what is the function of pons in brain
Evolution of the brain


tend to preserve the structures responsible for basic behaviors. A long term human study comparing the human brain to the primitive brain found that the modern human brain contains the primitive hindbrain region – what most neuroscientists call the protoreptilian brain. The purpose of this part of the brain is to sustain fundamental homeostatic functions. The pons and medulla are major structures found there. A new region of the brain developed in mammals about 250 million years after the appearance of the hindbrain. This region is known as the paleomammalian brain, the major parts
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Diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma


A diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma (DIPG) is a tumour located in the pons (middle) of the brain stem. Glioma is a general name for any tumour that arises from the supportive tissue called glia, which help keep the neurons in place and functioning well. DIPG is a brainstem glioma. The brain stem is the bottommost portion of the brain, connecting the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The majority of brain stem tumours occur in the pons and are diffusely infiltrating (they grow amidst the nerves), and therefore
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Costanzo Varolio


he published this new method of dissecting the brain whereby he separated the brain from the skull and began the dissection from the base. Varolio described many of the brain's structures for the first time including the pons or "pons Varolii" which is a reflex center of respiration and a communication bridge between spinal cord and brain, the "crura cerebri" and the ileocecal valve. Another area of interest to him was the mechanism of erectile function. Although the “Musculi erectores penis” (i.e. Mm. bulbospongiosi and ischicavernosi)
19647458
Myelencephalon


weeks gestation. The medulla oblongata is part of the brain stem that serves as the connection of the spinal cord to the brain. It is situated between the pons and the spinal cord. The medulla oblongata is responsible for several functions of the autonomic nervous system. These functions include: 1) Respiration: monitors the acidity of the blood and sends electrical signals to intercostal muscle tissue to increase their contraction rate in order to oxygenate the blood as needed. 2) Cardiac & Vasomotor Center: monitors and regulates cardiovascular activities by:
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Neural correlates of consciousness


well as the granularity of conscious experience to give an integrated-information-theoretical account of consciousness. As behavioral arousal increases so does the range and complexity of possible behavior. Yet in REM sleep there is a characteristic atonia, low motor arousal and the person is difficult to wake up, but there is still high metabolic and electric brain activity and vivid perception. Many nuclei with distinct chemical signatures in the thalamus, midbrain and pons must function for a subject to be in a sufficient state of brain arousal to experience anything at
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Anatomy of the cerebellum


, laid out with a highly stereotyped geometry. The cerebellum is located at the base of the brain, with the large mass of the cerebral cortex above it and the portion of the brainstem called the pons in front of it. It is separated from the overlying cerebrum by a layer of tough dura mater; all of its connections with other parts of the brain travel through the pons. Anatomists classify the cerebellum as part of the metencephalon, which also includes the pons; the metencephalon in turn is the upper part of the
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Metencephalon


its two main structures, the pons and the cerebellum. The pons regulates breathing through particular nuclei that regulate the breathing center of the medulla oblongata. The cerebellum works to coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture, and integrate sensory information from the inner ear and proprioceptors in the muscles and joints. At the early stages of brain development, the brain vesicles that are formed are imperative. Each brain region is characterized by its own specific architecture. These regions of the brain are determined by a combination of transcription factors and the signals that
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Human brain


of breathing, mainly by respiratory centres in the medulla and pons. The respiratory centres control respiration, by generating motor signals that are passed down the spinal cord, along the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm and other muscles of respiration. This is a mixed nerve that carries sensory information back to the centres. There are four respiratory centres, three with a more clearly defined function, and an apneustic centre with a less clear function. In the medulla a dorsal respiratory group causes the desire to breathe in and receives sensory information directly
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Central nervous system


processing unit of the nervous system. The brainstem consists of the medulla, the pons and the midbrain. The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, which both have similar organization and functional properties. The tracts passing from the spinal cord to the brain pass through here. Regulatory functions of the medulla nuclei include control of blood pressure and breathing. Other nuclei are involved in balance, taste, hearing, and control of muscles of the face and neck. The next structure rostral to the medulla is
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Cognitive neuroscience of dreams


of dream cessation (111 cases in all) damage was located in an entirely different area of the brain than the brain stem. Furthermore, REM sleep was maintained. Remember that the pons is crucial for REM. Loss of dreaming only occurred when higher parts of the cerebral hemispheres were damaged. REM sleep is controlled by cholinergic activation in the pons. It is now believed that dreaming may be a dopaminergic process that occurs in limbic and frontal areas of the brain. Two main frontal areas have been implicated in the dream process
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Equipotentiality


equipotentiality to define the idea that if one part of the brain is damaged, other parts of the brain will carry out the memory functions for that damaged part. "The apparent capacity of any intact part of a functional brain to carry out… the [memory] functions which are lost by the destruction of [other parts]". Another way of putting this is, the brain has the ability to use any functioning part of the brain to do what a damaged part of the brain no longer can do. Equipotentiality
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Pons


The pons (Latin for "bridge") is part of the brainstem, and in humans and other bipeds lies inferior to the midbrain, superior to the medulla oblongata and anterior to the cerebellum. The pons is also called the pons Varolii ("bridge of Varolius"), after the Italian anatomist and surgeon Costanzo Varolio (1543–75). This region of the brainstem includes neural pathways and tracts that conduct signals from the brain down to the cerebellum and medulla, and tracts that carry the sensory signals up into the thalamus
7070544
Allen Brain Atlas


effect the development of the brain. Thus, the atlas may be used to determine what toxins pose special threats to children and pregnant mothers. The Allen Mouse Brain Connectivity Atlas was launched in November 2011. Unlike other atlases from the Allen Institute, this atlas focuses on the identification of neural circuitry that govern behavior and brain function. This neural circuitry is responsible for functions like behavior and perception. This map will allow scientists to further understand how the brain works and what causes brain diseases and disorders, such as Parkinson's disease
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Michael Gazzaniga


split brained patients and how their brains work. He has performed numerous studies and done large amounts of research on split brain patients to provide a higher quality understanding into the lives of those affected by this rare phenomenon. He has studied how people who have the two halves of the brain separated function in comparison to those who do not. Gazzaniga has looked into what bodily functions are controlled by each half of the brain. He has looked at what split brained patients are able to do as a result of their condition such as
19473325
Human brain


an inner medulla of white matter and an outer cortex of richly folded grey matter. The cerebellum's anterior and posterior lobes appear to play a role in the coordination and smoothing of complex motor movements, and the flocculonodular lobe in the maintenance of balance although debate exists as to its cognitive, behavioural and motor functions. The brainstem lies beneath the cerebrum and consists of the midbrain, pons and medulla. It lies in the back part of the skull, resting on the part of the base known as the clivus, and ends
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Nucleus (neuroanatomy)


for example, is a thin layer of inhibitory neurons that surrounds the thalamus. Some of the major anatomical components of the brain are organized as clusters of interconnected nuclei. Notable among these are the thalamus and hypothalamus, each of which contains several dozen distinguishable substructures. The medulla and pons also contain numerous small nuclei with a wide variety of sensory, motor, and regulatory functions. In the peripheral nervous system (PNS), a cluster of cell bodies of neurons (homologous to a CNS nucleus) is called a ganglion.
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Cognitive neuroscience of dreams


Kleitman's discovery prompted further research into the brain mechanism involved in REM sleep (and by their assumption, dreaming). It was found that REM is generated by a small region of cells located in the brain stem called the pons (it sits slightly above the spinal cord at the nape of the neck). The pons releases acetylcholine which travels to parts of the forebrain. Cholinergic activation of these higher areas was thought to result in the meaningless images that make up our dreams. This process is switched off by noradrenaline and
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Cerebral cortex


just those structures around the lateral sulcus, including the frontal lobe, basal ganglia, cerebellum, and pons. Neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Lafora disease, show as a marker, an atrophy of the grey matter of the cerebral cortex. Other diseases of the central nervous system include neurological disorders such as epilepsy, movement disorders, and difficulties in speech (aphasia). Brain damage from disease or trauma, can involve damage to a specific lobe such as in frontal lobe disorder, and associated functions will be affected
13592701
Musical hallucinations


PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) show that musical hallucinations activate a wide variety of areas in the brain including the following: auditory areas, motor cortex, visual areas, basal ganglia, brainstem, pons, tegmentum, cerebellum, hippocampi, amygdala, and peripheral auditory system. To date, there is no successful method of treatment that "cures" musical hallucinations. There have been successful therapies in single cases that have ameliorated the hallucinations. Some of these successes include drugs such as neuroleptics, antidepressants, and
14927404
Mind–body problem


externalized, physical consciousness: ranging from a total absence in coma, persistent vegetative state and general anesthesia, to a fluctuating, minimally conscious state, such as sleep walking and epileptic seizure. Many nuclei with distinct chemical signatures in the thalamus, midbrain and pons must function for a subject to be in a sufficient state of brain arousal to experience anything at all. These nuclei therefore belong to the enabling factors for consciousness. Conversely it is likely that the specific content of any particular conscious sensation is mediated by particular neurons in the
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Medial pontine reticular formation


The medial pontine reticular formation (MPRF) is a part of the human brain located in the pons of the brainstem (specifically the central pontine reticular formation). It plays a critical function in the generation of REM sleep. GABAergic neurons of the MPRF are activated by Acetylcholine (released by the Pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus), and in turn activate cells in the basal forebrain -- namely the Dorsal raphe nucleus (which produces serotonin) and the Locus coeruleus (which produces Norepinephrine). This activation will stimulate cortical activity, which is
21500148
Central neurogenic hyperventilation


of elevated arterial oxygen tension, decreased arterial carbon dioxide tension, and progressive tachypnea. Postmortem examination of the nine patients’ brains reported by Plum and Swanson, revealed necrosis of the central pons in five of the nine patients, and indirect compression of the pons in one additional patient. Their initial findings suggested that lesions in the medial pontine tegmentum leads to a disruption of cortical inhibitory effects of medullar respiratory center. Plum and Swanson suggested that failure to inhibit the activity of this particular region of the brain results in continuous stimulation of
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Rhythmic movement disorder


association with Alpha waves that contain a mixture of K complexes and arousals, regardless of the NREM stage in which the RMD occurred. The occurrence of these two sequences of brain waves suggests that the disorder is linked to an “unstable vigilance level” throughout NREM sleep . It has been noted that there is a complete absence of any EEG signs during or immediately after an intense rhythmic movement . After the episode, normal EEG patterns return. Functional MRI scans have shown that the mesencephalon and pons may be involved in the loss of
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Brainstem death


of permanent loss of the intrinsically untestable consciousness-arousal function of those elements of the reticular formation which lie within the brainstem (there are elements also within the higher brain). Knowledge of this arousal system is based upon the findings from animal experiments as illuminated by pathological studies in humans. The current neurological consensus is that the arousal of consciousness depends upon reticular components which reside in the midbrain, diencephalon and pons. It is said that the midbrain reticular formation may be viewed as a driving centre for the higher structures, loss
20168158
Reduced affect display


schizophrenia without blunted affect show activation in the following brain areas when shown emotionally negative pictures: midbrain, pons, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, ventrolateral orbitofrontal cortex, anterior temporal pole, amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex, and extrastriate visual cortex. Individuals with schizophrenia with blunted affect show activation in the following brain regions when shown emotionally negative pictures: midbrain, pons, anterior temporal pole, and extrastriate visual cortex. Individuals with schizophrenia with flat affect show decreased activation in the limbic system when viewing emotional stimuli. In individuals with schizophrenia
6621043
Spock's Brain


captured. The party is brought before the leader of the women, Kara, who is the same woman who appeared on the "Enterprise" bridge. Kirk demands to know what they have done with Spock's brain, but Kara claims not to understand what a brain is. As they try to explain the function of a brain, she realizes that what they are seeking is the "Controller", on which the underground civilization is completely dependent. The landing party escapes and follow Spock's signals to a control room where
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Annual BCI Research Award


BCI K. Hamada, H. Mori, H. Shinoda, T.M. Rutkowski (The University of Tokyo, JP, Life Science Center of TARA, University of Tsukuba, JP, RIKEN Brain Science Institute, JP) "Second place:" brHeterogeneous BCI-triggered functional electrical stimulation intervention for the upper-limb rehabilitation of stroke patients J. Ibáñez, J. I. Serrano, M. D. del Castillo, E. Monge, F. Molina, F.M. Rivas, J.L. Pons (Bioengineering Group of the Spanish National Research Council (CSIC), LAMBECOM group,
1344027
Brain asymmetry


able to detect asymmetry between the hemispheres on the population level. In the mid-19th century scientists first began to make discoveries regarding lateralization of the brain, or differences in anatomy and corresponding function between the brain's two hemispheres. Franz Gall, a German anatomist, was the first to describe what is now known as the Doctrine of Cerebral Localization. Gall believed that, rather than the brain operating as a single, whole entity, different mental functions could be attributed to different parts of the brain. He was also the first to
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Dysgeusia


, can be potential factors. In a case study, 22% of patients who were experiencing a bladder obstruction were also suffering from dysgeusia. Dysgeusia was eliminated in 100% of these patients once the obstruction was removed. Although it is uncertain what the relationship between bladder relief and dysgeusia entails, it has been observed that the areas responsible for urinary system and taste in the pons and cerebral cortex in the brain are close in proximity. Many of the causes for dysgeusia occur due to unknown reasons. A wide range of miscellaneous
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Ancient History (novel)


with "equidistant" and "directrix", are vague and metaphorical. Cy has a theory concerning what he calls the "Vectoral Muscle", located in the brain near the pons Varolii. It is a gift that usually only children might have, allowing them to see the geometric relations between everything. But it can go wrong, leading to "Vectoral Dystrophy". In the two reviews from the NYT cited below, note that the first review has the incorrect "Paraphrase" in the subtitle, while the second review
993338
Central nervous system


the pons, which lies on the ventral anterior side of the brainstem. Nuclei in the pons include pontine nuclei which work with the cerebellum and transmit information between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex. In the dorsal posterior pons lie nuclei that are involved in the functions of breathing, sleep, and taste. The midbrain, or mesencephalon, is situated above and rostral to the pons. It includes nuclei linking distinct parts of the motor system, including the cerebellum, the basal ganglia and both cerebral hemispheres, among others. Additionally
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Evolutionary neuroscience


determined that brain to body ratio reduces as body size increases. However more recently, there is more focus on absolute brain size as this scales with internal structures and functions, with the degree of structural complexity, and with the amount of white matter in the brain, all suggesting that absolute size is much better predictor of brain function. Finally, a fourth argument is that of natural selection (Darwinism) versus developmental constraints (concerted evolution). It is now accepted that the evolution of development is what causes adult species to
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Externalism


Externalism is a group of positions in the philosophy of mind which argues that the conscious mind is not only the result of what is going on inside the nervous system (or the brain), but also what "occurs" or "exists" outside the subject. It is contrasted with internalism which holds that the mind emerges from neural activity alone. Externalism is a belief that the mind is not just the brain or functions of the brain. There are different versions of externalism based on different beliefs about what the mind is
8857584
Cortical cooling


Neuroscientists generate various studies to help explain many of the complex connections and functions of the brain. Most studies utilize animal models that have varying degrees of comparison to the human brain; for example, small rodents are less comparable than non-human primates. One of the most definitive ways of determining which sections of the brain contribute to certain behavior or function is to deactivate a section of the brain and observe what behavior is altered. Investigators have a wide range of options for deactivating neural tissue, and one of the more recently
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Neurotechnology


improve the quality of life in patients. While deep brain stimulation is a method to study how the brain functions per se, it provides both surgeons and neurologists important information about how the brain works when certain small regions of the basal ganglia (nuclei) are stimulated by electrical currents. The future of neurotechnologies lies in how they are fundamentally applied, and not so much on what new versions will be developed. Current technologies give a large amount of insight into the mind and how the brain functions, but basic research is still
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Functionalism (philosophy of mind)


, not the functional role itself. The mental state of belief, for example, just is whatever brain or neurological process that realizes the appropriate belief function. Thus, unlike standard versions of functionalism (often called "Functional State Identity Theories"), FSTs do not allow for the multiple realizability of mental states, because the fact that mental states are realized by brain states is essential. What often drives this view is the belief that if we were to encounter an alien race with a cognitive system composed of significantly different material
18009334
William H. Calvin


an advocate of the idea that brain-based Darwinian processes are what provides brains with what are called "consciousness" and "intelligence". Calvin starts with the harmless division of brain processes into two types, those that depend on "cerebral ruts" (hardware) and those that dance more freely through the brain and so are able to function like "software"; Calvin usually calls these "firing patterns". Calvin's more audacious step, in his research monograph "The Cerebral Code", comes when he suggests
18284695
Functional magnetic resonance imaging


when certain brain regions are alleged by researchers to identify the activation of previously labeled cognitive processes. Poldrack clearly describes this issue: Reverse inference demonstrates the logical fallacy of affirming what you just found, although this logic could be supported by instances where a certain outcome is generated solely by a specific occurrence. With regard to the brain and brain function it is seldom that a particular brain region is activated solely by one cognitive process. Some suggestions to improve the legitimacy of reverse inference have included both increasing the selectivity of response in the
6425448
Human brain


cerebral vein. Blood from the medulla and pons of the brainstem have a variable pattern of drainage, either into the spinal veins or into adjacent cerebral veins. The blood in the deep part of the brain drains, through a venous plexus into the cavernous sinus at the front, and the superior and inferior petrosal sinuses at the sides, and the inferior sagittal sinus at the back. Blood drains from the outer brain into the large superior sagittal sinus, which rests in the midline on top of the brain. Blood from here
16628467
Human brain


The metencephalon gives rise to the cerebellum and pons. The myelencephalon gives rise to the medulla oblongata. Also during the fifth week, the brain divides into repeating segments called neuromeres. In the hindbrain these are known as rhombomeres. A characteristic of the brain is the cortical folding known as gyrification. During fetal development, the cortex starts off smooth. By the gestational age of 24 weeks, the wrinkled morphology showing the fissures that begin to mark out the lobes of the brain is evident. Scientists do not have a clear answer
16628474
China brain


presents a version of what is known as the absent qualia objection to functionalism because it purports to show that it's possible for something to be functionally equivalent to a human being and yet have no conscious experience. A creature that functions like a human being but doesn't feel anything is known as a "philosophical zombie". So the absent qualia objection to functionalism could also be called the "zombie objection". Some philosophers, like Daniel Dennett, have concluded that the China brain does create a mental state. Functionalist philosophers
12222480
Mad in America


by drug trials but were not mentioned to the public. Whitaker calls it a type of medical fraud that schizophrenics are told that they suffer from too much dopamine or serotonin activity and that drugs put these brain chemicals back in "balance". He writes, "Little is known about what causes schizophrenia. Antipsychotic drugs do not fix any known brain abnormality, nor do they put brain chemistry back into balance. What they do is alter brain function in a manner that diminishes certain characteristic symptoms...". Recognizing Whitaker for marshalling
15225344
3D Virtual Creature Evolution


), what percentage sexually or asexually reproduce, and selection type is then determined. Crossover rate determines what percentage of an individual is created via crossover of parents and mutation. Mutation rate in body and brain is then determined. Specific mathematical operations and values can be attributed to the creature’s brain as well. Fitness function is then determined. Artificial organisms’ fitness score is determined by how well they achieve their fitness goal within their evaluation time. Fitness functions include distance traveled, maximum height, average height, “TOG”
11565147
Brainstem


The brainstem (or brain stem) is the posterior part of the brain, continuous with the spinal cord. In the human brain the brainstem includes the midbrain, and the pons and medulla oblongata of the hindbrain. Sometimes the diencephalon, the caudal part of the forebrain, is included. The brainstem provides the main motor and sensory nerve supply to the face and neck via the cranial nerves. Of the thirteen pairs of cranial nerves, ten pairs (or twelve, if the diencephalon is included in the brainstem) come from
8487689
Cerebellum


from the overlying cerebrum by a layer of leathery dura mater, the tentorium cerebelli; all of its connections with other parts of the brain travel through the pons. Anatomists classify the cerebellum as part of the metencephalon, which also includes the pons; the metencephalon is the upper part of the rhombencephalon or "hindbrain". Like the cerebral cortex, the cerebellum is divided into two hemispheres; it also contains a narrow midline zone (the vermis). A set of large folds is, by convention, used to divide the
5280003
Hindbrain


The metencephalon is composed of the pons and the cerebellum; it contains: Rhombomeres Rh8-Rh4 form the myelencephalon. The myelencephalon forms the medulla oblongata in the adult brain; it contains: The hindbrain is homologous to a part of the arthropod brain known as the sub-oesophageal ganglion, in terms of the genes that it expresses and its position in between the brain and the nerve cord. On this basis, it has been suggested that the hindbrain first evolved in the Urbilaterian—the last common ancestor of chordates and arthropods—between
14009537
Brain


, and contain pattern generators for rhythmic movements such as walking or swimming. The descending connections from the brain allow for more sophisticated control. The brain contains several motor areas that project directly to the spinal cord. At the lowest level are motor areas in the medulla and pons, which control stereotyped movements such as walking, breathing, or swallowing. At a higher level are areas in the midbrain, such as the red nucleus, which is responsible for coordinating movements of the arms and legs. At a higher level yet is
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Connectome (book)


attempt to confine particular functions to particular regions. For instance, phantom-limb pain is hypothesized to result when brain regions formerly devoted to the now-missing lower arm become occupied for use by the upper arm and face. Hence, stimulation of the upper arm or face produces what feels like pain in the missing lower arm. In contrast to brain localization is the theory of equipotentiality, that any brain region has the "potential" to perform any function. Seung discusses basic cell-level neuroscience, including the structure of
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Vestibulocochlear nerve


The vestibulocochlear nerve (auditory vestibular nerve), known as the eighth cranial nerve, transmits sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the brain. The vestibulocochlear nerve consists mostly of bipolar neurons and splits into two large divisions: the cochlear nerve and the vestibular nerve. Cranial nerve 8, the vestibulocochlear nerve, goes to the middle portion of the brainstem called the pons, (which then is largely composed of fibers going to the cerebellum). The 8th cranial nerve runs between the base of the pons
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PGO waves


Ponto-geniculo-occipital waves or PGO waves are phasic field potentials. These waves can be recorded from the pons, the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), and the occipital cortex regions of the brain, where these waveforms originate. The waves begin as electrical pulses from the pons, then move to the lateral geniculate nucleus residing in the thalamus, and then finally end up in the primary visual cortex of the occipital lobe. The appearances of these waves are most prominent in the period right before rapid eye movement sleep (
12597759
Neuro-oncology


Neuro-oncology is the study of brain and spinal cord neoplasms, many of which are (at least eventually) very dangerous and life-threatening (astrocytoma, glioma, glioblastoma multiforme, ependymoma, pontine glioma, and brain stem tumors are among the many examples of these). Among the malignant brain cancers, gliomas of the brainstem and pons, glioblastoma multiforme, and high-grade (highly anaplastic) astrocytoma are among the worst. In these cases, untreated survival usually amounts to only a few months, and survival
19992744
Brain


the passage of many toxins and pathogens (though at the same time blocking antibodies and some drugs, thereby presenting special challenges in treatment of diseases of the brain). Neuroanatomists usually divide the vertebrate brain into six main regions: the telencephalon (cerebral hemispheres), diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus), mesencephalon (midbrain), cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata. Each of these areas has a complex internal structure. Some parts, such as the cerebral cortex and the cerebellar cortex, consist of layers that are folded or
3380166
Pontine nuclei


The pontine nuclei (or griseum pontis) are the nuclei of the pons involved in motor activity. The pontine nuclei are located in the ventral pons. Corticopontine fibres carry information from the primary motor cortex to the ipsilateral pontine nucleus in the ventral pons, and the pontocerebellar projection then carries that information to the contralateral cerebellum via the middle cerebellar peduncle. Extension of these nuclei in the medulla oblongata are named arcuate nucleus (medulla) which has the same function. They therefore allow modification of actions in the light of their outcome,
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NUMB (gene)


increasing its presence in the non-aPKC pole. This establishes the asymmetric distribution of Numb, with the Numb/Pon crescent on one side of the mother cell. Another proposed component of the localization complex is Partner of Numb (PON), which is asymmetrically localized during mitosis and acts as an adaptor protein by binding and mediating the anchoring of Numb. The localization of PON is controlled by either Insc or the Frizzled-Wnt signaling pathway. Numb’s primary function in cell differentiation is as an inhibitor of Notch signaling which
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Left-brain interpreter


The left-brain interpreter is a neuropsychological concept developed by the psychologist Michael S. Gazzaniga and the neuroscientist Joseph E. LeDoux. It refers to the construction of explanations by the left brain hemisphere in order to make sense of the world by reconciling new information with what was known before. The left-brain interpreter attempts to rationalize, reason and generalize new information it receives in order to relate the past to the present. Left-brain interpretation is a case of the lateralization of brain function that applies to "explanation generation" rather
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Vertebrobasilar insufficiency


Vertebrobasilar insufficiency (VBI) or vertebral-basilar ischemia, also called beauty parlour syndrome (BPS), is a temporary set of symptoms due to decreased blood flow (ischemia) in the posterior circulation of the brain. The posterior circulation supplies blood to the medulla, cerebellum, pons, midbrain, thalamus, and occipital cortex (responsible for vision). Therefore, the symptoms due to VBI vary according to which portions of the brain experience significantly decreased blood flow (see image of brain ). In the United States,
4070436
Miodrag Radulovacki


that the electroencephalographic (EEG) pattern of sleep in cats with split brain to the pons is synchronous in both brain hemispheres, indicating the importance of the brainstem in sleep regulation. In 1966, Radulovacki accepted a teaching position with the Physiology Department in the College of Medicine at the University of Khartoum, Sudan. There he invented an approach for obtaining cerebrospinal fluid using a cannula to the cisterna magna in the brain of cats. The cannulation method enabled researchers to obtain cerebrospinal fluid during sleep and wakefulness for the analysis of monoamine metabolites
5615346
Norepinephrine


; it also increases restlessness and anxiety. In the rest of the body, norepinephrine increases heart rate and blood pressure, triggers the release of glucose from energy stores, increases blood flow to skeletal muscle, reduces blood flow to the gastrointestinal system, and inhibits voiding of the bladder and gastrointestinal motility. In the brain, noradrenaline is produced in nuclei that are small yet exert powerful effects on other brain areas. The most important of these nuclei is the locus coeruleus, located in the pons. Outside the brain, norepinephrine is
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Olivopontocerebellar atrophy


Olivopontocerebellar atrophy (OPCA) is the degeneration of neurons in specific areas of the brain – the cerebellum, pons, and inferior olivary nucleus. OPCA is present in several neurodegenerative syndromes, including inherited and non-inherited forms of ataxia (such as the hereditary spinocerebellar ataxia known as Machado–Joseph disease) and multiple system atrophy (MSA), with which it is primarily associated. OPCA may also be found in the brains of individuals with prion disorders and inherited metabolic diseases. The characteristic areas of brain damage that indicate OPCA
9340881
Educational neuroscience


know that synaptogenesis occurs, and that the pattern of synaptogenesis is important for normal brain function. However, what is lacking is the ability of neuroscience to tell educators what sort of early childhood experiences might enhance children’s cognitive capacities or educational outcomes. The idea that a person can have a "male" brain or "female" brain is a misinterpretation of terms used to describe cognitive styles by when attempting to conceptualise the nature of cognitive patterns in people with autism spectrum disorder. Baron-Cohen suggested that while men were better
4128193
Giuseppe Moruzzi


responsible for wakefulness. Until the 1940s, some scientists felt like wakefulness simply required an adequate level of sensory input rather than a specific process inside the brain. In a 1949 experiment with a cat, Moruzzi and Magoun proved that stimulation of a certain brain region (near the intersection of the pons and midbrain) created a state of alertness. This stimulated area of the brain became known as the reticular activating system or reticular formation. In their experiments, Moruzzi and Magoun also transected the cat's reticular formation without disrupting any of
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Cerebral edema


Cerebral edema is excess accumulation of fluid (edema) in the intracellular or extracellular spaces of the brain. Most changes in morphology are associated with cerebral edema: the brain becomes soft and smooth and overfills the cranial vault, gyri become flattened, sulci become narrowed, and ventricular cavities become compressed. Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, blurred vision, faintness, and in severe cases, seizures and coma. If brain herniation occurs, respiratory symptoms or respiratory arrest can also occur due to compression of the respiratory centres in the pons and
9588038
Autotopagnosia


what precise deficits in brain function cause the symptoms of autotopagnosia, the location of brain damage is not as ambiguous. Autotopagnosia is most often attributed to lesions in the parietal lobe of the left hemisphere of the brain. However, it is also believed that the disorder can be caused by general brain damage as well. Many different types of brain lesions can cause autotopagnosia; however, neoplastic lesions seem to be the most common. “Pure” autotopagnosia is often seen with smaller lesions, as larger lesions tend to create other unseen
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Brain Assist


Brain Assist or Touch de Uno DS is a puzzle video game released for Nintendo DS in Japan, North America, and the PAL region. Studies in the 1960s demonstrated the lateralization of brain function. The left-brain hemisphere deals with sequential analysis - reasoning using language, mathematics, abstraction and reasoning. Memory is primarily stored in a language format. The right-brain hemisphere deals with auditory, visual, and spatial concepts (art, for example) dancing and gymnastics, which is what the game aims to stimulate in
18378710
Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint-Pons-de-Thomières


who was consecrated a 'Constitutional Bishop' in Paris on 3 April 1791. Bishop Pouderous was unwelcome in Montpellier, however, and had to take up residence in Béziers. During the Terror, Pouderous took refuge in Saint-Pons-de-Thomières, while most of his clergy resigned their functions. Back in Béziers, he died on 10 April 1799. A new bishop, Alexandre-Victor Rouanet, was elected in April and consecrated in November 1799. He too had been a priest of Saint-Pons-de
17543968
Concussions in American football


their brains possess similar attributes to that of human brains. Using a special device, the mice were given precise impacts that would lead to mild brain traumas similar to what an athlete would suffer in contact sports. The mice, whose brains were scanned using a specialized MRI, immediately showed changes to the electrical functions of their brains. A concussion is a frequent injury among football players. Concussions occur when the head is subject to a large impact force, resulting in a minor brain injury. There has been a growing concern about
4251272
Olney's lesions


cingulate and retrosplenial cortex, and found no evidence of Olney's lesions. In 2013 a study using magnetic resonance imaging showed brain lesions in ketamine addicts with severity depending on the duration of addiction and daily intake of ketamine. Cortical atrophy and holes in superficial white matter are seen early on. After 4 years of addiction lesions spread throughout the brain and damage is evident in the pons and other deeper brain structures. In medical settings, NMDA receptor antagonists are used as anesthetics, so GABA receptor positive allosteric modulators are used to effectively
4185031
Lateralization of brain function


left visual field, and thus the left or right brain, respectively. It was observed that if the patient was presented with an image to his left visual field (right brain), he would report not seeing anything. If he was able to feel around for certain objects, he could accurately pick out the correct object, despite not having the ability to verbalize what he saw. This led to confirmation that the left brain is localized for language whereas the right brain does not have this capability, and when the corpus
14083687
Equipotentiality


the brain, they did have troubles finding food. This would suggest that just one part of the brain is not responsible for memory and localization was totally ruled out. What they concluded was that multiple parts of the brain work together for memory and retention. They also found that rats with lesions in a small specific area had functioning sensory systems and it seemed that when parts of the brain were damaged for a certain action, other parts of the brain were compensating so those actions could be carried out. Lashley coined the term
6071806
Hilary Putnam


of functionalism called "liberal functionalism". The view holds that "what matters for consciousness and for mental properties generally is the right sort of functional capacities and not the particular matter that subserves those capacities". The specification of these capacities (1) may refer to what goes on outside the organism's "brain", (2) may include intentional idioms, and (3) need not describe a capacity to compute something or other. One of Putnam's contributions to philosophy of language is his claim that "meaning
333597
Neurotechnology


the brain and can be used to explain activation and deactivation of parts of the brain under specific conditions. Transcranial magnetic stimulation is a relatively new method of studying how the brain functions and is used in many research labs focused on behavioral disorders and hallucinations. What makes TMS research so interesting in the neuroscience community is that it can target specific regions of the brain and shut them down or activate temporarily; thereby changing the way the brain behaves. Personality disorders can stem from a variety of external factors, but when the disorder stems
11581585
History of neuroimaging


. For the past decade we have been able to get data and now our technology allows us to share findings and research much easier. This has also allowed for "brain atlases" to be made. Brain atlases are simply maps of what normal functioning brains look like (Thompson, Bioinformatics). Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a recent innovation in brain imaging. In TMS, a coil is held near a person's head to generate magnetic field impulses that stimulate underlying brain cells to make someone perform a specific action
314424
Resting state fMRI


Resting state fMRI (rsfMRI or R-fMRI) is a method of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) that is used in brain mapping to evaluate regional interactions that occur in a resting or task-negative state, when an explicit task is not being performed. A number of resting-state conditions are identified in the brain, one of which is the default mode network. These resting brain state conditions are observed through changes in blood flow in the brain which creates what is referred to as a blood-oxygen-
11100510
Mad in America


of public mental healthcare systems." In a rejoinder to Goldman's review, physician Nathaniel S. Lehrman disagrees with Goldman, and writes that "Whitaker is right," and goes on to agree with the main points in the book, namely that antipsychotic drugs cause brain damage, that despite "psychiatrically produced misconceptions," they "do not fix any known brain abnormality nor do they put brain chemistry back into balance. What they do is alter brain functions in a manner that diminishes certain characteristic symptoms." Lehrman then writes
15225352
Gitte Moos Knudsen


MDMA) is at the forefront of world knowledge, and she is a noted scholar in these areas, publishing many papers on each topic. Her interest in brain imaging has led to a deeper understanding of how many receptors act within the brain, and she has produced studies using SPECT, PET, and MRI results to interpret these. A key issue is that the latest brain research not only contributes to increased understanding of brain functions, but is also used to attempt to explain what it means to be human. The Lundbeck
5085508
Functional specialization (brain)


RH) of the brain. When asked to repeat what they had previously seen, participants were unable to recall the image flashed, but were very successful in drawing the image. Therefore, Sperry concluded that the left hemisphere of the brain was dedicated to language as the participants could clearly speak the image flashed. On the other hand, Sperry concluded that the right hemisphere of the brain was involved in more creative activities such as drawing. Located in the parahippocampal gyrus, the parahippocampal place area (PPA) was coined by Nancy
7303229
Neurotechnology


for imaging activation in the brain. While detail about how MRI works is reserved for the actual MRI article, the uses of MRI are far reaching in the study of neuroscience. It is a cornerstone technology in studying the mind, especially with the advent of functional MRI (fMRI). Functional MRI measures the oxygen levels in the brain upon activation (higher oxygen content = neural activation) and allows researchers to understand what loci are responsible for activation under a given stimulus. This technology is a large improvement to single cell or
11581569
Neurological disorder


of neural function or differences in brain structure. In general, numerous fields intersect to try and understand the basic processes involved in mental functioning, many of which are brought together in cognitive science. The distinction between neurological and mental disorders can be a matter of some debate, either in regard to specific facts about the cause of a condition or in regard to the general understanding of brain and mind. Moveover, the definition of disorder in medicine or psychology is sometimes contested in terms of what is considered abnormal, dysfunctional, harmful
13563988
Phrenology


on the brains of pigeons indicated that the loss of parts of the brain either caused no loss of function, or the loss of a completely different function than what had been attributed to it by phrenology. Flourens' experiment, while not perfect, seemed to indicate that Gall's supposed organs were imaginary. Scientists had also become disillusioned with phrenology since its exploitation with the middle and working classes by entrepreneurs. The popularization had resulted in the simplification of phrenology and mixing in it of principles of physiognomy, which had from the start
4254024
Tegmentum


VIII are located in the tegmentum at the level of the pons. The nuclei of CN IX, X, and XII are located in that of the medulla. In embryos, the tegmentum is the anterior half of the neural tube. However, for fetuses to adults, tegmentum refers only to the parts of the brain that remain relatively unchanged after development is complete, i.e. at the brain stem especially the midbrain. Other parts, on the other hand, develop further, through folding and thickening, and have different names.
21716468
Pons asinorum


misery", and Latin "fuga" "flight", that is "flight of the wretches". Though this etymology is dubious, it is echoed in Chaucer's use of the term "flemyng of wreches" for the theorem. There are two possible explanations for the name "pons asinorum", the simplest being that the diagram used resembles an actual bridge. But the more popular explanation is that it is the first real test in the "Elements" of the intelligence of the reader and functions as a "
14038505
Fourth ventricle


The fourth ventricle is one of the four connected fluid-filled cavities within the human brain. These cavities, known collectively as the ventricular system, consist of the left and right lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle. The fourth ventricle extends from the cerebral aqueduct ("aqueduct of Sylvius") to the obex, and is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The fourth ventricle has a characteristic diamond shape in cross-sections of the human brain. It is located within the pons or in
11219124
Cranial nerves


, compressing the oculuomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV) and abducens nerve (VI), leading to double-vision and strabismus. These nerves may also be affected by herniation of the temporal lobes of the brain through the falx cerebri. The cause of trigeminal neuralgia, in which one side of the face is exquisitely painful, is thought to be compression of the nerve by an artery as the nerve emerges from the brain stem. An acoustic neuroma, particularly at the junction between the pons and medulla,
16439952
Brain tumor


gland and pineal gland attached at the bottom; tumors of the pituitary and pineal gland are often benign. The brainstem lies between the large cerebral cortex and the spinal cord. It is divided into the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata. The spinal cord is considered a part of the central nervous system. It is made up of the same cells as the brain: neurons and glial cells. Although there is no specific or singular symptom or sign, the presence of a combination of symptoms and the lack of corresponding indications
16635926
Machado–Joseph disease


gene to a child, the child will show symptoms of the disease. Therefore, if one parent suffers from this disease and the other parent does not, there will be a 50% chance of their child inheriting the disease. The pons (a structure located on the brain stem) is one of the areas affected by MJD. The striatum (a brain area connected to balance and movement) is also affected by this disease, which could explain both of the main motor problems cause by MJD: the tightening and twisting
8419468
Encephalization quotient


functioning- sometimes referred to as a grey floor. There is also a limit to how large an animal's brain can grow given its body size- due to limitations like gestation period, energetics, and the need to physically support the encephalized region throughout maturation. When normalizing a standard brain size for a group of animals a, a slope can be determined to show what a species’ expected brain to body mass ratio would be. Species with brain to body mass ratios below this standard are nearing the grey floor, and do not
12273482
Learning theory (education)


. Neuroeducation analyzes biological changes in the brain from processing new information. It looks at what environmental, emotional, and social situations best help the brain store and retain new information via the linking of neurons—and best keep the dendrites from being reabsorbed, losing the information. The 1990s were designated "The Decade of the Brain", and advances took place in neuroscience at an especially rapid pace. The three dominant methods for measuring brain activities are event-related potential, functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography (MEG).
18233215
Brain asymmetry


, the corpus callosum is cut, severing the main structure for communication between the two hemispheres. The first modern split-brain patient was a war veteran known as Patient W.J., whose case contributed to further understanding of asymmetry. Brain asymmetry is not unique to humans. In addition to studies on human patients with various diseases of the brain, much of what is understood today about asymmetries and lateralization of function has been learned through both invertebrate and vertebrate animal models, including zebrafish, pigeons, rats, and many others. For
21152915
The Singularity Is Near


greater detail will be obtained during the 2020s when it becomes possible to scan the brain from the inside using nanobots. Once the physical structure and connectivity information are known, Kurzweil says researchers will have to produce functional models of sub-cellular components and synapses all the way up to whole brain regions. The human brain is "a complex hierarchy of complex systems, but it does not represent a level of complexity beyond what we are already capable of handling". Beyond reverse engineering the brain in order to understand and emulate it
2493528
Emotion classification


In particular, the function, expression, and meaning of different emotions are hypothesized to be biologically distinct from one another. A theme common to many basic emotions theories is that there should be functional signatures that distinguish different emotions: we should be able to tell what emotion a person is feeling by looking at his or her brain activity and/or physiology. Furthermore, knowledge of what the person is seeing or the larger context of the eliciting event should not be necessary to deduce what the person is feeling from observing the biological signatures.
21152793
Betty Edwards


disregarding preconceived notions of what the drawn object should look like, and on individually "seeing". Drawing, says Edwards, has five component skills of perception and drawing: Then there are two additional skills, numbers 6 and 7: Edwards's early work was based in part on her understanding of neuroscience, especially the cerebral hemisphere research which suggested that the two hemispheres of the brain have different functions. To avoid the so-called "location controversy" (how the two major cognitive functions are distributed in the individual brain
12889511
Stroke recovery


blood–brain barrier permeability, as well as what is currently thought to be the most important mechanism of MSC treatment after stroke, the activation of endogenous neuroprotection and neurorestoration pathways by the release of cytokines and trophic factors. Although activation of endogenous neuroprotection and neurorestoration probably has a major part in the improvement of brain function after stroke, it is likely that the functional improvements as a result of MSC treatment are due to combined action via multiple cellular and molecular mechanisms to affect neurorestoration and neuroprotection, rather than just a single mechanism.
19188244
Lev Zasetsky


Lev Zasetsky (9 August 1920 – 9 September 1993) was a patient who was treated by Russian neuropsychologist Alexander Luria. Zasetsky suffered a severe brain injury, losing his ability to read, write, and speak (retrieving desired words was particularly difficult), and suffering impaired vision, memory, and other functions. He was notable for the tenacity (and to some extent, success) with which he fought to regain a normal life, and for what the pattern of his deficits helped cognitive scientists to learn about brain function
19931109
Binswanger's disease


Binswanger's disease, also known as subcortical leukoencephalopathy and subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy (SAE), is a form of small vessel vascular dementia caused by damage to the white brain matter. White matter atrophy can be caused by many circumstances including chronic hypertension as well as old age. This disease is characterized by loss of memory and intellectual function and by changes in mood. These changes encompass what are known as executive functions of the brain. It usually presents between 54 and 66 years of age, and the first symptoms are usually mental
6547291
Single-unit recording


. By stimulating different responses, one can visualize what portion of the brain is activated. This method has been used to explore cognitive functions such as perception, memory, language, emotions, and motor control. Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) have been developed within the last 20 years. By recording single unit potentials, these devices can decode signals through a computer and output this signal for control of an external device such as a computer cursor or prosthetic limb. BMIs have the potential to restore function in patients with paralysis
9007352
Human brain


fluid is a clear, colourless transcellular fluid that circulates around the brain in the subarachnoid space, in the ventricular system, and in the central canal of the spinal cord. It also fills some gaps in the subarachnoid space, known as subarachnoid cisterns. The four ventricles, two lateral, a third, and a fourth ventricle, all contain choroid plexus that produces cerebrospinal fluid. The third ventricle lies in the midline and is connected to the lateral ventricles. A single duct, the cerebral aqueduct between the pons and the cerebellum
16628460
Development of the nervous system in humans


which will eventually become the optic nerve, retina and iris) forms at the basal plate of the prosencephalon. In the fifth week, the alar plate of the prosencephalon expands to form the cerebral hemispheres (the telencephalon). The basal plate becomes the diencephalon. The diencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon constitute the brain stem of the embryo. It continues to flex at the mesencephalon. The rhombencephalon folds posteriorly, which causes its alar plate to flare and form the fourth ventricle of the brain. The pons and the cerebellum form in
2217902
Kyary Pamyu Pamyu


like on "Pon Pon Pon" and "Tsukematsukeru". I can feel that what I'm doing in Japanese is catchy to global audiences anyway." Keiichi Ishizaka, chairman and chief executive officer of Warner Music Japan Inc, commenting on her image to "The Japan Times", says "[Kyary] is a person who came directly out of Tokyo's Harajuku culture, and there is a growing international interest in Japan's "kawaii" culture," Many critics and publications noted the increase of popularity within the
4589605
Sleep and memory


of research conducted on the effects that REM sleep has on the working brain but consistency in the findings is what plagues recent research. There is no guarantee as to what functions REM sleep may perform for our bodies and brains but modern research is always expanding and assimilating new ideas to further our understanding of such processes. In animals, the appearance of ponto-geniculo-occipital waves (PGO waves) is related to that of the bioelectric outputs of rapid eye movements. These waves are most clearly seen during the transition from non
19992282
Attentional control


Attentional control refers to an individual's capacity to choose what they pay attention to and what they ignore. It is also known as endogenous attention or executive attention. In lay terms, attentional control can be described as an individual's ability to concentrate. Primarily mediated by the frontal areas of the brain including the anterior cingulate cortex, attentional control is thought to be closely related to other executive functions such as working memory. Sources of attention in our brain create a system of three networks: alertness (maintaining awareness), orientation
20403364