when was lead removed from gasoline in the us
Catalytic converter


company called Oxy-Catalyst. Houdry first developed catalytic converters for smokestacks called "cats" for short, and later developed catalytic converters for warehouse forklifts that used low grade, unleaded gasoline. In the mid-1950s, he began research to develop catalytic converters for gasoline engines used on cars. He was awarded United States Patent for his work. Widespread adoption of catalytic converters did not occur until more stringent emission control regulations forced the removal of the antiknock agent tetraethyl lead from most types of gasoline. Lead is a "catalyst poison"
3562049
Pollution in California


the state. The Use of Leaded gasoline up until 1992, when it was phased out, caused a large amount of Lead to be introduced into the California Water systems. 90% of the lead emitted in California is from Leaded gasoline which is higher than then the total global emissions from Leaded gasoline. The reason it is greater in California is due to the high use of Cars in California. The amount of Lead in the water system is similar to Mercury in that its concentration in the water increases during peak flows.
12578687
Great Lakes Chemical Corporation


) to TEL solved the problem. As leaded gasoline began to be phased out in the U.S., Great Lakes developed international markets for its products. Globalization of leaded gasoline makes TEL responsible for nearly 90 percent of airborne lead pollution in Third World cities. Some EDB in leaded gasoline converts to methyl bromide when burned. The World Meteorological Organization has determined that the continuing exhaust from automobiles using leaded gasoline is one of the three potentially major sources of atmospheric methyl bromide. Great Lakes was a major producer of polybrominated diphenyl ethers. These
9565796
Lead poisoning


due to the increased widespread use of the metal. Beginning in the 1920s, lead was added to gasoline to improve its combustion; lead from this exhaust persists today in soil and dust in buildings. Blood lead levels worldwide have been declining sharply since the 1980s, when leaded gasoline began to be phased out. In those countries that have banned lead in solder for food and drink cans and have banned leaded gasoline additives, blood lead levels have fallen sharply since the mid-1980s. The levels found today in most people are orders of
5828272
Gasoline


the use of leaded additives is still permitted worldwide for the formulation of some grades of aviation gasoline such as 100LL, because the required octane rating would be technically infeasible to reach without the use of leaded additives. Gasoline, when used in high-compression internal combustion engines, tends to autoignite or "detonate" causing damaging engine knocking (also called "pinging" or "pinking"). To address this problem, tetraethyllead (TEL) was widely adopted as an additive for gasoline in the 1920s. With the discovery of
4150791
Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl


Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT or MCMT) is an organomanganese compound with the formula (CHCH)Mn(CO). Initially marketed as a supplement for use in leaded gasoline, MMT was later used in unleaded gasoline to increase the octane rating. Following the implementation of the Clean Air Act (United States) (CAA) in 1970, MMT continued to be used alongside tetraethyl lead (TEL) in the US as leaded gasoline was phased out (prior to TEL finally being banned from US gasoline in 1995), and was also used in
1241961
Coalescer


water phases such as oil removal from produced water. They have been also used in pyrolysis gasoline (benzene) removal from quench water in ethylene plants, although in this application, the constant changing of cartridges can lead to operator exposure to BTX (benzene, toluene and xylene), as well as disposal issues and high operating costs from frequent replacement. Electrostatic coalescers use electrical fields to induce droplet coalescence in water-in-crude-oil emulsions to increasing the droplet size. The squared dependence of droplet diameter in Stokes Law
21864272
Environmental racism


that agent (orthophosphate) would have cost $100 per day, according to CNN, and 90 percent of the problems with Flint's water would have been averted if it had been used. Generally the consumption of Lead is considered among the environmental problems and some of the ways people can be exposed to it is from the corrosion of old pipes, the dust from lead-based paint and gasoline has metal dust which contains lead; but the amount of lead in gasoline has been reduced and this contributed a lot when it
13040307
MTBE controversy


Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) is a gasoline additive used as an oxygenate and to raise the octane number. Its use has declined in the United States in response to environmental and health concerns. It has polluted groundwater due to MTBE-containing gasoline being spilled or leaked at gas stations. MTBE spreads more easily underground than other gasoline components due to its higher solubility in water. Cost estimates for removing MTBE from groundwater and contaminated soil range from $1 billion to $30 billion, including removing the compound from aquifers
438128
Irwin Lachman


released into the environment. Their work was a response to the Clean Air Act (1970) and reduced polluting emissions from the combustion process by 95%. Additionally, because the catalyst they used in their invention, platinum, required removing lead from gasoline as an additive, their device offered a secondary benefit to the environment by reducing lead pollution. Working together in the early 1970s at Corning Inc. in Corning, N.Y., Lachman, Bagley and Lewis all used cellular ceramic technology to create the ceramic honeycomb that became the essential core
931017
Ethanol fuel


% v/v) water). This mixture is called hydrous ethanol and can be used as a fuel alone, but unlike anhydrous ethanol, hydrous ethanol is not miscible in all ratios with gasoline, so the water fraction is typically removed in further treatment to burn in combination with gasoline in gasoline engines. There are three dehydration processes to remove the water from an azeotropic ethanol/water mixture. The first process, used in many early fuel ethanol plants, is called azeotropic distillation and consists of adding benzene or cyclohexane to
20528386
Herbert Needleman


from gasoline and inducing the Consumer Product Safety Commission to ban lead from interior paints. Needleman's research also helped cause the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) to remove lead from thousands of housing units across the US. Needleman designed the first forward study of lead exposure during gestation, and showed that such exposure is associated with cognitive deficits later in life. His most recent research has shown that boys with high levels of lead concentrated in their bones are more likely to develop aggressive or delinquent behavior, such as bullying
12133843
Gasoline


countries. Consumer confusion led to a widespread mistaken preference for LRP rather than unleaded, and LRP was phased out 8 to 10 years after the introduction of unleaded. Leaded gasoline was withdrawn from sale in Britain after 31 December 1999, seven years after EEC regulations signaled the end of production for cars using leaded gasoline in member states. At this stage, a large percentage of cars from the 1980s and early 1990s which ran on leaded gasoline were still in use, along with cars which could run on unleaded fuel. However,
4150795
Benzene


is less toxic and has a wider liquid range. Toluene is also processed into benzene. As a gasoline (petrol) additive, benzene increases the octane rating and reduces knocking. As a consequence, gasoline often contained several percent benzene before the 1950s, when tetraethyl lead replaced it as the most widely used antiknock additive. With the global phaseout of leaded gasoline, benzene has made a comeback as a gasoline additive in some nations. In the United States, concern over its negative health effects and the possibility of benzene's entering
12402953
Lead(II) bromide


gasoline. Tetraethyl lead was once widely used to improve the combustion properties of gasoline. To prevent the resulting lead oxides from fouling the engine, gasoline was treated with an organobromine compound that converted lead oxides into the more volatile lead bromide, which was then exhausted from the engine into the environment. Like other compounds containing lead, lead dibromide is categorized as "probably carcinogenic to humans" (Category 2A), by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Its release into the environment as a product of leaded
2676218
Gasoline


the seriousness of the extent of environmental and health damage caused by lead compounds, however, and the incompatibility of lead with catalytic converters, leaded gasoline was phased out in the United States beginning in 1973. By 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6 percent of total gasoline sales and under 2000 short tons (1814 t) of lead per year. From 1 January 1996, the U.S. Clean Air Act banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles in the U.S. The use of TEL also necessitated other
4150792
Gasoline


which are usually removed at the refinery). The specific gravity of gasoline is from 0.71 to 0.77, with higher densities having a greater volume of aromatics. Finished marketable gasoline is traded (in Europe) with a standard reference of , and its price is escalated or de-escalated according to its actual density. Because of its low density, gasoline floats on water, and so water cannot generally be used to extinguish a gasoline fire unless applied in a fine mist. Quality gasoline should be stable for six months if
4150773
Gray Davis


in 2009 and beyond. Automakers claimed the law would lead smaller and more expensive cars sold in California. On March 25, 1999, Davis issued an executive order calling for the removal of MTBE (a toxic gasoline additive) from gasoline sold in the state. In 2001, in order for gas prices to remain reasonable in California while removing MTBE, Davis asked President George W. Bush to order the EPA to grant California a waiver on the federal minimum oxygen requirement. Without a waiver, California would have to import a much
12191341
Bromine production in the United States


and learned how to commercially produce lithium, phosphate, borax, soda ash, sodium sulfate. In 1940, companies began extracting bromine from the brine. The first bromine extraction plant in Arkansas opened in 1957. By 1969, five companies were operating plants there. For most of the 20th century, the principal use of bromine was as the gasoline additive ethylene dibromide, which was needed in leaded gasoline to prevent lead deposits in car engines. The US EPA curtailed the use of lead additives in gasoline in 1980, and eventually
19169908
Antiknock agent


. From January 1, 1996, the Clean Air Act banned the sale of leaded fuel for use in on-road vehicles in the United States. Possession and use of leaded gasoline in a regular on-road vehicle now carries a maximum US$10,000 fine in the United States. However, fuel containing lead may continue to be sold for off-road uses, including aircraft, racing cars, farm equipment, and marine engines. The ban on leaded gasoline led to thousands fewer tons of lead being released into the air
18741066
Tetraethyllead


and carcinogenicity. TEL was supplied for mixing with raw gasoline in the form of ethyl fluid, which was TEL blended with the lead scavengers 1,2-dibromoethane and 1,2-dichloroethane. Ethyl fluid also contained a reddish dye to distinguish treated from untreated gasoline and discourage the use of leaded gasoline for other purposes such as cleaning. In the 1920s before safety procedures were yet developed, 17 workers for the Ethyl Corporation, DuPont, and Standard Oil died from the effects of exposure to lead. The formula for ethyl fluid is: Dibromoethane and dichloroethane act in
21860774
Toxic heavy metal


prevalent heavy metal contaminant. As a component of tetraethyl lead, , it was used extensively in gasoline during the 1930s–1970s. Lead levels in the aquatic environments of industrialised societies have been estimated to be two to three times those of pre-industrial levels. Although the use of leaded gasoline was largely phased out in North America by 1996, soils next to roads built before this time retain high lead concentrations. Lead (from lead(II) azide or lead styphnate used in firearms) gradually accumulates at firearms training grounds, contaminating the local
3412642
History of the automobile


refueling times, and growing petroleum infrastructure, along with the mass production of gasoline vehicles by companies such as the Ford Motor Company, which reduced prices of gasoline cars to less than half that of equivalent electric cars, led to a decline in the use of electric propulsion, effectively removing it from important markets such as the United States by the 1930s. However, in recent years, increased concerns over the environmental impact of gasoline cars, higher gasoline prices, improvements in battery technology, and the prospect of peak oil, have
17723466
Antiknock agent


allow easier starting in cold climates. In some parts of South America, Asia, and the Middle East, leaded gasoline is still in use. Leaded gasoline was phased out in sub-Saharan Africa, starting 1 January 2006. A growing number of countries have drawn up plans to ban leaded gasoline in the near future. Some experts speculate that leaded petrol was behind a global crime wave in the late 1980s and early 1990s. To avoid deposits of lead inside the engine, lead scavengers are added to the gasoline together with
18741068
Lead contamination in Oakland


busiest port in the United States in terms of container traffic, and Oakland was also historically one of the largest rail hubs on the west coast of the United States. Oakland was also an early center of car culture, and extensive highway development began to take place starting in the 1950s. Leaded gasoline was in widespread use in the United States for much of the 20th century, with lead levels gradually being reduced starting in the early 1970s, and leaded gasoline finally being completely banned in 1996. The use of leaded gasoline contributed
14067516
Tetraethyllead


the potential dangers of TEL and became a leading campaigner for removal of lead additives from petrol. However, leaded motor fuel re-entered the UK market in small quantities from 2000 in response to lobbying from classic-car organisations who contended their vehicles would be rendered useless without leaded fuel. The lead content is up to ; Bayford & Co is the only wholesale supplier. Vehicles designed and built to run on leaded fuel may require modification to run on unleaded gasoline or autogas. These modifications fall into two categories: those required
21860764
Methyl tert-butyl ether


leaking underground storage tanks (USTs) at gasoline stations or by gasoline containing MTBE spilled onto the ground. The higher water solubility and persistence of MTBE cause it to travel faster and farther than many other components of gasoline when released into an aquifer. MTBE is biodegraded by the action of bacteria. In the proper type of bioreactor, such as a fluidized bed bioreactor, MTBE can be rapidly and economically removed from water to undetectable levels. Activated carbon produced from coconut shells and optimized for MTBE adsorption may reduce MTBE to undetectable levels
13049054
Gasoline


causes knocking and reduces efficiency in reciprocating engines) is measured by its octane rating which is produced in several grades. Tetraethyl lead and other lead compounds are no longer used in most areas to increase octane rating (still used in aviation and auto-racing). Other chemicals are frequently added to gasoline to improve chemical stability and performance characteristics, control corrosiveness and provide fuel system cleaning. Gasoline may contain oxygen-containing chemicals such as ethanol, MTBE or ETBE to improve combustion. Gasoline used in internal combustion engines can have significant
4150705
Gasoline


fuels that could be used in higher-compression engines. Between 1917 and 1919, the amount of thermally cracked gasoline utilized almost doubled. Also, the use of natural gasoline increased greatly. During this period, many U.S. states established specifications for motor gasoline but none of these agreed and were unsatisfactory from one standpoint or another. Larger oil refiners began to specify unsaturated material percentage (thermally cracked products caused gumming in both use and storage and unsaturated hydrocarbons are more reactive and tend to combine with impurities leading to gumming). In
4150726
Chevron Richmond Refinery


when it developed the Isocracking process which uses catalysts to rearrange the existing molecules of heavy fuel oils to remove sulfur and convert low-value fuel oils into higher-yield products such as gasoline. The company also completed a new fluid catalytic cracking unit capable of processing daily of feed stock, further adding to the high-octane gasolines being demanded in rapidly increasing quantities by modern, high-compression automobile engines. In 1965, a breakthrough came when the Richmond refinery opened the world's largest Isomax hydrocracking complex. The unit converts
14769715
Aldemaro Romero Jr.


historical records and used information about the biology of these and other species to explain its rapid disappearance. Romero also conducted studies on the pollution caused by lead in gasoline in Venezuela – the only country in the Western Hemisphere that still produced leaded gasoline at that time. Those studies showed high levels of that contaminant in the Venezuelan environment and leaded gasoline was later eliminated from the market. He also produced a study about all of the environmental-related programs in U.S. higher education institutions. He concluded that the number of those programs always
14662803
Gregore J. Sambor


in to forcibly remove them from the premises, leading to an armed standoff. After the police used over ten thousand rounds of ammunition, Sambor ordered the compound be breached. Two breaching charges made from a FBI-supplied explosive were dropped on a bunker-like cubicle on the roof of the building, which ignited the fuel of a gasoline-powered generator there. Firefighters stood by and allowed the resulting fire to destroy 65 houses, although Sambor urged them to put it out. The fire department would not listen, saying
5721428
Amoco


using aromatics rather than tetraethyllead to increase octane levels, decades before the environmental movement of the early 1970s led to more stringent auto-emission controls which ultimately mandated the universal phase out of leaded gasoline. The "Amoco" lead-free gasoline was sold at American's stations in the eastern and southern U.S. alongside American Regular gasoline, which was a leaded fuel. Lead-free Amoco was introduced in the Indiana Standard marketing area in 1970. The Red Crown Regular and White Crown Premium (later Gold Crown Super Premium) gasolines
14327649
Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing


August, a day after Katrina's landfall, prices in the spot market, which typically include a premium above the wellhead price, had surged past , and on 22 September 2005, the day before Rita's landfall, the spot price had risen to . In the fifteen years prior to the 1973 oil crisis, gasoline prices in the U.S. had lagged well behind inflation. Crude oil is the greatest contributing factor when it comes to the price of gasoline. This includes the resources it takes for exploration, to remove it from
20555471
Heavy metals


to three times those of pre-industrial levels. As a component of tetraethyl lead, , it was used extensively in gasoline during the 1930s–1970s. Although the use of leaded gasoline was largely phased out in North America by 1996, soils next to roads built before this time retain high lead concentrations. Later research demonstrated a statistically significant correlation between the usage rate of leaded gasoline and violent crime in the United States; taking into account a 22-year time lag (for the average age of violent criminals), the violent crime curve
20843538
Lead poisoning


g) and for children at 5 µg/dl. Elevated lead may also be detected by changes in red blood cells or dense lines in the bones of children as seen on X-ray. Lead poisoning is preventable. This includes individual efforts such as removing lead-containing items from the home, workplace efforts such as improved ventilation and monitoring, and nationwide policies such as laws that ban lead in products such as paint and gasoline, reduce allowable levels in water or soil, and provide for cleanup of contaminated soil.
5828166
The Clean Room


"The Clean Room" is the seventh episode of the American documentary television series "". It premiered on April 20, 2014, on Fox and aired on April 21, 2014, on National Geographic Channel. The episode explores the methods and processes used to measure the age of the Earth. The episode also pays tribute to geochemist Clair Patterson (voiced by Richard Gere) in his quest to remove the neurotoxin, lead, from gasoline. The episode's title alludes to Patterson's attempts in sterilizing his lab after realizing
17564062
Pollution Probe


focus upon other forms of environmental pollution over time, and also nationwide concerns. According to the organization's history, they worked on getting restrictions on the use of DDT enacted in 1969, and later a ban throughout Canada. In 1970, they pushed for legislation to limit phosphates in detergents. In 1973, they helped initiate recycling programs in Ontario, and in 1979 they helped push for legislation to restrict emissions that cause acid rain. In 1988, they helped to get regulations passed to remove lead from gasoline, and in
8386706
Zbigniew Jaworowski


have already started.". When approached to see if he would bet on future cooling, Jaworowski denied making any prediction, stating "I do not make my own detailed projections. In my paper I referred the reader to B&M paper, and that is all." Jaworowski published several papers in "21st Century Science and Technology", a non-refereed magazine published by Lyndon LaRouche. Jaworowski has also written that the movement to remove lead from gasoline was based on a "stupid and fraudulent myth," and that
11779310
Gasoline theft


usage. Gasoline theft (sometimes known colloquially as fill and fly, gas and dash, and drive-off) is the removal of gasoline from a station without payment. The thief will usually use some form of decoy to prevent nearby witnesses from noticing the lack of payment until they have left the station. Common decoys include pretending to press the wrong buttons after swiping the credit card, or having multiple people get gas at the same time with one paying for another person and the other running off with both cars. With
10914967
Gasoline


makes it harder to start the engine or causes reduced engine performance. On resumption of regular engine use, the buildup may or may not be eventually cleaned out by the flow of fresh gasoline. The addition of a fuel stabilizer to gasoline can extend the life of fuel that is not or cannot be stored properly, though removal of all fuel from a fuel system is the only real solution to the problem of long-term storage of an engine or a machine or vehicle. Typical fuel stabilizers are proprietary mixtures containing mineral
4150777
Flint water crisis


full-time employees," with "serious implications for states' ability to protect public health." In the aftermath of the water crisis, it was noted that elevated blood-lead levels in children are found in many cities across Michigan, including Detroit, Grand Rapids, Muskegon, and Adrian. Although statewide childhood lead-poisoning rates have dramatically declined since the removal of lead from gasoline, certain areas of the state (particularly low-income areas with older housing stock) continue to experience lead poisoning, mostly from
14177713
Algae fuel


Butanol can be made from algae or diatoms using only a solar powered biorefinery. This fuel has an energy density 10% less than gasoline, and greater than that of either ethanol or methanol. In most gasoline engines, butanol can be used in place of gasoline with no modifications. In several tests, butanol consumption is similar to that of gasoline, and when blended with gasoline, provides better performance and corrosion resistance than that of ethanol or E85. The green waste left over from the algae oil extraction can be used to
8314720
John J. Mooney


President of the Environmental and Energy Technology and Policy Institute, Mooney has worked with the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles of the United Nations Environment Programme to help end the use of leaded gasoline throughout the world. As of 2002, there were 51 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa in which leaded gasoline was still in use. By responding to issues of valve seat recession, and showing that lead in gasoline did not help solve the problem, Mooney was part of an effort that had 50 of these 51 countries in Africa ban
6509490
Ethyl Gasoline Corp. v. United States


a patent licensing and distribution program based on both the sale of a patented product and licenses to manufacture a related product was subject to ordinary testing under the antitrust laws, and accordingly was illegal when its effect was to "regiment" an entire industry. Ethyl owned several patents on tetra-ethyl lead, an anti-knock fuel additive, and on its utilization: two patents on the chemical itself, a patent on a motor fuel—gasoline containing tetra-ethyl lead, and a patent on a method of using the
19896466
Tetraethyllead


an additive that was both highly effective and inexpensive. TEL levels automotive fuel were reduced in the 1970s under the U.S. Clean Air Act in two overlapping programs: to protect catalytic converters, which mandated unleaded gasoline for those vehicles; and to protect public health, which mandated lead reductions in annual phases (the "lead phasedown"). When present in fuel, TEL is also the main cause of spark plug fouling. TEL is still used as an additive in some grades of aviation gasoline, and in some developing countries.
21860753
Abraham George


children from disadvantaged backgrounds, and the creation of the now prestigious Indian Institute of Journalism & New Media, a graduate school of journalism in Bangalore where he currently serves as the dean. He also pioneered the successful effort to remove lead content from gasoline throughout India in April 2000 and was instrumental in the creation of the National Referral Centre for Lead Poisoning in India that undertook preventive initiatives against lead poisoning from paint, lead smelters and other sources. Baldev Medical & Community Centre run by his foundation offers outpatient care to 17 villages near
7940511
Charles F. Kettering


the first guided missiles, as well as radio-controlled drones. Kettering and colleagues' development of leaded gasoline ultimately caused the release of large quantities of lead into the atmosphere as a result of the combustion of leaded gasoline all over the world. Due to the neurotoxic effects of lead, leaded gasoline has been widely banned since the late 1990s. The development of Freon using CFCs has been implicated in the depletion of the ozone layer. But during the first half of the twentieth century, most people, including Kettering and his
1365309
Gasoline


the world have phased out automotive leaded fuel. In 2011, six countries were still using leaded gasoline: Afghanistan, Myanmar, North Korea, Algeria, Iraq and Yemen. It was expected that by the end of 2013 those countries, too, would ban leaded gasoline, but this target was not met. Algeria replaced leaded with unleaded automotive fuel only in 2015. Different additives have replaced the lead compounds. The most popular additives include aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers and alcohol (usually ethanol or methanol). For technical reasons,
4150790
Lead poisoning


However, some developing countries still allow leaded gasoline, which is the primary source of lead exposure in most developing countries. Beyond exposure from gasoline, the frequent use of pesticides in developing countries adds a risk of lead exposure and subsequent poisoning. Poor children in developing countries are at especially high risk for lead poisoning. Of North American children, 7% have blood lead levels above 10 μg/dL, whereas among Central and South American children, the percentage is 33 to 34%. About one fifth of the world's
5828253
Clair Cameron Patterson


Robert A. Kehoe. In his effort to ensure that lead was removed from gasoline (petrol), Patterson fought against the lobbying power of the Ethyl Corporation (which employed Kehoe), against the legacy of Thomas Midgley, Jr. (which included tetraethyllead and chlorofluorocarbons), and against the lead additive industry as a whole. Following Patterson's criticism of the lead industry, he was refused contracts with many research organizations, including the supposedly-neutral United States Public Health Service. In 1971, he was excluded from a National Research
9984486
Lead–crime hypothesis


later report that "the mind gives way" in individuals exposed to lead. Nonetheless, despite the hazards posed by lead, its durability made it useful and it was added to items such as glass, paint, and eventually gasoline. The widespread substance is also able to function as a shield against various forms of radiation. The use of leaded products such as lead paint and leaded gasoline have resulted in higher environmental levels of lead in the air and soil. Lead is also a stable element and does not break down in
3007774
Campaign for Lead Free Air


define a level above 5 as a cause for concern. Tetraethyl lead was first added to gasoline in the 1920s as an “anti-knock” agent, which is a cheap method of boosting the octane rating. It is not possible to use catalytic converters with leaded fuel as the lead coats the platinum and renders the catalyst ineffective. Lead free gasoline was therefore introduced into Japan in the late sixties, and into the US in the mid seventies in order to enable the use of catalytic converters and thus mitigate photochemical pollution.
9063436
Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing


(later reduced to 60 litres per month). On 26 December 2010, the Bolivian government issued a decree removing subsidies which had fixed petrol/gasoline and diesel prices for the past seven years. Arguing that illegal exports (contraband) of gasoline and diesel fuel to neighboring countries by individuals for personal profit was harming the economy, Bolivia eliminated the subsidies and raised gasoline prices as much as 83%. After widespread labor strikes, the Bolivian government canceled all future planned price hikes. Venezuela used to have the cheapest gasoline in
20555479
Methyl tert-butyl ether


MTBE is used as a fuel component in fuel for gasoline engines. It is one of a group of chemicals commonly known as oxygenates because they raise the oxygen content of gasoline. In the US it has been used in gasoline at low levels since 1979, replacing tetraethyl lead as an antiknock (octane rating) additive to prevent engine knocking. Oxygenates also help gasoline burn more completely, reducing tailpipe emissions and dilute or displace gasoline components such as aromatics (e.g., benzene). Before the introduction of other oxygenates and octane enhancers
13049050
Cost–benefit analysis


since it does not involve the monetization of outcomes (which can be difficult in some cases). It has been argued that if modern cost–benefit analyses had been applied to decisions such as whether to mandate the removal of lead from gasoline, block the construction of two proposed dams just above and below the Grand Canyon on the Colorado River, and regulate workers' exposure to vinyl chloride, the measures would not have been implemented (although all are considered highly successful). The US Clean Air Act has been cited in
8448965
Mothra vs. Godzilla


level, the liquid polystyrene was forced through a tube that ran through the back of the larva and into the nozzle installed on the mouth. As long as the nozzle was small, the solution vaporized when first emitted and solidified into the trademark web. Gasoline had to be used to remove the webbing and to prevent the suit from combusting, it had to be thoroughly dried. The larva movements were designed by Soujiro Iijima by using a conveyer belt with rotating gears that allowed the bodies to move up and down. For the
12297329
2010 Food City 500


Keselowski stayed out while other drivers came in to change tires and add gasoline which resulted him getting the lead. On lap 46, the green flag came out again. Keselowski kept the lead until lap 53 when Jimmie Johnson passed him. Five laps later, the second caution came out because Clint Bowyer slammed into the wall from a blown engine. Few drivers went to change tires and add gasoline on this caution; Johnson led the field to the green flag on lap 62. Johnson kept the lead until lap 99 when Busch
13449896
Antiknock agent


the 1980s. Most countries are phasing out leaded fuel although different additives still contain lead compounds. Other additives include aromatic hydrocarbons, ethers and alcohol (usually ethanol or methanol). The typical antiknock agents in use are: In the U.S., where tetraethyllead had been blended with gasoline (primarily to boost octane levels) since the early 1920s, standards to phase out leaded gasoline were first implemented in 1973. In 1995, leaded fuel accounted for only 0.6% of total gasoline sales and less than 2,000 tons of lead per year
18741065
Thomas Midgley Jr.


the atmosphere than any other single organism in Earth's history", and Bill Bryson remarked that Midgley possessed "an instinct for the regrettable that was almost uncanny". Use of leaded gasoline, which he invented, released large quantities of lead into the atmosphere all over the world. High atmospheric lead levels have been linked with serious long-term health problems from childhood, including neurological impairment, and with increased levels of violence and criminality in cities. "Time magazine" included both leaded gasoline and CFCs on its list of
12647913
Gasoline and diesel usage and pricing


with subsidized fuel include United States of America, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Egypt, Burma, Kuwait, Bahrain, Trinidad and Tobago, Brunei and Bolivia. In February 2010, the Iranian government implemented an energy price reform by which the energy subsidies were to be removed in five years; the most important price hike was in gasoline, as the price went up from 100 rials ($0.10 US) to 400 rials ($0.40 US) per litre, with a ration of 100 litres per month for private passenger cars
20555478
Top Tier Detergent Gasoline


forms of sulfur that refiners or pipelines may leave in finished gasoline, such as mercaptans and hydrogen sulfide, can contaminate fuel sending units and lead to erratic dashboard fuel gauge readings, which may be expensive to repair. The regular use of a TOP TIER Detergent Gasoline can prevent this from occurring. However, this problem has become less common as manufacturers are now making these units with improved alloys that are less affected by these forms of sulfur. Chris Martin at Honda states, "We've supported it [Top Tier gasoline]
21804274
Clair Cameron Patterson


Council (NRC) panel on atmospheric lead contamination, even though he was then the foremost expert on the subject. The United States mandated the use of unleaded gasoline to protect catalytic converters in all new cars starting with the 1975 model year, but Patterson's efforts accelerated the phaseout of lead from all standard, consumer, automotive gasoline in the United States by 1986. Lead levels within the blood of Americans are reported to have dropped by up to 80% by the late 1990s. Most people, following Kehoe's arguments,
9984487
Broken windows theory


" and concluded that broken windows theory misinterprets the relationship between disorder and crime. In recent years, there has been increasing attention on the correlation between environmental lead levels and crime. Specifically, there appears to be a correlation with a 25-year lag with the addition and removal of lead from paint and gasoline and rises and falls in murder arrests. Robert J. Sampson argues that based on common misconceptions by the masses, it is clearly implied that those who commit disorder and crime have a clear tie to groups suffering from financial instability and
18393126
Mountain Lake Park


the lake, which reduced the size of the lake as well. Since runoff from the Funston approach was directed into the lake, golf course pesticides and lead emissions from cars burning leaded gasoline were dumped into the lake over many years. The lake also became a dumping ground for unwanted pets, including crawdads, large-mouth bass, goldfish, carp, bullfrogs, turtles, and even an alligator, which was discovered and removed in 1996. A variety of birds can be observed around the lake's water, including California
92368
Liquid fuel


a blend of 85% fuel ethanol blended with 15% gasoline. This fuel blend called E85 has a higher fuel octane than most premium types of gasoline. When used in a modern Flexible fuel vehicle, it delivers more performance to the gasoline it replaces at the expense of higher fuel consumption due to ethanol's lesser specific energy content. Ethanol for use in gasoline and industrial purposes may be considered a fossil fuel because it is often synthesized from the petroleum product ethylene, which is cheaper than production from fermentation of grains or sugarcane
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Ethanol fuel in Brazil


. The addition of ethanol blends instead of lead to gasoline lowered the total carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons, sulfur emissions, and particulate matter significantly. The use of ethanol-only vehicles has also reduced CO emissions drastically. Before the "Pró-Álcool" Program started, when gasoline was the only fuel in use, CO emissions were higher than 50 g/km driven; they had been reduced to less than 5.8 g/km in 1995. Several studies have also shown that São Paulo has benefit with significantly
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Hydrodesulfurization


Hydrodesulfurization (HDS) is a catalytic chemical process widely used to remove sulfur (S) from natural gas and from refined petroleum products, such as gasoline or petrol, jet fuel, kerosene, diesel fuel, and fuel oils. The purpose of removing the sulfur, and creating products such as ultra-low-sulfur diesel, is to reduce the sulfur dioxide () emissions that result from using those fuels in automotive vehicles, aircraft, railroad locomotives, ships, gas or oil burning power plants, residential and industrial furnaces
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Doctor sweetening process


The doctor sweetening process is an industrial chemical process for converting mercaptans in sour gasoline into disulfides. Sulfur compounds darken gasoline, give it an offensive odor and increase toxic sulfur dioxide engine emissions. However, this process only reduces the odor. These sulfur compounds can be removed with the following chemical reactions: The chemistry of 'doctor sweetening' was described in detail by G. Wendt and S. Diggs in 1924. They also showed that the lead oxide solution brought about oxidation of the mercaptans to the corresponding organic disulfides, which are comparatively
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Carburetor heat


and the relative humidity is above 80 percent. Carburetor heat uses hot air drawn from the heat exchanger or "heat stove" (a metal plate around the exhaust manifold) to raise the temperature in the venturi section high enough to prevent or remove any ice buildup. Because hot air is less dense than cold air, engine power will drop when carburetor heat is used. Engines equipped with fuel injection do not require carb heat as they are not as prone to icing - the gasoline is injected as a steady stream just upstream
11257676
Robert A. Kehoe


the help of DuPont. Soon, workers at Ethyl plants fell ill and a number of them died from lead poisoning. Kettering hired Kehoe to develop protocols for the workers handling TEL. Kehoe soon became the main medical advocate for the position that the use of TEL in gasoline is safe and gained prominence as the industry's expert at government and public health hearings. As almost all research support concerning leaded gasoline came from industry, and most was channeled to him, he held "an almost complete monopoly" on data for half
1459145
Cocaine


former times). Several hundred pounds of this mixture were soaked in of gasoline for a day, then the gasoline was removed and the leaves were pressed for remaining liquid, after which they could be discarded. Then battery acid (weak sulfuric acid) was used, one bucket per of leaves, to create a phase separation in which the cocaine free base in the gasoline was acidified and extracted into a few buckets of "murky-looking smelly liquid". Once powdered caustic soda was added to this, the cocaine precipitated
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Liquid fuel


, the most commonly seen may be beam pumps. To create gasoline, petroleum must first be removed from crude oil. Liquid gasoline itself is not actually burned, but its fumes ignite, causing the remaining liquid to evaporate and then burn. Gasoline is extremely volatile and easily combusts, making any leakage potentially extremely dangerous. Gasoline sold in most countries carries a published octane rating. The octane number is an empirical measure of the resistance of gasoline to combusting prematurely, known as knocking. The higher the octane rating, the more
3296481
Robert A. Kehoe


for Patterson's findings to change the prevailing view of the toxicity of ambient lead. The validation of Patterson's refutation of Kehoe's research required new, more precise research by several others, but ultimately the medical/public health argument prevailed. Kehoe's work is now considered discredited. By 2014, a majority of countries had discontinued the use of leaded gasoline in automobiles. Yet leaded gasoline continues to be produced and used, for example, for private aviation in the United States. Yandell Henderson, Alice Hamilton and others raised
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Clean Air Act (United States)


This part of the bill was extremely controversial the time it was passed. The automobile industry argued that it could not meet the new standards. Senators expressed concern about impact on the economy. However the stricter standards led to the creation of the catalytic converter, which was a revolutionary development. (Coincidentally, these converters didn't work well with leaded gas, which contributed to the swift removal of lead from gasoline that was also recognized for having adverse health effects.) Specific new emissions standards for moving sources passed years later.
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Lead poisoning


a result of the widespread use of leaded gasoline. Lead is one of the largest environmental medicine problems in terms of numbers of people exposed and the public health toll it takes. Lead exposure accounts for about 0.2% of all deaths and 0.6% of disability adjusted life years globally. Although regulation reducing lead in products has greatly reduced exposure in the developed world since the 1970s, lead is still allowed in products in many developing countries. In all countries that have banned leaded gasoline, average blood lead levels have fallen sharply.
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Crime in New York City


epidemic" and a small reduction by the police was enough to "tip" the balance. Another theory is that widespread exposure to lead pollution from automobile exhaust, which can lower intelligence and increase aggression levels, incited the initial crime wave in the mid-20th century, most acutely affecting heavily trafficked cities like New York. A strong correlation was found demonstrating that violent crime rates in New York and other big cities began to fall after lead was removed from American gasoline in the 1970s. In the 20th century, notorious New York-
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Aviation fuel


The production of aviation fuel falls into two categories: fuel suitable for turbine engines and fuel suitable for internal combustion engines. There are international specifications for each. Jet fuel is used in both turboprop and jet aircraft, and must maintain a low viscosity at low temperature, meet definite limits in terms of density and calorific value, burn cleanly, and remain chemically stable when heated to high temperature. Aviation gasoline, often referred to as "avgas" or 100-LL (low-lead), is a highly refined form of gasoline
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New York City


the crack epidemic and demographic changes, including from immigration. Another theory is that widespread exposure to lead pollution from automobile exhaust, which can lower intelligence and increase aggression levels, incited the initial crime wave in the mid-20th century, most acutely affecting heavily trafficked cities like New York. A strong correlation was found demonstrating that violent crime rates in New York and other big cities began to fall after lead was removed from American gasoline in the 1970s. Another theory cited to explain New York City's falling homicide rate is the inverse correlation
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Tetraethyllead


leaded gasoline. Leaded gasoline was withdrawn entirely from the European Union market on 1 January 2000, although it had been banned much earlier in most member states. Other countries also phased out TEL. India banned leaded petrol in March 2000. By 2011, the United Nations announced that it had been successful in phasing out leaded gasoline worldwide. "Ridding the world of leaded petrol, with the United Nations leading the effort in developing countries, has resulted in $2.4 trillion in annual benefits, 1.2 million fewer premature deaths, higher
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LeBlond Aircraft Engine Corporation


could be removed for overhaul or replacement. The Stromberg NAR-3 carburetor contained a built-in "primer" which acted like a choke by leaking gasoline into the intake stream when activated, in order to prime the engine. The valve springs used on LeBlond's and Ken-Royce engines were of the volute spring type which is wound in a beehive shape out of strip steel, unnlike most engines, which have nested coil springs wound from round wire. This type of spring was inherited from the original Detroit Air-Cat as
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G.I. pocket stove


inches in diameter, and weighs about three pounds. It was designed to burn either leaded or unleaded automobile gasoline (sometimes referred to as “white gasoline” or pure gasoline, without lead or additives). It can hold a pint of fuel, burn for over 3 hours on a full tank, and generate over per hour. Six small hinged metal pieces on the top fold outward for use as pot supports, and fold inward for storage. The stove comes with a two-piece telescoping aluminum case, which can
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Fuel taxes in the United States


a fractional ownership program aircraft, gasoline also is subject to a surtax of $0.141 per gallon. Kerosene for use in aviation (Jet fuel): Generally, kerosene is taxed at $0.244 per gallon unless a reduced rate applies. For kerosene removed directly from a terminal into the fuel tank of an aircraft for use in non-commercial aviation, the tax rate is $0.219. The rate of $0.219 also applies if kerosene is removed into any aircraft from a qualified refueler truck, tanker, or tank wagon that
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Catalytic reforming


processing plant for removal and recovery of propane and butane. The residual gas after such processing becomes part of the refinery's fuel gas system. The bottoms product from the stabilizer is the high-octane liquid reformate that will become a component of the refinery's product gasoline. Reformate can be blended directly in the gasoline pool but often it is separated in two or more streams. A common refining scheme consists in fractionating the reformate in two streams, light and heavy reformate. The light reformate has lower octane and can be used
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List of PSA engines


The XB is a family of inline-four gasoline engines: The XC was a family of inline-four gasoline engines primarily used in the Peugeot 404: The XD was a family of inline-four diesel engines designed by Indenor: The XK was an all-new inline-four engine developed for Peugeot's new 204, their first front-wheel drive car. The engine is made from aluminium and has removable cylinder liners. The engine had a distinctive design; the gearbox and differential were located directly below the engine
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Groundwater pollution


the groundwater pollution by gasoline leaked from petroleum underground storage tanks (USTs) of gas stations. BTEX compounds are the most common additives of the gasoline. BTEX compounds, including benzene, have densities lower than water (1 g/ml). Similar to the oil spills on the sea, the non-miscible phase, referred to as Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL), will “float” upon the water table in the aquifer. Chlorinated solvents are used in nearly any industrial practice where degreasing removers are
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Lead poisoning


been thought that the more polluted an area is with various contaminants, the more likely it is to contain lead. However, this is not always the case, as there are several other reasons for lead contamination in soil. Lead content in soil may be caused by broken-down lead paint, residues from lead-containing gasoline, used engine oil, tire weights, or pesticides used in the past, contaminated landfills, or from nearby industries such as foundries or smelters. Although leaded soil is less of a problem in
5828201
Anne Gorsuch Burford


the spraying of restricted-use pesticides. She cut the total number of agency employees, and hired staff from the industries they were supposed to be regulating. Environmentalists contended that her policies were designed to placate polluters, and accused her of trying to dismantle the agency. Thriftway Company, a small oil refinery in Farmington, New Mexico, asked Gorsuch for a meeting to discuss the regulations limiting lead content of gasoline, the program under Section 211 of the Clean Air Act designed to reduce the amount of lead in gasoline in annual
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Gun safety


as powder, smoke, and lead dust from the air around the shooters. Indoor and outdoor ranges typically require extensive decontamination when they are decommissioned to remove all traces of lead, copper, and powder residues from the area. Lead, copper and other metals will also be released when a firearm is cleaned. Highly aggressive solvents and other agents used to remove lead and powder fouling may also present a hazard to health. Installing good ventilation, washing hands after handling firearms, and cleaning the space where the firearm was handled lessens
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Kerosene


odor, which becomes poisonous in sufficient concentration. Ethanol was sometimes used instead, but the flames it produces look less impressive, and its lower flash point poses a high risk. As a petroleum product miscible with many industrial liquids, kerosene can be used as both a solvent, able to remove other petroleum products, such as chain grease, and as a lubricant, with less risk of combustion when compared to using gasoline. It can also be used as a cooling agent in metal production and treatment (oxygen-free conditions
17351499
Murder of Adrianne Reynolds


Sarah and Cory took Adrianne's body to Sarah's grandparents' farm in Aledo, Illinois, where they tried to burn it with gasoline. When it failed to burn after several hours, they recruited Nathan Gaudet, a 16-year-old boy from Moline, to help dismember the body. Nathan used his grandfather's handsaw to remove Adrianne's head and arms and placed them in a garbage bag. The three teenagers ate lunch at McDonald's, then later disposed of the garbage bag at the Black Hawk State Historic Site.
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MTBE controversy


the use of MTBE nationwide over four years.. Some states enacted MTBE prohibitions without waiting for federal restrictions. California banned MTBE as a gasoline additive in 2002. The State of New York banned the use of MTBE as a "fuel additive", effective in 2004. MTBE use is still legal in the state for other industrial uses. The federal Energy Policy Act of 2005 removed the oxygenate requirement for reformulated gasoline and established a renewable fuel standard. The lack of MTBE liability protection in the law also prompted refiners to substitute ethanol
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Fuel oil


. The term "fuel oil" is also used in a stricter sense to refer only to the heaviest commercial fuel that can be obtained from crude oil, i.e., heavier than gasoline and naphtha. Small molecules like those in propane, naphtha, gasoline for cars, and jet fuel have relatively low boiling points, and they are removed at the start of the fractional distillation process. Heavier petroleum products like diesel fuel and lubricating oil are much less volatile and distill out more slowly, while bunker oil is literally the bottom of
13257119
Six-stroke engine


, which expands by heat and therefore forces the piston down for an additional stroke. The valve overlaps have been removed, and the two additional strokes using air injection provide for better gas scavenging. The engine seems to show 40% reduction in fuel consumption and dramatic reduction in air pollution. Its Power-to-weight ratio is slightly less than that of a four-stroke gasoline engine. The engine can run on a variety of fuels, ranging from gasoline and diesel fuel to LPG. An altered engine shows a 65
15404262
Mill Island in Bydgoszcz


industrial architecture characteristic of the late 19th century. At the lower level were placed dye and steam engine boilers. The upper floors housed laundry facilities, gasoline sewage, ironing area, expedition and housing. Clothes were coming from several regional office branches (Chelmno, Grudziadz, Inowrocław and Torun), they were washed in special washing machines, using gasoline as detergent that could remove coffee, tea, beer and wine stains. After washing and drying, clothes were ironed and packed. William Kopp's facility was regarded as exemplary in
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Mt. Shasta Brewing Company


he bought the Medo-Bel Creamery building in Weed three days before it was to be auctioned off. In renovating the 1952 building into a brewery, serious gasoline soil contamination was discovered, traced to leaking gasoline tanks and pump facilities used for decades to fuel Medo-Bel's fleet of trucks. Dillmann was granted $995,000 in state funds intended to remove contaminants from underground storage tanks, and the property was finally pronounced clean in May 1999. The building took further improvements before beer could be made. Skylights were cut in
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Corn ethanol


ethanol. Compared to 2018, out of 14.62 billions of bushels of corn produced, 5.60 billions of bushels where used to produce corn ethanol, reported by the United States Department of Energy. Overall, 95% of ethanol is produced from corn. Currently, corn ethanol is mainly used in blends with gasoline to create mixtures such as E10, E15, and E85. Ethanol is mixed into more than 98% of United States gasoline to reduce air pollution. Corn ethanol is used as an oxygenate when mixed with gasoline. E10
1916047
Gasoline gallon equivalent


gas." When consumers refuel their CNG vehicles in the USA, the CNG is usually measured and sold in GGE units. This is fairly helpful as a comparison to gallons of gasoline. 1.5 gallons of ethanol has the same energy content as 1.0 gallon of gasoline. The energy content of 1.0 US gallon of ethanol is 76,100 BTU, compared to 114,100 BTU for gasoline. (see chart above) A flex-fuel vehicle will experience about 76% of the fuel mileage MPG when using E85 (85% ethanol) products
19147696
Octane rating


compress the fuel, but rather compress only air and then inject fuel into the air which was heated by compression. Gasoline engines rely on ignition of air and fuel compressed together as a mixture, which is ignited at the end of the compression stroke using spark plugs. Therefore, high compressibility of the fuel matters mainly for gasoline engines. Use of gasoline with lower octane numbers may lead to the problem of engine knocking. In a normal spark-ignition engine, the air-fuel mixture is heated as a result of being
16230436
Gasoline


the declining number of such cars on British roads saw many gasoline stations withdrawing LRP from sale by 2003. Methylcyclopentadienyl manganese tricarbonyl (MMT) is used in Canada and the USA to boost octane rating. It also helps old cars designed for leaded fuel run on unleaded fuel without the need for additives to prevent valve problems. Its use in the United States has been restricted by regulations. Its use in the European Union is restricted by Article 8a of the Fuel Quality Directive following its testing under the Protocol for the evaluation of effects
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