what accounts for the visible striations in skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues
Human musculoskeletal system


regulate mineral balance in the bloodstream. When the fluctuation of minerals is high, these minerals are stored in bone; when it is low it will be withdrawn from the bone. There are three types of muscles—cardiac, skeletal, and smooth. Smooth muscles are used to control the flow of substances within the lumens of hollow organs, and are not consciously controlled. Skeletal and cardiac muscles have striations that are visible under a microscope due to the components within their cells. Only skeletal and smooth muscles are part of the
6590958
Anatomy


, many glands are formed of epithelial cells. Muscle cells (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue of the body. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of contractile filaments and is separated into three main types; smooth muscle, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. Smooth muscle has no striations when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but maintains contractibility over a wide range of stretch lengths. It is found in such organs as sea anemone tentacles and the body
71931
Troponin


known for human TnC. TnC in human cardiac muscle tissue is presented by an isoform typical for slow skeletal muscle. Another form of TnC, fast skeletal TnC isoform, is more typical for fast skeletal muscles. cTnI is expressed only in myocardium. No examples of cTnI expression in healthy or injured skeletal muscle or in other tissue types are known. cTnT is probably less cardiac specific. Expression of cTnT in skeletal tissue of patients with chronic skeletal muscle injuries has been described. Inside the cardiac troponin complex the strongest interaction between molecules has
18674213
Cardiac muscle cell


Cardiac muscle cells or cardiomyocytes (also known as myocardiocytes or cardiac myocytes) are the muscle cells (myocytes) that make up the cardiac muscle (heart muscle). Each myocardial cell contains myofibrils, which are specialized organelles consisting of long chains of sarcomeres, the fundamental contractile units of muscle cells. Cardiomyocytes show striations similar to those on skeletal muscle cells. Unlike multinucleated skeletal cells, the majority of cardiomyocytes contain only one nucleus, although they may have as many as four. Cardiomyocytes have a high mitochondrial density, which allows
14383732
Troponin


is a Ca-binding subunit, playing the main role in Ca dependent regulation of muscle contraction. TnT and TnI in cardiac muscle are presented by forms different from those in skeletal muscles. Two isoforms of TnI and two isoforms of TnT are expressed in human skeletal muscle tissue (skTnI and skTnT). Only one tissue-specific isoform of TnI is described for cardiac muscle tissue (cTnI), whereas the existence of several cardiac specific isoforms of TnT (cTnT) are described in the literature. No cardiac specific isoforms are
18674212
Striated muscle tissue


failure. Mammals have the ability to complete small amounts of cardiac regeneration during development. Vertebrates can regenerate cardiac muscle tissue throughout their entire life span. Skeletal muscle is able to regenerate far better than cardiac muscle due to satellite cells, which are dormant in all healthy skeletal muscle tissue. There are three phases to the regeneration process. These phases include the inflammatory response, the activation, differentiation, and fusion of satellite cells, and the maturation and remodeling of newly formed myofibrils. This process begins with the necrosis of damaged muscle
20033137
Muscle tissue


or absence, respectively, of organized, regularly repeated arrangements of myofibrillar contractile proteins called myofilaments. Striated muscle is further classified as either skeletal or cardiac muscle. Striated muscle is typically subject to conscious control, while smooth muscle is not. Thus, muscle tissue can be described as being one of three different types: In vertebrates, there is a third muscle tissue recognized: Cardiac and skeletal muscles are "striated" in that they contain sarcomeres and are packed into highly regular arrangements of bundles; smooth muscle has neither. While
14873534
CAPZA2


. It has also been observed that CapZ functions to organize myofilaments during myofibrillogenesis and is present at Z-discs in muscle prior to the striation of actin filaments, suggesting that CapZ may function to direct the polarity and organization of sarcomeric actin during I-band formation. The function of CapZ-alpha2 may be modulated by the calcium-binding protein S100A in skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues, as crosslinking studies have shown S100A to directly interaction with the C-terminal region of CapZ-alpha in the presence of calcium. CapZ
6269405
Muscle contraction


also known as jumper's knee or patellar tendonosis) have been shown to benefit from high-load eccentric contractions. In vertebrate animals, there are three types of muscle tissues: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle constitutes the majority of muscle mass in the body and is responsible for locomotor activity. Smooth muscle forms blood vessels, gastrointestinal tract, and other areas in the body that produce sustained contractions. Cardiac muscle make up the heart, which pumps blood. Skeletal and cardiac muscles are called striated muscle because of
7485583
Skeletal muscle


Skeletal muscle is one of three major muscle types, the others being cardiac muscle and smooth muscle. It is a form of striated muscle tissue, which is under the voluntary control of the somatic nervous system. Most skeletal muscles are attached to bones by bundles of collagen fibers known as tendons. A skeletal muscle refers to multiple bundles (fascicles) of cells joined together called muscle fibers. The fibers and muscles are surrounded by connective tissue layers called fasciae. Muscle fibers, or muscle cells, are formed from the fusion of
10459584
Muscle tissue


Muscle tissue is a soft tissue that composes muscles in animal bodies, and gives rise to muscles' ability to contract. This is opposed to other components or tissues in muscle such as tendons or perimysium. It is formed during embryonic development through a process known as myogenesis. Muscle tissues varies with function and location in the body. In mammals the three types are: skeletal or striated muscle; smooth or non-striated muscle; and cardiac muscle, which is sometimes known as semi-striated. Smooth and cardiac muscle contracts
14873531
Anatomical terms of muscle


Muscles are described using unique anatomical terminology according to their actions and structure. There are three types of muscle tissue in the human body: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal striated muscle, or "voluntary muscle", primarily joins to bone with tendons. Skeletal muscle enables movement of the bones of the human skeleton and maintains posture. Smooth muscle tissue is found in parts of the body where it conveys action without conscious intent. The majority of this type of muscle tissue is found in the digestive and urinary systems where
19358514
Myocyte


A myocyte (also known as a muscle cell) is the type of cell found in muscle tissue. Myocytes are long, tubular cells that develop from myoblasts to form muscles in a process known as myogenesis. There are various specialized forms of myocytes with distinct properties: cardiac, skeletal, and smooth muscle cells. The striated cells of cardiac and skeletal muscles are referred to as muscle fibers. Cardiomyocytes are the muscle fibres that form the chambers of the heart, and have a single central nucleus. Skeletal muscle fibers help support
12521074
Cardiac muscle


measuring 100–150μm by 30–40μm. Individual cardiac muscle cells are joined together at their ends by intercalated disks to form long fibres. Each cell contains myofibrils, specialised protein fibres that slide past each other. These are organised into sarcomeres, the fundamental contractile units of muscle cells. The regular organisation of myofibrils into sarcomeres gives cardiac muscle cells a striped or striated appearance when looked at through a microscope, similar to skeletal muscle. These striations are caused by lighter I bands composed mainly of a protein called actin, and darker A bands composed
1020158
Striated muscle tissue


the endocardium in the heart. Cardiac muscle fibers generally only contain one nucleus, located in the central region. They contain many mitochondria and myoglobin. Unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle cells are unicellular. These cells are connected to each other by intercalated disks, which contain gap junctions and desmosomes. The main difference between striated muscle tissue and smooth muscle tissue is that striated muscle tissue features sarcomeres while smooth muscle tissue does not. All striated muscles are attached to some component of the skeleton, unlike smooth muscle, which composes hollow
20033133
Striated muscle tissue


Striated muscle tissue is a muscle tissue that features repeating functional units called sarcomeres. The presence of sarcomeres manifests as a series of bands visible along the muscle fibers, which is responsible for the striated appearance observed in microscopic images of this tissue. There are two types of striated muscles: Striated muscle tissue contains T-tubules which enables the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Skeletal muscle includes skeletal muscle fibers, blood vessels, nerve fibers, and connective tissue. Skeletal muscle is wrapped in epimysium, allowing structural integrity
20033131
Creatine kinase


isoenzyme forms, that is, ubiquitous mtCK (present in non-muscle tissues) and sarcomeric mtCK (present in sarcomeric muscle), there are three cytosolic CK isoforms present in the cytosol, depending on the tissue. Whereas MM-CK is expressed in sarcomeric muscle, that is, skeletal and cardiac muscle, MB-CK is expressed in cardiac muscle, and BB-CK is expressed in smooth muscle and in most non-muscle tissues. Mitochondrial mtCK and cytosolic CK are connected in a so-called PCr/
12948408
Muscle


in animals. There are three types of muscle tissue recognized in vertebrates: Cardiac and skeletal muscles are "striated" in that they contain sarcomeres that are packed into highly regular arrangements of bundles; the myofibrils of smooth muscle cells are not arranged in sarcomeres and so are not striated. While the sarcomeres in skeletal muscles are arranged in regular, parallel bundles, cardiac muscle sarcomeres connect at branching, irregular angles (called intercalated discs). Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short, intense bursts, whereas smooth muscle sustains longer or
16060824
Hooded seal


differently. Studies show that cardiac blood flow provides sufficient O2 to sustain lipolytic pathways during dives, remedying their hypoxic challenge. Cardiac tissue is found to be more developed than skeletal muscles at birth and during the weaning period, although neither tissue is fully developed by the end of the weaning period. Pups are born with fully developed hemoglobin stores (found in blood), but their myoglobin levels (found in skeletal tissue) are only 25–30% of adult levels. These observations conclude that pup muscles are less able to sustain both
5901262
Muscle contraction


, muscle tension is at its greatest when the muscle is stretched to an intermediate length as described by the length-tension relationship. Unlike skeletal muscle, the contractions of smooth and cardiac muscles are myogenic (meaning that they are initiated by the smooth or heart muscle cells themselves instead of being stimulated by an outside event such as nerve stimulation), although they can be modulated by stimuli from the autonomic nervous system. The mechanisms of contraction in these muscle tissues are similar to those in skeletal muscle tissues. Muscle contractions can be
7485572
Intercalated disc


Intercalated discs are microscopic identifying features of cardiac muscle. Cardiac muscle consists of individual heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) connected by intercalated discs to work as a single functional organ or syncytium. By contrast, skeletal muscle consists of multinucleated muscle fibers and exhibit no intercalated discs. Intercalated discs support synchronized contraction of cardiac tissue. They occur at the Z line of the sarcomere and can be visualized easily when observing a longitudinal section of the tissue. Three types of cell junction make up an intercalated disc — fascia adherens, desmosomes and gap
19662704
S100A1


S100A1, also known as S100 calcium-binding protein A1 is a protein which in humans is encoded by the "S100A1" gene. S100A1 is highly expressed in cardiac and skeletal muscle, and localizes to Z-discs and sarcoplasmic reticulum. S100A1 has shown promise as an effective candidate for gene therapy to treat post-myocardially infarcted cardiac tissue. S100A1 is a member of the S100 family of proteins expressed in cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle and brain, with highest density at Z-lines and sarcoplasmic reticulum. S100A1 contains 4
20445982
Muscle tissue


and histological foundation of the heart, specifically the myocardium. Cardiac muscle is one of three major types of muscle, the others being skeletal and smooth muscle. These three types of muscle all form in the process of myogenesis. The cells that constitute cardiac muscle, called cardiomyocytes or myocardiocytes, predominantly contain only one nucleus, although populations with two to four nuclei do exist. The myocardium is the muscle tissue of the heart, and forms a thick middle layer between the outer epicardium layer and the inner endocardium layer. Coordinated contractions
14873538
Tissue (biology)


connective tissue. Muscle cells form the active contractile tissue of the body known as muscle tissue or muscular tissue. Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle tissue is separated into three distinct categories: visceral or smooth muscle, found in the inner linings of organs; skeletal muscle, typically attached to bones, which generate gross movement; and cardiac muscle, found in the heart, where it contracts to pump blood throughout an organism. Cells comprising the central nervous system and
14800941
Insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor


induces what are called "cell signaling" cascades - and the usual result of activation of the IGF-1 receptor is survival and proliferation in mitosis-competent cells, and growth (hypertrophy) in tissues such as skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. During embryonic development, the IGF-1R pathway is involved with the developing limb buds. The IGFR signalling pathway is of critical importance during normal development of mammary gland tissue during pregnancy and lactation. During pregnancy, there is intense proliferation of epithelial cells which form the duct and gland tissue. Following weaning
16362248
Desmin


desmin's function early in development but not later on. In adult desmin-null mice, hearts from 10 wk-old animals showed drastic alterations in muscle architecture, including a misalignment of myofibrils and disorganization and swelling of mitochondria; findings that were more severe in cardiac relative to skeletal muscle. Cardiac tissue also exhibited progressive necrosis and calcification of the myocardium. A separate study examined this in more detail in cardiac tissue and found that murine hearts lacking desmin developed hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and chamber dilation combined with systolic dysfunction. In adult muscle
10734101
Cardiac neural crest cells


form the ears) to the third somites (clusters of mesoderm that will become skeletal muscle, vertebrae and dermis). The cardiac neural crest cells have a number of functions including creation of the muscle and connective tissue walls of large arteries; parts of the cardiac septum; parts of the thyroid, parathyroid and thymus glands. They differentiate into melanocytes and neurons and the cartilage and connective tissue of the pharyngeal arches. They may also contribute to the creation of the carotid body, the organ which monitors oxygen in the blood and
11160455
Sarcocystis


lesions (oedema, hemorrhages, and necrosis) develop in the affected tissues. The parasite has a predilection for skeletal muscle (myositis), cardiac muscle (petechial hemorrhages of cardiac muscle and serosae), and lymph nodes (oedema, necrosis, and hemorrhage). These lesions are associated with maturation of second generation of meronts within the endothelial and subendothelials cells. Occasionally mononuclear infiltration or hyperemia has been observed in the lamina propria of the small intestine. After the acute phase, cysts may be found in various muscular tissues,
2746953
MYL4


fetal skeletal muscle, as well as fetal and adult cardiac atrial tissue. ALC-1 binds the neck region of muscle myosin in adult atria. Two alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding the same protein have been found for this gene. Relative to ventricular essential light chain VLC-1, ALC-1 has an additional ~40 amino-acid N-terminal region that contains four to eleven residues that are critical for binding actin and modulating myosin kinetics. ALC-1 is expressed very early in skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle development; two E-boxes and CArG box in
21295014
Heart


many respects to neurons. Cardiac muscle tissue has autorhythmicity, the unique ability to initiate a cardiac action potential at a fixed rate—spreading the impulse rapidly from cell to cell to trigger the contraction of the entire heart. There are specific proteins expressed in cardiac muscle cells. These are mostly associated with muscle contraction, and bind with actin, myosin, tropomyosin, and troponin. They include MYH6, ACTC1, TNNI3, CDH2 and PKP2. Other proteins expressed are MYH7 and LDB3 that are also expressed in skeletal muscle. The
16207065
Muscle tissue


skeletal muscles are arranged in regular, parallel bundles, cardiac muscle connects at branching, irregular angles (called intercalated discs). Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short, intense bursts, whereas smooth muscle sustains longer or even near-permanent contractions. Skeletal muscle is further divided into several subtypes: Smooth muscle is an involuntary non-striated muscle. It is divided into two subgroups: the single-unit (unitary) and multiunit smooth muscle. Within single-unit cells, the whole bundle or sheet contracts as a syncytium
14873535
Cardiac muscle


Cardiac muscle (also called heart muscle or myocardium) is one of three types of vertebrate muscles, with the other two being skeletal and smooth muscles. It is an involuntary, striated muscle that constitutes the main tissue of the walls of the heart. The myocardium forms a thick middle layer between the outer layer of the heart wall (the epicardium) and the inner layer (the endocardium), with blood supplied via the coronary circulation. It is composed of individual heart muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) joined together by intercalated discs
1020151
Lipoprotein lipase


as a local inhibitor of LPL. Induction of ANGPTL4 accounts for the inhibition of LPL activity in white adipose tissue during fasting. Growing evidence implicates ANGPTL4 in the physiological regulation of LPL activity in a variety of tissues. An ANGPTL3-4-8 model was proposed to explain the variations of LPL activity during the fed-fast cycle. Specifically, feeding induces ANGPTL8, activating the ANGPTL8–ANGPTL3 pathway, which inhibits LPL in cardiac and skeletal muscles, thereby making circulating triglycerides available for uptake by white adipose tissue, in which LPL activity
4368054
Gap junction


in cardiac muscle: the signal to contract is passed efficiently through gap junctions, allowing the heart muscle cells to contract in unison. Gap junctions are expressed in virtually all tissues of the body, with the exception of adult fully developed skeletal muscle and mobile cell types such as sperm or erythrocytes. Several human genetic disorders are associated with mutations in gap junction genes. Many of those affect the skin because this tissue is heavily dependent upon gap junction communication for the regulation of differentiation and proliferation. Cardiac gap junctions can pharmacologically be opened
19875672
Anabolic steroid


the high myotrophic–androgenic ratio and dissociation seen with nandrolone, as well as with various other AAS. Aside from 5α-reductase, aromatase may inactivate testosterone signaling in skeletal muscle and adipose tissue, so AAS that lack aromatase affinity, in addition to being free of the potential side effect of gynecomastia, might be expected to have a higher myotrophic–androgenic ratio in comparison. In addition, DHT is inactivated by high activity of 3α-HSD in skeletal muscle (and cardiac tissue), and AAS that lack affinity for
6847402
Glycogenin-1


, two isoforms of glycogenin can be expressed: glycogenin-1, with a molecular weight of 37 kDa and codified by GYG1 gen, which is expressed mostly in muscles; and glycogenin-2, with a molecular weight of 66 kDa and codified by GYG2 gen, which is expressed mainly in liver, cardiac muscle and other types of tissue, but not in skeletal muscle. Glycogenin-1 was described analyzing the glycogen of skeletal muscle. It was determinate that this molecule was united by a covalent bond to each mature molecule of muscular glycogen. The glycogenin-1
11341784
Striated muscle tissue


organs such as the intestines or blood vessels. The fibers of striated muscle have a cylindrical shape with blunt ends, whereas those in smooth muscle can be described as being spindle-like with tapered ends. Two other characteristics that differentiate striated muscle from smooth muscle are that the former has more mitochondria and contains cells that are multinucleated. The main function of striated muscle tissue is to create force and contract. These contractions will either pump blood throughout the body (cardiac muscle) or powers breathing, movement or posture (skeletal muscle
20033134
Striated muscle tissue


The calcium drives the movement of myosin and actin filaments. The sarcomere then shortend which causes the muscle to contract. In the skeletal muscles connected to tendons that pull on bones, the mysia fuses to the periosteum that coats the bone. Contraction of the muscle will transfer to the mysia, then the tendon and the periosteum before causing the bone to move. The mysia also may bind to an aponeurosis or to fascia. Adult humans cannot regenerate cardiac muscle tissue after an injury, which can lead to scarring and thus heart
20033136
Fasciculation


A fasciculation, or muscle twitch, is a small, local, involuntary muscle contraction and relaxation which may be visible under the skin. Deeper areas can be detected by electromyography (EMG) testing, though they can happen in any skeletal muscle in the body. Fasciculations arise as a result of "spontaneous depolarization" of a lower motor neuron leading to the synchronous contraction of all the skeletal muscle fibers within a single motor unit. An example of normal spontaneous depolarization is the constant contractions of cardiac muscle, causing the heart to
6821396
Mef2


culture into muscle. bHLH factors can activate Mef2c expression, which then acts to maintain its own expression. Loss of Mef2c in neural crest cells results in craniofacial defects in the developing embryo and neonatal death caused by blocking of the upper airway passages. Mef2c upregulates the expression of the homeodomain transcription factors DLX5 and DLX6, two transcription factors that are necessary for craniofacial development. In adult tissues, Mef2 proteins regulate the stress-response during cardiac hypertrophy and tissue remodeling in cardiac and skeletal muscle. Mef2 is a critical regulator in heart
16730372
Desmin


, skeletal muscle and smooth muscle tissue. In cardiac muscle, desmin is present in Z-discs and intercalated discs. Desmin has been shown to interact with desmoplakin and αB-crystallin. Desmin was first described in 1976, first purified in 1977, the gene was cloned in 1989, and the first knockout mouse was created in 1996. The function of desmin has been deduced through studies in knockout mice. Desmin is one of the earliest protein markers for muscle tissue in embryogenesis as it is detected in the somites. Although
10734099
TNNI3


Troponin I, cardiac muscle is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "TNNI3" gene. It is a tissue-specific subtype of troponin I, which in turn is a part of the troponin complex. The "TNNI3" gene encoding cardiac troponin I (cTnI) is located at 19q13.4 in the human chromosomal genome. Human cTnI is a 24 kDa protein consisting of 210 amino acids with isoelectric point (pI) of 9.87. cTnI is exclusively expressed in adult cardiac muscle. cTnI has diverged from the skeletal
5967201
S100A1


, S100A1 protein levels has been shown to be altered in right ventricular hypertrophied tissue in a model of pulmonary hypertension; several tissue types (brain, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle) in a model of type I diabetes mellitus; S100A1 has been demonstrated as a regulator of the genetic program underlying cardiac hypertrophy, in that S100A1 inhibits alpha1 adrenergic stimulation of hypertrophic genes, including MYH7, ACTA1 and S100B. In a rat model of myocardial infarction, intracoronary S100A1 adenoviral gene transfer restored sarcoplasmic reticular calcium transients and load, normalized intracellular sodium concentrations
20445990
TLN2


is relatively similar (74% identity, 86% similarity); the size of the talin-2 gene (200 kb) is however much larger than that of talin-1 (30 kb), due to differences in intron sizes. Talin-2 mRNA is expressed in multiple tissues, including cardiac muscle, mouse embryonic stem cells, brain, lung, skeletal muscle, kidney and testis; however expression is highest in cardiac muscle. A detailed analysis of the "TLN2" gene revealed that the alternative splicing of "TLN2" is complex and
6828588
MYL4


Atrial Light Chain-1 (ALC-1), also known as Essential Light Chain, Atrial is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "MYL4" gene. ALC-1 is expressed in fetal cardiac ventricular and fetal skeletal muscle, as well as fetal and adult cardiac atrial tissue. ALC-1 expression is reactivated in human ventricular myocardium in various cardiac muscle diseases, including hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, dilated cardiomyopathy, ischemic cardiomyopathy and congenital heart diseases. ALC-1 is a 21.6 kDa protein composed of 197 amino acids. ALC-1 is expressed in fetal cardiac ventricular and
21295013
Cellular adaptation


pathologic adaptation to skeletal muscle disuse (commonly called "disuse atrophy"). Tissue and organs especially susceptible to atrophy include skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, secondary sex organs, and the brain. Hypertrophy is an increase in cell size. If enough cells of an organ hypertrophy so will the whole organ. The heart and kidneys have increased susceptibility to hypertrophy. Hypertrophy involves an increase in intracellular protein rather than cytosol (intracellular fluid). Hypertrophy may be caused by mechanical signals (e.g., stretch) or trophic signals (e.g.
4275218
Troponin


muscle begins. Troponin is found in both skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle, but the specific versions of troponin differ between types of muscle. The main difference is that the TnC subunit of troponin in skeletal muscle has four calcium ion-binding sites, whereas in cardiac muscle there are only three. Views on the actual amount of calcium that binds to troponin vary from expert to expert and source to source. In both cardiac and skeletal muscles, muscular force production is controlled primarily by changes in the intracellular calcium concentration. In general
18674209
Phosphoglycerate mutase


-type) or other tissue (b-type for brain where the b-isozyme was originally isolated). Existing as a dimer, the enzyme then has 3 isozymes depending on which subunit forms makeup the whole molecule (mm, bb or mb). The mm-type is found mainly in smooth muscle almost exclusively. The mb-isozyme is found in cardiac and skeletal muscle and the bb-type is found in the rest of tissues. While all three isozymes may be found in any tissue, the above
2664716
Muscular system


The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. It permits movement of the body, maintains posture and circulates blood throughout the body. The muscular systems in vertebrates are controlled through the nervous system although some muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be completely autonomous. Together with the skeletal system, it forms the musculoskeletal system, which is responsible for movement of the human body. There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles, cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth (non
999340
Carnitine


all organisms and animal tissue. Carnitine is the generic expression for a number of compounds that include L-carnitine, acetyl-L-carnitine, and propionyl-L-carnitine. It is most accumulated in cardiac and skeletal muscles as it accounts for 0.1% of its dry matter. It was first derived from meat extracts in 1905, therefore the name carnitine is derived from Latin ""carnus"" or flesh. The body synthesizes enough carnitine from lysine side chains to keep up with the needs of energy production in
277139
MYOM2


immunoglobulin C2-type repeats in the N-terminal region, five fibronectin type III repeats in the central region, and an additional four immunoglobulin C2-type repeats in the C-terminal region. M-protein is expressed only in striated muscle, including fast skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. M-protein exhibits a different pattern of expression in cardiac and skeletal muscle, as well as fast- versus slow-skeletal muscle during development, suggesting different regulatory mechanisms for expression quantity and temporal appearance. In cardiac muscle, expression of M-protein continues
19570029
Prenylamine


. Prenylamine has two primary molecular target in human, Calmodulin and Myosin light-chain kinase 2 found in skeletal and cardiac muscle. Pharmacologically, it decreases the sympathetic stimulation on cardiac muscle predominantly through partial depletion of catecholamine via competitive inhibition of reuptake by storage granule, which lead to further depletion due to spontaneous leakage as a result of disturbance of equilibrium. This depletion mechanism is similar to reserpine because both agents target the same site on storage granule, however prenylamine shows a high affinity for cardiac tissue while reserpine is more selective toward
16288035
Muscle


to the appropriate locations, where they fuse into elongate skeletal muscle cells. The three types of muscle (skeletal, cardiac and smooth) have significant differences. However, all three use the movement of actin against myosin to create contraction. In skeletal muscle, contraction is stimulated by electrical impulses transmitted by the nerves, the motoneurons (motor nerves) in particular. Cardiac and smooth muscle contractions are stimulated by internal pacemaker cells which regularly contract, and propagate contractions to other muscle cells they are in contact with. All skeletal muscle
16060835
Striated muscle tissue


of the muscle despite contractions. The perimysium organizes the muscle fibers, which are encased in collagen and endomysium, into fascicles. Each muscle fiber contains sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, and sarcoplasmic reticulum. The functional unit of a muscle fiber is called a sarcomere. Each myofiber is composed of actin and myosin myofibrils repeated as a sarcomere. Based on their contractile and metabolic phenotypes, skeletal muscle can be classified as slow-oxidative (Type I) or fast-oxidative (Type II). Cardiac muscle lies in between the epicardium and
20033132
GLUT4


-negative vesicles are activated by insulin stimulation as well as by exercise. Cardiac muscle is slightly different from skeletal muscle. At rest, they prefer to utilize fatty acids as their main energy source. As activity increases and it begins to pump faster, the cardiac muscles begin to oxidize glucose at a higher rate. An analysis of mRNA levels of GLUT1 and GLUT4 in cardiac muscles show that GLUT1 plays a larger role in cardiac muscles than it does in skeletal muscles. GLUT4, however, is still believed to be the primary
19737092
Actin


has a wider role in eukaryotic cell physiology, in addition to similar functions in prokaryotes. The majority of mammals possess six different actin genes. Of these, two code for the cytoskeleton ("ACTB" and "ACTG1") while the other four are involved in skeletal striated muscle ("ACTA1"), smooth muscle tissue ("ACTA2"), intestinal muscles ("ACTG2") and cardiac muscle ("ACTC1"). The actin in the cytoskeleton is involved in the pathogenic mechanisms of many infectious agents
4823488
Kosmos 1887


of microgravity on various body systems. The primate experiment was designed to study the growth and development of the peripheral skeleton. Rat studies encompassed a broad array of disciplines. The effects of microgravity on cardiac, liver, small intestine and bone tissue, liver function, skeletal growth, hormone levels and metabolism were studied using various approaches. Other studies investigated changes in the immune, nervous and reproductive systems, in muscle and connective tissue and in skeletal and mineral homeostasis. Another experiment was conducted to evaluate radiation exposure during the flight and
89966
Muscle


even near-permanent contractions. Skeletal (voluntary) muscle is further divided into two broad types: "slow twitch" and "fast twitch": The density of mammalian skeletal muscle tissue is about 1.06 kg/liter. This can be contrasted with the density of adipose tissue (fat), which is 0.9196 kg/liter. This makes muscle tissue approximately 15% denser than fat tissue. Skeletal muscles are sheathed by a tough layer of connective tissue called the epimysium. The epimysium anchors muscle tissue to tendons at each
16060825
Smooth muscle


. Smooth muscle is fundamentally different from skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle in terms of structure, function, regulation of contraction, and excitation-contraction coupling. Smooth muscle cells known as myocytes, have a fusiform shape and, like striated muscle, can tense and relax. However, smooth muscle tissue tends to demonstrate greater elasticity and function within a larger length-tension curve than striated muscle. This ability to stretch and still maintain contractility is important in organs like the intestines and urinary bladder. In the relaxed state, each cell
7574190
Muscle tissue


role in the ducts of exocrine glands. It fulfills various tasks such as sealing orifices (e.g. pylorus, uterine os) or the transport of the chyme through wavelike contractions of the intestinal tube. On the one hand smooth muscle cells contract slower than skeletal muscle cells, on the other hand they are stronger, more sustained and require less energy. Cardiac muscle is the muscle of the heart. It is self-contracting, autonomically regulated and must continue to contract in rhythmic fashion for the whole life of the organism. Hence
14873541
Mesoderm


mesodermal components of the limbs. Some of the mesoderm derivatives include the muscle (smooth, cardiac and skeletal), the muscles of the tongue (occipital somites), the pharyngeal arches muscle (muscles of mastication, muscles of facial expressions), connective tissue, dermis and subcutaneous layer of the skin, bone and cartilage, dura mater, endothelium of blood vessels, red blood cells, white blood cells, and microglia, the kidneys and the adrenal cortex. During the third week a process called gastrulation creates a mesodermal layer
17993264
Sarcomere


the borders of the sarcomere. Other bands appear when the sarcomere is relaxed. A muscle fiber from a biceps muscle may contain 100,000 sarcomeres. The myofibrils of smooth muscle cells are not arranged into sarcomeres. The sarcomeres are what give skeletal and cardiac muscles their striated appearance, which was first described by Van Leeuwenhoek. The relationship between the proteins and the regions of the sarcomere are as follows: Upon muscle contraction, the A-bands do not change their length (1.85 micrometer in mammalian skeletal muscle), whereas the I
21985131
Telokin


of myosin. Vascular muscles have a lower KRP/MLCK ratio. Telokin is expressed at very high levels in intestinal, urinary, and reproductive tract smooth muscle, at lower levels in vascular smooth muscle, and at undetectable levels in skeletal or cardiac muscle or nonmuscle tissues. Although telokin is strongly activated by myocardin and myocardin is highly expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells, there is relatively little expression of telokin in these cells. This suggests that an inhibitory factor must be attenuating the activity of the telokin promoter in vascular smooth muscle
8101860
Muscle


a process known as myogenesis. There are three types of muscle, skeletal or striated, cardiac, and smooth. Muscle action can be classified as being either voluntary or involuntary. Cardiac and smooth muscles contract without conscious thought and are termed involuntary, whereas the skeletal muscles contract upon command. Skeletal muscles in turn can be divided into fast and slow twitch fibers. Muscles are predominantly powered by the oxidation of fats and carbohydrates, but anaerobic chemical reactions are also used, particularly by fast twitch fibers. These chemical reactions produce adenosine
16060822
MYL3


Myosin essential light chain (ELC), ventricular/cardiac isoform is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "MYL3" gene. This cardiac ventricular/slow skeletal ELC isoform is distinct from that expressed in fast skeletal muscle (MYL1) and cardiac atrial muscle (MYL4). Ventricular ELC is part of the myosin molecule and is important in modulating cardiac muscle contraction. Cardiac, ventricular ELC is 21.9 kDa and composed of 195 amino acids (See human MYL3 sequences features here). Cardiac ELC and the second light
21216317
Calotropin


and cell volume. Inhibition of this enzyme in cardiac tissue is proposed as the receptor for calotropin and cardiac glycosides in general, and this is responsible for the toxic effects. Inhibition of the Na/K-ATPase causes an increase of sodium inside the cell, and by the action of the sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX) also raises the calcium concentration. Calotropin has a more noticeable effect on the myocardium than it does on skeletal muscles, as these cells have more active NCX proteins. This can allow for higher cardiac
12809386
HK2


mechanism, the pro-apoptotic creatine kinase binds and opens VDAC in the absence of HK2. An alternative model proposes the opposite, that HK2 regulates binding of the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-Xl to VDAC. In particular, HK2 is ubiquitously expressed in tissues, though it is majorly found in muscle and adipose tissue. In cardiac and skeletal muscle, HK2 can be found bound to both the mitochondrial and sarcoplasmic membrane. HK2 gene expression is regulated by a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinaselp70 S6 protein kinase-dependent pathway and can be induced
11109711
CAPZA2


within the CapZ-beta isoform. CapZ-alpha2 is 85% identical to CapZ-alpha1, and differ by a small number of key amino acids; 21 amino acid differences perpetrate isoform specificity. CapZ-alpha2 is expressed in a variety of tissues, including cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle, where it caps sarcomeric actin at Z-discs; the ratio of CapZ-alpha2 to CapZ-alpha1 varies significantly among different tissues. CapZ binds the barbed end of actin filaments and prevents addition or loss of actin monomers to filaments
6269404
Troponin C type 1


Troponin C, also known as TN-C or TnC, is a protein that resides in the troponin complex on actin thin filaments of striated muscle (cardiac, fast-twitch skeletal, or slow-twitch skeletal) and is responsible for binding calcium to activate muscle contraction. Troponin C is encoded by the "TNNC1" gene in humans for both cardiac and slow skeletal muscle. Cardiac troponin C (cTnC) is a 161-amino acid protein organized into two domains: the regulatory N-terminal domain (cNTnC, residues 1
20504182
JPH2


membrane and a remaining cytoplasmic membrane occupation and recognition nexus (MORN) domain that shows specific affinity for the plasma membrane. JPH2 is a member of the junctophilin gene family (the other members of the family are JPH1, JPH3, and JPH4) and is the predominant isoform in cardiac tissue, but is also expressed with JPH1 in skeletal muscle. The JPH2 protein product plays a critical role in maintaining the spacing a geometry of the cardiac dyad - the space between the plasma membrane and sarcoplasmic reticulum. These cardiac dyads also known
10079917
MAFK


broadly but differentially expressed in various tissues. "MAFK" expression was detected in all 16 tissues examined by the human BodyMap Project, but relatively abundant in adipose, lung and skeletal muscle tissues. Mouse "Mafk" is regulated by different GATA factors in both hematopoietic and cardiac tissues. "MAFK" expression is influenced by TGF-β and Wnt signaling, and rat "Mafk" expression is influenced by NGF and AKT in neuronal cells. Because of sequence similarity, no functional differences have been observed among the sMafs in terms
1948641
Plectin


mouse have shed light on the functions of plectin. Pups died 2–3 days after birth, and these mice exhibited marked skin abnormalities, including degeneration of keratinocytes. Skeletal and cardiac muscle tissues were also significantly affected. Cardiac intercalated discs were disintegrated and sarcomeres were irregularly shapen, and intracellular accumulation of aberrant isolated myofibrillar bundles and Z-disc components was also observed. Expression of vinculin in muscle cells was strikingly down-regulated. Through the use of gold-immunoelectron microscopy, immunoblotting and immunofluorescence experiments plectin has been found to associate with
20742263
MYH10


the alternatively spliced NM-IIB2 isoform, which has a 21 amino acid inserted into loop 2, near the actin-binding domain; actomyosin MgATPase activity of this isoform is not enhanced by phosphorylation of the regulatory light chain MLC20. NM-IIB is part of the larger myosin II subfamily of proteins, which also includes skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle and smooth muscle myosins. NM-IIB, and non-muscle myosins in general, are widely expressed in every tissue in humans. NM-IIB has many properties that are
20652085
Pirinixic acid


limiting hydrolysis step of triglycerides in the triacylglycerol lipolysis cascade, is expressed predominantly in adipose tissue, but is also found in lesser amounts within cardiac and skeletal muscle. Its function is to initiate the breakdown of intracellular triglycerides into fatty acid monomers. Individuals deficient in the ATGL enzyme are at higher risk for cardiac dysfunction and premature death because of increased size and accumulation of lipid droplets within cardiac myocytes. PPARs are a family of ligand activated receptors which include PPARα, PPARδ and PPARγ subtypes that are expressed in varying amounts in nuclear membranes
14209743
Anti-miRNA oligonucleotides


proteins in cancer cells, as well as increased control of cellular processes of cancer. In the development of tissues in embryos, miRNA can have a role in the upregulation or downregulation of specific muscular development. miRNA-1 plays a role in muscle differentiation between cardiac and skeletal muscle precursor cells. In development, if levels of precursor cells are not properly regulated, it can result in muscular hypoplasia. By creating AMOs for these known miRNAs involved in muscle generation, it is possible to track a miRNA's specific mechanisms throughout the process of
21017410
Cicutoxin


, taking up to seven days to recover fully. Research studies on ewes has shown that skeletal and cardiac myodegeneration (damage of muscle tissues) only occur after a dose sufficient to induce symptoms of intoxication is administered. Analysis of the animal's blood showed elevated serum enzymes that indicate muscle damage (LDH, AST and CK values). At necropsy, the ewe's heart had multifocal pale areas and pallor of the long digital extensor muscle groups; by contrast, a ewe given a lethal dose of cicutoxin-containing tubers had
4208430
TNNT1


TNNT1 gene is specifically expressed in slow skeletal muscle of vertebrates, with one exception that dry land toad (Bufo) cardiac muscle expresses ssTnT other than cardiac TnT. Three homologous genes have evolved in vertebrates, encoding three muscle type specific isoforms of TnT. Each of the TnT isoform genes is linked to one of the three troponin I isoform genes encoding the inhibitory subunit of the troponin complex, in chromosomal DNA to form three gene pairs: The fast skeletal muscle TnI (fsTnI)-fsTnT, ssTnI-cardiac (cTnT) and cTnI-ssTnT gene
20907073
Zenker's degeneration


Zenker's degeneration is a severe glassy or waxy hyaline degeneration or necrosis of skeletal muscles in acute infectious diseases; a prototype of coagulative necrosis. The condition was named by Friedrich Albert von Zenker. It is a hyaline degeneration of skeletal muscles such as rectus abdominis and diaphragm, and occurs in severe toxaemia as typhoid fever. It is also seen in electrical burns. Grossly the muscles appear pale and friable; microscopically, the muscle fibres are swollen, have a loss of cross striations, and show a hyaline appearance. Rupture and
2136716
Cellular adaptation


, growth factors). An example of physiologic hypertrophy is in skeletal muscle with sustained weight bearing exercise. An example of pathologic hypertrophy is in cardiac muscle as a result of hypertension.. Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells. It is the result of increased cell mitosis, or division. The two types of physiologic hyperplasia are compensatory and hormonal. Compensatory hyperplasia permits tissue and organ regeneration. It is common in epithelial cells of the epidermis and intestine, liver hepatocytes, bone marrow cells, and fibroblasts. It occurs
4275219
Cardiac muscle


to be present in the solution surrounding the cell in order to contract, while skeletal muscle fibres will contract without extracellular calcium. During contraction of a cardiac muscle cell, the long protein myofilaments oriented along the length of the slide over each other in what is known as the sliding filament hypothesis. There are two kinds of myofilaments, thick filaments composed of the protein myosin, and thin filaments composed of the proteins actin, troponin and tropomyosin. As the thick and thin filaments slide past each other the cell becomes shorter and fatter
1020171
Extrafusal muscle fiber


Extrafusal muscle fibers are the skeletal standard muscle fibers that are innervated by alpha motor neurons and generate tension by contracting, thereby allowing for skeletal movement. "The Public Library of Science says that in most mammals, skeletal muscle comprises about 55% of individual body mass and plays vital roles in locomotion, heat production during periods of cold stress, and overall metabolism." They make up the large mass of skeletal muscle tissue and are attached to bone by fibrous tissue extensions (tendons). Each alpha motor neuron and the extrafusal
5153593
Striated muscle tissue


). Contractions in cardiac muscle tissue are due to pacemaker cells. These cells respond to signals from the autonomic nervous system to either increase or decrease the heart rate. Pacemaker cells have autorhythmicity. The set intervals at which they depolarize to threshold and fire action potentials is what determines the heart rate. Because of the gap junctions, the pacemaker cells transfer the depolarization to other cardiac muscle fibers, in order to contract in unison. Signals from motor neurons cause myofibers to depolarize and therefore release calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
20033135
Calsequestrin


via presentation of a charged protein surface. Two forms of calsequestrin have been identified. The cardiac form Calsequestrin-2 (CASQ2) is present in cardiac and slow skeletal muscle and the fast skeletal form Calsequestrin-1(CASQ1) is found in fast skeletal muscle. The release of calsequestrin-bound calcium (through a calcium release channel) triggers muscle contraction. The active protein is not highly structured, more than 50% of it adopting a random coil conformation. When calcium binds there is a structural change whereby the alpha-helical content of the protein
15529099
C1orf127


in certain areas of both the developing and adult brain, such as the cerebellum, as well as skeletal muscle tissue, the testis, cardiac muscle, and throughout the digestive system. Little else is known about this gene’s expression, however a 2012 paper published in the "World Journal of Gastroenterology" suggested that it’s mis-expression could be used as a diagnostic marker locus in the detection of cancer C1orf127 has no paralogs within the human genome, however a number of orthologs have been identified, ranging across the jawed
10932010
Plectin


to actin. In 2004, the exact crystal structure of this actin-binding domain (ABD) was determined in mice and shown to be composed of two calponin homology (CH) domains. Plectin is expressed in nearly all mammalian tissues. In cardiac muscle and skeletal muscle, plectin is localized to specialized entities known as Z-discs. Plectin binds several proteins, including vinculin, DES, actin., fodrin, microtubule-associating proteins, nuclear laminin B., SPTAN1, vimentin and ITGB4. Studies employing a plectin knockout
20742262
ANKRD2


Ankyrin Repeat, PEST sequence and Proline-rich region (ARPP), also known as Ankyrin repeat domain-containing protein 2 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "ANKRD2" gene. ARPP is a member of the muscle ankyrin repeat proteins (MARP), which also includes CARP and DARP, and is highly expressed in cardiac and skeletal muscle and in other tissues. Expression of AARP has been shown to be altered in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Two isoforms of ARPP have been documented
378299
Osteopontin


of some human breast cancer cells due to its inability to associate with the extracellular matrix. Osteopontin is biosynthesized by a variety of tissue types including cardiac fibroblasts, preosteoblasts, osteoblasts, osteocytes, odontoblasts, some bone marrow cells, hypertrophic chondrocytes, dendritic cells, macrophages, smooth muscle, skeletal muscle myoblasts, endothelial cells, and extraosseous (non-bone) cells in the inner ear, brain, kidney, deciduum, and placenta. Synthesis of osteopontin is stimulated by calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxy-vitamin D). Regulation of the
5210960
Carbonic anhydrase III, muscle specific


Carbonic anhydrase 3 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the "CA3" gene. Carbonic anhydrase III (CAIII) is a member of a multigene family (at least six separate genes are known) that encode carbonic anhydrase isozymes. These carbonic anhydrases are a class of metalloenzymes that catalyze the reversible hydration of carbon dioxide and are differentially expressed in a number of cell types. The expression of the CA3 gene is strictly tissue-specific and present at high levels in skeletal muscle and much lower levels in cardiac and smooth
7577270
Nutritional muscular dystrophy


are antioxidants therefore, deficiencies of these nutrients leads to oxidative damage to cells within the body. The muscle cells are the most vulnerable to damage in livestock species. The oxidative damage causes degeneration of muscles, in particular those within the skeletal and cardiac systems. If the cardiac muscles are impaired the animal may exhibit signs of respiratory distress. While deterioration of skeletal muscles results in stiffness, weakness, and recumbency. If the diet is deficient supplement with selenium and/or vitamin E. Injections can be given to treat the condition or as a
10665662
TNNI1


only four amino acids, and rhesus monkey ssTnI is identical to human in the amino acid sequences. In lower vertebrates, the divergence of ssTnI between species is larger than that in the higher vertebrates (Fig1). Comparing with the fast twitch skeletal muscle and cardiac TnI isoform genes ("TNNT2" and "TNNT3"), "TNNI1" has a broader range of expression in avian and mammalian striated muscles. It is the predominant TnI isoform expressed in both slow skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle in early embryonic stage. An
20651861
Gap junction


appear to be in all animal organs and tissues and it will be interesting to find exceptions to this other than cells not normally in contact with neighboring cells. Adult skeletal muscle is a possible exception. It may be argued that if present in skeletal muscle, gap junctions might propagate contractions in an arbitrary way among cells making up the muscle. At least in some cases this may not be the case as shown in other muscle types that do have gap junctions. An indication of what results from reduction or absence of gap junctions
19875666
TNNT2


an isoelectric point (pI) of 4.88. It is the tropomyosin- binding and thin filament anchoring subunit of the troponin complex in cardiac muscle cells. TNNT2 gene is expressed in vertebrate cardiac muscles and embryonic skeletal muscles. Cardiac TnT is a 35.9 kDa protein composed of 298 amino acids. Cardiac TnT is the largest of the three troponin subunits (cTnT, troponin I (TnI), troponin C (TnC)) on the actin thin filament of cardiac muscle. The structure of TnT is asymmetric; the globular C-terminal
5967579
Local blood flow regulation


Acute local blood flow regulation refers to the rapid control of arterial vasomotion usually based on the metabolic needs of the surrounding cells. Although cardiac output may remain the same, blood flow to individual cells is chiefly dependent on the cells' need for nutrients. For example, during exercise such as running, the metabolic needs of the active leg skeletal muscles increase significantly. The muscle cells are in much more demand for nutrients such as oxygen. However, the body "reserves" as much blood as possible to the active tissues (
10679783
PROB1


Proline-rich basic protein 1 (PROB1) is a protein encoded by the PROB1 gene located on human chromosome 5, open reading frame 65. PROB1 is also known as C5orf65 and weakly similar to basic proline-rich protein. The PROB1 gene is 3251 bp long and contains a single exon. The PROB1 gene is located on human chromosome 5, cytogenetic band 5q31.2. PROB1 is expressed in 89 types of tissue in the human body, with highest expression in the skeletal muscle of the leg and cardiac muscle of the heart
1470475
Platelet-activating factor


increase in reactive oxygen species in the cell and the induction of an apoptosis-like phenotype Cumulative evidence reveals that diabetes is a condition in which cell Ca2+ homeostasis is impaired. Defects in cell Ca2+ regulation were found in erythrocytes, cardiac muscle, platelets, skeletal muscle, kidney, aorta, adipocytes, liver, osteoblasts, arteries, lens, peripheral nerves, brain synaptosomes, retinal tissue, and pancreatic beta cells, confirming that this defect in cell Ca2+ metabolism is a basic pathology associated with the diabetic state.
4122994
Sonomicrometry


, when making measurements in biological tissue at body temperature (velocity = 1,590 m/s), a digital sonomicrometer operating with a clock speed of 128 MHz will have a spatial resolution of 12 micrometres. Sonomicrometry is often used in studies of animal physiology where precise distances at high temporal resolution are needed, particularly when such distances are not externally measurable. Sonomicrometry crystals are most commonly implanted within skeletal or cardiac muscle tissue to track length changes during an activity (heartbeat, flapping a wing, chewing, etc.). However
3178569
MYOZ2


Myozenin-2, also referred to as Calsarcin-1, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the "MYOZ2" gene. The Calsarcin-1 isoform is a muscle protein expressed in cardiac muscle and slow-twitch skeletal muscle, which functions to tether calcineurin to alpha-actinin at Z-discs, and inhibit the pathological cardiac hypertrophic response. This differs from the fast-skeletal muscle isoform, calsarcin-2. Calsarcin-1 is a 29.9 kDa protein composed of 264 amino acids. Calsarcin-1 and calsarcin-2 are only 31% homologous (94 identical amino acids
1948394
Cardiac muscle


such as collagen and elastin along with polysaccharides (sugar chains) known as glycosaminoglycans. Together, these substances give support and strength to the muscle cells, create elasticity in cardiac muscle, and keep the muscle cells hydrated by binding water molecules. The matrix in immediate contact with the muscle cells is referred to as the basement membrane, mainly composed of type IV collagen and laminin. Cardiomyocytes are linked to the basement membrane via specialised glycoproteins called integrins. The physiology of cardiac muscle shares many similarities with that of skeletal muscle. The
1020168
Alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma


cells within the muscle tissue. During embryonic development ARMS occurs in the mesoderm which is the precursor for the skeletal muscle tissue. ARMS accounts for roughly 20 to 30 percent of all rhabdomyosarcoma tumors and therefore accounts for roughly 1 percent of malignancies found in children and adolescents. There is an age determination on which PAX proteins fuse together with the FOXO1 transcription factor. PAX3-FOXO1 positive subset of ARMS occurs mostly in older children and young adults, while PAX7-FOXO1 positive subset of ARMS and fusion negative subsets occur most often in younger children. ARMS
21507843
Troponin T


Troponin T is a part of the troponin complex, which are proteins integral to the contraction of skeletal and heart muscles. They are expressed in skeletal and cardiac myocytes. Troponin T binds to tropomyosin and helps position it on actin, and together with the rest of the troponin complex, modulates contraction of striated muscle. The cardiac subtype of troponin T is especially useful in the laboratory diagnosis of heart attack because it is released into the blood-stream when damage to heart muscle occurs. It was discovered by the German physician Hugo
20809616