who gave the panama canal back to panama
Omar Torrijos


best known for negotiating the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties that eventually gave Panama full sovereignty over the Panama Canal. The two treaties guaranteed that Panama would gain control of the Panama Canal after 1999, ending the control of the canal that the U.S. had exercised since 1903. On December 31, 1999, the final phase of the treaty, the US relinquished control of the Panama Canal and all areas in what had been the Panama Canal Zone. His son Martín Torrijos was elected president and served from 2004 to 2009. Torrijos was
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István Türr


an interoceanic canal that would eventually become the Panama Canal. However, Türr was no longer involved in later stages of the French Panama project, having shifted his interest and gave his full attention to another canal, closer to home (see below). This saved Türr from public responsibility for the fiasco of the collapse of French Panama project and the appalling loss of thousands of workers to disease at Panama. After 1881, Türr and Gerster were involved with the Greek Government's major project of planning and implementing the Corinth Canal,
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Paraíso, Panamá Province


pride of the Paraiso High School Bengals. The town remained a de facto segregated town until the abolition of the Canal Zone in 1979. Most of Paraiso was reverted to the Republic of Panama during the 1980s in compliance with the Panama Canal Treaties of 1977. By the mid-1980s, the town ceased to be served by the Panama Railroad, which fell into complete disrepair after being transferred to the Panamanian state as a public entity. This was a direct violation of the same treaty that gave Paraiso to Panama. Though the Panama Railroad
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Panama


Republic of Gran Colombia, a union of Nueva Granada, Ecuador, and Venezuela. After Gran Colombia dissolved in 1831, Panama and Nueva Granada eventually became the Republic of Colombia. With the backing of the United States, Panama seceded from Colombia in 1903, allowing the construction of the Panama Canal to be completed by the US Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914. The 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties led to the transfer of the Canal from the United States to Panama on December 31, 1999. Revenue from canal tolls
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Panama Canal Zone


and more expensive meals to upper-echelon canal employees and others able to afford it. The commissary was a source of friction between the Canal Zone and Panama for several other reasons. The commissary dominated sales of supplies to passing ships. The commissary was off limits to individuals who were not in the U.S. Military, employees of the Panama Canal Company, the Canal Zone Government and/or their dependents. This restriction was requested by Panama for the benefit of Panamanian storekeepers, who feared the loss of trade. Panama had laws restricting imports
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Panama Canal Zone


order with others to be established as needed by the Governor of the Panama Canal with approval of the President and under the supervision of the Secretary of War. Defense of the canal was the responsibility of the Secretary of War who retained control of troops with provisions for Presidential appointment of an Army officer in wartime who would have "exclusive authority over the operation of the Panama Canal and the Government of the Canal Zone." The Executive Order noted in closing "that the supervision of the operations of the Panama Canal under the permanent
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Panama Canal Authority


The Panama Canal Authority () is the agency of the government of Panama responsible for the operation and management of the Panama Canal. The ACP took over the administration of the canal from the Panama Canal Commission, the joint US–Panama agency that managed the canal, on December 31, 1999, when the canal was handed over from the United States to Panama as per the Torrijos–Carter Treaties. The Panama Canal Authority is established under Title XIV of the National Constitution, and has exclusive responsibility for the operation, administration
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USS Belmont (AGTR-4)


. She transited the Panama Canal on 28 and 29 March 1966 and, for the next eight weeks, cruised along the coasts of Peru and Chile. "Belmont" returned to the Panama Canal Zone for a five-day visit between 23 and 28 May 1966. On the latter day, she departed Panama and embarked upon five weeks of operations in order to spy on French atomic tests in French Polynesia (12 June 1966). The ship arrived back in the Panama Canal Zone on 13 July 1966, transited the canal
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History of the Panama Canal


Spooner Act. Since Panama was then part of Colombia, Roosevelt began negotiating with that country to obtain the necessary rights. In early 1903 the Hay–Herrán Treaty was signed by both nations, but the Senate of Colombia failed to ratify the treaty. Roosevelt implied to Panamanian rebels that if they revolted, the US Navy would assist their fight for independence. Panama declared its independence on November 3, 1903, and the USS "Nashville" impeded Colombian interference. The victorious Panamanians gave the United States control of the Panama Canal
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Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty


The Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty () was a treaty signed on November 18, 1903, by the United States and Panama, which established the Panama Canal Zone and the subsequent construction of the Panama Canal. It was named after its two primary negotiators, Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla, the French diplomatic representative of Panama, and United States Secretary of State John Hay. Bunau-Varilla was originally involved in the building of the Panama Canal under Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had built the Suez Canal. After the
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Balboa, Panama


-Carter Treaties, the Panama Canal and all its assets and territories were fully returned to the Panamanian government. The Panama Canal Administration Building, the former seat of the Canal Zone Government and Panama Canal Company, is located in Balboa Heights and continues to perform its duties as the main administration building for the agency that runs the Panama Canal—previously the Panama Canal Commission, now the Panama Canal Authority. The building has large murals painted by William B. Van Ingen depicting the construction of the canal. There was a VLF-
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Gatuncillo Formation


The Gatuncillo Formation (Tgo) is a geologic formation in central Panama. The formation is exposed in the Panama Canal Zone and surrounding areas. It preserves fossils dating back to the Middle to Late Eocene period. The Gatuncillo Formation is the oldest sedimentary unit of the Panama Canal Zone, unconformably resting on Cretaceous basement. The formation was defined as Gatuncillo Shale by Thompson in 1944, who named it after the Gatuncillo River. The estimated thickness ranges from . Though the Gatuncillo consists chiefly of mudstone and siltstone, it includes bentonitic mudstone
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United States involvement in regime change


French–US corporation whose aim was the construction of a waterway across the Isthmus of Panama thus connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In 1903, the U.S. signed the Hay-Herrán Treaty with Colombia, granting the United States use of the Isthmus of Panama in exchange for financial compensation. amidst the Thousand Days' War. The Panama Canal was already under construction, and the Panama Canal Zone was carved out and placed under United States sovereignty. The US did not transfer the zone back to Panama until 2000. In what
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Cristóbal, Colón


was called "Christophe Colombe", a name which was translated in Spanish as "Cristóbal Colón". In 1904, after Panama's US-backed declaration of independence from Colombia, the Canal Commission set up its provisional headquarters in Cristóbal. By then, the United States had purchased the French Canal enterprise's assets in Panama and had secured use and control of the Canal Zone "in perpetuity." The Panama Railroad's assets also came under Canal Zone control, and its facilities became part of the Canal Zone town of
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USS Kamehameha (SSBN-642)


of the King of Hawaii. In early June 1970, with the Gold Crew operating the boat, "Kam" got underway for Charleston, South Carolina, via the Panama Canal, for duty with Submarine Squadron 18, based at Charleston. The submerged transit to the canal took about seven days, and upon arrival off the coast of Panama, "Kam" surfaced and was met by the Panama Canal pilot who would take her through. The passage through the Panama Canal was given priority by the Canal authorities, and little
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India–Panama relations


India–Panama relations refer to the bilateral relations between India and Panama. Panama is the first country in Central America where India established a resident embassy in 1973. Panama has an embassy in New Delhi, and a consulate-general in Mumbai. The Indian-Panamanian connection is the oldest in the Central American region, dating back to the middle of the 19th century when groups of Indians, particularly Sikh immigrants, came to Panama to work on the construction of Panama railways and later the Panama Canal in the early 20th century
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History of the Panama Canal


The idea of the Panama canal dates back to 1513, when Vasco Núñez de Balboa first crossed the isthmus. The narrow land bridge between North and South America houses the Panama Canal, a water passage between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. The earliest European colonists recognized this potential, and several proposals for a canal were made. By the late nineteenth century, technological advances and commercial pressure allowed construction to begin in earnest. Noted canal engineer Ferdinand de Lesseps led an initial attempt by France to build a sea-level canal.
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USS Aubrey Fitch


for special operations off the west coast of the Isthmus of Panama. She transited the Panama Canal and then operated from the base at Rodman, Panama during July, August, and part of September. After passing back through the canal in mid-September, "Aubrey Fitch" arrived back at Mayport on the 21st. Repairs took up the remainder of September as well as October and November. She concluded her restricted availability with sea trials on 5 and 6 December and, after a brief round trip to Charleston and back,
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Panama Canal Department


The Panama Canal Department was a department (geographical command) of the United States Army, responsible for the defense of the Panama Canal Zone between 1917 and 1947. The Isthmian Canal Commission and the Panama Canal Guard of 1904–1914 both played a pivotal role in the construction and early defense of the Canal. With the active support and encouragement of the United States, Panama declared its independence from Colombia on 3 Nov. 1903 and that same month, the United States received the right to build and administer the Panama Canal. On 8 Mar.
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Panama Canal Zone


a term of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties two years earlier; the canal itself was later under joint U.S.–Panamanian control until it was fully turned over to Panama in 1999. Proposals for a canal across the Isthmus of Panama date back to 1529, soon after the Spanish conquest. Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón, a lieutenant of conquistador Vasco Núñez de Balboa, suggested four possible routes, one of which closely tracks the present-day canal. Saavedra believed that such a canal would make it easier for European vessels to reach Asia. Although
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History of Panama (1821–1903)


armistice gave supporters of the Colombian government temporary security in the Panama-Colón region, the rebels were in control throughout the isthmus. Meanwhile, by early 1902 the rebels had been defeated in most of Colombia proper. At that point, the Colombian government asked the United States to intercede and bring about an armistice in Panama, which was arranged aboard the in the Bay of Panama in 1902. Throughout the period of turmoil, the United States had retained its interest in building a canal through either Nicaragua or Panama. An obstacle
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History of U.S. foreign policy, 1897–1913


the U.S. raged against Roosevelt's aid to the Panamanian separatists. Secretary of State Hay and French diplomat Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla, who represented the Panamanian government, quickly negotiated the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty. Signed on November 18, 1903, it established the Panama Canal Zone—over which the United States would exercise sovereignty—and insured the construction of an Atlantic to Pacific ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama. Panama sold the Canal Zone (consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending on each
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List of former United States military installations in Panama


This is a list of United States military installations in Panama, all of which fall within the former Canal zone. The U.S. military installations in Panama were turned over to local authorities by 1999. In 1903, the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed between Panama and the United States. It created the Panama Canal Zone as a U.S. governed region, and allowed the U.S. to build the Panama Canal. In 1977, the "Panama Canal Treaty" (also called "Torrijos–Carter Treaties") was signed by
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Chagres Formation


The Chagres Formation (Tc) is a geologic formation in the Colón Province of central Panama. The sandstones and siltstones were deposited in a shallow marine environment and preserve fossils dating back to the Middle to Late Miocene (Tortonian to Messinian, Clarendonian to Hemphillian in the NALMA classification) period. The Chagres Formation is exposed in the northern part of the Panama Canal Zone. The formation overlies and partly overlaps the Gatún Formation. The outcrop area lies entirely west of the [[Panama Canal, extending from the Canal Zone southwestward along
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Panama Canal


Panama Canal Authority (ACP) assumed command of the waterway. The Panama Canal remains one of the chief revenue sources for Panama. Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international bid to negotiate a 25-year contract for operation of the container shipping ports located at the canal's Atlantic and Pacific outlets. The contract was not affiliated with the ACP or Panama Canal operations and was won by the firm Hutchison Whampoa, a Hong Kong–based shipping interest owned by Li Ka-shing. While globally the Atlantic Ocean is
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Panama Canal Zone


of the Canal Zone was through the Canal Zone Government with the canal operated by the Panama Canal Company until 1979 when the Panama Canal Commission took over its governance. The entire structure was under the control of the United States government with the Secretary of the Army appointing the Panama Canal Company board of directors and the Canal Zone Government was entirely financed by the company. The office of Governor of the Panama Canal Zone was not usually a stepping stone to higher political office but a position given to a US Army active duty general officers
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History of the Nicaragua Canal


the Nicaragua proposal, Congress was considering the Spooner Act to authorize the Panama Canal. In addition to the promise of earlier completion of the Panama Canal, opponents of the Nicaraguan canal cited the risk of volcanic activity at the Momotombo volcano. They favored construction of a canal through the Isthmus of Panama. In 1898, the chief of the French Canal Syndicate (a group that owned large swathes of land across Panama), Philippe Bunau Varilla, hired William Nelson Cromwell to lobby the United States Congress for the Panama Canal. In
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Media of Panama


United States, since the construction of the Panama Canal. Radio broadcasting in Panama began in 1922, and television broadcasting in 1956. Radio and television broadcasts also reached the Panama Canal Zone because it lay within the vicinity of Panama. A famous military broadcast network, the Southern Command Network (SCN), broadcast in Panama until the United States withdrew from the canal in 1999. The SCN remained on the air for hours during the invasion of Panama by U.S. troops in 1989. Color television in Panama is provided by the NTSC
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Panama Canal Zone


Zone. Under the Panama Canal Act of May 24, 1912 President Woodrow Wilson issued Executive Order 1885, January 27, 1914, effective April 1, 1914 abolishing the previous governance placing it under the direction of the Secretary of War with the entity designated as The Panama Canal. The Governor of the Panama Canal was charged with "completion, maintenance, operation, government and sanitation of the Panama Canal and its adjuncts and the government of the Canal Zone" in the Executive Order. A number of departments were specified in the
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Jack Vaughn


Canal. "In these new proposals we will take every possible step to deal fairly and to deal helpfully with the citizens of both Panama and of the United States who have served so faithfully through the years in operating and maintaining the Panama Canal," said Johnson. Although Vaughn takes no credit for President Carter's efforts beginning in 1977 to complete negotiations for a new Panama Canal treaty, Vaughn's early initiatives to reach an understanding with Panama paved the way for Carter's negotiations later. On February 12, 1965 President Johnson
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Panama–United States relations


all other U.S.-Panama agreements concerning the Panama Canal, which were in force on that date. The treaties comprise a basic treaty governing the operation and defense of the Canal from October 1, 1979 to December 31, 1999 (Panama Canal Treaty) and a treaty guaranteeing the permanent neutrality of the Canal (Neutrality Treaty). The details of the arrangements for U.S. operation and defense of the Canal under the Panama Canal Treaty are spelled out in separate implementing agreements. The Canal Zone and its government ceased to exist when the treaties entered
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Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty


U.S. up to $10 million and an annual rental payment of $250,000. Through legality, Panama never officially became a colony of the United States. Instead of full overbearing control, the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty gave the United States governance only in the Canal Zone. This treaty was a source of conflict between Panama and the United States since its creation. The Canal Zone became a racially and socially segregated area, set aside from the country of Panama. The push for environmental determinism seemed to be the best framework
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Panama Canal Zone


The Panama Canal Zone () was an unincorporated territory of the United States from 1903 to 1979, centered on the Panama Canal and surrounded by the Republic of Panama. The zone consisted of the canal and an area generally extending on each side of the centerline, excluding Panama City and Colón, which otherwise would have been partly within the limits of the Zone. Its border spanned three of Panama's provinces. When reservoirs were created to assure a steady supply of water for the locks, those lakes were included within the Zone
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Panama Canal Authority


modernization of the Canal, as well as supervising its management pursuant to the National Constitution, the Panama Canal Authority Organic Law, and the Regulations thereto appertaining. The board of directors is made up as follows: The Directors shall serve in their posts for a term of 9 years, and may only be removed for the reasons set forth in Article 20 of the Panama Canal Authority Organic Law. The Panama Canal is defined by law to be an inalienable patrimony of the Republic of Panama. Therefore, it may not be sold
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Vehicle registration plates of the Canal Zone


The former U.S. territory of the Canal Zone first issued license plates in 1910, and this continued until the Canal Zone was returned to Panama in 1979. A single plate was issued for all years. The country of Panama also issued Canal Zone license plates for United States citizens that lived in Panama but worked in the Canal Zone, but these plates have the country name "Panama" clearly showing on them. Since reciprocity for license plates between the Canal Zone and Panama did not exist until 1950, old photos often show local
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William Merrill Whitman


same year. From 1935 to 1939, Whitman was the legal editor for the West Publishing Company in St. Paul, Minnesota. Whitman began his long relationship (ending in 1972) with the Panama Canal the following year when he was admitted to the Panama Canal Zone Bar and began undertaking legal work for the Panama Railway, the Panama Canal Company, and the government of the Panama Canal Zone. From 1940 to 1942, Whitman was an associate attorney for the Canal Zone's General Counsel. After his admission to the bar of
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2006 Panama Canal expansion referendum


The Panama Canal expansion referendum was held on October 22, 2006, when the citizens of Panama approved the Panama Canal expansion project by a wide margin. According to article 325 of the Panamanian Constitution, any proposal for the construction of a third set of locks or a sea-level Canal on the existing route that the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) proposes has to be approved by the executive branch and submitted to the National Assembly for its approval or rejection. It also has to be submitted to a national referendum no earlier
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University of Florida Panama and the Canal Collection


The University of Florida Panama and the Canal Collection includes materials from the University of Florida Libraries' Government Documents Department, the UF Libraries' Latin American Collection, the UF Libraries' Map & Imagery Library, and other shared collections including the "Panama and the Canal Digital Collection", which is in collaboration with the Panama Canal Museum. The UF Libraries' Government Documents Department is also the Center of Excellence for the US Panama Canal Commission (and its predecessor agencies). Ernest "Red" Hallen's photographs make up a
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Hinduism in Panama


Hinduism in Panama is a minority religion. There are about 10,000-14,000 Hindus in Panama. The Hindus initially arrived by way of the British colonies of Guyana and Trinidad-Tobago, first came as canal workers between 1904 and 1913. Most of the Hindus trace their roots back to the states of Gujarat and Sindh, in India and Pakistan respectively. The main association of Hindus in Panama are the Panamanian Hindu Civic Association, the Krishna Radha Temple Society, the Hindustani Society of Panama (Templo Hindu de Tumba Muerto),
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Panama Canal Museum


The Panama Canal Museum () is a non-profit and public museum located in Panama City, Panama. Established in 1997, the museum is devoted to the history of the construction of the Panama Canal in its various stages, including the first French construction attempt, the later construction by the United States, and the eventual transfer to Panamanian control. The current building dates from 1874 and served originally as the headquarters of both the French and U.S. companies engaged in the construction of the canal. It is located in the city
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Ancón, Panama


is located was always conceived as a place of transit. From the Spanish arrival on the Isthmus of Panama in 1501, it was thought to build there a road between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, an idea that was materialized with the construction of the Panama Canal. During the years when the Panama Canal was under the control of the United States, many administrative facilities, military bases, and communities were built in the adjacent areas, forming part of the former Panama Canal Zone. When these areas were reverted to Panama under
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Balboa, Panama


Balboa is a district of Panama City, located at the Pacific entrance to the Panama Canal. The town of Balboa, founded by the United States during the construction of the Panama Canal, was named after Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the Spanish conquistador credited with discovering the Pacific Ocean. The name was suggested to the Canal Zone authorities by the Peruvian ambassador to Panama. Prior to being drained, filled and leveled by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, the hilly area north of Panama City was home to a few subsistence ranches
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Rail transport in Panama


to the rail system. The rebuilt and improved Panama Railway beside the canal was completed in 1912. In 1979, the United States government handed over control of the Canal Zone and railway to the government of Panama. On 19 June 1998, the government of Panama turned over control to the private Panama Canal Railway Company ("PCRC"). The Panama Railway was originally broad gauge broad gauge, but when it was rebuilt in 2000, the gauge was changed to standard gauge . The route is long across the Isthmus of
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Italians in Panama


The Italians in Panama are Italians resident (3,688 in 2011) in Panama and Panamanian citizens who are mainly descendant of Italians attracted by the construction of the Panama Canal, between the 19th and twentieth century. The history of Italian immigrants in Panama begins from 1510, when several Italian citizens decided to emigrate to Panama City founded by Pedrarias Davila. From 1520 some Genovese merchants ruled the commerce of Old Panama (Panamá Viejo) on the Pacific Ocean for a century. Between 1596 and 1597 already there were 11 Italians in Panama,
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María de la Ossa de Amador


. The couple had two children, Raúl Arturo, who as an adult was attached to the Panamanian consulate in New York City and Elmira María, who married William Ehrman, one of the owners of the Ehrman Banking Company. When the French company that owned the rights to build the Panama Canal went bankrupt, the United States bought the rights to build the canal in 1902. Contentious negotiations with Colombia led the United States to back the separatist movement in Panama, believing that negotiations would be more favorable to American interests from a
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Panama Canal fence


unacceptable to the Panamanians and they insisted that the United States give to Panama all the Canal Zone property they had purchased, ownership and control of the canal, ports, water supply, etc., and to submit the Canal Zone to Panamanian governance. By 1963, President Eisenhower had compromised by giving land to Panama, raising the annual tolls paid to Panama up to more than $2 million annually, and with a plan to allow the flag of Panama to be flown beside the Stars and Stripes outside public buildings. This
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History of Panama (1977–present)


operations are interfered with [the United States and Panama shall each] have the right to take such steps as each deems necessary, ... including the use of military force in the Republic of Panama, to reopen the Canal or restore the operations of the Canal". Modifications of the Panama Canal Treaty included a reservation requiring statutory authorization for payments to Panama set forth in Article XIII and another stating that any action taken by the United States to secure accessibility to the Canal "shall not have as its purpose or be interpreted as
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Panama City


-laundering locale. In 1989 after nearly a year of tension between the United States and Panama, President George H. W. Bush ordered the invasion of Panama to depose General Manuel Noriega, the country's de facto dictator. As a result, a portion of the El Chorrillo neighborhood, which consisted mostly of old wood-framed buildings dating back to the 1900s (though still a large slum area), was destroyed by fire. In 1999, the United States officially transferred control of the Panama Canal Zone to Panama, which
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Diablo, Panama


Diablo was one of many residential townships in the Panama Canal Zone. It was established in 1905 by William Luke Jenkins. It was located directly across from the entrance to Albrook AFB, on a low hill overlooking the canal just past Balboa Harbor. Originally, Diablo Hill was much larger, but it was cut back to facilitate the relocation and rerouting of the Panama Railroad in the 1910s. It was reduced even further in the 1950s to accommodate new housing construction. In the late 1930s through early 1940s, Diablo was the headquarters
20197860
Panamanian reggaetón


In Panama, reggaetón is a musical genre that is a combination of reggae, Jamaican dancehall, hip hop, soca, and various Caribbean music styles. Lyrics to reggaetón are typically sexually explicit and are generally rapped, but many reggaetón artists will also sing their lyrics. Reggaetón, which was formerly called Reggae en Español, originated on the isthmus of Panama. The roots of Panamanian reggaetón can be traced back to the creation of the Panama Canal in 1903. During the construction of the Canal, up to 150,000 black workers and
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Carlos Malcolm


Carlos Malcolm OD (born c. 1934) is a Jamaican trombonist, percussionist and bandleader who was most popular in the late 1950s and 1960s. Carlos Malcolm was born in Panama c. 1935 to Jamaican parents and grew up in Kingston. His father, Wilfred Malcolm, went to Panama and worked as a bookkeeper in the Panama Canal Zone. He became a prominent business man in the city of Colon, established homes in both countries and sent his five children back to Jamaica to be educated. Having studied the liturgy and music of
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Balboa High School (Panama)


. Over the next two decades, the population of American Canal Zone dependents decreased as the population of the Canal Zone itself changed. Aside from thousands of American dependents of the Panama Canal Company (later Panama Canal Commission), Canal Zone Government and U.S. armed forces, Balboa High School was also the Alma Mater of many of Panama's business and political elite. During the December 1989 "Operation Just Cause," which removed General Manuel Noriega from power and ended Panama's 21-year military dictatorship, the premises of the Balboa High
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Panama City, Florida


interest in the construction of the Panama Canal by changing the town's name from Harrison to Panama City, because a straight line between Chicago and the capital of the Central American country of Panama intersected the Florida town. Additionally, since required meanders around land formations in a seaborne route to the canal added distance when starting at other ports, Panama City was the closest developed port in the US mainland to the Caribbean entrance of the Panama Canal. As of the census of 2010, there were 36,484 people, 14,792 households, and
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Panama Canal Railway


; the ship canal was later constructed parallel to the railway. Known as the Panama Railroad Company when founded in the 19th century, today it is operated as Panama Canal Railway Company (reporting mark: PCRC). Since 1998 it has been jointly owned by Kansas City Southern and Mi-Jack Products and leased to the government of Panama. The Panama Canal Railway currently provides both freight and passenger service. The line was built by the United States and the principal incentive was the vast increase in passenger and freight traffic from eastern
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History of the Panama Canal


Roosevelt believed that a US-controlled canal across Central America was a vital strategic interest of the country. This idea gained wide circulation after the destruction of the USS "Maine" in Cuba on February 15, 1898. Reversing a Walker Commission decision in favor of a Nicaraguan canal, Roosevelt encouraged the acquisition of the French Panama Canal effort. George S. Morison was the only commission member who argued for the Panama location. The purchase of the French-held land for $40 million was authorized by the June 28, 1902
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Panama Canal Zone


French company assets, the Canal Zone was formally turned over by Panama on May 4, 1904, when American officials reopened the Panama City offices of the canal company and raised the American flag. This marked the beginning point for U.S. excavation and construction which concluded in August 1914 with the opening of the canal to commercial traffic. By order of President Theodore Roosevelt under the Panama Canal Acts of 1902 and 1904 the Secretary of War was made supervisor of canal construction and the second Isthmian Canal Commission made the governing body for the Canal
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Panama Canal


, the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government. It is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, when the canal opened, to 14,702 vessels in 2008, for a total of 333.7 million Panama Canal/Universal Measurement System (PC/UMS) tons. By 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes 11.38 hours to pass through the Panama Canal. The American Society of Civil Engineers has ranked the
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Panama scandals


The Panama scandals (also known as the Panama Canal Scandal or Panama Affair) was a corruption affair that broke out in the French Third Republic in 1892, linked to a French company's failed building attempt at constructing a Panama Canal. Close to half a billion francs were lost and members of the French government had taken bribes to keep quiet about the Panama Canal Company's financial troubles in what is regarded as the largest monetary corruption scandal of the 19th century. On 4 February 1889, the "Tribunal Civil de la Seine
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Panama during World War II


State Department wanted them for as long as a threat to the canal existed, and Arias wanted the bases back as soon as the war ended. Another controversial issue was the United States government's request to arm ships registered in Panama. The Battle of the Atlantic was taking its toll on the supply lines from America to Britain, and some of the ships were being sunk not long after exiting the canal. Because Panama was officially neutral at this point in the war, German U-boats could not legally attack Panamanian-
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Philippe Bunau-Varilla


the École Polytechnique, he remained in France for three years. In 1882 he abandoned his career in public works at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées and traveled to Panama. He arrived at the isthmus in 1884, employed with Ferdinand de Lesseps's Panama Canal Company. He became general manager of the organization. After the Panama Canal Company went bankrupt in 1888 amidst charges of fraud, Bunau-Varilla was left stranded in Panama. He struggled to find a new way to construct the canal. When the New Panama Canal
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Mexico–Panama relations


from Colombia. On 3 November, 1903; Panama became an independent nation. Mexico and Panama established diplomatic relations on 1 March 1904. During the 1970s, Mexico became a vocal supporter for dialogue between Panama and the United States for eventual Panamanian control of the Panama Canal. In 1977, Panama and the United States signed the Torrijos–Carter Treaties giving Panama eventual control of the canal in December 1999. During the 1980s, foreign ministers of Colombia, Mexico, Panama and Venezuela created the Contadora Group in order to diplomatically try
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Panama City


economic and financial center of the country, Panama City's economy is service-based, heavily weighted toward banking, commerce, and tourism. The economy depends significantly on trade and shipping activities associated with the Panama Canal and port facilities located in Balboa. Panama's status as a convergence zone for capital from around the world due to the canal helped the city establish itself as a prime location for offshore banking and tax planning. Consequently, the economy has relied on accountants and lawyers who help global corporations navigate the regulatory landscape.
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Afro-Panamanian


2,800 workers from Martinique and about 2,000 from Guadeloupe. In 1904, the construction of the Panama Canal was taken over by the United States due to the failure of the French company, again resulting in an influx of West Indian workers to Panama. Although between 1904 and 1914, the vast majority of Afro-West Indians who arrived in Panama worked a one-year contract with the idea of returning to their home islands once the project concluded, after construction of the canal many Afro-Antillean people stayed in Panama. Many
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Trams in Panama


Service along that first Panama City tramway line ended during the Thousand Days' War, which lasted from 1899 to 1902. On 3 November 1903 the Republic of Panama declared its separation from Colombia, having previously been the Isthmus Department of Colombia. In 1904 the United States took over operations of the Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama and expanded the effort, eventually completing the Panama Canal. While canal construction was underway, on 29 October 1906 the new Panamanian government let a contract for a new tramway in Panama City. The initial
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History of the Panama Canal


celebration, and the canal officially opened to commercial traffic on 15 August 1914 with the transit of the "SS Ancon". During World War II, the canal proved a vital part of the U.S. military strategy, allowing ships to transfer easily between the Atlantic and Pacific. Politically, the Canal remained a territory of the United States until 1977, when the Torrijos–Carter Treaties began the process of transferring territorial control of the Panama Canal Zone to Panama, a process completed on 31 December 1999. The Panama Canal continues to
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Reggae en Español


century), and the Panama Canal (early 20th century). Prior to the period of construction of the Panama Canal (1904–1915), most of the Afro-Caribbean communities in Panama were of Jamaican descent, but with the construction of the canal these communities grew in diversity with immigrants from other parts of the Caribbean such as Jamaica, Barbados, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Haiti, Trinidad, Dominica, French and British Guyana and other Caribbean Islands. In 1977, a Guyanese immigrant who went by the nickname "Guyana"
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Ancon Hill


Ancon Hill is a 654-foot hill that overlooks Panama City, Panama, adjacent to the township of Ancón. Ancón Hill is an area in Panama that was used for administration of the Panama Canal. It was under U.S. jurisdiction as part of the Panama Canal Zone until being returned to Panama in 1977. Largely undeveloped, the area is now a reserve. The hill includes the highest point in Panama City. The summit of the hill can be reached by a 30-minute hike. According to a local Ancon resident, at this time
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Nicaragua Canal


close proximity of the proposed Brito–Pacific canal opening. As the original Panama Canal still has capacity for Panamax-sized shipping and Panama has completed its Panama Canal expansion project, adding more capacity and allowing transit for even larger New Panamax size ships, projections for the Nicaragua canal's traffic may be optimistic. While the proposed Nicaragua Canal would be wide enough to accommodate Triple E class of mega container ships, which are too wide for the expanded Panama Canal, few ports are able to handle these ships at the present.
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Ernest Hallen


American public. In addition to showing the construction and progress of the Panama Canal, Hallen depicted the day-to-day life of the “Zonians” – Americans living in the Panama Canal Zone - and its development over the course of the years. Throughout his 30-year career, Hallen produced between 12,000 and 16,000 images, each with a “strangely satisfying aesthetic experience” portraying life in the Panama Canal Zone. For his service to the Panama Canal Zone and as an employee of the Isthmian Canal Commission, Hallen was awarded
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Panama Canal


The Panama Canal () is an artificial waterway in Panama that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. The canal cuts across the Isthmus of Panama and is a conduit for maritime trade. Canal locks are at each end to lift ships up to Gatun Lake, an artificial lake created to reduce the amount of excavation work required for the canal, 26 m (85 ft) above sea level, and then lower the ships at the other end. The original locks are 34 m (110 ft) wide. A
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USS Mariner (1906)


the Navy and commissioned 1 February 1918, Lt. (jg.) W. C. Coalfleet, USNRF, in command. She was employed by the Panama Canal Commission during the construction of the Panama Canal and after its completion. Assigned to the Panama Canal Zone, Taken over by the U.S. Navy in early 1918, she was commissioned as USS "Mariner" (with no identification number) in February to serve in the Panama Canal Zone area on patrol and tug duties. "Mariner" patrolled the approaches to the canal and
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Panama Pacific Line


Panama Pacific Line was a subsidiary of International Mercantile Marine (IMM) established to carry passengers and freight between the US East and West Coasts via the Panama Canal. Although IMM had begun preparations for this intercoastal service as far back as 1911, service began in May 1915 with the former Red Star Line (another IMM subsidiary line) ships and . When landslides in September 1915 closed the canal for an extended time, "Kroonland" and "Finland" were reassigned to the IMM's American Line. The outbreak of World War
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Akira Aoyama


Commission, and recommended him to work on the Panama Canal. Aoyama first worked for the railroad in Panama. He then worked as a land surveyor for the canal construction, later becoming a leader of one of the surveyor teams, the only known Japanese who contributed to the canal construction. In 1911, he made a home leave to Japan, but never returned to Panama, due to the souring relationship between U.S. and Japan. In 1912, Aoyama started to work for the Home Ministry, and led for 19 years the
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Panama Canal Railway


The Panama Canal Railway () is a railway line linking the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean in Central America. The route stretches across the Isthmus of Panama from Colón (Atlantic) to Balboa (Pacific, near Panama City). Because of the difficult physical conditions of the route and state of technology, the construction was renowned as an international engineering achievement, one that cost US$8 million and the lives of an estimated 5,000 to 10,000 workers. Opened in 1855, the railway preceded the Panama Canal by half a century
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Luis Anderson McNeil


Luis Alejandro Anderson McNeil (born February 9, 1941 in Colon, Republic of Panama), was the first Panamanian Secretary General of CIOSL/ORIT Inter-American Regional Organization of Labor (ORIT/ILO). He was also appointed Vice Minister and Minister of Labor in the Republic of Panama in 1984, member of the Board of Directors of the Panama Canal Commission from 1983 to 1989 and member of the Board of Directors of the Panama Canal Authority, the entity that oversees the Panama Canal. He contributed to the labor
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Afro-Panamanian


Afro-West Indians who remained in Panama got jobs in the Canal Zone and became the largest immigrant group in Panama. On the subject of Afro-Antillean Panama, Leslie B. Rout said that when the canal was opened in 1914, some 20,000 Afro-West Indians remained in Panama. Some African slaves used the isolated nature of transporting goods as an opportunity to escape slavery. Many people of African descent escaped into the sparsely settled terrain and formed Cimarroneras, or marooned societies. These ex-slaves were known as Cimarrones.
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Panama Canal Railway


Panama Canal, it carried the heaviest volume of freight per unit length of any railroad in the world. The existence of the railway was one of the keys to the selection of Panama as the site of the canal. In 1881 the French "Compagnie Universelle du Canal Interocéanique" purchased controlling interest in the Panama Railway Company. In 1904, the United States government under Theodore Roosevelt purchased the railway from the French canal company. At the time, railway assets included some of track, 35 locomotives, 30 passenger cars, and
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History of the Panama Canal


the Chinese-owned "Cosco Shipping Panama". The cost of the expansion was estimated at $5.25 billion. After construction, the canal and the Canal Zone surrounding it were administered by the United States. On September 7, 1977, US President Jimmy Carter signed the Torrijos-Carter Treaty setting in motion the process of transferring control of the canal to Panama. The treaty became effective on October 1, 1979, providing for a 20-year period in which Panama would have increasing responsibility for canal operations before complete US withdrawal on
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Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt


18, 1903, it established the Panama Canal Zone—over which the United States would exercise sovereignty—and insured the construction of an Atlantic to Pacific ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama. Panama sold the Canal Zone (consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending on each side of the centerline) to the United States for $10 million and a steadily increasing yearly sum. In February 1904, Roosevelt won Senate ratification of the treaty in a 66-to-14 vote. The Isthmian Canal Commission, supervised by Secretary of
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Rail transport in Panama


Since 2008, the only functioning railroad in Panama has been the Panama Canal Railway, operated by the Panama Canal Railway Company, successor of Panama Railway, which provides passenger and freight service between Panama City (on the Pacific coast) and Colón (on the Atlantic coast). Historically, there were also narrow gauge railroads in Chiriquí Province (Ferrocarril de Chiriquí), which were been abandoned in the late 20th century. During the first half of the 19th century, travel across the Isthmus of Panama was difficult and dangerous.
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Territories of the United States on stamps


independence, Canal Zone returned to Panama. Alternatively, the U.S. issued a 1932 'United States of America' stamp for 18 centavos in the Philippines, 1930 stamps for use in Guam only designated 'Guam Guard Mail, or 1952 'Ryukyus' stamp for 100 yen in Okinawa. The Philippines was granted independence, the Ryukyus were returned to Japan. Panama Canal has been featured on several U. S. commemorative stamps, as well as on Panama's own postage. The territory was returned to Panama. The Panama Canal is represented
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Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty


collapse of the de Lesseps efforts to build the Panama Canal, Bunau-Varilla became an important shareholder of the "Compagnie Nouvelle du Canal de Panama", which still had the concession, as well as certain valuable assets, for the building of a canal in Panama. Although not Panamanian himself, Bunau-Varilla had provided financial assistance to the rebel side in Panama's independence from Colombia, which occurred two weeks prior to the signing of the treaty. He had not, however, been in Panama for seventeen years,
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Balboa, Panama


. This allows transportation of containers by train across the isthmus. The railway also runs a passenger service between Panama City and Colón, once a day, each way. Formerly a part of the Canal Zone, Balboa is now part of Panama City's township of Ancón. Since its incorporation into the Republic of Panama, part of Balboa has been developed to enhance the port's capacity and to adapt to private ownership of residences (previously owned by the U.S. Government/Canal Zone Government/Panama Canal Company, and rented to
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SS Ancon (1901)


"Shawmut" and "Tremont" because the company stated they could not be operated without a subsidy. In 1909 the ship was purchased by the Panama Canal. The ship was renamed for the Panama Canal's Pacific side terminus at Ancon. Both "Ancon" and her sister ship "Cristobal" operated under The Panama Railroad Company's Panama Railroad Steamship Line. Both ships played a crucial role in building the canal, bringing workers and supplies, notably massive amounts of cement, from New York to Panama for the construction project
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Martyrs' Day (Panama)


control of the Panama Canal to the Panamanian Government at noon, December 31, 1999. Two monuments have been built in Panama City to commemorate these events. One was built where the flagpole incident happened, the former Balboa High School, today a Panama Canal Authority building that bears the name of Ascanio Arosemena, known as the first "martyr" and maybe the most famous one. It was built by the Panama Canal Authority and consists on a covered entryway containing the memorial, which has a name of a "martyr"
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USS Yukon (AF-9)


week layover in Hawaii, headed back to the southwestern Pacific, where she made a stop each at Manus and at Samar. Departing Samar on 4 November, she steamed back to Pearl Harbor where she stopped for over a month before continuing on to the Panama Canal. She transited the canal sometime between 21 and 24 January 1946 and departed the Panama Canal Zone on the latter day. "Yukon" arrived in Norfolk on the last day of January and began preparations for inactivation. She was decommissioned at Norfolk on 18 March 1946
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Marion Power Shovel Company


in July 1908 for moving of earth in 25 eight-hour days after American project management began. Marion built large and small steam shovels for building contractors, railroads and the US Army Corps of Engineers who were building the Panama Canal at the time. The company, from between 1902 and 1911, shipped 112 shovels to Panama for the construction of the canal. A Marion Model 91, the type used at the Panama Canal, was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2008. Marion was most successful with the
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1959 anti-American riots in Panama


The 1959 anti-American riots in Panama happened during the celebration of Panamanian independence on November 3, 1959. Demonstrations started that day as Panamanians were influenced by former foreign minister Aquilino Boyd, who threatened a "peaceful invasion" of the American-controlled Panama Canal Zone, to raise the flag of the republic there as tangible evidence of Panama's sovereignty over the territory. Fearful that Panamanian mobs might actually force entry into the Canal Zone, the United States called out its troops. Several hundred Panamanians crossed barbed-wire restraints
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Atlantic Bridge, Panama


The third bridge over the Panama Canal, known as the Atlantic Bridge, is a road bridge under construction in Colón, Panama, which will span the Atlantic entrance to the Canal. When completed it will be the third bridge over the Panama Canal after the Bridge of the Americas and the Centennial Bridge, both on the Pacific side of the canal. The bridge is proposed to be a double-pylon, double-plane, concrete girder, cable-stayed bridge with a main span of and two side spans of .
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Cristóbal, Colón


eventually fell into decline in the 1970s and 1980s, along with most of the rest of the city of Colón. Starting in 1979, in compliance with the Torrijos-Carter Panama Canal Treaties of 1977, the Canal Zone was abolished and US control over the Panama Canal and the former Canal Zone began to be transferred to the Republic of Panama. Many areas in Cristóbal were among the first to be transferred, as was the Panama Railroad which ceased to operate in the early 1980s due to lack of maintenance. Its population as
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History of the Nicaragua Canal


the United States Congress to vote in favor of constructing the canal in Panama, leaving only eight votes in favor of Nicaragua. The decision to build the Panama Canal passed by four votes. Cromwell was paid US$800,000 for his lobbying efforts. Nicaraguan president Zelaya later tried to arrange for Germany and Japan to finance the building of a canal that would traverse Zelaya Department. Having settled on the Panama route, the United States opposed this proposal. Since the Panama Canal opened in 1914, the Nicaragua route has been reconsidered. Its
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Panama Canal


Panama Canal shortcut greatly reduced the time for ships to travel between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, enabling them to avoid the lengthy, hazardous Cape Horn route around the southernmost tip of South America via the Drake Passage or Strait of Magellan. Colombia, France, and later the United States controlled the territory surrounding the canal during construction. The US continued to control the canal and surrounding Panama Canal Zone until the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, in 1999
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Gamboa, Panama


arrivals to the "Zone", as it became known to its residents (Zonians), were initially assigned housing here before becoming eligible for housing in other towns. U.S. military personnel and their dependents lived in Gamboa during the 1940s due to the shortage of housing on the local military bases. U.S. personnel continued living in Gamboa until the total withdrawal of U.S. troops from Panama in 1999. Over time as the Panama Canal Company/Canal Zone Government began to transfer operations to Panama following the 1977 Panama Canal Treaties, some of
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Panama Canal Zone


by a commission. On the effective date of the treaty, many of these, including Madden Dam, became newly surrounded by the territory of Panama. Just after noon local time on 31 December 1999, all former Canal Zone parcels of all types had come under the exclusive jurisdiction of Panama. The 44 enclaves of U.S. territory that existed under the treaty are shown in the table below. The Panama Canal Zone issued its own postage stamps from 1904 until October 25, 1978. After a transition period, Panama administered the stamps
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History of Panama (1977–present)


areas were distinguished from military areas to be used jointly by the United States and Panama until that time, military areas to be held initially by the United States but turned over to Panama before 2000, and areas that were turned over to Panama on October 1, 1979. One foreign observer calculated that 64 percent of the former Canal Zone, or 106,700 hectares, came under Panamanian control in 1979; another 18 percent, or 29,460 hectares, would constitute the "canal operating area" and remain under control of the Panama Canal
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Panama Canal Division


). The two brigades appear to have been active until 1927. Later, however, the commander of the Panama Canal Department, Major General Preston Brown, determined that the defense of Panama would be better served by command groups representing the Atlantic and the Pacific. In 1932, the Army inactivated the division, keeping its Tables of Organization on file should the need arise to reactivate it. It never has. Panama Mobile Force were activated on February 16, 1940 by Panama Canal Department commander, lieutenant general Daniel Van Voorhis in
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Isthmus of Panama


the man behind the Suez Canal, started a Panama Canal Company in 1880 that went bankrupt in 1889 in the Panama scandals. In 1902–4, the United States forced Colombia to grant independence to the Department of the Isthmus, bought the remaining assets of the Panama Canal Company, and finished the canal in 1914. A significant body of water (referred to as the Central American Seaway) once separated the continents of North and South America, allowing the waters of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans to mix freely. Beneath the surface,
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Arco Iris, Panama


Rainbow City, now known as the sector Arco Iris, in the corregimiento Cristóbal, is a section of the city of Colón in the Republic of Panama. It was originally built as segregated housing for Panama Canal employees and was developed into a proper town by the Canal Zone Government. During over a century of history, Rainbow City was home to some of Panama Canal's teachers, workers, and athletes. During the French canal construction era, in the 1880s, the area occupied by Rainbow City today showed up in maps
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Prostitution in Panama


Santa Ana, Panama City. During the construction of the Panama Canal (1904-1914), many prostitutes came to the canal zone to service the needs of the workers building the canal. Many were from the Caribbean, especially the English speaking islands. In 1905, the US Government arranged for several hundred women from Martinique to be transported to Panama. President Roosevelt launched an inquiry into the morality of these women, in case they had been brought in to work as prostitutes. After the completion of the canal, most
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Economy of Panama


the Panama Canal transfer and was effective in the administration of the Canal. The PRD's Martin Torrijos won the presidency and a legislative majority in the National Assembly in 2004. Under Torrijos, Panama continued strong economic growth and initiated the Panama Canal expansion project that began in 2007 and was opened to commercial traffic on 26 June 2016, at a cost of - about 25% of current GDP. The canal expansion doubled the waterway capacity, enabling it to accommodate Post-Panamax ships that were too large to transverse the transoceanic crossway
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