what are two types of white blood cells
Agranulocyte


Agranulocytes or nongranulocytes, also mononuclear leukocytes, are one of the two types of white blood cells, also known as leukocytes. The other type of white blood cells are known as granulocytes. Agranular cells are noted by the absence of granules in their cytoplasm, which distinguishes them from granulocytes. The two types of agranulocytes in the blood circulation are lymphocytes and monocytes, and these make up about 35% of the hematologic blood values. A third type of agranulocyte, the macrophage, is formed in the tissue when monocytes leave the
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White blood cell differential


A white blood cell differential is a medical laboratory test that provides information about the types and amounts of white blood cells in a patient's blood. White blood cell differentials may be performed by an automated analyzer or manually, by microscopic examination of blood smears. The test, which is usually ordered as part of a complete blood count, measures the amounts of the five white blood cell types in normal human blood – neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils – as well as abnormal cell types if they are present.
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White blood cell


to the heme-containing enzyme myeloperoxidase that they produce. All white blood cells are nucleated, which distinguishes them from the anucleated red blood cells and platelets. Types of leukocytes can be classified in standard ways. Two pairs of broadest categories classify them either by structure (granulocytes or agranulocytes) or by cell lineage (myeloid cells or lymphoid cells). These broadest categories can be further divided into the five main types: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes. These types are distinguished by their physical and functional
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Etanercept


binds to TNF. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) is a cytokine produced by lymphocytes and macrophages, two types of white blood cells. It mediates the immune response by attracting additional white blood cells to sites of inflammation and through additional molecular mechanisms that initiate and amplify inflammation. Inhibition of its action by etanercept reduces the inflammatory response, which is especially useful for treating autoimmune diseases. There are two types of TNF receptors: those found embedded in white blood cells that respond to TNF by releasing other cytokines, and "
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Mast cell


pathogens, and blood–brain barrier function. The mast cell is very similar in both appearance and function to the basophil, another type of white blood cell. Although mast cells were once thought to be tissue resident basophils, it has been shown that the two cells develop from different hematopoietic lineages and thus cannot be the same cells. Mast cells are very similar to basophil granulocytes (a class of white blood cells) in blood. Both are granulated cells that contain histamine and heparin, an anticoagulant. Their nuclei differ
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White blood cell


white blood cells can be classified in standard ways. Two pairs of broadest categories classify them either by structure (granulocytes or agranulocytes) or by cell lineage (myeloid cells or lymphoid cells). These broadest categories can be further divided into the five main types: neutrophils, eosinophils (acidophiles), basophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes. These types are distinguished by their physical and functional characteristics. Monocytes and neutrophils are phagocytic. Further subtypes can be classified; for example, among lymphocytes, there are B cells, T cells
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Peripheral T-cell lymphoma not otherwise specified


Peripheral T-cell lymphoma not otherwise specified (PTCL-NOS), is a subtype of peripheral T-cell lymphoma. Peripheral T-cell lymphoma (PTCL) is defined as a diverse group of aggressive lymphomas that develop from mature-stage white blood cells called T-cells and natural killer cells (NK cells) (see figure for an overview of PTCL subtypes). PTCL is a type of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL). NHL affects two particular types of white blood cells: B-cells
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Complete blood count


grid lines on the hemocytometer are used because there are far too many cells without those aids.) To identify the numbers of different white cells, a blood film is made on a slide, and a large number of white blood cells (at least 100) are counted using a microscope. This gives the percentage of cells that are of each type. By multiplying these percentages by the total number of white blood cells, the absolute number of each type of white cell can be obtained. Manual microscopic counting is useful in
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Blood film


be determined from the blood smear. This is known as a manual white blood cell differential. The white blood cell differential can reveal abnormalities in the proportions of white blood cell types, such as neutrophilia and eosinophilia, as well as the presence of abnormal cells such as the circulating blast cells seen in acute leukemia. Qualitative abnormalities of white blood cells, like toxic granulation, are also visible on the blood smear. Modern complete blood count analyzers can provide an automated white blood cell differential, but they have a limited ability to
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Optical stretcher


bone marrow differentiate into different types of blood cells to produce human blood - i.e., red blood cells and different types of white blood cells. In this study, it was shown that the white blood cell types show different mechanical behaviour depending on their later physiological function and that these differences arise during the process of stem cell differentiation. Using the optical stretcher, it was also shown that cancerous cells differ significantly in their mechanical properties from their healthy counterparts. The authors claim that the 'optical deformability' can be used as a
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White blood cell


White blood cells (also called leukocytes or leucocytes and abbreviated as WBCs) are the cells of the immune system that are involved in protecting the body against both infectious disease and foreign invaders. All white blood cells are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system. All white blood cells have nuclei, which distinguishes them from the other blood cells, the anucleated red blood cells (RBCs) and platelets. Types of
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White blood cell differential


of the beam's axis (forward scatter) describes cellular size, while light scattered at a 90 degree angle (side scatter) describes granularity. Ansley & Ornstein's work, along with later improvements by Mansfield, resulted in the first commercial flow cytometric differential analyzer, the Hemalog D. Introduced in 1974, this analyzer used light scattering and three different staining channels to identify the five normal white blood cell types, plus what were referred to as large unstained cells – usually atypical lymphocytes or blast cells. It could count 10,000 cells
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White blood cell


Another way to categorize disorders of white blood cells is qualitatively. There are various disorders in which the number of white blood cells is normal but the cells do not function normally. Neoplasia of WBCs can be benign but is often malignant. Of the various tumors of the blood and lymph, cancers of WBCs can be broadly classified as leukemias and lymphomas, although those categories overlap and are often grouped as a pair. A range of disorders can cause decreases in white blood cells. This type of white blood cell decreased is usually
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White blood cell differential


Some instruments can also count immature granulocytes and nucleated red blood cells. Various properties of white blood cells such as impedance, light scattering parameters, and staining reactions are measured, and the data is analyzed to form distinct clusters which correlate with white blood cell types. The relative size of each cluster describes the amount of each cell type, and the shape of the clusters can indicate qualitative abnormalities. This data is plotted on a scattergram for easy visualization. Several thousand cells are counted, resulting in improved accuracy over the manual differential
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White blood cell differential


most cases, the technologist counts 100 white blood cells; 200 may be counted for better representation if the white blood cell count is high. The manual differential count produces percentages of each cell type, which can be multiplied by the total white blood cell count from the analyzer to derive the absolute values. The manual differential can be partially automated by the use of digital microscopy software, which uses artificial intelligence algorithms to classify white blood cells from photomicrographs of the blood smear. However, this technique has limitations similar to those of
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White blood cell differential


identify cell populations. Basophils, which are difficult to differentiate from other white blood cells by routine methods, are usually quantified using a reagent that lyses the cytoplasm of other white blood cells but leaves basophils intact. Samples that are suspected to contain abnormal cells based on scattergram results, or that have very high or low numbers of white blood cell types, are flagged by the analyzer for manual blood smear review. In the presence of immature and abnormal cells, automated analyzers may misclassify cells or fail to give a count, necessitating
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Blood cell


in the cytoplasm. Granulocytes include basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, and mast cells. Agranulocytes include lymphocytes and monocytes. The condition of having too few white blood cells is leukopenia, while having too many is leukocytosis. There are individual terms for the lack or overabundance of specific types of white blood cells. The number of white blood cells in circulation is commonly increased in the incidence of infection. Many hematological cancers are based on the inappropriate production of white blood cells. Platelets, or "thrombocytes", are very small,
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Cytopenia


Cytopenia is a reduction in the number of mature blood cells This results in a reduction of mature blood cells in the body. It is common in cancer patients being treated with radiation and/or chemotherapy. Anemia - a reduction of the red blood cells in the body. Leukopenia or neutropenia - a deficiency of white blood cells, or leukocytes Thrombocytopenia - a deficiency of platelets Pancytopenia - When all three types of blood cells; red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets, are all deficient. This is a life threatening disorder
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Myelodysplastic syndrome


. Problems with blood cell formation result in some combination of low red blood cells, low platelets, and low white blood cells. Some types have an increase in immature blood cells, called blasts, in the bone marrow or blood. The types of MDS are based on specific changes in the blood cells and bone marrow. Treatments may include supportive care, drug therapy, and stem cell transplantation. Supportive care may include blood transfusions, medications to increase the making of red blood cells, and antibiotics. Drug therapy may include
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Subcutaneous T-cell lymphoma


killer cells (NK cells) (see figure for an overview of PTCL subtypes). PTCL is a type of non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL). NHL affects two particular types of white blood cells: B-cells and T-cells. PTCL specifically affects T-cells, and results when T-cells develop and grow abnormally. Subcutaneous Panniculitis-like T-cell Lymphoma is a rare type of lymphoma that infiltrates the subcutaneous fat but does not involve the skin. There are two subtypes – alpha-
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Eosinophilic myocarditis


Eosinophilic myocarditis is inflammation in the heart muscle that is caused by the infiltration and destructive activity of a type of white blood cell, the eosinophil. Typically, the disorder is associated with hypereosinophilia, i.e. an eosinophil blood cell count greater than 1,500 per microliter (normal 100 to 400 per microliter). It is distinguished from non-eosinophilic myocarditis, which is heart inflammation caused by other types of white blood cells, i.e. lymphocytes and monocytes, as well as the respective descendants of these cells, NK cells and macrophages. This
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Childhood leukemia


These white blood cells also do not work correctly to fight infection. The white blood cells over-produce, crowding the other blood cells in the bone marrow. Another type of acute leukemia is acute myelogenous leukemia (AML). AML accounts for most of the remaining cases of leukemia in children, comprising about 20% of childhood leukemia. AML is cancer of the blood in which too many myeloblasts (immature white blood cells) are produced in the bone marrow. The marrow continues to produce abnormal cells that crowd the other
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National Marrow Donor Program


, aplastic anemia, as well as certain immune system and metabolic disorders. Hematopoietic cells can come from bone marrow, umbilical cord blood, or the circulating blood (peripheral blood stem cells (PBSCs)). Hematopoietic cells are a type of adult (i.e., non-embryonic) stem cell that can multiply and differentiate into the three types of blood cells: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Bone marrow and PBSCs come from living adult donors. Bone marrow is extracted from the donor's pelvic bones
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CFU-GEMM


can differentiate into all types of blood cells. CFU-S divides into two lineages: the lymphoid precursor (CFU-LSC) and the myeloid precursor (CFU-GEMM). The CFU-GEMM cell is capable of differentiating into white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets, all of which are normally found in circulating blood. It has been suggested that eosinophils do not derive from the common myeloid progenitor in humans. In the adjacent image, CFU-GEMM is the scientific name for the "common myeloid
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Circulating tumor cell


CTCs, such as red blood cells, then binding magnetic particles to white blood cells and separating those magnetically. The resulting compact and automated design is called the CTC-iChip, which can sort CTCs quickly and for almost any type of cancer. The normal cellular components of blood principally consist of red blood cells (RBCs), leukocytes (white blood cells, or WBCs) and platelets. CTCs are abnormal blood cell components shed from tumors, and are invariably collected from a patient's peripheral blood even though they are present
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Waldenström's macroglobulinemia


Waldenström's macroglobulinemia (WM), is a type of cancer affecting two types of B cells: lymphoplasmacytoid cells and plasma cells. Both cell types are white blood cells. WM is characterized by having high levels of a circulating antibody, immunoglobulin M (IgM), which is made and secreted by the cells involved in the disease. WM is an "indolent lymphoma" (i.e., one that tends to grow and spread slowly) and a type of lymphoproliferative disease which shares clinical characteristics with the indolent non-Hodgkin lymphomas
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Plateletpheresis


comes with about 2×10 white blood cells. This can seriously damage the patient's health. A dose of single-donor platelets prepared using latest filters can contain as little as 5×10 white blood cells. There are two types of manual platelet apheresis. Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) is widely used in North America and Buffy coat (BC) is more widely used in Europe. Platelets are the clotting cells of the blood, and when donated, frequently go to cancer patients, because due to chemotherapy many cancer patients are
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Blood cell


are cells of the immune system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and foreign materials. They are produced and derived from multipotent cells in the bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cells. Leukocytes are found throughout the body, including the blood and lymphatic system. There are a variety of types of white bloods cells that serve specific roles in the human immune system. WBCs constitute approximately 1% of the blood volume. White blood cells are divided into granulocytes and agranulocytes, distinguished by the presence or absence of granules
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Percutaneous umbilical cord blood sampling


brown when the sample is added to alkali reagent. Blood typing would also detect maternal blood, as the I antigen only occurs in adults. The Kleihauer–Betke test can detect very small amounts of maternal blood before the third trimester of pregnancy by monitoring hemoglobin elution in acid because adult and fetal hemoglobin elute differently in acid. Finally, a white blood cell count can detect maternal blood in the sample, as fetal white blood cells are primarily leukocytes, while maternal white blood cells are mostly neutrophils. If amniotic fluid infiltrated the
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Leukapheresis


Leukapheresis is a laboratory procedure in which white blood cells are separated from a sample of blood. It is a specific type of apheresis, the more general term for separating out one particular constituent of blood and returning the remainder to the circulation. Leukapheresis may be performed to decrease a very high white blood cell count, to obtain blood cells from a patient (autologous) or donor (allogeneic) for later transplant into the patient, or to obtain cells for research purposes. In the case of hematological malignancies such as chronic leukemias
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White blood cell differential


can be used for definitive identification. A white blood cell differential is often ordered alongside a complete blood count. The test may be performed as part of a routine medical examination or to investigate certain symptoms, particularly those suggestive of infection or hematological disorders. Marked increases or decreases in the proportions of various cell types, as measured by the automated or manual differential, can indicate pathological conditions. The manual differential can also detect cell populations that are not normally found in peripheral blood and reveal clinically significant changes in the appearance of white
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Polyclonal B cell response


as the humoral arm of the immune system. Such substances are known as soluble antibodies and perform important functions in countering infections. Antibodies serve various functions in protecting the host against the pathogen. Their soluble forms which carry out these functions are produced by plasma B cells, a type of white blood cell. This production is tightly regulated and requires the activation of B cells by activated T cells (another type of white blood cell), which is a sequential procedure. The major steps involved are: Pathogens synthesize proteins that can
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Complete blood count


. Most blood counts today include a CBC count (i.e.: complete blood count) and leukocyte differential count (LDC) that gives the percentage of each WBC type, such as neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes. The cells that circulate in the bloodstream are generally divided into three types: white blood cells (leukocytes), red blood cells (erythrocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes). Abnormally high or low counts may indicate the presence of many forms of disease, and hence blood counts are among
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Leukocytosis


It is different from leukemia and from leukoerythroblastosis, in which either immature white blood cells (acute leukemia) or mature, yet non-functional, white blood cells (chronic leukemia) are present in peripheral blood. Leukocytosis can be subcategorized by the type of white blood cell that is increased in number. Leukocytosis in which neutrophils are elevated is neutrophilia; leukocytosis in which lymphocyte count is elevated is lymphocytosis; leukocytosis in which monocyte count is elevated is monocytosis; and leukocytosis in which eosinophil count is elevated is eosinophilia. An extreme
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Hemolysis (microbiology)


exotoxin, is the enzyme produced by the bacteria which causes the complete lysis of red blood cells. There are two types of streptolysin: Streptolysin O (SLO) and streptolysin S (SLS). Streptolysin O is an oxygen-sensitive cytotoxin, secreted by most Group A streptococcus (GAS) and "Streptococcus dysgalactiae", and interacts with cholesterol in the membrane of eukaryotic cells (mainly red and white blood cells, macrophages, and platelets), and usually results in β-hemolysis under the surface of blood agar.
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Myelofibrosis


myelofibrosis have moderate to severe anemia. Eventually thrombocytopenia, a decrease of blood platelets develops. When viewed through a microscope, a blood smear will appear markedly abnormal, with presentation of pancytopenia, which is a reduction in the number of all blood cell types: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells may show abnormalities including bizarre shapes, such as teardrop-shaped cells, and nucleated red blood cell precursors may appear in the blood smear (leukoerythroblastic reaction). Normally, mature red blood cells
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Bone marrow failure


Bone marrow failure occurs in individuals who produce an insufficient amount of red blood cells, white blood cells or platelets. Red blood cells transport oxygen to be distributed throughout the body’s tissue. White blood cells fight off infections that enter the body. Bone marrow also contains platelets, which trigger clotting, and thus help stop the blood flow when a wound occurs. Bone marrow failure is associated with three types of diseases, Fanconi anemia (FA), dyskeratosis congenita, and aplastic anemia. Fanconi anemia is an inherited blood disorder
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NADPH oxidase


and diphenylene iodonium. Apocynin decreases influenza-induced lung inflammation in mice in vivo and so may have clinical benefits in the treatment of influenza. In animals, NADPH oxidase is found in two types: one in white blood cells (neutrophilic) and the other in vascular cells, differing in biochemical structure and functions. Neutrophilic NADPH oxidase produces superoxide almost instantaneously, where as the vascular enzyme produces superoxide in minutes to hours. Moreover, in white blood cells superoxide have been found to transfer electrons across the membrane to extracellular oxygen,
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Alkaline phosphatase


(LAP) is found within mature white blood cells. White blood cell levels of LAP can help in the diagnosis of certain conditions. Alkaline phosphatase is homodimeric enzyme, meaning it is formed with two molecules. Three metal ions, two Zn and one Mg, are contained in the catalytic sites, and both types are crucial for enzymatic activity to occur. The enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of monoesters in phosphoric acid which can additionally catalyze a transphosphorylation reaction with large concentrations of phosphate acceptors. While the main features of the catalytic mechanism
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Enzyme replacement therapy


protein encoded by the newly inserted gene is then produced by the body's own cells. This type of therapy can correct for the missing protein/enzyme in patients with lysosomal storage diseases. Hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) transplantation is another treatment for lysosomal storage diseases. HSCs are derived from bone-marrow. These cells have the ability to mature into the many cell types that comprise blood, including red blood cells, platelets, and white blood cells. Patients suffering from enzyme deficiencies often undergo HSC transplantations in which HSCs from
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White blood cell differential


combinations of these methods to provide fast and accurate differential results. The manual differential, in which a medical laboratory technologist counts white blood cells on a stained microscope slide, is performed to investigate abnormal or potentially unreliable results from the automated differential, or when requested by the healthcare provider. The manual differential can identify cell types not counted by automated methods and detect clinically significant changes in the appearance of white blood cells. Modern hematology analyzers provide a five-part differential, enumerating neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils.
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Leukostasis


of various leukemias characterized by an excess of white blood cells in the bloodstream. Hyperleukocytosis is arbitrarily defined as greater than 100,000 white blood cells per microliter of blood. The condition is characterized by abnormal aggregation and clumping of white blood cells in the blood vessels resulting in impaired blood flow and delivery of oxygen to the body's cells. The brain and lungs are the two most commonly affected organs. Leukostasis most commonly occurs with acute myeloid leukemia. Hyperleukocytosis/leukostasis occurs more commonly, and at lower white blood cell (WBC)
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Absolute neutrophil count


Absolute neutrophil count (ANC) is a measure of the number of neutrophil granulocytes (also known as polymorphonuclear cells, PMN's, polys, granulocytes, segmented neutrophils or segs) present in the blood. Neutrophils are a type of white blood cell that fights against infection. The ANC is almost always part of a larger blood panel called the complete blood count. The ANC is calculated from measurements of the total number of white blood cells (WBC), usually based on the combined percentage of mature neutrophils (sometimes called "
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Washed red blood cells


Washed red blood cells are red blood cells which have had most of the plasma, platelets and white blood cells removed and replaced with saline or another type of preservation solution. The most common reason for using washed red blood cells in transfusion medicine is to prevent the recurrence of severe allergic transfusion reactions that do not respond to medical treatment. The usual cause of these allergic reactions is proteins in the donor plasma. These proteins are removed by the process of washing the red blood cells. There are multiple methods of washing red cells
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Leukocyte esterase


Leukocyte esterase (LE) is an esterase (a type of enzyme) produced by leukocytes (white blood cells). A leukocyte esterase test (LE test) is a urine test for the presence of white blood cells and other abnormalities associated with infection. White blood cells in the urine can theoretically indicate a urinary tract infection (UTI). Positive test results may be clinically significant in the right context. The LE test is also used to screen for gonorrhea and for amniotic fluid infections. The combination of the LE test
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Aplastic anemia


Aplastic anemia is an autoimmune disease in which the body fails to produce blood cells in sufficient numbers. Blood cells are produced in the bone marrow by stem cells that reside there. Aplastic anaemia causes a deficiency of all blood cell types: red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. It is more frequent in people in their teens and twenties, but is also common among the elderly. It can be caused by heredity, immune disease, or exposure to chemicals, drugs, or radiation. However, in about
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Basophil


Basophils are a type of white blood cell. Basophils are the least common of the granulocytes, representing about 0.5 to 1% of circulating white blood cells. However, they are the largest type of granulocyte. They are responsible for inflammatory reactions during immune response, as well as in the formation of acute and chronic allergic diseases, including anaphylaxis, asthma, atopic dermatitis and hay fever. They also produce compounds that co-ordinate immune responses, including histamine and serotonin that induce inflammation, heparin that prevents blood clotting, although
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Cytopenia


that is a characteristic of aplastic anemia. There are also two general types of cytopenia: autoimmune and refractory. Autoimmune cytopenia - caused by an autoimmune disease when your body produces antibodies to destroy the healthy blood cells. Refractory cytopenia - caused by bone marrow not producing healthy blood cells, and can be a result of cancer. The symptoms of cytopenia vary depending on what type is diagnosed. The symptoms of anemia include: The symptoms of leukopenia include: The symptoms of thrombocytopenia include: Cytopenias are caused by anything that promotes the
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Lutzner cells


cellular folds in the membrane. They are also considered over pigmented and have a large nucleus with a small cytoplasm. Sézary cells are found in both Mycosis Fungoides and Sézary Syndrome. It is an unrare form of cancer that originates in the lymph system and causes the destructive effects in the immune system. There are two types of lymphoma, Hodgkin’s lymphoma and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma. Both types of lymphomas form from a white blood cell or lymphocyte. Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma is the more common of the two cancers
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P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1


the highest affinity) to P-selectin. PSGL-1 protein requires two distinct posttranslational modifications to gain its selectin binding activity: PSGL-1 is expressed on all white blood cells and plays an important role in the recruitment of white blood cells into inflamed tissue: White blood cells normally do not interact with the endothelium of blood vessels. However, inflammation causes the expression of cell adhesion molecules (CAM) such as P-selectin on the surface of the blood vessel wall. White blood cells present in flowing blood can interact with CAM.
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Childhood leukemia


help the human body produce more healthy white blood cells, red blood cells, or platelets. It also reduces the risk of life-threatening conditions such as anemia, or hemorrhage. Stem cell transplants can be done by obtaining cells from the bone-marrow, blood or umbilical-cord blood. Stem cell transplants can use the cells from one's self, called an autologous stem cell transplant or they can use cells from another person, known as an allogenic stem cell transplant. The type used in childhood leukemia is typically
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White blood cell differential


was Paul Ehrlich who, in the 1870s, first developed a staining technique that could differentiate between the five white blood cell types. Ehrlich's stain used a combination of an acidic and basic dye to stain white and red blood cells simultaneously. The Russian physician Dmitri Leonidovich Romanowsky improved upon this technique in the 1890s by using a mixture of eosin and aged methylene blue, which produced a wide range of hues that were not present when either of the stains were used alone. This was termed the Romanowsky effect and became the basis
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Serum (blood)


In blood, the serum () is the component that is neither a blood cell (serum does not contain white blood cells- leukocytes, or red blood cells- erythrocytes), nor a clotting factor; it is the blood plasma not including the fibrinogens. Serum includes all proteins not used in blood clotting and all the electrolytes, antibodies, antigens, hormones, and any exogenous substances (e.g., drugs and microorganisms). The study of serum is serology. Serum is used in numerous diagnostic tests, as well as blood typing
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White blood cell differential


the use of fluorescent dyes (fluorophores), which bind to specific components of cells to permit easy discrimination of cell types. The combination of fluorescent labelling and electrostatic cell sorting came to be known as fluorescence activated cell sorting. Meanwhile, other researchers such as George & Groner and Ansley & Ornstein focused on using light scattering patterns to classify cells. By directing a laser at individual cells and measuring the light scattered at different angles, various features of white blood cells can be ascertained. The light scattered within 1 to 10 degrees
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Common gamma chain


surface of immature blood-forming cells in bone marrow. One end of the protein resides outside the cell where it binds to cytokines and the other end of the protein resides in the interior of the cell where it transmits signals to the cell's nucleus. The common gamma chain partners with other proteins to direct blood-forming cells to form lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell). The receptor also directs the growth and maturation of lymphocyte subtypes: T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells. These cells
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Monocyte


Monocytes are a type of "leukocyte", or white blood cell. They are the largest type of leukocyte and can differentiate into macrophages and myeloid lineage dendritic cells. As a part of the vertebrate innate immune system monocytes also influence the process of adaptive immunity. There are at least three subclasses of monocytes in human blood based on their phenotypic receptors. Monocytes are amoeboid in appearance, and have nongranulated cytoplasm., thus are classified as agranulocytes. Containing unilobar nuclei, these cells are one of the types of mononuclear leukocytes which
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Biofluid dynamics


veins carry the deoxygenated blood. The fluids associated with the human body include air, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, solvents, solutions, suspensions, serum, lymph, and blood. The major body fluid which acts as the lifeline of the living organisms is "Blood". Blood is an extremely complex biological fluid. It consists of blood cells suspended in plasma and other different types of cells which include white blood cells, platelets etc. The blood flow in arteries and veins are closely linked to the blood vessel properties
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Diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma


the tissue—there is very little space between the cells lining the blood vessels. Thus, the movement of substances into the brain is significantly limited. This barrier is formed by the lining cells of the vessels as well as by projections from nearby astrocytes. These two types of cells are knitted together by proteins to form what are called "tight junctions". The entire structure is called the blood–brain barrier (BBB). It prevents chemicals, toxins, bacteria, and other substances from getting into the brain,
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Macrocytic anemia


, is a condition. As such, it is the class name for a set of pathologies that all produce somewhat the same red blood cell abnormality. Different pathologies result in macrocytic-type anemias. Some of these pathologies produce slightly different sets of appearances in blood cells that are detectable from red and white cell morphology, and others are only detectable with chemical testing. Megaloblastic anemias represent a type of macrocytic anemia characterized by certain morphologic abnormalities noted on a peripheral blood smear examination. These abnormalities include the presence of enlarged oval shaped
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White blood cell differential


monocytosis) are seen in chronic infection and inflammation. Extremely high monocyte counts, as well as immature forms of monocytes, occur in chronic myelomonocytic leukemia and acute leukemias of monocytic origin. Eosinophils have large orange granules in their cytoplasm and nuclei with two lobes. They are found in low amounts in normal blood. Elevated counts (eosinophilia) are associated with allergic reactions and parasitic infections. Basophils exhibit large, dark purple granules that often cover the cell's nucleus. They are the rarest of the five normal cell types, making
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Clonal hypereosinophilia


to specific treatment regiments. That is, many types of these disorders are remarkably susceptible to relatively non-toxic drugs. Hematopoietic stem cells give rise to: 1) myeloid precursor cells that differentiate into red blood cells, mast cells, blood platelet-forming megakaryocytes, or myeloblasts, which latter cells subsequently differentiate into white blood cells viz., neutrophils, basophils, monocytes, and eosinophils; or 2) lymphoid precursor cells which differentiate into T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, or natural killer cells. Malignant transformation of these stem
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Monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance


Monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS) is a plasma cell dyscrasia in which plasma cells or other types of antibody-producing cells secrete a myeloma protein, i.e. an abnormal antibody, into the blood; this abnormal protein is usually found and in the blood and/or urine during standard laboratory blood or urine tests. MGUS resembles multiple myeloma and similar diseases, but the levels of antibodies are lower, the number of plasma cells (white blood cells that secrete antibodies) in the bone marrow is lower, and it rarely has symptoms
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Meningitis


The initial appearance of the fluid may prove an indication of the nature of the infection: cloudy CSF indicates higher levels of protein, white and red blood cells and/or bacteria, and therefore may suggest bacterial meningitis. The CSF sample is examined for presence and types of white blood cells, red blood cells, protein content and glucose level. Gram staining of the sample may demonstrate bacteria in bacterial meningitis, but absence of bacteria does not exclude bacterial meningitis as they are only seen in 60% of cases; this figure is reduced
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White blood cell differential


contained lymphocytes, the intermediate-volume peak contained neutrophils, and the largest-volume peak contained a mixture of granulocytes and monocytes. Fulwyler's technique was applied by other researchers to generate automated neutrophil counts, although counts for other cell types were not reliable due to the low number of cells counted. In 1983, the Coulter S Plus system, a commercial analyzer that produced a three-part differential of neutrophils, monocytes and lymphocytes based on cell size histograms, was introduced. The principle of identifying white blood cells by their
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Leo Sachs


and what happens when development goes wrong? Why does the machinery in cancer cells run amok, causing abnormal proliferation? Focusing on blood stem cells, a small group of bone marrow cells that produce some 200 billion new blood cells every day, Sachs ended up, in 1963, designing the first cell culture system able to grow, clone, and induce the development of different types of normal blood cells. Using this process, he subsequently discovered and identified a family of proteins that plays a key role in controlling normal blood cell
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White blood cell differential


These results are reported as percentages and absolute values. Changes in the amounts of white blood cell types can aid in the diagnosis of many health conditions, including viral, bacterial, and parasitic infections and blood disorders such as leukemia. The automated differential was pioneered in the 1950s and 1960s by Wallace H. Coulter and M. J. Fulwyler, who invented methods for counting, sizing, and identifying cells based on impedance. Further refinements added light scattering measurements and fluorescent staining to the repertoire of automated hematology methods. Modern hematology analyzers use various
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Blood film


are examined and their morphology is characterized and recorded. Blood smear examination is usually performed in conjunction with a complete blood count in order to investigate abnormal results or confirm results that the automated analyzer has flagged as unreliable. Microscopic examination of the shape, size, and coloration of red blood cells is useful for determining the cause of anemia. Disorders such as iron deficiency anemia, sickle cell anemia, megaloblastic anemia and microangiopathic hemolytic anemia result in characteristic abnormalities on the blood film. The proportions of different types of white blood cells can
5227348
CNS tumour


scan indicates the tumour can be treated by surgical removal, the neurosurgeon conducts a craniotomy to remove the tumour. Blood and urine tests are rarely done to diagnose CNS tumours since radial imaging and biopsy are the prime diagnostic sources. Blood tests such as a full blood count (FBC) measure the number of each cell type such as white blood cells, red blood cells and platelets. Blood chemistry is also used to check the health of the liver, kidneys and other organs. The following information is based on WHO classification of
8156195
Merrill Chase


Merrill W. Chase (September 17, 1905 – January 5, 2004) was an immunologist working at the Rockefeller University in New York City who is credited with discovering cell-mediated immunology in the early 1940s. While working with Dr. Karl Landsteiner, Dr. Chase discovered that white blood cells, and not antibodies alone, were important instruments of the immune system. His findings laid the groundwork for later research that discovered the role of B cells, T cells and other types of white blood cells. Recognizing that other scientists were discovering
18740857
Blood


is a layer of red blood cells (the "blood"). Above this is a whitish layer of white blood cells (the "phlegm"). The top layer is clear yellow serum (the "yellow bile"). The ABO blood group system was discovered in the year 1900 by Karl Landsteiner. Jan Janský is credited with the first classification of blood into the four types (A, B, AB, and O) in 1907, which remains in use today. In 1907 the first blood transfusion
3594570
CXCR4


receptor appear to be capable of "mobilizing" hematopoietic stem cells into the bloodstream as peripheral blood stem cells. Peripheral blood stem cell mobilization is very important in hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (as a recent alternative to transplantation of surgically harvested bone marrow) and is currently performed using drugs such as G-CSF. G-CSF is a growth factor for neutrophils (a common type of white blood cells), and may act by increasing the activity of neutrophil-derived proteases such as neutrophil elastase in the bone marrow leading to
14937669
Childhood leukemia


), but are more difficult to treat than acute leukemias. The following are some of the main types of leukemia that occur in children. The most common form childhood leukemia is acute lymphocytic (or lymphoblastic) leukemia (ALL), which makes up 75-80% of childhood leukemia diagnoses. ALL is a form of leukemia that affects lymphocytes, a type of white blood cells which fights infection. When a patient has ALL, the bone marrow makes too many immature white blood cells and they do not mature correctly.
12906054
Leukostasis


associated with Leukemias. The mechanism in which hyperleukocytosis / leukostasis manifests and disrupts homeostasis is greatly associated with leukemia's but there are multiple other factors that may cause leukocytosis. Major types of leukocytosis and their mechanisms depend on the types of Leukemia that cause them. White blood cell levels either rise in distinct white blood levels or in unison with others, a patient may be suffering from neutrophilia, lymphocytosis, monocytosis, eosinophilia, basophllia or a rise in immature blast cells. Acute myeloid leukemia - 10 to 20 percent of patients newly
4774878
Neutropenia


Neutropenia is an abnormally low concentration of neutrophils (a type of white blood cell) in the blood. Neutrophils make up the majority of circulating white blood cells and serve as the primary defense against infections by destroying bacteria, bacterial fragments and immunoglobulin-bound viruses in the blood. People with neutropenia are more susceptible to bacterial infections and, without prompt medical attention, the condition may become life-threatening (neutropenic sepsis). Neutropenia can be divided into congenital and acquired, with severe congenital neutropenia (SCN) and cyclic neutropenia
8844509
Leukemia


cells, but they remain in the marrow instead of entering the bloodstream, where they would be visible in a blood test. For a person with aleukemia, the white blood cell counts in the bloodstream can be normal or low. Aleukemia can occur in any of the four major types of leukemia, and is particularly common in hairy cell leukemia. There is no single known cause for any of the different types of leukemias. The few known causes, which are not generally factors within the control of the average person, account
18792330
Leukopoiesis


Leukopoiesis is a form of hematopoiesis in which white blood cells (WBC, or leukocytes) are formed in bone marrow located in bones in adults and hematopoietic organs in the fetus. White blood cells, indeed all blood cells, are formed from the differentiation of pluripotent hematopoietic stem cells which give rise to several cell lines with unlimited differentiation potential. These immediate cell lines, or colonies, are progenitors of red blood cells (erythrocytes), platelets (megakaryocytes), and the two main groups of WBCs, myelocytes and lymphocytes.
12382306
Drug-induced lupus erythematosus


hydralazine metabolites in their urine than fast acetylators. These metabolites (byproducts of the interactions between the drug and constituents in the body) of hydralazine are said to have been created when white blood cells have been activated, meaning they are stimulated to produce a respiratory burst. Respiratory burst in white blood cells induces an increased production of free radicals and oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide. These oxidants have been found to react with hydralazine to produce a reactive species that is able to bond to protein. Monocytes, one type of white blood
10156235
Blood type (non-human)


for classification of human blood. Two categories of blood groups, human-type and simian-type, have been found in apes and monkeys, and can be tested by methods established for grouping human blood. The Rh system is named after the rhesus monkey, following experiments by Karl Landsteiner and Alexander S. Wiener, which showed that rabbits, when immunised with rhesus monkey red cells, produce an antibody that also agglutinates the red blood cells of many humans. Data on blood groups of chimpanzees, baboons, and macaques. Two
2731316
Parasite load


. Depending on the parasitic species in question, various methods of quantification allow scientists to measure the numbers of parasites present and determine the parasite load of an organism. Quantifying the parasite depends on what type of parasite is in question as well as where it resides in the host body. For example, intracellular parasites such as the protozoan genus "Plasmodium" which causes Malaria in humans, are quantified through performing a blood smear and counting the number of white blood cells infected by viewing the smear through a microscope. Other parasites residing
6699941
Lung on a chip


blood vessel side. The lung cells detected the bacteria and, through the porous membrane, activated the blood vessel cells, which in turn triggered an immune response that ultimately caused the white blood cells to move to the air chamber and destroy the bacteria. Researchers also introduced a variety of nanoscale particles (such as those found in commercial products, and in air and water pollution) into the air channel. Several types of these nanoparticles entered the lung cells and caused the cells to overproduce free radicals and to induce inflammation. Many
14011795
Pure red cell aplasia


Pure red cell aplasia (PRCA) or erythroblastopenia refers to a type of anemia affecting the precursors to red blood cells but not to white blood cells. In PRCA, the bone marrow ceases to produce red blood cells. There are multiple etiologies that can cause PRCA. The condition has been first described by Paul Kaznelson in 1922. Signs and symptoms may include: Causes of PRCA include: PRCA is considered an autoimmune disease as it will respond to immunosuppressant treatment such as cyclosporin in many patients, though this approach is not without
4544207
Chemotherapy


range of side-effects that depend on the type of medications used. The most common medications affect mainly the fast-dividing cells of the body, such as blood cells and the cells lining the mouth, stomach, and intestines. Chemotherapy-related toxicities can occur acutely after administration, within hours or days, or chronically, from weeks to years. Virtually all chemotherapeutic regimens can cause depression of the immune system, often by paralysing the bone marrow and leading to a decrease of white blood cells, red blood cells,
7417052
Leukemia


leukemias": Combining these two classifications provides a total of four main categories. Within each of these main categories, there are typically several subcategories. Finally, some rarer types are usually considered to be outside of this classification scheme. The most common symptoms in children are easy bruising, pale skin, fever, and an enlarged spleen or liver. Damage to the bone marrow, by way of displacing the normal bone marrow cells with higher numbers of immature white blood cells, results in a lack of blood platelets, which are
18792325
Bone


is a metabolically active tissue composed of several types of cells. These cells include osteoblasts, which are involved in the creation and mineralization of bone tissue, osteocytes, and osteoclasts, which are involved in the reabsorption of bone tissue. Osteoblasts and osteocytes are derived from osteoprogenitor cells, but osteoclasts are derived from the same cells that differentiate to form macrophages and monocytes. Within the marrow of the bone there are also hematopoietic stem cells. These cells give rise to other cells, including white blood cells, red blood cells, and
3693150
White Blood Cells (album)


to be suckered into it? Why do we have to buy a cell phone, you know what I mean? A lot of that stuff upsets me. It gets annoying," said Jack White. The album's title alludes to the increasing media attention the band was receiving, which would only increase after release. "The name, "White Blood Cells", for the album, is this idea of bacteria coming at us, or just foreign things coming at us, or media, or attention on the band
6002625
Cell nucleus


approximately 6 micrometres (µm), which occupies about 10% of the total cell volume. The contents of the nucleus are held in the nucleoplasm similar to the cytoplasm in the rest of the cell. The fluid component of this is termed the nucleosol, similar to the cytosol in the cytoplasm. In most types of granulocyte, a white blood cell, the nucleus is lobated and can be bi-lobed, tri-lobed or multi-lobed. The nuclear envelope, otherwise known as nuclear membrane, consists of two
6416537
White blood cell differential


sizes is still used in many hematology analyzers, although other techniques are used to improve discrimination between white blood cell types. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, researchers began to combine Coulter counting techniques with analysis of the optical properties of cells. These early flow cytometry devices, such as Kamentsky's Cytofluorograph and Dittrich & Goehde's Impulscytometer, shot beams of light at cells in specific wavelengths and measured the resulting absorbance or fluorescence, allowing for quantification of cellular contents such as DNA. Julius and colleagues improved upon these techniques with
19503328
Whole blood


. This is done to provide a final product with a very specific hematocrit (percentage of red cells) with type O red cells and type AB plasma to minimize the chance of complications. Transfusion of whole blood is being used in the military setting and is being studied in pre-hospital trauma care and in the setting of massive transfusion in the civilian setting. Historically, blood was transfused as whole blood without further processing. Most blood banks now split the whole blood into two or more components, typically red blood cells and
1620932
Acute myeloblastic leukemia with maturation


Acute myeloblastic leukemia with maturation (M2) is a subtype of acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a type of cancer affecting blood cells that eventually develop into non-lymphocyte white blood cells. The disease originates from the bone marrow, the soft inner portion of select bones where blood stem cells develop into either lymphocyte or in this particular condition, myeloid cells. This acute disease prevents bone marrow cells from properly maturing, thus causing an accumulation of immature myeloblast cells in the bone marrow.
21960951
Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis


type 2 familial hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis are due to bi-allelic PRF1 mutations. The blood count typically shows decreased numbers of blood cells—including a decreased amount of circulating red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The bone marrow may show hemophagocytosis. The liver function tests are usually elevated. A low level of the protein albumin in the blood is common. The serum C reactive protein, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and ferritin level are markedly elevated. In children, a ferritin above 10000 is very sensitive and specific for
4791149
Mixed lymphocyte reaction


two-way MLR, both populations can proliferate. MLR’s are performed to assess how T-cells react to external stimuli. T cells are a type of white blood cell that scans for cellular abnormalities and infections. They are essential to human immunity. The MLR was first recognized when researchers mixed leukocytes from two unrelated donors in culture. After several days, lymphocytes underwent blast transformation, DNA synthesis and cellular proliferation in response to the major histocompatibility antigen (MHC Class I and II) differences between the two cell populations designated
21726471
Milk allergy


researched, but it is of unclear benefit. Food allergies can have rapid-onset (from minutes up to 2 hours), delayed-onset (up to 48 hours or even 1 week), or combinations of both, depending on the mechanisms involved. The difference depends on the types of white blood cells involved. B cells, a subset of white blood cells, rapidly synthesize and secrete immunoglobulin E (IgE), a class of antibody which bind to antigens, i.e., the foreign proteins. Thus, immediate
18679615
Cell adhesion molecule


that are dependent on fucosylated carbohydrates, e.g., mucins for binding. The three family members are E-selectin (endothelial), L-selectin (leukocyte), and P-selectin (platelet). The best-characterized ligand for the three selectins is P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 (PSGL-1), which is a mucin-type glycoprotein expressed on all white blood cells. Selectins have been implicated in several roles but they are especially important in the immune system by helping white blood cell homing and trafficking. The variety
3638359
Neurosyphilis


sample 1:10. CSF white blood cell count is often elevated in the early stages of neurosyphilis, ranging from about 50 to 100 white blood cells/mcL with a lymphocyte predominance. Cell counts are typically lower in late syphilis. Regardless of syphilis disease stage, the absence of CSF white blood cells rules out neurosyphilis. Penicillin is used to treat neurosyphilis. Two examples of penicillin therapies include: Follow-up blood tests are generally performed at 3, 6, 12, 24, and 36 months to make sure the infection is
12568289
Circulating tumor DNA


inefficient immune cell infiltration to tumor sites, which reduces effective clearance of ctDNA from the bloodstream. When blood is collected in EDTA tubes and stored, the white blood cells begin to lyse and release genomic wild type DNA in to the sample in quantities typically many fold higher than the ctDNA is present in. This makes detection of mutations or other ctDNA biomarkers more difficult. The use of commercially available cell stabilisation tubes can prevent or delay the lysis of white cells thereby reducing the dilution effect of the ctDNA. Sherwood et al demonstrated
13614289
Hepatitis C vaccine


TNF-α), and interleukin-2 (IL-2) induction, robust CD4 and CD8 T cell proliferation, and induction of polyfunctional T cells. In 2014, South Australian researchers have claimed to have had success treating hepatitis C using a new type of cutaneous DNA vaccine. Injecting directly into the skin, which has more white blood cells than muscle tissue, induces inflammation at the injection site and attracts more white blood cells. The vaccine was developed to treat patients with hepatitis C, but researchers speculate that it may be used as
1754194
White blood cell


, and NK cells. The number of leukocytes in the blood is often an indicator of disease, and thus the "white blood cell count" is an important subset of the complete blood count. The normal white cell count is usually between 4 × 10/L and 1.1 × 10/L. In the US, this is usually expressed as 4,000 to 11,000 white blood cells per microliter of blood. White blood cells make up approximately 1% of the total blood volume in a healthy adult, making them substantially less numerous
7743855
Veto cells


not a specific phenotype. This means that different types of white blood cells, including non-cytotoxic cells, are capable of acting as veto cells. To name some of these cell types; CD34 cells, CD33 cells, CD8 T cells, Immature dendritic cells and NK cells among others. Mature activated cytotoxic CD8+ T cells are the most potent veto cells, this is perhaps related to their distinct function as killer cells which is not related to their veto activity. Subtypes of CD8+ T cells such as Central memory
21125196
Leukoreduction


Leukoreduction is the removal of white blood cells (or "leukocytes") from the blood or blood components supplied for blood transfusion. After the removal of the leukocytes, the blood product is said to be "leukoreduced". It is theorized that transfusions that contain white blood cells may cause adverse effects through multiple mechanisms. White blood cells may themselves harbor infectious disease and some pathogens will be more concentrated in white blood cells than the rest of the blood product. It is also theorized that the donor white blood cells may suppress
10957306
Waldenström's macroglobulinemia


particularly swelling of the lymph nodes, liver, and spleen. A skeletal survey can help distinguish between WM and multiple myeloma. Anemia is typically found in 80% of patients with WM. A low white blood cell count, and low platelet count in the blood may be observed. A low level of neutrophils (a specific type of white blood cell) may also be found in some individuals with WM. Chemistry tests include lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels, uric acid levels, erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), kidney
7015176