who named the box like structure of all living organisms as cell
Organism


number one source of energy for all living organisms. All organisms consist of structural units called cells; some contain a single cell (unicellular) and others contain many units (multicellular). Multicellular organisms are able to specialize cells to perform specific functions. A group of such cells is a tissue, and in animals these occur as four basic types, namely epithelium, nervous tissue, muscle tissue, and connective tissue. Several types of tissue work together in the form of an organ to produce a particular function (such as
15206422
Cellular component


Cellular components are the complex biomolecules and structures of which cells, and thus living organisms, are composed. Cells are the structural and functional units of life. The smallest organisms are single cells, while the largest organisms are assemblages of trillions of cells. DNA is found in nearly all living cells; each cell carries chromosome(s) having a distinctive DNA sequence. Examples include macromolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids, biomolecular complexes such as a ribosome, and structures such as membranes, and organelles. While the majority of cellular components
9417317
Cell theory


In biology, cell theory is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction. With continual improvements made to microscopes over time, magnification technology advanced enough to discover cells in the 17th century. This discovery is largely attributed to Robert Hooke, and began the scientific
14112666
Cell (biology)


that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells emerged on Earth at least 3.5 billion years ago. Cells are of two types: eukaryotic, which contain a nucleus, and prokaryotic, which do not. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms, while eukaryotes can be either single-celled or multicellular. Prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea, two of the three domains of life.
3755996
Joe Cesare Colombo


-Livingroom of the future" was exhibited at the Visiona-Exhibition of 1969. This room consisted of "Barbella-like" space interiors where furniture became structure elements and "vice versa". Traditional furniture was replaced by functional elements like the sitting cubes "Night-Cell" and "Central-Living" as well as the "Kitchen-Box", to create a dynamic, multifunctional living space. The kitchen-box (1963), on wheels and measuring 90x75x75cm, containing a two-burner stovetop
2886126
Cyclin


the naming did its importance in the cell cycle become apparent. As it was appropriate the name stuck. R. Timothy Hunt: "By the way, the name cyclin, which I coined, was really a joke, it's because I liked cycling so much at the time, but they did come and go in the cell..." Cyclins were originally named because their concentration varies in a cyclical fashion during the cell cycle. (Note that the cyclins are now classified according to their conserved cyclin box structure, and not
22036981
Stereom


Stereom is a calcium carbonate material that makes up the internal skeletons found in sea urchins, and all other echinoderms, both living and fossilized forms. It is a sponge-like porous structure which, in a sea urchin may be 50% by volume living cells, and the rest being a matrix of calcite crystals. The size of openings in stereom varies in different species and in different places within the same organism. When an echinoderm becomes a fossil, microscopic examination is used to reveal the structure and such examination is often
15988449
Nanobacterium


Nanobacterium ( , pl. "nanobacteria" ) is the unit or member name of a proposed class of living organisms, specifically cell-walled microorganisms with a size much smaller than the generally accepted lower limit for life (about 200 nm for bacteria, like mycoplasma). Originally based on observed nano-scale structures in geological formations (including one meteorite), the status of nanobacteria has been controversial, with some researchers suggesting they are a new class of living organism capable of incorporating radiolabeled uridine, and others attributing to them
10517905
John Goodsir


theory about the nature and structure of cellular life and organisation. He concluded that all living organisms are formed of microscopic units, cells. Goodsir was not alone in postulating such a concept and the theory that cells form the basic structure of tissues in all plants and animals has been attributed to Matthius Schleiden and to Theodor Schwann. Goodsir posed and then answered the questions ‘What is a cell with its walls, contents, nucleus and nucleolus? How is a cell formed? How do cells multiply?’ The theory which he
1363526
Clandestine cell system


A clandestine cell system is a method for organizing a group of people such as resistance fighters, sleeper agents, or terrorists so that such people can more effectively resist penetration by an opposing organization (such as law enforcement). In a cell structure, each of the small group of people in the cell only know the identities of the people in their cell. Thus, a cell member who is apprehended and interrogated (or who is a mole) will not likely know the identities of the higher-ranking individuals in the
15814197
Cell polarity


underlies processes like cell division, differentiation, cell migration, cell–cell signalling and fertilization. Cell polarity is an example of the self-organization property that all living organism share. All the cells within a multicellular organism, or any single cell species i.e. yeast, displays a polarized organization necessary for its proliferation, differentiation or physiological function. Budding yeast is a highly accessible experimental system, which serves as a paradigm for deciphering the molecular mechanism underlying the generation of polarity. Yeast cells share many features about cell polarity with other
827051
Cytoskeleton


resist compression but can also bear tension during mitosis and during the positioning of the centrosome). Intermediate filaments organize the internal tridimensional structure of the cell, anchoring organelles and serving as structural components of the nuclear lamina. They also participate in some cell-cell and cell-matrix junctions. Nuclear lamina exist in all animals and all tissues. Some animals like the fruit fly do not have any cytoplasmic intermediate filaments. In those animals that express cytoplasmic intermediate filaments, these are tissue specific. Keratin intermediate filaments in epithelial cells provide
21453155
Cell (biology)


The cell (from Latin "cella", meaning "small room") is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A cell is the smallest unit of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks of life". The study of cells is called cell biology or cellular biology. Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell; including bacteria)
3755994
Zoology


categorized under "structural" studies. Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of "structure to function" is central to biology. Physiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but some principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied. For example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells. The field of animal
15779187
List of types of proteins


basic structural and functional unit of all organisms. Includes the plasma membrane and any external encapsulating structures such as the cell wall and cell envelope." "The external part of the cell wall and/or cell membrane."BR comment: Note that this term is intended to annotate gene products that are attached to the plasma membrane or cell wall. 2 types of membrane proteins are "integral" (such as ion channels) and "peripheral" exact_synonym: "protoplasm"BR "The living contents of a cell; the matter contained within (
8630653
Thymus


and observing the subsequent deficiency in a lymphocyte population, subsequently named T cells after the organ of their origin. Recently, advances in immunology have allowed the function of the thymus in T-cell maturation to be more fully understood. The thymus is present in all jawed vertebrates, where it undergoes the same shrinkage with age and plays the same immunological function as in human beings. Recently, a discrete thymus-like lympho-epithelial structure, termed the thymoid, was discovered in the gills of larval lampreys. Hagfish possess a
11543776
Glomus aggregatum


the pore by this thickening. As is the case for all species in this genera, the mycorrhizal structure of "G. aggregatum" proliferates in straight lines along the cortex, branching dichotomously at cell junctions as it penetrates deeper into the root and extending in two directions at once. The mycorrhizal hyphae stain dark. Arbuscules that breach into root cells are thick and intricately branched into compact hyphal bunches. In 1939, Edwin John Butler described a "Glomus aggregatum"-like organism, but a name was not assigned to this species until 1943,
6772953
Dothideomycetes


, bearing the sexual spores (ascospores) forms. Dothideomycetes mostly produce flask-like structures referred to as pseudothecia, although other shape variations do exist (e.g. see structures found in Hysteriales). During ascolocular development pockets (locules) form first within the vegetative cells of the fungus and then all the subsequent structures form. These include the asci which, superficially, have a thicker outer layer through which a thinner inner layer ‘bursts’, like a jack-in-a-box to release the spores. These asci
6773768
Labyrinthula


marine and freshwater environments as well as in terrestrial environments all over the world. "Labyrinthula" have been found to live as pathogens, commensals or mutualists on several host organisms. One example is the endosymbiont "Labyrinthula sp." inside "Thecamoeba hilla", which seem to live as mutualists symbionts. The morphology of a single cell of "Labyrinthula" is not unique and varies a lot between the different species. The cells can be spindle-shaped like "L. macrocystis", spherical or ovoid to name only a
8280766
Cell theory


their structures. This was a major advancement in the field of biology since little was known about animal structure up to this point compared to plants. From these conclusions about plants and animals, two of the three tenets of cell theory were postulated. 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells 2. The cell is the most basic unit of life Schleiden's theory of free cell formation through crystallization was refuted in the 1850s by Robert Remak, Rudolf Virchow, and Albert Kolliker. In 1855, Rudolf Virchow
14112681
Protocell


of purified and of "in situ" expressed membrane proteins. The technique could help astrobiologists understand how the first living cells originated. Jeewanu protocells are synthetic chemical particles that possess cell-like structure and seem to have some functional living properties. First synthesized in 1963 from simple minerals and basic organics while exposed to sunlight, it is still reported to have some metabolic capabilities, the presence of semipermeable membrane, amino acids, phospholipids, carbohydrates and RNA-like molecules. However, the nature and properties of the Jeewanu remains to
5784556
Slime mold


Slime mold or slime mould is an informal name given to several kinds of unrelated eukaryotic organisms that can live freely as single cells, but can aggregate together to form multicellular reproductive structures. Slime molds were formerly classified as fungi but are no longer considered part of that kingdom. Although not related to one another, they are still sometimes grouped for convenience within the paraphyletic group referred to as kingdom Protista. More than 900 species of slime mold occur all over the world. Their common name refers to part of some of these organisms
6918006
Structural violence


Mann's point needs extending to cover all social organizations, not just the state. The early chiefdoms were not states, obviously; still, they were established on a similar basis—an inversely proportional relationship between security and resources, on the one hand, and liberty, on the other." This means that although those who live in organized, centralized social systems are not likely subject to hunger or to die in an animal attack, they are likely to engage in organized violence, which could include war. These structures
10000814
Santos-Dumont 14-bis


wing and tail were made up of Hargrave cells, a box kite-like structure that provided a degree of inherent stability. This established the Hargrave cell as a configuration useful not only for kites but also for heavier-than-air aircraft. Santos-Dumont was living in Paris at the time, and was one of the most active "aeronauts" in Europe, having developed a series of non-rigid airships that displayed unparalleled agility, speed, endurance, and ease of control. Santos-Dumont met Voisin at
6295537
Lancelet


of light-sensing structures: Joseph cells, Hesse organs, an unpaired anterior eye and lamellar body, all of which utilize opsins as light receptors. All of these organs and structures are located in the neural tube, with the frontal eye at the front, followed by the lamellar body, the Joseph cells, and the Hesse organs. Joseph cells are bare photoreceptors surrounded by a band of microvilli. These cells bear the opsin melanopsin. The Hesse organs (also known as dorsal ocelli) consist of a photoreceptor cell surrounded
4525569
Dental pulp stem cells


Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) are stem cells present in the dental pulp, which is the soft living tissue within teeth. They are pluripotent, as they can form embryoid body-like structures (EBs) "in vitro" and teratoma-like structures that contained tissues derived from all three embryonic germ layers when injected in nude mice. DPSCs can differentiate "in vitro" into tissues that have similar characteristics to mesoderm, endoderm and ectoderm layers. DPSCs were found to be able to differentiate into adipocytes and neural-
19004528
Clandestine cell system


have a local cell build bombs, which will be delivered by cells coming from outside the area. Operational cells need to have continuous internal communication; there is a commander, who may be in touch with infrastructure cells or, less likely from a security standpoint, with the core group. Al-Qaeda's approach differs from that of earlier terrorist organizations: In the above graphic, note the indirect support network controlled by Richard's subcell. "While Al-Qaida has elements of the organization designed to support the structure,
15814232
Subgenual organ


same nerve and the subgenual organ of this genus has the largest number of nerve cells of all Ensifera without tympana. In the heelwalker "Karoophasma biedouwense", the subgenual organ is associated with four additional organs containing scolopidia, a trait shared with Mantophasmatodea. Between 15 and 30 scolopidial cells make up the subgenual organ, more in the hind limbs. They form a fan-like structure branching out from the anterior side of the limb. Campaniform sensilla are also associated with the organ. There are no sex differences in the SG
9218297
Cnidaria


ctenophores are more complex than sponges as they have: cells bound by inter-cell connections and carpet-like basement membranes; muscles; nervous systems; and some have sensory organs. Cnidarians are distinguished from all other animals by having cnidocytes that fire harpoon like structures and are usually used mainly to capture prey. In some species, cnidocytes can also be used as anchors. Like sponges and ctenophores, cnidarians have two main layers of cells that sandwich a middle layer of jelly-like material, which is called the mesoglea in
6659860
Autopoiesis


and explain the nature of living systems. A canonical example of an autopoietic system is the biological cell. The eukaryotic cell, for example, is made of various biochemical components such as nucleic acids and proteins, and is organized into bounded structures such as the cell nucleus, various organelles, a cell membrane and cytoskeleton. These structures, based on an external flow of molecules and energy, "produce" the components which, in turn, continue to maintain the organized bounded structure that gives rise to these components (not unlike
20716372
Jeewanu


Jeewanu (Sanskrit for "particles of life") are synthetic chemical particles that possess cell-like structure and seem to have some functional properties; that is, they are a model of primitive cells, or protocells. It was first synthesised by Krishna Bahadur (20 January 1926 — 5 August 1994), an Indian chemist and his team in 1963. Using photochemical reaction, they produced coacervates, microscopic cell-like spheres from a mixture of simple organic and inorganic compounds. Bahadur named these particles 'Jeewanu' because they
20891433
Holdfast


A holdfast is a root-like structure that anchors aquatic sessile organisms, such as seaweed, other sessile algae, stalked crinoids, benthic cnidarians, and sponges, to the substrate. Holdfasts vary in shape and form depending on both the species and the substrate type. The holdfasts of organisms that live in muddy substrates often have complex tangles of root-like growths. These projections are called haptera and similar structures of the same name are found on lichens. The holdfasts of organisms that live in sandy substrates are bulb-like
18738261
Organ printing


structures such as urine tubes. 3D printing allows layer-by-layer construction of a particular organ structure to form a cell scaffold. This can be followed by the process of cell seeding, which cells of interest are pipetted directly onto the scaffold structure. Additionally, the process of integrating cells into the printable material itself, instead of performing seeding afterwards, has been explored. Modified inkjet printers have been used to produce three-dimensional biological tissue. Printer cartridges are filled with a suspension of living cells and a smart gel
3780822
Visual system


at depths of 2000 feet. Certain one-celled micro-organisms, the warnowiid dinoflagellates have eye-like ocelloids, with analogous structures for the lens and retina of the multi-cellular eye. The armored shell of the chiton "Acanthopleura granulata" is also covered with hundreds of aragonite crystalline eyes, named ocelli, which can form images. Many fan worms, such as "Acromegalomma interruptum" which live in tubes on the sea floor of the Great Barrier Reef, have evolved compound eyes on their tentacles, which they
9659688
Amoeboid movement


Amoeboid movement is the most common mode of locomotion in eukaryotic cells. It is a crawling-like type of movement accomplished by protrusion of cytoplasm of the cell involving the formation of pseudopodia ("false-feet") and posterior uropods. One or more pseudopodia may be produced at a time depending on the organism, but all amoeboid movement is characterized by the movement of organisms with an amorphous form that possess no set motility structures. Movement occurs when the cytoplasm slides and forms a pseudopodium in front to pull the cell forward
20496038
Energy


Arrhenius equation.The activation energy necessary for a chemical reaction can be in the form of thermal energy. In biology, energy is an attribute of all biological systems from the biosphere to the smallest living organism. Within an organism it is responsible for growth and development of a biological cell or an organelle of a biological organism. Energy is thus often said to be stored by cells in the structures of molecules of substances such as carbohydrates (including sugars), lipids, and proteins, which release energy when reacted with oxygen in
9631952
Biology


cells, and with their environment. This is done on both the microscopic and molecular levels, for unicellular organisms such as bacteria, as well as the specialized cells of multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. The similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy is a treatment of the macroscopic forms of such structures organs and organ systems. Genetics is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. Genes
9649296
Unicellular organism


in colonies, they are not specialised into cells with differing functions. These organisms live together, and each cell must carry out all life processes to survive. In contrast, even the simplest multicellular organisms have cells that depend on each other to survive. Most multicellular organisms have a unicellular life-cycle stage. Gametes, for example, are reproductive unicells for multicellular organisms. Additionally, multicellularity appears to have evolved independently many times in the history of life. Some organisms are partially unicellular, like "Dictyostelium discoideum". Additionally
3446847
Human body


) come in numerous shapes and forms – from single layers of flat cells, to cells with small beating hair-like cilia in the lungs, to column-like cells that line the stomach. Endothelial cells are cells that line internal cavities including blood vessels and glands. Lining cells regulate what can and can't pass through them, protect internal structures, and function as sensory surfaces. Organs, structured collections of cells with a specific function, sit within the body. Examples include the heart, lungs and liver. Many
9395817
Cell physiology


do contain a nucleus enveloping the cell's DNA and nuclear organelles. Because viruses, viroids, prions and such (see Acytota/Aphanobionta) depend entirely on the physiology of other cells (i.e., cells containing their own physiology), the former entities are often not considered to be "living" by the biologists who study them. All living cells, whether prokaryotes or eukaryotes, contain the following distinguishing characteristics: Based on the properties shared by all independently living organisms on Earth, The earliest ancestor of all life that is
5205732
Outline of cell biology


The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to cell biology: Cell biology – A branch of biology that includes study of cells regarding their physiological properties, structure, and function; the organelles they contain; interactions with their environment; and their life cycle, division, and death. This is done both on a microscopic and molecular level. Cell biology research extends to both the great diversities of single-celled organisms like bacteria and the complex specialized cells in multicellular organisms like humans. Formerly, the field
13859550
Techno-organic virus


A techno-organic virus (T-O virus) is a fictional virus appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The T-O virus transforms organic material into techno-organic material. Techno-organic material resembles both machinery and living tissue. All techno-organic cells function like independent machines and carry both the virus and all information on their carriers, including memories and appearance. This allows a damaged techno-organic being to rebuild itself from a single cell. Marvel Universe varieties of this virus include the
10802674
Treponema denticola


a technique observing intact plunge-frozen cells. Tightly organized bundles of periplasmic flagella were observed in the periplasm, a characteristic of spirochetes. The tapering of the cell ends, conserved between cells, encompass a patella-shaped structure observed in the periplasm at the cell tip. This structure might be involved in the polar attachment of the cells. Cytoplasmic filaments, a bacterial intermediate-like filaments composed of the protein CfpA, are adjacent to the inner membrane and run parallel to the tightly organized flagellar filaments. Those cytoplasmic filaments are
5589475
Protocell


degree of organization. Therefore, a boundary is needed to separate life processes from non-living matter. The cell membrane is the only cellular structure that is found in all of the cells of all of the organisms on Earth. Researchers Irene A. Chen and Jack W. Szostak (Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009) amongst others, demonstrated that simple physicochemical properties of elementary protocells can give rise to simpler conceptual analogues of essential cellular behaviors, including primitive forms of Darwinian competition and energy storage. Such cooperative interactions between the membrane
5784540
Zoology


as bacteria as well as the specialized cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. The similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems. It focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are closely related, and can be
15779186
Life


follows: In the 1960s cladistics emerged: a system arranging taxa based on clades in an evolutionary or phylogenetic tree. Cells are the basic unit of structure in every living thing, and all cells arise from pre-existing cells by division. Cell theory was formulated by Henri Dutrochet, Theodor Schwann, Rudolf Virchow and others during the early nineteenth century, and subsequently became widely accepted. The activity of an organism depends on the total activity of its cells, with energy flow occurring within and between them. Cells contain hereditary information
18728921
Paramecium


act like tiny oars to move the organism in one direction. Nearly all species have closely spaced spindle-shaped trichocysts embedded deeply in the cellular envelope (cortex) that surrounds the organism. Typically, an anal pore (cytoproct) is located on the ventral surface, in the posterior half of the cell. In all species, there is a deep oral groove running from the anterior of the cell to its midpoint. This is lined with inconspicuous cilia which beat continuously, drawing food inside the cell. "Paramecia" live
17620798
Liver cytology


Liver cytology is the branch of cytology that studies the liver cells and its functions. The liver is a vital organ, in charge of almost all the body’s metabolism. Main liver cells are hepatocytes, Kupffer cells, and hepatic stellate cells; each one with a specific function. Cytology is the name given to the branch of biology that deals with the formation, structure and functionality of the cells. Liver cytology specializes in the study of liver cells. The main liver cells are called hepatocytes; however, there are other
21959119
Biochemistry


how biological molecules give rise to the processes that occur within living cells and between cells, which in turn relates greatly to the study and understanding of tissues, organs, and organism structure and function. Biochemistry is closely related to molecular biology, the study of the molecular mechanisms of biological phenomena. Much of biochemistry deals with the structures, functions and interactions of biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and lipids, which provide the structure of cells and perform many of the functions associated with life. The chemistry
3495032
Gastrulation


the body are either organized into sheets of connected cells (as in epithelia), or as a mesh of isolated cells, such as mesenchyme. The molecular mechanism and timing of gastrulation is different in different organisms. However, some common features of gastrulation across triploblastic organisms include: (1) A change in the topological structure of the embryo, from a simply connected surface (sphere-like), to a non-simply connected surface (torus-like); (2) the differentiation of cells into one of
5265994
Biosatellite program


NASA launched three satellites named Biosatellite 1, 2 and 3 between 1966 and 1969. NASA's Biosatellite program was a series of three satellites to assess the effects of spaceflight, especially radiation and weightlessness, on living organisms. Each was designed to reenter and be recovered at the end of its mission. Its primary goal was to determine the effects of space environment, particularly weightlessness, on life processes at three levels of organization: basic biochemistry of the cell; structure of growth of cells and tissues; and growth and form of
12742345
Organ console


diminuendo) for a manual without the addition or subtraction of stops. All the pipes for the division are surrounded by a box-like structure (often simply called the swell box). One side of the box, usually that facing the console or the listener, will be constructed from vertical or horizontal palettes (wooden flaps) which can be opened or closed from the console. This works in a similar fashion to a Venetian blind. When the box is 'open' it allows more sound to be heard than if
13118883
Bennett BTC-1


cabin. This required two different entry doors, both requiring over-wing access. Given Bowlus's penchant for consistency, all-Duraloid construction is the most likely as there is no photographic or descriptive text indicating the wing to have been other than a fully monocoque cantilever structure. The main spar of the wing was fabricated as a full span tapered box. To this box spar was attached a formed leading edge forming a full span D-cell. The ribs were bonded to the aft face of the spar and to the
5050526
Mechanome


The mechanome consists of the body, or ome, of data including cell and molecular processes relating to force and mechanical systems at molecular, cellular and tissue length scales - the fundamental "machine code" structures of the cell. The mechanome encompasses biological motors, like kinesin, myosin, RNAP, and Ribosome mechanical structures, like actin or the cytoskeleton and also proteomic and genomic components that are mechanosensitive and are involved in the response of cells to externally applied force. A definition of the "Mechanome" extending to cell/organ
14262051
Chris Hani Memorial


, lending mass and solidity to the structure. The wall houses the name of the structure as well as a map of the routes. Three glass boxes are placed on the podium as a symbol of democracy, transparency and inclusivity. The form is a reference to the existing needle commemorating the lives of fallen members of South African Services and are in close proximity to engage dialogue. The names of all the fallen heroes are sand-blasted on the glass walls and visitors are invited to wall around the glass boxes and share the
9861115
Robert Rosen (theoretical biologist)


(that he actually attributed to Nicolas Rashevsky) based on the fact that living organisms are a class of systems with an extremely wide range of material "ingredients", different structures, different habitats, different modes of living and reproduction, and yet we are somehow able to recognize them all as "living", or functional organisms, without being however "vitalists". His approach, just like Rashevsky's latest theories of organismic sets, emphasizes biological organization over molecular structure in an attempt to bypass the "structure-functionality
1150804
Cell theory


. Hooke discovered a multitude of tiny pores that he named "cells". This came from the Latin word Cella, meaning ‘a small room’ like monks lived in and also Cellulae, which meant the six sided cell of a honeycomb. However, Hooke did not know their real structure or function. What Hooke had thought were cells, were actually empty cell walls of plant tissues. With microscopes during this time having a low magnification, Hooke was unable to see that there were other internal components to the cells he
14112673
Hemoglobinopathy


which are non-pathological Some hemoglobinopathies (and also related diseases like glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency) seem to have given an evolutionary benefit, especially to heterozygotes, in areas where malaria is endemic. Malaria parasites live inside red blood cells, but subtly disturb normal cellular function. In patients predisposed for rapid clearance of red blood cells, this may lead to early destruction of cells infected with the parasite and increased chance of survival for the carrier of the trait. Hemoglobin functions: Pathology and organic structural abnormalities may lead to any of the
1926273
Company Level Intelligence Cell


studying. The primary analysis technique is link analysis. Over time, the Co and the cell need to build up a dossier on all of the leaders in the AO, major and minor. Primarily, the cell is trying to understand the political power structure in the area, who's in charge, who are the kingmakers, etc. Imagine that the cell is a new reporter reporting on the municipal election of "No-Where, Kansas". The cell should be able to answer, "Who is likely to
5582424
International Space Station United States National Laboratory


microgravity conditions in space induce changes in DNA regulation, expression of genes and cell structure and function. Understanding the impact of gravitational force on living systems and their biochemical processes advances research in the fields of biology, genetics, health care, medicine, microbiology, plant and crop sciences, nanotechnology, and pharmaceutical and regenerative medicine. It has been shown that stem cells, the master cells that produce all organ and tissue cell types, may grow faster in microgravity as compared to cells grown conventionally in gravity. The conditions in space
11233847
Zoothamnium niveum


. Like in other ciliates, a contractile vacuole maintains osmotic balance for the cell, and allows it to survive the salt concentrations in both marine and brackish water. The vacuole is located in "Z. niveum" directly below the lip of the peristome. Most ciliates live as single-celled organisms in aquatic environments, and the single cell carries out all functions of life, such as nutrition, metabolism, and reproduction. Colonies of "Z. niveum" are composed of numerous individual cells that form a feather-like colonial unit
15372234
Germline


differentiate into somatic and germ lines, but in the absence of specialised technical human intervention practically all but the simplest multicellular structures do so. In such organisms somatic cells tend to be practically totipotent, and for over a century sponge cells have been known to reassemble into new sponges after having been separated by forcing them through a sieve. "Germline" can refer to a lineage of cells spanning many generations of individuals—for example, the germline that links any living individual to the hypothetical last universal common ancestor, from which all
6528499
Archaea


was discovered in 2001 in a German swamp. Round whitish colonies of a novel Euryarchaeota species are spaced along thin filaments that can range up to long; these filaments are made of a particular bacteria species. Archaea and bacteria have generally similar cell structure, but cell composition and organization set the archaea apart. Like bacteria, archaea lack interior membranes and organelles. Like bacteria, the cell membranes of archaea are usually bounded by a cell wall and they swim using one or more flagella. Structurally, archaea are most similar to gram
5784494
Black September Organization


of Palestinians and other Arabs who had lived in their countries of residence as students, teachers, businessmen, and diplomats for many years. Operating without a central leadership (see Leaderless resistance), it was a "true collegial direction". The cell structure and the need-to-know operational philosophy protected the operatives by ensuring that the apprehension or surveillance of one cell would not affect the others. The structure offered plausible deniability to the Fatah leadership, which was careful to distance itself from Black September operations. Fatah needed
17018037
Organ printing


, the latter used for providing structure. Alternating patterns of the smart gel and living cells are printed using a standard printing nozzle, with cells eventually fusing together to form tissue. When completed, the gel is cooled and washed away, leaving behind only living cells. 3D printing for producing a cellular construct was first introduced in 2003, when Thomas Boland of Clemson University patented the use of inkjet printing for cells. This process utilized a modified spotting system for the deposition of cells into organized 3D matrices placed on a substrate.
3780823
Parischnogaster jacobsoni


nigricans serrei", differs particularly because the alveolar walls are adjoined to the neighboring cells and because pupal cells, instead of being sealed, are simply narrowed. Like all "Parischnogaster" wasps, "P. jacobsoni" builds nests rather than living in open habitats. However, "P. jacobsoni" generally has been found to build nests mostly in open spaces and even on or near man-made structures. The species is scattered throughout Southeast Asian rainforests and is most commonly found in Malaysia. Like all Stenogastrinae, wasps of "
3772489
Biomechanics


Biomechanics is the study of the structure, function and motion of the mechanical aspects of biological systems, at any level from whole organisms to organs, cells and cell organelles, using the methods of mechanics. The word "biomechanics" (1899) and the related "biomechanical" (1856) come from the Ancient Greek βίος "bios" "life" and μηχανική, "mēchanikē" "mechanics", to refer to the study of the mechanical principles of living organisms, particularly their movement and structure. Biological fluid mechanics
15337294
Denaturation (biochemistry)


Denaturation is a process in which proteins or nucleic acids lose the quaternary structure, tertiary structure, and secondary structure which is present in their native state, by application of some external stress or compound such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, an organic solvent (e.g., alcohol or chloroform), radiation or heat. If proteins in a living cell are denatured, this results in disruption of cell activity and possibly cell death. Protein denaturation is also a consequence of cell death. Denatured proteins can exhibit
8430226
Laminin


three genetic variants, respectively. The laminin molecules are named according to their chain composition. Thus, laminin-511 contains α5, β1, and γ1 chains. Fourteen other chain combinations have been identified in vivo. The trimeric proteins intersect to form a cross-like structure that can bind to other cell membrane and extracellular matrix molecules. The three shorter arms are particularly good at binding to other laminin molecules, which allows them to form sheets. The long arm is capable of binding to cells, which helps anchor organized tissue cells to
19294962
Microbial intelligence


Microbial intelligence (popularly known as bacterial intelligence) is the intelligence shown by microorganisms. The concept encompasses complex adaptive behavior shown by single cells, and altruistic or cooperative behavior in populations of like or unlike cells mediated by chemical signalling that induces physiological or behavioral changes in cells and influences colony structures. Complex cells, like protozoa or algae, show remarkable abilities to organize themselves in changing circumstances. Shell-building by amoebae reveals complex discrimination and manipulative skills that are ordinarily thought to occur only in multicellular organisms. Even bacteria can display
16856820
Sponge


rods the living tissue is suspended like a cobweb that contains most of the cell types. This tissue is a syncytium that in some ways behaves like many cells that share a single external membrane, and in others like a single cell with multiple nuclei. The mesohyl is absent or minimal. The syncytium's cytoplasm, the soupy fluid that fills the interiors of cells, is organized into "rivers" that transport nuclei, organelles ("organs" within cells) and other substances. Instead of choanocytes, they have further syncytia
3192860
Scolopidia


A scolopidium (historically scolopophore) is the most fundamental unit of a mechanoreceptor organ in insects. It is a composition of three cells, a scolopale cap cell which caps the scolopale cell, and a bipolar sensory nerve cell. Scolopidia are sensitive to things like sound (vibrations of the air) or substrate vibrations (feeling vibrations on a leaf, for instance) depending on the structure of the overall sense organ in which they reside. These organs ultimately convert mechanical vibration into a nerve impulse which is sent on to higher ganglion
15760215
Neurogenins


to enter are the ones that will not be differentiated into pancreatic cells because Ngn3 is suppressed. It’s important to mention that Ngn3 has three HES1 binding sites adjacent to the TATA box sequence that allow for the regulation of this transcription factor. Ngn3 can also activate the neurogenic differentiation factor 1(NeuroD1) like most of its other family members through the enhancer boxes present in its structure. Being that NeuroD1 is expressed along with Ngn3 in differentiating cells, it is considered one of the transcription factors downstream targets. Another important target is paired
3067475
Physcomitrella patens


branches from subapical cells. Some side-branch initial cells can differentiate into buds rather than side branches. These buds give rise to gametophores (0.5–5.0 mm), more complex structures bearing leaf-like structures, rhizoids, and the sexual organs: female archegonia and male antheridia. "P. patens" is monoicous, meaning that male and female organs are produced in the same plant. If water is available, flagellate sperm cells can swim from the antheridia to an archegonium and fertilize the egg within. The resulting diploid zygote originates
17952170
Cytoskeleton


A cytoskeleton is present in the cytoplasm of all cells, including bacteria, and archaea. It is a complex, dynamic network of interlinking protein filaments that extends from the cell nucleus to the cell membrane. The cytoskeletal systems of different organisms are composed of similar proteins. In eukaryotes, the cytoskeletal matrix is a dynamic structure composed of three main proteins, which are capable of rapid growth or disassembly dependent on the cell's requirements. The structure, function and dynamic behavior of the cytoskeleton can be very different, depending on organism
21453142
Nonspecific immune cell


and “osis” meaning process, was first described by Élie Metchnikoff, who won the Nobel Prize 100 years ago. Phagocytosis involves the internalization of solids, such as bacteria, by an organism.[[File:Phagocytosis in three steps.png|thumb|Phagocytosis in Three Steps] ]Macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells are all cells of the innate immune system that utilize [[phagocytosis]] and are equipped with [[Toll-like receptors|Toll-like receptors (TLR)]]. Toll-like receptors are present on each of these cells and
6677853
Invasion (cancer)


the “leader” cells forming the leading edge and the “follower” cells that are located behind them, at the “trailing edge.” The “leaders” in the cell shape often resemble mesenchymal cells and are characterized by a less pronounced ordering and structural organization, while the “followers” tend to form more tightly packed, rosette-like tubular structures with tight intercellular contacts. In the case of collective migration, tumor cells form protrusions (pseudopodia) at the leading edge, use integrins to form focal contacts with
11740450
Hox gene


genes (like the gene pathway that forms an appendage). They also directly regulate what are called realisator genes or effector genes that act at the bottom of such hierarchies to ultimately form the tissues, structures, and organs of each segment. Segmentation involves such processes as morphogenesis (differentiation of precursor cells into their terminal specialized cells), the tight association of groups of cells with similar fates, the sculpting of structures and segment boundaries via programmed cell death, and the movement of cells from where they are first born to where
9292622
Cerebellum


structure, with granule cells and parallel fibers. In electrosensitive fish, the input from the electrosensory system goes to the dorsal octavolateral nucleus, which also has a cerebellum-like structure. In ray-finned fishes (by far the largest group), the optic tectum has a layer—the marginal layer—that is cerebellum-like. All of these cerebellum-like structures appear to be primarily sensory-related rather than motor-related. All of them have granule cells that give rise to parallel fibers that connect to
5280079
TCF7L1


Transcription factor 7-like 1 (T-cell specific, HMG-box), also known as TCF7L1, is a human gene. This gene encodes a member of the T cell factor/lymphoid enhancer factor family of transcription factors. These transcription factors are activated by beta catenin, mediate the Wnt signaling pathway and are antagonized by the transforming growth factor beta signaling pathway. The encoded protein contains a high mobility group-box DNA binding domain and participates in the regulation of cell cycle genes and cellular senescence. Model organisms have been
11106237
Phosphoglycerate kinase


The isozymes have 87-88% identical amino acid sequence identity and though they are structurally and functionally similar, they have different localizations: PGK2, encoded by an autosomal gene, is unique to meiotic and postmeiotic spermatogenic cells, while PGK1, encoded on the X-chromosome, is ubiquitously expressed in all cells. PGK is present in all living organisms as one of the two ATP-generating enzymes in glycolysis. In the gluconeogenic pathway, PGK catalyzes the reverse reaction. Under biochemical standard conditions, the glycolytic direction is favored
2664569
Sphagnum


. The top of the plant, or capitulum, has compact clusters of young branches. Along the stem are scattered leaves of various shapes, named stem leaves; the shape varies according to species. The leaves consist of two kinds of cells; small, green, living cells (chlorophyllose cells), and large, clear, structural, dead cells (hyaline cells). The latter have the large water-holding capacity. Sphagnum have a distinct structure adapted to the watery habitats which they live within. The water acts
5252659
Cell communication (biology)


intestines, kidneys, and the bladder. This junction forms a water tight seal, prohibiting the fluids contained in these organs from circulating at will through the body. Desmosome cell junctions physically hold the cells together, but do not allow the cells to pass materials between each other like in gap junction. Desmosome junctions connect the cell with a thread like substance that also connect to the cytoskeleton aiding in the structural support of the cell. These types of junctions are found in areas of the body that undergo a lot of stress,
17542305
Organic solar cell


crystal displays (LCD) as substrates. Much research will be taken for enhancing the performance of OPVs with the merit of easy light trapping structures processing. Recent research and study has been done in utilizing an organic solar cell as the top cell in a hybrid tandem solar cell stack. Because organic solar cells have a higher band gap than traditional inorganic photovoltaics like silicon or CIGS, they can absorb higher energy photons without losing much of the energy due to thermalization, and thus operate at a higher voltage. The lower energy photons
7108751
Organic electronics


orbital. The difference in energy between the π orbital, or highest occupied molecular orbital(HOMO), and π* orbital, or lowest unoccupied molecular orbital(LUMO) is called the band gap of organic photovoltaic materials. Typically, the band gap lies in the range of 1-4eV. The difference in the band gap of organic photovoltaic materials leads to different chemical structures and forms of organic solar cells. Different forms of solar cells includes single-layer organic photovoltaic cells, bilayer organic photovoltaic cells and heterojunction photovoltaic cells. However, all three
2323681
NUMB (gene)


signaling at a below- or above-threshold level. Numb has been studied most extensively in Drosophila, in particular in the context of their sensory organ precursors and ganglion mother cells. The Drosophila external sensory organ is a sensory structure in the peripheral nervous system that consists of four cells; a neuron, a sheath cell that surrounds the dendrite, and hair and socket cells, which are considered the “outer” support cells. All four cell fates are descendants of the sensory organ precursor (SOP) cell. In response to
7633970
Placozoa


placozoans' phylogeny. On the basis of their simple structure, the Placozoa were frequently viewed as a model organism for the transition from unicellular organisms to the multicellular animals (Metazoa) and are thus considered a sister taxon to all other metazoans: According to a functional-morphology model, all or most animals are descended from a "gallertoid", a free-living (pelagic) sphere in seawater, consisting of a single ciliated layer of cells supported by a thin, noncellular separating layer, the basal lamina. The interior
20586522
Homeotic gene


structures during embryonic growth. This can range from segmentation in "Drosophila" to central nervous system (CNS) development in vertebrates. Both Hox and ParaHox are grouped as HOX-Like (HOXL) genes, a subset of the ANTP class (named after the "Drosophila" gene, Antennapedia). They also include the MADS-box-containing genes involved in the ABC model of flower development. Besides flower-producing plants, the MADS-box motif is also present in other organisms such as insects, yeasts,
21875668
Podosome


; therefore, these structures were termed podosomes indicating their foot-like character in cells. In 1989, it was demonstrated that these podosomes played a role in matrix degradation. To reflect this newly discovered destructive nature the name invadopodia was given to these dynamic structures. Because both terms invadopodia and podosomes were initially used to reference the identical structures in identical cell lines, there exists confusion about the nomenclature. Typically, when these structures are found in normal cells, they are referred to as podosomes, and when in cancer cells,
16141269
Chromatophore


all chromatophores contain pigments or reflecting structures (except when there has been a mutation, as in albinism), not all pigment-containing cells are chromatophores. Haem, for example, is a biochrome responsible for the red appearance of blood. It is found primarily in red blood cells (erythrocytes), which are generated in bone marrow throughout the life of an organism, rather than being formed during embryological development. Therefore, erythrocytes are not classified as chromatophores. Chromatophores that contain large amounts of yellow pteridine pigments are named xanthophores
17368368
Protozoa


The group includes flagellates (which move with the help of whip-like structures called flagella), ciliates (which move by using hair-like structures called cilia) and amoebae (which move by the use of foot-like structures called pseudopodia). Some protozoa are sessile, and do not move at all. Unlike plants, fungi and most types of algae, protozoans do not typically have a rigid cell wall, but are usually enveloped by elastic structures of membranes that permit movement of the cell. In some protozoans
5784233
Evolution of metal ions in biological systems


) for living organisms can be found in the hydrosphere. The concentration of Mg in seawater is around 55 mM. Mg is readily available to cells during early evolution due to its high solubility in water. Other transition metals like calcium precipitate from aqueous solutions at much lower concentrations than the corresponding Mg salts. Since magnesium was readily available in early evolution, it can be found in every cell type living organism. Magnesium in anaerobic prokaryotes can be found in MgATP. Magnesium also has many functions in prokaryotes such as glycolysis, all kinases
11712264
Eos (protein)


backbone next to the chromophore. This mechanism allows for localized tagging of the protein and makes EosFP an appropriate tool for tracking protein movement within living cells. Formation of the red chromophore involves cleaving the peptide backbone but includes almost no other changes in the protein structure. According to single-molecule fluorescence spectroscopy , EosFP is tetrameric, and exhibits strong Forster resonance coupling within individual fluorophores. Like other fluorescent proteins, Eos can be used to report diverse signals in cells, tissues and organs without disturbing complex biological machinery. While the use
4583630
Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds


make these compounds move from water environment to living organisms having lipid cell structures. This is called bioaccumulation. Increase in chlorination increases both stability and lipophilicity. The compounds with the very highest chlorine numbers (e.g. octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) are, however, so poorly soluble that this hinders their bioaccumulation. Bioaccumulation is followed by biomagnification. Lipid-soluble compounds are first accumulated to microscopic organisms such as phytoplankton (plankton of plant character, e.g. algae). Phytoplankton is consumed by animal plankton, this by invertebrates such as insects
15952736
Donald E. Ingber


a fundamental design principle that governs how living systems are structured, from individual molecules and cells to whole tissues, organs and organisms. Ingber's work on tensegrity led him to propose that mechanical forces play as important a role in biological control as chemicals and genes do, and to investigate the molecular mechanism by which cells convert mechanical signals into changes in intracellular biochemistry and gene expression, a process known as "mechanotransduction." Ingber determined that living cells use tensegrity architecture to stabilize their shape and cytoskeleton, that cellular integrins function as
587070
Biology


published. The Human Genome Project was the first step in a globalized effort to incorporate accumulated knowledge of biology into a functional, molecular definition of the human body and the bodies of other organisms. Cell theory states that the cell is the fundamental unit of life, that all living things are composed of one or more cells, and that all cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division. In multicellular organisms, every cell in the organism's body derives ultimately from a single cell in a fertilized egg. The cell
9649283
Knollenorgan


Knollenorgan is the name given to an electroreceptor found in the skin of weakly electric fish of the family Mormyridae from Africa. It was first described by V. Franz (1920), a German anatomist who was unaware of its function. They are named after "Knolle", German for "tuberous root" which describes their structure in the skin. The sense organs are composed of modified epithelial cells that act as sensory transducers for electric currents. Besides these, there are also supporting cells, and a sensory neuron which projects to
9459253
Protein adsorption


often serve as scaffolds for cell adhesion and cell growth. This is an integral part to the structural integrity of cell sheets and their differentiation into more complex tissue and organ structures. The adhesion properties of proteins to non-biological surfaces greatly influences whether or not cells can indirectly attach to them via scaffolds. An implant like a hip-stem replacement necessitates integration with the host tissues, and protein adsorption facilitates this integration. Surgical tools can be designed to be sterilized more easily so that proteins do not remain adsorbed to a surface
15931479
Don W. Fawcett


." Fawcett described the early days of electron microscopy as: "For morphologists the decade from 1950 to 1960 held the same anticipation and excitement that attends the opening of a new continent for exploration. The electron microscope revealed marvelous order and functional design in the organization of every tissue and organ that was examined and added significantly to our understanding of our own structure (...)". Fawcett published a collection of his fine-structure micrographs in "The Cell", a classic cell biology text that features all the major cell
19624172
BRENDA tissue ontology


The BTO (BRENDA Tissue Ontology) represents a comprehensive structured encyclopedia. It provides terms, classifications, and definitions of tissues, organs, anatomical structures, plant parts, cell cultures, cell types, and cell lines of organisms from all taxonomic groups (animals, plants, fungis, protozoon) as enzyme sources. The information is connected to the functional data in the BRENDA ("BRaunschweig ENzyme DAtabase“) enzyme information system. BTO is one of the first tissue-specific ontologies in life sciences, not restricted to a
437225