchandise. This includes wax and kraft papers.
Writing paper suitable for stationery requirements. This includes ledger, bank, and bond paper.
Blotting papers containing little or no size.
Drawing papers usually with rough surfaces used by artists and designers, including cartridge paper.
Handmade papers including most decorative papers, Ingres papers, Japanese paper and tissues, all characterized by lack of grain direction.
Specialty papers including cigarette paper, toilet tissue, and other industrial papers.
Some paper types include:
Book paper
Coated paper: glossy and matte surface
Construction paper/sugar paper
Cotton paper
Fish paper (vulcanized fibres for electrical insulation)
Laid paper
Leather paper
Mummy paper
Oak Tag Paper
Tyvek paper
Wove paper
Xuan paper
Paper stability
Much of the early paper made from wood pulp contained significant amounts of alum, a variety of aluminium sulfate salts that is significantly acidic. Alum was added to paper to assist in sizing,[16] making it somewhat water resistant so that inks did not "run" or spread uncontrollably. Early papermakers did not realize that the alum they added liberally to cure almost every problem encountered in making their product would eventually be detrimental.[17] The cellulose fibres that make up paper are hydrolyzed by acid, and the presence of alum would eventually degrade the fibres until the paper disintegrated in a process that has come to be known as "slow fire". Documents written on rag paper were significantly more stable. The use of non-acidic additives to make paper is becoming more prevalent, and the stability of these papers is less of an issue.
Paper made from mechanical pulp contains significant amounts of lignin, a major component in wood. In the presence of light and oxygen, lignin reacts to give yellow materials,[18] which is why newsprint and other mechanical paper yellows with age. Paper made from bleached kraft or sulfite pulps does not contain significant amounts of lignin and is therefore better suited for books, documents and other applications where whiteness of the paper is essential.
Paper made from wood pulp is not necessarily less durable than a rag paper. The ageing behavior of a paper is determined by its manufacture, not the original source of the fibres.[19] Furthermore, tests sponsored by the Library of Congress prove that all paper is at risk of acid decay, because cellulose itself produces formic, acetic, lactic and oxalic acids.[20]
Mechanical pulping yields almost a tonne of pulp per tonne of dry wood used, which is why mechanical pulps are sometimes referred to as "high yield" pulps. With almost twice the yield as chemical pulping, mechanical pulps is often cheaper. Mass-market paperback books and newspapers tend to use mechanical papers. Book publishers tend to use acid-free paper, made from fully bleached chemical pulps for hardback and trade paperback books.
Environmental impact of paper
The production and use of paper has a number of adverse effects on the environment.
Worldwide consumption of paper has risen by 400% in the past 40 years leading to increase in deforestation, with 35% of harvested trees being used for paper manufacture. Most paper companies also plant trees to help regrow forests. Logging of old growth forests accounts for less than 10% of wood pulp,[21] but is one of the most controversial issues.
Paper waste accounts for up to 40% of total waste produced in the United States each year, which adds up to 71.6 million tons of paper waste per year in the United States alone.[22] The average office worker in the US prints 31 pages every day.[23] Americans also use on the order of 16 billion paper cups per year.
Conventional bleaching of wood pulp using elemental chlorine produces and releases into the environment large amounts of
Use dmy dates from August 2014
Writing media
Chinese inventions
Articles in WorldHeritage Primary School Project SSAJRP
Lumber/
Bressummer
Cruck
Flitch beam
Joist
Purlin
Timber truss
Treenail
Utility pole
Glued laminated timber
parallel strand
Oriented strand board
Oriented structural straw board
Structural insulated panel
Wood-plastic composite
Fuelwood
Pellet fuel
Corrugated fiberboard
Birch-tar
Wood gas
Barkdust
Black liquor
Ramial chipped wood
Tall oil
Wood flour
Woodchips
Axe ties
Dugout canoe
Sawdust brandy
Split-rail fence
Tanbark
Timber framing
Wooden masts
Certified wood
Destructive distillation
Dry distillation
List of woods
Wood drying
Wood preservation
Forestry portal
Trees portal
Active packaging
Child-resistant packaging
Modified atmosphere/modified humidity packaging
Package pilferage
Tamper resistance
Wrap rage
Aluminium bottle
Aluminum can
Antistatic bag
Bags and flexible containers
Biodegradable bag
Corrugated box design
Flexible intermediate bulk container
Foam food container
Folding carton
Insulated shipping container
Matryoshka doll
Oyster pail
Packet (container)
Padded mailer
Paper sack
Popcorn bag
Retort pouch
Security bag
Self-heating can
Self-heating food packaging
Shaker-style pantry box
Skin pack
Unit load
Materials and
Bioplastic
Biodegradable plastic
Bung
Corrugated plastic
Double seam
Foam peanut
Hot-melt adhesive
Linear low-density polyethylene
Liquid packaging board
Low-density polyethylene
Metallised film
Modified atmosphere
Molded pulp
Packaging gas
Paper pallet
Pressure-sensitive tape
Screw cap (wine)
Security printing
Shock detector
Shock and vibration data logger
Staple (fastener)
Susceptor
Tear tape
Time temperature indicator
Velostat
Automatic identification and data capture
Blow fill seal
Curtain Coating
Electronic article surveillance
Hermetic seal
Plastics extrusion
Radio-frequency identification
Roll slitting
Shearing (manufacturing)
Can seamer
Extended core stretch wrapper
Heat sealer
Industrial robot
Label printer applicator
Lineshaft roller conveyor
Mechanical brake stretch wrapper
Multihead weigher
Orbital stretch wrapping
Rotary wheel blow molding systems
Shrink tunnel
Turntable stretch wrapper
Vertical form fill sealing machine
post-use
Glass recycling
Label Construction
Die cutting (web)
In-mould labelling
Pressure sensitive adhesive
Release liner
Cigarette warning label
EU energy label
Food labeling regulations
Mandatory labelling
United Kingdom food labeling regulations
Wine label
Packaging and labeling
Decorative arts and handicrafts
Banner-making
Lace-making
Lucet
Spinning (textiles)
Altered book
Cast paper
Iris folding
Moneygami
Papercutting
Pop-up book
Chip carving
Cameo glass
Engraved gems
Hardstone carving
Lathart
Lapidary
Micromosaic
Pressed flower craft
Straw marquetry
Manufacture/Papermaking
Dó
Tree-free
Wood-free
Fiber crop
Paper chemicals
Wood pulp
Algal bloom (Shiro alga carta)
Units of paper quantity
Surface chemistry of paper
Manufacture and Process
Bleaching of wood pulp
Conical refiner
Deinking
Paper pollution
Hollander beater
Kraft process
Organosolv
Soda pulping
Sulfite process
List of paper mills
In Canada
Paper data storage media
Writing on papyrus (c.3000 BCE)
Paper (105 CE)
Railroad/Transit Punch Photograph (1880s)
Punched card (1890)
Edge-notched card (1896)
Optical mark recognition
Optical character recognition (1929)
Barcode (1948)
Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) official website
Paper at Encyclopædia Britannica
How is paper made? at The Straight Dope, 22 November 2005
Thirteen-minute video on modern paper production system, from Sappi
Alexander Monro, The Paper Trail: An Unexpected History of the World's Greatest Invention, Allen Lane, 2014
"Document Doubles" in Detecting the Truth: Fakes, Forgeries and Trickery, a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
^ Hogben, Lancelot. "Printing, Paper and Playing Cards". Bennett, Paul A. (ed.) Books and Printing: A Treasury for Typophiles. New York: The World Publishing Company, 1951. pp. 15–31. p. 17. & Mann, George. Print: A Manual for Librarians and Students Describing in Detail the History, Methods, and Applications of Printing and Paper Making. London: Grafton & Co., 1952. p. 77
^ a b c Tsien 1985, p. 38
^ Burns 1996, pp. 417f.
^ Murray, Stuart A. P. The Library: An illustrated History. Skyhorse Publishing, 2009, p. 57.
^ Burger, Peter. Charles Fenerty and his Paper Invention. Toronto: Peter Burger, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9783318-1-8 pp. 25–30
^ πάπυρος, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus
^ papyrus, on Oxford Dictionaries
^ Natural Resource Defense Council
^ "Document Doubles" in [1], a virtual museum exhibition at Library and Archives Canada
^ "Paper Thickness Chart", Case Paper Company Inc.
^ "Thickness of a Piece of Paper", hyperTextbook.com
^ McKenzie, Bruce G., The Hammermill Guide to Desktop Publishing in Business, p. 144, Hammermill Papers, 1989.
^ Groll, T. 2015 In vielen Büros wird unnötig viel ausgedruckt, Zeit Online, 20 June 2015.
^ PaperFoam Carbon Friendly Packaging
^ Barrier compositions and articles produced with the compositions cross-reference to related application
arches paper
buckypaper
deinked pulp
fibre crop
graphene oxide paper
lokta paper
paper and ink testing
paper armour
paper engineering
paper size, sizing
papier "paper" in French or German
parchment paper, a form of paper made to emulate the texture of animal-based parchment
roll hardness tester
Also, synthetics such as Tyvek and Teslin have been introduced as printing media as a more durable material than paper.
With increasing environmental concerns about synthetic coatings (such as PFOA) and the higher prices of hydrocarbon based petrochemicals, there is a focus on zein (corn protein) as a coating for paper in high grease applications such as popcorn bags.[27]
Some manufacturers have started using a new, significantly more environmentally friendly alternative to expanded plastic packaging. Made out of paper, and known commercially as paperfoam, the new packaging has very similar mechanical properties to some expanded plastic packaging, but is biodegradable and can also be recycled with ordinary paper.[26]
Future of paper
Paper, Ancient Egypt, Berlin, British Museum, Sudan
Cotton, Paper, Starch, Rayon, Forestry
Embroidery, Mathematics, Textile arts, Knitting, Sewing
China, Paper, Damascus, Europe, Tang Dynasty
Pulp (paper)
Paper, Cellulose, Papermaking, Forestry, Paper recycling
Economy of Chile
Copper, Paper, Forestry, Chile, Transport
Paper, Crêpe paper, Energy, Pulp (paper), United States
Paper, Book, Papyrus, Leather, Embroidery
Paper, Printing, Etching, Printmaking, Copper