where is starch made in the plant cell
Potato starch


Potato starch is starch extracted from potatoes. The cells of the root tubers of the potato plant contain starch grains (leucoplasts). To extract the starch, the potatoes are crushed; the starch grains are released from the destroyed cells. The starch is then washed out and dried to powder. Potato starch contains typical large oval spherical granules ranging in size between 5 and 100 μm. Potato starch is a very refined starch, containing minimal protein or fat. This gives the powder a clear white colour, and the cooked starch
1712346
Polysaccharide


term energy storage in animal and fungal cells, with the primary energy stores being held in adipose tissue. Glycogen is made primarily by the liver and the muscles, but can also be made by glycogenesis within the brain and stomach. Glycogen is analogous to starch, a glucose polymer in plants, and is sometimes referred to as "animal starch", having a similar structure to amylopectin but more extensively branched and compact than starch. Glycogen is a polymer of α(1→4) glycosidic bonds linked, with α(1→6)-linked branches. Glycogen is found
4408541
Ergastic substance


the main ergastic substances of plant cells. Cellulose is the chief component of the cell wall, and starch occurs as a reserve material in the protoplasm. Starch, as starch grains, arise almost exclusively in plastids, especially leucoplasts and amyloplasts. Although proteins are the main component of living protoplasm, proteins can occur as inactive, ergastic bodies—in an amorphous or crystalline (or crystalloid) form. A well-known amorphous ergastic protein is gluten. Fats (lipids) and oils are widely distributed in plant tissues. Substances
4536468
Starch


synthesis in plants, starch can be synthesized from non-food starch mediated by an enzyme cocktail. In this cell-free biosystem, beta-1,4-glycosidic bond-linked cellulose is partially hydrolyzed to cellobiose. Cellobiose phosphorylase cleaves to glucose 1-phosphate and glucose; the other enzyme—potato alpha-glucan phosphorylase can add a glucose unit from glucose 1-phosphorylase to the non-reducing ends of starch. In it, phosphate is internally recycled. The other product, glucose, can be assimilated by a yeast. This cell-free bioprocessing does not
8017107
Chloroplast


, distorting the grana and thylakoids. The starch granules displace the thylakoids, but leave them intact. Waterlogged roots can also cause starch buildup in the chloroplasts, possibly due to less sucrose being exported out of the chloroplast (or more accurately, the plant cell). This depletes a plant's free phosphate supply, which indirectly stimulates chloroplast starch synthesis. While linked to low photosynthesis rates, the starch grains themselves may not necessarily interfere significantly with the efficiency of photosynthesis, and might simply be a side effect of another photosynthesis-
6481856
Amylopectin


at all. This causes amylose to be hydrolyzed more slowly, but have higher density and be insoluble. Its counterpart in animals is glycogen, which has the same composition and structure, but with more extensive branching that occurs every eight to 12 glucose units. Plants store starch within specialized organelles called amyloplasts. When energy is needed for cell work, the plant hydrolyzes the starch, releasing the glucose subunits. Humans and other animals that eat plant foods also use amylase, an enzyme that assists in breaking down amylopectin. Starch is
6770234
Plant cell


Plant cells are eukaryotic cells present in green plants, photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae. Their distinctive features include primary cell walls containing cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin, the presence of plastids with the capability to perform photosynthesis and store starch, a large vacuole that regulates turgor pressure, the absence of flagella or centrioles, except in the gametes, and a unique method of cell division involving the formation of a cell plate or phragmoplast that separates the new daughter cells. Plant cells differentiate from undifferentiated meristematic cells (analogous to the stem
4408519
Glucose


. In the kidneys, glucose in the urine is absorbed via SGLT1 and SGLT2 in the apical cell membranes and transmitted via GLUT2 in the basolateral cell membranes. About 90% of kidney glucose reabsorption is via SGLT2 and about 3% via SGLT1. In plants and some prokaryotes, glucose is a product of photosynthesis. Glucose is also formed by the breakdown of polymeric forms of glucose like glycogen (in animals and mushrooms) or starch (in plants). The cleavage of glycogen is termed glycogenolysis, the cleavage of starch is
12654661
Ethanol fuel


used to convert starch into sugar. Ethanol is produced by microbial fermentation of the sugar. Microbial fermentation currently only works directly with sugars. Two major components of plants, starch and cellulose, are both made of sugars—and can, in principle, be converted to sugars for fermentation. Currently, only the sugar (e.g., sugar cane) and starch (e.g., corn) portions can be economically converted. There is much activity in the area of cellulosic ethanol, where the cellulose part of a plant is broken down
20528384
Amyloplast


Amyloplasts are a type of plastid, double-enveloped organelles in plant cells that are involved in various biological pathways. Amyloplasts are specifically a type of leucoplast, a subcategory for colorless, non-pigment-containing plastids. Amyloplasts are found in roots and storage tissues and store and synthesize starch for the plant through the polymerization of glucose. Starch synthesis relies on the transportation of carbon from the cytosol, the mechanism by which is currently under debate. Starch synthesis and storage also takes place in chloroplasts, a type of pigmented plastid
13386707
Sugar


structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and pectin for cell wall construction or into energy reserves in the form of storage polysaccharides such as starch or inulin. Starch, consisting of two different polymers of glucose, is a readily degradable form of chemical energy stored by cells, and can be converted to other types of energy. Another polymer of glucose is cellulose, which is a linear chain composed of several hundred or thousand glucose units. It is used by plants as a structural component in their cell walls. Humans can digest cellulose only to
8017163
Randy Wayne (biologist)


classical arguments favoring membrane water channels and clearly demonstrated their major contribution to osmotic water transport." Wayne's work preceded the molecular identification of aquaporins in plant cells. It is generally believed that the sedimentation of starch-containing plastids, known as amyloplasts, is responsible for gravity-sensing in plant cells. However, based on the facts that plant cells that do not contain sedimenting amyloplasts still sense gravity and that starchless mutants in higher plants are almost as sensitive to gravity as the wild-type plants, Wayne, working with
8567300
Granule (cell biology)


, due to the acidic properties of a secretory granule; (2) proinsulin becomes insulin through the process of proteolysis. The endoproteases PC1/3 and PC2 aid in this transformation from proinsulin to insulin; and (3) the clathrin protein coat is removed. Granules are one of the non-living cell organelle of plant cell(the others-vacuole and nucleoplasm). It serves as small container of starch in plant cell. In photosynthesis, plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon dioxide. The glucose is stored mainly in the
20778932
Ovule


resources within the seed are limited. In flowering plants, one sperm nucleus fuses with the egg cell to produce a zygote, the other fuses with the two polar nuclei of the central cell to give rise to the polyploid (typically triploid) endosperm. This double fertilization is unique to flowering plants, although in some other groups the second sperm cell does fuse with another cell in the megagametophyte to produce a second embryo. The plant stores nutrients such as starch, proteins, and oils in the endosperm as a food source for
5160691
Carbohydrate


storage form is glycogen, especially in liver and muscle cells. In plants, starch is used for the same purpose. The most abundant carbohydrate, cellulose, is a structural component of the cell wall of plants and many forms of algae. Ribose is a component of RNA. Deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Lyxose is a component of lyxoflavin found in the human heart. Ribulose and xylulose occur in the pentose phosphate pathway. Galactose, a component of milk sugar lactose, is found in galactolipids in plant cell membranes and
6127970
Gravitropism


several ways, one of which is through statoliths. Statoliths are dense amyloplasts, organelles that synthesize and store starch involved in the perception of gravity by the plant (gravitropism), that collect in specialized cells called statocytes. Statocytes are located in the starch parenchyma cells near vascular tissues in the shoots and in the columella in the caps of the roots. These specialized amyloplasts are denser than the cytoplasm and can sediment according to the gravity vector. The statoliths are enmeshed in a web of actin and it is thought that their sedimentation
6274610
Chinese noodles


as being "eggy". Rice-based noodles can be: These noodles are typically made only with rice and water without the addition of salt. Although unorthodox, some producers may choose to add other plant starches to modify the texture of the noodles. These noodles are made using various plant starches. Mung bean starch noodles will often be cut with tapioca starch to make them more chewy and reduce production costs. In China, particularly in western Inner Mongolia and Shanxi province, oat ("Avena nuda") flour is
19370532
Staining


hydroxyl group and is thus more soluble in aqueous solution, however this characteristics reduces its ability to penetrate the plasma membrane. Hoechst 33342 contains an ethyl substitution on the terminal hydroxyl group (i.e. an ethylether group) making it more hydrophobic for easier plasma membrane passage Iodine is used in chemistry as an indicator for starch. When starch is mixed with iodine in solution, an intensely dark blue colour develops, representing a starch/iodine complex. Starch is a substance common to most plant cells and so a weak iodine solution will stain
19271954
Starch


producing ethanol (1,6 billion gallon or 7,3 billion liter of ethanol). Most green plants use starch as their energy store. The extra glucose is changed into starch which is more complex than glucose (by plants). An exception is the family Asteraceae (asters, daisies and sunflowers), where starch is replaced by the fructan inulin. Inulin-like fructans are also present in grasses such as wheat, in onions and garlic, bananas, and asparagus. In photosynthesis, plants use light energy to produce glucose from carbon
8017102
Ornamental bulbous plant


water loss. Internally a corm is mostly made of starch-containing parenchyma cells above a more-or-less circular basal node that grows roots. Corms are sometimes confused with true bulbs; they are often similar in appearance to bulbs externally, but corms are internally structured with solid tissues, which distinguishes them from bulbs, which are mostly made up of layered fleshy scales. A rhizome is a horizontal stem that often grows underground, usually sending out roots and shoots from its nodes. Some plants have rhizomes that grow above
21082354
Botany


polysaccharides cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin, larger vacuoles than in animal cells and the presence of plastids with unique photosynthetic and biosynthetic functions as in the chloroplasts. Other plastids contain storage products such as starch (amyloplasts) or lipids (elaioplasts). Uniquely, streptophyte cells and those of the green algal order Trentepohliales divide by construction of a phragmoplast as a template for building a cell plate late in cell division. The bodies of vascular plants including clubmosses, ferns and seed plants (gymnosperms and angiosperms) generally have aerial and subterranean subsystems
3755127
Glucose


Glucose (also called dextrose) is a simple sugar with the molecular formula . Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide, a subcategory of carbohydrates. Glucose is mainly made by plants and most algae during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using energy from sunlight. There it is used to make cellulose in cell walls, which is the most abundant carbohydrate. In energy metabolism, glucose is the most important source of energy in all organisms. Glucose for metabolism is partially stored as a polymer, in plants mainly as starch and amylopectin
12654624
Endodermis


the cells can become lignified, forming a complete waterproof layer. Some plants have a large number of amyloplasts (starch containing organelles) in their endodermal cells, in which case the endodermis may be called a starch sheath. Endodermis is often distinctly visible with certain stains like phloroglucinol due to the phenolic and lipid nature of the Casparian strips or the abundance of amyloplasts. The endodermis prevents water, and any solutes dissolved in the water, from passing through this layer via the apoplast pathway. Water can only pass through the endodermis by
868190
Aleurone


layer. This effect is inhibited by the plant hormone abscisic acid, which keeps the seed dormant. After completing this function, the aleurone cells in the developing seed undergo apoptosis. Experiments conducted in the 1960s confirmed that in order for the aleurone layer to secrete starch-degrading enzymes, the embryo must be present. Following removal of the embryo, starch-degrading enzymes were not released and no degradation of the starch tissue occurred. The gibberellin effect on the aleurone is used in brewing, specifically in the production of barley malt
106729
Gibberellin


starch nourish the seedling. Usually in germination, the breakdown of starch to glucose in the endosperm begins shortly after the seed is exposed to water. Gibberellins in the seed embryo are believed to signal starch hydrolysis through inducing the synthesis of the enzyme α-amylase in the aleurone cells. In the model for gibberellin-induced production of α-amylase, it is demonstrated that gibberellins (denoted by GA) produced in the scutellum diffuse to the aleurone cells, where they stimulate the secretion α-amylase. α-Amylase then
18307077
Starch


, and for the water layer on top of a starch gel (syneresis). Some cultivated plant varieties have pure amylopectin starch without amylose, known as "waxy starches". The most used is waxy maize, others are glutinous rice and waxy potato starch. Waxy starches have less retrogradation, resulting in a more stable paste. High amylose starch, amylomaize, is cultivated for the use of its gel strength and for use as a resistant starch (a starch that resists digestion) in food products. Synthetic amylose made from
8017114
Botany


an entire plant from a single leaf, as is the case with "Saintpaulia", or even a single cell – which can dedifferentiate into a callus (a mass of unspecialised cells) that can grow into a new plant. In vascular plants, the xylem and phloem are the conductive tissues that transport resources between shoots and roots. Roots are often adapted to store food such as sugars or starch, as in sugar beets and carrots. Stems mainly provide support to the leaves and reproductive structures, but can store water in
3755130
Plant evolutionary developmental biology


large vacuoles and starch grains, like the angiosperm meristematic cells. Pteridophytes, like fern, on the other hand, do not possess a multicellular apical meristem. They possess a tetrahedral apical cell, which goes on to form the plant body. Any somatic mutation in this cell can lead to hereditary transmission of that mutation. The earliest meristem-like organization is seen in an algal organism from group "Charales" that has a single dividing cell at the tip, much like the pteridophytes, yet simpler. One can thus see
15273006
Helen Porter


the Rothamstead Experimental Laboratories. Her research there included carbohydrate metabolism in monocotyledons, especially barley, and its relationship with the plant's mineral nutrition. She studied the location of synthesis for starches found in the grain itself, and debunked the popular opinion that carbohydrates were synthesised and stored in the plant's stem, then transported to the grain, where they were converted to starch. Instead, Porter and her research group found that the carbohydrates in the plant's stem were used for energy late in its life cycle; the starch was
6895220
Tapioca industry of Thailand


The tapioca industry of Thailand plays an important role in the agricultural economy of Thailand. Tapioca is dried cassava in powder or pearly form. Tapioca (; ), besides being used as a food, the "native starch" it provides is used as a thickening agent and a stabilizer in many products. Native starch is a powder obtained from plants containing starch. Native starch is extracted from the root of the cassava plant, which has the ability to grow in dry weather and low-nutrient soils where other crops do not grow
14174765
Wheatpaste


those made from flour and those made from starch. Vegetable flours contain both gluten and starch. Over time the gluten in a flour paste cross-links, making it very difficult to release the adhesive. Using only starch, a fine quality, fully reversible paste can be produced. The latter is the standard adhesive for paper conservation. Besides wheat, other vegetables also are processed into flours and starches from which pastes can be made: characteristics, such as strength and reversibility, vary with the plant species; manufacturer's processing
13363676
C4 carbon fixation


for by avoiding losing more than half of photosynthetic carbon in photorespiration as occurs in some tropical plants, making it an adaptive mechanism for minimizing the loss. There are several variants of this pathway: The plants often possess a characteristic leaf anatomy called "kranz anatomy", from the German word for wreath. Their vascular bundles are surrounded by two rings of cells; the inner ring, called bundle sheath cells, contains starch-rich chloroplasts lacking grana, which differ from those in mesophyll cells present as the outer ring. Hence
17071394
Cytoplasm


. Some major organelles that are suspended in the cytosol are the mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, and in plant cells, chloroplasts. The inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances suspended in the cytosol. A huge range of inclusions exist in different cell types, and range from crystals of calcium oxalate or silicon dioxide in plants, to granules of energy-storage materials such as starch, glycogen, or polyhydroxybutyrate. A particularly widespread example are lipid droplets, which are spherical droplets composed of
4896926
Pectin lyase


In enzymology, a pectin lyase also known as pectolyase is a naturally occurring pectinase a type of enzyme that degrades pectin. It is produced commercially for the food industry from fungi and used to destroy residual fruit starch, known as pectin, in wine and cider. In plant cell culture, it is used in combination with the enzyme cellulase to generate protoplasts by degrading the plant cell walls. Pectin lyase is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction This enzyme belongs to the family of lyases, specifically those carbon-oxygen lyases acting
10885763
Starch production


Starch production is an isolation of starch from plant sources. It takes place in starch plants. Starch industry is a part of food processing which is using starch as a starting material for production of starch derivatives, hydrolysates, dextrins. At first, the raw material for the preparation of the starch was wheat. Currently main starch sources are: The production of potato starch comprises the steps such as delivery and unloading potatoes, cleaning, rasping of tubers, potato juice separation, starch extraction, starch milk rafination, dewatering of refined
7490805
Starch analysis


Starch analysis or starch grain analysis is a technique that is useful in archaeological research to determine plant taxa. In certain samples of food plants, spices, drugs and desiccated archaeological plant matter, the histological elements can survive and thus be identified but in other samples, like carbonized (burnt) or older materials this is extremely difficult. However starch grains are much more hardy. The technique relies on the fact that a researcher can analyze or microscopically observe starch grains found on artifacts or in soils. Starch grains, ubiquitous in plants
6532289
Plant embryogenesis


from a single pollen grain. Pollen grains consists of three cells - one vegetative cell containg two generative cells. According to Maraschin et al., androgenesis must be triggered during the asymmetric division of microspores. However, once the vegetative cell starts to make starch and proteins, androgenesis can no longer occur. Maraschin et al., indicates that this mode of embryogenesis consists of three phases. The first phase is the "acquisition of embryonic potential", which is the repression of gametophyte formation, so that the differentiation of cells
4866836
Tetraselmis


lysosomes. Additionally, the starch produced by "Tetraselmis" is the same as those produced from land plants. The theca of most species closely encloses the cell body, but can become separated due to irregularities in cell shape. Theca are usually smooth, but some species have developed distinct creases that cross perpendicularly near the cell apex, giving the cell the appearance of being divided into four longitudinal sections. Some species also have a twisted cell posterior that is mirrored in the thecal wall produced. The only perforation of the theca is
5887706
Modified starch


been created by traditional cross-breeding rather than gene splicing. In Europe the term "Genetically Modified Organism" is used solely where "the genetic material has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally through fertilisation and/or natural recombination". The modification in "genetically modified" refers to the genetic engineering of the plant DNA, whereas in the term "Modified Starch" seen on mandatory ingredient labels it refers to the later processing or treatment of the starch or starch granules. Genetically modified starch is of interest in the
2371135
Endodermis


endodermis is absent from the stems but is present in roots. The endodermis helps regulate the movement of water, ions and hormones into and out of the vascular system. It may also store starch, be involved in perception of gravity and protect the plant against toxins moving into the vascular system. The endodermis is developmentally the innermost portion of the cortex. It may consist of a single layer of barrel-shaped cells without any intercellular spaces or sometimes several cell layers. The cells of the endodermis typically have their primary cell walls
868188
List of unrefined sweeteners


or boiling. The juice extracted from the tuberous roots of certain plants is, much like sap, concentrated to make sweeteners, usually through drying or boiling. The starchy seeds of certain plants are transformed into sweeteners by using the enzymes formed during germination or from bacterian cultures. Some sweeteners made with starch are quite refined and made by degrading purified starch with enzymes, such as corn syrup. Many fresh fruits, dried fruits and fruit juices are used as sweeteners. Some examples are: A variety of molasses are made with fruit
5826631
Mashing


The time spent transitioning between rests is preferably as short as possible; however, if the temperature is raised more than 1 °C per minute, enzymes may be prematurely denatured in the transition layer near the heating elements. β-glucan is a general term for polysaccharides, such as cellulose, made up of chains of glucose molecules connected by beta glycosidic bonds, as opposed to the alpha glycosidic bonds in starch. They are a major constituent of the cell walls of plants and make up a large part of the bran in
6394427
Plant


no longer classified as plants as defined here. The Viridiplantae, the green plants – green algae and land plants – form a clade, a group consisting of all the descendants of a common ancestor. With a few exceptions, the green plants have the following features in common; primary chloroplasts derived from cyanobacteria containing chlorophylls "a" and "b", cell walls containing cellulose, and food stores in the form of starch contained within the plastids. They undergo closed mitosis without centrioles, and typically have mitochondria with flat cristae
17912246
Resistant starch


the small intestine, but rather reaches the large intestine where it is consumed or fermented by colonic bacteria (gut microbiota). On a daily basis, human intestinal microbiota encounter more carbohydrates than any other dietary component. This includes resistant starch, non-starch polysaccharide fibers, oligosaccharides, and simple sugars which have significance in colon health. The fermentation of resistant starch produces short-chain fatty acids, including acetate, propionate, and butyrate and increased bacterial cell mass. The short-chain fatty acids are produced in the large
10969686
Resistant starch


intestine where they are rapidly absorbed from the colon, then are metabolized in colonic epithelial cells, liver or other tissues. The fermentation of resistant starch produces more butyrate than other types of dietary fibers. Modest amounts of gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, and hydrogen are also produced in intestinal fermentation. One review estimated that the acceptable daily intake of resistant starch may be as high as 45 grams in adults, an amount exceeding the total recommended intake for dietary fiber of 25–38 grams per day. When isolated resistant starch is
10969687
Starch


a few branch points. Amylose is a much smaller molecule than amylopectin. About one quarter of the mass of starch granules in plants consist of amylose, although there are about 150 times more amylose than amylopectin molecules. Starch molecules arrange themselves in the plant in semi-crystalline granules. Each plant species has a unique starch granular size: rice starch is relatively small (about 2 μm) while potato starches have larger granules (up to 100 μm). Starch becomes soluble in water when heated. The granules swell and burst
8017112
Sucrose-phosphate synthase


concentrations of glucose 6-phosphate in the chloroplast. Overall, increased rates of photosynthesis will increase SPS activity. SPS plays a major role in partitioning carbon between sucrose and starch in photosynthetic and non-photosynthetic tissues, affecting the growth and development of the plant. In ripening fruits, SPS is responsible for converting starch to sucrose and other soluble sugars. Additionally, SPS is also active in cells that mostly degrade sucrose, participating in futile cycles that allow for large, rapid changes in sucrose flux. At low temperature, SPS activity and
18064464
Starch analysis


, have individual characteristics and resistance to grinding and drying and even to light burning so they are often preserved when other plant remains are lost - thus providing an additional tool to understand the past use of plants. Starch grain analysis is not a perfect science, however, plant starch grain analysis is a diagnostic feature of multiple applications according to the peculiarities and to the origin of the plant material. The size, shape and structure of grains from plant species, varies little, which can lead to identification. Starch grains have been
6532290
Polysaccharide


hundred glucose molecules and Amylopectin is a branched molecule made of several thousand glucose units (every chain of 24–30 glucose units is one unit of Amylopectin). Starches are insoluble in water. They can be digested by breaking the "alpha-"linkages (glycosidic bonds). Both humans and other animals have amylases, so they can digest starches. Potato, rice, wheat, and maize are major sources of starch in the human diet. The formations of starches are the ways that plants store glucose. Glycogen serves as the secondary long-
4408540
Chloroplast


. In red algae, starch granules are found in the cytoplasm rather than in the chloroplast. In plants, mesophyll chloroplasts, which do not synthesize sugars, lack starch granules. The chloroplast stroma contains many proteins, though the most common and important is RuBisCO, which is probably also the most abundant protein on the planet. RuBisCO is the enzyme that fixes CO into sugar molecules. In plants, RuBisCO is abundant in all chloroplasts, though in plants, it is confined to the bundle sheath chloroplasts, where the Calvin cycle
6481820
Alison Mary Smith


Alison Mary Smith (born 1954) FRS is Strategic Programme Leader at the John Innes Centre in Norwich and an Honorary Professor at the University of East Anglia (UEA) in the UK. Smith was educated at the University of Cambridge where she was awarded a PhD in 1978 for research into the effect of anaerobiosis on plant metabolism. Smith studies the metabolism in plants of starch and sucrose – the carbohydrate products of photosynthesis that fuel plant growth. Her research has uncovered metabolic pathways responsible for the synthesis and degradation of starch granules in
14617292
Orchid mycorrhiza


Pelotons are separated from the orchid's cytoplasm by an interfacial matrix and the orchid's plasma membrane. The material that makes up the interfacial matrix can differ depending on the orchid mychorrizal stage of interaction. Orchid cells with degenerating pelotons lack starch grains, whereas the newly invaded orchid cells contain large starch grains, suggesting the hydrolysis of starch resulting from the fungal colonization. There is an enlargement of the nucleus in infected orchid cortical cells and in non-infected cortical cells near an infected area as a result of increased DNA content.
4441999
Plant perception (physiology)


as gravitropism. In roots, this typically works as gravity is sensed and translated in the root tip, and subsequently roots grow towards gravity via elongation of the cells. In shoots, similar effects occur, but gravity is perceived and then growth occurs in the opposite direction, as the aboveground part of the plant experiences negative gravitropism. At the root tip, amyloplasts containing starch granules fall in the direction of gravity. This weight activates secondary receptors, which signal to the plant the direction of the gravitational pull. After this occurs
17433602
Chloroplast


out the Calvin cycle and make sugar, they often contain large starch grains. Both types of chloroplast contain large amounts of chloroplast peripheral reticulum, which they use to get more surface area to transport stuff in and out of them. Mesophyll chloroplasts have a little more peripheral reticulum than bundle sheath chloroplasts. Not all cells in a multicellular plant contain chloroplasts. All green parts of a plant contain chloroplasts—the chloroplasts, or more specifically, the chlorophyll in them are what make the photosynthetic parts of a plant green. The plant
6481838
Agrana


company for the Austrian sugar and Starch industry. Operations started with 3 sugar plants (Tulln, Leopoldsdorf and Hohenau), a potato starch plant (Gmünd) and a corn starch plant (Aschach). Company history should however be considered dating back to 1902, when raw sugar production started in Leopoldsdorf. Similarly, sugar production in Tulln had started in 1937. The company went public on the Vienna Stock Exchange in 1991. In 1990, Agrana took stakes in sugar and starch plants in Hungary, and investment in neighbouring countries
1084679
Leucoplast


Leucoplasts (λευκός leukós "white", πλαστός plastós "formed, molded") are a category of plastid and as such are organelles found in plant cells. They are non-pigmented, in contrast to other plastids such as the chloroplast. Lacking photosynthetic pigments, leucoplasts are not green and are located in non-photosynthetic tissues of plants, such as roots, bulbs and seeds. They may be specialized for bulk storage of starch, lipid or protein and are then known as amyloplasts, elaioplasts, or proteinoplasts (also
5794901
Starch analysis


in shape and size and the size of the grain affects its survivability in the archaeological record. Starch is produced in plants as a form of energy storage through the process of photosynthesis. When the plant is in need of energy, the stored starch is converted back into glucose. There are two basic methods for identifying starch: Starch grains are typically microscopically identified with either optical or electron microscopy. Starch grains can become clearer if they are stained a darker color with Iodine Stains. Logol's Iodine is one, used for staining
6532292
Starch phosphorylase


Starch phosphorylase is a form of phosphorylase similar to glycogen phosphorylase, except that it acts upon starch instead of glycogen. The plant alpha-glucan phosphorylase, commonly called starch phosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.1), is largely known for the phosphorolytic degradation of starch. Starch phosphorylase catalyzes the reversible transfer of glucosyl units from glucose-1-phosphate to the nonreducing end of alpha-1,4-D-glucan chains with the release of phosphate. Two distinct forms of starch phosphorylase, plastidic phosphorylase and cytosolic phosphorylase, have been consistently observed in higher plants. Crit Rev Biotechnol. 2009;29(3):214
19570862
Chloroplast


abscisic acid, phytol, and innumerable secondary metabolites. Chloroplasts are a special type of a plant cell organelle called a plastid, though the two terms are sometimes used interchangeably. There are many other types of plastids, which carry out various functions. All chloroplasts in a plant are descended from undifferentiated proplastids found in the zygote, or fertilized egg. Proplastids are commonly found in an adult plant's apical meristems. Chloroplasts do not normally develop from proplastids in root tip meristems—instead, the formation of starch-storing amyloplasts is
6481864
Modified starch


stickiness of batter. Carboxymethylated starches are used as a wallpaper adhesive, as textile printing thickener, as tablet disintegrants and excipients in the pharmaceutical industry. Cationic starch is used as wet end sizing agent in paper manufacturing. Modified starch should not be confused with genetically modified starch, which refers to starch from genetically engineered plants, such as those that have been genetically modified to produce novel fatty acids or carbohydrates which might not occur in the plant species being harvested. In the United States the term can also refer to foods that have
2371134
Chloroplast


is carried out in plants. The chloroplasts of some hornworts and algae contain structures called pyrenoids. They are not found in higher plants. Pyrenoids are roughly spherical and highly refractive bodies which are a site of starch accumulation in plants that contain them. They consist of a matrix opaque to electrons, surrounded by two hemispherical starch plates. The starch is accumulated as the pyrenoids mature. In algae with carbon concentrating mechanisms, the enzyme RuBisCO is found in the pyrenoids. Starch can also accumulate around the pyrenoids when CO is scarce.
6481821
Aleurone


living cells including the aleurone tissue in barley and rice seeds. During seed germination, the plant embryo produces the hormone gibberellin which triggers the aleurone cells to release α-amylase for the hydrolysis of starch, proteases, and storage proteins into the endosperm. Evidence that G-proteins play a role in the gibberellin signaling events has been obtained. The breakdown of the starchy endosperm supplies sugars to drive the growth of roots and the acrospire. This release of amylase is considered to be the most important and sole function of the aleurone
106728
Charophyta


green algae and the embryophytes or land plants form a clade called the green plants or Viridiplantae, that is united among other things by the absence of phycobilins, the presence of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, cellulose in the cell wall and the use of starch, stored in the plastids, as a storage polysaccharide. The charophytes and embryophytes share several traits that distinguish them from the chlorophytes, such as the presence of certain enzymes (class I aldolase, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, glycolate oxidase, flagellar peroxidase), lateral
3272883
Glucose


are termed glucans. Glucose is produced by plants through the photosynthesis using sunlight, water and carbon dioxide and can be used by all living organisms as an energy and carbon source. However, most glucose does not occur in its free form, but in the form of its polymers, i.e. lactose, sucrose, starch and others which are energy reserve substances, and cellulose and chitin, which are components of the cell wall in plants or fungi and arthropods, respectively. These polymers are degraded to glucose during food intake by animals
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Plastid


. Plastids in algae and hornworts may also differ from plant plastids in that they contain pyrenoids. Glaucophyte algae contain muroplasts, which are similar to chloroplasts except that they have a peptidoglycan cell wall that is similar to that of prokaryotes. Red algae contain rhodoplasts, which are red chloroplasts that allow them to photosynthesise to a depth of up to 268 m. The chloroplasts of plants differ from the rhodoplasts of red algae in their ability to synthesize starch, which is stored in the form of granules within the plastids. In red algae,
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Hemiptera


typically plant sap, but some hemipterans such as assassin bugs are blood-suckers, and a few are predators. Both herbivorous and predatory hemipterans inject enzymes to begin digestion extraorally (before the food is taken into the body). These enzymes include amylase to hydrolyse starch, polygalacturonase to weaken the tough cell walls of plants, and proteinases to break down proteins. Although the Hemiptera vary widely in their overall form, their mouthparts form a distinctive "rostrum". Other insect orders with mouthparts modified into anything like the rostrum and
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Polysaccharide


glucose) is used as a storage polysaccharide in plants, being found in the form of both amylose and the branched amylopectin. In animals, the structurally similar glucose polymer is the more densely branched glycogen, sometimes called "animal starch". Glycogen's properties allow it to be metabolized more quickly, which suits the active lives of moving animals. Cellulose and chitin are examples of structural polysaccharides. Cellulose is used in the cell walls of plants and other organisms, and is said to be the most abundant organic molecule on Earth
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Empoasca fabae


becoming adults. As they develop, they lose their skin and develop their wings. "Empoasca fabae" develops into adults in 8 through 37 days. Their entire lifecycle is a month long. Hopperburn in plants is caused by "E. fabaes feeding on its hosts. As they feed their saliva mechanically injures the phloem and parenchyma cells. The plant also suffers damage to its vascular cambium, and to its vascular bundles. Within 24 hours of being infested, rates of photosynthesis,and transpiration are reduced, leaves accumulate starch,
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Legume


52 percent DV for manganese. Like other plant-based foods, pulses contain no cholesterol and little fat or sodium. Legumes are also an excellent source of resistant starch which is broken down by bacteria in the large intestine to produce short-chain fatty acids (such as butyrate) used by intestinal cells for food energy. Preliminary studies in humans include the potential for regular consumption of legumes in a plant-based diet to reduce the prevalence or risk of developing metabolic syndrome. There is evidence that a portion of pulses (
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Helen Porter


to London. That year, Porter spent six months at Bangor University, where she discovered that the enzyme starch phosphorylase is present in barley. In 1953, Porter became head of her own research group at Imperial College, thanks to a grant from the Nuffield Foundation. Her group used the then-innovative techniques of chromatography and radioactive labels to further study plants' metabolic pathways. She synthesised radioactive starches and glucose and used them in experiments that analysed the movement of photosynthetic metabolites and the process of starch and fructosan formation, one
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Embryophyte


wall composed of cellulose and plastids surrounded by two membranes. The latter include chloroplasts, which conduct photosynthesis and store food in the form of starch, and are characteristically pigmented with chlorophylls "a" and "b", generally giving them a bright green color. Embryophyte cells also generally have an enlarged central vacuole enclosed by a vacuolar membrane or tonoplast, which maintains cell turgor and keeps the plant rigid. In common with all groups of multicellular algae they have a life cycle which involves 'alternation of generations'. A multicellular
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Plastid


color. They have a common evolutionary origin and possess a double-stranded DNA molecule that is circular, like that of prokaryotic cells. Plastids that contain chlorophyll can carry out photosynthesis and are called chloroplasts. Plastids can also store products like starch and can synthesize fatty acids and terpenes, which can be used for producing energy and as raw material for the synthesis of other molecules. For example, the components of the plant cuticle and its epicuticular wax are synthesized by the epidermal cells from palmitic acid, which is synthesized in the
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Plant stem


the stem is viewed in cross section. The outside of the stem is covered with an epidermis, which is covered by a waterproof cuticle. The epidermis also may contain stomata for gas exchange and multicellular stem hairs called trichomes. A cortex consisting of hypodermis (collenchyma cells) and endodermis (starch containing cells) is present above the pericycle and vascular bundles. Woody dicots and many nonwoody dicots have secondary growth originating from their lateral or secondary meristems: the vascular cambium and the cork cambium or phellogen. The vascular cambium forms between
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Mulch


not break down into the same materials the more natural biodegradable mulch does. Quality biodegradable mulches are made out of plant starches and sugars or polyester fibers. These starches can come from plants such as wheat and corn. These mulch films may be a bit more permeable allowing more water into the soil. This mulch can prevent soil erosion, reduce weeding, conserve soil moisture, and increase temperature of the soil. Ultimately this can reduce the amount of herbicides used and manual labor farmers may have to do throughout the growing season.
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Starch gelatinization


for example, during the wheat milling process, or when drying the starch cake in a starch plant. There is an inverse correlation between gelatinization temperature and glycemic index. High amylose starches require more energy to break up bonds to gelatinize into starch molecules. Gelatinization improves the availability of starch for amylase hydrolysis. So gelatinization of starch is used constantly in cooking to make the starch digestible or to thicken/bind water in roux, sauce, or soup. Gelatinized starch, when cooled for a long enough period (hours or days
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Starch production


with a rotary grater. The purpose of this stage is disruption of cell walls, which therefore release the starch. In practice, potato cells are not entirely destroyed and part of the starch remains in the mash. Potato pulp rapidly turns dark, because tyrosine presented in the potato is oxidised by polyphenol oxidase, which is located in the cellular juice. Therefore, cellular juice must be separated as soon as possible. This allows the recovery full-value protein from juice and reduces the onerousness of water juice as a sludge.
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Staining


starch present in the cells. Iodine is one component in the staining technique known as Gram staining, used in microbiology. Used as a mordant in Gram's staining, iodine enhances the entrance of the dye through the pores present in the cell wall/membrane. Lugol's solution or Lugol's iodine (IKI) is a brown solution that turns black in the presence of starches and can be used as a cell stain, making the cell nuclei more visible. Used with common vinegar (acetic acid), Lugol's solution
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Canna Agriculture Group


for cattle and pigs and it is grown for this purpose in Tropical Africa and Hawaii, where it is harvested 4–8 months after planting. The foliage of Agricultural Canna is also used for its silage making properties, which are superior to those of corn. Canna is still grown for human consumption in the Andes and also in Vietnam and southern China, where the starch is used to make cellophane noodles. Rootstock - actually a rhizome, this can be eaten either raw or cooked. It is the source of "canna starch"
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Potato ricer


process allows the full starch cells of high-starch potatoes to maintain their integrity and stay separate, giving the potatoes a fluffy, full texture. At this point, milk, butter, and other additives can easily be blended to maintain the starch structure, the result being consistent mashed potatoes. The process works since uniform texture is created due to the passing of potatoes through evenly sized holes, which ensures that the potatoes are smashed only once. With this method, the cell walls are much less likely to break open.
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List of unrefined sweeteners


This list of unrefined sweeteners includes all natural, unrefined, or low-processed sweeteners. Sweeteners are usually made from the fruit or sap of plants, but can also be made from any other part of the plant, or all of it. Some sweeteners are made from starch, with the use of enzymes. Sweeteners made by animals, especially insects, are put in their own section as they can come from more than one part of plants. The sap of some species is concentrated to make sweeteners, usually through drying
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Starch production


starch milk and starch drying. The potato starch production supply chain varies significantly by region. For example, potato starch in Europe is produced from potatoes grown specifically for this purpose. However, in the US, potatoes are not grown for starch production and manufacturers must source raw material from food processor waste streams. The characteristics of these waste streams can vary significantly and require further processing by the US potato starch manufacturer to ensure the end-product functionality and specifications are acceptable. Potatoes are delivered to the starch plants via road or
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Potato starch


yields are selected. Recently, a new type of potato plant was developed that only contains one type of starch molecule: amylopectin, the waxy potato starch. Waxy starches, after starch gelatinisation, retrograde less during storage. The cultivation of potatoes for starch mainly takes place in Germany, the Netherlands, China, Japan, France, Denmark, and Poland, but also in Sweden, Finland, Austria, the Czech Republic, Ukraine, Canada, and India. Some potato starch is also produced as a byproduct from the potato
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Starch


one of the contributing factors to the development of metabolic disorders of modern life, including obesity and diabetes. The starch industry extracts and refines starches from seeds, roots and tubers, by wet grinding, washing, sieving and drying. Today, the main commercial refined starches are cornstarch, tapioca, arrowroot, and wheat, rice, and potato starches. To a lesser extent, sources of refined starch are sweet potato, sago and mung bean. To this day, starch is extracted from more than 50 types of plants.
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Biopolymer


such as sugar beet, potatoes or wheat: when used to produce biopolymers, these are classified as non food crops. These can be converted in the following pathways: Sugar beet  Glyconic acid  Polyglyconic acid Starch  (fermentation)  Lactic acid  Polylactic acid (PLA) Biomass  (fermentation)  Bioethanol  Ethene  Polyethylene Many types of packaging can be made from biopolymers: food trays, blown starch pellets for shipping fragile goods, thin films for wrapping. Biopolymers can be sustainable, carbon neutral and are always renewable, because they are made from plant
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Resistant starch


evidence is weak or not consistent, the FDA requires specific labeling language, such as the guideline concerning resistant starch: "High-amylose maize resistant starch may reduce the risk of Type 2 diabetes. FDA has concluded that there is limited scientific evidence for this claim." Plants store starch in tightly packed granules, consisting of layers of amylose and amylopectin. The size and shape of the starch granule varies by botanical source. For instance, the average size of potato starch at approximately 38 micrometers, wheat starch an average of
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WRKY transcription factor


plant metabolism. The earliest reports identified WRKYs based on their ability to regulate β-amylase, a gene involved in catabolism of starch into sugars. Since then, WRKY transcription factors have also been shown to regulate phosphate acquisition and tolerance to arsenic. Additionally, WRKYs are needed for proper expression of lignin biosynthetic pathway genes, which form products necessary for cell wall and xylem formation. Analysis of WRKY transcription factors from numerous plant species indicates the importance of the family in regulating secondary metabolism. WRKY transcription factors also play a role in
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Taphrina caerulescens


endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts with well-developed grana, starch granules, and osmophilic globules. Other organelles are infrequently present as well. Epidermal cells of diseased tissue have highly irregular cell walls. The most dramatic changes were within the cell. The large central vacuole is replaced with a number of small irregularly shaped vacuoles containing a highly electron dense material. Nuclei are enlarged, plus a 2-3 fold increase in the number of organelles normally present in these cell types. Chloroplasts become large and irregular with large starch granules inside of
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Arrowroot tea


sliced East Asian arrowroot or the starch powder made from the root. "Chick" () is the native Korean name of the plant, while "cha" (; ) means "tea". Chikcha can also refer to the tea made from arrowroot flower. Chikcha made from powdered arrowroot is also called "galbun-cha" (; ). G"al" (; ) is the Sino-Korean name for the plant, and "bun" (; ) is the translation of "powder". Conversely, chikcha made by boiling
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Angel food cake


entrapped air. This helps to strengthen the cell walls and batter during baking or any other handling. This is beneficial because the meringue on its own is weak, cannot expand in heat, and does not have any elasticity normally expected in cakes. Starch gelatinization occurs around the same time as when expansion stops and the cake sets or collapses. When starch granules are exposed to heat and water, they swell, leaching out some starch and forming hydrogen bonds with other starch granules. About 96% of the starch granules are
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Waxy potato starch


Waxy potato starch is a variety of commercially available starch composed almost entirely of amylopectin molecules, extracted from new potato varieties. Standard starch extracted from traditional potato varieties contains both amylose and amylopectin. Waxy potato starch, when gelatinized, has a clearer film, a stickier paste and retrogradates (thickening of starch film or paste during storage) less compared to regular potato starch. Waxy potato starch derivatives are used in textile sizing and food applications. Two types of potato plant varieties are developed using different methods: one using traditional breeding techniques
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Frey's syndrome


rare trauma or localized infection; can be seen in situations where a hair follicle has become ingrown and is causing trauma or localized infection near or over one of the branches of the auriculotemporal nerve. Diagnosis is made based on clinical signs and symptoms and a starch iodine test, called the Minor Iodine-Starch test. The affected area of the face is painted with iodine which is allowed to dry, then dry corn starch is applied to the face. The starch turns blue on exposure to iodine in the presence of sweat.
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Red algae


is assumed to be traced back to an evolutionary bottleneck where the last common ancestor lost about 25% of its core genes and much of its evolutionary plasticity. The red algae form a distinct group characterized by having eukaryotic cells without flagella and centrioles, chloroplasts that lack external endoplasmic reticulum and contain unstacked (stroma) thylakoids, and use phycobiliproteins as accessory pigments, which give them their red color. Red algae store sugars as floridean starch, which is a type of starch that consists of highly branched amylopectin without amylose, as food
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Starch gelatinization


Starch gelatinization is a process of breaking down the intermolecular bonds of starch molecules in the presence of water and heat, allowing the hydrogen bonding sites (the hydroxyl hydrogen and oxygen) to engage more water. This irreversibly dissolves the starch granule in water. Water acts as a plasticizer. Three main processes happen to the starch granule: granule swelling, crystal or double helical melting, and amylose leaching. The gelatinization temperature of starch depends upon plant type and the amount of water present, pH, types and concentration of salt,
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Sago


residue. The raw starch suspension in water is then collected in a settling container. The sago cycad, "Cycas revoluta", is a slow-growing wild or ornamental plant. Its common names "sago palm" and "king sago palm" are misnomers as cycads are not palms. Processed starch known as sago is made from this and other cycads. It is a less-common food source for some peoples of the Pacific and Indian Oceans.- Unlike "metroxylon" palms (discussed above), cycads are highly poisonous
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Floridean starch


Floridean starch is a type of a storage glucan found in glaucophytes and in red algae (also known as rhodophytes), in which it is usually the primary sink for fixed carbon from photosynthesis. It is found in grains or granules in the cell's cytoplasm and is composed of an α-linked glucose polymer with a degree of branching intermediate between amylopectin and glycogen, though more similar to the former. The polymers that make up floridean starch are sometimes referred to as "semi-amylopectin". Floridean starch consists of a
295679
Bacteroidetes


Barnesiella", and "Tannerella" are saccharolytic, while species belonging to "Odoribacter" and "Porphyromonas" are predominantly asaccharolytic. Some "Bacteroides spp." and "Prevotella spp." can degrade complex plant polysaccharides such as starch, cellulose, xylans, and pectins. The "Bacteroidetes" species also play an important role in protein metabolism by proteolytic activity assigned to the proteases linked to the cell. Some "Bacteroides spp." have a potential to utilize urea as a nitrogen source. Other important functions of "
11474898
Archaeplastida


" and "b", but lack phycobiliproteins, and starch is accumulated inside the chloroplasts. The glaucophytes have typical cyanobacterial pigments, and are unusual in retaining a cell wall within their plastids (called cyanelles). Archaeplastida should not be confused with the older and obsolete name Archiplastideae, which refers to cyanobacteria and other groups of bacteria. The consensus in 2005, when the group consisting of the glaucophytes and red and green algae and land plants was named 'Archaeplastida', was that it was a clade, i.e. was monophyletic
1777291
Human nutrition


instance, is used as table sugar. Polysaccharides, which include starch and glycogen, are often referred to as 'complex' carbohydrates because they are typically long multiple-branched chains of sugar units. Simple carbohydrates are absorbed quickly, and therefore raise blood-sugar levels more rapidly than other nutrients. However, the most important plant carbohydrate nutrient, starch, varies in its absorption. Gelatinized starch (starch heated for a few minutes in the presence of water) is far more digestible than plain starch, and starch which has
10186709
Starch


heated water; the solution is cooled before use (starch-iodine complex becomes unstable at temperatures above 35 °C). Each species of plant has a unique type of starch granules in granular size, shape and crystallization pattern. Under the microscope, starch grains stained with iodine illuminated from behind with polarized light show a distinctive Maltese cross effect (also known as extinction cross and birefringence). Starch is the most common carbohydrate in the human diet and is contained in many staple foods. The major sources of starch intake worldwide
8017120
Erythronium japonicum


"E. japonicum" bulb. Because of its small quantity, this starch is no longer common; potato starch has taken its place and name nowadays. This plant is not known to be farmed, and has been harvested from wild colonies by poachers, but probably not by seekers of starch sources, but by wildflower enthusiasts or traffickers. The plant powder was also used as ointment to treat rashes. The rumor that it is used in wagashi, particularly in the confection called "katakuri-rakugan" is apocryphal, since historian
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