Pre-Achaemenid Era
Achaemenid Era
کوروش بزرگ -Cyrus the Great & the Cyrus Cylinder
Parthian Era & Pontus-Cappadocia
Sassanian Era
Firdowsi & the Shahname
The Women of Persia
Learning, Science, Knowledge, Technology & Medicine
Language, Literature, Education, Music & the Arts
Iranian Studies & Recent Developments
Pictures & Memories of Iran
Persianate Civilizations
Iran & Caucasia
People of Iran & Origins
Azarbaijan & Arran (Modern Republic of Azerbaijan)
Iran, China, India & Asia
Turco-Iranian Civilization
Iran & the Persian Gulf
The Kurds
Europa and Eire-An (Ancient Iran/Persia)
Culture, Mythology & Nowruz
Iran's Legacy in Islamic and Arabian Civilizations
Eurocentricism or Nordicism
Pan-Arabism, Wahhabism & Talibanism
Pan-Turkism or Pan-Altaism
Iranian Leftists, Pan-Islamists and Tehranism
Endangered Archaeological Sites and Artifacts
Iran at War: 1500-1988-(ایران در جنگ (۱۹۸۸-۱۵۰۰-
Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War-Персы: Армия великих царей-سایه‌های صحرا-
Elite Sassanian Cavalry-اسواران ساسانی-
Background & Ancestry
Seminars at US & European Universities
University of British Columbia-Continuing Studies (2004-2018)
Nobel-Prize Nominated WAALM-SCD
Tribute by University of British Columbia 2012
WAALM's Nomination for 2011 NOBEL PEACE PRIZE
Wall Street Journal & Reuters 2011
Peer-Reviewed Quarderni Asiatici Journal of Italy 2011
Peer-reviewed Iranshenasi Journal 2010
Review by University of Tehran 2010
Scholarship & Merit Award 2009
Citation of Book in the BBC 2008
Best History Book Award 2008
Citation by London-based Kayhan Newspaper 2008
Benjamin Franklin Award Finalist 2008
Citation by Langara College
WAALM Certificate of Appreciation for Empower Africa Conference April 7, 2010
History Channel: Engineering an Empire-The Persians
مستند: آغاز یک امپراطوری – هخامنشیان
Kaveh Farrokh on Armenian State TV
Other Western & Iranian Media Venues
Kaveh Farrokh Interview: Sassanian Asvaran and Response to Eurocentrists
Kaveh Farrokh Interview -Part Two: Eurocentricism and anti-Iran Revisionism
Pars TV interview December 18, 2011: Loss of Territories and Partitioning of Iran
You are here: Home / Blog / French pilots flying Iraqi Combat Aircraft during Iran-Iraq War / 2017 / August
Toyoko Morita: Iranian arrivals to ancient Japan
August 12, 2017 /in Anthropology, Culinary Arts, Culture, Heritage, Iran and Japan, Mythology and Nowruz, Sassanians, Scythians and Alans, Zoroastrianism /by Kaveh Farrokh
The article below is by Toyoko Morita and originally appeared in the Encyclopedia Iranica. Morita's article was originally published in print on December 15, 2008 and last updated on April 10, 2012. This article is also accessible in print Vol. XIV, Fasc. 5, pp. 558-560 and Vol. XIV, Fasc. 6, p. 561). The version published below has embedded photographs, paintings and accompanying captions that did not appear in the original Encyclopedia Iranica publication/posting. these a combination of lecture slides from Kaveh Farrokh's Fall 2014 course at the University of British Columbia's Continuing Studies course entitled: "The Silk Route: origins & History", previous postings as well as a single image from the public domain.
The first mention of Iranians (Persians) coming to Japan can be found in the Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan), one of the earliest Japanese historical sources, completed in 720 C.E. It records that in 654 C.E. several people arrived in Japan from Tokhārā (Aston, pp. 246, 251, 259). Though there is some controversy about the location of Tokhārā, some scholars have claimed the name to be a shortened version of Toḵārestān, which was part of the territory of Sasanian Persia (Itō, 1980, pp. 5-10).
Fresco along the Tarim Basin, China depicting an Iranian-speaking Buddhist monk (Kushan, Soghdian, Persian or Tocharian?) [at left] instructing a Chinese monk [at right] on philosophy (c. 9th-10th Century). Iranian peoples of Central Asia were the link between Asia as a whole and the civilizations of ancient Iran, notably Sassanian and post-Sassanian culture(s). Open and tolerant, the Soghdians, Kushans, Tocharians, etc. established a sophisticated literature and urban culture (Lecture slide from Kaveh Farrokh's lectures from the course "The Silk Route: origins & History").
Elsewhere in the Nihon Shoki, it is mentioned that in 660, when an Iranian (Persian), whose name was Dārā, returned to his country, he left his wife in Japan and promised the Emperor that he would come back and work for him again (Aston, p. 266; Imoto, 2002, pp. 58-60).
One of Kaveh Farrokh's lecture slides at UBC (University of British Columbia) outlining the influence of Sassanian arts on Japan (Source: Lecture slide from Kaveh Farrokh's lectures from the course "The Silk Route: origins & History").
In the 7th to the 9th centuries, foreigners—then known in Japanese as toraijin—were coming to Japan mainly from Korea and China, bringing with them technology, culture, religion (Buddhism), and ideas. Eastern Asia, especially the Tang Dynasty of China (618-907), had socio-economic networks with many regions of the world, including southern and western Asia.
An enduring Sassanian legacy in Japan: the Biwa and its ancient Iranian ancestor, the Barbat (Source: Lecture slide from Kaveh Farrokh's lectures from the course "The Silk Route: origins & History").
Chang'an (present-day Xi'an), the capital of the Tang Dynasty, was an international city with people from various countries, including Iranians (Persians), some of whom traveled further to Japan. Iranian names are to be met with in historical documents, and one can find some influence of Persian culture in the architecture, sculptures, and also in the customs and old Japanese rituals at that time. For example, some scholars have claimed that there is some influence of Persian culture in the Omizutori ritual held every February at Tōdaiji temple in Nara (Itō, 1980, pp. 125-33).
A photo of the Omizutori ritual held on March 9, 2007 in Nara, Japan (Source: "ignis" in public domain). Note that these are monks carrying torches across the balcony of the structure. This may perhaps bear echoes of ancient Zoroastrian or related mythological influences bought over by Iranian-speaking arrivals to ancient Japan.
The oldest document in Persian, which is preserved in Japan, was procured by the Japanese priest named Kyōsei (1189-1268) from Iranians (Persians) during his trip to southern Asia in 1217. Thinking they were Indians, the priest asked them to write something for him as a keepsake. However, after his return to Japan he found out that they were not Indians, because no one could understand what the writing meant. This document—a single page—was discovered in the late 20th century, when it was established that it is written in Persian and contains a line from Abu'l-Qāsem Ferdowsi's Šāh-nāma (qq.v.), a line from Faḵr-al-Din Gorgāni's Vis o Rāmin (qq.v.), and a quatrain of unknown authorship (Okada, 1989).
Scientists have used infrared imaging technology to analyze carvings on a piece of wood from – century Japan. The writings on the wood appears to name a Persian mathematics lecturer who worked at a facility in a millennium ago Japan where government ministers were trained in the former Japanese capital of Nara … for more on this click here …
Jens Kröger: Ctesiphon
August 5, 2017 /in Archaeology, Cultural and Endangered Sites, Cultural News and Events, Heritage, Military History 1900-Present, Sassanian Military History, Zoroastrianism /by Kaveh Farrokh
The article below is by Jens Kröger and originally appeared in the Encyclopedia Iranica. Kröger's article was originally published in print on December 15, 1993 and last updated on November 2, 2011. This article is also accessible in print (Vol. VI, Fasc. 4, pp. 446-448). The version published below has embedded photographs, paintings and accompanying captions that did not appear in the original Encyclopedia Iranica publication/posting.
Readers are also encouraged to support the fundraising campaign for making of the first-ever documentary on the monument of Taq Kasra situated in the Sassanian capital, Ctesiphon – Click Here … and see below video:
CTESIPHON (Ṭīsfūn), ancient city on the Tigris adjacent to the Hellenistic city of Seleucia, ca. 35 km south of the later site of Baghdad. The origin and meaning of the name is unknown (for the forms, see Honigmann, cols. 1102-03; Markwart, Provincial Capitals, pp. 60-61). In the Greek sources it appears as Ktēsiphôn, in Latin Ctesiphon/Ctesifon from the Greek and T(h)esifon or Et(h)esifon, reproducing lo­cal forms. In the Aramaic Talmud (ʾ)qṭyspwn (in Syriac qṭyspwn) occurs. From Iranian texts of the Sasanian period Manichean Parthian tyspwn (or *tysfwn; Henning, pp. 943-44), Pahlavi tyspwn, and Christian Sogdian tyspwn (Sims-Williams, pp. 144, 147-49; Yoshida) are attested. In Arabic texts the name is usually Ṭaysafūn. According to Yāqūt (III, p. 570, IV, p. 446), quoting Ḥamza, the original form was Ṭūsfūn or Tūsfūn, which was arabicized as Ṭaysafūn.
Rare 1864 photograph of the Gateway of Ctesiphon before the right-hand facade of the structure collapsed (Source: Public Domain).
The history of the city has been reported and its ruins extensively described by scholars and travelers through the ages. M. Streck (1900-01, I, pp. 246ff.; 1917, pp. 26ff.) was the first to collect and comment on these writings. Systematic topographical research in the region of Seleucia/Ctesiphon began with Ernst Herzfeld, who worked there from 1903 to 1911 (Sarre and Herzfeld, pp. 46ff.). In 1927 an American expe­dition led by Leroy Waterman located and excavated Seleucia, on the west bank of the river, near modern Tell ʿOmar. German (1928-29) and German-Ameri­can (1931-32) teams under Oscar Reuther and Ernst Kühnel respectively excavated sites on both banks and conducted surveys of the area. Since 1964 an Italian expedition under the direction of Giorgio Gullini and Antonio Invernizzi has carried on this work on the west bank. Its findings have helped to clarify the general topography of the site and to provide an initial stratig­raphy. Because of the sprawling nature of the city and the complexity of the questions that it poses, however, many points still await further research, and some of the conclusions reached cannot be accepted without doubt (for a differing view, cf. von Gall).
Parthian period
Parthian Ctesiphon has been tenta­tively located on the east bank of the Tigris opposite Seleucia at a site now bisected by a loop in the Tigris several kilometers north of the Ayvān-e Kesrā, an area that has not yet been systematically explored by archeologists. In the early Parthian period the metropolis of Seleucia/Ctesiphon was the administra­tive center of Babylonia and also a center for the long-­distance trade through the Persian Gulf (cf. Strabo, 16.1.16). When the Arsacids conquered the Mesopotamian lowlands, the capital was transferred to Ctesiphon from Hecatompylos, identified with Šahr-e Qūmes near Dāmḡān (see capital cities i); it thus also became the main terminus for the luxury trade along the Silk Route, as well as through the Persian Gulf. From the time of Mithradates I (ca. 171-38 b.c.e.) until the fall of the Arsacid dynasty in 224 c.e. it was the winter residence of the Arsacid kings (Strabo, 16.1.16; cf. Tacitus, Annals 6.42), though there was a functioning mint in Seleucia throughout the Parthian period (see arsacids iii, p. 540).
The rock relief of Khong-e Azhdar (خونگ اژدر) in Izeh, Khuzestan (in SW Iran) of Mithradates I (r. 165-132 BCE) (Source: Hamshahrionline).
Modern knowledge about Parthian Ctesiphon is lim­ited and drawn mainly from the accounts of Greek and Roman historians. According to Strabo (16.1.16), the city was founded as a camp for the Parthian armies because the Arsacids did not think it appropriate to admit their troops into the Greek city of Seleucia; Pliny (Natural History 6.122), on the other hand, reported that Ctesiphon was founded to draw the population away from Seleucia. Artabanus II (q.v.; d. 38 c.e.) was said to have been crowned in Ctesiphon in 10 or 11 c.e. (Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 18.48-50). According to Ammianus Marcellinus (23.6.23), the city was enlarged by immigration under Pacorus I around 39 b.c.e. and the same ruler built the city walls. In other sources, however, it is reported that the walls were built somewhat later (Pauly-Wissowa, Suppl., IV, col. 1110). Under Vologeses I (ca. 51-76 or 80 c.e.; for further references, see balāš i) an important new commercial center called Vologesocerta was founded in the region of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, but its identification and precise location are still uncertain.
Coin of Vologeses I (Source: Classical Numismatic Group available in Public Domain).
In the following centuries Ctesiphon was repeatedly conquered by the Romans. Trajan captured the city in the spring or summer of 116, receiving the title Parthicus in consequence (Din Cassius, 68.30.3; Arrian, Parthica, frag. 1 in Müller, Fragmenta III, pp. 587, 590); his booty included a daughter of the king Osroes and the golden Parthian throne (Dion Cassius, 68.80.3). In 117 he invested Parthamaspates with the royal Parthian diadem in Ctesiphon. The city was again invaded in December 165, during the reign of Vologeses IV (148­92/3; see balāš iv), by the Roman general Avidius Cassius, who demolished the royal palace (Dio Cassius, 71.2.3). In 198, in the reign of Vologeses V (ca. 190 or 193-208), Ctesiphon was conquered for a third time, by Septimius Severus, after hard fighting. The city was sacked, and part of its population was forcibly transported. Following the example of Trajan, Septimius took the title Parthicus Maximus (Dio Cassius, 75.9.2-5; "Severus," in Historia Augusta 16.1­2).
After the Romans had withdrawn the city walls were rebuilt. The history of Parthian Ctesiphon ended with the defeat of Artabanus IV in 224 c.e. and the corona­tion of the Sasanian king Ardašīr I at Ctesiphon in 226.
Sassanian period
Ctesiphon remained the capital and coronation city of the Sasanian empire from the accession of Ardašīr until the conquest by Muslim armies in 16/637. It was at once royal residence, imperial administrative center, and one of the most important cities of the rich agricultural province of Babylonia/Āsōristān, which, with its network of waterways and fertile soils, supported a dense popula­tion, especially along the lower Dīāla basin on the east bank of the Tigris, and many large towns (Adams, pp. 69-70). Following ancient custom (see courts and courtiers i), the Sasanian kings used the palace at Ctesiphon only as a winter residence, spending the summers on the cooler highlands of the Persian pla­teau.
Sassanian stucco from Ctesiphon housed at the British Museum (Photo: Pejman Akbarzadeh).
Although situated in the heartland of the Sasa­nian empire (del-e Ērānšahr), Ctesiphon and the sur­rounding area were inhabited mainly by Arameans, Syrians, and Arabs, who spoke Aramaic and were predominantly Christian or Jewish. Both the Jewish exilarch and the Nestorian catholicus resided in the city, and in 410 a Nestorian synod was held there (see Eilers, p. 499; Neusner pp. 917-18, 931). The Zoroastrian Persian ruling class, on the other hand, was in the minority. Curiously, none of the major fire temples was located in Sasanian Mesopotamia, though there were a few smaller ones, apparently including one at Ctesiphon; its exact site has not been identified (Morony, p. 238). In the later Sasanian period it became customary for each king to make a pilgrimage to the venerated fire sanctuary of Ādur Gušnasp at Šīz (Taḵt-e Solaymān) after the coronation ceremo­nies. The capital was connected by a network of roads with all parts of the empire, and one of the most important routes led to Media, where the summer residence (Hamadān) and the great fire temple were located.
A reconstruction of Ctesiphon as it may have appeared in the 6th and early 7th centuries CE (Source: Sunrisefilmco.com in Pinterest).
From the sources it seems that Parthian Ctesiphon continued to flourish throughout the Sasanian period. A royal palace, the "white palace" (al-qaṣr al-abyaż, abyaż al-Kesrā), as yet unidentified, was still standing there when Mesopotamia was conquered by the Arabs (Ṭabarī, p. 2440; Balāḏorī, Fotūḥ, p. 262). During the Sasanian period Ctesiphon developed into a me­tropolis, consisting of a series of cities and suburbs along both banks of the Tigris (for a topographical plan, see ayvān-e kesrā). It thus became known as "the cities" (Aram. Māḥōzē, Ar. al-Madāʾen). The process began around 230, when Ardašīr I founded a new city at Ctesiphon; it was called Weh-Ardašīr (see beh-ardašīr) by the Persians, New Seleucia by the Greeks, and Kōḵē by the Syrians. A cathedral church is known to have been located there (Streck, 1917, pp. 42-46). A circular walled city west of the Ayvān-e Kesrā has been identified by the Italians as Weh­-Ardašīr (von Gall, pp. 81-84). Excavations have revealed part of the fortifications, artisans' quarters, and residential areas. A late Sasanian church with a long prayer hall lined by two rows of piers and a tripartite choir was excavated by the German expedi­tion in 1928-29; a fragmentary painted stucco figure found there may represent a saint (Kröger, pp. 47-48, pl. 12/3). Around the middle of the 5th century the course of the Tigris shifted and divided Weh-Ardašīr in two (Venco Ricciardi and Negro Ponzi Mancini, pp. 100-10). The ensuing severe flooding and other haz­ards must have severely disrupted city life and led to a general decline of this town in the 6th century, when only patches of high ground (e.g., modern Tell Barūda) continued to be inhabited (Venco Ricciardi, 1977, pp. 11-14).
German archeological Map of Seleucia-Ctesiphon during the Sassanian era (Map redrawn by user "Lencer" in Public Domain from original Mesopotamia XL, 2005, 169).
Perhaps owing to these changes or perhaps even earlier Asbānbar, or New Ctesiphon, developed, also on the east bank of the river, south of Parthian Ctesiphon. There stood the Sasanian royal palace, Ayvān-e Kesrā, with its enormous audience hall, still standing today. The German excavations revealed that this structure had been part of a larger complex, probably including a corresponding building on the east side of a large courtyard (Kröger, pp. 13-16). A palace or religious building may have stood on a terrace now called Ḥaram Kesrā or Tell al-Ḏabāʾī about 100 m to the south (Kröger, pp. 40-45). Only the remains of the terrace foundations and stucco fragments of hunting scenes, possibly from a continuous frieze with large busts of kings, were found (Kröger, p. 26). The main decorative features of the palace area were stucco disks decorated on each side with a rosette design. A square terrace known as Tell Ḏahab farther to the southeast yielded similar disks and must thus have had some connection with the palace city. The floors and walls of the palace were decorated with marble, opus sectile, mosaics, and stucco sculptures. It has been suggested that the complex was built by Ḵosrow I Anōšīravān (r. 531-79) to commemorate his conquest of Antioch in Syria in 540 and that it was decorated with mosaics depicting the victory; it is also possible that Byzantine craftsmen sent by the emperor Justinian were employed, which would indicate a probable date before his death in 565. To the north and east of the Ayvān-e Kesrā private houses, probably of the 6th century, have been excavated at the sites of Maʿāreḏ and Omm al-Saʿāter in New Ctesiphon (Kröger, pp. 30-136). Their elaborate ground plans suggest that they belonged to members of the upper classes. Vaulted ayvāns set somewhat apart from the other living quarters contained elaborate ornamental or figural stucco reliefs with religious connotations. Mosaics were not used in these private houses, most of which seem to have been abandoned after the fall of Ctesiphon to the Arabs (Kröger, pp. 50ff.).
A soldier gazes upon the remains of the archway of Ctesiphon (Source: Sgt. Rebecca Schwab, 2nd Brigade Combat Team, 10th Mountain Division, USD-C in Public Domain).
Another city, still unlocated, was founded at Ctesiphon by Ḵosrow I for the population forcibly transported from Antioch in 540. It was called Weh-­Antīōk Ḵosrow/Rūmagān (Ar. Rūmīya) and was mod­eled on the original plan of Antioch, with its own hippodrome and bath; marble taken by Ḵosrow on his Syrian campaigns is reported to have been used as a building material (Ṭabarī, I, pp. 898, 959; Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, pp. 165, 239-40; Dīnavarī, ed. Guirgass, p. 70; Ṯaʿālebī, Ḡorar, pp. 612-13; Masʿūdī, Morūj, ed. Pellat, I, p. 307). In the late 6th century Weh-Antīōk had a population of about 30,000. In the opinion of the German excavators this city may have stood southeast of the Ayvān-e Kesrā in an area now known as Bostān Kesrā, where a rectangular section of an apparent city wall has survived (Kröger, p. 45). It is possible, however, that this section was part of some other wall, perhaps that of a garden. Ḵosrow II Parvēz (r. 590, 591-628) also departed from the established pattern of summering in the Persian highlands and built his royal summer residence at Dastgerd, north­east of Ctesiphon (Same and Herzfeld, pp. 76ff.).
Sassanian court of Khosrow II and his queen Shirin at Ctesiphon (Source: Farrokh, Plate F, p.62, -اسواران ساسانی- Elite Sassanian cavalry, 2005); note the monarch who sits with his ceremonial broadsword. The Sarmatians shared the culture and martial traditions of their Iranian kin, the Parthians and the Sassanians.
In contrast to its history under Parthian rule, Sasa­nian Ctesiphon was successfully invaded only once before the Muslim conquest, by the Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius Carus in 283. In 363 the emperor Julian passed close to the city on his disastrous retreat after the burning of his fleet on the Euphrates but did not enter it.
Emperor Julian, who failed to capture Ctesiphon, is killed during his failed invasion of Sassanian Persia in June 26, 363 CE. Above is a recreation of Sassanian Persia's elite cavalry, the Savaran, as they would have appeared during Julian's failed invasion. Note the heavily armored Sassanian elite guardsman (Pushtighban) whose lance has pierced a Roman infantryman. Further right is a Savaran officer whose sword is drawn in what is now known as the "Italian grip" but Sassanian in origin. To the far right can be seen a Zoroastrian or Mithraist Magus brandishing a Sassanian era symbol. Also of interest are the armored elephants in the background. Armored elephants were especially prized as their cabs afforded very high elevation over the battlefield, which was ideal for Sassanian archery (Source: Farrokh, Plate D, Elite Sassanian cavalry, 2005).
In 628 the Byzantine emperor Heraclius advanced toward the capital on his campaign against Ḵosrow II. After having destroyed the sanctuary of Šīz/Taḵt-e Solaymān in Azerbaijan and looted Dastgerd he followed the fleeing Ḵosrow II as far as the west bank opposite Ctesiphon. There, in a last effort, Ḵosrow assembled his army and forced Heraclius to retreat (Nöldeke, Geschichte der Perser, pp. 295-96). Only a few years later, however, in March 637 the city was conquered by Muslim troops under Saʿd b. Abī Waqqāṣ (Balāḏorī, Fotūḥ, pp. 262ff.; Dīnavarī, ed. Guirgass, p. 133; Ṭabarī, I, pp. 2431ff.; Yaʿqūbī, Taʾrīḵ II, p. 165; Baḷʿamī, ed. Rowšan, I, pp. 464-67). The Sasanian royal family, the nobles, and the army fled, and the invading army seized fabulous amounts of booty from the royal treasury, including the cel­ebrated garden carpet called bahār-e Kesrā.
R. M. Adams, Land behind Baghdad, Chicago, 1965.
S. A. al-ʿAli, "Al-Madaʾin and Its Surrounding Area in Arabic Literary Sources," Mesopotamia 3-4, 1968-69, pp. 417-39.
N. C. Debevoise, A Political History of Parthia, Chicago, 1938.
W. Eilers, "Iran and Mesopotamia," in Camb. Hist. Iran III/1, pp. 481-504.
J. M. Fiey, "Topography of al-Madaʾin," Sumer 23, 1967, pp. 3-36.
H. von Gall, review of Mesopotamia 1, 1966, in Kunst des Orients 6, 1969, pp. 80-85.
G. Gullini, "Prob­lems of an Excavation in Northern Babylonia," Mesopotamia 1, 1966, pp. 7-38.
W. B. Henning, "Mani's Last Journey," BSOAS 10/4, 1942, pp. 911-­53; repr. in Selected Papers II, Acta Iranica 15, Tehran and Liège, 1977, pp. 81-93.
A. Invernizzi, "Ten Years' Research in the al-Madaʾin Area, Seleucia and Ctesiphon," Sumer 32, 1976, pp. 167­-75.
J. Kröger, Sasanidischer Stuckdekor, Mainz, 1982.
E. Kühnel, Die Ausgrabungen der zweiten Ktesiphon-Expedition (Winter 1931/2), Berlin, 1933.
O. Kurz, "The Date of the Taq i Kisra," JRAS, 1941, pp. 37-41.
A. Maricq, "Vologésias, l'emporium de Ctésiphon," Syria 36, 1959, pp. 264-76; repr. in Classica et Orientalia, Paris, 1965, pp. 113-25.
M. G. Morony, Iraq after the Muslim Conquest, Princeton, N.J., 1984.
M. M. Negro Ponzi and M. C. Cavallero, "The Excavations at Choche," Mesopotamia 2, 1967, pp. 41-56.
J. Neusner, "Jews in Iran," in Camb. Hist. Iran III/2, pp. 109-23.
O. Reuther, Die Ausgrabungen der Deutschen
Ktesiphon-Expedition im Winter 1928/29, Witten­berg, 1930.
F. Sarre and E. Herzfeld, Archäologische Reise im Euphrat- und Tigrisgebiet II, Berlin, 1920.
K. Schippmann, Grundzüge der parthischen Geschichte, Darmstadt, 1980.
N. Sims-Williams, The Christian Sogdian Manuscripts C2, Berliner Turfantexte 12, Berlin, 1985.
M. Streck, Die alte Landschaft Babylonien nach den arabischen Geographen, 2 vols., Leiden, 1900-01.
Idem, "Seleucia und Ktesiphon," Der Alte Orient 16, 1917, pp. 1-64.
R. Venco Ricciardi, "The Excavations at Choche," Mesopotamia 3-4, 1968-69, pp. 57-68.
Idem, "Trial Trench at Tell Baruda," Mesopotamia 12, 1977, pp. 11-14.
Idem and M. M. Negro Ponzi Mancini, La terra tra i due fiumi, Turin, 1985.
L. Waterman, Preliminary Report upon the Excava­tions at Tel Umar, Iraq, Ann Arbor, Mich., 1931-33.
Y. Yoshida, review of The Christian Sogdian Manu­scripts C2, BSOAS 51/1, 1988, pp. 146-48.
The Hêrbedestân
Archaeological Finds in Mazandaran, Northern Iran
Book: Tappeh Sialk, The Glory Of Ancient Kashan
An Overview of the History of Mithraism
Persian Roots of Puccini's Opera Turandot (Turandokht)
Achaemenid Military History
Achaemenids
Aghanistan
Burnt City
Christianity and Iran
Clothing and Attire
Courses and Curricula
Cultural and Endangered Sites
Cultural News and Events
Cyrus the Great
Eurocentricism
Events and Citations
Greece-Persia Links
India and Asia
Iran and Caucasia
Iran and Central Asia
Iran and China
Iran and Europe
Iran and India
Iran and Japan
Iran and the Persian Gulf
Iran and Turkey
Jews and Iran
Judeo-Christian Theology
Memories of Iran
Military History 1900-Present
Military History 700-1899
Mythology and Nowruz
Pan-Arabism
Pan-Turanism
Parthian Military History
People of Iran and Origins
Persianate
Pictures and Memories of Iran
Pontus & Cappadocia
Sassanian Military History
Sassanians
Scythians and Alans
Society & Social Developments
The Pre Medo-Achaemenid Era
Travel Roads and Shipping
Turco-Iranian or Persianate Civilization
Women of Persia
The Dorbayanis
Connect the Dots for Morality
International Human Rights & Peace Resolution Conference, Africa
Diplomatic Journal
H.E President Museveni of Uganda hosts the 2017 Commonwealth Youth Ministers
6Qs with Olivia Faye
About Dr. Kaveh Farrokh
Dr. Kaveh Farrokh is dedicated to the Advancement of Ancient Iranian and Classical Studies. The relationship between ancient Iran and the civilizations of the Greco-Roman world (and its European successors), India, China and the Far East, and the Arabo-Islamic world are a major focus of this website. Civilizations are rarely conceived in a vacuum and are often the result of the synthesis of a number of elements, examples being the Roman Empire, ancient Iran and India.
The HêrbedestânJanuary 12, 2020 - 5:07 pm
Kaveh Farrokh's Book cited by US Independent Book...November 10, 2008 - 5:14 pm
An overview of BisotunNovember 16, 2008 - 6:08 pm
Archaeological Finds in Mazandaran, Northern IranJanuary 5, 2020 - 10:10 pm
Book: Tappeh Sialk, The Glory Of Ancient KashanDecember 28, 2019 - 11:32 am
Citations and Awards Events Events and Citations Pan-Turkism
Categories Select Category Achaemenid Military History (32) Achaemenids (90) Aghanistan (7) Anthropology (31) Archaeology (50) Architecture (18) Aviation (3) Book Review (40) Books and Monographs (7) Bronze Age (4) Burnt City (2) Central Asia (8) China (15) Christianity and Iran (12) Clothing and Attire (6) Courses and Curricula (26) Culinary Arts (12) Cultural and Endangered Sites (24) Cultural News and Events (97) Culture (40) Cyrus the Great (38) Daghestan (5) Education (13) Elam (8) Engineering (3) Environment & Wildlife (3) Eurocentricism (23) Europa and Eire-An (Ancient Iran/Persia) (46) Events and Citations (14) Games (1) Greece-Persia Links (29) Heritage (223) Historical Revisionism (32) India and Asia (23) Iran (10) Iran and Caucasia (72) Iran and Central Asia (26) Iran and China (5) Iran and Europe (74) Iran and India (5) Iran and Japan (5) Iran and the Persian Gulf (15) Iran and Turkey (6) Jews and Iran (15) Jiroft (2) Journal Articles (17) Judeo-Christian Theology (13) Language & Linguistics (2) Learning (21) Linguistics (3) Literature (7) Mathematics (2) Medes (9) Media (2) Medicine (10) Memories of Iran (3) Military History 1900-Present (74) Military History 700-1899 (30) Mithraism (19) Musical Arts (1) Mythology and Nowruz (33) Neolithic Era (6) News (188) Nordicism (3) Pan-Arabism (3) Pan-Turanism (7) Parthian Military History (31) Parthians (53) People of Iran and Origins (56) Persian Gulf (12) Persianate (3) Pictures and Memories of Iran (5) Pontus & Cappadocia (4) Sassanian Military History (51) Sassanians (86) Science (12) Scythians and Alans (29) Shahnameh (12) Society & Social Developments (1) Technology (20) The Kurds (12) The Pre Medo-Achaemenid Era (22) Travel Roads and Shipping (3) Turco-Iranian or Persianate Civilization (30) UNESCO (11) Women of Persia (18) Zoroastrianism (66)
Archives Select Month January 2020 (2) December 2019 (4) November 2019 (3) October 2019 (6) September 2019 (4) August 2019 (5) July 2019 (2) June 2019 (5) May 2019 (3) April 2019 (4) March 2019 (5) February 2019 (5) January 2019 (3) December 2018 (5) November 2018 (3) October 2018 (5) September 2018 (6) August 2018 (4) July 2018 (4) June 2018 (6) May 2018 (5) April 2018 (4) March 2018 (4) February 2018 (4) January 2018 (3) December 2017 (5) November 2017 (4) October 2017 (5) September 2017 (4) August 2017 (2) July 2017 (5) June 2017 (4) May 2017 (6) April 2017 (4) March 2017 (4) February 2017 (3) January 2017 (2) December 2016 (5) November 2016 (4) October 2016 (4) September 2016 (5) August 2016 (4) July 2016 (5) June 2016 (3) May 2016 (4) April 2016 (5) March 2016 (3) February 2016 (5) January 2016 (5) December 2015 (3) November 2015 (5) October 2015 (3) September 2015 (5) August 2015 (4) July 2015 (2) June 2015 (4) May 2015 (4) April 2015 (5) March 2015 (4) February 2015 (3) January 2015 (4) December 2014 (4) November 2014 (4) October 2014 (4) September 2014 (4) August 2014 (3) July 2014 (4) June 2014 (4) May 2014 (4) April 2014 (3) March 2014 (5) February 2014 (2) January 2014 (4) December 2013 (4) November 2013 (4) October 2013 (4) September 2013 (4) August 2013 (4) July 2013 (3) June 2013 (3) May 2013 (3) April 2013 (4) March 2013 (4) February 2013 (4) January 2013 (4) December 2012 (3) November 2012 (5) October 2012 (5) August 2012 (1) July 2012 (3) June 2012 (4) May 2012 (3) April 2012 (4) March 2012 (2) February 2012 (3) January 2012 (4) December 2011 (3) November 2011 (4) October 2011 (3) September 2011 (5) August 2011 (4) July 2011 (4) June 2011 (4) May 2011 (4) April 2011 (4) March 2011 (2) February 2011 (4) January 2011 (4) December 2010 (5) November 2010 (4) October 2010 (3) September 2010 (5) August 2010 (4) July 2010 (3) June 2010 (4) May 2010 (4) April 2010 (5) March 2010 (4) February 2010 (4) January 2010 (5) December 2009 (4) November 2009 (4) October 2009 (5) September 2009 (4) August 2009 (4) July 2009 (4) June 2009 (5) May 2009 (3) April 2009 (6) March 2009 (6) February 2009 (8) January 2009 (5) December 2008 (6) November 2008 (6) October 2008 (1)
© 2015 Dr. Kaveh Farrokh. All Rights Reserved.