Why are we programmed to think meat is for men?
Laura Brehaut: In considering the masculine prerogative to eat meat and understanding the cultural forces at play, we can better understand what's driving our dietary choices
"Cultivating an understanding of how our food choices are connected to the past and casting aside ingrained gender norms may seem easier said than done."Getty Images
American model Charlotte McKinney weaves her way through a farmers' market, apparently au naturel. Heirloom tomatoes stand in for her buttocks, which get a squeeze from the beefy hand of a bystander as she strolls through the frame. Two melons emulate her breasts as she stands in front of an analog produce scale. "I love going all natural. It just makes me feel better," McKinney says in the Carl's Jr. 2015 Super Bowl spot, as various men ogle all the while. "Nothing between me and my 100 per cent all natural, juicy, grass-fed beef." As she stops to face the camera, now clad in a triangle bikini top and shorts with a monstrous burger in hand, she opens her mouth wide. The fully loaded burger dominates the scene, obscuring her face from chin to eyelashes as she takes a bite.
You don't have to be a cultural studies scholar or a former AdBusters subscriber to get the intended message from this Carl's Jr. commercial: meat is for men. While it may be tempting to criticize the brand for its lewd messaging, Carl's Jr. is hardly the only brand to use masculine tropes – nearly naked women, blatantly sexual imagery and juicy meat – to tell their story. Fast-food restaurants run advertising campaigns that crudely hint at oral sex: Burger King's "long, juicy and flame-grilled" burger floating in front a woman's parted lips (taglined with: "It'll blow your mind," just in case you missed it). In an Arby's ad that ran in a recent Sports Illustrated swimsuit issue, feminine hands are shown clutching a pair of oversized bacon and cheddar roast beef sandwiches representing breasts, with the tagline: "We're about to reveal something you'll really drool over."
When it comes to views of meat-eating in the West, masculine symbolism isn't relegated to attention-seeking commercials and advertisements. It is as persistent as it is prevalent. In A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste (1984), French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu refers to men as "the natural meat-eaters." When it comes to hors d'oeuvres, he writes, men eat charcuterie while the likes of crudités and salad are more aligned with women's tastes: "Meat, the nourishing food par excellence, strong and strong-making, giving vigour, blood, and health, is the dish for the men, who take a second helping, whereas the women are satisfied with a small portion."
Naturally, food culture has changed enormously since the 1980s. But just as many classic food fads live on in the 21st century – pudding pops, sloppy joes and spinach dip served in a bread bowl – so, too, does the concept of gendered food. According to Psychology Today, "Recent studies demonstrate that North Americans still perceive 'lighter' foods as female and 'heavy' foods, especially meat, as male."
While women might feel social pressure to eat "lightly" – small servings and/or foods with "healthy" connotations – men may choose to eat meat "at least in part because it makes them feel manly, despite their knowledge of the potential health risks." For men in Western society, following a meatless diet can be met with scrutiny. In certain social settings, as Jemál Nath explored in a study published in the Journal of Sociology, "vegetarianism is characterized as effeminate, and lacking the essential ingredients for being a 'real' man." Likewise, stereotypes related to the gendered division of cookery are widely held today: women cook and men command the grill.
Certainly, there is nothing wrong with a family barbecue in which Dad grills the steak and Mom makes the side dishes or prepares the desert. This is how generations of people have shared food and experiences. However, according to authors, researchers and scientists, the socialized association we draw between masculinity and meat – and the further gendering of our food consumption – poses several risks to how we perceive one another, our predilection toward tribalism and the nutrition we derive from our food choices.
When it was first published almost three decades ago, The New York Times called The Sexual Politics of Meat (Bloomsbury Academic) "a bible of the vegan community." Meanwhile, conservative pundits such as Rush Limbaugh denigrated it as they claimed to "love-hating it."
Author Carol J. Adams says that, at the time, some regarded her book as commentary on a passing trend. Twenty-eight years later, the connections she made between carnivorism and the perception of virility in the Western world have only become more reinforced. "In the culture that we're living in right now, there is a slippery and deliberate confusion concerning who or what we're eating. And it ties misogyny to oppression of animals," says Adams.
As Adams posited in The Sexual Politics of Meat, both women and animals are commonly presented in popular media as entities to be consumed. In her latest book, Burger (Bloomsbury Academic), she uses Hustler's June 1978 cover as an example of the phenomenon. The infamous magazine front bears a "Last all meat issue—Prime—Grade 'A' Pink" meat inspection stamp and a quote from founder Larry Flynt: "We will no longer hang women up like pieces of meat" (no doubt in response to concerns voiced by feminists at the time). The lower half of a naked, well-oiled woman is pictured protruding from a meat grinder, her head and torso presumably already minced.
Pop culture is rife with such parallels. Global restaurant chain Nando's created a direct association between women and chicken in a 2016 ad campaign that caused an uproar in India. "We don't mind if you touch our buns, or breasts, or even our thighs," the ad reads. "Whatever you're into, enjoying any Nando's meal with your hands is always recommended."
In the culture that we're living in right now, there is a slippery and deliberate confusion concerning who or what we're eating.
Carol J. Adams
"One of the interesting things to me is with the whole #MeToo movement. You've got all this wonderful speaking out going on with women," Adams says. "But when you look at the other side of the species barrier, so many of the ways that animals are presented – cows and pigs and other animals – they're like the anti-#MeToo movement. They want you to want them in these representations."
In what's referred to as "the linked oppression thesis," Adams and other ecofeminists contend that all oppression is linked. From the way we regard the environment to the treatment of minority groups, oppression exists when power is unjustly used to avert the equality of others. In a recent study published in Feminism & Psychology, lead author Ashley Allcorn and professor Shirley Ogletree of Texas State University looked specifically at the connection between the oppression of women and the oppression of animals. "The idea behind linked oppression is that just because animals aren't the same as humans and just because women aren't the same as men doesn't mean that oppression is justified in either case," Ogletree says.
In their survey of more than 700 undergraduate students (260 males, 484 females) at a university in Texas, Allcorn and Ogletree found correlations between a pro-meat-eating stance and sexist views, while pro-animal attitudes connected to people who wanted to move beyond male-female dichotomies. "Essentially, all we can argue from our research is that the two are related. That people who tend to have more domineering attitudes towards animals, less sympathetic attitudes towards animals, also tend to regard women as different and tend to regard men and women as different from each other," Ogletree explains. "In other words, (they) tend to support traditional roles and sexist attitudes versus egalitarian or gender transcendent attitudes."
The claim is not "every person that eats meat is sexist," Allcorn clarifies, but rather that animal and gender attitudes tend to go together. Since their study is the first of its kind, she says that more research is needed before sweeping claims can be made about why the connection exists.
Anne DeLessio-Parson, visiting assistant professor at Willamette University, also identified a connection between meat-eating and masculinity in a study published late last year in the Journal of Feminist Geography. In analyzing 23 interviews with vegetarians in Argentina, DeLessio-Parson discovered that vegetarian men in particular were "much more open" to discussions of feminism and equal rights for women. There are several theories that address why this connection between gender and carnivorous attitudes exists in Western society. Masculinity tropes persist, in part, DeLessio-Parson says, because they satisfy a desire to feel connected to our roots.
Previous ads from Arby's, Burger King. Arby's/BK
We're socialized to recognize men cooking meat on the grill as integral to interactions with family or friends. In Argentina, she found that vegetarianism destabilized these ideas by raising questions about what's on the grill, who does the grilling and who prepares meals in the kitchen. "If we can think of (the barbecue) not as just this demonstration of hegemonic masculinity but instead as an opportunity to connect and to share … that's where the hard work is – in changing our social interactions," DeLessio-Parson says.
Eating meat is also imbued with religious, health and evolutionary attitudes, Ogletree says. The idea that we've evolved to eat meat – and that men have more power in Western society because they were more likely to do the hunting – is long-standing. That link between masculinity and meat-eating is then strengthened and reinforced through perpetual portrayals in popular culture.
In a time of peak political polarization, approaching the topic of meat-eating and how it relates to gender can feel like a minefield. Conversations around vegetarianism or veganism are often fraught to begin with, and the public response to studies such as these tends to drive people further into their respective corners rather than open minds to new ideas. This is because food is much more than sustenance, DeLessio-Parson says – it's political: "Eating practices are very much part of the system. And even opting out of the dominant system, that's a political act."
Allcorn, whose family is involved in the cattle industry in Texas, says that in publishing their "significant findings," they unsurprisingly garnered attention from the beef industry. In response to the study, Amanda Radke wrote on Beef Magazine's blog: "now how in the world do we address this viewpoint? It's very tied to the extremes of our nation's politics right now, so if you're a meat-eater, you must also be an alt-right conservative, misogynist, patriarchal racist (or whatever other derogatory stereotypes you would want to throw in there)."
"Anything that is associated with liberalism or conservatism stops the conversation. And I think that's a big piece of why there's a strong reaction (to meat-related discussions). Oftentimes, plant-based, vegetarian conversations around sexism (are) associated with this leftist view. And so…it becomes pointing fingers, which is unfortunate," Allcorn says. "Right now, more than (ever), it's important to have those kinds of conversations. You can be a meat-eater or work in the cattle industry but still be aware of these connections, and think about the way that you're producing meat or advertising what you're producing…in a critical way."
In a time of peak political polarization, approaching the topic of meat-eating and how it relates to gender can feel like a minefield.
Similar to Allcorn and Ogletree's study, DeLessio-Parson's research evoked a powerful response. During her appearance on Fox News TV program Watters' World, host Jesse Watters devoured a steak while they debated how eating meat perpetuates myths attached to masculinity. "It's a comedy show. I wasn't thinking that there'd be a ton of space to sit and talk about what patriarchy is and how it operates. And… I had no knowledge that they were going to bring a steak out on the air," DeLessio-Parson says. "But … I think it illustrated how meat is connected with toxic masculinity. Jesse Watters played the trope of the white male capitalist eating meat more perfectly than I could have asked for."
In Burger, Adams touches on this subject by focusing on the identity of the ubiquitous sandwich. Emblazoned on the cover – in a sanguine palette – is an illustration of the "single portion protein patty." But all is not as it seems. This is not just any burger – it's an Impossible one. Vegetarians and vegans are not the target market for the innovative, plant-based Impossible Burger – meat-eaters are. The patty sizzles and bleeds, and has a meaty aroma, taste and texture. Developed by a Silicon Valley startup, this meaty mimicry is accomplished without a hint of actual animal flesh.
In the West, the mere mention of plant-based burgers or other meat replacements can elicit an eruptive response. The American cattle industry is attempting to bar the use of meat-related terms such as bacon and hamburger to describe vegan products. Under new legislation in France, only animal-derived foods shall bear names such as sausage and steak.
"You've got this defensiveness that comes in. And you wonder, how is it masculine to eat the flesh of one of the mildest animals there is: the bovine, the cow?" Adams asks. "The cow is a herbivore. You're not eating the dead flesh of some triumphantly killed lion carnivore. You're eating an animal who was not a threat. … How is this courageous? How is this masculine in the first place?"
Taken to the extreme, equating meat-eating with manliness can even be physically disastrous. From colon cancer to heart disease, many studies have identified associations between eating red meat and serious health consequences. Harvard Men's Health Watch notes that, although the body of research doesn't prove "a cause-and-effect relationship," the findings of many studies are congruous and strongly suggest "that red meat consumption does contribute to chronic diseases." The conclusion: "it's reasonable to moderate your meat intake and observe a few meat-free days per week."
Despite the evidence supporting moderation, the scale of meat-eating around the world is set to increase. As Bloomberg reports, Americans alone are on track to consume a record amount of red meat and poultry in 2018. Animal products reign supreme despite the fact that "any health benefits may be outweighed by the sheer volume of meat, eggs and dairy being consumed."
On the extreme end of this meat-fuelled trend is a growing global tribe of "carnivore dieters." Plant-based foods are off the menu for proponents, who rely solely on animal products such as eggs, meat and offal. Known as the "Carnivore King," trained orthopedic surgeon Shawn Baker has become the poster boy for the movement. At 51 years old, Baker describes himself as a "drug- and hormone-free athlete/strict carnivore."
Masculinity tropes persist, in part, because they satisfy a desire to feel connected to our roots.
According to The Guardian, Baker has eaten roughly four pounds (1.8 kg) of meat every day for the past 18 months. A social media sensation, his Instagram following is approaching 35,000. Baker says adhering to the carnivore diet is simple since it doesn't involve meal-planning or calorie-counting: "I just have to think: how hungry am I and how many steaks do I want to eat." Fans of the lifestyle claim benefits ranging from an increased sex drive to reduced inflammation. "My joint pain and tendinitis went away, my sleep became excellent, my skin improved. I no longer had any bloating, cramping or other digestive problems, my libido went back to what it was in my 20s and my blood pressure normalized," he told The Guardian.
Saifedean Ammous, a self-described "bitcoin carnivore," told The Guardian that the most trying aspect of the diet is how non-carnivores react to it. "Many carnivores encounter hostility," he reportedly said. "It's quite startling that when I used to eat junk food all the time, nobody ever got offended or worried by my diet, but they can get really agitated when I tell them I don't think plants are good for me!"
Health and nutrition experts, meanwhile, have deemed the carnivore diet "too ridiculous to be covered" and "inappropriate for human health, bad for the health of our planet, abusive of the human labour force that handles the preparation of meat, abusive of animal rights and welfare."
On the other end of the spectrum, health specialists have expressed concern about excessive dieting, which they say is related to the booming plant-based "clean eating" trend. Orthorexia – a disruptive and detrimental obsession with eating "healthy" foods – is on the rise in Canada and elsewhere. It hasn't been classified as a clinical eating disorder, but according to CityNews, many working in the field have identified a marked increase in sufferers. And social media – with its focus on #cleaneating and #fitspiration – is thought to be the spark. "Platforms like Instagram where there's a desire to take pictures of beautiful fresh food that's photographed well contributes to that focus," dietitian Nicole Dynan told Daily Mail Australia. "It can fuel the fire."
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When it comes to eating in a manner that works for you, whether your priority is weight reduction, optimizing overall health, sustainability or animal welfare, one thing is clear: the answer isn't universal. But in considering the masculine prerogative to eat meat and understanding the cultural forces at play, we can better understand what's driving our dietary choices. From the 1,420-calorie Thickburger to vascular villain the Whopper, the desire to super-size meat products shows how hellbent the fast-food world is on plying males with animal protein, regardless of whether or not any human requires more than 100 grams of fat in a single sitting (they don't).
As women enter previously male-dominated arenas, we've seen a return to the enduring trope in Western culture, which is that men eat meat. "What they're trying to tip it towards is, 'Oh, the way you resolve that is just reassert your masculinity,'" Adams says. "But there could be another way to solve it. And it's to uncouple masculinity from what you're eating – or who you're eating – and find that this gender binary is false."
Cultivating an understanding of how our food choices are connected to the past and casting aside ingrained gender norms may seem easier said than done. However, there's much to be gained by rethinking what's in the hamburger bun and on the grill, and who is doing the food preparation. Staples of our food culture – burgers, hot dogs and steaks – may seem fixed. But in being mindful of their history, symbolism and significance, and interrogating the messages of popular media, we're taking steps towards a more equitable future.
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