when did the us turn over the panama canal
History of Panama


but did not obtain their support. Its policy promotes the emergence of a middle class and the representation of indigenous communities. On September 7, 1977, the Torrijos–Carter Treaties were signed by the Panamanian head of state Omar Torrijos and US President Jimmy Carter for the complete transfer of the Canal and the 14 US army bases from the US to Panama by 1999. These treaties also granted the US a perpetual right of military intervention. Certain portions of the Zone and increasing responsibility over the Canal were turned over in the intervening
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History of Panama (1977–present)


areas were distinguished from military areas to be used jointly by the United States and Panama until that time, military areas to be held initially by the United States but turned over to Panama before 2000, and areas that were turned over to Panama on October 1, 1979. One foreign observer calculated that 64 percent of the former Canal Zone, or 106,700 hectares, came under Panamanian control in 1979; another 18 percent, or 29,460 hectares, would constitute the "canal operating area" and remain under control of the Panama Canal
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Rail transport in Panama


to the rail system. The rebuilt and improved Panama Railway beside the canal was completed in 1912. In 1979, the United States government handed over control of the Canal Zone and railway to the government of Panama. On 19 June 1998, the government of Panama turned over control to the private Panama Canal Railway Company ("PCRC"). The Panama Railway was originally broad gauge broad gauge, but when it was rebuilt in 2000, the gauge was changed to standard gauge . The route is long across the Isthmus of
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Panama Canal Authority


The Panama Canal Authority () is the agency of the government of Panama responsible for the operation and management of the Panama Canal. The ACP took over the administration of the canal from the Panama Canal Commission, the joint US–Panama agency that managed the canal, on December 31, 1999, when the canal was handed over from the United States to Panama as per the Torrijos–Carter Treaties. The Panama Canal Authority is established under Title XIV of the National Constitution, and has exclusive responsibility for the operation, administration
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Panama Canal Zone


French company assets, the Canal Zone was formally turned over by Panama on May 4, 1904, when American officials reopened the Panama City offices of the canal company and raised the American flag. This marked the beginning point for U.S. excavation and construction which concluded in August 1914 with the opening of the canal to commercial traffic. By order of President Theodore Roosevelt under the Panama Canal Acts of 1902 and 1904 the Secretary of War was made supervisor of canal construction and the second Isthmian Canal Commission made the governing body for the Canal
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History of Panama


and the cities of Panama and Colon eventually made him sought after internationally. The Panama Canal, the area supporting the Canal, and remaining US military bases were turned over to Panama on December 31, 1999 in accordance with the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. From 1903 until 1968, Panama was a republic dominated by a commercially oriented oligarchy. During the 1950s, the Panamanian military began to challenge the oligarchy's political hegemony. The January 9, 1964 Martyrs' Day riots escalated tensions between the country and the US government over its
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Panama Canal Railway


. When the gauge for the railroad was changed in 2001, the mules kept the broad gauge. In 2001, the railroad was reopened after a large project to upgrade the railway. On , the government of Panama had turned over control to the private Panama Canal Railway Company (PCRC), a joint venture between the Kansas City Southern Railroad and privately held Lanigan Holdings, LLC. The rebuild project carried shipping containers as a complement to the Panama Canal in cargo transport. Two container handling terminals were created: on the Atlantic
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Panama Canal Zone


of the Canal Zone was through the Canal Zone Government with the canal operated by the Panama Canal Company until 1979 when the Panama Canal Commission took over its governance. The entire structure was under the control of the United States government with the Secretary of the Army appointing the Panama Canal Company board of directors and the Canal Zone Government was entirely financed by the company. The office of Governor of the Panama Canal Zone was not usually a stepping stone to higher political office but a position given to a US Army active duty general officers
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Fort Sherman


Fort Sherman is a former United States Army base in Panama, located on Toro Point at the Caribbean (northern) end of the Panama Canal, on the western bank of the Canal directly opposite Colón (which is on the eastern bank). It was the primary defensive base for the Caribbean sector of the Canal, and was also the center for US jungle warfare training for some time. Its Pacific-side partner was Fort Amador. Both bases were turned over to Panama in 1999. Concurrent with the Canal construction a
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Ancón, Panama


to house employees of the Panama Canal during its construction. As part of the construction effort, the historic Gorgas Army Hospital was founded and built on the hillside. The first ship to officially transit the canal, , was named after the district. The community continued to serve as housing for employees of the Panama Canal Company until 1980, when parts of it began to be turned over to the Panamanian government under the 1977 Torrijos-Carter Treaties. Modern-day Ancón is a "corregimiento" (the Panamanian equivalent of a
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Enrique Adolfo Jiménez Airport


(Ident: FNC) is located on the field. Prior to its use as a civil airport, the facility was a United States Army (later USAF) military airfield, established in 1918. It was turned over to the Panama Canal Zone government in 1949, and was converted into a civil airport. American control over the airport ended in 1979 with the turnover of the Panama Canal Zone to the government of Panama. For over thirty years, the field was operational with the United States Air Force and other entities before
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List of former United States military installations in Panama


This is a list of United States military installations in Panama, all of which fall within the former Canal zone. The U.S. military installations in Panama were turned over to local authorities by 1999. In 1903, the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed between Panama and the United States. It created the Panama Canal Zone as a U.S. governed region, and allowed the U.S. to build the Panama Canal. In 1977, the "Panama Canal Treaty" (also called "Torrijos–Carter Treaties") was signed by
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History of Panama (1977–present)


gift from the American taxpayer to American businesses, as $400 million consisted of incentives for U.S. business to export products to Panama, $150 million was to pay off bank loans and $65 million went to private sector loans and guarantees to U.S. investors. The entire Panama Canal, the area supporting the Canal, and remaining US military bases were turned over to Panama on December 31, 1999. In the morning of December 20, 1989, a few hours after the beginning of the invasion, the presumptive winner of the
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Panama Canal


Panama; student protests were met by the fencing-in of the zone and an increased military presence there. Demands for the United States to hand over the canal to Panama increased after the Suez Crisis in 1956, when the United States used financial and diplomatic pressure to force France and the UK to abandon their attempt to retake control of the Suez Canal, previously nationalized by the Nasser regime in Egypt. Panamanian unrest culminated in riots on Martyr's Day, January 9, 1964, when about 20 Panamanians and 3–5 US soldiers
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Postage stamps and postal history of the Canal Zone


exhaustedwhich prompted the next production of stamps, issued that year. Selected issues : Panama had ordered the new permanent coat of arms set both for use in Panama and for the Canal Zone. When stocks of the were nearly used up it became imperative to have a new supply of 1-cent stamps at once. The Canal Zone Postal Authority requisitioned 50,000 of the 1¢ stamp from Panama for overprinting at Mount Hope and Panama sent over the Vallarino 1¢ stamp. On January 28, 1924, these stamps were overprinted at Mount Hope. Panama
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Howard Air Force Base


Howard Air Force Base, , is a former United States Air Force base located in Panama. It discontinued military operations on 1 November 1999 as a result of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties, which specified that US military facilities in the former Panama Canal Zone be closed and the facilities be turned over to the Panamanian government. After demilitarization, the facility reopened as Panamá Pacífico International Airport in 2014. The airport is located six miles southwest of Balboa, at the southern (Pacific) end of the Panama Canal. Most of the
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Panama Truth Commission


. Noriega declared this election void and appointed another president. The US began to worry greatly given that control of the Panama Canal was going to be handed over in ten years time. They did not want to see one of Noriega's men as administrator of the Canal, not only for the country but also for the Panamanian image internationally. After the contested election, President Bush sent in US forces to overthrow Noriega on the grounds that hostile acts were performed against US military personnel. Noriega declared a state of war and the
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Atlantic Bridge, Panama


The third bridge over the Panama Canal, known as the Atlantic Bridge, is a road bridge under construction in Colón, Panama, which will span the Atlantic entrance to the Canal. When completed it will be the third bridge over the Panama Canal after the Bridge of the Americas and the Centennial Bridge, both on the Pacific side of the canal. The bridge is proposed to be a double-pylon, double-plane, concrete girder, cable-stayed bridge with a main span of and two side spans of .
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Panama Canal Zone


a term of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties two years earlier; the canal itself was later under joint U.S.–Panamanian control until it was fully turned over to Panama in 1999. Proposals for a canal across the Isthmus of Panama date back to 1529, soon after the Spanish conquest. Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón, a lieutenant of conquistador Vasco Núñez de Balboa, suggested four possible routes, one of which closely tracks the present-day canal. Saavedra believed that such a canal would make it easier for European vessels to reach Asia. Although
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Panama Canal Railway


Lake. The railroad was completed in its final configuration in 1912, two years before the canal, at a cost of $9 million—$1 million more than the original. After World War II, few additional improvements were made to the Panama Railway. Its condition declined after 1979, when the US government handed over control to the government of Panama. Except for dedicated railroad sections, such as the concrete factory, the broad gauge was used. This gauge was also used for the locomotives along the locks ("mules")
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Foreign policy of the Jimmy Carter administration


hours after Carter left office on January 20, 1981. Since the 1960s, Panama had called for the United States to cede control of the Panama Canal. The bipartisan national policy of turning over the Canal to Panama had been established by presidents Johnson, Nixon, and Ford, but negotiations had dragged on for a dozen years. Carter made the cession of the Panama Canal a priority, believing it would implement Carter's call for a moral cleaning of American foreign policy and win approval across Latin America as a gracious apology for
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Panama Canal


, the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government. It is now managed and operated by the government-owned Panama Canal Authority. Annual traffic has risen from about 1,000 ships in 1914, when the canal opened, to 14,702 vessels in 2008, for a total of 333.7 million Panama Canal/Universal Measurement System (PC/UMS) tons. By 2012, more than 815,000 vessels had passed through the canal. It takes 11.38 hours to pass through the Panama Canal. The American Society of Civil Engineers has ranked the
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Omar Torrijos


best known for negotiating the 1977 Torrijos–Carter Treaties that eventually gave Panama full sovereignty over the Panama Canal. The two treaties guaranteed that Panama would gain control of the Panama Canal after 1999, ending the control of the canal that the U.S. had exercised since 1903. On December 31, 1999, the final phase of the treaty, the US relinquished control of the Panama Canal and all areas in what had been the Panama Canal Zone. His son Martín Torrijos was elected president and served from 2004 to 2009. Torrijos was
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William J. Hughes


coordinating the work of the Commission with the Republic of Panama. The central mission of the Commission as well as the Embassy was to lead a successful turnover of the Panama Canal in December 1999 and, as the principal U.S. representative in Panama, Hughes actively participated in the planning and execution process. The military was also responsible for turning over about six remaining military facilities to the Republic of Panama, and Hughes was the lead civilian representing the U.S. government. Between 1995 and 1998, most of the military facilities were turned over to
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Panama Canal Railway


Costa Rica, San Salvador, and Guatemala to Panama City. The shipping service was greatly expanded when canal construction began. Ships included the SS "Salvador", SS "Guatemala", SS "Cristobal", and , which became the first of the ships to cross the completed canal in 1914. In 1904 the United States took over the license to build and operate the canal. The choice to use locks and an artificial lake (Gatun) meant that the old railway route from 1855 had to be changed because it
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United States involvement in regime change


French–US corporation whose aim was the construction of a waterway across the Isthmus of Panama thus connecting the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. In 1903, the U.S. signed the Hay-Herrán Treaty with Colombia, granting the United States use of the Isthmus of Panama in exchange for financial compensation. amidst the Thousand Days' War. The Panama Canal was already under construction, and the Panama Canal Zone was carved out and placed under United States sovereignty. The US did not transfer the zone back to Panama until 2000. In what
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Albrook Air Force Station


Albrook Air Force Station is a former United States Air Force facility in Panama. It was closed on 30 September 1997 as a result of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties which specified that United States military facilities in the former Panama Canal Zone be closed and the facilities be turned over to the Panamanian government. It was located on the east side of the Panama Canal just south of Fort Clayton and north of the township of Balboa, Panama. Beginning in January 1999, the air field initiated civilian air service as Albrook "Marcos A.
20197888
Presidency of Jimmy Carter


an agreement was reached in January 1981. In return for releasing the 52 captives, Iran accepted over $7 billion in monetary compensation and the unfreezing of Iranian assets in the United States. Iran waited to release the captives until hours after Carter left office on January 20, 1981. Since the 1960s, Panama had called for the United States to cede control of the Panama Canal. The bipartisan national policy of turning over the Canal to Panama had been established by presidents Johnson, Nixon, and Ford, but negotiations had dragged
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Panama Canal Zone


as enclaves (surrounded entirely by land solely under Panamanian jurisdiction). In later years as other areas were turned over to Panama, nine more enclaves emerged. At least 13 other parcels each were enclosed partly by land under the absolute jurisdiction of Panama and partly by an “Area of Civil Coordination" (housing), which under the treaty was subject to elements of both U.S. and Panamanian public law. In addition, the 1977 treaty designated numerous areas and individual facilities as “Canal Operating Areas” for joint U.S.-Panama ongoing operations
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Kansas City Southern (company)


Railway through a previous concession from the Mexican government. TM was particularly important to KCSI because they held the link from KCSI tracks to TFM tracks via trackage rights over the Union Pacific line. Shortly after acquiring the Mexican government's concession, KCSI entered into another joint venture to purchase a government concession. On June 19, 1998 the government of Panama turned over control of the Panama Canal Railway to Kansas City Southern Railroad and the privately held Lanigan Holdings, LLC. This created the Panama Canal Railway Company (PCRC). After
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Cristóbal, Colón


eventually fell into decline in the 1970s and 1980s, along with most of the rest of the city of Colón. Starting in 1979, in compliance with the Torrijos-Carter Panama Canal Treaties of 1977, the Canal Zone was abolished and US control over the Panama Canal and the former Canal Zone began to be transferred to the Republic of Panama. Many areas in Cristóbal were among the first to be transferred, as was the Panama Railroad which ceased to operate in the early 1980s due to lack of maintenance. Its population as
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History of the Nicaragua Canal


that a study could be conducted in the country's western isthmus between Lake Nicaragua and the Pacific Ocean, as rainfall was less common in this part of the country. In 1897, the newly named United States Nicaraguan Canal Commission proposed the idea of building the canal, as did the subsequent Isthmian Canal Commission in 1899. The commission also recommended that the French work on the Panama Canal be taken over if it could be purchased for no more than US$40 million. Since the French effort was in disarray, in 1904 the
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Panama Canal


, Colombia recognized Panama as an independent nation. The US formally took control of the canal property on May 4, 1904, inheriting from the French a depleted workforce and a vast jumble of buildings, infrastructure, and equipment, much of it in poor condition. A US government commission, the Isthmian Canal Commission (ICC), was established to oversee construction; it was given control of the Panama Canal Zone, over which the United States exercised sovereignty. The commission reported directly to Secretary of War William Howard Taft and was
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Panama Canal Zone


to the Chagres River, where a steamship service would allow passengers and freight to continue to Colón. His agreement was repudiated by the Jackson administration, which wanted rights to build a canal. In 1841, with Panama in rebellion again, British interests secured a right of way over the isthmus from the insurgent regime and occupied Nicaraguan ports that might have served as the Atlantic terminus of a canal. In 1846 the new US envoy to Bogotá, Benjamin Bidlack, was surprised when, soon after his arrival, the New Granadans proposed
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Panama


of the Panama Canal as required by the Torrijos–Carter Treaties" ("New York Times", A Transcript of President Bush's Address n.p.). Human Rights Watch wrote in its 1989 report: "Washington turned a blind eye to abuses in Panama for many years until concern over drug trafficking prompted indictments of the general [Noriega] by two grand juries in Florida in February 1988". The US reported 23 servicemen killed and 324 wounded, with Panamanian casualties estimated around 450. Described as a surgical maneuver,
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Diablo, Panama


the concrete homes were built in the 1950s when the layout of the neighborhood was changed. At that time, many multi-family dwellings (some 12-family) were removed. The remainder of the wooden construction are of the circa 1940 vintage. The experimental steel homes result from the sea-level canal project circa 1960. All residents rented their home from the Panama Canal Company; no one owned their home. If a person did not work for the Panama Canal Company, he could not rent a home in Diablo (with
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Panama City, Florida


interest in the construction of the Panama Canal by changing the town's name from Harrison to Panama City, because a straight line between Chicago and the capital of the Central American country of Panama intersected the Florida town. Additionally, since required meanders around land formations in a seaborne route to the canal added distance when starting at other ports, Panama City was the closest developed port in the US mainland to the Caribbean entrance of the Panama Canal. As of the census of 2010, there were 36,484 people, 14,792 households, and
18182343
S. I. Hayakawa


US Senate chamber. Hayakawa gradually closed the gap with Tunney, and ultimately defeated him by just over three percentage points. During his 1976 Senate campaign, he spoke about the proposal to transfer possession of the Panama Canal and Canal Zone from the United States to Panama. Hayakawa said, "We should keep the Panama Canal. After all, we stole it fair and square." However, in 1978 he helped win Senate approval of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties, which transferred control of the zone and canal to Panama.
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William Howard Taft


presidency. Through the 1903 separation of Panama from Colombia and the Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty, the United States had secured rights to build a canal in the Isthmus of Panama. Legislation authorizing construction did not specify which government department would be responsible, and Roosevelt designated the Department of War. Taft journeyed to Panama in 1904, viewing the canal site and meeting with Panamanian officials. The Isthmian Canal Commission had trouble keeping a chief engineer, and when in February 1907 John D. Stevens submitted his resignation, Taft recommended an army
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Operation Coronet Nighthawk


two F-16s and 53 pilots and groundsmen from different units joined in this operation to help prevent unauthorized and unidentified aircraft from crossing the United States airspace illegally. Some after though the operation would grow to 150 guardsmen and control 6 F-16s. Around 1999 Operation Coronet Nighthawk was asked to leave Panama because of the Panama Canal Zone. The Panama Canal Zone was a treaty over the Panama river which included the US and Panama but fell off, and Panama decided to get the US base out of its countries. This kicked the US out
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Panama Canal locks


The Panama Canal locks () are a lock system that lifts a ship up to the main elevation of the Panama Canal and down again. The original canal had a total of six steps (three up, three down) for a ship's passage. The total length of the lock structures, including the approach walls, is over . The locks were one of the greatest engineering works ever to be undertaken when they opened in 1914. No other concrete construction of comparable size was undertaken until the Hoover Dam, in the
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Curundú


Curundú is a corregimiento within Panama City, in Panamá District, Panamá Province, Panama with a population of 16,361 as of 2010. Its population as of 1990 was 17,933; its population as of 2000 was 19,019. During the time of the Panama Canal Zone, Curundú was home to Curundu Junior High School, initially part of the Canal Zone school system and later taken over by the Department of Defense Dependent Schools. It was used for the 7th and 8th grades of both students from the Canal Zone and dependents of US Military
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Postage stamps and postal history of the Canal Zone


post offices and issue its own postage stamps. The Canal Zone Post Office was inaugurated on June 25, 1904. Beforehand the domestic rates of postage in the United States were made applicable to all possessions of the United States on June 20, 1904, which henceforth included the Canal Zone. The first Panama stamps consisted of existing Colombian stamps, which were overprinted with "Panama". These in turn were used for Canal Zone postage and were again, overprinted with "CANAL ZONE" with a red bar at top blocking out
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Vehicle registration plates of the Canal Zone


The former U.S. territory of the Canal Zone first issued license plates in 1910, and this continued until the Canal Zone was returned to Panama in 1979. A single plate was issued for all years. The country of Panama also issued Canal Zone license plates for United States citizens that lived in Panama but worked in the Canal Zone, but these plates have the country name "Panama" clearly showing on them. Since reciprocity for license plates between the Canal Zone and Panama did not exist until 1950, old photos often show local
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Panama Canal expansion project


a navy ship to Panama to demonstrate U.S. naval power to the Chinese ship. The main purpose of the canal expansion program is to increase Panama's ability to benefit from the growing traffic demand. This growing demand is manifested in both the increased cargo volumes and the size of vessels that will use the Panama route. In this sense, with a third set of locks, the canal will be able to manage the traffic demand forecast beyond 2025; total inflation-adjusted revenues for that year are predicted to amount to over USD
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USS Matsonia (ID-1589)


1957. "Matsonia", built by the Newport News Ship Building Company of Newport News, Virginia, in 1913, served the Matson Navigation Company until taken over by the U.S. Shipping Board and turned over to the Navy at New York by way of the Panama Canal, 22 January 1918, for use as a troop transport. She was commissioned 1 March 1918, Captain John M. Luby in command. Beginning 14 March, when she sailed for France with troops and Army cargo, "Matsonia" completed six round trips to
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Valparaíso


the opening of the Panama Canal (1914). Shipping shifted to the canal as captains sought to avoid the risks of the Strait of Magellan. The port's use and traffic declined significantly, causing a decline in the city's economy. Since the turn of the 21st century, shipping has increased in the last few decades with fruit exports, increasing opening of the Chilean economy to world commerce, and larger-scale, Post-Panamax ships that do not fit the Panama Canal. On March 28, 1814, the
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Balboa High School (Panama)


and groups of students and parents from Balboa High School. The events, known in Panama as Martyrs' Day and in the U.S. as 1964 Panama Canal riots, started after a Panamanian flag was torn during conflict between Panamanian students and Canal Zone Police officers, over the right of the Panamanian flag to be flown alongside the U.S. flag. There are conflicting claims about how the flag was torn. The ensuing violent reaction by Panamanians at the border with the Canal Zone when news of the torn flag reached Panama City, resulted in
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Gatun Dam


The Gatun Dam is a large earthen dam across the Chagres River in Panama, near the town of Gatun. The dam, constructed between 1907 and 1913, is a crucial element of the Panama Canal; it impounds the artificial Gatun Lake, which in turn carries ships for of their transit across the Isthmus of Panama. In addition, a hydro-electric generating station at the dam generates electricity which is used to operate the locks and other equipment in the canal. Construction of the dam was a great engineering achievement, eclipsed
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Panama Canal expansion project


competitors of the Panama Canal are the US intermodal system and the Suez Canal. The main ports and merchandise distribution centers in these routes are investing in capacity, location, and maritime and land infrastructure to serve post-Panamax container ships and their larger cargo volumes. According to the ACP, the growing usage of such ships in transcontinental routes competing with the canal is irreversible. It was estimated that by 2011 approximately 37% of the capacity of the world's container ship fleet would consist of vessels that did not fit through the
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Kenneth J. Alford


the Panama Canal, Ricketts was moved to compose the march "Old Panama" (published 1929). Such was his popularity with the public that when in 1927 Bandmaster Ricketts handed the baton over to his successor, Charles Smart Beat, 15,000 people turned up to wish him well. (Charles Beat was the father of Lieutenant Colonel Duncan Beat, Director of Music of the Scots Guards Band, 1974–1982, and later Director of Music at Kneller Hall, 1982-1988.) In 1921 Ricketts' mentor at Kneller Hall,
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Manuel Amador Guerrero


administration was to resolve a difference in interpretation over the law which created the canal zone, passed on 28 April 1904. Panamanian legislators intended the granting of the zone to the United States to mean that the U.S. could exercise sovereignty "only for the purpose of building the canal". As the ports were vital for Panama's economy, the government of Panama had no intention of surrendering complete legal or economic sovereignty in the canal zone and did not cede its territory to the U.S. The Americans had established ports, customs houses and
19310799
Separation of Panama from Colombia


intervening years, local separatists used the political instability of the Thousand Days' War to agitate for political separation from Colombia and establishment of an independent republic. When the United States sought to take over the canal project, the government of Colombia proved difficult to work with, and with the cooperation of French financier Philippe-Jean Bunau-Varilla, Panama simultaneously declared independence from Colombia and negotiated a treaty granting the U.S. the right to construct the canal. The United States was the first country to recognize the independence of the nascent republic
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Panama as a tax haven


. The Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty resulted, establishing permanent U.S. rights to a Panama Canal Zone several miles wide, across the neck of the isthmus. Panama became independent from Colombia the same month, and the Panama Canal opened in 1914. According to a 2013 academic study published by the Norwegian Center for Taxation, Panama's reputation as a tax haven began in the year 1919, when it began registering foreign ships in order to help Standard Oil avoid US taxes and regulations; other US ship owners followed, some seeking
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Latin America–United States relations


States acquired Puerto Rico and set up a protectorate over Cuba under the Platt Amendment rule passed as part of the 1901 Army Appropriations Bill. The building of the Panama Canal absorbed American attention from 1903. The US facilitated a revolt that made Panama independent from Colombia and set up the Panama Canal Zone as an American owned and operated district that was finally returned to Panama in 1979. The Canal opened in 1914 and proved a major factor in world trade. The United States paid special attention to protection of the military approaches to the
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Panama Canal Railway


and extensive machine shops and maintenance facilities were added, and other upgrades were made to the rail system. These improvements were started at about the same time the extensive mosquito abatement projects were undertaken to make it safer to work in Panama. When the mosquitoes were under control, much of the railroad was ready to go to work. The railway greatly assisted the building of the Panama Canal. Besides hauling millions of tons of men, equipment, and supplies, the railroad did much more. Essentially all of the hundreds of millions
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Panama Canal expansion project


Shipping industry analyses conducted by the ACP and top industry experts indicate that the canal expansion will be beneficial to both the canal and its users because of the demand that will be served by allowing the transit of more tonnage. However, the question is whether the trend on which the ACP makes those projections can continue for a generation. The growth in usage of the Panama Canal over the past few years has been almost entirely driven by increased US imports from China passing through the canal en route to ports on the US East and
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Panama Canal


Panama Canal one of the seven wonders of the modern world. The earliest mention of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama occurred in 1534, when Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain, ordered a survey for a route through the Americas that would ease the voyage for ships traveling between Spain and Peru. Such a route would have given the Spanish a military advantage over the Portuguese. In 1668, the English physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne speculated in his encyclopaedic endeavour "Pseudodoxia Epidemica" - "some Isthmus
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23rd Fighter Group


air bases by assigning operational and support groups to a single headquarters. In April 1949, the group moved with the wing to Howard Air Force Base in the Panama Canal Zone, where it assumed the air defense mission of the Panama Canal, taking over the personnel and equipment of the 5600th Composite Group. It was inactivated along with the wing a few months later when the Air Force consolidated its operations in the Panama Canal Zone at Albrook Air Force Base. The group was redesignated as the 23rd Fighter-Interceptor Group (FIG
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USS Yorktown (CG-48)


by the helicopter detachment, the Second Fleet staff surveyed and photographed another island slated as a potential replacement for training exercises if the Navy was unable to continue at Vieques Island, Puerto Rico. The ship made port calls in Jamaica, Aruba, Cartagena, Rodman, Manta and Cozumel. During this deployment the USS Yorktown was the last US warship to transit the Panama Canal prior to it being turned over to Panama. , and since commissioning, "Yorktown" had completed five Mediterranean deployments. The cruiser was last homeported in Pascagoula
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Gamboa, Panama


box cars used to house silver roll employees. The first commissary, operated by a division of the Panama Canal Company/Canal Zone Government, also operated out of three box cars. After many years of studies and debates, and lobbying by Dredging Division Superintendent John G. Claybourn, the Panama Canal Company moved its Dredging Division from the town of Paraíso to Gamboa in 1936. In 1933, when a three-man board appointed by Canal Zone Governor J.L. Schley studied the feasibility of moving the Dredging Division to Gamboa, the population
11165312
History of Panama


of Panama. Less than three weeks later, on November 18, 1903, the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty was signed between Frenchman Philippe Bunau-Varilla, who had promptly been appointed Panamanian ambassador to the United States, representing Panamanian interests, and the US Secretary of State John Hay. The treaty allowed for the construction of a canal and US sovereignty over a strip of land wide and long, (16 kilometers by 80 kilometers) on either side of the Panama Canal Zone. In that zone, the US would
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Panama Canal Zone


hastily negotiated a treaty, giving the United States a zone wide and full authority to pass laws to govern that zone. The Panama Canal Zone (Canal Zone, or Zone) excluded Panama City and Colón, but included four offshore islands, and permitted the United States to add to the zone any additional lands needed to carry on canal operations. The Panamanians were minded to disavow the treaty, but Bunau-Varilla told the new government that if Panama did not agree, the United States would withdraw its protection and make the
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USS Jade (PY-17)


, Lt. Comdr. George L. Hoffman in command. "Jade" was assigned to the 6th Naval District, performing inshore patrol work, until departing Charleston, for the Canal Zone, 5 May 1941. There she performed patrol duties for Panama Sea Frontier until 11 February 1943, when she arrived Salinas, Ecuador, for transfer to that country under the lend lease program. After a training period for her new crew, "Jade" was turned over to Ecuador, 24 May 1943. The ship was returned to US
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Panama Canal Railway


the prospective movement of many more settlers to and from the West Coast, the United States again turned its attention to securing a safe, reliable, and speedy link between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. In 1846 the United States signed a treaty with Colombia (then the Republic of New Granada) by which the United States guaranteed Colombian sovereignty over Panama and was authorized to build a railroad or canal at the Panamanian isthmus, guaranteeing its open transit. In 1847, a year before gold was discovered in California, Congress authorized subsidies
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Panama Canal Zone


order with others to be established as needed by the Governor of the Panama Canal with approval of the President and under the supervision of the Secretary of War. Defense of the canal was the responsibility of the Secretary of War who retained control of troops with provisions for Presidential appointment of an Army officer in wartime who would have "exclusive authority over the operation of the Panama Canal and the Government of the Canal Zone." The Executive Order noted in closing "that the supervision of the operations of the Panama Canal under the permanent
12904845
Panama–United States relations


all other U.S.-Panama agreements concerning the Panama Canal, which were in force on that date. The treaties comprise a basic treaty governing the operation and defense of the Canal from October 1, 1979 to December 31, 1999 (Panama Canal Treaty) and a treaty guaranteeing the permanent neutrality of the Canal (Neutrality Treaty). The details of the arrangements for U.S. operation and defense of the Canal under the Panama Canal Treaty are spelled out in separate implementing agreements. The Canal Zone and its government ceased to exist when the treaties entered
4564283
USS S-26 (SS-131)


in the Gulf of Panama. After escorting a division of four S-Class submarines out of the harbor of Balboa, Panama on the Pacific Ocean side of the Panama Canal, "PC-460" executed a 180 degree turn to return to port. Although "PC-460" did signal her intentions, the message was received by only one submarine in the formation and not the S-26. Although "PC-460" noticed S-26 prior the collision and attempted to back her engines and made evasive maneuvers, the two vessels collided. "S-26"
2338721
History of Panama


Remon-Eisenhower Treaty) both failed to adequately address the situation. The controversy would continue until the US agreed to hand over the Canal Zone wholly to Panama in the 1977 Torrijos-Carter Treaties. The Panama Canal was built by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers between 1904 and 1914; the existing 83-kilometer (50-mi.) lock canal is considered one of the world's great engineering triumphs. On January 5, 1909 the government of Rafael Reyes in Colombia signed and presented to its Congress a treaty that would officially recognize the
3792463
Ancón, Panama


is located was always conceived as a place of transit. From the Spanish arrival on the Isthmus of Panama in 1501, it was thought to build there a road between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, an idea that was materialized with the construction of the Panama Canal. During the years when the Panama Canal was under the control of the United States, many administrative facilities, military bases, and communities were built in the adjacent areas, forming part of the former Panama Canal Zone. When these areas were reverted to Panama under
13254345
Panama Canal expansion project


by critics of canal expansion, most prominently former canal administrator Fernando Manfredo, is that it is unrealistic to attempt to predict canal usage trends over a generation, improbable to expect that US imports from China will continue to grow for a generation as they have the past few years, and irresponsible to bet Panama's financial future on such a projection. The most direct competition to the canal comes from alternative routes that present options for transporting cargo between the same points of origin and destination. The opening of the Russian Northern Sea Route
15593887
Pan-American Highway (North America)


City is the capital and largest city in Panama. Before entering the city, the Pan-American Highway crosses over the Panama Canal on the Centennial Bridge, From Panama City, the Highway turns northeast. From Panama City to Chepo is roughly ; from Chepo to Cañita is another . At the village of Cañita is the old terminus of the northern route of the Pan-American Highway. The highway continues another past Cañita to the village of Yaviza, however, this stretch of highway is extremely remote. Yaviza is a village
7702794
Panama Canal Railway


Panama Railroad also owned and operated ocean-going ships that provided mail and passenger service to a few major US East Coast and West Coast cities, respectively. The infrastructure of this railroad was of vital importance to the construction of the Panama Canal over a parallel route half a century later. The Spanish improved what they called the "Camino Real" (royal road), and later the Las Cruces trail, built and maintained for transportation of cargo and passengers across the Isthmus of Panama. These were the main routes across the
13105050
Panama during World War II


President of Panama during two of the first years of the war. He was an overt fascist and regarded as pro-Axis by the Allies for his hostility to the United States and his eagerness to limit American influence over his territory. In 1939, the United States military requested 999-year leases from the Republic of Panama to build over 100 sites outside the Canal Zone – such as airfields, anti-aircraft batteries, and warning stations – which would be used for the defense of the canal. Arias demanded compensation in the form
17903083
Northern river reversal


turn Siberian rivers goes back to the 1830s, when tsarist surveyor Alexander Shrenk proposed it when the big canal engineering projects were conceived (i.e. the Suez and Panama canals). The project of turning some of the flow of the northern rivers to the south was discussed, on a smaller scale, in the 1930s. In November 1933, a special conference of the USSR Academy of Sciences approved a plan for a "reconstruction of the Volga and ", which included the diversion into the Volga of some of the waters of the
9579087
USS Goldcrest (AM-78)


Polaris") ; acquired by the Navy 27 October 1940 (from then owner, Mr.Livingston Short); and commissioned 31 January 1941. Throughout most of World War II "Agate" was assigned to the 15th Naval District where she patrolled the Panama Canal. She departed the Panama Canal Zone 12 August 1944 en route to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. There she was decommissioned 29 September 1944. She was turned over to the Maritime Commission for disposal 3 July 1945. (Thence sold by the War Shipping Admin. May 19
8390243
Big Stick ideology


on the verge of correction, until Pro-Panama representatives posed problems for Nicaragua; the current leader (General José Santos Zelaya) did not cause problems, from the outlook of U.S. interests. In 1899, the Isthmian Canal Commission was set up to determine which site would be best for the canal (Nicaragua or Panama) and then to oversee construction of the canal. After Nicaragua was ruled out, Panama was the obvious choice. A few problems had arisen, however. With the U.S.' solidified interests in Panama (
16228135
Balboa High School (Panama)


. Over the next two decades, the population of American Canal Zone dependents decreased as the population of the Canal Zone itself changed. Aside from thousands of American dependents of the Panama Canal Company (later Panama Canal Commission), Canal Zone Government and U.S. armed forces, Balboa High School was also the Alma Mater of many of Panama's business and political elite. During the December 1989 "Operation Just Cause," which removed General Manuel Noriega from power and ended Panama's 21-year military dictatorship, the premises of the Balboa High
20985076
Theodore Roosevelt


the bankrupt Panama Canal Company and the New Panama Canal Company $40,000,000 (equivalent to $ billion in ) for the rights and equipment to build the canal. Critics charged that an American investor syndicate allegedly divided the large payment among themselves. There was also controversy over whether a French company engineer influenced Roosevelt in choosing the Panama route for the canal over the Nicaragua route. Roosevelt denied charges of corruption concerning the canal in a January 8, 1906 message to Congress. In January 1909, Roosevelt, in an unprecedented move, brought
11755252
William Merrill Whitman


same year. From 1935 to 1939, Whitman was the legal editor for the West Publishing Company in St. Paul, Minnesota. Whitman began his long relationship (ending in 1972) with the Panama Canal the following year when he was admitted to the Panama Canal Zone Bar and began undertaking legal work for the Panama Railway, the Panama Canal Company, and the government of the Panama Canal Zone. From 1940 to 1942, Whitman was an associate attorney for the Canal Zone's General Counsel. After his admission to the bar of
19398717
2006 Panama Canal expansion referendum


The Panama Canal expansion referendum was held on October 22, 2006, when the citizens of Panama approved the Panama Canal expansion project by a wide margin. According to article 325 of the Panamanian Constitution, any proposal for the construction of a third set of locks or a sea-level Canal on the existing route that the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) proposes has to be approved by the executive branch and submitted to the National Assembly for its approval or rejection. It also has to be submitted to a national referendum no earlier
3613475
Ernest Hallen


American public. In addition to showing the construction and progress of the Panama Canal, Hallen depicted the day-to-day life of the “Zonians” – Americans living in the Panama Canal Zone - and its development over the course of the years. Throughout his 30-year career, Hallen produced between 12,000 and 16,000 images, each with a “strangely satisfying aesthetic experience” portraying life in the Panama Canal Zone. For his service to the Panama Canal Zone and as an employee of the Isthmian Canal Commission, Hallen was awarded
11755554
USS Mariner (1906)


the Navy and commissioned 1 February 1918, Lt. (jg.) W. C. Coalfleet, USNRF, in command. She was employed by the Panama Canal Commission during the construction of the Panama Canal and after its completion. Assigned to the Panama Canal Zone, Taken over by the U.S. Navy in early 1918, she was commissioned as USS "Mariner" (with no identification number) in February to serve in the Panama Canal Zone area on patrol and tug duties. "Mariner" patrolled the approaches to the canal and
9700950
History of the Panama Canal


the Chinese-owned "Cosco Shipping Panama". The cost of the expansion was estimated at $5.25 billion. After construction, the canal and the Canal Zone surrounding it were administered by the United States. On September 7, 1977, US President Jimmy Carter signed the Torrijos-Carter Treaty setting in motion the process of transferring control of the canal to Panama. The treaty became effective on October 1, 1979, providing for a 20-year period in which Panama would have increasing responsibility for canal operations before complete US withdrawal on
4479750
History of the Panama Canal


Zone on February 23, 1904, for $10 million in accordance with the November 18, 1903 Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty. The United States took control of the French property connected to the canal on May 4, 1904, when Lieutenant Jatara Oneel of the United States Army was presented with the keys during a small ceremony. The new Panama Canal Zone Control was overseen by the Isthmian Canal Commission (ICC) during construction. The first step taken by the US government was to place all the canal workers under the
4479718
History of Panama (1977–present)


cease to operate and Panama would assume complete legal jurisdiction over the former Canal Zone immediately, although the United States would retain jurisdiction over its citizens during a thirty-month transition period. Panama would grant the United States rights to operate, maintain, and manage the canal through a new United States government agency, the Panama Canal Commission. The commission would be supervised by a board of five members from the United States and four from Panama; the ratio was fixed for the duration of the treaty. The commission would have a
667201
Panama Canal Zone


The Panama Canal Zone () was an unincorporated territory of the United States from 1903 to 1979, centered on the Panama Canal and surrounded by the Republic of Panama. The zone consisted of the canal and an area generally extending on each side of the centerline, excluding Panama City and Colón, which otherwise would have been partly within the limits of the Zone. Its border spanned three of Panama's provinces. When reservoirs were created to assure a steady supply of water for the locks, those lakes were included within the Zone
12904826
Panama Canal Zone


citizen parent, but also does so retroactively for all children born of at least one US citizen in the Canal Zone before the law's enactment. This rule was later rendered moot when the rules were changed to state that (almost all) children born to U.S. citizens anywhere in the world were considered U.S citizens. In 2008, during a minor controversy over whether Canal Zone–born John McCain, born in the Zone in 1936, was legally eligible for the presidency, the US Senate passed a non-binding resolution that
12904871
Presidency of Theodore Roosevelt


18, 1903, it established the Panama Canal Zone—over which the United States would exercise sovereignty—and insured the construction of an Atlantic to Pacific ship canal across the Isthmus of Panama. Panama sold the Canal Zone (consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending on each side of the centerline) to the United States for $10 million and a steadily increasing yearly sum. In February 1904, Roosevelt won Senate ratification of the treaty in a 66-to-14 vote. The Isthmian Canal Commission, supervised by Secretary of
4652824
History of the Panama Canal


celebration, and the canal officially opened to commercial traffic on 15 August 1914 with the transit of the "SS Ancon". During World War II, the canal proved a vital part of the U.S. military strategy, allowing ships to transfer easily between the Atlantic and Pacific. Politically, the Canal remained a territory of the United States until 1977, when the Torrijos–Carter Treaties began the process of transferring territorial control of the Panama Canal Zone to Panama, a process completed on 31 December 1999. The Panama Canal continues to
4479699
Fort Amador


Fort Amador () and Fort Grant were former United States Army bases built to protect the Pacific (southern) end of the Panama Canal at Panama Bay. Amador was the primary on-land site, lying below the Bridge of the Americas. Grant consisted of a series of islands lying just offshore, some connected to Amador via a causeway. Fort Sherman was the corresponding base on the Atlantic (northern) side. All of the forts were turned over to the Republic of Panama in 1999, and the area is now
5872201
University of Florida Panama and the Canal Collection


The University of Florida Panama and the Canal Collection includes materials from the University of Florida Libraries' Government Documents Department, the UF Libraries' Latin American Collection, the UF Libraries' Map & Imagery Library, and other shared collections including the "Panama and the Canal Digital Collection", which is in collaboration with the Panama Canal Museum. The UF Libraries' Government Documents Department is also the Center of Excellence for the US Panama Canal Commission (and its predecessor agencies). Ernest "Red" Hallen's photographs make up a
4320107
Afro-Panamanian


Afro-West Indians who remained in Panama got jobs in the Canal Zone and became the largest immigrant group in Panama. On the subject of Afro-Antillean Panama, Leslie B. Rout said that when the canal was opened in 1914, some 20,000 Afro-West Indians remained in Panama. Some African slaves used the isolated nature of transporting goods as an opportunity to escape slavery. Many people of African descent escaped into the sparsely settled terrain and formed Cimarroneras, or marooned societies. These ex-slaves were known as Cimarrones.
13430340
USS Kalamazoo (AOG-30)


Coast. On 1 April while en route to the Panama Canal Zone her main engine failed. (AO-81) assisted her to Balboa where she arrived 10 April. Under tow from rescue tug "ATR-85", she departed Cristobal, Panama Canal Zone, 26 April for Mobile, Alabama, where she arrived 3 May. Final disposition: fate unknown. "Kalamazoo" decommissioned 18 May and subsequently was turned over to the Maritime Commission for disposal. She transferred to Colombia 26 November 1947 and was renamed "Blas de Lezo" (
4668888
Panama Canal Railway


; the ship canal was later constructed parallel to the railway. Known as the Panama Railroad Company when founded in the 19th century, today it is operated as Panama Canal Railway Company (reporting mark: PCRC). Since 1998 it has been jointly owned by Kansas City Southern and Mi-Jack Products and leased to the government of Panama. The Panama Canal Railway currently provides both freight and passenger service. The line was built by the United States and the principal incentive was the vast increase in passenger and freight traffic from eastern
13105048
Arco Iris, Panama


Rainbow City, now known as the sector Arco Iris, in the corregimiento Cristóbal, is a section of the city of Colón in the Republic of Panama. It was originally built as segregated housing for Panama Canal employees and was developed into a proper town by the Canal Zone Government. During over a century of history, Rainbow City was home to some of Panama Canal's teachers, workers, and athletes. During the French canal construction era, in the 1880s, the area occupied by Rainbow City today showed up in maps
20252093
Philippe Bunau-Varilla


the École Polytechnique, he remained in France for three years. In 1882 he abandoned his career in public works at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées and traveled to Panama. He arrived at the isthmus in 1884, employed with Ferdinand de Lesseps's Panama Canal Company. He became general manager of the organization. After the Panama Canal Company went bankrupt in 1888 amidst charges of fraud, Bunau-Varilla was left stranded in Panama. He struggled to find a new way to construct the canal. When the New Panama Canal
2420274
History of Panama (1977–present)


operations are interfered with [the United States and Panama shall each] have the right to take such steps as each deems necessary, ... including the use of military force in the Republic of Panama, to reopen the Canal or restore the operations of the Canal". Modifications of the Panama Canal Treaty included a reservation requiring statutory authorization for payments to Panama set forth in Article XIII and another stating that any action taken by the United States to secure accessibility to the Canal "shall not have as its purpose or be interpreted as
667218
Panama Canal Railway


away as Ireland, India, China, and Australia. After almost 20 months of work, the Panama Railroad had laid about of track and had spent about $1,000,000 to cross the swamps to Gatún. The project's fortunes turned in November 1851 — just as they were running out of the original $1,000,000 — when two large paddle steamers, the SS "Georgia" and the SS "Philadelphia", with about 1,000 passengers, were forced to shelter in Limón Bay, Panama, owing to a hurricane in the Caribbean
13105071
Title 35 of the Code of Federal Regulations


Title 35 of the Code of Federal Regulations (35 CFR) was a United States federal government regulation on the Panama Canal. The U.S. controlled the Panama Canal Zone from 1904 to 1999. The Torrijos–Carter Treaties provided for handover to Panama. After a period of joint American–Panamanian control, the canal was taken over by the Panamanian government in 1999, and is now operated by the Panama Canal Authority, a Panamanian government agency. Title 35 title last appeared in the 2000 revision of the CFR, and has since
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