which sociologist differentiated between gemeinschaft and gesellschaft societies
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft


Gemeinschaft () and Gesellschaft (), generally translated as "community and society", are categories which were used by the German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies in order to categorize social ties into two dichotomous sociological types which define each other. Max Weber, who is generally recognized as being a founding figure in sociology, also wrote extensively about the relationship between "Gemeinschaft" and "Gesellschaft". Weber wrote in direct response to Tönnies. According to the dichotomy, social ties can be categorized, on one hand, as belonging to
12904232
Community of place


that sociologist have found that creates solidarity between the community and its members. German Sociologist and Philosopher Ferdinand Tönnies spoke of these components as evolutionary terms in his theoretical essay "Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft" (translated to Community and Society). "Gemeinschaft" would represent the childhood of humanity where as "Gesellschaft" would represent the maturity of humanity. "Gemeinschaft" or community is smaller in number of members; its members usually share a common way of life (occupation/daily activities), common beliefs. Members have frequent interaction
14976119
Community


and self-regulating (such as a forest or a lake) and minor communities which rely on other communities (like fungi decomposing a log) and are the building blocks of major communities. In "Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft" (1887), German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies described two types of human association: "Gemeinschaft" (usually translated as "community") and "Gesellschaft" ("society" or "association"). Tönnies proposed the "Gemeinschaft–Gesellschaft" dichotomy as a way to think about social ties
5776628
Sociology


human association: "Gemeinschaft" (usually translated as "community") and "Gesellschaft" ("society" or "association"). In his 1887 work, "Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft", Tönnies argued that "Gemeinschaft" is perceived to be a tighter and more cohesive social entity, due to the presence of a "unity of will". The 'development' or 'health' of a community is also a central concern of community sociologists also engage in development sociology, exemplified by the literature surrounding the
15829308
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft


The concepts "Gemeinschaft" and "Gesellschaft" were also used by Max Weber in "Economy and Society", which was first published in 1921. Weber wrote in direct response to Tönnies, and argued that "Gemeinschaft" is rooted in a "subjective feeling" that may be "affectual or traditional". "Gesellschaft"-based relationships, according to Weber, are rooted in "rational agreement by mutual consent", the best example of which is a commercial contract. To emphasize the fluidity and amorphousness of the relationship between "
12904236
Ferdinand Tönnies


Ferdinand Tönnies (; 26 July 1855 – 9 April 1936) was a German sociologist and philosopher. He was a major contributor to sociological theory and field studies, best known for his distinction between two types of social groups, Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft. He co-founded the German Society for Sociology, of which he was president from 1909 to 1933, after which he was ousted for having criticized the Nazis. Tönnies was considered the first German sociologist proper, published over 900 works and contributed to many areas of sociology and philosophy.
12696537
Ferdinand Tönnies


pure sociology—theoretically—these two normal types of will are to be strictly separated; in applied sociology—empirically—they are always mixed. Tönnies' distinction between "Gemeinschaft" and "Gesellschaft", like others between tradition and modernity, has been criticized for over-generalizing differences between societies, and implying that all societies were following a similar evolutionary path, an argument which he never proclaimed. The equilibrium in Gemeinschaft is achieved through morals, conformism, and exclusion - social control - while Gesellschaft keeps its equilibrium through
12696544
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft


Gemeinschaft" and "Gesellschaft", Weber modified the terms in German to "Vergemeinschaftung", and "Vergesellschaftung", which are the gerund forms of the German words. Weber's distinction between "Gemeinschaft" and "Gesellschaft" is highlighted in the essay "Classes, Stände, Parties", which is the basis for Weber's three-component theory of stratification. Having propounded his conception of the "Gemeinschaft"–"Gesellschaft" dichotomy, Tönnies was drawn into a sharp polemic with Émile Durkheim. In a review of Tönnies' book
12904237
Sociology


phenomena. As a non-positivist, however, Weber sought relationships that are not as "historical, invariant, or generalisable" as those pursued by natural scientists. Fellow German sociologist, Ferdinand Tönnies, theorised on two crucial abstract concepts with his work on "Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft" (lit. "community" and "society"). Tönnies marked a sharp line between the realm of concepts and the reality of social action: the first must be treated axiomatically and in a deductive way ("pure sociology")
15829212
Social relation


In social science, a social relation or social interaction is any relationship between two or more individuals. Social relations derived from individual agency form the basis of social structure and the basic object for analysis by social scientists. Fundamental inquiries into the nature of social relations feature in the work of sociologists such as Max Weber in his theory of social action. Categorizing social interactions enables observational and other social research, such as Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (lit. "community and society"), collective consciousness, etc. However different schools and
16037767
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft


personal social interactions, and the roles, values, and beliefs based on such interactions ("Gemeinschaft", German, commonly translated as "community"), or on the other hand as belonging to indirect interactions, impersonal roles, formal values, and beliefs based on such interactions ("Gesellschaft", German, commonly translated as "society"). The "Gemeinschaft–Gesellschaft" dichotomy was proposed by Tönnies as a purely conceptual tool rather than as an ideal type in the way it was used by Max Weber
12904233
Public opinion


that rulers would rule for the greatest happiness of the greater number. He brought in Utilitarian philosophy in order to define theories of public opinion. The German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies, by using the conceptional tools of his theory of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, argued ("Kritik der öffentlichen Meinung", 1922), that 'public opinion' has the equivalent social function in societies ("Gesellschaften") which religion has in communities ("Gemeinschaften"). German social theorist Jürgen Habermas contributed the idea of public sphere to the discussion
2963754
Volkstum


", it summoned a corporate-agrarian "Volksgemeinschaft" or ideal community as the key features of "Volkstum", though these did not actually exist. It was the term of choice for every figure wishing to turn to an irrational feeling and definition of unity, against both enemies inside and outside the "Reich". While the Brothers Grimm had not yet distinguished between "Gemeinschaft" (community) and "Gesellschaft" (society), Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936) noted in his 1887 work "Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft"
19788675
Nationalism


status" societies based on family association and functionally diffuse roles for individuals; and modern societies defined as "contract" societies where social relations are determined by rational contracts pursued by individuals to advance their interests. Maine saw the development of societies as moving away from traditional status societies to modern contract societies. Ferdinand Tönnies in his book "Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft" (1887) defined a "Gemeinschaft" (community) as being based on emotional attachments as attributed with traditional societies, while defining a "Gesellschaft" (society) as
2034044
Communitarianism


began to be formulated as a philosophy by Dorothy Day and the Catholic Worker movement. In an early article the "Catholic Worker" clarified the dogma of the Mystical Body of Christ as the basis for the movement's communitarianism. Communitarianism is also related to the personalist philosophy of Emmanuel Mounier. A number of early sociologists had strongly communitarian elements in their work, such as Ferdinand Tönnies in his comparison of Gemeinschaft (oppressive but nurturing communities) and Gesellschaft (liberating but impersonal societies), and Emile Durkheim's concerns about the integrating
20775160
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft


in 1889, Durkheim interpreted "Gemeinschaft" as an organic community, and "Gesellschaft" as a mechanical one, reproaching Tönnies for considering the second type of social organisation artificial, and not seeing the transition from the one type to the other. Tönnies did not agree with such an interpretation of his views, and in turn, when reviewing Durkheim's "The Division of Labour in Society" (1896), wrote that Durkheim's whole sociology was a modification and variant of Spencer's, which was also unjust. Eric
12904238
Social alienation


. German sociologists Georg Simmel and Ferdinand Tönnies wrote critical works on individualization and urbanization. Simmel's "The Philosophy of Money" describes how relationships become more and more mediated by money. Tönnies' "Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft" ("Community and Society") is about the loss of primary relationships such as familial bonds in favour of goal-oriented, secondary relationships. This idea of alienation can be observed in some other contexts, although the term may not be as frequently used. In the context of an individual's relationships
10804019
Ferdinand Tönnies


society"—on the other hand, refers to groups that are sustained by it being instrumental for their members' individual aims and goals. "Gemeinschaft" may be exemplified historically by a family or a neighborhood in a pre-modern (rural) society; "Gesellschaft" by a joint-stock company or a state in a modern society, i.e. the society when Tönnies lived. "Gesellschaft" relationships arose in an urban and capitalist setting, characterized by individualism and impersonal monetary connections between people. Social ties were often instrumental and superficial
12696541
Ecclesiology


. This ecclesiological model draws upon sociology and articulations of two types of social relationships: a formally organized or structured society (Gesellschaft) and an informal or interpersonal community (Gemeinschaft). The Catholic theologian Arnold Rademacher maintained that the Church in its inner core is community (Gemeinschaft) and in its outer core society (Gesellschaft). Here, the interpersonal aspect of the Church is given primacy and that the structured Church is the result of a real community of believers. Similarly, Yves Congar argued that the ultimate reality of the
6364823
Will (sociology)


In sociology, will is a concept introduced by Ferdinand Tönnies in ""Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft"", 1887. Tönnies' approach was very much indebted to Spinoza's dictum "voluntas atque intellectus unum et idem sunt" ("will as well as ratio are one and the same"), and to Arthur Schopenhauer. Tönnies saw a fundamental cleavage between "essential will" ("Wesenwille") creating community ("Gemeinschaft"), and "arbitrary will" ("Kürwille"), creating society ("
5283145
Collectivism


collectivism and individualism using the terms "Gemeinschaft" (community) and "Gesellschaft" (society). "Gemeinschaft" relationships, in which communalism is prioritized, were thought to be characteristic of small, rural village communities. An anthropologist, Redfield (1941) echoed this notion in work contrasting folk society with urban society. Max Weber (1930) contrasted collectivism and individualism through the lens of religion, believing that Protestants were more individualistic and self-reliant compared to Catholics, who endorsed hierarchical, interdependent relationships among people.
5877086
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft


Hobsbawm argued that, as globalization turns the entire planet into an increasingly remote kind of "Gesellschaft", so too collective identity politics seeks for a fictitious remaking of the qualities of "Gemeinschaft" by artificially reforging group bonds and identities. Fredric Jameson highlights the ambivalent envy felt by those constructed by "Gesellschaft" for remaining enclaves of "Gemeinschaft", even as they inevitably corrode their existence. In business usage, "Gesellschaft" is the German term for "company", as in "Aktiengesellschaft" or "Gesellschaft mit
12904239
Index of sociology articles


— false consciousness — family — fascism — fecundity — feedback — femininity — feminism — Ferdinand Tönnies Society — fertility — fetishism — feudalism — First World — flextime plan — forces of production — Fordism — forms of activity and interpersonal relations — functionalism — functions — fundamentalism — futures studies – futurist — futurist — futurology — gang — GDP — gemeinschaft — Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft – gender — gendered division of labour — gendering — genealogy of power/knowledge — generalized other — generalized other — genetic engineering — genocide — gentrification — geopolitics —
17016395
History of sociology


, one seeks relationships that are not as "ahistorical, invariant, or generalizable" as those pursued by natural scientists. Ferdinand Tönnies presented Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft (sometimes translated as "community" and "society") as the two normal types of human association, a distinction that was developed further by Max Weber. Tönnies drew a sharp line between the realm of conceptuality and the reality of social action: the first must be treated axiomatically and in a deductive way ('pure' sociology), whereas the second empirically and
18305443
Ferdinand Tönnies


grouping; very often it is an underlying, subconscious force. Groupings formed around an essential will are called a "Gemeinschaft". The other will is the "arbitrary will" (""Kürwille""): An actor sees a social grouping as a means to further his individual goals; so it is purposive and future-oriented. Groupings around the latter are called "Gesellschaft". Whereas the membership in a "Gemeinschaft" is self-fulfilling, a "Gesellschaft" is instrumental for its members. In
12696543
Hans Freyer


cycle: "Glaube, Stil" and "Staat" (belief, style, the state). These were partly, although not openly, based on Ferdinand Tönnies' "Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft" (community and society). The last stage, "Staat", was the ideal state for society: "the essential quality of the state (...) was its ability to forge living humanity with all its forces into a unity". In 1929 Freyer wrote "Soziologie als Wirklichkeitswissenschaft" (Sociology as a "Science
1977379
Stifterverband für die Deutsche Wissenschaft


for science communication. The Stifterverband cooperates with major German research organisations in awarding prizes for outstanding achievements in a variety of fields. Together with the Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft it awards the Communicator-Preis for science communication. Since 1999 it awards the Erwin-Schrödinger-Preis for interdisciplinary research together with the Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft. The Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, the Max-Planck-Gesellschaft as well as the Leibniz-Gemeinschaft each award a „Preis des Stifterverbandes für die Deutsche Wissenschaft“. Together with the Hochschulrektorenkonferenz it awards the Ars legendi-
5867701
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft


beschränkter Haftung" ("GmbH"). "Gemeinschaft" is used to identify groups which have or are claimed to have a more "mutual" element of affective loyalty. One important usage is in the German name for the European Economic Community, "Europäische Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft". The German phrase for "mutual insurance company" includes both words, "mutual" and "company." In the 1980's, the Frankenmuth Mutual Insurance Company, headquartered in the German-American city of Frankenmuth, Michigan, released various promotional
12904240
Social network


Gemeinschaft", German, commonly translated as "community") or impersonal, formal, and instrumental social links ("Gesellschaft", German, commonly translated as "society"). Durkheim gave a non-individualistic explanation of social facts, arguing that social phenomena arise when interacting individuals constitute a reality that can no longer be accounted for in terms of the properties of individual actors. Georg Simmel, writing at the turn of the twentieth century, pointed to the nature of networks and the effect of network size on interaction
18116226
Corporatism


and restore the feudal system. From the 1850s onward, progressive corporatism developed in response to classical liberalism and Marxism. These corporatists supported providing group rights to members of the middle classes and working classes in order to secure cooperation among the classes. This was in opposition to the Marxist conception of class conflict. By the 1870s and 1880s, corporatism experienced a revival in Europe with the creation of workers' unions that were committed to negotiations with employers. In his work "Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft" ("Community and Society")
16048664
Ferdinand Tönnies


of social change, particularly on public opinion, customs and technology, crime, and suicide. He also had a vivid interest in methodology, especially statistics, and sociological research, inventing his own technique of statistical association. Tönnies distinguished between two types of social groupings. Gemeinschaft—often translated as "community" (or left untranslated)—refers to groupings based on feelings of togetherness and on mutual bonds, which are felt as a goal to be kept up, their members being means for this goal. Gesellschaft—often translated as "
12696540
Social theory


social cycle theory to illustrate their point. Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936) made "community" and "society" ("Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft", 1887) the special topics of the new science of "sociology", both of them based on different modes of will of social actors. The 19th century pioneers of social theory and sociology, like Saint-Simon, Comte, Marx, John Stuart Mill or Spencer, never held university posts and they were broadly regarded as philosophers. Emile Durkheim endeavoured to formally established academic sociology
13534462
Community of place


with one another as well as a tie of emotional bonds and distance from centers of power. "Gesellschaft" or society is much larger in terms of its members. Contrary to "Gemeinschaft", members do not share the same ways of life or beliefs. Members rarely interact with one another and have loose connections to each other. As well as being closer to establishments of power and regulated competitiveness among its members. This type of bond is most often found in urban communities that follow specific systems. A "place"
14976120
M. Rainer Lepsius


researchers and theoreticians of contemporary society. Like most sociologists of the postwar generation, he stated out as an "industry sociologist": like all the better known sociologists of that generation, he was a member of the "Export Committee for Industry Sociology" at the German Sociological Association (""Fachausschuss für Industriesoziologie der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Soziologie""). A particular interest was in the work of Max Weber: he was prominent among the co-compilers of the (eventually) 47 volume edition of the . His research
13300187
Volksgemeinschaft


Volksgemeinschaft" were Friedrich Schleiermacher, Friedrich Carl von Savigny, Carl Theodor Welcker, Johann Caspar Bluntschli, Hermann Schulze, Wilhelm Dilthey, and Wilhelm Wundt. Most influential was perhaps Ferdinand Tönnies' theory in his work "Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft" ("Community and Society") of 1887. Decades later, in 1932, Tönnies joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany to oppose the rise of Nazism and protest against their use of his concept. He had his honorary professorship removed when Adolf Hitler came to power. In 1914,
19187115
Society


the competing society. Sociologist Peter L. Berger defines society as "...a human product, and nothing but a human product, that yet continuously acts upon its producers." According to him, society was created by humans but this creation turns back and creates or molds humans every day. Sociologist Gerhard Lenski differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication, and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) simple agricultural, (3) advanced agricultural, (4) industrial, and (5)
16540809
Differentiation (sociology)


one of the most prominent modern day thinkers in the sociological systems theory. Luhmann was born in Lüneburg, Germany, studied law at the University of Freiburg from 1946 to 1949, in 1961 he went to Harvard, where he met and studied under Talcott Parsons, then the world's most influential social systems theorist. In later years, Luhmann dismissed Parsons' theory, developing a rival approach of his own. His magnum opus, "Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft" ("The Society of Society"), appeared in 1997
2578022
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft


to accentuate the key elements of a historic/social change. Tönnies was a Thomas Hobbes scholarhe edited the standard modern editions of Hobbes's "The Elements of Law" and "Behemoth". It was his study of Hobbes that encouraged Tönnies to devote himself wholly to the philosophy of history and the philosophy of law. And it has been argued that he derived both categories from Hobbes's concepts of "concord" and "union". The second edition, published in 1912, of the work in which Tönnies further promoted
12904234
Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft


the concepts turned out to be an unexpected but lasting success after the first edition was published in 1887 with the subtitle "Treatise on Communism and Socialism as Empirical Patterns of Culture". Seven more German editions followed, the last in 1935, and it became part of the general stock of ideas with which pre-1933 German intellectuals were quite familiar. The book sparked a revival of corporatist thinking, including the rise of neo-medievalism, the rise of support for guild socialism, and caused major changes in the field of sociology.
12904235
University of Potsdam


investigating the interactive relationship between politics, economy, and institutions at different levels and in different fields of activity. The interdisciplinary approach allows for a study of the interplay between the economy, public and private institutions, and policy-making. Problems of governance between state, economy, and civil society are just as much a concern as problems of governance within the very differentiated public sector. Political and administrative scientists, sociologists, and economists are working on collaborative projects. The interplay of different research approaches and methods creates empirical and theoretical
11297287
Symbolic violence


of domination. The term symbolic violence first appeared in Pierre Bourdieu’s book La Distinction in 1979 alongside the similar concepts of symbolic power and cultural capital which make physical analogy to the power differentials between social groups within a hierarchy. Although La Distinction focused mainly on aesthetics and taste within modern French culture, it established a framework within which he and other sociologists would examine meta-behavior within society as it relates to power, social capital, and individual habitus. Bourdieu’s theory of symbolic violence further elaborates and develops Max Weber’s
17205754
American IG


Agfa, Hoechst, Weiler-ter-Meer, and Griesheim-Elektron. These six companies were merged into Interessen-Gemeinschaft Farbenindustrie AG or, IG Farben, for short. In year 1928, the American holdings of IG Farben, namely, the American branches of Bayer Company, General Aniline Works, Agfa Ansco, and Winthrop Chemical Company, were organized into a Swiss holding company, which was named Internationale Gesellschaft für Chemische Unternehmungen AG or IG Chemie, in short. The controlling interest of this entity rested with IG Farben
11085114
Walther Gerlach


professor at the University of Bonn. From 1948, he became an ordinarius professor of experimental physics and director of the physics department at the University of Munich, a position he held until 1957. He was also rector of the university from 1948 to 1951. From 1949 to 1951, Gerlach was the founding president of the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, which promotes applied sciences. From 1949 to 1961, he was the vice-president of the Deutsche Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung und Förderung der Forschung (German Association for the Support and Advancement of
7302566
Talcott Parsons


the idea of an interaction situation based on need-dispositions and facilitated through the basic concepts of cognitive, cathectic, and evaluative orientation. The work also became known for introducing his famous pattern variables, which in reality represented choices distributed along a "Gemeinschaft" vs. "Gesellschaft" axis. However, the details of how Parsons thought about the outline of the social system went through a rapid series of changes in the following years but the basics remained. During the early 1950s, the idea of the AGIL model took place in
9287365
Ferdinand Tönnies


Prussian government considered him to be a social democrat, and Tönnies would not be called to a professorial chair until 1913. He returned to Kiel as a professor emeritus in 1921 and taught until 1933 when he was ousted by the Nazis, due to earlier publications in which he had criticized them. Remaining in Kiel, he died three years later. Many of his writings on sociological theories—including "Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft" (1887)—furthered pure sociology. He coined the metaphysical term "Voluntarism". Tönnies also contributed to the study
12696539
Guanxi


, they still consider "guanxi" as a Chinese element that should not be denied. Sociologists have linked "guanxi" with the concept of social capital (it has been described as a "Gemeinschaft" value structure), and it has been exhaustively described in Western studies of Chinese economic and political behavior. The four dimensions for a successful business networking comprise: trust, bonding, mutual relationship, and empathy. Nevertheless, the points of view in which these dimensions are understood and consolidated into business tasks are extensively disparate in
4484557
Refeudalization


context which sociologists, drawing on Habermas, refer to contemporary socio-economic processes in the global economy as refeudalization. The concepts overlap with discussions of neomedievalism. The Swiss sociologist Jean Ziegler uses the German expression "Refeudalisierung der Gesellschaft" to illuminate the forces behind neoliberal globalization. In his pamphlet "The Empire of Shame", he criticizes the new system of "Refeudalisierung" based on scarcity and debt. However, the concept in English is typically translated as the "new feudalization", which here means the subversion of Enlightenment
11029817
Community


. No group is exclusively one or the other. "Gemeinschaft" stress personal social interactions, and the roles, values, and beliefs based on such interactions. "Gesellschaft" stress indirect interactions, impersonal roles, formal values, and beliefs based on such interactions. In a seminal 1986 study, McMillan and Chavis identify four elements of "sense of community": A "sense of community index" (SCI) was developed by Chavis and colleagues, and revised and adapted by others. Although originally designed to assess sense
5776629
Mental health care in the Philippines


, especially in a developing country to have minority groups. Minority groups as how sociologist Louis Wirth defines it is, "a group of people who, because of their physical or cultural characteristics, are singled out from the others in the society in which they live for differential and unequal treatment, and who therefore regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination". Those that are displaced populations can be considered as part of minority group since they are singled out in the society. Amerasians and Mindanao refugees are examples. If "normal
17152238
Händel-Gesellschaft


Between 1858 and 1902, the Händel-Gesellschaft ("German Handel Society") produced a collected 105-volume edition of the works of George Frideric Handel. Even though the collection was initiated by the society, many of the volumes were published by Friedrich Chrysander working alone (Chrysander was the major contributor for almost all of the volumes). The wording on the title page of the volumes is ""Georg Friedrich Händel's Werke. Ausgabe der Deutschen Händelgesellschaft"" which translates as "Georg Friedrich Handel's works. Edition of
12309384
Status group


The German sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920) formulated a three-component theory of stratification that defines a status group (also status class and status estate) as a group of people who, within a society, can be differentiated on the basis of non-economic qualities such as honour, prestige, ethnicity, race and religion. (Weber used the German terms "Stand" (status group) and "Stände" (status groups).) Since Weber's day, sociologists have intensively studied the matter of
13222863
Notgemeinschaft der Deutschen Wissenschaft


NG included all German universities, all polytechnics ("Technische Hochschulen"), the five German Academies of Science, and the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft. In 1929, the NG was renamed the "Deutsche Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung und Förderung der Forschung" (German Association for the Support and Advancement of Scientific Research); also known in short as the "Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft" (DFG). Until 1934, the NG acted under supervision of the "Reichsinnenministerium" (Reich Interior Ministry), and after that under the "Reichserziehungsministerium
20522162
Neue Helvetische Gesellschaft


For Swiss dignity and Security”") in which they called for the creation of such a society. It was founded in the capital, Bern, in 1914. Groups sprang up quickly in other Swiss cities, including Lausanne, Neuchâtel and Zürich. There were also foreign societies set up by expatriate Swiss communities in Berlin, Paris and London. The name “Neue Helvetische Gesellschaft” was a conscious reference to the "Helvetische Gesellschaft ("“Helvetic Society”") which had played an important role promoting reform in Switzerland
13347861
Ethik in der Schauweise der Wissenschaften vom Menschen und von der Gesellschaft


Ethik in der Schauweise der Wissenschaften vom Menschen und von der Gesellschaft is a book by German sociologist and economist Leopold von Wiese which has first been published in 1947 at A. Francke AG. It contains a typology of ethics, opposing individual to social ethics. The book rounded up a bunch of Leopold von Wiese's writings "which are intrinsically linked", including "Gedanken über Menschlichkeit" (1915), "Homo sum: Gedanken zu einer zusammenfassenden Anthropologie" (1940), and, finally, "die Ethik in der
17786517
Nathaniel Schmidt


her economic integrity, or whether by her courage and strength Ethiopia maintains her independence, moral deterioration of the peoples involved is unavoidable." Three years later, Schmidt offered an assessment of the Japanese aggression against the Republic of China in terms which connected the capacity to wage an unjust war to the disconnectedness between a people and its government. Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft, Vorderasiatische Gesellschaft; Deutsche Palaestina Verein, American Oriental Society (President, 1931–32); American Council of Learned Societies; American Institute of Archeology; American Institute of Sacred Literature
14597370
Sociology of law


's needs and had to be approached morally as well. Still other scholars, most notably the American sociologist Donald Black, developed a resolutely scientific theory of law on the basis of a paradigm of pure sociology. Equally broad in orientation, but again different, is the autopoietic systems theory of the German sociologist Niklas Luhmann, who presents law or "the legal system" as one of the ten "function systems" (see functional differentiation) of society. Social philosopher Jürgen Habermas disagrees with Luhmann and argues that the law can
20225366
National character studies


each other on the exact relationship between personality and culture. The configurationalist and basic approaches both treated personalities within a culture as relatively homogeneous, while Cora DuBois argued that there are no common personality traits found in every single member of a society. Examples of national character studies in America include those undertaken to differentiate the Japanese character from the Chinese within the initiative of understanding Asians on a more strategic level after the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. These were conducted by a group of specialists, including sociologists, anthropologists, and psychologists
11773615
Digital media use and mental health


The relationships between digital media use and mental health have been investigated by various researchers—predominantly psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists and medical experts—for some years. A significant body of research has explored "overuse" phenomena, commonly known as "digital addictions", or "digital dependencies". These phenomena manifest differently in various societies and cultures. Some experts have investigated the benefits of moderate digital media use in various domains, including in mental health, and the treatment of mental health problems with novel technological solutions. The differentiation
20936590
Differentiation (sociology)


, his critics maintain that his autopoeitic assumptions make it impossible to "constitute" a society at all and that Luhmann's theory is inherently self-contradictory. "Religion" is more extensive than the church, "politics" transcends the governmental apparatus, and "economics" encompasses more than the sum total of organizations of production. There are four types of differentiation: segmentation, stratification, center-periphery, and functional. Niklas Luhmann (1927–1998) was a German sociologist and "social systems theorist", as well as
2578021
The Sociological Imagination


The Sociological Imagination is a 1959 book by American sociologist C. Wright Mills published by Oxford University Press. In it, he develops the idea of sociological imagination, the means by which the relation between self and society can be understood. Mills felt that the central task for sociology and sociologists was to find (and articulate) the connections between the particular social environments of individuals (also known as "milieu") and the wider social and historical forces in which they are enmeshed. The approach challenges a structural functionalist approach to sociology
5702255
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Luft- und Raumfahrt


German Society for Aeronautics and Astronautics (DGLR; ) is a German aerospace society. It was founded in 1912 under the name of "Wissenschaftliche Gesellschaft für Flugtechnik" (WGF). It is the second oldest technical and scientific society in aerospace in the world. The DGLR published some of the Zeitschrift für Flugtechnik und Motorluftschiffahrt (ZFM) ("Journal of Aviation Engineering and Motorized-Airship Aeronautics") until 1933 In 1993 Hermann-Oberth-Gesellschaft, Otto-Lilienthal-Gesellschaft, Gesellschaft für Raketentechnik und Weltraumfahrt e.
21381900
Alexander Rudolf Hohlfeld


"Americana Germanica" in 1898. He then became chairman of the Central division of the Modern Language Association of America in 1904. He was also a member of the Modern Language Association of England, the Goethe-Gesellschaft (Goethe Society) in Weimar, the Deutsche Shakespeare-Gesellschaft (German Shakespeare Society), the Deutsche Bibliographische Gesellschaft (German Bibliography Society), the Gesellschaft für Theatergeschichte (Society for the History of Theater) of Berlin, and the Sächsicher Neuphilogen-Verband (Saxonian New Philology Union). His life
1900242
Conrad Gessner


specimens, but also illustrations of animals used in "Historiae animalium". A year after his death, his friend Josias Simler published a biography of Gessner. Gessner and others founded the "Physikalische Gesellschaft" in Zurich, which later became the "Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Zürich" (NGZH) in 1746, to promote the study of natural sciences. Today it is one of the oldest Swiss scientific societies. The society's annual publication, the "Neujahrsblatt der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich" was devoted to a bioography of Gessner in
2142028
Association of Black Sociologists


The Association of Black Sociologists (abbreviated ABS) is an American learned society dedicated to the advancement of scholarship by African American sociologists. It is based in Chicago, Illinois. Its official journal is "Issues in Race & Society", which it publishes in a partnership with Vanderbilt University's Peabody College. The history of the Association of Black Sociologists began in 1968, when a group of American sociologists met to encourage the American Sociological Association (ASA) to increase the participation of black Americans in their ranks. It was established
20363236
Party class


The sociologist Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification in which he defined party class as a group of people (part of a society) that can be differentiated on the basis of their affiliations with other engaged members in the political domain. Unlike communities, where problems arise and are solved by those within the group, parties are formed when individuals seek out support beyond their immediate spatial environment. Status groups such as communities, or groups of individuals in similar class situations, become parties only when their means of mobilizing
13035271
Structural functionalism


, and, finally, the stage of disintegration or dissolution. Following Thomas Malthus' population principles, Spencer concluded that society is constantly facing selection pressures (internal and external) that force it to adapt its internal structure through differentiation. Every solution, however, causes a new set of selection pressures that threaten society's viability. Spencer was not a determinist in the sense that he never said that In fact, he was in many ways a political sociologist, and recognized that the degree of centralized and consolidated authority in a given
15928540
Organizational theory


systems) with their own values and commutative code. Niels Andersen is inspired by the German sociologist Niklas Luhmann and his theory about social systems. The core element of Luhmann's theory, pivots around the problem of the contingency of the meaning. In other words, the system theory becomes a theory of communication and how meaning is created within different social systems. Niels Anders uses the elements of Luhmann's system theory to describe the differentiation of society and connect that to the evolution of the modern organization. According to Andersen society is
6626180
Astronomische Gesellschaft


The Astronomische Gesellschaft is an astronomical society established in 1863 in Heidelberg, the second oldest astronomical society after the Royal Astronomical Society. In 1882, the "Astronomische Gesellschaft" founded the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams at Kiel, where it remained until during World War I when it was moved to the Østervold Observatory at Copenhagen, Denmark, to be operated there by the Copenhagen University Observatory. Around the turn of the 20th century the A.G. initiated the most important star catalog of this time, the "Astronomische Gesellschaft Katalog" (AGK
15830372
Angelika Brandt


II collection at CeNak. Brandt has been a Fellow of the Linnean Society (UK) since 2003, a member of the Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur Mainz (Germany) since 2012, the Deutsche Zoologische Gesellschaft (DZG), Deutsche Gesellschaft für Polarforschung (DGP), Gesellschaft für biologische Systematik (GfbS), the Society (TCS, USA), the Systematics Association (UK), the Biological Society of Washington, and Gesellschaft deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte (GdNÄ). She served as European Governor to the Crustacean
20938657
Social learning (social pedagogy)


through society and should orient its activities to benefit the community. It also implies that knowledge should not solely come from individuals but also from the larger concept of society. Paul Natorp (1854 - 1924) was a German philosopher and educator. In 1899, he published "Sozialpädagogik: Theorie der Willensbildung auf der Grundlage der Gemeinschaft" (Social Pedagogy: The theory of educating the human will into a community asset). According to him, education should be social, thus an interaction between educational and social processes. Natorp believed
14261898
Bach Gesellschaft


The German Bach-Gesellschaft (Bach Society) was a society formed in 1850 for the express purpose of publishing the complete works of Johann Sebastian Bach without editorial additions. The collected works are known as the Bach-Gesellschaft-Ausgabe. On completion of the project, the Society dissolved itself. The nineteenth-century society needs to be distinguished from its successor, the Neue Bachgesellschaft (New Bach Society), founded in 1900. The founders of the society were Moritz Hauptmann, cantor of the St. Thomas Church, Leipzig,
17557752
Civil society


associations, repeated by Marx and Tönnies. Unlike his predecessors, Hegel considered civil society () as a separate realm, a "system of needs", that is the, "[stage of] difference which intervenes between the family and the state." Civil society is the realm of economic relationships as it exists in the modern industrial capitalist society, for it had emerged at the particular period of capitalism and served its interests: individual rights and private property. Hence, he used the German term "bürgerliche Gesellschaft"
753053
Deutsche Phytomedizinische Gesellschaft


The German Phytomedicine Society (Deutsche Phytomedizinische Gesellschaft e.V. - DPG) with headquarters in Braunschweig was founded in 1949 in Fulda and is the professional association of practitioners of phytomedicine, as successor to the Association of German Plant Physicians, which was based in Berlin from 1928 to 1937. The Association promotes The German Phytomedicine Society seeks to achieve this through the following activities: The DPG is a member of the Board of Trustees for the award of the The Society is a member of The internet page of the society contains references to
9426394
Folk religion


practical working definition" that combined elements from these various other definitions. Thus, he summarized folk religion as "the totality of all those views and practices of religion that exist among the people apart from and alongside the strictly theological and liturgical forms of the official religion". Yoder described "folk religion" as existing "in a complex society in relation to and in tension with the organized religion(s) of that society. Its relatively unorganized character differentiates it from organized religion". Alternately, the sociologist of religion Matthias Zic Varul
373619
Sociology of the family


volume by Julie Seymour, Abigail Hackett and Lisa Procter. There has been much research and discussion about the effects of society on the assumption of gender roles in childhood, and how societal norms perpetuate gender-differentiated interactions with children. Psychologists and sociologists suggest that self-gender identity is a result of social learning from peers, role modeling within the family unit, and genetic predisposition. The sociological implications are as follows: Peer interactions: There are significant gender differences in the relationship styles among children which particularly begin to emerge after
2777473
German Soil Science Society


(† 2016), Bernhard Ulrich († 2016), Botho Wohlrab, Wolfgang Zech. The DBG includes the following disciplines (committees) whose chairmen are members of the extended executive board. The society's journal is the "Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science" (formerly: "Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung und Bodenkunde") which is published together with the Deutschen Gesellschaft für Pflanzenernährung (German Society of Plant Nutrition). In addition there is the Mitteilungen der Deutschen Bodenkundlichen Gesellschaft (Communications of the German Pedological Society) in
7078352
Cult


According to "The Oxford Handbook of Religious Movements", "by the end of the decade, the term 'new religions' would virtually replace 'cult' to describe all of those leftover groups that did not fit easily under the label of church or sect." Sociologist Amy Ryan has argued for the need to differentiate those groups that may be dangerous from groups that are more benign. Ryan notes the sharp differences between definition from cult opponents, who tend to focus on negative characteristics, and those of sociologists, who
15061407
Neue Bachgesellschaft


The Neue Bachgesellschaft, or New Bach Society, is an organisation based in Leipzig, Germany, devoted to the music of the composer Johann Sebastian Bach. It was founded in 1900 as the successor to the Bach Gesellschaft, which between 1850 and 1900 produced a complete edition of Bach's works, publishing many pieces for the first time. On completion of these collected works (the "Bach-Ausgabe"), the original Society dissolved itself. The new Society approved three enduring projects: The Society has not been directly involved
20399272
German–Armenian Society


The German–Armenian Society (Armenian: Գերմանահայկական Հասարակություն, Germanahaykakan Hasarakut’yun; German: "Deutsch-Armenische Gesellschaft", "DAG") is a German–Armenian association, which is active above all in the promotion of the mutual understanding between Germans and Armenians and the keeping of the interests of Armenians living in Germany. The society also supports the rights and interests of Armenian minorities in Turkey and other countries of the Near East. The German–Armenian Society was created 1914 by Johannes Lepsius, Paul Rohrbach and Avetik Isahakyan
9836534
Gesellschaft für Informatik


and women to foster interest in informatics. In addition to the "Informatik Spektrum", which is the journal of the society, most of the society's special interest groups maintain their own journals. Overall the society has approximately 40 regular publications, and it sponsors a similar number of conferences and events annually. Many of these conferences have their proceedings published in the GI's book series, Lecture Notes in Informatics, which also publishes Ph.D. thesis abstracts and research monographs. Every two years, the Gesellschaft für Informatik awards the Konrad
8156706
George Ritzer


and the structure of current sociologists and social theories. The internal-social subtype identifies connections between sociologists and connections between sociologists and society. The last two subsets of M are looking more at the macrolevel of sociology than the other two subsets. The third subtype of M is the external-intellectual view of sociology; it looks at different studies and their concepts, tools, and ideas in order to apply these aspects to sociology. The fourth, and final, subset is external-social where the impact of social theory in
2201512
Hans Christian Korting


modulating the function of human polymerase alpha which at a time modulates proliferation of keratinocytes and various viruses including human papilloma viruses (HPV), which is most relevant in the context of non-melanoma skin cancer treatment. Korting was the recipient of several scientific awards, including the Paul Gerson Unna Prize from the German Dermatological Society as well as the prize for promotion of research of Deutschsprachige Mykologische Gesellschaft. He sat on the board of several scientific societies including Deutsche Dermatologische Gesellschaft (DDG) and was a co-founder of the Society
13565423
Herbert Raab


joined the Astronomical Society of Linz ("Linzer Astronomische Gemeinschaft"), and has been president of the society from 1996 until 2017. Since 1990, he has been developing the widely used software "Astrometrica", which is used for astrometric and photometric analysis of images of asteroids and comets. Raab's most important observations include precise astrometry of the comet Shoemaker–Levy 9, which he observed together with Erich Meyer and Erwin Obermair in 1993. These observations have significantly contributed to the subsequent prediction of the impact of this comet
18315165
Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin


The Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin ("Berlin Geographical Society") was founded in 1828 and is the second oldest geographical society. It was founded by some of the foremost geographers of its time. The founder Carl Ritter and the founding member Alexander von Humboldt can also be considered the founders of modern scientific geography. Today the society's aim still is to promote the exchange and spreading of geographical knowledge. The society publishes the scientific journal "Die Erde" (Earth) which has been published since 1853. It also sponsors
18023327
Armanen-Orden


in "Religion als Kulturkritik" ("Religion and Cultural Criticism"): In 1977 Sigrun Schleipfer founded the "Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung der Burgen" (Society for the Conservation of Castles), which proclaims castles to be among the "last paradises of the romantic era" in this cold modern age and had as its primary aim the purchase and restoration of a castle for the Order. In 1995, the society finally acquired the castle of Rothenhorn in Szlichtyngowa (Poland), a run-down structure dating back to the
3453252
Niklas Luhmann


a lecturer at Theodor Adorno's former chair at the University of Frankfurt and then was appointed full professor of sociology at the newly founded University of Bielefeld, Germany (until 1993). He continued to publish after his retirement, when he finally found the time to complete his magnum opus, "Die Gesellschaft der Gesellschaft" (literally, "The Society of Society"), which was published in 1997, and translated subsequently in English, under the title "Theory of Society" (volume I in 2012 and volume II
1711001
The Rise of the Meritocracy


The Rise of the Meritocracy is a book by British sociologist and politician Michael Dunlop Young which was first published in 1958. It describes a dystopian society in a future United Kingdom in which intelligence and merit have become the central tenet of society, replacing previous divisions of social class and creating a society stratified between a merited power-holding elite and a disenfranchised underclass of the less merited. The essay satirised the Tripartite System of education that was being practised at the time. The book was rejected by the Fabian Society and then by
14253663
Ariosophy


founded the "Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung der Burgen" (Society for the Conservation of Castles), which proclaims castles to be among the "last paradises of the romantic era" in this cold modern age and had as its primary aim the purchase and restoration of a castle for the Order. In 1995, the society finally acquired the castle of Rothenhorn in Szlichtyngowa (Poland), a run-down structure dating back to the 12th century, though most of the complex dates from the 16th century. Over many years, Adolf
21352493
Armanen-Orden


propagated a similar mixture of occult "Völkisch" thinking. In 1977 she founded the 'Gemeinschaft zur Erhaltung der Burgen' (Society for the Conservation of Castles), which proclaims castles to be among the ""last paradises of the romantic era"" in this cold modern age and had as its primary aim the purchase and restoration of a castle for the Order. In Yule 1995, the society finally acquired the castle of Rothenhorn in Szlichtyngowa in Poland, a run-down structure dating back to the 12th century,
3453256
Händel-Gesellschaft


of Handel—with at least 250 of his works unpublished in the collection. Before the Händelgesellschaft, at least two collected editions of Handel's works had been produced. Samuel Arnold's 180-volume collection was produced between 1787 and 1797—however, it was far from complete, and included, for example, only five of Handel's 42 Italian operas. The other major collection was produced by the English Handel Society (founded by Sir George Macfarren) between 1843 and 1858—however, it too was incomplete. In 1856, the Händel-Gesellschaft
12309386
Ulm Railway Society


railbuses and historic branch line passenger coaches. The Albtal Transport Company ("Albtal-Verkehrs-Gesellschaft") runs a historic fast stopping train ("Eilzug") hauled by a DRG Class 58 (ex Baden G 12) steam engine on the Alb Valley Railway between Ettlingen and Bad Herrenalb and the Rhine Valley Railway and Murg Valley Railway between Karlsruhe and Baiersbronn. This historic engine was built in 1921 by the Maschinenbau-Gesellschaft Karlsruhe. Other steam locomotives also stationed with the Ettlingen Group, but not in working order,
1944237
German Operations Research Society


Operations Research (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Unternehmensforschung, DGU) with a rather academic background was founded. Both societies merged in 1972 and became the German Operations Research Society (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Operations Research, DGOR). By the end of the 1970s some members with a theoretical focus did not find anymore their interests enough represented by the rather practical DGOR. Hence, they founded the Society for Mathematics, Economics and Operations Research (Gesellschaft für Mathematik, Ökonomie und Operations Research, GMÖOR) in 1979. From 1995 on, they again
20842546
Hermann-Oberth-Gesellschaft


In 1961 Berthold Seliger created his own company, the Seliger Forschungs- und Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH, which cooperated with the Hermann Oberth society. The Seliger Forschungs- und Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH developed several two- and three-stage rockets, which could reach heights of up to 150 kilometers, between 1962 and 1963. After a disputed flight demonstration of the Seliger Forschungs- und Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH militarily usable rockets before military representatives from non-NATO states at Cuxhaven on December 5, 1963, a break between the Seliger Forschungs- und Entwicklungsgesellschaft mbH and the Hermann Oberth society occurred
14596528
Karl Ziegler


resurrection of chemical research in Germany and helped in founding the German Chemical Society (Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker) in 1949. He served as president for five years. He was also the president of the German Society for Petroleum Science and Coal Chemistry (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Mineralölwissenschaft und Kohlechemie), which was from 1954 to 1957. In 1971, The Royal Society, London, elected him as a Foreign Member. In 1922, Ziegler married Maria Kurtz. They had two children, Erhart and Marianna. His daughter, Dr. Marianna Ziegler
9848573
Georg Kropp


Georg Kropp (1 December 1865 – 21 January 1943) was a German journalist and polymath. In 1921, with Mathilde Planck, he co-founded the Gemeinschaft der Freunde (GdF) ("literally: "Society of friends"") which a few years later became recognised as Germany's first mutual building society, the . Georg Kropp was born in Swinemünde on the Pomeranian north coast. Karl Kropp, his father, was a ship's captain, and as a boy Georg was keen to follow his father into
14684488
Mathilde Planck


on legal and political themes as they affected women. By 1928, aged nearly 70, she had stepped back from politics and directed her energies increasingly to the desperate shortage of social housing. As far back as 1921, with Georg Kropp, she co-founded the so-called Gemeinschaft der Freunde (GdF) ("literally: "Society of friends"") which later evolved to become Germany's first mutual building society, the . Backed by the German Retirement Homes Association (""Deutsche Altersheimverein"")
6962886
Gesellschaft der Associierten


1786, was called the "Gesellschaft der associierten Cavaliers", "Society of Associated Noblemen". This was dissolved in 1792, perhaps in conjunction with Baron van Swieten's fall from political power (he lost his principal positions on December 5, 1791, the day his protégé Mozart died). In 1799, the society was refounded with the curious name "Gesellschaft der Associierten" ("Society of the Associated"). For both the earlier and the later incarnations of the group, van Swieten served as "Secretär
534475
Neu-Salems-Gesellschaft


The Neu-Salems-Gesellschaft (German for: New Salems Society) is a neo-revelationist group named after the publishing house "Neu-Salems-Verlag", located in Bietigheim-Bissingen, Germany. Without much organization or membership it was a name for the followers of Jakob Lorber and readers of the books from this publisher. The society existed from 1921 until 1937 when it was prohibited by the National Socialists. After World War II the society congregated again as "Lorber-Gesellschaft" (German for: Lorber
20135205
Alexander Witting


Verlag established the Mathematisch-Physikalische Bibliothek in Leipzig. Witting not only was co-publisher, he also was author of several multiply reprinted booklets of that series. His booklets on differential and integral calculus were published since the middle of the 1930s in the Göschen compilation – in a highly extended form and supplemented by separate exercise books. For several years from 1911 on, Alexander Witting additionally published Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft Deutscher Naturforscher und Ärzte (Proceedings of the Society of German Natural Scientists and Doctors). Beginning in 1891, Witting attended
9765253
Antiquarische Gesellschaft in Zürich


1837 the AGZ has published its reports annually. In 1887 Jakob Messikommer (1828–1917) who discovered and researched the prehistoric settlement Wetzikon–Robenhausen at Robenhausen established a regional section. 1862, the society initiated the Schweizerisches Idiotikon. Quote: "Die Antiquarische Gesellschaft versteht sich als Brücke zwischen der Geschichtswissenschaft und einer an historischen Fragen interessierten Öffentlichkeit." To further this aim the society organises lectures, which usually take place in the winter; excursions, often in the summer or autumn; and guidance to researchers. The publications of the society
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