which european country was the last to give up its african colonies
International Broadcasting Union


not eager to join a new association which was likely to be dominated by the Soviet Union. Moreover, the USSR enrolled some of its member republics as independent states, giving the USSR eight votes in the new organization. France intended to do the same for its North African colonies, which would give it four votes. Great Britain would have had only one. In 1949, France, the Netherlands, Italy and Belgium declared their intention to resign from the OIR. Many Western European countries decided to form a completely new organization
21361777
Portugal


into the Atlantic Ocean. It was one of the last western colonial European powers to give up its overseas territories (among them Angola and Mozambique in 1975), turning over the administration of Macau to the People's Republic of China at the end of 1999. Consequently, it has both influenced and been influenced by cultures from former colonies or dependencies, resulting in immigration from these former territories for both economic and personal reasons. Portugal, long a country of emigration (the vast majority of Brazilians have Portuguese ancestry), has
3274812
Education in Africa


the AUF offers access to over 80 first and masters degrees entirely by distance learning, about 30 of which are awarded by African institutions and created with its support. More recently, the MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) phenomenon has grown up, first in the United States and then in Europe. There is also a push in many African countries to reform colonial education standards to emphasize the importance of indigenous languages and cultures instead of European languages and cultures. Critics of these reforms maintain that European languages should continue to be the
5115291
Fortress of Muxima


colonial potencies, of which the ships going up the Kwanza River went looking for the slaves in the interior of the country. Its building would come to support the trading relationships, the markets, the inlander ones, the ivory and slave trafficking. The Fortress of "Muxina" was used as the basis of Portuguese forces and its support when they went to the interior making raids and wars of "kwata-kwata" (wars among the africans linked to the Europeans who working to them, caught the other africans for the
14878486
Report on the restitution of African cultural heritage


France stands in the wider context of the history, present and future of French and European Africa policy. In view of the growing political emancipation of some African countries from France, as well as the growing influence of China in Africa, French foreign policy is interested to maintain and develop its privileged relationship with West African countries and the wider Francophone world.Finally, the discussions and the ethical justification of restitutions are examples of a changing view of European colonialism in Africa. Due to each country's colonial past and the present public
20003608
History of South African nationality


South African nationality has been influenced primarily by the racial dynamics that have structured South African society throughout its development. The country's colonial history led to the immigration (or importation) of different racial and ethnic groups into one shared area. Power dispersion and inter-group relations led to European dominance of the state, allowing it to directly shape nationality although not without internal division or influence from the less empowered races. South African nationality begins with its history as a European colony. In 1652, the Dutch East India Company (
21355977
Palm oil


brand. By around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries, although this was overtaken by cocoa in the 1880s with the introduction of colonial European cocoa plantations. Palm oil, like all fats, is composed of fatty acids, esterified with glycerol. Palm oil has an especially high concentration of saturated fat, specifically the 16-carbon saturated fatty acid, palmitic acid, to which it gives its name. Monounsaturated oleic acid is also a major constituent of palm oil. Unrefined palm oil is a significant source
12365009
Valletta Summit on Migration


a speech by Maltese Prime Minister Joseph Muscat. On the first day, the leaders discussed a situation in which African countries would help to reduce migration across the Mediterranean, with the EU giving Africans better access to Europe in return. According to Muscat, the meeting was "less confrontational than expected". On 12 November, the European and African leaders signed an agreement to set up an Emergency Trust Fund to help development in African countries as well as to encourage those countries to take back migrants who arrived in Europe. The
6498734
Client state


the concept of Françafrique, its name for its former African colonies, sometimes extended to the former Belgian colonies. At present the term is used on some occasions to criticise the allegedly neocolonial relationship France has with its former colonies in Africa. The countries involved provide oil and minerals important to the French economy. In addition, French companies have commercial interests in several countries of the continent. As if that were not enough, Francophone countries in Africa help to sustain the image of France as a world power, by giving votes of
1619542
Wind of Change (speech)


within due to economic and political interests surrounding the colonies. Lord Salisbury, another member of the Conservative Party at the time of this speech, felt that European settlers in Kenya, alongside the African populace, would prefer to be under imperial rule regardless. Prior to the speech, Federation government had dismissed suggestions that African majority rule would be the best action in the colonies of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Because the copperbelt ran through Northern Rhodesia, British interests would not as easily give up certain colonies. This example can help to
18584102
Neocolonialism


Neo-colonialism", 1964) and Noam Chomsky ("The Washington Connection and Third World Fascism", 1979). When first proposed, neocolonialism labelled European countries' continued economic and cultural relationships with their former colonies, African countries that had been liberated in the aftermath of Second World War. Kwame Nkrumah, former president of Ghana (1960–66), coined the term, which appeared in the 1963 preamble of the Organisation of African Unity Charter, and was the title of his 1965 book "Neo-Colonialism, the
5514721
Democracy


As a consequence, political power was less concentrated. This also affected the colonial institutions European countries established in Africa. Whether colonial settlers could live or not in a place made them develop different institutions which led to different economic and social paths. This also affected the distribution of power and the collective actions people could take. As a result, some African countries ended up having democracies and others autocracies. An example of geographical determinants for democracy is having access to coastal areas and rivers. This natural endowment has a positive relation with
8040396
African diaspora in the Americas


The African diaspora in the Americas refers to the people born in the Americas with predominantly African ancestry. Some are descendants and transferred from Africa to the Americas by Europeans, to work in their colonies, mostly in mines and plantations, between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. At present, they constitute about 14% of the population of the Americas. After the United States achieved independence came the independence of Haiti, a country populated almost entirely by people of African descent and the second American colony to win its independence. After the
22143258
Economic history of Africa


in European industrial warehouses. All of Africa would ultimately fall under European colonial rule by 1914, with the exceptions of Ethiopia and Liberia. The partitioning of African territory among European regimes often violated existing boundaries recognized by local Africans. Some of the independent African states affected by the partitioning of the continent included: Under colonial rule, the plantation system of farming was widely introduced in order to grow large quantities of cash crops, and employing cheap (often forced) African labor for export to European countries. Mining for gems and precious
10559071
History of Cape Verde


n't about to give up his colonies as easily as the British and French had given up theirs. After World War II, Portugal was intent to hold on to its former colonies, since 1951 called overseas territories. When most former African colonies gained independence in 1957/1964, the Portuguese still held on. Consequently, following the Pijiguiti Massacre, the people of Cape Verde and Guinea-Bissau fought one of the longest African liberation wars. As with other colonies in 1972, autonomy was granted and Portuguese Cape Verde held its only parliamentary
7801196
European Portuguese


government. Portugal maintained its colonial rule over its Old World empire much longer than it did over Brazil. Thus European Portuguese is used as a norm of reference for African and Asian Lusophone countries (Angola, Cape Verde, East Timor, Guinea-Bissau, Macau, Mozambique, and São Tomé and Príncipe). Portugal remains a destination for post-secondary education for the elites of these places. In Europe, European Portuguese remains the learning standard for Portuguese as a second language. The Instituto Camões is an organization which promotes
1272668
All-African Peoples' Conference


under European colonial rule, as well as by delegates from the independent African countries, including representatives of the governing parties of some of those countries. In the Conference's own words, it was open to "all national political parties and national trade union congresses or equivalent bodies or organizations that subscribe to the aims and objects of the conference." The Conference met three times: December 1958, January 1960, and March 1961; and had a permanent secretariat with headquarters in Accra. Its primary objectives were independence for the colonies
12127873
Leroy Vail


both European organised and African initiated churches gave rise to new identities that, for European missionaries or anthropologists or educated Africans themselves, were ethnic identities, each with its language, often fixed by missionaries for used in education, and a rediscovered or manufactured history and traditions. In the decade following independence in 1964, political views in Malawi were frequently expressed in ethnic terms, and groups that had prospered under the colonial regime were stigmatised as being unfaithful to the country's Chewa culture which the ruling party and president promoted. Before the
7178239
Decolonisation of Africa


Belgium, and Portugal also had colonies. As a result of colonialism and imperialism, a majority of Africa lost sovereignty and control of natural resources such as gold and rubber. The introduction of imperial policies surfacing around local economies led to the failing of local economies due to an exploitation of resources and cheap labor. Progress towards independence was slow up until the mid-20th century. By 1977, 54 African countries had seceded from European colonial rulers. During the world wars, African soldiers were conscripted into imperial militaries. This led to a
1081788
Algeria–Indonesia relations


Non-Aligned Movement, Group of 77 and Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Indonesia has actively supported Algeria on their struggle for independence by established Committee of Supporting Independence Struggle of North African Countries, chaired by Prime Minister of Indonesia Mohammad Natsir in 1951. In 1955 Indonesia organized the Asian-African Conference in Bandung which call for the independence and decolonialization of Asian and African countries from European colonialism. Although at that time Algeria was still a French colony, Indonesia invited Algerian delegation to attend the Bandung conference and it has
8203106
History of the African Union


European powers essentially maintained control of their territories as colonies until the second half of the 20th century, when changes in European policy and thinking, led to releasing of control over their African colonies, and the creation of independent nations across the continent took place between the 1950s and 1970s. The Union of African States, was a short lasting union of three West African states, in the 1960s - Mali, Ghana, and Guinea. This union was Marxist politically, and was led by such African revolutionaries as Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana
15630463
White Africans of European ancestry


territory on Germany's defeat during World War I, London reaffirmed such grants as they existed. Few Afrikaners stayed beyond the eve of Tanzanian independence in 1961. With the retreat of European colonialism, Afrikaner communities outside South Africa and its immediate neighbours generally diminished in size and a significant number of settlers returned to their countries of origin during the decades which followed the Second World War. Although there were small British settlements along the West African coast from the 18th century onwards, mostly devoted to the slave trade, British settlement in Africa
18713443
Bahia


country, in which the typical culinary arts, the colonial architecture and popular feasts reveal a strong integration of elements of European and African origin in the formation and in the way of life of the people of Bahia. By its natural and historic-cultural attractions, Bahia presents an enormous potential for the development of the tourist activity. Owner of the biggest portion of seacoast of the country and of singular views in its interior, Bahia possesses specific cultural, folklore and religious characteristics, manifest in its extensive calendar of popular festivities,
20296799
Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization


. This led to a situation where the individuals who labored extensively to gather raw materials were unable to benefit from the finished goods. Neocolonialism is the continued economic and cultural control of countries that have been decolonized. The first documented use of the term was by Former President of Ghana Kwame Nkrumah in the 1963 preamble of the Organization of African States. Nkrumah expanded the concept of neocolonialism in the book "Neo-Colonialism, the Last Stage of Imperialism" (1965). In Nkrumah's estimation, traditional forms of colonialism have
21810198
Lott Cary


became interested in this movement. By 1821, Cary had accumulated a sum to pay for his and his second wife's expenses for transportation to the new colony of Liberia on the African coast. He was giving up his property, purchased in Henrico County, and a good income. When asked why he would leave a community in which he was respected and led a comfortable life, he replied: 'I am an African, and in this country, however meritorious my conduct, and 'respectable' my character, I
20011502
Ambundu


was quite limited due to the lack of people, money, and an efficient military. The Mbundu had opportunities to revolt or negotiate liberties. This changed at the end of the 19th century. European countries forced, out of economic, strategic, and nationalistic considerations, a tighter control over African territories. To protect their interests, the Portuguese sent a number of military expeditions into the areas, which they considered to be their colonies, and brought them under actual control. The last Mbundu tribe to be defeated were the NDembo
6604575
Robert Laws


was to develop into a modern country. He went as far as to say that the Associations could prepare Africans to elect Europeans, and later Africans, to the Legislature. Given the typical colonial prejudices of the time, this was an exceptional position. In October 1925, the Governor of Nyasaland, Charles Calvert Bowring, laid the foundation stone for additional buildings at Livingstonia, which Dr Robert Laws wanted to develop into a university for African students in Nyasaland and neighboring colonies. Bowring wrote "Livingstonia appeals to me enormously as a
10176267
Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization


sovereignty, these countries have failed to consolidate power, leading to weak or failed states. Though the colonial boundaries sometimes caused internal strife and hardship, some present day leaders benefit from the desirable borders their former colonial overlords drew. For example, Nigeria's inheritance of an outlet to the sea — and the trading opportunities a port affords — gives the nation a distinct economic advantage over its neighbor, Niger. Effectively, the early carving of colonial space turned naturally occurring factor endowments into state controlled assets. When European colonials entered a
21810169
Eritrean–Ethiopian border conflict


occupied the Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa. The occupied country was annexed into the Italian East African colony together with the other Italian east African colonies. On 10June 1940, Italy declared war on Britain and France; in March 1941 Britain began a campaign to capture the Italian-held territory in the region. By November, the British had occupied the whole Italian East African colony. However thousands of Italian soldiers began conducting a guerrilla war within their former colony which lasted until October 1943. After the end of WWII, Ethiopia regained her
17271280
Afro-Salvadoran


of Africans and other races into the country. During the colonial period in Latin America, African slaves began mixing with the general population, resulting in the Mulatto (50% African and 50% European) and Zambo (50% African and 50% Amerindian) populations, and these in turn became the Quadroon (75% European and 25% African) and Cambujo (75% Amerindian and 25% African) populations. Many of these populations eventually became mainly Mestizo (50% European and 50% Amerindian). The
17396714
Decolonisation of Africa


toward independence as nationalism grew throughout Africa. Consumed with post-war debt, European powers were no longer able to afford the resources needed to maintain control of their African colonies. This allowed for African nationalists to negotiate decolonization very quickly and with minimal casualties. Some territories, however, saw great death tolls as a result of their fight for independence. On 6 March 1957, Ghana (formerly the Gold Coast) became the first sub-Saharan African country to gain its independence from European colonization. Starting in 1945 Pan-
1081797
Michael Hill Blackwood


Michael Hill Blackwood (1917-2005) was a lawyer and politician who spent most of his working life in colonial Nyasaland and in Malawi in the early years of its independence. Although he represented the interests of European settlers before independence and opposed both the transfer of power to the African majority and the break-up of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, after Malawi’s independence, he remained in the country as a member of its legislature until his retirement. Michael Hill Blackwood was born in Ormskirk, Lancashire, England on
19552844
Félix Houphouët-Boigny


, Secretary-General of the Ivorian government, whose influence extended to all areas. This type of diplomacy, which he labelled ""Françafrique"", allowed him to maintain very close ties with the former colonial power, making Côte d'Ivoire France's primary African ally. Whenever one country would enter an agreement with an African nation, the other would unconditionally give its support. Through this arrangement, Houphouët-Boigny built a close friendship with Jacques Foccart, the chief adviser on African policy in the de Gaulle and Pompidou governments
21596383
V. S. Naipaul


. In the title novella, "In a Free State", two young expatriate Europeans drive across an African country, which remains nameless but which offers clues of Uganda, Kenya, and Rwanda. The novella speaks to many themes. The colonial era ends and Africans govern themselves. Political chaos, frequently violent, takes hold in newly decolonized countries. Young, idealistic, expatriate whites are attracted to these countries, seeking expanded moral and sexual freedoms. They are rootless, their bonds with the land tenuous; at the slightest
10052807
Culture of Suriname


Surinamese culture is very diverse and dynamic, and has strong Asian, African and European influences. The population is composed of the contribution of people from the Netherlands, India, Africa, China and Indonesia, as well as indigenous peoples who lived in the area, before the arrival of European settlers. About 90% of people established in Suriname have ancestors who come from other countries and regions. Suriname is a South American country, a former colony of the Netherlands. The country is known for its kaseko music, and for
2656966
Demographics of Africa


. The African country with the largest native European African population is South Africa. The Afrikaners, the British diaspora and the Coloureds are the largest native European-descended groups in Africa today. Native European colonization also brought sizable groups of Asians, particularly people from the Indian subcontinent, to British colonies. Large Indian communities are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and East African countries. The large Indian community in Uganda was expelled by the dictator Idi Amin in 1972
18087992
National Congress of British West Africa


establish the desired goals of a "West African Conference", particularly that such a conference would bring the West African colonies together and give voice to the concerns of the West African peoples. The second meeting in May was notable for its articulation of the leadership of the Sierra Leonean branch of the NCBWA, which was made up of 42 members from various contingents of the West African elite. The Sierra Leonean branch of the NCBWA was formally created in February 1919. This newly formed committee later attended a meeting of the larger,
9380662
Foreign relations of Ivory Coast


Throughout the Cold War, Ivory Coast's foreign policy was generally favorable toward the West. In particular, Félix Houphouët-Boigny kept relations with France that was among the closest between any African country and a former colonial power. The country became a member of the United Nations at independence in 1960 and participates in most of its specialized agencies. It is also an associate member of the European Union. In general, President Bédié initiated and maintained relations with many countries of the European Union and Asia. Ivory Coast maintains a wide
5707217
Modern history


and propelled by economic exploitation, the Scramble for Africa was initiated formally at the Berlin West Africa Conference in 1884–1885. The Berlin Conference attempted to avoid war among the European powers by allowing the European rival countries to carve up the continent of Africa into national colonies. Africans were not consulted. The major European powers laid claim to the areas of Africa where they could exhibit a sphere of influence over the area. These claims did not have to have any substantial land holdings or treaties to be legitimate. The European power that demonstrated
18323293
Glossary of European Union concepts, acronyms, & jargon


proposals for new European laws, which it presents to the European Parliament and the Council. It is also the EU's executive arm, responsible for implementing the decisions of Parliament and the Council, implementing its policies, running its programmes and spending its funds. Like the Parliament and Council, the European Commission was set up in the 1950s under the EU's founding treaties. African, Caribbean and Pacific countries (ACP), beneficiaries of the European Development Fund (EDF). A framework presented by the European Commission (July
544046
Aya of Yop City


Félix Houphouët-Boigny led the country after gaining independence until 1993. During this time, Côte d'Ivoire kept close ties with its West African neighbors as well as ties to France. This combination of influences created a unique culture where traditional African culture meshed with modern Western ideals. The post-colonial influence was enhanced by the fact that many Europeans, especially the French, moved to the country after they received independence. When Houphouët-Boigny took the presidency, the country experienced an economic boom, known as the "Ivorian miracle
10905954
Demographics of Trinidad and Tobago


have converted to Christianity or have no religious affiliation. Through cultural preservation groups, Trinidadians of Indian descent maintain many of their customs, traditions, and language. Afro-Trinidadian and Tobagonian make up the country's second largest ethnic group (approximately 36.3%). Although enslaved Africans were first imported in 1517, they constituted only 11 percent of the population (310) in 1783. The majority of the enslaved Africans were brought in the last few years of Trinidad's Spanish Colonial era, and the beginning of the British colonial
11279165
White Africans of European ancestry


to the rule, as its white businesses and labour were heavily subsidised by the state). Unlike other former settler colonies such as those in the Americas and Australia, Europeans and their descendants on the African continent never outnumbered the indigenous demographic; nevertheless, they found ways to consolidate power and exert a disproportionate influence on the administrative policies of their respective metropolitan countries. Some lost their sense of identification with Europe and created their own nationalist movements, namely in South Africa and Rhodesia (Zimbabwe). Permanent white settlers were regarded as
18713424
South America


partitioned into three parts, each being controlled by one of the colonial powers until the country was finally taken over fully by the British. Indigenous peoples of the Americas in various European colonies were forced to work in European plantations and mines; along with African slaves who were also introduced in the proceeding centuries. The colonists were heavily dependent on indigenous labor during the initial phases of European settlement to maintain the subsistence economy, and natives were often captured by expeditions. The importation of African slaves began midway through the 16th century, but
6977957
Abolitionism in the United Kingdom


in West Africa (where the African chieftain hierarchy was tied to slavery), and shipped the slaves to British colonies and other Caribbean countries or the American colonies. There traders sold or exchanged the slaves for rum and sugar (in the Caribbean) and tobacco and rice (in the American South), which they took back to British ports. The merchants traded in three places with each round-trip. Political influence against the inhumanity of the slave trade grew strongly in the late 18th century. Europeans and Africans worked for
19138051
South African literature


theories about polysystems". Yet political idealism proposing a unified "South Africa" (a remnant of the colonial British approach) has seeped into literary discourse and demands a unified national literature, which does not exist and has to be fabricated. It is unrealistic to ever think of South Africa and South African literature as homogenous, now or in the near or distant future, since the only reason it is a country at all is the interference of European colonial powers. This is not a racial issue, but rather has to
9163493
German colonial empire


entities, competed with other already established colonies and colonialist entrepreneurs. With the Germans joining the race for the last uncharted territories in Africa and the Pacific that had not yet been carved up, competition for colonies thus involved major European nations, and several lesser powers. The German effort included the first commercial enterprises in the 1850s and 1860s in West Africa, East Africa, the Samoan Islands and the unexplored north-east quarter of New Guinea with adjacent islands. German traders and merchants began to establish themselves in the African Cameroon delta
1602137
World War II by country


]], which lasted until its liberation after September 1944. During the course of the occupation, around 25,000 [[The Holocaust in Belgium|Belgian Jews were killed]]. [[File:Force Publique leaving for Ethiopia.jpg|thumb|"[[Force Publique]]" soldiers leaving the Congo for the [[East African Campaign (World War II)|East African Campaign]].]] The [[Belgian Colonial Empire]] stayed loyal to the Allies: after Belgium's surrender, both the [[Belgian Congo]] and [[Ruanda-
20972666
Statues Also Die


dances, as well as the death of a disemboweled gorilla. During the last third of the film, the modern commercialisation of African culture is problematised. The film argues that colonial presence has compelled African art to lose much of its idiosyncratic expression, in order to appeal to Western consumers. A mention is made of how African currencies previously had been replaced by European. In the final segment, the film comments on the position of black Africans themselves in contemporary Europe and North America. Footage is seen from a Harlem Globetrotters basketball
4806442
Seán MacBride


was also involved in the International Prisoners of Conscience Fund and was appointed the International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems in 1977. He drafted the constitution of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU); and also the first constitution of Ghana (the first UK African colony to achieve independence) which lasted for nine years until the coup of 1966. MacBride was a signatory of the Convention for European Economic Co-operation, the Convention for the Protection of War Victims (1949) and the European Convention on Human Rights.
15598565
British and Creole intervention in the Sierra Leone hinterland in the 19th century


rebellion called the Hut Tax war. It was the last large armed confrontation between British and Africans in Sierra Leone. The Africans' defeat ushered in the country's modern colonial period, which lasted until political independence in 1961. Arthur Abraham, "Mende Government and Politics Under Colonial Rule". Freetown, 1978. Christopher Fyfe, "History of Sierra Leone." London, 1962. (Oxford University Press) Kenneth Little, "The Mende of Sierra Leone". London, 1967. (First ed. was 1951
4845835
Maritime history


Eastern Hemisphere. The Europeans set up coastal colonies to prosecute the slave trade, but the interior of the continent remained unexplored until the 19th century. This was a cumulative period that resulted in European colonial rule in Africa and altered the future of the African continent. Imperialism in Asia traces its roots back to the late 15th century with a series of voyages that sought a sea passage to India in the hope of establishing direct trade between Europe and Asia in spices. Before 1500 European economies were largely self-sufficient, only supplemented
16392902
History of West Africa


, with the Portuguese taking hundreds of captives back to their country for use as slaves; however, it would not begin on a grand scale until Christopher Columbus's voyage to the Americas and the subsequent demand for cheap colonial labour. As the demand for slaves increased, some African rulers sought to supply the demand by constant war against their neighbours, resulting in fresh captives. European, American and Haitian governments passed legislation prohibiting the Atlantic slave trade in the 19th century, though the last country to abolish the institution was Brazil in
15846956
South Africa


Participation and Human Rights, but was let down by its relatively poor performance in Safety and Security. In November 2006, South Africa became the first African country to legalise same-sex marriage. The Constitution of South Africa is the supreme rule of law in the country. The primary sources of South African law are Roman-Dutch mercantile law and personal law with English Common law, as imports of Dutch settlements and British colonialism. The first European based law in South Africa was brought by the Dutch East India Company and is
10828825
Black Indians in the United States


the English colony of Jamestown. They killed the Europeans but brought some of the few African slaves as captives back to their own communities, gradually assimilating them. Interracial relationships continued to take place between Africans (and later African Americans) and members of Native American tribes in the coastal states. Although the colonists tried to enslave Native Americans in the early years, they gave it up in the early 18th century. Several colonial advertisements for runaway slaves made direct reference to the connections which Africans had in Native American communities. "Reward
1983478
Culture of the Dominican Republic


traditions, law, the predominant religion and the colonial architectural styles. Soon after the arrival of Europeans, African people were imported to the island to serve as slave labor. The fusion of European, native Taino, and African traditions and customs contributed to the development of present-day Dominican culture. Spanish is the language in the Dominican Republic. The country has a variety of accents most of which derive from the Spanish spoken in the Canary Islands and western Andalusia of southern Spain. The accent spoken in the Cibao region is
19171913
Benguela Province


in 1884–85, when European powers divided up the African colonial territories among themselves, Portugal had strengthened its colonial administration as early as 1869, and divided the three districts of Luanda, Benguela and Moçâmedes (now Namibe). From 1903, the Benguela Railway was built connecting the port of Lobito to Belgian Congo, which led to the growing importance of the port and industries emerged, particularly the processing of sisal fiber, which contributed to the development of district of Benguela. By 1912, the Benguela Railway had reached Huambo from Lobito
6795933
Henry Rawlingson Carr


twentieth century that broke barriers in colonial governance. Before the Second World War, few Africans rose beyond the position of chief clerk in colonial administration. While as the death rate of Europeans declined in west Africa, many expatriates came to the country and gained administrative positions, as the colonial officers readily accepted expatriates and helped advanced their careers, this situation further diminished the chances of West Africans to take more administrative responsibilities. Reasons given to limit the career advancement of Africans were the suspicions British officials had about Africans ethical disposition, due
12707080
German colonial empire


former colonies; for example, there is no postcolonial league comparable to the British Commonwealth of Nations or French Francophonie. In stark contrast with French and English, both of which are widely spoken across the continent by those of both African and European ancestry, the German language is not a significant language in Africa even within former colonies—although it is spoken by a significant minority of the population of Namibia. Germany cooperates economically and culturally with many countries in Africa and Asia, independent of colonial history. Bismarck’s successor in 1890
1602160
King Leopold's Ghost


including the United Kingdom and the United States of America, began to object to Leopold's tyranny with the result that the country's administration was transferred to Belgium. Little changed inside the country, however, until the ivory and rubber were exhausted. European interest in the African continent can be traced back to the late 1400s, when the European explorer Diogo Cão sailed the west coast and discovered the Congo River. By the 1860s, most African coastal regions were claimed as colonies of European powers, but the vast interior of the
7455159
Lundu (dance)


Portuguese colonies. This exchange enabled subtle amalgamations of musical styles between Angola, Brazil and other African slave trade countries. The establishment of a creole population in Brazil led to further cultural developments in language, religion and art. Records from the inquisition of the 18th century reveal that the Europeans initially considered gandus and lundus to be witchcraft. Many slave-owning Europeans in Brazil tolerated the dance in an attempt to avoid slave rebellion. Eventually, the style became attractive to Europeans in Brazil for its sexualized quality and its believed effectiveness in
696101
I. T. A. Wallace-Johnson


Colonial authorities and the elite class tried to find ways to get Wallace-Johnson out of local politics and possibly out of the country. Governor Arnold Weinholt Hodson wrote to the Colonial Office, asking for suggestions: While the Colonial Office discussed the possibility of deportation, Wallace-Johnson wrote an article entitled "Has the African a God?" in the "African Morning Post". In the article, he condemned Christianity, European civilisation and imperialism and told Africans to go back to worshipping Ethiopia's God. On 6 June
17524917
Danish East India Company


east of the Cape of Good Hope. Up to 1750, 27 ships were sent, with 22 surviving the journey to return to Copenhagen. In 1772, the company lost its monopoly and, in 1779, Danish India became a crown colony. During the Napoleonic Wars, in 1801 and again in 1807, the British Navy attacked Copenhagen. As a consequence of the last attack, Denmark (one of few West European countries not occupied by Bonaparte) lost its entire fleet and the island of Helgoland (part of the duchy
17088221
John Chilembwe's motivation


to the creation of a nation, rather than to re-establishing traditional leaders. Chilembwe did not reject European education and civilisation but believed that Africans should share the benefits of Western technology and culture that the Europeans in Nyasaland monopolised. These authors speculate that Chilembwe's main intention was to set up an independent, strongly theocratic African state in Nyasaland, although its proposed extent and its governance were unclear, and his secondary intention was to stage a protest against the war and colonial oppression Shepperson continues to regard Chilembwe in nationalist terms,
13693947
Julius Nyerere


European colonialism, Nyerere was not antagonistic towards white Europeans; from his experiences he was aware that they were not all colonialists and racists. Prior to independence he insisted on a non-racialist front against colonialism, challenging those African nationalists who wanted to deny equal rights to East Africa's European and Asian minorities. In a 1951 essay written in Edinburgh, he proposed that "We must build up a society in which we shall belong to east Africa and not to our racial groups ... We appeal to all thinking Europeans and Indians
4092897
Walukuba Estate


of them setting up huts in the town, which were seen as undesirable by the town's colonial administrators. The huts were also unplanned additions to the town. The philosophy behind the estate's construction, in addition to taking African settlements away from proximity to European quarters, was to orient Africans to western-style housing and planned settlements - which the colonial administrators saw as "modernity". In the 1950s, as it was still being constructed, Walukuba was - together with the Naguru/Nakawa Housing Estates in Kampala -
19126567
Françafrique


in exchange for guaranteeing their currency, which continues in use in 14 countries, split into two unions, West African and Central African. The interest rate paid by France for the reserves is less than the French inflation rate, causing losses for the African countries. French officials sit on the boards of both unions, giving France considerable control. Developmental economist Ndongo Samba Sylla described the arrangement as "monetary imperialism", and Italian Deputy Prime Minister Luigi Di Maio accused France of using the currency to exploit the former French colonies.
8244199
Robert Mugabe


couched in the ponderous English of the mission school", remarking that they were heavily informed by Karl Marx, Mao Zedong, and Frantz Fanon, and displayed little originality. Blair noted that Mugabe's writings called for "command economics in a peasant society, mixed with anti-colonial nationalism", and that in this he held "the same opinions as almost every other African guerrilla leader" of that period. Mugabe argued that following the overthrow of European colonial regimes, Western countries continued to keep African countries in a state
10004515
Rastafari


studying in Cuba during the 1990s connected with this reggae scene and helped to ground it in Rasta beliefs. Since the founding of Rastafari, some practitioners have followed through with their belief in resettlement in Africa. The West African states of Ghana and Nigeria have been particularly favoured. Ghana's status as the first African country to gain independence from European colonial rule (in 1957) made it an attractive place for members of the African diaspora to migrate to; its first post-independence President, Kwame Nkrumah, encouraged this as part
19511867
States and Power in Africa


. The European state-building experience was unusual and exceptional because it occurred under systemic geographic pressures that favored state consolidation – namely, scarcity of land and high-population densities. By contrast, Herbst argues, Africa has for most of its history been a relatively sparsely populated continent. Precolonial African states never faced survival imperatives for the projection of state power over rural terrain. During colonialism or after independence, moreover, European colonial powers had little incentive to develop state institutions to protect their colonies against invasion, having divided up Africa
12093385
Makonde people


the relevant ministry to give the A-Makonde identity cards by December 2016. The Makonde successfully resisted predation by African, Arab, and European slavers. They did not fall under colonial power until the 1920s. During the 1960s the revolution which drove the Portuguese out of Mozambique was launched from the Makonde homeland of the Mueda Plateau. For a time the revolutionary movement FRELIMO derived some of its financial support from the sale of Makonde carvings, and the group became the backbone of the revolutionary movement. The Maconde of Mozambique, due
11865549
Lomé Convention


The Lomé Convention is a trade and aid agreement between the European Economic Community (EEC) and 71 African, Caribbean, and Pacific (ACP) countries, first signed in February 1975 in Lomé, Togo. The first Lomé Convention (Lomé I), which came into force in April 1976, was designed to provide a new framework of cooperation between the then European Economic Community (EEC) and developing ACP countries, in particular former British, Dutch, Belgian and French colonies. It had two main aspects: It provided
20486968
Architecture of Colombia


Colombia's architectural heritage includes Spanish colonial architecture including Catholic churches. Its modern architecture represents various International Style architecture. In the postmodern architecture era a wave of innovate and striking buildings have been designed. Colombian cultural heritage includes indigenous, European, Indian and African influences. The country's colonial buildings reflect their Spanish (and particularly Andalusian origin, as seen in the traditional single-story) houses laid around a central "patio", to be found both in colonial towns such as Santafé (Bogotá), Tunja or Cartagena,
7956422
German colonial empire


colonize African areas inhabited by aggressive tribes, whereas their colonial neighbours had more docile peoples to contend with. At that time, the German penchant for giving muscle priority over patience contributed to continued unrest. Several of the African colonies remained powder kegs throughout this phase (and beyond). The transition to official acceptance of colonialism and to colonial government thus occurred during the last quarter of Bismarck’s tenure of office. In the first years of the 20th century shipping lines had established scheduled services with refrigerated holds and agricultural products from the
1602141
Portuguese Mozambique


to 60%. Starting in 1926, Portugal's colonial authorities abandoned conceptions of an innate inferiority of Africans, and set as their goal the development of a multiethnic society in its African colonies. The establishment of a dual, racialized civil society was formally recognized in (The Statute of Indigenous Populations) adopted in 1929, which was based on the subjective concept of civilization versus tribalism. In the administration's view, the goal of civilizing mission would only be achieved after a period of Europeanization or enculturation of African communities. The
1765607
White Africans of European ancestry


Portuguese settlers, most of the population was of mixed Portuguese and African origin. The descendants of the Portuguese settlers who were born and "raised" locally since Portuguese colonial time were called "crioulos." In the early 20th century, the Portuguese government encouraged white migration to the Portuguese territories of Angola and Mozambique, and by the 1960s, at the beginning of the Portuguese Colonial War, there were around 650,000 Portuguese settlers living in their overseas African provinces, and a substantial Portuguese population living in other African countries. In 1974
18713475
Portuguese Colonial War


African soldiers who had served in Portuguese native commando forces and militia were summarily executed by the PAIGC after the independence of the new African country. The Portuguese Overseas Province of Mozambique was the last territory to start the war of liberation. Its nationalist movement was led by the Marxist-Leninist Liberation Front of Mozambique (FRELIMO), which carried out the first attack against Portuguese targets on September 25, 1964, in Chai, Cabo Delgado Province. The fighting later spread to Niassa, Tete in central Mozambique. A report from Battalion
5324294
Modern history


its control over a territory accepted the mandate to rule that region as a national colony. The European nation that held the claim developed and benefited from their colony's commercial interests without having to fear rival European competition. With the colonial claim came the underlying assumption that the European power that exerted control would use its mandate to offer protection and provide welfare for its colonial peoples, however, this principle remained more theory than practice. There were many documented instances of material and moral conditions deteriorating for native Africans in the late nineteenth and
18323294
Blue Card (European Union)


legal immigrants. The proposal was presented along with another proposal, COM(2007)638, which includes a simplified application procedure and a common set of rights for legal third-country workers. The name ‘blue card’ is chosen to signal potential immigrants that the blue card is the European alternative to the US Green card. The colour blue is the predominant colour of the European Union. Shortly after the proposal was presented, it received heavy criticism from governments of developing countries, for its perceived functionality in snatching up talented workers. South African
8339524
Central African Republic Civil War (2012–present)


Union decided to set up its first military operations in six years when foreign ministers approved the sending of up to 1,000 soldiers to the country by the end of February, to be based around Bangui. Estonia promised to send soldiers, while Lithuania, Slovenia, Finland, Belgium, Poland and Sweden were considering sending troops; Germany, Italy and Great Britain announced that they would not send soldiers. The UN Security Council unanimously voted to approve sending European Union troops and to give them a mandate to use force, as well as
18041548
Afrikaners


be classified as poor, with some research claiming that up to 150,000 are struggling to survive. This combined with a wave of violent crime has led to vast numbers of Afrikaners and English-speaking South Africans leaving the country. Genocide Watch has theorised that farm attacks constitute early warning signs of genocide against Afrikaners and has criticised the South African government for its inaction on the issue, pointing out that the murder rate for them ("ethno-European farmers" in their report, which also included non-Afrikaner farmers of European
21677169
Weighted voting


status. This system was also used in French Algeria until 1958. This system was abolished on 1958 with the Loi Cadre Defferre. Under its 1961 Constitution, the British colony of Southern Rhodesia provided for a special form of weighted voting called cross-voting. Essentially, voters were rounded up in two voters' rolls, with the A roll bearing requirements generally reached by the European-descended population, but only in a few cases by Africans. The B roll provided for many Africans and a few Europeans, but not all
15869397
Battle of Adwa


to successfully resist European conquest during the scramble for Africa, Ethiopia became a pre-eminent symbol of the pan-African movement and international opposition to colonialism. By the end of the 19th century, European powers had carved up almost all of Africa after the Berlin Conference. Only Ethiopia, then still commonly known as Abyssinia and the Republic of Liberia still maintained their independence. The newly unified Kingdom of Italy was a relative newcomer to the imperialist scramble for Africa. Two of its recently obtained African territories, Italian Eritrea and Italian
4895551
Africa


only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well. There are four major language families indigenous to Africa: Following the end of colonialism, nearly all African countries adopted official languages that originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such as Swahili, Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa). In numerous countries, English and French ("see African French") are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. Arabic,
9236464
History of slavery


in 1804 ruled by blacks, the first of its kind. At the time of the revolution, Haiti was known as Saint-Domingue and was a colony of France. Napoleon Bonaparte gave up on Haiti in 1803, but re-established slavery in Guadeloupe and Martinique in 1804, at the request of planters of the Caribbean colonies. Slavery was permanently abolished in the French empire during the French Revolution of 1848. The 15th-century Portuguese exploration of the African coast is commonly regarded as the harbinger of European colonialism. In
18258643
A Bend in the River


criticized for a perceived defence of European colonialism in Africa. Set in an unnamed African country after independence, the book is narrated by Salim, an ethnically Indian Muslim and a shopkeeper in a small but growing city in the country's remote interior. Salim observes the rapid changes in Africa with an outsider's distance. Salim grows up in the community of Indian traders on the east coast of Africa. Feeling insecure about his future in East Africa, he buys a business from Nazruddin in a town at "a bend in the
12889915
South Africa


cultures, languages, and religions. Its pluralistic makeup is reflected in the constitution's recognition of 11 official languages, which is the fourth-highest number in the world. Two of these languages are of European origin: Afrikaans developed from Dutch and serves as the first language of most coloured and white South Africans; English reflects the legacy of British colonialism, and is commonly used in public and commercial life, though it is fourth-ranked as a spoken first language. The country is one of the few in Africa never
10828759
Modern history


France, its colonies and Indian allies on the other. The expanding French and British colonies were contending for control of the western, or interior, territories. Whenever the European countries went to war, there were actions within and by these colonies although the dates of the conflict did not necessarily exactly coincide with those of the larger conflicts. Beginning the Age of Revolution, the American Revolution and the ensuing political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century saw the Thirteen Colonies of North America overthrow the governance of the Parliament of
18323259
Kenya African Democratic Union


becoming increasingly popular with European settlers and, on the whole, repudiated Kenyatta's leadership. KADU's plan at Lancaster meetings was devised by European supporters, essentially to protect prevailing British settlers land rights. In 1953 Kenya African Union, KAU was banned and its leaders, the Kapenguria Six imprisoned by the colonial authorities. The colonial authorities could not conceive of any political opposition to their policies, nor could they accept the reality of African aspirations strongly advocated by Jomo Kenyatta, Dedan Kimathi and other African leaders However, Mau Mau insurgency
4019241
Es'kia Mphahlele


, musicologist Professor Kwabena Nketia, historian Dr J. B. Danquah, poet G. Adali-Mortty and sculptor Vincent Kofi. Mphahlele attended the first All-African Peoples' Conference organised by Kwame Nkrumah in Accra, Ghana, in December 1958. "Ghana was the only African country that had been freed from the European colonialism that had swept over the continent in the 19th century. Most of the countries represented at Accra were still colonies." Mphahlele recalls meeting with the late Patrick Duncan and Jordan Ngubane, who were representing the South
14372496
African independence movements


more than the future of Portugal's African holdings—it also set the rules for any European government which wished to establish an empire in Africa. In the 1950s, after World War II, several African territories became independent from their European rulers, but the oldest Europe-ruled territories, those ruled by Portugal, were rebranded "Overseas Provinces" from the former designation as Portuguese colonies. This was a firm effort of Portugal's authorities to preserve its old African possessions abroad and refuse any claims of independence. This was followed
9384433
2007 United Nations Security Council election


(last served in 1977) were running for the two African seats. All three countries had received endorsements from their regional groupings. In addition, Costa Rica (last served in 1998) and the Dominican Republic (one of the few UN Charter members which had never served up to 2007) were competing for the one Latin American seat at stake. The Czech Republic (last served in 1995) and Croatia (never served) were competing for the Eastern European seat. Having been endorsed by their respective regional groups, Vietnam
13751824
African military systems after 1900


a wider world during the two conflicts opened up a sense of new possibilities, and opportunities. These were eventually to be reflected in demands for greater freedom in homeland colonies. The success of peoples like the Japanese also demonstrated that European forces were not invincible, and post-war weakening of many former imperial powers provided new scope in challenging the colonial order. Unlike the African troops of Britain, who saw very little action on European battfields during World War I or World War II, France deployed hundreds of thousands of African fighting
16378079
Women in Latin music


increased population of African slaves and contemporary society's view of music as a profession. Most slaves arriving in Brazil were "bi-musical", and introduced their music to the country. Rural Quechua-speaking Bolivian farmers sang about European resistance in songs with Native American and European influences. Black Bolivians sang songs with lyrics reflecting a European influence, performed as Africanized European music. In colonial Latin America, nuns wrote, directed, and performed music. They played a variety of instruments, including the clavichord, harp, flageolet
14064594
Western Sahara


time went by, Spanish colonial rule began to unravel with the general wave of decolonization after World War II; former North African and sub-Saharan African possessions and protectorates gained independence from European powers. Spanish decolonization proceeded more slowly, but internal political and social pressures for it in mainland Spain built up towards the end of Francisco Franco's rule. There was a global trend towards complete decolonization. Spain began rapidly to divest itself of most of its remaining colonial possessions. By 1974–75 the government issued promises of a referendum on independence
14667208
South African Athletics Championships


The South African Athletics Championships is an annual outdoor track and field competition organised by the Athletics South Africa, which serves as the national championship for the sport in South Africa. Typically organised in March or April at the end of the South African summer, the event was first held in 1894 and introduced the first events for women in 1929. Separate annual championship events are held for cross country running, road running and racewalking events. The championships was first initiated by European colonists in the Cape Colony and continued with the formation of
20375412
African historiography


perception of Western superiority throughout European academics and historians prominent during the height of colonialism led to the defining traits of colonial historical works, which post-colonialists have sought to analyse and criticize. William Miller Macmillan is a historian and post-colonialist thinker. His historical work, "Africa Emergent" (1938), critiqued colonial rule and sought for the democratization of African nations in seeking African representation in governments. The work not only condemns colonial rule, but also considers the perspectives of and the effect of colonialism on the African
15103288
West African cuisine


, including black-eyed peas and okra. Around the time of the colonial period, particularly during the Scramble for Africa, the European settlers defined colonial borders without regard to pre-existing borders, territories or cultural differences. This bisected tribes and created colonies with varying culinary styles. As a result, it is difficult to sharply define, for example, Senegalese cuisine. Although the European colonists brought many new ingredients to the African continent, they had relatively little impact on the way people cook in West Africa. Its strong
22006791
Godfrey Mwakikagile


Kenya, and in Tanganyika, Mwakikagile's home country, even when the countries were approaching independence; the fifties being one of the most critical periods in the history of colonial rule in Africa. School children who grew up in the fifties were among the victims in terms racial inequalities. The problem was compounded by inequities in the provision of funds and facilities for education. Meagre resources were allocated to education for African children in sharp contrast with the amount spent on schools for European and Asian children. The school Godfrey Mwakikagile attended was
10087925
History of North Carolina


from unions or marriages between free white women and enslaved or free African or African-American men in colonial Virginia. Because the mothers were free, their children were born free. Such mixed-race families migrated along with their European-American neighbors into the frontier of North Carolina. As the flow of indentured laborers slackened because of improving economic conditions in Britain, the colony was short on labor and imported more slaves. It followed Virginia in increasing its controls on slavery, which became a racial caste of the foreign Africans.
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