olfactory aversion therapy is an example of a
Behaviour therapy


procedures: 1) the procedures are used to decrease the likelihood of the frequency of a certain behaviour and 2) procedures that will reduce the attractiveness of certain behaviours and the stimuli that elicit them. The punishment side of aversion therapy is when an aversive stimulus is presented at the same time that a negative stimulus and then they are stopped at the same time when a positive stimulus or response is presented. Examples of the type of negative stimulus or punishment that can be used is shock therapy treatments, aversive drug treatments as well
8754872
Aversion therapy


Aversion therapy is a form of psychological treatment in which the patient is exposed to a stimulus while simultaneously being subjected to some form of discomfort. This conditioning is intended to cause the patient to associate the stimulus with unpleasant sensations with the intention of quelling the targeted (sometimes compulsive) behavior. Aversion therapies can take many forms, for example: placing unpleasant-tasting substances on the fingernails to discourage nail-chewing; pairing the use of an emetic with the experience of alcohol; or pairing behavior with electric shocks of mild to
3518741
Classical conditioning


they are a potential coincidence detector that could mediate spike timing dependent plasticity. STDP constrains LTP to situations where the CS predicts the US, and LTD to the reverse. Some therapies associated with classical conditioning are aversion therapy, systematic desensitization and flooding. Aversion therapy is a type of behavior therapy designed to make patients cease an undesirable habit by associating the habit with a strong unpleasant unconditioned stimulus. For example, a medication might be used to associate the taste of alcohol with stomach upset. Systematic desensitization is a treatment for phobias in
16275917
Pheromone


foul, fishy odor that is aversive to humans; however, hTAAR5 is not the only olfactory receptor that is responsible for trimethylamine olfaction in humans. hTAAR5-mediated trimethylamine aversion has not been examined in published research. In reptiles, amphibia and non-primate mammals pheromones are detected by regular olfactory membranes, and also by the vomeronasal organ (VNO), or Jacobson's organ, which lies at the base of the nasal septum between the nose and mouth and is the first stage of the accessory olfactory system. While the VNO is
15337863
Aversion therapy


sensitivity involving highly unpleasant reactions, which can be clinically severe. Rather than as an actual aversion therapy, the nastiness of the disulfiram-alcohol reaction is deployed as a drinking deterrent for people receiving other forms of therapy who actively wish to be kept in a state of enforced sobriety (disulfiram is not administered to active drinkers). Emetic therapy and faradic aversion therapy has been used to induce aversion for cocaine dependency. It is unknown whether aversion therapy, in the form of rapid smoking (to provide an unpleasant stimulus),
3518743
Olfactory memory


the formation of olfactory memory in the mother, as well as the infant. A significant change takes place in the regulation of olfaction just after birth so that odors related with the offspring are no longer aversive, allowing the female to positively respond to her babies. Research with a variety of animals suggest the role of norepinephrine in olfactory learning, in which norepinephrine neurons in the locus coeruleus send projections to neurons in the main and accessory olfactory bulbs. This is significant in the formation of olfactory memory and learning. The main olfactory
8034311
Kleptomania


contributed to the growth of other approaches, particularly in the biological domain. Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) has primarily substituted the psychoanalytic and dynamic approach in the treatment of kleptomania. Numerous behavioural approaches have been recommended as helpful according to several cases stated in the literature. They include: hidden sensitisation by unpleasant images of nausea and vomiting, aversion therapy (for example, aversive holding of breath to achieve a slightly painful feeling every time a desire to steal or the act is imagined), and systematic desensitisation. In certain
4075200
Lateral horn of insect brain


a "valence" (attraction or aversion behavior) to important odors like poisonous food (aversion), mates (attraction) or colony members (situational). This response is usually base on if the scent is pleasant or unpleasant to the animal. The lateral horn is the brain region that accomplishes this olfactory information integration. It coordinates behaviors innate (instinctual) behaviors with certain odors. The antennal lobe has two types of neurons that synapse with the olfactory receptor neurons in the antennae and maxillary palps, the local interneurons and
2052343
Latent inhibition


a fundamental strategy for information processing and providing a useful tool for examining attentional dysfunctions in pathological groups, the LI procedure has been used to screen for drugs that can ameliorate schizophrenia symptoms LI. LI has also been used to explain why certain therapies, such as alcohol aversion treatments, are not as effective as might be expected. On the other hand, LI procedures may be useful in counteracting some of the undesirable side-effects that frequently accompany radiation and chemo-therapies for cancer, as for example food aversion. LI research
605569
Poison shyness


of toxic materials. Third, there are learned aversions to distinctive foods if ingestion is followed by illness. A typical experiment tested food aversion learning in squirrel monkeys ("Saimiri sciureus") and common marmosets ("Callithrix jacchus"), using several kinds of cues. Both species showed one-trial learning with the visual cues of color and shape, whereas only the marmosets did so with an olfactory cue. Both species showed a tendency for quicker acquisition of the association with visual cues than with the olfactory cue. All
13829844
Sex offender


use reward and punishment to train new behavior, such as problem-solving) and the second uses respondent conditioning procedures, such as aversion therapy. Many of the behaviorism programs use covert sensitization and/or odor aversion: both are forms of aversion therapy, which have had ethical challenges. Such programs are effective in lowering recidivism by 15–18 percent. The use of aversion therapy remains controversial, and is an ethical issue related to the professional practice of behavior analysis. In 2007, the Texas State Auditor released a report showing that sex offenders
11530031
Conversion therapy


reparative therapy can make depression and suicide more likely. President Barack Obama expressed opposition to the practice in 2015. Before the American Psychological Association's 1973 decision to remove homosexuality from the DSM, practitioners of conversion therapy employed aversive conditioning techniques, involving electric shock and nausea-inducing drugs during presentation of same-sex erotic images. Cessation of the aversive stimuli was typically accompanied by the presentation of opposite-sex erotic images, with the objective of strengthening heterosexual feelings. In "Aversion therapy for sexual deviation: a critical review"
6723330
Brigham Young University LGBT history


remain at BYU, and that in special cases this included "electroshock and vomiting aversion therapies." In an independent BYU newspaper article two men describe their experience with the BYU Aversion therapy program during the early 1970s. After confessing to homosexual feelings they were referred to the BYU Counseling Center where the electroshock aversion therapy took place using pornographic pictures of males and females. Jon, one of the individuals, implied that the treatment was completely ineffective. The experiences match most reports which state that shock therapy was ineffective in changing sexual orientation
19980917
Models of abnormality


we need not look beyond the behavioural symptoms as the symptoms are the disorder. Thus, there is nothing to be gained from searching for internal causes, either psychological or physical. Behaviourists point to the success of behavioural therapies in treating certain disorders. Others note the effects of such treatments are not always long lasting. Another criticism of the behavioural model are the ethical issues it raises. Some claim the therapies are dehumanising and unethical. For example, aversion therapy has been imposed on people without consent. The cognitive model of abnormality
11443428
Pheromone


as a class of pheromone receptors involved in the olfactive detection of social cues. A review of studies involving non-human animals indicated that TAARs in the olfactory epithelium can mediate attractive or aversive behavioral responses to a receptor agonist. This review also noted that the behavioral response evoked by a TAAR can vary across species (e.g., TAAR5 mediates attraction to trimethylamine in mice and aversion to trimethylamine in rats). In humans, hTAAR5 presumably mediates aversion to trimethylamine, which is known to act as an hTAAR5 agonist and to possess a
15337862
Aversion therapy


higher intensities. Various forms of aversion therapy have been used in the treatment of addiction to alcohol and other drugs since 1932 (discussed in "Principles of Addiction Medicine", Chapter 8, published by the American Society of Addiction Medicine in 2003). An approach to the treatment of alcohol dependence that has been wrongly characterized as aversion therapy involves the use of disulfiram, a drug which is sometimes used as a second-line treatment under appropriate medical supervision. When a person drinks even a small amount of alcohol, disulfiram causes
3518742
Homosexuality and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints


for "less serious" offenses was to require that they undergo therapy to remain at BYU and that in special cases this included "electroshock and vomiting aversion therapies." From 1975 to 1976 Max Ford McBride, a student at BYU, conducted electroshock aversion therapy on 17 men (with 14 completing the treatment) and published a dissertation on the use of electrical aversive techniques to treat ego-dystonic homosexuality. Participant in the 1975-76 BYU study Don Harryman wrote that he experienced "burns on [his] arms and ...
8784078
Poison shyness


aversion of LiCl-tainted sheep or rabbit ("Sylvilagus" sp.) flesh to the corresponding live prey. Olfactory (cologne) and visual (a red collar on the sheep) cues increased the suppression of predation through conditioned learned aversion in coyotes, although this was for a limited duration. Grazing livestock frequently eat poisonous plants, and death often results. Behavioral adjustments by conditioned taste aversions may protect animals from over-ingestion of toxic plants. Three species of plants with different mechanisms of toxicity were tested for their ability
13829851
Insect olfaction


full), the time of day, or even the insects body position. For example, Drosophila are very attracted to apple cider vinegar but in very high concentrations an additional olfactory receptor (that has low affinity for the vinegar, Or85a) is activated which changes the fly’s behavior from attraction to aversion. These different behaviors to the same cue is called behavioral plasticity. Many insects are capable of detecting very minute changes in the concentration of CO. While CO has been found to be an attractant in every arthropod studied and
6184559
Brigham Young University LGBT history


power to change, and it didn't alter my homosexuality one whit. All I had learned to do was suppress much of my personality ... I was shutting down, turning off... I was making my life miserable by a pervasive denial of who I am." Additionally, Connell O'Donovan describes the attempts by the University to 'cure' his homosexuality through vomit-inducing aversion therapy as well as electroshock aversion therapy. Val Mansfield and Drew Staffanson also describe undergoing aversion therapy and Raymond King describes his involvement as an intern with
19980922
Autism therapies


activities and objects that will be used in a PRT exchange. Intended attempts at the target behavior are rewarded with a natural reinforcer: for example, if a child attempts a request for a stuffed animal, the child receives the animal, not a piece of candy or other unrelated reinforcer. The Judge Rotenberg Educational Center uses aversion therapy, notably contingent shock (electric shock delivered to the skin for a few seconds), to control the behavior of its patients, many of whom are autistic. The practice is controversial and has
13359593
Brigham Young University LGBT history


the BYU psychology department's electroshock aversion therapy program in the 1996 short documentary "Legacies". The documentary also contains an interview wherein Bruce Barton states that BYU coerced him into vomit aversion therapy, as well as electroshock therapy, which later precipitated his suicide attempt. Jayce Cox also reported his experience with BYU shock therapy and suicidal ideation in articles and an MTV documentary. Scott Burton discusses the burn marks on his wrists he developed when undergoing electroshock therapy from ages 13 to 15 at the hands of a Mormon therapist by request from
19980923
Implant (Scientology)


in the affected areas of life. Scientology practices often have to do with addressing implants prior to the current lifetime — one of the most notable is the "R6 implant"; but in some cases current life implants are addressed. Examples of implants according to Scientology include Aversion therapy, Electroconvulsive therapy, hypnosis, various attempts at brainwashing, and the inducing of fear or terror. Note that this is not a complete list, as many kinds of incidents can include implants as an element. Other important implants in Scientology doctrine include
20375826
Attachment therapy


Further, the form of rebirthing sometimes used within attachment therapy differs from the unrelated breathing therapy known as Rebirthing. The controversy, as outlined in the 2006 American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children (APSAC) Task Force Report, has broadly centered around "holding therapy" and coercive, restraining, or aversive procedures. These include deep tissue massage, aversive tickling, punishments related to food and water intake, enforced eye contact, requiring children to submit totally to adult control over all their needs, barring normal social relationships outside
11697313
Brigham Young University LGBT history


. From 1975 to 1976 Max Ford McBride, a student at BYU, conducted electroshock aversion therapy on 17 men (with 14 completing the treatment) using a male arousal measuring device placed around the penis and electrodes on the bicep. He published a dissertation on the use of electrical aversive techniques to treat ego-dystonic homosexuality. The thesis documents the use of "Electrical Aversion Therapy" on 14 homosexual men using a "phallometric" apparatus, "barely tolerable" shocks, and "nude male visual-cue stimuli."
19980918
Sexual orientation change efforts


patient should change his/her sexual homosexual orientation." Conversion therapy comprises efforts by mental health professionals to convert lesbians and gay men to heterosexuality, and that techniques include psychoanalysis, group therapy, reparative therapy, and involvement in ex-gay ministries such as Exodus International. Aversive conditioning involving electric shock or nausea-inducing drugs was practiced before 1973, as was sex therapy, though there are some reports of aversive treatments through unlicensed practice as late as the 1990s. The ethics guidelines of major U.S. mental health organizations vary from
7227299
Behaviour therapy


cues of the "model person" as well as the situations of a certain behaviour that way the relationship can be seen between the appropriateness of a certain behaviour and situation in which that behaviour occurs is demonstrated. With the behavioural rehearsal and homework treatment a client gets a desired behaviour during a therapy session and then they practice and record that behaviour between their sessions. Aversion therapy and punishment is a technique in which an aversive (painful or unpleasant) stimulus is used to decrease unwanted behaviours from occurring. It is concerned with two
8754871
Brigham Young University LGBT history


Although it is not publicly published whether all top LDS Church leaders were aware of the electroshock aversion therapy program, it is known that apostles Spencer Kimball, Mark Peterson, and now apostle Dallin Oaks were, and leaders involved in LDS Social Services thought the therapy was effective. At the time, homosexuality was considered by the medical community as a psychiatric condition, and aversion therapy was one of the more common methods used to try to cure it. In 1966, Martin Seligman had conducted a study at the University of Pennsylvania that
19980919
Church Educational System Honor Code


serious" offenses, were required to undergo therapy in order to remain at the university; in "special cases" this treatment included "electroshock and vomiting aversion therapies". This program of aversion therapy—which spanned from the late 1950s until at least the late 1970s—was dedicated to "curing" male homosexual students reported by bishops and BYU administrators through administering electrical shocks or vomit inducing drugs while showing "nude" pictures of men to the patient in an attempt to associate pain with homosexual visual stimulation. In the late
4321488
Aversives


straitjacketing and frontal lobotomies. Early iterations of the Lovaas technique incorporated aversives during therapy, though the use of aversives in ABA was not without controversy. Over time the use of aversives has become less and less necessary as less and less restrictive alternative treatments have been developed. Lovaas has since stated his disdain for the use of aversives. Applied behavior analysis permits the use of aversives in limited cases, such as when a behavior is dangerous, especially when the reinforcing contingencies that maintain a behavior are unknown. The Behavior Analyst Certification Board
14474686
Conditioned taste aversion


still develop a taste aversion to sushi. Even something as obvious as riding a roller coaster (causing nausea) after eating the sushi will influence the development of taste aversion to sushi. Humans might also develop aversions to certain types of alcoholic beverages because of vomiting during intoxication. Taste aversion is a common problem with chemotherapy patients, who become nauseated because of the drug therapy but associate the nausea with consumption of food. Taste aversion has been demonstrated in a wide variety of both captive and free-ranging predators. In these studies
2873237
Sexual orientation change efforts


well as pressure from family, peers, and religious groups ignorant about and prejudiced against homosexuality, may cause high levels of emotional stress for LGB people. These pressures may lead people to feel forced into attempting to change their sexual orientation. Other researchers have found that social pressure plays a key role in a person's desire to change his or her sexuality. Types of behavior therapy used to change sexual orientation include aversion therapy, covert sensitization and systematic desensitization. Aversion therapy associates negative stimuli with homoerotic pictures and positive stimuli with heteroerotic
7227296
Fear of fish


fear of a goldfish in an infant and a way of unconditioning of the fear by what is now called graduated exposure therapy: In contrast, radical exposure therapy was used successfully to cure a man with a "life affecting" fish phobia on the 2007 documentary series, "The Panic Room". Historically, the Navajo people were described as being ichthyophobic, due to their aversion to fish. However, this was later recognised as a cultural or mythic aversion to aquatic animals, and not a psychological condition. The "Journal
12772789
Hypogonadotropic hypogonadism


female neonates Another clinical sign of CHH, more specifically Kallmann syndrome is a lack of smell due to the altered migration of GnRH neurons on the olfactory placode. Kallmann syndrome can also be shown through MRI imaging with irregular morphology or aplasia of the olfactory bulb and olfactory sulci. Anterior pituitary function must be normal for all other axes in CHH as it is an isolated disorder. Testing anterior pituitary function is helpful to identify if the HH is due to hyperprolactinemia. The goal for HH therapy is to induce pubertal development, sexual function
4656513
Sexual orientation change efforts


. Other methods included aversion therapy, the reduction of aversion to heterosexuality, electroshock treatment, group therapy, hypnosis, and psychoanalysis. Richard von Krafft-Ebing was a German-Austrian psychiatrist and one of the founders of scientific sexology. His first systematic work on sexual pathology was published in 1877 in a German psychiatric journal. His influential work, "Psychopathia Sexualis" was published in 1886. Numerous expanded German editions followed, and it was widely translated. Krafft-Ebing became a proponent of the sickness model of homosexuality.
7227283
Apomorphine


his development of lower-dose and non-aversive methods, which would inspire a positive trial of his method in Switzerland by Dr Harry Feldmann and later scientific testing in the 1970s, some time after his death. However, the use of apomorphine in aversion therapy had escaped alcoholism, with its use to treat homosexuality leading to the death of a British Army Captain Billy Clegg HIll in 1962, helping to cement its reputation as a dangerous drug used primarily in archaic behavioural therapies. In his "Deposition: Testimony Concerning a Sickness
13462242
Brigham Young University LGBT history


demonstrated positive results, which led to "a great burst of enthusiasm about changing homosexuality [that] swept over the therapeutic community." After flaws were demonstrated in Seligman's experiments, aversion therapy fell out of popularity, and in 1994 the American Medical Association issued a report that stated "aversion therapy is no longer recommended for gay men and lesbians." Participant in the 1975-76 BYU study Don Harryman wrote that he experienced "burns on [his] arms and ... emotional trauma." Another participant, John Clarence
19980920
A Clockwork Orange (film)


makes sense to use aversion therapy to stop immoral behaviour. Stanley Kubrick, writing in "Saturday Review", described the film as: Similarly, on the film production's call sheet (cited at greater length above), Kubrick wrote: After aversion therapy, Alex behaves like a good member of society, though not through choice. His goodness is involuntary; he has become the titular clockwork orange — organic on the outside, mechanical on the inside. After Alex has undergone the Ludovico technique, the chaplain criticises his new
7653680
Dysosmia


recognizes the odorants as they pass to the olfactory epithelium via a retronasal pathway. This explains why we can identify a variety of flavors in spite of only having five types of taste receptors. The trigeminal nerve senses texture, pain, and temperature of food. For example, the cooling effect of menthol or the burning sensation of spicy food. Diagnosing a patient can be difficult as they are often frustrated from ineffective therapy and being told they have mental illnesses. Some patients have trouble deciding whether they have a taste or smell problem
10550498
Professional practice of behavior analysis


Wolpe studied cats to build his theory of human anxiety. This work continues today in the study of both pathology and treatment. Initially, applied behavior analysis used punishment such as shouting and slaps to reduce unwanted behaviors. Ethical opposition to such aversive practices caused them to fall out of favor and has stimulated development of less aversive methods. In general, aversion therapy and punishment are now less frequently used as ABA treatments due to legal restrictions. However, procedures such as odor aversion, covert sensitization and other covert conditioning procedures, based
3634749
Neural engineering


blocking NgR, ADP-ribose (Schmidt & Leach 2003). Delivery devices must be biocompatible and stable in vivo. Some examples include osmotic pumps, silicone reservoirs, polymer matrices, and microspheres. Gene therapy techniques have also been studied to provide long-term production of growth factors and could be delivered with viral or non-viral vectors such as lipoplexes. Cells are also effective delivery vehicles for ECM components, neurotrophic factors and cell adhesion molecules. Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) and stem cells as well as genetically modified
5171117
Conversion therapy


States have been limited to counseling, visualization, social skills training, psychoanalytic therapy, and spiritual interventions such as "prayer and group support and pressure", though there are some reports of aversive treatments through unlicensed practice as late as the 1990s. The term reparative therapy has been used as a synonym for conversion therapy in general, but it has been argued that strictly speaking it refers to a specific kind of therapy associated with the psychologists Elizabeth Moberly and Joseph Nicolosi. The history of conversion therapy can be divided broadly into three
6723301
Substance dependence


widest application in treating substance related disorders. Behavioral psychologists can use the techniques of "aversion therapy", based on the findings of Pavlov's classical conditioning. It uses the principle of pairing abused substances with unpleasant stimuli or conditions; for example, pairing pain, electrical shock, or nausea with alcohol consumption. The use of medications may also be used in this approach, such as using disulfiram to pair unpleasant effects with the thought of alcohol use. Psychologists tend to use an integration of all these approaches to produce reliable and
20331861
Olfactory system


These diseases have more moderate effects on the olfactory system than Alzheimer's or Parkinson's diseases. Furthermore, progressive supranuclear palsy and parkinsonism are associated with only minor olfactory problems. These findings have led to the suggestion that olfactory testing may help in the diagnosis of several different neurodegenerative diseases. Neurodegenerative diseases with well-established genetic determinants are also associated with olfactory dysfunction. Such dysfunction, for example, is found in patients with familial Parkinson's disease and those with Down syndrome. Further studies have concluded that the olfactory loss may be
3224985
Olfactory receptor


symbols for the genes that encode these receptors. The names of individual olfactory receptor family members are in the format "ORnXm" where: For example, OR1A1 is the first isoform of subfamily A of olfactory receptor family 1. Members belonging to the same subfamily of olfactory receptors (60% sequence identity) are likely to recognize structurally similar odorant molecules. Two major classes of olfactory receptors have been identified in humans: The olfactory receptor gene family in vertebrates has been shown to evolve through genomic events such as gene duplication or gene
8703084
Aversives


(see Professional practice of behavior analysis) due to the pain and risks involved and the controversy surrounding their use. Several national and international disability rights groups have spoken against the use of aversive therapies, including TASH and Autism National Committee (known as AUTCOM). Although it has generally fallen out of favor, at least one institution continues uses electric shocks on the skin an aversive. A ruling in 2018 supported its continued use. The FDA has made a commitment to ban its use, but as of January 2019 has not
14474688
Chain smoking


drinking alcoholic beverages, because alcohol potentiates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, leading to re-sensitization and hence inducing a craving. The extent to which chain smoking is driven by nicotine dependence has been studied. It does not seem that the amount of nicotine delivered is a significant factor, as the puff volume correlates poorly with the frequency of cigarette consumption. Chain-smoking is given as an example of excessive addictive behaviour in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. It may be used as a form of aversion therapy for smokers who
20061047
Aversive case


The aversive or evitative case (abbreviated ) is a grammatical case found in Australian Aboriginal languages that indicates that the marked noun is avoided or feared. For example, in Walmajarri: The suffix "-karrarla" indicates that the action (running away) was carried out in order to avoid the dust storm, "tjurtu-". The aversive may also be used to mark the object of verbs of fearing. For example, in Djabugay: The aversive may be used on a nominalized verb, to produce an equivalent of English "
17533045
Ecological death


example of a behavioral sublethal effect that leads to ecological death. An effect caused by copper is impacting the salmon olfactory system. The olfactory system is used to gather important information about one’s environment. In the case of salmon, olfactory cues can gather information about habitat quality, predators, mates and more. Salmon can detect distinct copper gradients using their olfactory system, and use this information to avoid contaminated waters. However, when salmon are affected by copper, the olfactory system can be impacted in a matter of minutes.
4318247
LGBT rights in Canada


ban conversion therapy and stop tax benefits for groups that carry out conversion therapy, either within Canada or abroad. In 2012, in accordance with the American Psychological Association, the professional order for Quebec psychologists (l'Ordre des psychologues du Québec) reaffirmed "its position that homosexuality "per se" is not a mental disorder", and that it "opposes portrayals of sexual minority youths and adults as mentally ill due to their sexual orientation". Furthermore, underlining that aversive therapies (or "conversion therapies") are inappropriate,
3385879
Social learning theory


, which spurred the development of behavioral therapy and is considered by some to be the first modern theory of anxiety, began to lose steam in the late 1970s as researchers began to question its underlying assumptions. For example, the classical conditioning approach holds that pathological fear and anxiety are developed through direct learning; however, many people with anxiety disorders cannot recall a traumatic conditioning event, in which the feared stimulus was experienced in close temporal and spatial contiguity with an intrinsically aversive stimulus. Social Learning Theory helped salvage learning approaches to
17614764
Insect olfaction


and specialized mouth parts called the maxillary palps. However, a recent study has demonstrated the olfactory role of ovipositor in fig wasps. Inside of these olfactory organs there are neurons called olfactory receptor neurons which, as the name implies, house receptors for scent molecules in their cell membrane.The majority of olfactory receptor neurons typically reside in the antenna. These neurons can be very abundant, for example Drosophila flies have 2,600 olfactory sensory neurons. Insects are capable of smelling and differentiating between thousands of volatile compounds both sensitively and selectively.
6184548
Autism rights movement


that aversion therapy and the use of restraints are physically harmful, and that alternative treatments like chelation are dangerous. Michelle Dawson, a Canadian autism self-advocate, testified in court against government funding of ABA therapy. An autistic person named Jane Meyerding criticized therapy which attempts to remove autistic behaviors because she says that the behaviors that the therapy tries to remove are attempts to communicate. Since those in the autism rights movement see autism as a natural human variation and not a disorder, they are opposed to attempts to eliminate autism.
11714655
Conversion therapy


main organization advocating secular forms of conversion therapy is the National Association for Research & Therapy of Homosexuality (NARTH), which often partners with religious groups. Techniques used in conversion therapy in the United States and Western Europe have included ice-pick lobotomies; chemical castration with hormonal treatment; aversive treatments, such as "the application of electric shock to the hands and/or genitals"; "nausea-inducing drugs ... administered simultaneously with the presentation of homoerotic stimuli"; and masturbatory reconditioning. More recent clinical techniques used in the United
6723300
Conditioned taste aversion


future, thus avoiding further poisoning. It is an example of classical or "Pavlovian" conditioning. Studies on conditioned taste aversion which involved irradiating rats were conducted in the 1950s by Dr. John Garcia, leading to it sometimes being called the Garcia effect. Conditioned taste aversion sometimes occurs when sickness is merely coincidental to, and not caused by, the substance consumed. For example, a person who becomes very sick after consuming vodka-and-orange-juice cocktails may then become averse to the taste of orange juice, even
2873229
Son-Rise: A Miracle of Love


things and sometimes hear. He also lost a couple of words that he had been taught. He had 12 out of 13 symptoms of autism. Medical professionals were pessimistic about Raun's condition. The only options offered to the Kaufmans at the time was either institutionalization or involvement in a behavior modification-style program that included aversive therapy. Spanking and electrical shock treatment are two examples for this program. His parents also witnessed young children being locked into cabinets by clinicians; other children had their hands tied to the back of chairs
12578032
Olfactory ensheathing glia


the peripheral nervous system, the central nervous system is unable to regenerate damaged axons, so its synaptic connections are lost forever. Current treatment is limited and the primary potential methods are either controversial or noneffective. Studies dating back to the 1990s have begun researching the olfactory system of mammals, rats in particular, to gain a greater understanding of axonal regeneration and neurogenesis, and the possible implementation of these cells at the site of the spinal cord injury. Transplantation of OEG into the spinal cord has become a possible therapy for spinal cord
4499648
Perception


etc.; and temperature, detected by thermoreceptors. All basic tastes are classified as either "appetitive" or "aversive", depending upon whether the things they sense are harmful or beneficial. Smell is the process of absorbing molecules through olfactory organs. Humans absorb these molecules through the nose. These molecules diffuse through a thick layer of mucus, come into contact with one of thousands of cilia that are projected from sensory neurons, and are then absorbed into one of, 347 or so, receptors. It is this process
5302154
Covert conditioning


imagining a reinforcing experience in connection with modeling the correct behavior. "Covert negative reinforcement" attempts to increase a behavior by connecting the termination of an aversive stimulus with increased production of a target behavior. "Dialectical behavior therapy" (DBT) and "Acceptance and commitment therapy" (ACT) uses positive reinforcement and covert conditioning through mindfulness. Although the therapies are quite similar in theory and practice, DBT is based on the cognitive psychology philosophy that thoughts and feelings are explanations of motor behavior, whereas ACT—rooted in behavior
15321061
Risk aversion


with the opposite directions of inequalities, which permits but does not require a negatively skewed utility function (formula_24). An example of a DARA utility function is formula_25, with formula_26, while formula_27 formula_28, with formula_29 would represent a quadratic utility function exhibiting IARA. The Arrow-Pratt measure of relative risk aversion (RRA) or coefficient of relative risk aversion is defined as Like for absolute risk aversion, the corresponding terms "constant relative risk aversion" (CRRA) and "decreasing/increasing relative risk aversion" (DRRA
10920755
Aversives


: Unconditioned aversive stimuli naturally result in pain or discomfort and are often associated with biologically harmful or damaging substances or events. Examples include extreme heat or cold, bitter flavors, electric shocks, loud noises and pain. Aversives can be applied naturally (such as touching a hot stove) or in a contrived manner (such as during torture or behavior modification). A conditioned aversive stimulus is an initially neutral stimulus that becomes aversive after repeated pairing with an unconditioned aversive stimulus. This type of stimulus would include consequences such as verbal
14474684
Conditioned taste aversion


, animals that consume a bait laced with an undetectable dose of an aversion agent avoid both baits and live prey with the same taste and scent as the baits. When predators detect the aversion agent in the baits, they quickly form aversions to the baits, but discriminate between these and different-tasting live prey. Stimulus generalization is another learning phenomenon that can be illustrated by conditioned taste aversion. This phenomenon demonstrates that we tend to develop aversions even to types of food that resemble the foods which cause us illness. For example
2873238
Stimulus modality


cells located in taste buds on the tongue and pharynx. Receptor cells disseminate onto different neurons and convey the message of a particular taste in a single medullar nucleus. This pheromone detection system deals with taste stimuli. The pheromone detection system is distinct from the normal taste system, and is designed like the olfactory system. In insect and mammalian taste, receptor cells changes into attractive or aversive stimulus. The number of taste receptors in a mammalian tongue and on the tongue of the fly (labellum) is same in amount. Most
12155924
Domestic pig


the identification of other pigs. Hearing is also well developed, and localisation of sounds is made by moving the head. Pigs use auditory stimuli extensively as a means of communication in all social activities. Alarm or aversive stimuli are transmitted to other pigs not only by auditory cues but also by pheromones. Similarly, recognition between the sow and her piglets is by olfactory and vocal cues. Many breeds of domestic pig exist; in many colors, shapes, and sizes. According to The Livestock Conservancy, as of 2016, three
12175419
Mushroom bodies


works as a coincidence detector with dopamine and octopamine functioning bidirectionally to affect cAMP levels. PKA, also known as protein kinase A, has been found to play an important role in learning and memory in "Drosophila". When calcium enters a cell and binds with calmodulin, it stimulates adenylate cyclase (AC), which is encoded by the rutabaga gene ("rut"). This AC activation increases the concentration of cAMP, which activates PKA. When dopamine, an aversive olfactory stimulant, is applied it activates PKA specifically
3861083
Olfactory art


Olfactory art is an art form that uses scents as a medium. Olfactory art includes perfume as well as other applications of scent. The art form has been recognised in art starting from 1980. Marcel Duchamp was one of the first artists who pioneered with using scents in art. In 1938, the poet Benjamin Péret roasted coffee behind screens at the Exposition Internationale du Surréalisme which was orchestrated by Marcel Duchamp, and was possibly one of the first true examples of olfactory art. (from the book "Salon to Biennial - Exhibitions
676141
The Aversion Project


completely would give a specific group of individuals – young, white South African men – a convenient way to avoid serving in the military. Thus, the dual policy was adopted and enforced; however, with toleration of homosexuality came forced 'therapy,' such as compulsion shock therapy, castration, and other forms of 'therapy' which were said to significantly violate basic human rights. Between 1971 and 1989, victims were submitted to chemical castration and electric shock treatment meant to cure them of their homosexuality. This trend was heavily
15079578
BDSM


having no evidence, therapists may find themselves believing that their client's pathology is "self-evident". Therapists may feel intense disgust and aversive reactions. Feelings of countertransference can interfere with therapy. Another common problem is when clients conceal their sexual preferences from their therapists. This can compromise any therapy. To avoid non-disclosure, therapists are encouraged to communicate their openness in indirect ways with literatures and artworks in the waiting room. Therapists can also deliberately bring up BDSM topics during the course of therapy. With less informed
4307197
Aversive agent


Aversive agents are unpleasantly flavored substances added to poisonous household goods in order to discourage children and animals from consuming the poisonous household products. Aversive agents are not intended to be harmful, only unpleasant. For example, to prevent children from consuming poisonous anti-freeze, which has a sweet flavor due to the ethylene glycol, an aversive agent is added, which gives the anti-freeze an unpleasant taste. There are two primary classes of aversive agents: bitterants, chemicals producing a bitter flavor, and pungent agents, chemicals producing
9841583
Addictive personality


Common forms of treatment for addictive personalities include cognitive behavioral therapy, as well as other behavioral approaches. These treatments help patients by providing healthy coping skills training, relapse prevention, behavior interventions, family and group therapy, facilitated self-change approaches, and aversion therapy. Behavioral approaches include using positive reinforcement and behavioral modeling. Along with these, other options that help with treating those who suffer with addictive personality include social support, help with goal direction, rewards, enhancing self-efficacy and help teaching coping skills. Another important
2757168
Cognitive behavioral therapy


possibly lead to a more successful extinction learning during exposure therapy. For instance, glucocorticoids can prevent aversive learning episodes from being retrieved and heighten reinforcement of memory traces creating a non-fearful reaction in feared situations. A combination of glucocorticoids and exposure therapy may be a better improved treatment for treating patients with anxiety disorders. A 2015 Cochrane review also found that CBT for symptomatic management of non-specific chest pain is probably effective in the short term. However, the findings were limited by small trials and the evidence was considered of
5878359
Behaviour therapy


fears and phobias. Modeling has been used in the treatment of fear of snakes as well as a fear of water. Aversive therapy techniques have been used to treat sexual deviations as well as alcoholism. Exposure and prevention procedure techniques can be used to treat people who have anxiety problems as well as any fears or phobias. These procedures have also been used to help people dealing with any anger issues as well as pathological grievers (people who have distressing thoughts about a deceased person). Virtual reality therapy deals with fear of heights
8754884
Behavior modification


, especially those that are restrictive or use aversives, aversion therapy, or punishment protocols. Some desire to limit such restrictive procedures only to licensed psychologists or licensed counselors. Once licensed for this group, post-licensed certification in behavior modification is sought to show scope of competence in the area through groups like the World Association for Behavior Analysis. Still others desire to create an independent practice of behavior analysis through licensure to offer consumers choices between proven techniques and unproven ones (see Professional practice of behavior analysis). Level of training
20012009
UK Gay Liberation Front 1971 Festival of Light action


the time included a picket at Pan Books in protest at the publication of a book by Dr. David Reuben, which claimed that gay men were obsessed with the anal insertion of vegetables, freedom rides and sit-ins at pubs that refused to serve 'poofs' and 'dykes', the occupation of Coutts Bank because of their holding the Maudsley Hospital account (where aversion therapy was still being practiced in the early 1970s) and the confrontation of Professor Hans Eysenck during a lecture in which he advocated electric-shock and aversion
21838432
Index of psychology articles


- Attention seeking - Attention span - Attitude (psychology) - Attribution (psychology) - Attribution theory - Attributional bias - Atypical depression - Auditory processing disorder - Audience effect - Aura - Australasian Society for Experimental Psychology - Australian Psychological Society - Autassassinophilia - Authoritarian personality - Authority - Autism - Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule - Autism spectrum - Autoassociative memory - Autodidacticism - Automatic behavior - Availability heuristic - Aversion therapy - Aversives - Avoidant personality disorder - Avolition - Awareness Backward inhibition - Baragnosis - Barnes Akathisia Scale - Barnes maze - Beck's cognitive
5109553
Suxamethonium chloride


same route with a similar clinical effect in patients deficient in plasma cholinesterase activity. Deliberate induction of conscious apnea using this drug led to its use as a form of aversion therapy in the 1960s and 1970s in some prison and institutional settings. This use was discontinued after negative publicity concerning the terrifying effects on subjects of this treatment and ethical questions about the punitive use of painful aversion. There are two phases to the blocking effect of suxamethonium. Phase 1 blocking has the principal paralytic effect. Binding of suxamethonium to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor
9858055
Homosexuality and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints


emotional trauma." In 2011 BYU admitted to the past use of electroshock therapy. LDS church leaders explicitly promoted non-aversive therapy attempts to change sexual orientation in the past, but have recently shifted away from those previous views. Some events and publications on LDS reparative or conversion therapy are shown below: In society at large LGBT individuals especially youth are at a higher risk of depression and suicide due to minority stress stemming from societal anti-LGBT biases and stigma, rejection, and internalized homophobia. Some individuals and organizations have
8784079
Olfactory fatigue


Olfactory fatigue, also known as odor fatigue, olfactory adaptation, and noseblindness, is the temporary, normal inability to distinguish a particular odor after a prolonged exposure to that airborne compound. For example, when entering a restaurant initially the odor of food is often perceived as being very strong, but after time the awareness of the odor normally fades to the point where the smell is not perceptible or is much weaker. After leaving the area of high odor, the sensitivity is restored with time. Anosmia is the permanent loss of
13132418
Neurogenesis


two regions of the brain: the adult subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles, and the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus. In many mammals, including for example rodents, the olfactory bulb is a brain region containing cells that detect smell, featuring integration of adult-born neurons, which migrate from the SVZ of the striatum to the olfactory bulb through the rostral migratory stream (RMS). The migrating neuroblasts in the olfactory bulb become interneurons that help the brain communicate with these sensory cells. The majority of those
9084115
Applied behavior analysis


because it allowed the child to escape the aversive activity of completing the worksheets. Common forms of aversive demands/activities include, but are not limited to, difficult tasks, changes in routines, unpredictability, etc. "Automatic negative reinforcement": The individual engages in the behavior because it produces a decrease in aversive stimulation. Put another way, something aversive is occurring in some location on the organism's body, and engaging in the behavior decreases the level of discomfort. For example, a child bangs their head against the
20614144
Nucleus accumbens


nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle. Each cerebral hemisphere has its own nucleus accumbens, which can be divided into two structures: the nucleus accumbens core and the nucleus accumbens shell. These substructures have different morphology and functions. Different NAcc subregions (core vs shell) and neuron subpopulations within each region (D1-type vs D2-type medium spiny neurons) are responsible for different cognitive functions. As a whole, the nucleus accumbens has a significant role in the cognitive processing of motivation, aversion, reward (i.e., incentive salience, pleasure, and
8950664
Risk aversion


/IRRA) are used. This measure has the advantage that it is still a valid measure of risk aversion, even if the utility function changes from risk averse to risk loving as "c" varies, i.e. utility is not strictly convex/concave over all "c". A constant RRA implies a decreasing ARA, but the reverse is not always true. As a specific example of constant relative risk aversion, the utility function formula_32 implies RRA = 1. In intertemporal choice problems, the elasticity of intertemporal substitution often
10920756
Discrete trial training


the therapy has always relied principally on positive reinforcement of preferred behavior, Lovaas's original technique also included more extensive use of aversives such as striking, shouting, or using electrical shocks. These procedures have been widely abandoned for over a decade. A review of literature by autistic activist Michelle Dawson asserts that the method has become less effective since these stimuli were abandoned. Only one institution, the Judge Rotenberg Center, still employs electric shocks as aversives—a practice that continues to cause them considerable legal and political controversy. This has
16607168
The Aversion Project


be approved by a research committee. However, the research committee had an issue with researchers using the word "abuse" as a way of describing what happened to homosexual military personnel. The research committee believed that considering the conversion 'therapy' to be abuse was only an assumption, it was not supported by factual evidence. Therefore, the term "abuse", when used in the research project, had to be supported with factual evidence. Additionally, the researchers considered the actions of psychologists initiating this conversion shock therapy as
15079583
Sensory maps


or that similar features are processed as in the map of the feature detectors or the retinotopic map, or that time codes are used in organization as in the maps of an owl's sense of direction via interaural time difference between ears. These examples exist in contrast to non-mapped or randomly distributed patterns of processing. An example of a non-mapped sensory processing system is the olfactory system where unrelated odorants are processed side-by-side in the olfactory bulb. In addition to non-mapped and mapped processing,
3938695
Olfactory fatigue


the sense of smell, and is different from olfactory fatigue. It is a term commonly used in wine tasting, where one loses the ability to smell and distinguish wine bouquet after sniffing at wine(s) continuously for an extended period of time. The term is also used in the study of indoor air quality, for example, in the perception of odors from people, tobacco, and cleaning agents. Since odor detection may be an indicator that exposure to certain chemicals is occurring, olfactory fatigue can also reduce one's awareness about
13132419
Olfactory fatigue


chemical hazard exposure. Olfactory fatigue is an example of neural adaptation or sensory adaptation. The body becomes desensitized to stimuli to prevent the overloading of the nervous system, thus allowing it to respond to new stimuli that are 'out of the ordinary'. After olfactory neurons depolarize in response to an odorant, the G-protein mediated second messenger response activates adenylyl cyclase, increasing cyclic AMP (cAMP) concentration inside a cell, which then opens a cyclic nucleotide gated cation channel. The influx of Ca ions through this channel triggers
13132420
Sensory cue


-modal approaches, converting the visual information into both haptic and auditory output, often have the best results. For example, an electronic pen can be drawn across a tablet mapped to the screen and produce different vibrations and sounds depending on what is at that location. An olfactory cue is a chemical signal received by the olfactory system that represents an incoming signal received through the nose. This allows humans and animals to smell the chemical signal given off by a physical object. Olfactory cues are extremely important for sexual reproduction, as
13733392
Sensory neuron


light and sound, or from "interoreceptors" inside the body, for example blood pressure or the sense of body position. Different types of sensory neurons have different sensory receptors that respond to different kinds of stimuli. The sensory neurons involved in smell are called olfactory sensory neurons. These neurons contain receptors, called olfactory receptors, that are activated by odor molecules in the air. The molecules in the air are detected by enlarged cilia and microvilli. Similarly to Olfactory receptors, taste receptors (gustatory receptors) in taste buds interact
13931928
Olfactory tubercle


likely to affect the functionality of all these areas of the brain. Examples of such disruption include changes in normal odor-guided behavior, and impairments in modulating state and motivational behavior, which are common in psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, dementia and depression. The olfactory tubercle has been shown to play a large role in behavior. Unilateral lesions in the olfactory tubercle have been shown to alter attention, social and sensory responsiveness, and even locomotor behavior. Bilateral lesions have been shown to reduce copulatory behavior in male rats. The
15665560
Olfactory memory


to recognize and respond with familiarity and preference to their mother’s underarm scent. Olfactory cues are widespread within parental care to assist in the dynamic of the mother-infant relationship, and later development of the offspring. In support of fetal olfactory learning, newborn infants display behavioral attraction to the odor of amniotic fluid. For example, babies would more often suck from a breast treated with an amount of their own amniotic fluid, rather than the alternative untreated breast. Newborns are initially attracted to their own amniotic fluid because that odor
8034319
Olfactory memory


mammalian brain have discovered that the excess of cerebral neurons is a phenomenon of mainly animals which had to seek and capture food. These neurons have become a large part of the olfactory system throughout evolution to allow higher mammals such as primates to have a better chance for survival through more advanced methods of hunting and finding food. For example, the vulture has a large part of its brain committed to olfactory senses. This allows for it to be able to detect food at long ranges without being able to see it. Having memory
8034324
Operant conditioning


results in the sequence "noise – turn-around – light – press lever – food". Much longer chains can be built by adding more stimuli and responses. In escape learning, a behavior terminates an (aversive) stimulus. For example, shielding one's eyes from sunlight terminates the (aversive) stimulation of bright light in one's eyes. (This is an example of negative reinforcement, defined above.) Behavior that is maintained by preventing a stimulus is called "avoidance," as, for example,
5803595
Human genome


is on the order of 13,000, and in some chromosomes is nearly the same as the number of functional protein-coding genes. Gene duplication is a major mechanism through which new genetic material is generated during molecular evolution. For example, the olfactory receptor gene family is one of the best-documented examples of pseudogenes in the human genome. More than 60 percent of the genes in this family are non-functional pseudogenes in humans. By comparison, only 20 percent of genes in the mouse olfactory receptor gene family are pseudogenes
20381806
The Aversion Project


took place on the individuals who were unable to be 'cured.' Because there is no scientific evidence to prove that these procedures have the ability to alter ones sexuality, these "therapies" reached their peak during the 1970s, where therapy for homosexual soldiers was no longer supported by the field of mental health. Consequently, the definition of homosexuals as mentally ill was removed from the American Psychiatric Associations manual in 1973, and the treatment was left behind. A team of individuals: academic researchers and activists on behalf of the
15079581
Monetary policy


decisions. An example of a behavioral bias that characterizes the behavior of central bankers is loss aversion: for every monetary policy choice, losses loom larger than gains, and both are evaluated with respect to the status quo. One result of loss aversion is that when gains and losses are symmetric or nearly so, risk aversion may set in. Loss aversion can be found in multiple contexts in monetary policy. The "hard fought" battle against the Great Inflation, for instance, might cause a bias against policies that risk greater
6688546
Adaptations of Australian animals to cane toads


invasion of cane toads constitutes a major threat to native anuran populations, especially ground-dwelling species which are most likely to come into contact with the toxic toad species. Australian marbled frogs have been found to exhibit rapid aversion learning, avoiding predation on edible-sized cane toads subsequently to a previous encounter with the toxic species. Toad-experienced native frogs most likely use both visual and olfactory cues to detect and avoid the toxic species. In particular, native Australian frog species have been found to avoid the urine scent of adult
20035702
Olfactory bulb


patterns may be related to sniffing or change in intensity and concentration of odorant. Temporal patterns may have effect in later processing of spatial awareness of odorant. For example, synchronized mitral cell spike trains appear to help to discriminate similar odors better than when those spike trains are not synchronized. Destruction to the olfactory bulb results in ipsilateral anosmia while irritative lesion of the uncus can result in olfactory and gustatory hallucinations. The interneurons in the external plexiform layer perform feedback inhibition on the mitral cells to control back propagation. They also participate in
10172645
Stimulus modality


as those present in the air. Our olfactory ability can vary due to different conditions. For example, our olfactory detection thresholds can change due to molecules with differing lengths of carbon chains. A molecule with a longer carbon chain is easier to detect, and has a lower detection threshold. Additionally, women generally have lower olfactory thresholds than men, and this effect is magnified during a woman's ovulatory period. People can sometimes experience a hallucination of smell, as in the case of phantosmia. Olfaction interacts with other sensory modalities
12155938
Apical dendrite


of mitral cells are located in a distinct layer deep in the olfactory glomeruli. Each mitral cell extends a primary dendrite to a single glomerulus, where the dendrite gives rise to an elaborate tuft of branches onto which the primary olfactory axons synapse. Each glomerulus in the mouse model, for example, contains approximately 25 mitral cells which receive innervation from approximately 25,000 olfactory receptor axons. The convergence increases the sensitivity of mitral cells to odor detection. The most superficial layer of the cortex is the molecular or plexiform layer. It has a
18552538