what are the types of averages in statistics
Descriptive research


of Exploratory research, Descriptive research and explanatory research fit together see Conceptual framework. Descriptive research is also known as Statistical Research. The main goal of this type of research is to describe the data and characteristics about what is being studied. The idea behind this type of research is to study frequencies, averages, and other statistical calculations. Although this research is highly accurate, it does not gather the causes behind a situation. Descriptive research is mainly done when a researcher wants to gain a better understanding of a topic. That
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Rodger's method


a 2013 article by Rodger and Roberts. Statistical power is an important consideration when choosing what statistical procedure to use, but it isn't the only important one. All statistical procedures permit researchers to make statistical errors and they are not all equal in their ability to control the rate of occurrence of several important types of statistical error. As Table 1 shows, statisticians can't agree on how error rate ought to be defined, but particular attention has been traditionally paid to what are called 'type 1 errors' and whether or
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Statistical stability


is close to 0.5. Experimental studies of other real physical events show that for a high number of experiments the relative frequencies of events are stabilized; that shows the fundamental nature of the phenomenon of statistical stability. The phenomenon of statistical stability is manifested not only in the stability of the relative frequency of mass events, but also in the stability of the average of the process, or its sample mean. The phenomenon of statistical stability is manifested in the case of averaging of fluctuations that are of different types, in particular,
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Effective field theory


In physics, an effective field theory is a type of approximation, or effective theory, for an underlying physical theory, such as a quantum field theory or a statistical mechanics model. An effective field theory includes the appropriate degrees of freedom to describe physical phenomena occurring at a chosen length scale or energy scale, while ignoring substructure and degrees of freedom at shorter distances (or, equivalently, at higher energies). Intuitively, one averages over the behavior of the underlying theory at shorter length scales to derive what is hoped to
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Rodger's method


a type 1 error is 100%. It is the average number of such errors over the long run that Rodger's method guarantees cannot exceed Eα = 0.05 or 0.01. This statement is a logical tautology, a necessary truth, that follows from the manner in which Rodger's method was originally conceived and subsequently built. Type 1 error rate inflation is statistically impossible with Rodger's method, but every statistical decision a researcher makes that might be a type 1 error will either actually be one or it won't. The
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Education in Germany


(statistically) significantly above average (rank 13) in science skills and statistically not significantly above or below average in mathematical skills (rank 20) and reading skills (rank 18). In 2012, Germany achieved above average results in all three areas of reading, mathematics, and natural sciences. The PISA Examination also found big differences in achievement between students attending different types of German schools. According to Jan-Martin-Wiadra: "Conservatives prized the success of the Gymnasium, for them the finest school form in the
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Statistical theory


a basis for good data collection and the structuring of investigations in the topics of: The task of summarising statistical data in conventional forms (also known as descriptive statistics) is considered in theoretical statistics as a problem of defining what aspects of statistical samples need to be described and how well they can be described from a typically limited sample of data. Thus the problems theoretical statistics considers include: Besides the philosophy underlying statistical inference, statistical theory has the task of considering the types of questions that data analysts might want to ask about
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Environmental protection expenditure accounts


by what environmental domain has been protected, i.e. water, air, biodiversity etc. The main types of statistics that feed into the framework are investment statistics, statistics on current outlays, government statistics on subsidies and investment grants, all with bearing on protection of the environment. The statistics cover actual outlays. This means that, for example, losses of income are not seen in the statistics with the exception of specific transfers (or subsidies) that are designed to compensate any economic losses. Neither do the statistics cover all activities
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Statistical stability


discrete samples by the expressions formula_6, formula_9 is only a hypothesis. It does not follow from any experiments and any logical inferences. It is easy to demonstrate that not all processes, even oscillatory type, have the property of perfect statistical stability. "Example 3. " In Fig. 3a and Fig. 3c two determinate oscillations are presented and in Fig. 3b and Fig. 3d are shown according to their averages. It is clear from Fig. 3b and Fig. 3d that in both cases, the average does
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Educational institution


a specific area, and/or to acquire a degree. There are many types of further education such as, community college or university, trade and technical schools, and military colleges/academies. Different degrees include the associate degree which is a two-year program, Bachelor's degree which is generally 4–5 years, Master's degree, and PhD. There are different types of degrees geared towards the students goals. According to recent statistics from the National Center for Education Statistics, the average cost of attending an institution full-time is
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Average


In colloquial language, an average is a single number taken as representative of a list of numbers. Different concepts of average are used in different contexts. Often "average" refers to the arithmetic mean, the sum of the numbers divided by how many numbers are being averaged. In statistics, mean, median, and mode are all known as measures of central tendency, and in colloquial usage any of these might be called an average value. The most common type of average is the arithmetic mean. If " n "
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Moving average


In statistics, a moving average (rolling average or running average) is a calculation to analyze data points by creating a series of averages of different subsets of the full data set. It is also called a moving mean (MM) or rolling mean and is a type of finite impulse response filter. Variations include: simple, and cumulative, or weighted forms (described below). Given a series of numbers and a fixed subset size, the first element of the moving average is obtained by taking the average of the
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Empirical statistical laws


types of "law" may be considered instances of a scientific law in the field of statistics. What distinguishes an empirical statistical law from a formal statistical theorem is the way these patterns simply appear in natural distributions, without a prior theoretical reasoning about the data. There are several such popular "laws of statistics". The Pareto principle is a popular example of such a "law". It states that roughly 80% of the effects come from 20% of the causes, and is thus also known as the 80/20
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Composite portrait


attractiveness and averageness one hundred years later. He also suggested in a Royal Society presentation in 1883 that the composites provided an interesting concrete representation of human ideal types and concepts. He discussed using the technique to investigate characteristics of common types of humanity, such as criminals. In his mind, it was an extension of the statistical techniques of averages and correlation. In this sense, it represents one of the first implementations of convolution factor analysis and neural networks in the understanding of knowledge representation in the human mind. Galton also suggested
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Rape in Sweden


three types of factors that determine the outcome of crime statistics: statistical factors, legal factors, and substantive factors. According to a study in the year 2000 by Hanns von Hofer, Professor of Criminology at Stockholm University, the combined effect of these "make it safe to contend that the Swedish rape statistics constitute an 'over-reporting' relative to the European average". Unlike the majority of countries in Europe, crime data in Sweden are collected when the offence in question is first reported, at which point the classification
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Mpstat


mpstat is a computer command-line software used in unix-type operating systems to report (on the screen) processor related statistics. It is used in computer monitoring in order to diagnose problems or to build statistics about a computer's CPU usage. The mpstat command writes to standard output activities for each available processor. The mpstat command can be used both on SMP and UP machines, but in the latter, only global average activities will be printed. Interval is the time in seconds between printing out a line of statistics
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M-estimator


In statistics, M-estimators are a broad class of extremum estimators for which the objective function is a sample average. Both non-linear least squares and maximum likelihood estimation are special cases of M-estimators. The definition of M-estimators was motivated by robust statistics, which contributed new types of M-estimators. The statistical procedure of evaluating an M-estimator on a data set is called M-estimation. More generally, an M-estimator may be defined to be a zero of an estimating function.
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Likelihood-ratio test


, it is a statistic. The likelihood-ratio test rejects the null hypothesis if the value of this statistic is too small. How small is too small depends on the significance level of the test, i.e. on what probability of Type I error is considered tolerable (Type I errors consist of the rejection of a null hypothesis that is true). The numerator corresponds to the likelihood of an observed outcome under the null hypothesis. The denominator corresponds to the maximum likelihood of an observed outcome, varying parameters over the whole parameter
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Monoisotopic mass


mostly the average molecular mass or even more commonly the molar mass is used. For most purposes such as weighing out bulk chemicals only the molar mass is relevant since what one is weighing is a statistical distribution of varying isotopic compositions. This concept is most helpful in mass spectrometry because individual molecules (or atoms, as in ICP-MS) are measured, and not their statistical average as a whole. Since mass spectrometry is often used for quantifying trace-level compounds, maximizing the sensitivity of the analysis is usually desired.
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Factor analysis


error itself. Such differences make up what is collectively called the "error" — a statistical term that means the amount by which an individual, as measured, differs from what is average for or predicted by his or her levels of intelligence (see errors and residuals in statistics). The observable data that go into factor analysis would be 10 scores of each of the 1000 students, a total of 10,000 numbers. The factor loadings and levels of the two kinds of intelligence of each student must be inferred from the data
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Statistical hypothesis testing


no relationship between two data sets. The comparison is deemed "statistically significant" if the relationship between the data sets would be an unlikely realization of the null hypothesis according to a threshold probability—the significance level. Hypothesis tests are used when determining what outcomes of a study would lead to a rejection of the null hypothesis for a pre-specified level of significance. The process of distinguishing between the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis is aided by considering two conceptual types of errors. The first type of error occurs when the
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Inflation


to compensate for cyclical spikes in energy or fuel demand. Inflation numbers may be averaged or otherwise subjected to statistical techniques to remove statistical noise and volatility of individual prices. When looking at inflation, economic institutions may focus only on certain kinds of prices, or "special indices", such as the core inflation index which is used by central banks to formulate monetary policy. Most inflation indices are calculated from weighted averages of selected price changes. This necessarily introduces distortion, and can lead to legitimate disputes about what the true inflation
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Psychohistory (fictional)


Air". In it, Gross asked him about psychohistory: Polymath Adolphe Quetelet developed in the 19th century what he called "social physics". Quetelet studied the statistical laws underlying the behaviour of what he called "average man". Some individuals and groups, inspired by Asimov's psychohistory, seriously explore the possibility of a working psychohistory not unlike the one imagined by Asimov—a statistical study of history that could help in the formulation of some "theory of history" and perhaps become a tool of historical prediction. Complexity
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Rating scale


statistical procedures. "A measurement procedure is valid to the degree that if measures what it proposes to measure." Another fundamental issue is that online ratings usually involve convenience sampling much like television polls, i.e. they represent only the opinions of those inclined to submit ratings. Validity is concerned with different aspects of the measurement process. Each of these types uses logic, statistical verification or both to determine the degree of validity and has special value under certain conditions. Types of validity include content validity, predictive validity, and construct validity
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EWMA chart


In statistical quality control, the EWMA chart (or exponentially weighted moving average chart) is a type of control chart used to monitor either variables or attributes-type data using the monitored business or industrial process's entire history of output. While other control charts treat rational subgroups of samples individually, the EWMA chart tracks the exponentially-weighted moving average of all prior sample means. EWMA weights samples in geometrically decreasing order so that the most recent samples are weighted most highly while the most distant samples contribute very little. Although the
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Grouse Mountain


Köppen climate type "Cfb"). The average annual precipitation is 2730mm. Autumn is the wettest season with of precipitation falling in November alone. Winters are cool and snowy, with an average of of snow falling annually. Winters are not cold by Canadian standards, due to how the mountain is moderated by the Pacific Ocean. However, due to its elevation, winters are by no means as mild as the Lower Mainland. In December (the coldest month statistically), Grouse Mountain has an average high and low
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Metadata


order to describe not only the source and quality of the data but also what statistical processes were used to create the data, which is of particular importance to the statistical community in order to both validate and improve the process of statistical data production. An additional type of metadata beginning to be more developed is "accessibility metadata". "Accessibility metadata" is not a new concept to libraries; however, advances in universal design have raised its profile. Projects like Cloud4All and GPII identified the lack of common terminologies and models to
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Deviation (statistics)


deviation that is the difference between the observed value and an "estimate" of the true value (such an estimate may be a sample mean) is a residual. These concepts are applicable for data at the interval and ratio levels of measurement. In statistics, the absolute deviation of an element of a data set is the absolute difference between that element and a given point. Typically the deviation is reckoned from the central value, being construed as some type of average, most often the median or sometimes the mean of the
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Ideal type


one particular case. It is not meant to refer to perfect things, moral ideals nor to statistical averages but rather to stress certain elements common to most cases of the given phenomenon. It is also important to pay attention that in using the word "ideal" Max Weber refers to the world of ideas (, "mental images") and not to perfection; these "ideal types" are idea-constructs that help put the seeming chaos of social reality in order. Weber himself wrote: "An ideal type is
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Francis Galton


whole, or "composite", that he hoped could generalise the facial appearance of his subject into an "average" or "central type". (See also entry "Modern physiognomy" under Physiognomy). This work began in the 1880s while the Jewish scholar Joseph Jacobs studied anthropology and statistics with Francis Galton. Jacobs asked Galton to create a composite photograph of a Jewish type. One of Jacobs' first publications that used Galton's composite imagery was "The Jewish Type, and Galton's Composite Photographs," "
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Statistical data type


is appropriate to apply different kinds of statistical methods to data obtained from different kinds of measurement procedures is complicated by issues concerning the transformation of variables and the precise interpretation of research questions. "The relationship between the data and what they describe merely reflects the fact that certain kinds of statistical statements may have truth values which are not invariant under some transformations. Whether or not a transformation is sensible to contemplate depends on the question one is trying to answer" (Hand, 2004, p. 82). The following table classifies the
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Mike O'Koren


NBA's "Mr. Average", based on the league's players' ages, heights, weights and statistics (but not race; O'Koren was white in the predominately-black NBA). When informed he was the NBA's average man, O`Koren said: "I don`t consider myself above average or below anyone. I guess that`s what makes me average." O'Koren was an assistant coach under Eddie Jordan for over a decade: first from to with the New Jersey Nets and to with the Washington Wizards. In the
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Multilevel model


Another way to analyze the data using traditional statistical approaches is to aggregate individual level variables to higher-order variables and then to conduct an analysis on this higher level. The problem with this approach is that it discards all within-group information (because it takes the average of the individual level variables). As much as 80–90% of the variance could be wasted, and the relationship between aggregated variables is inflated, and thus distorted. This is known as ecological fallacy, and statistically, this type of analysis results in
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WOBA


In baseball, wOBA (, or weighted on-base average) is a statistic, based on linear weights, designed to measure a player's overall offensive contributions per plate appearance. It is formed from taking the observed run values of various offensive events, dividing by a player's plate appearances, and scaling the result to be on the same scale as on-base percentage. Unlike statistics like OPS, wOBA attempts to assign the proper value for each type of hitting event. It was created by Tom Tango and his
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Canberra


100,000 persons) are also below the national average (98.5 per 100,000). However the 2017 crime statistics showed a rise in some types of personal crime, notably burglaries, thefts and assaults. In May 2012, the unemployment rate in Canberra was 3.4% which was lower than the national unemployment rate of 5.1%. As a result of low unemployment and substantial levels of public sector and commercial employment, Canberra has the highest average level of disposable income of any Australian capital city. The gross average weekly wage in Canberra is
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Crime in Canada


of the total population. Globally, the United States was the country with the highest percentage of inmate population (about 0.7% of the total population). The European average is 0.2% of the total population, with France and Germany having lower rates than Canada, but with the United Kingdom, Spain and most of Eastern Europe having higher ones. Comparing crime rates between countries is difficult due to the differences in jurisprudence, reporting and crime classifications. National crime statistics are in reality statistics of only selected crime types. Data
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Channel state information


an opportunity to adapt the transmitted signal to the impulse response and thereby optimize the received signal for spatial multiplexing or to achieve low bit error rates. Statistical CSI (or long-term CSI) means that a statistical characterization of the channel is known. This description can include, for example, the type of fading distribution, the average channel gain, the line-of-sight component, and the spatial correlation. As with instantaneous CSI, this information can be used for transmission optimization. The CSI acquisition is practically limited
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School security


around the world. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, by 2014 an average of 80% of secondary schools in the United States had installed security cameras. This was over 300% increase compared to the 19% of public educational facilities using video surveillance in 2000. Closed-circuit television (CCTV), the most common type of video monitoring system, is also reported to be prevalent in the United Kingdom and Australia. A possible 85-90% of secondary schools used CCTV in Britain, according to statistics
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Quantitative trait locus


is analysis of variance (ANOVA, sometimes called "marker regression") at the marker loci. In this method, in a backcross, one may calculate a t-statistic to compare the averages of the two marker genotype groups. For other types of crosses (such as the intercross), where there are more than two possible genotypes, one uses a more general form of ANOVA, which provides a so-called F-statistic. The ANOVA approach for QTL mapping has three important weaknesses. First, we do
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Meteorite fall statistics


Meteorite fall statistics are frequently used by planetary scientists to approximate the true flux of meteorites on Earth. Meteorite falls are those meteorites that are collected soon after being witnessed to fall, whereas meteorite finds are discovered at a later time. Although there are 30 times as much finds than falls, their raw distribution of types does not accurately reflect what falls to Earth. The reasons for this include the following: There have been many attempts to correct statistical analyses of meteorite finds for some of these effects, especially to estimate the frequency
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Occupational inequality


for the growing single-mother population. Single mothers are faced with a number of challenges primarily resulting from low income. On average, single parents account for between 15 and 40% of income inequality, earning an estimated average of $32,597, less than half of what the average married couple earns. Women's incomes on average are lower than men's due to "occupational segregation". These statistics indicate that a vast number of single-parent children grow up in poverty. Studies have shown children growing up in poverty
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Bayesian regret


In game theory, Bayesian regret is the average difference between the utility of a strategy and an ideal utility where desired outcomes are maximized. The term "Bayesian" refers to Thomas Bayes (1702–1761), who proved a special case of what is now called Bayes' theorem, who provided the first mathematical treatment of a non-trivial problem of statistical data analysis using what is now known as Bayesian inference. In social choice theory, Bayesian regret is the average difference in social utility between the chosen candidate and the best candidate
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Labor rights in American meatpacking industry


of Agricultural Law", approximately 25% of meatpacking workers are injured or become ill each year. Records of workplace injuries in Iowa showed a yearly average of 9.8 injuries per group of hundred full-time employees; there were an average of 51 injuries or illnesses per hundred meatpacking employees each year. According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the rate of injury and illness for the meatpacking industry is double the average of other American manufacturing jobs. While the types of injuries vary, lacerations are the most common. Workers
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Baseball statistics


) and earned run average (the average number of earned runs allowed by a pitcher per nine innings) have dominated attention in the statistical world of baseball. However, the recent advent of sabermetrics has created statistics drawing from a greater breadth of player performance measures and playing field variables. Sabermetrics and comparative statistics attempt to provide an improved measure of a player's performance and contributions to his team from year to year, frequently against a statistical performance average. Comprehensive, historical baseball statistics were difficult for the average fan to access until
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Marshall Plan


. By implementing technological literature surveys and organized plant visits, American economists, statisticians, and engineers were able to educate European manufacturers in statistical measurement. The goal of the statistical and technical assistance from the Americans was to increase productive efficiency of European manufacturers in all industries. To conduct this analysis, the BLS performed two types of productivity calculations. First, they used existing data to calculate how much a worker produces per hour of work—the average output rate. Second, they compared the existing output rates in a particular country
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Quality of Pitch


there, the pitch’s rating does not depend on the batter’s batting performance. This differentiates QOP from other commonly used pitching statistics, such as ERA (Earned Run Average). Some critics argue that the QOP metric is not truly objective because of its basis in the Greiner Index, which was calculated based on the ratings of John Verhoeven. The QOP metric has been shown to have significant relationships with other, more conventional baseball statistics. When variables like pitch type, pitch count, runners on base, and times through
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Parking lot


development at the peak times. Thus different land uses, whether they be commercial, residential or industrial, have different requirements to meet when deriving the number of parking spots needed. U.S. urban planners use Parking Generation Rates, a guidebook of statistical data from the Institution of Transportation Engineers, to source parking minimums. In these reports, the ITE define a type of land use's Parking Generation through an observational study. Parking Generation is statistically found by land use's, average generation rate, the range of generation rates, the
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Henry Chadwick (writer)


of the walk from calculation of a player's batting average: ""What they failed to understand is that actually the batter has as much or a little more to do with when the walk occurs as the pitcher does. They ignored that element of it and that did distort the game for a lot of people." The box score was popularized in 1925 when "Baseball Magazine" republished Chadwick's 1859 "Clipper" article. Chadwick is credited with devising statistical measures such as batting average and earned run average (ERA
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Simpsonville, South Carolina


crimes in 2010 totalled 82 for the year. 2006 statistics of violent crime in Simpsonville reflect there was not one murder, reported incidents of rape were slightly higher than the national average(39 per 100,000 in Simpsonville, with a national average of 33 per 100,000), and incidents of aggravated assaults were what tipped the 2006 violent crime scales, tallying in at 75% over the national average.  In 2007 the personal crime incidents rate tallied in at 6 per 1000 residents, while the national average was 1.3 per 1000. In September 2007
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Science capital


has been framed around eight key dimensions, drawing on statistical analysis of survey data from UK school students: These eight dimensions collapse into four 'types' of science capital: what you know (scientific literacy); how you think (attitudes and dispositions); what you do (science-related activities and behaviours); and who you know (social contacts and networks). The first three 'types' include habitus and cultural capital and the fourth, social capital. Research shows that measuring science capital provides a better
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Friday the 13th


home. Statistically speaking, driving is slightly safer on Friday the 13th, at least in the Netherlands; in the last two years, Dutch insurers received reports of an average 7,800 traffic accidents each Friday; but the average figure when the 13th fell on a Friday was just 7,500." In years which begin on the same day of the week and are of the same type (that is, whether they are a common year or leap year), Friday the 13th occurs in the same months. This sequence, given
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Easterlin paradox


2008 article economists Betsey Stevenson and Justin Wolfers state that “the core of the Easterlin paradox lies in Easterlin’s failure to isolate statistically significant relationships between average levels of happiness and economic growth through time,” and present time series evidence of a significant positive statistical association between happiness and income. A 2012 article by the same authors and Daniel Sacks returns to this time series criticism with new data, though at times the article asserts that the paradox is a contradiction between two types of cross section evidence -- data for persons and for
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Crime in the United States


(4) travel across state lines or to foreign countries and sexually abuse children In addition, a 2011 report by the Bureau of Justice Statistics described the characteristics of suspected human trafficking incidents, identifying roughly 95% of victims as female and over half as 17 years old or younger. Crime rates vary in the United States depending on the type of community. Within metropolitan statistical areas, both violent and property crime rates are higher than the national average; in cities located outside metropolitan areas, violent crime was lower than the national
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Statistical association football predictions


were summarized in an article by Caurneya and Carron in 1992. Time-dependency of team strengths was analyzed by Knorr-Held in 1999. He used recursive Bayesian estimation to rate football teams: this method was more realistic in comparison to soccer prediction based on common average statistics. All the prediction methods can be categorized according to tournament type, time-dependence and regression algorithm. Football prediction methods vary between Round-robin tournament and Knockout competition. The methods for Knockout competition are summarized in an article by Diego Kuonen. The
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Statistical regularity


a series of trials will produce similar, but not identical, results for each series: the average, the standard deviation and other distributional characteristics will be around the same for each series of trials. The notion is used in games of chance, demographic statistics, quality control of a manufacturing process, and in many other parts of our lives. Observations of this phenomenon provided the initial motivation for the concept of what is now known as frequency probability. This phenomenon should not be confused with the gambler's fallacy, because regularity
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Programa Nacional de Población


republic of what Peru is today, and the blue is the projected population by the National Institute of Statistics and Information Technology ("Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática") up until the year 2050. The issue of population growth in Peru is directly connected with the social, political and economic inequality within the country. The average number of childbirths for Peruvian women is higher than that of Latin America's general average and also higher than the average of women in the United States. As for the comparison of birth rates within
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Statistical energy analysis


). From an SEA point of view, the reverberant field of each wavefield represents an orthogonal store of energy and so is represented as a separate energy degree of freedom in the SEA equations. The energy storage capacity of each reverberant field is described by a parameter termed the 'modal density', which depends on the average speed with which waves propagate energy through the subsystem (the average group velocity), and the overall dimension of the subsystem. The transmission of energy between different wavefields at a given type of junction is
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Willoughby Waterleys


however, in the 2011 census the majority were in "Administrative and secretarial jobs". Willoughby Waterleys is in the Peatling district ward, in the county ward of Bruntingthorpe. The parish is described by the Office for National Statistics as a "small town surrounded by inhabited countryside". The typical housing types are mixed, detached, flats, semi-detached and terraced housing, which range from owner occupied to private rental ownership. Property prices range from below average to very high. The average asking price in Willoughby Waterleys for
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Worfield


police statistics Worfield's crime and Anti-social behaviour (ASB) rates are classed as average (68% of areas have an average crime level), compared to the rest of England and Wales. February 2012 had the highest crime rate in over a year, all crimes that occurred in this month were recorded and grouped into crime types: The main radio stations that are either based in Worfield or broadcast to the area are, BBC Radio Shropshire "96FM",Free Radio Shropshire & Black Country "103.1FM", Kic FM,
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Stonham Aspal


and raised there. Stonham Aspal is in the Stonhams District ward and described by the Office for National Statistics as a "village surrounded by inhabited countryside". The main housing types are detached, semi-detached, flats and terraced, with housing ownership being private and social housing. The average house price sale for the area in the period from August 2013 to January 2014 was £221,458.33, the majority being detached, at an average price of £265,800. Stonham Aspal Church of England Voluntary Aided Primary School caters for ages
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Pacific sharpnose shark


The Pacific Sharpnose shark, also known as "Rhizoprionodon longurio," often migrates along the Pacific coast of Mexico. They are most commonly caught in the artisanal fishery of Mazatlán. When a large sample of Pacific Sharpnose Sharks were observed scientists concluded that this type of shark was a “viviparous shark of small size which is born at an average length of 31 cm.” Their gestation period is between ten and eleven months. There was found to be no statistical relationship between the number of embryos to the average length. The
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No free lunch in search and optimization


In computational complexity and optimization the no free lunch theorem is a result that states that for certain types of mathematical problems, the computational cost of finding a solution, averaged over all problems in the class, is the same for any solution method. No solution therefore offers a "short cut". In computing, there are circumstances in which the outputs of all procedures solving a particular type of problem are statistically identical. A colourful way of describing such a circumstance, introduced by David Wolpert and William G. Macready in connection with
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X-bar chart


In industrial statistics, the X-bar chart is a type of Shewhart control chart that is used to monitor the arithmetic means of successive samples of constant size, n. This type of control chart is used for characteristics that can be measured on a continuous scale, such as weight, temperature, thickness etc. For example, one might take a sample of 5 shafts from production every hour, measure the diameter of each, and then plot, for each sample, the average of the five diameter values on the chart.
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Josephson voltage standard


and stabilize the array voltage on a particular step within a few seconds. High quality Josephson arrays will remain on a selected step for many hours. Numerous algorithms have been developed to compare a Josephson standard with a secondary standard or another Josephson standard. These algorithms differ in the amount of averaging used, the type and placement of reversing switches, and the statistical methods used to reduce the data and compute uncertainty. The selection of an algorithm depends on the type of comparison, the desired level of uncertainty, and the time available
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Ergodic process


In econometrics and signal processing, a stochastic process is said to be ergodic if its statistical properties can be deduced from a single, sufficiently long, random sample of the process. The reasoning is that any collection of random samples from a process must represent the average statistical properties of the entire process. In other words, regardless of what the individual samples are, a birds-eye view of the collection of samples must represent the whole process. Conversely, a process that is not ergodic is a process that changes erratically at
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Defense-Independent ERA


In baseball statistics, Defense-Independent ERA (dERA), created by Voros McCracken, projects what a pitcher's earned run average (ERA) would have been, if not for the effects of defense and luck on the actual games in which he pitched. Version 2.0 of dERA uses the following statistics: 0) Multiply BFP by 0.0074 to get the number of intentional walks allowed (dIBB). 1) Divide HB by BFP-IBB. Call this $HB. Then multiply $HB by BFP-dIBB.
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Value of life


amount that the group would be willing to pay to save one statistical life in a year would be $100 per person × 100,000 people, or $10 million. This is what is meant by the "value of a statistical life.” This again emphasizes that VSL is more of an estimate of willingness to pay for small reductions in mortality risks rather than how much a human life is worth. Using government spending to see how much is spent to save lives in order to estimate the average individual VSL is a popular
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Forest inventory


. These estimates were related together to figure out the entire forest’s available resources. As the 19th century progressed so did the measurement techniques. New relationships between diameter, height, and volume were discovered and exploited. These newfound relationships allowed for a more accurate assessment of wood types and yields of much larger forests. By 1891, these surveys were conducted through sample-based methods involving statistical averages and more sophisticated measuring devices were implemented. In the 20th century, the statistical method of sampling had become well established and commonly used
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Quadratic classifier


A quadratic classifier is used in machine learning and statistical classification to separate measurements of two or more classes of objects or events by a quadric surface. It is a more general version of the linear classifier. Statistical classification considers a set of vectors of observations x of an object or event, each of which has a known type "y". This set is referred to as the training set. The problem is then to determine for a given new observation vector, what the best class should be. For a quadratic classifier
20829598
Intrusion (orthodontics)


end. The molars served as an anchorage for the intrusion arch while the pure intrusion was achieved via downward force on the anterior segment where the intrusion arch was engaged. Dr. Burstone also believed in using low magnitude forces to achieve the desired intrusion. This type of intrusion has a single point of application of force system which allows one to devise what type of force is being generated. This type of system is known as Statistically determinate system. Robert M. Ricketts developed the Utility arch in 1950s and it is considered to be an
12426140
Emacs Speaks Statistics


Emacs Speaks Statistics (ESS) is an Emacs package for programming in statistical languages. It adds two types of modes to emacs: Modes of types (1) and (2) work seamlessly together. In addition, modes of type (1) provide the capability to submit a batch job for statistical packages like SAS, BUGS or Just another Gibbs sampler when an interactive session is unwanted due to the potentially lengthy time required for the task to complete. With Emacs Speaks Statistics, the user can conveniently edit statistical language commands
10455506
Weighted arithmetic mean


The weighted arithmetic mean is similar to an ordinary arithmetic mean (the most common type of average), except that instead of each of the data points contributing equally to the final average, some data points contribute more than others. The notion of weighted mean plays a role in descriptive statistics and also occurs in a more general form in several other areas of mathematics. If all the weights are equal, then the weighted mean is the same as the arithmetic mean. While weighted means generally behave in a similar fashion to arithmetic
14667817
Magnetization transfer


far as energy exchange between the populations can be induced and measured in an idealized NMR experiment. In magnetic resonance imaging or NMR of macromolecular samples, such as protein solutions, at least two types of water molecules, free (bulk) and bound (hydration), are present. Bulk water molecules have many mechanical degrees of freedom, and motion of such molecules thus exhibits statistically averaged behavior. Because of this uniformity, most free water protons have resonance frequencies very near the average Larmor frequency of all such protons. On a
20329036
Third normal form


user. Analytics via query, reporting, and dashboards were often facilitated by a different type of data model that provided pre-calculated analysis such as trend lines, period-to-date calculations (month-to-date, quarter-to-date, year-to-date), cumulative calculations, basic statistics (average, standard deviation, moving averages) and previous period comparisons (year ago, month ago, week ago) e.g. dimensional modeling and beyond dimensional modeling, flattening of stars via Hadoop and data
21191278
Stationary ergodic process


. A stationary process is one whose probability distribution is the same at all times. For more information see stationary process. Several sub-types of stationarity are defined: first-order, second-order, "n"th-order, wide-sense and strict-sense. For details please see the reference above. An ergodic process is one which conforms to the ergodic theorem. The theorem allows the time average of a conforming process to equal the ensemble average. In practice this means that statistical sampling can be performed at
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Second Hellenic Republic


Data from the same year indicated that, on average, foreign nationals stayed in Greece for 18 days, compared with 101 days for Greek nationals living permanently abroad, for a total average of 31 days stay. Greeks went abroad as tourists at a much lesser frequency, with 15,562 Greeks exiting the country for tourism elsewhere, of which only a third were going abroad primarily for leisure. This was due to the devaluation of the Drachma in 1932. The Statistical Yearbook of 1936 also gives information as to the type of tourism that
8939047
U-chart


In statistical quality control, the u-chart is a type of control chart used to monitor "count"-type data where the sample size is greater than one, typically the average number of nonconformities per unit. The u-chart differs from the c-chart in that it accounts for the possibility that the number or size of inspection units for which nonconformities are to be counted may vary. Larger samples may be an economic necessity or may be necessary to increase the area of opportunity in order to track very low nonconformity levels.
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School bus


fleet management and location tracking, allowing for internal management of costs and also to alert waiting parents and students of the real-time location of their bus. Seatbelts in school buses underwent a redesign, with lap-type seatbelts phased out in favor of 3-point seatbelts. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) and the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), school buses are the safest type of road vehicle. On average, five fatalities involve school-age children on a school bus each year; statistically
2875717
Invalid science


British Medical Journal’s regular reviewers. On average, they reported fewer than two of the problems. Peer reviewers typically do not re-analyse data from scratch, checking only that the authors’ analysis is properly conceived. Scientists divide errors into type I, incorrectly asserting the truth of a hypothesis (false positive) and type II, rejecting a correct hypothesis (false negative). Statistical checks assess the probability that data which seem to support a hypothesis come about simply by chance. If the probability is less than 5%
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Statistical stability


the achievements of probability theory and classical mathematical statistics, but complements them, extending the statements of these disciplines to a sphere in which they had not yet been considered where there is no convergence of statistics. There are a number of parameters characterizing the statistical stability, in particular, the parameters of statistical instability with respect to the average, the parameters of statistical instability with respect to the standard deviation, intervals of statistical stability with respect to the average, standard deviation, and other statistics, and so forth. The mathematically correct
11075978
Defense independent pitching statistics


seems to correlate with career success. For instance, there is not a single pitcher in the Hall of Fame with a below average career BABIP. In 1999, Voros McCracken became the first to detail and publicize these effects to the baseball research community when he wrote on rec.sport.baseball, "I've been working on a pitching evaluation tool and thought I'd post it here to get some feedback. I call it 'Defensive Independent Pitching' and what it does is evaluate a pitcher base[d] strictly on the statistics his defense has
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Meta-analysis


A meta-analysis is a statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies. Meta-analysis can be performed when there are multiple scientific studies addressing the same question, with each individual study reporting measurements that are expected to have some degree of error. The aim then is to use approaches from statistics to derive a pooled estimate closest to the unknown common truth based on how this error is perceived. Existing methods for meta-analysis yield a weighted average from the results of the individual studies, and what differs is
16099207
Type I and type II errors


In statistical hypothesis testing a type I error is the rejection of a true null hypothesis (also known as a "false positive" finding or conclusion), while a type II error is the non-rejection of a false null hypothesis (also known as a "false negative" finding or conclusion). Much of statistical theory revolves around the minimization of one or both of these errors, though the complete elimination of either is treated as a statistical impossibility. In statistics, a null hypothesis is a statement that one seeks
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Labour power


from work stress during the year differ from country to country; but as an approximate gauge, three weeks continuous holiday is physiologically optimal for the average worker. ILO statistics show a wide range of average hours worked and average holidays for different countries; for example, Korean workers work the most hours per year, and Americans have fewer formal holidays than West Europeans. Several researchers have questioned however to what extent additional hours worked really increase the marginal productivity of labour; particularly in services, the work that gets done in five days
13931627
Average and over


Average and over, often abbreviated A&O, refers to two baseball statistics used in the 1850s and 1860s by the National Association of Base Ball Players. They referred to a player's average performance over a number of games, and were among the first baseball statistics ever reported and tracked. The term and the reporting method were borrowed from cricket. The basic statistic was presented as a whole number (the "average") and a remainder (the "over"). "Average and over (runs)" was the
19812404
Mean squared error


In statistics, the mean squared error (MSE) or mean squared deviation (MSD) of an estimator (of a procedure for estimating an unobserved quantity) measures the average of the squares of the errors—that is, the average squared difference between the estimated values and what is estimated. MSE is a risk function, corresponding to the expected value of the squared error loss. The fact that MSE is almost always strictly positive (and not zero) is because of randomness or because the estimator does not account for information
21043527
Omnibus test


critical values c, q are usually chosen to obtain a specified significance level α, through the relation: . Thus, the likelihood-ratio test rejects the null hypothesis if the value of this statistic is too small. How small is too small depends on the significance level of the test, i.e., on what probability of Type I error is considered tolerable The Neyman-Pearson lemma states that this likelihood ratio test is the most powerful among all level-α tests for this problem. First we define the test statistic as
10965139
Quantitative methods in criminology


statistics and measurements through a critical lens will help us to realize what statistics and measurements are valid and reliable. Criminology is interested in looking at crime and its relation to society. To do this criminologists often research causes of crime and factors for its occurrence. One way in which this is accomplished is through causation studies. Causation is a type of research method that examines and tries to interpret trends. Examining these methods helps criminologists look at ways to prevent crime and help determine underlying causes of crime. Causality is defined as a
3416746
Statistical assumption


model-based approach, all the assumptions are effectively encoded in the model. Given that the validity of any conclusion drawn from a statistical inference depends on the validity of the assumptions made, it is clearly important that those assumptions should be reviewed at some stage. Some instances—for example where data are lacking—may require that researchers judge whether an assumption is reasonable. Researchers can expand this somewhat to consider what effect a departure from the assumptions might produce. Where more extensive data are available, various types of procedures for
7877355
Statistical energy analysis


described by parameters termed 'coupling loss factors'. Each coupling loss factor describes the input power to the direct field of a given receiving subsystem per unit energy in the reverberant field of a particular source subsystem. The coupling loss factors are typically calculated by considering the way in which waves are scattered at different types of junctions (for example, point, line and area junctions). Strictly, SEA predicts the average response of a population or ensemble of systems and so the coupling loss factors and modal densities represent ensemble average quantities
13108135
The Wisdom of Crowds


surprise that the crowd at a county fair accurately guessed the weight of an ox when their individual guesses were averaged (the average was closer to the ox's true butchered weight than the estimates of most crowd members). The book relates to diverse collections of independently deciding individuals, rather than crowd psychology as traditionally understood. Its central thesis, that a diverse collection of independently deciding individuals is likely to make certain types of decisions and predictions better than individuals or even experts, draws many parallels with statistical sampling; however, there
15845107
Spatial dependence


a set of rain gauge locations, and such measurements can be considered as outcomes of random variables, but rainfall clearly occurs at other locations and would again be random. Because rainfall exhibits properties of autocorrelation, spatial interpolation techniques can be used to estimate rainfall amounts at locations near measured locations. As with other types of statistical dependence, the presence of spatial dependence generally leads to estimates of an average value from a sample being less accurate than had the samples been independent, although if negative dependence exists a sample average can be better
17634977
Prices of production


amount of (surplus-)labour required to yield a certain financial result or valorization) but they usually did not have so much knowledge about socially average profit rates; few relevant data or statistics were publicly available and a "general rate of profit" might not exist anyhow, for lack of an integrated national market for products and capital, and given the limited scope of industrialization. The regulating price of a given type of product is a sort of modal average price level, above or below which people would be much less likely to trade
18719295
2005 Atlantic hurricane season statistics


per storm in 2005 was actually close to the seasonal average. In comparison with previous seasons with high seasonal ACE values, relatively few strong, long-lasting storms, such as Cape Verde-type hurricanes, formed. Thus, although the number of named storms in 2005 was about 40% greater than that in any season since 1950, the seasonal ACE was only marginally greater than the previous record, set in 1950 itself, when the average ACE per storm was approximately double that of 2005. Source: Best Track data
9151971
Stay Together for the Kids


he had received emails from fans thanking him for the song's message. "With "Stay Together", we get emails—just kid after kid after kid—saying, 'I know exactly what you're talking about! That song is about my life!'" In 2002, divorce statistics were four times higher than their average just over thirty years prior, with over 50 percent of marriages ending in divorce. "You look at statistics that 50 percent of parents get divorced, and you’re going to get
13669324
History of eugenics


average man" but decried him as mediocre. Galton and his statistical heir Karl Pearson developed what was called the biometrical approach to eugenics, which developed new and complex statistical models (later exported to wholly different fields) to describe the heredity of traits. However, with the rediscovery of Gregor Mendel's hereditary laws, two separate camps of eugenics advocates emerged. One was made up of statisticians, the other of biologists. Statisticians thought the biologists had exceptionally crude mathematical models, while biologists thought the statisticians knew little about biology.
7042447
Deterrence (penology)


. Despite numerous studies using a variety of data sources, sanctions, crime types, statistical methods and theoretical approaches, there remains little agreement in the scientific literature about whether, how, under what circumstances, to what extent, for which crimes, at what cost, for which individuals, and perhaps most importantly, in which direction do various aspects of contemporary criminal sanctions affect subsequent criminal behavior. There are extensive reviews of this literature with somewhat conflicting assessments. Daniel Nagin (1998), one of the leading authorities on the
20694289
Ancillary statistic


, based on only five at-bats does not inspire anywhere near as much confidence in the player's ability than a 0.400 average based on 100 at-bats). The number "N" of at-bats is an ancillary statistic because This ancillary statistic is an ancillary complement to the observed batting average "X"/"N", i.e., the batting average "X"/"N" is not a sufficient statistic, in that it conveys less than all of the relevant information in the data, but conjoined with "N", it
9496205
Bruce Western


the average male former prisoner, and reduces hourly wages by,on average, 11% and annual employment by nine weeks. As of 2013, Western was also studying what happens to prisoners after they are released, and has interviewed the subjects of the study in person, which has, according to Elizabeth Gudrais, "put a human face on the statistics and dashed preconceived notions in the process." In 2015, he published a study based on these interviews, showing that 40% of the recently incarcerated prisoners he interviewed
8886950
Statistical conclusion validity


exists). Statistical conclusion validity concerns the qualities of the study that make these types of errors more likely. Statistical conclusion validity involves ensuring the use of adequate sampling procedures, appropriate statistical tests, and reliable measurement procedures. The most common threats to statistical conclusion validity are: Power is the probability of correctly rejecting the null hypothesis when it is false (inverse of the type II error rate). Experiments with low power have a higher probability of incorrectly accepting the null hypothesis—that is, committing a type II error and
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