what type of scientist studies human body systems
Body odour and sexual attraction


Studies regarding the olfactory communications in humans is fairly new as scientists have branched out from animals and came to the conclusion that human have this kind of communication as well. This kind of communication happens subconsciously in our bodies and is usually the reason why we are initially attracted to someone. Pheromones are chemical messengers that are produced and eventually get emitted throughout the body. These chemical messengers are what attract people to each other. The two types of pheromones include signal and primer, each having their own role in our behavior. Signal
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Human body


The human body is the structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organ systems. They ensure homeostasis and the viability of the human body. It comprises a head, neck, trunk (which includes the thorax and abdomen), arms and hands, legs and feet. The study of the human body involves anatomy, physiology, histology and embryology. The body varies anatomically in known ways. Physiology focuses on the systems and organs of the human body and
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Racial hygiene


in Nazi Germany studied genetics, created genetic registries and researched twins. Nazi scientists also studied blood, and developed theories on the supposed racial specificity of blood types, with the goal of distinguishing an "Aryan" from a Jew by examining their blood. In the 1930s, Josef Mengele, a doctor in the Schutzstaffel (SS), provided human remains that were taken from Auschwitz – blood, limbs and other body parts – to be studied at the institutes. Harnessing racial hygiene as a justification, the scientists used prisoners from
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Sensory systems in fish


In 2003, Scottish scientists at the University of Edinburgh and the Roslin Institute concluded that rainbow trout exhibit behaviors often associated with pain in other animals. Bee venom and acetic acid injected into the lips resulted in fish rocking their bodies and rubbing their lips along the sides and floors of their tanks, which the researchers concluded were attempts to relieve pain, similar to what mammals would do. Neurons fired in a pattern resembling human neuronal patterns. Professor James D. Rose of the University of Wyoming claimed the study was flawed since it did
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Trudeau Institute


The Trudeau Institute is an independent, not-for-profit, biomedical research center located on a campus in Saranac Lake, New York. Its scientific mission is to make breakthrough discoveries that lead to improved human health. Trudeau scientists work to discover the basic rules governing immunity (the body’s natural defense system). The Institute presently employs eight research teams comprising 7 Ph.D.-level scientists, each studying some aspect of immunity. Their studies focus on immune responses to major infectious diseases, such as influenza, sepsis, and
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Embodied music cognition


Embodied music cognition is a direction within systematic musicology interested in studying the role of the human body in relation to all musical activities. It considers the human body as the natural mediator between mind (focused on musical intentions, meanings, significations) and physical environment (containing musical sound and other types of energy that affords human action). Given the impact of body movement on musical meaning formation and signification, the musical mind is said to be embodied. Embodiment assumes that what happens in the mind is depending on properties of the
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Effect of spaceflight on the human body


must also maintain temperature and pressure within acceptable limits and deal with the body's waste products. Shielding against harmful external influences such as radiation and micro-meteorites is also necessary. Some hazards are difficult to mitigate, such as weightlessness, also defined as a microgravity environment. Living in this type of environment impacts the body in three important ways: loss of proprioception, changes in fluid distribution, and deterioration of the musculoskeletal system. On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the brain
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Indigenous archaeology


and cultural studies. At the time, many bodies were also used by European and American scientists as evidence in the creation of racial classification systems. Modern archaeological practices ensure the items obtained from excavations are through legal means. The knowledge obtained from the study of these artifacts can offer many historical insights in a wide variety of fields. For instance, human remains can give information on topics from the migration patterns of ancient humans to the evolution and spread of modern diseases. Acquiring this information requires historical artifacts or remains to study.
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Theralizumab


of a study participant. Neither the companies involved nor the authorities have commented on that point. Another issue was whether the company should have anticipated that the drug would provoke this reaction in humans. The comments on the company webpage and in the patent application indicated that the company knew that this type of drug could cause a severe cytokine release syndrome. An immunologist contacted by "New Scientist" and who wished to be anonymous has commented that "You don’t need to be a rocket scientist to work out what will happen if
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Space colonization


Artemis Project designed a plan to colonize Europa, one of Jupiter's moons. Scientists were to inhabit igloos and drill down into the Europan ice crust, exploring any sub-surface ocean. This plan discusses possible use of "air pockets" for human habitation. Europa is considered one of the more habitable bodies in the Solar System and so merits investigation as a possible abode for life. NASA performed a study called "HOPE" (Revolutionary Concepts for Human Outer Planet Exploration) regarding the future exploration of the Solar System.
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Blood type diet


The blood type diets are fad diets advocated by several authors, the most prominent of whom is Peter J. D'Adamo. These diets are based on the notion that blood type, according to the ABO blood group system, is the most important factor in determining a healthy diet, and each author recommends a distinct diet for each blood type. The consensus among dietitians, physicians, and scientists is that these diets are unsupported by scientific evidence. In what was apparently the first study testing whether there was any benefit to eating the "
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Scientific method


Luck favours the prepared mind", but some psychologists have begun to study what it means to be 'prepared for luck' in the scientific context. Research is showing that scientists are taught various heuristics that tend to harness chance and the unexpected. This is what Nassim Nicholas Taleb calls "Anti-fragility"; while some systems of investigation are fragile in the face of human error, human bias, and randomness, the scientific method is more than resistant or tough – it actually benefits from such randomness in many ways (
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Righting reflex


visual system inputs, vestibular inputs, and somatosensory inputs to make postural adjustments when the body becomes displaced from its normal vertical position. These inputs are used to create what is called an efference copy. This means that the brain makes comparisons in the cerebellum between expected posture and perceived posture, and corrects for the difference. The reflex takes 6 or 7 weeks to perfect, but can be affected by various types of balance disorders. The righting reflex has also been studied in cats and other non-human mammals. The vestibular
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Precambrian body plans


. The most notable cell types of sponges are the goblet-shaped cells called choanocytes, so named for their similarity to choanoflagellates. The similarities between these two cells types makes scientists believe that choanoflagellates are the sister taxa to metazoa. The flagella of these cells are what drive the water movement through the sponge body. The cell body of choanocytes is what is responsible for nutrient absorption. In some species these cells can develop into gametes. The Pinacocytes are the cells on the exterior of the sponge that line the cell body.
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Neuroanatomy


text Cerebri anatome which is considered the foundation of neuroanatomy. The subsequent three hundred and fifty some years has produced a great deal of documentation and study of the neural systems. At the tissue level, the nervous system is composed of neurons, glial cells, and extracellular matrix. Both neurons and glial cells come in many types (see, for example, the nervous system section of the list of distinct cell types in the adult human body). Neurons are the information-processing cells of the nervous system: they sense
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Information needs


four levels: There are variables within a system that influence the question and its formation. Taylor divided them into five groups: general aspects (physical and geographical factors); system input (What type of material is put into the system, and what is the unit item?); internal organization (classification, indexing, subject heading, and similar access schemes); question input (what part do human operators play in the total system?); output (interim feedback). Herbert Menzel preferred demand studies to preference
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David Cooperrider


The more we study "what gives life" versus "what’s wrong," the more we move in the direction or become what we study. Instead of studying low morale, for example, we should study human flourishing in the workplace "because human systems move in the direction of what they study." The simple act of observation in a human system changes the phenomenon itself. In another realm this concept has been called the Hawthorne effect. But in human systems, the result is even more powerful. Cooperrider called
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Cadaver


to create. It is this merging of arts and sciences that brings an appreciation of the study of cadavers to an important level. Cadavers are used in many different facets throughout the scientific community.  One important aspect of cadavers use for science is that they have provided science with a vast amount of information dealing with the anatomy of the human body. Cadavers allowed scientists to investigate the human body on a deeper level which resulted in identification of certain body parts and organs.  Two Greek scientists, Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos
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Wellness in school


as Montessori and other philosophies/pedagogies that value this curriculum. The following isn't an expanded definition of each, but simply what the goals and objectives are for each dimension. The physical dimension focuses on three sub-categories: healthy eating, exercise, and the human body (digestive system, skeletal system and circulatory systems). For K-5 the focus can be on the brain controlling the body, all the way up to studying the parts of the brain. Students are expected to understand that different parts control different body
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Cadaver


A cadaver is a dead human body that is used by medical students, physicians and other scientists to study anatomy, identify disease sites, determine causes of death, and provide tissue to repair a defect in a living human being. Students in medical school study and dissect cadavers as a part of their education. Others who study cadavers include archaeologists and artists. The term "cadaver" is used in courts of law to refer to a dead body, as well as by recovery teams searching for bodies in natural disasters. The
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History of military nutrition in the United States


of the nutritional adequacy of the soldier's diet, and assessment of feeding system changes at selected military dining facilities. Scientists also conducted studies exploring the specific roles and mechanisms of nutrients such as vitamin A, vitamin C, carbohydrates, thiamin, iron and several others. Although driven primarily by military concerns, scientists at LAIR and its predecessor labs also contributed essential knowledge to our general understanding of nutrition as it applies to the human body. Among other things, they established requirement recommendations for water, vitamins, and minerals and provided
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Parasite load


. Depending on the parasitic species in question, various methods of quantification allow scientists to measure the numbers of parasites present and determine the parasite load of an organism. Quantifying the parasite depends on what type of parasite is in question as well as where it resides in the host body. For example, intracellular parasites such as the protozoan genus "Plasmodium" which causes Malaria in humans, are quantified through performing a blood smear and counting the number of white blood cells infected by viewing the smear through a microscope. Other parasites residing
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Nitisinone


or breaking apart, of tyrosine. In plants, preventing this process leads to destruction of chlorophyll and the death of the plant. In toxicology studies of the herbicide, it was discovered that it had activity against HPPD in rats and humans. In Type I tyrosinemia, a different enzyme involved in the breakdown of tyrosine, fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase is mutated and doesn't work, leading to very harmful products building up in the body. Fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase acts on tyrosine after HPPD does, so scientists working on making herbicides in the class of
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Technoself studies


seeks to advance and progress what humans already do within their normal lives. However, customarily it seeks to aid any illnesses and weaknesses in the body. Popular topics within this new area of study include, sex reassignment surgery, mood enhancers, genomics, and neuroenhancement. Enhancement within the workplace is a new topic of discussion, while the workplace should be adapting to the various types of human impairment, it seems that improving the workers is of more concern to corporations. Through the use of cyborg prosthetics one can assemble themselves in
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Zoology


as bacteria as well as the specialized cells in multicellular organisms such as humans. Understanding the structure and function of cells is fundamental to all of the biological sciences. The similarities and differences between cell types are particularly relevant to molecular biology. Anatomy considers the forms of macroscopic structures such as organs and organ systems. It focuses on how organs and organ systems work together in the bodies of humans and animals, in addition to how they work independently. Anatomy and cell biology are two studies that are closely related, and can be
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Remyelination


key to developing new treatments for demyelinating diseases. One of the biggest difficulties of studying demyelinating diseases and thus remyelination is that it takes place in the central nervous system. Studying remyelination most thoroughly would involve unethical and invasive experiments and observation on the human brain and spinal cord. Because of this, scientists are limited to studying patients with demylinating diseases after they have died. It is nearly impossible to discern what exactly happened through the progress of the diseased person because most persons die in the chronic stages of their demyelinating disease. The
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Resting bitch face


Resting bitch face, also known as RBF, or bitchy resting face (BRF), is a facial expression that unintentionally appears as if a person is angry, annoyed, irritated, or contemptuous, particularly when the individual is relaxed, resting or not expressing any particular emotion.The concept has been studied by psychologists and may have psychological implications related to facial biases, gender stereotypes, human judgement, and decision-making. The concept has also been studied by scientists with information technology. Utilizing a type of facial recognition system
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Compartment (pharmacokinetics)


In pharmacokinetics, a compartment is a defined volume of body fluids, typically of the human body, but also those of other animals with multiple organ systems. The meaning in this area of study is different from the concept of anatomic compartments, which are bounded by fasciae, the sheath of fibrous tissue that enclose mammalian organs. Instead, the concept focuses on broad types of fluidic systems. This analysis is used in attempts to mathematically describe distribution of small molecules throughout organisms with multiple compartments. Various multi-compartment models can be
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CCL18


Chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 18 (CCL18) is a small cytokine belonging to the CC chemokine family. The functions of CCL18 have been well studied in laboratory settings, however the physiological effects of the molecule in living organisms have been difficult to characterize because there is no similar protein in rodents that can be studied. The receptor for CCL18 has been identified in humans only recently, which will help scientists understand the molecule's role in the body. CCL18 is produced and secreted mainly by innate immune system, and
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Human Rights Internet


Human Rights Internet (HRI) is a non-governmental organization based in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada supporting the exchange of information within the worldwide human rights community. It was co-founded by the political scientist Laurie S. Wiseberg (then at the University of Illinois at Chicago Circle), who typed the first issue of its newsletter and mailed it to about 100 people, mostly social scientists and legal scholars studying human rights. Launched in 1976 under the name "InterNet: the International Human Rights Documentation Network", the organization
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Type system


referred to as "strongly typed" or "weakly typed". In fact, there is no universally accepted definition of what these terms mean. In general, there are more precise terms to represent the differences between type systems that lead people to call them "strong" or "weak". A third way of categorizing the type system of a programming language uses the safety of typed operations and conversions. Computer scientists use the term "type-safe language" to describe languages that do not allow operations or conversions that
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Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas


of multiple migration waves occurring during the very first stages of settlement. Prior to the 1952 confirmation of DNA as the hereditary material by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase, scientists used blood proteins to study human genetic variation. The ABO blood group system is widely credited to have been discovered by the Austrian Karl Landsteiner, who found three different blood types in 1900. Blood groups are inherited from both parents. The ABO blood type is controlled by a single gene (the ABO gene) with three alleles: "i", "
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Qian Xuesen


the concepts, theories, and methods of the system science field include studying the open complex giant system. Additionally, he helped establish the Chinese school of complexity science. From the 1980s onward, Qian had advocated the scientific investigation of traditional Chinese medicine, Qigong, and the concept of "special human body functions". He particularly encouraged scientists to accumulate observational data on qigong so that future scientific theories could be established. Qian retired in 1991 and lived quietly in Beijing, refusing to speak to Westerners. In 1979 Qian was
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Methods used to study memory


tomography (PET) and Electroencephalography (EEG) studies. Due to the correlational designs used in fMRI, many scientists have coined this up and coming field as the new phrenology in the sense that techniques such as fMRI rely heavily on complex statistics. Type 1 errors can lead scientists to draw premature and incorrect causal relationships if improper designs are used. Human subject research must be carefully designed as to not have any adverse effects on the subject, and not impose on their rights as a human being. Neurological procedures that intentionally lesion
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Neuroeconomics


is the one that should be chosen. While there has been support for this economic view of decision making, there are also situations where the assumptions of optimal decision making seem to be violated. The field of neuroeconomics arose out of this controversy. By determining which brain areas are active in which types of decision processes, neuroeconomists hope to better understand the nature of what seem to be suboptimal and illogical decisions. While most of these scientists are using human subjects in this research, others are using animal models where studies can be
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Tattva


(→Tattva vision). The Siddha system of traditional medicine () of ancient India was derived by Tamil Siddhas or the spiritual scientists of Tamil Nadu. According to this tradition, the human body is composed of 96 constituent principles or tattvas. Siddhas fundamental principles never differentiated man from the universe. According to them, “Nature is man and man is nature and therefore both are essentially one. Man is said to be the microcosm and the Universe is Macrocosm, because what exists in the Universe exists in man.” Tattvas
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History of beliefs about the human body


to have described it first: by dissecting the human body and writing down what was observed these European scientists could claim in their idea of the body that they had discovered or created new knowledge.) This one-sex model was seen as consistent, in Abrahamic thought, with the Genesis creation narrative, in which Eve is formed from Adam's rib. Laqueur's argument has been enormously influential on the history of the body in the West, and applied by historians to a range of societies outside Laqueur's original scope,
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Spatial cognition


Spatial cognition is concerned with the acquisition, organization, utilization, and revision of knowledge about spatial environments. These capabilities enable humans to manage basic and high-level cognitive tasks in everyday life. Numerous disciplines (such as Psychology, Geographic Information Science, Artificial Intelligence, Cartography, etc.) work together to understand spatial cognition in humans and in technical systems. Spatial cognition studies have helped to link cognitive psychology and neuroscience together. Scientists in both fields work together to figure out what role spatial cognition plays in the brain as
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Tattva (Siddha medicine)


According to the Siddha system of traditional medicine () of ancient India, the human body is composed of 96 tattvas (also thathuvas) or basic principles. Siddha medicine was derived by Tamil Siddhas or the spiritual scientists of Tamil Nadu. Siddhas fundamental principles never differentiated man from the universe. According to them, “Nature is man and man is nature and therefore both are essentially one. Man is said to be the microcosm and the Universe is Macrocosm, because what exists in the Universe exists in man.” The Universe
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Human anti-mouse antibody


Human anti-mouse antibody (HAMA) or Human anti-murine antibody is an antibody found in humans which reacts to immunoglobins found in mice. Antibody treatment is a type of therapy that is used to treat certain types of cancer and immune disorders. Antibodies are proteins which are naturally formed by the body in response to a foreign substance, known as an antigen. Antibodies can also be grown outside of the patient’s body and injected into them to help aid the immune system to fight disease. These types of antibodies are
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Science fiction film


the "Godzilla" series of films. The core mental aspects of what makes us human has been a staple of science fiction films, particularly since the 1980s. "Blade Runner" examined what made an organic-creation a human, while the "RoboCop" series saw an android mechanism fitted with the brain and reprogrammed mind of a human to create a cyborg. The idea of brain transfer was not entirely new to science fiction film, as the concept of the "mad scientist" transferring the human mind to another body
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Reinhold and Ruth Benesch


collaboration centered on hemoglobin. Of 125 scientific papers they published together, only 13 do not concern hemoglobin. Their key discovery, in 1967, was that 2,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid was necessary for hemoglobin to transport oxygen throughout the human body through its role in loosing the bonds between hemoglobin and oxygen. This transformed how scientists viewed the oxygen transport system. Nobel laureate Max Perutz notes "that discovery opened a new era in the physiology of the respiratory carriage". The Benesches also demonstrated that two types of protein chains, hetero-oligomer and
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Kite control systems


moving parts to control the movement of the solar kite through space and around the earth, moon, comet, or other solar system body. ESA CONTRACT 17679/03/NL/SFe Solar Kite Mission Feasibility Study EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Authors: C. Jack and C. Welch A collection of scientists and engineers are expanding the definition of what is a kite; the solar kite described by authors C. Jack and C. Welch has the inertia of the mass of the kite providing resistance against photonic flow; also, the controlling of the kite to alter the
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Functional psychology


and physiologically) difficult to integrate the two concepts without raising further questions about human behaviour. For instance, consider the interrelationship between three elements: the human environment, the human autonomic nervous system (our fight or flight muscle responses), and the human somatic nervous system (our voluntary muscle control). The behaviourist perspective explains a mixture of both types of muscle behaviour, whereas the functionalist perspective resides mostly in the somatic nervous system. It can be argued that all behavioural origins begin within the nervous system, prompting all scientists
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Education in the Dominican Republic


The study also found that the classes led students to foster feelings of distrust towards governmental bodies, especially the army and judicial system. A study instituted a 3-month course in human rights to a school in the Dominican Republic. The course focused both on global issues as well as local issues such as discrimination against Haitians. Bajaj notes that the course was not perfect, however, 100% of the students were able to explain what human rights were. Additionally, students were found to be more likely to be willing to stand up
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Iatrophysics


system behaved. Giovanni Borelli was prolific in applying mechanics to a wide variety of humans and animals in different degrees of activity, drawing upon an array of simple machines and models for translational and rotational motion and equilibrium. Iatrophysicists were also interested in studying how bodily liquids and gases were processed. They sought to understand how blood circulated throughout the body and what effects it made on the body. System consisted of arteries, veins, and vasculature verified through experiment and microscope by Marcello Malpighi's observations of capillaries in animal lung tissue.
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Kinematics equations


. Constraint equations of this type are known as holonomic constraints in the study of the dynamics of multi-body systems. The kinematics equations for a mechanical system are formed as a sequence of rigid transformations along links and around joints in a mechanical system. The principle that the sequence of transformations around a loop must return to the identity provides what are known as the "loop equations." An independent set of kinematics equations is assembled from the various sets of loop equations that are available in a mechanical system. In 1955,
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Croydon Cat Killer


officers and vets continued to believe that at least one human was attacking cats and other animals, citing what they said were clean cuts, body parts being later returned, and a case of cat mutilation in Northampton that resulted in a conviction. In July 2018, Stephen Harris, retired professor of environmental sciences at the University of Bristol, who had studied fox behaviour for 50 years wrote an article in "New Scientist." He asserted that there is no "killer" and the pattern of blunt-force trauma followed by
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The Girl Who Was Plugged In


in order to become more valued. This means that P. Burke is willing to get rid of her own physical body in order to move up in society. Social status within this society is so dependent on what body one has in that people with “bad” bodies want to move into “better” bodies. Hicks says that this is precisely what gender disembodiment really means within the context of this short story. In relationship to human embodiment and this story, Scientists at MIT have created a device called sensory fiction that allows
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Human germline engineering


at the mutant paternal allele were repaired using the homologous wild-type gene. By modifying the cell cycle stage at which the DSB was induced, they were able to avoid mosaicism, which had been seen in earlier similar studies, in cleaving embryos and achieve a large percentage of homozygous embryos carrying the wild-type "MYBPC3" gene without evidence of unintended mutations. The scientists concluded that the technique may be used for the correction of mutations in human embryos. The claims of this study were however pushed back on by critics
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Computer processing of body language


This type of research is being done by a group of European researchers and other scientists as well. There is also a project called MIAUCE (Multimodal interactions analysis and exploration of users within a Controlled Environment). This project has scientists working on making this sort of new advance in computer technology a reality. Chaabane Djeraba, the project coordinator stated "The motivation of the project is to put humans in the loop of interaction between the computer and their environment." Researchers and scientists are trying to use their innovation and ideas in
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Severe combined immunodeficient mice


to respond to pathogens such as viruses and create antibodies against them, which has helped scientists better understand how the human immune system protects against pathogen infection. For example, they have been used to study Dengue virus and malaria, as well as to assess the efficacy of drugs that target these diseases. It is important to note that the use of SCID mice has been questioned as a model for studying the human immune system. Some studies have suggested that after a period of time, human T cells in the immunocompromised mice become
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Tetanus vaccine


1 out of every 100,000 to 200,000 doses. The type of vaccination for this disease is called artificial active immunity. This type of immunity is generated when a dead or weakened version of the disease enters the body causing an immune response which includes the production of antibodies. This is beneficial to the body because this means that if the disease is ever introduced into the body, the immune system will recognize the antigen and produce antibodies more rapidly. The first vaccine for passive immunology was discovered by a group of German scientists under the
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Human body


of a number of body cavities, separated areas which house different organ systems. The brain and central nervous system reside in an area protected from the rest of the body by the blood brain barrier. The lungs sit in the pleural cavity. The intestines, liver, and spleen sit in the abdominal cavity Height, weight, shape and other body proportions vary individually and with age and sex. Body shape is influenced by the distribution of muscle and fat tissue. Human physiology is the study of how the human body functions.
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Elliot Abravanel


Elliot D. Abravanel is an American physician and diet counselor, who developed the "Body Type" system for weight loss and overall wellness. Based on his experience with the "Skinny School" program in the 1970s and 1980s, the Body Type program is described in the book "Dr. Abravanel's Body Type Diet and Lifetime Nutrition Plan", first published in 1983. The Body Type program asserts that there are four major glands in the human body (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, and gonadal) and that each individual has
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New York Stem Cell Foundation


of previous groups, the researchers lowered the temperature of the egg, increasing transfer success rate. NYSCF Researchers Derive Pluripotent Stem Cells from Human Egg Cells, Reported in "Nature" "Time" magazine-cited research led by NYSCF scientists Dieter Egli and Scott Noggle reprogrammed the adult skin cells from Type 1 diabetes patients to the pluripotent state by combining these cells with unfertilized donor eggs, as reported in "Nature". The scientists then differentiated the pluripotent cells into other cell types in the body, including insulin-producing beta
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Copper in health


therapies are available to manage symptoms of genetic copper excess disease). The study of genetic copper metabolism diseases and their associated proteins are enabling scientists to understand how human bodies use copper and why it is important as an essential micronutrient. The diseases arise from defects in two similar copper pumps, the Menkes and the Wilson Cu-ATPases. The Menkes ATPase is expressed in tissues like skin-building fibroblasts, kidneys, placenta, brain, gut and vascular system, while the Wilson ATPase is expressed mainly in the liver, but
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Drug action


The action of drugs on the human body is called pharmacodynamics, and what the body does with the drug is called pharmacokinetics. The drugs that enter the human tend to stimulate certain receptors, ion channels, act on enzymes or transporter proteins. As a result, they cause the human body to react in a specific way. There are 2 different types of drugs: Once the receptors are activated, they either trigger a particular response directly on the body, or they trigger the release of hormones and/or other endogenous drugs in the
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Depictions of nudity


Studies can be traced back as long ago as the Italian Renaissance, for example Leonardo da Vinci's and Michelangelo's studies. Anatomical studies of the human body were also executed by medical doctors. The physician Andreas Vesalius work of anatomical studies ‘‘De humani corporis fabrica" ("On the fabric of the human body"), published 1543, was a pioneering work of human anatomy illustrated by Titian's pupil Jan Stephen van Calcar. The "Fabrica" emphasized the priority of dissection and what has come to be called
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History of science


The history of science is the study of the development of science and scientific knowledge, including both the natural and social sciences (the history of the arts and humanities is termed history of scholarship). Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by scientists who emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real-world phenomena. Historiography of science, in contrast, studies the methods employed by historians of science. The English word "scientist" is relatively recent—first
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Zoology


physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human species. Physiology studies how for example nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems, function and interact. Evolutionary research is concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many taxonomically oriented disciplines. For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, herpetology, or entomology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions
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Environmental science


of study include environmental studies and environmental engineering. Environmental studies incorporates more of the social sciences for understanding human relationships, perceptions and policies towards the environment. Environmental engineering focuses on design and technology for improving environmental quality in every aspect. Environmental scientists work on subjects like the understanding of earth processes, evaluating alternative energy systems, pollution control and mitigation, natural resource management, and the effects of global climate change. Environmental issues almost always include an interaction of physical, chemical, and biological processes. Environmental scientists bring a systems approach
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Planetary boundaries


In 2009, a group of Earth System and environmental scientists led by Johan Rockström from the Stockholm Resilience Centre and Will Steffen from the Australian National University collaborated with 26 leading academics, including Nobel laureate Paul Crutzen, Goddard Institute for Space Studies climate scientist James Hansen and the German Chancellor's chief climate adviser Hans Joachim Schellnhuber and identified nine "planetary life support systems" essential for human survival, attempting to quantify how far seven of these systems had been pushed already. They estimated how much further humans can go before planetary habitability is
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Non-reproductive sexual behavior in animals


similar across all mammals. Many studies have concentrated on the brain reward system and how similar it is across mammals. Through extensive research, scientists have been able to conclude that the brain reward system in animals is extremely similar to that of humans. The mechanism of core pleasure reaction is significantly important for animals and humans. In a case study, female Japanese macaques were studied to find evidence of possible female copulatory orgasms. Through the study the frequency of orgasms did not correlate with the age of the Japanese macaques or the rank
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Immunology


harmless compounds. The most well-known disease that affects the immune system itself is AIDS, an immunodeficiency characterized by the suppression of CD4+ ("helper") T cells, dendritic cells and macrophages by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Clinical immunologists also study ways to prevent the immune system's attempts to destroy allografts (transplant rejection). The body’s capability to react to antigens depends on a person's age, antigen type, maternal factors and the area where the antigen is presented. Neonates are said
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Nervous system network models


distributed), and a complex network of active elements (such as neurons, synapses, and tissues) and passive elements (such as parts of visual and auditory system) that carry information within and in-and-out of the body. Why does one want to model the brain and neural network? Although highly sophisticated computer systems have been developed and used in all walks of life, they are nowhere close to the human system in hardware and software capabilities. So, scientists have been at work to understand the human
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International Institute for General Systems Studies


The International Institute for General Systems Studies (IIGSS) is an American non-profit scholastic organization for the advancement of scientific studies and education in Systems science and Systemic research with applications in all branches of science and human affairs. The International Institute for General Systems Studies was established in 1994 and located in Pennsylvania, USA. The current president and director is Jeffrey Yi-Lin Forrest. In the advisory board of the institute several scientists from several countries participate or have participated such as Gerrit Broekstra (The Netherlands), Guisseppi A.
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Water contamination in Lawrence and Morgan Counties, Alabama


on the human body. In relations, scientists are still not certain about the long-term health effects that Perfluorooctane Sulfonate acid (PFOS) has on water and food. According to epidemiological studies, exposure to the substance will lead to adverse effects including defects during fetal development, tissue damage, and thyroid damage. Communities that are located nearby these factory plants have likely consumed the contaminated water, exposing residents to these harmful compounds. To reduce the exposure of the chemicals, public health officials suggest that water systems be carefully monitored
10031113
Human cloning


not be seen. Scientists are now able to better define steps of early human development. Studying signal transduction along with genetic manipulation within the early human embryo has the potential to provide answers to many developmental diseases and defects. Many human-specific signaling pathways have been discovered by studying human embryonic stem cells. Studying developmental pathways in humans has given developmental biologists more evidence toward the hypothesis that developmental pathways are conserved throughout species. iPSCs and cells created by SCNT are useful for research into the causes of disease, and as model systems
14305156
Renã A. S. Robinson


are involved in major functions throughout the body, including communication between cells. Changes in protein function, or in expression level of a protein, may cascade from one protein to another throughout a system. Protein behavior changes as people age, but scientists do not yet know why: is it a result of incremental damage over time, from oxidative stressors or other causes; or is there some inherent signal that triggers changes with age, and if so, what purpose does it serve? By studying immunosenescence, Robinson hopes to relate
429370
Landscape limnology


Landscape limnology is the spatially explicit study of lakes, streams, and wetlands as they interact with freshwater, terrestrial, and human landscapes to determine the effects of pattern on ecosystem processes across temporal and spatial scales. Limnology is the study of inland water bodies inclusive of rivers, lakes, and wetlands; landscape limnology seeks to integrate all of these ecosystem types. The terrestrial component represents spatial hierarchies of landscape features that influence which materials, whether solutes or organisms, are transported to aquatic systems; aquatic connections represent how these materials are
14538463
Heat transfer


temperature above what it would be in the absence of the gases. The principles of heat transfer in engineering systems can be applied to the human body in order to determine how the body transfers heat. Heat is produced in the body by the continuous metabolism of nutrients which provides energy for the systems of the body. The human body must maintain a consistent internal temperature in order to maintain healthy bodily functions. Therefore, excess heat must be dissipated from the body to keep it from overheating. When a person engages in elevated levels
14518437
Artificial intelligence


how it is different from knowledge and other aspects of the brain. Computationalism is the position in the philosophy of mind that the human mind or the human brain (or both) is an information processing system and that thinking is a form of computing. Computationalism argues that the relationship between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and hardware and thus may be a solution to the mind-body problem. This philosophical position was inspired by the work of AI researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was
543707
Philosophy of mind


by psychology are compatible with all the answers to the mind–body problem already described. Cognitive science is the interdisciplinary scientific study of the mind and its processes. It examines what cognition is, what it does, and how it works. It includes research on intelligence and behavior, especially focusing on how information is represented, processed, and transformed (in faculties such as perception, language, memory, reasoning, and emotion) within nervous systems (human or other animal) and machines (e.g. computers). Cognitive science
5685010
Missile defense


variety of prominent scientists in 2000. This categorization of decoy is the most similar to the standard understanding of what a missile decoy is. These types of decoys attempt to mask the attacking ICBM via the release of many similar missiles. This type of decoy confuses the missile defense system by the sudden replication the shear amount of similar targets there are. Knowing that no defense system is 100% reliable, this confusion within the targeting of the defense system would cause the system to target each decoy with equal priority and as if it
6092986
Television consumption


components have a significant correlations to negative outcomes for both males and females. This study suggests that the correlation between negative body images among adolescents and television consumption is based on the types of content and motives for watching, not the total amount. As research has suggested, the majority of public knowledge about crime and justice is learned from the media. Since the study did not factor in the difference in types of crime and investigation shows, the study could not include insight on what type of crime show caused what behaviour/attitude
12213046
Physiological psychology


Physiological psychology is a subdivision of behavioral neuroscience (biological psychology) that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through direct manipulation of the brains of nonhuman animal subjects in controlled experiments. This field of psychology takes an empirical and practical approach when studying the brain and human behavior. Most scientists in this field believe that the mind is a phenomenon that stems from the nervous system. By studying and gaining knowledge about the mechanisms of the nervous system, physiological psychologists can uncover many truths about human behavior. Unlike other subdivisions within biological
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Systems medicine


Systems medicine is an interdisciplinary field of study that looks at the systems of the human body as part of an integrated whole, incorporating biochemical, physiological, and environment interactions. Systems medicine draws on systems science and systems biology, and considers complex interactions within the human body in light of a patient's genomics, behavior and environment. The earliest uses of the term "systems medicine" appeared in 1992, in an article on systems medicine and pharmacology by B.J. Zeng ( termed "systems medicine and pharmacology"). An important
6943763
Biology


the tools and methods of human physiology to non-human species. Plant physiology borrows techniques from both research fields. Physiology is the study the interaction of how, for example, the nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems, function and interact. The study of these systems is shared with such medically oriented disciplines as neurology and immunology. Evolutionary research is concerned with the origin and descent of species, and their change over time. It employs scientists from many taxonomically oriented disciplines, for example, those with
9649300
Miniature pig


used for medical research, including toxicology, pharmacology, experimental surgery, pulmonology, cardiology, xenotransplantation, and aging studies. Pigs can be useful in studying human disease, and due to their high intelligence, are easy to manage in a laboratory setting. For example, scientists are working on studying the possibility of utilizing pig hearts for human heart organ transplants, and work has been done to genetically modify the tissues of pigs to be accepted by the human immune system. Miniature pigs are commonly kept as pets. See "Domestic
367909
Botulism


is broken into 8 neurotoxins (labeled as types A, B, C [C1, C2], D, E, F, and G), which are antigenically and serologically distinct but structurally similar. Human botulism is caused mainly by types A, B, E, and (rarely) F. Types C and D cause toxicity only in other animals. In October 2013, scientists released news of the discovery of type H, the first new botulism neurotoxin found in forty years. However, further studies showed type H
18596467
Muscular system


The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. It permits movement of the body, maintains posture and circulates blood throughout the body. The muscular systems in vertebrates are controlled through the nervous system although some muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be completely autonomous. Together with the skeletal system, it forms the musculoskeletal system, which is responsible for movement of the human body. There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles, cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth (non
999340
Encephalization quotient


mammals and dinosaurs is typically investigated using EQ formulas. Encephalization quotient is also used in estimating evolution of intelligent behavior in human ancestors. This technique can help in mapping the development of behavioral complexities during human evolution. However, this technique is only limited to when there are both cranial and post-cranial remains associated with individual fossils, to allow for brain to body size comparisons. For example, remains of one Middle Pleistocene human fossil from Jinniushan province in northern China has allowed scientists to study the relationship between brain and body size
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Roberto Cazzolla Gatti


astrobiology, the Italian scientist hypothesised that human beings will reproduce Earth’s biosphere in the universe. "However - he said - as a spermatozoon, which loses its flagellum and acrosome while entering into the egg of another body, therefore changing its identity, a human being can be considered just as a carrier of its body’s (i.e., Gaia’s) genetic information, not of himself: a means more than an aim". In December 2018, he led a study that shows how the sustainability certifications of palm oil
8022817
Ehud Shapiro


. Following the success of the study in bacterial cells, the researchers are planning to test ways of recruiting such bacteria as an efficient system to be conveniently inserted into the human body for medical purposes (which shouldn't be problematic given our natural microbiome; recent research reveals there are already 10 times more bacterial cells in the human body than human cells, that share our body space in a symbiotic fashion). Yet another research goal is to operate a similar system inside human cells, which are much more complex than bacteria.
19310723
Goddard Space Flight Center


, how they interact and how they evolve. This is all important to enable scientists to understand the practical impacts of natural and human activities during the coming decades and centuries. Within Space Sciences, Goddard has distinguished itself with the 2006 Nobel Physics Prize given to John Mather and the COBE mission. Beyond the COBE mission, Goddard studies how the universe formed, what it is made of, how its components interact, and how it evolves. The Center also contributes to research seeking to understand how stars and planetary systems form and
19875126
Immune repertoire


as the number of sub-types that exist in an organism's immune system, of one or other of the 6 key types of proteins, in a certain "compartment" of the immune system (i.e. a certain set of cells from the immune system). A few researchers have measured immune repertoires for humans, but as the task until recently was technically difficult, it was seldom attempted. Estimates will depend on the precise type or 'compartment' of immune cells studied; and the protein studied. There is an
20623146
Santasabuj Das


the positions of a grade E scientist and assistant director. He has also been serving as a senior scientist of the Indian Council of Medical Research since 2013. Das' research focus is on the various types of infections caused by Salmonella in humans and he has done studies in the fields of pathogenesis of Salmonella Typhi and vaccine development against the pathogen. He holds two international and one national patent for the processes he has developed. His studies have been documented by way of a number of articles and through chapters contributed to books published
21073123
Microchip implant (human)


A human microchip implant is typically an identifying integrated circuit device or RFID transponder encased in silicate glass and implanted in the body of a human being. This type of subdermal implant usually contains a unique ID number that can be linked to information contained in an external database, such as personal identification, law enforcement, medical history, medications, allergies, and contact information. The first experiments with an RFID implant were carried out in 1998 by the British scientist Kevin Warwick. His implant was used to open doors, switch on lights
4454905
History of medicine


by walkouts from the University of Bologna, and began teaching medicine in 1222. It played a leading role in the identification and treatment of diseases and ailments, specializing in autopsies and the inner workings of the body. Starting in 1595, Padua's famous anatomical theatre drew artists and scientists studying the human body during public dissections. The intensive study of Galen led to critiques of Galen modeled on his own writing, as in the first book of Vesalius's "De humani corporis fabrica." Andreas Vesalius held the chair of Surgery
14424565
University of Notre Dame Environmental Research Center


University of Notre Dame Environmental Research Center (UNDERC) has two locations in North America serving as natural laboratories for scientists studying ecology and environmental biology. These locations serve as "natural" laboratories for the study of environmental systems that have experienced little or no degradation from humans and as a baseline for comparison with human disturbed systems. UNDERC-East encompasses (land = and lakes/bogs/streams = ) lying at along the state line of Wisconsin (Vilas County) and Michigan (Gogebic County). UNDERC-East is
5713115
Physiological psychology


these studies all surround themselves around the notion of how the nervous system intertwines with other systems in the body to create a specific behavior. The nervous system can be described as a control system that interconnects the other body systems. It consists of the brain, spinal cord, and other nerve tissues throughout the body. The system's primary function is to react to internal and external stimuli in the human body. It uses electrical and chemical signals to send out responses to different parts of the body, and it is made up
15764764
IMPRINT (Improved Performance Research Integration Tool)


custom reporting feature allows modelers to view the workload over time of the Warfighters in their models. Workload monitor nodes allow modelers to view the workload of a specific Warfighter as the simulation executes. IMPRINT has been used by scientists at the Army Research Lab to study Unmanned Aerial Systems, workload of warfighter crews, and human-robot interaction. The United States Air Force and Air Force Institute of Technology have used IMPRINT to study automated systems, human systems integration, and adaptive automation among other things. The Air Force Institute of Technology
14202288
Doctor in a cell


cause only "positively" diagnosed cells to self-destruct. Following the success of the study in bacterial cells, the researchers are planning to test ways of recruiting such bacteria as an efficient system to be conveniently inserted into the human body for medical purposes (which shouldn't be problematic given our natural Microbiome; recent research reveals there are already 10 times more bacterial cells in the human body than human cells, that share our body space in a symbiotic fashion). Yet another research goal is to operate a similar system inside
12887138
Neurofibromatosis type I


Neurofibromatosis type I (NF-1) is a complex multi-system human disorder caused by the mutation of a gene on chromosome 17 that is responsible for production of a protein called neurofibromin which is needed for normal function in many human cell types. NF-1 causes tumors along the nervous system which can grow anywhere on the body. NF-1 is one of the most common genetic disorders and is not limited to any person's race or sex. NF-1 is an autosomal dominant disorder which means that mutation or deletion of one copy (or allele
13635042
Geology


stratigraphers look for signs of magnetic reversals in igneous rock units within the drill cores. Other scientists perform stable-isotope studies on the rocks to gain information about past climate. With the advent of space exploration in the twentieth century, geologists have begun to look at other planetary bodies in the same ways that have been developed to study the Earth. This new field of study is called planetary geology (sometimes known as astrogeology) and relies on known geologic principles to study other bodies of the solar system. Although the Greek-
11808516
Sociome


The Sociome is a concept used by scientists in Biology and Sociology referring to the dimensions of existence that are social. The term is also an indication of the convergence of systems biology and the study of society as a complex system that has begun to occur among early 21st Century scientists. Just as the "phenome" is typically thought of as the set of expressed phenotypes of an organism, the sociome can be thought of as the set of observed characteristics of societies. For example, while all societies consisting of humans might be
1134981
Scientific modelling


of these attempts is to construct a formal system that will not produce theoretical consequences that are contrary to what is found in reality. Predictions or other statements drawn from such a formal system mirror or map the real world only insofar as these scientific models are true. For the scientist, a model is also a way in which the human thought processes can be amplified. For instance, models that are rendered in software allow scientists to leverage computational power to simulate, visualize, manipulate and gain intuition about the entity, phenomenon,
7978319
Victimless Leather


with manipulated living systems. The SymbioticA website explains what it is, "an artistic laboratory dedicated to the research, learning, critique and hands-on engagement with the life sciences.". The artists work with tissue, constructing and growing complex organisms that can live outside the body, making the new objects semi-living. Their projects are meant to question life, identity and the relationship between humans and other living beings and environments. They are also interested in the ethics around partial life and the possibilities around this type
16110033
What Dreams May Come


shedding of Chris's etheric body to release his spirit body, enabling him to ascend to Heaven, or Summerland. Summerland, an environment shaped by the thoughts of the inhabitants, appears relatively Earth-like because that's what the newly dead are accustomed to. Communication is telepathic, travel instantaneous. There's no need to eat or sleep. The inhabitants, all of whom possess an aura, can spend time relaxing, studying, or working — though not for profit. There are scientists and artists, many of whom
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