who came up with the terms mechanistic and organic
Organic organisation


A term created by Tom Burns and G.M. Stalker in the late 1950s, organic organizations, unlike mechanistic organizations (also coined by Burns and Stalker), are flexible and value external knowledge. The theories of Burns and Stalker impacted the field of organization theory, with their study of management and structure of Scottish electronics firms. In their writing contrasting mechanistic and organismic structures, they outlined the differences between the two types. Also called organismic organization, this form of organizational structure was widely sought and proposed, but difficult to prove it
14392230
Benjamin Moore (biochemist)


years studied the molecular physics and structure of the organism, he came to reject mechanist and materialist explanations for the organism but also opposed idealistic and spiritualist explanations. Instead he developed a theory of "biotic energy" which he discussed in his books "The Origin and Nature of Life" (1913) and "Biochemistry" (1921). Similar to the vitalists he claimed that there was an energy in living bodies which could not be described in terms of physics and chemistry. John Burroughs was supportive of his biotic energy theory
14273374
Mechanistic organic photochemistry


century and earlier an immense number of photochemical reactions have been uncovered. In modern times the field is quite well understood and is used in organic synthesis and industrially. The utility of organic photochemistry has arisen only by virtue of the available mechanistic treatment; reactions which appear unlikely in ground-state understanding become understandable and accessible in terms of electronic excited-state consideration. One of the earliest photochemical studies dealt with the natural product santonin. In the 19th century it had been observed by Ciamician that in Italian sunlight santonin gave several photoproducts
19539091
Wirehead (science fiction)


by Spider Robinson set in the late 1980s, explores the social implications of technologies to manipulate the brain, beginning with wireheading, the use of electric current to stimulate the pleasure center of the brain in order to achieve a narcotic high. In the Shaper/Mechanist stories of Bruce Sterling, "wirehead" is the Mechanist term for a human who has given up corporeal existence and become an infomorph. In "The Terminal Man" (1972) by Michael Crichton, forty electrodes are implanted into the brain of the character Harold
3197930
Shaper/Mechanist universe


is considered a serious disadvantage. Their methods could best be described as "organic." Shaper society, based around the Military-Academic complex, is described as fascist. In contrast, the Mechanists have disdain for the Shapers' methods and instead prefer to use cybernetic augmentation, advanced computer software, technical expertise, and drugs to achieve their goals. The "Lobsters" are Mechanists who permanently seal their bodies into life-support shells allowing them to live and work in deep space. Some Mechanists even go as far as
13078692
Russian formalism


art and non-art. Therefore, its notions are organized in terms of polar oppositions. One of the most famous dichotomies introduced by the mechanistic Formalists is a distinction between story and plot, or fabula and "sjuzhet". Story, fabula, is a chronological sequence of events, whereas plot, sjuzhet, can unfold in non-chronological order. The events can be artistically arranged by means of such devices as repetition, parallelism, gradation, and retardation. The mechanistic methodology reduced literature to a variation and combination of
18082873
Mechanism (philosophy)


explicable in terms of the effects of perception and the pursuit of desire, which in turn he held to be completely explicable in terms of the materialistic operations of the nervous system. Following Hobbes, other mechanists argued for a thoroughly mechanistic explanation of the mind, with one of the most influential and controversial expositions of the doctrine being offered by Julien Offray de La Mettrie in his "Man a Machine" (1748). The main points of debate between anthropic mechanists and anti-mechanists are mainly occupied with two topics: the
18568965
Functionalism (philosophy of mind)


system, but one that is understood mechanistically. This account remains a sort of functionalism because functional relations are still essential to mental states, but it is mechanistic because the functional relations are always manifestations of concrete structures—albeit structures understood at a certain level of abstraction. Functions are individuated and explained either in terms of the contributions they make to the given system or in teleological terms. If the functions are understood in teleological terms, then they may be characterized either etiologically or non-etiologically. Mechanistic functionalism leads functionalism away from
18009357
Brain


's ideas were widely known during the Middle Ages, but not much further progress came until the Renaissance, when detailed anatomical study resumed, combined with the theoretical speculations of René Descartes and those who followed him. Descartes, like Galen, thought of the nervous system in hydraulic terms. He believed that the highest cognitive functions are carried out by a non-physical "res cogitans", but that the majority of behaviors of humans, and all behaviors of animals, could be explained mechanistically. The first real progress toward a
3380226
Tom Burns (sociologist)


firms, with a view to their entering this modern and rapidly expanding industry as the markets for their own well-established products diminished. He created a term mechanistic organization- and organismic (also called organic organization) organization. He expressed his approach to research and expressed in the preface to the second edition of "The Management of Innovation:" "by perceiving behaviour as a medium of constant interplay and mutual redefinition of individual identities and social institutions...it is possible to begin to grasp the nature of changes, developments and historical
22144657
Mechanism (philosophy)


"about human beings" can be completely explained in mechanical terms, as surely as can everything about clocks or the internal combustion engine. One of the chief obstacles that all mechanistic theories have faced is providing a mechanistic explanation of the human mind; Descartes, for one, endorsed dualism in spite of endorsing a completely mechanistic conception of the material world because he argued that mechanism and the notion of a mind were logically incompatible. Hobbes, on the other hand, conceived of the mind and the will as purely mechanistic, completely
18568964
Mechanical philosophy


radically different types of substance: extended matter, on the one hand, and immaterial mind, on the other. Descartes argued that one cannot explain the conscious mind in terms of the spatial dynamics of mechanistic bits of matter cannoning off each other. Nevertheless, his understanding of biology was mechanistic in nature: His scientific work was based on the traditional mechanistic understanding that animals and humans are completely mechanistic automata. Descartes' dualism was motivated by the seeming impossibility that mechanical dynamics could yield mental experiences. Isaac Beeckman's theory of
13841927
Mechanism (philosophy)


the other. Descartes argued that one cannot explain the conscious mind in terms of the spatial dynamics of mechanistic bits of matter cannoning off each other. Nevertheless, his understanding of biology was thoroughly mechanistic in nature: His scientific work was based on the traditional mechanistic understanding that animals and humans are completely mechanistic automata. Descartes' dualism was motivated by the seeming impossibility that mechanical dynamics could yield mental experiences. Isaac Newton ushered in a much weaker acceptation of mechanism that tolerated the antithetical, and as yet inexplicable, action at a
18568962
Arrow pushing


is the species that retains the electrons from the bond while the cation is stripped of the electrons from the bond. The anion usually forms on the most electronegative atom, in this example atom A. All heterolytic organic chemistry reactions can be described by a sequence of fundamental mechanistic subtypes. The elementary mechanistic subtypes taught in introductory organic chemistry are S1, S2, E1, E2, addition and addition-elimination. Using arrow pushing, each of these mechanistic subtypes can be described. An S1 reaction occurs when a molecule separates into a
14902260
Mechanistic organic photochemistry


Some chemical reactions take place by the action of light. These are called, "photochemical reactions", or "photolysis". Mechanistic organic photochemistry is the aspect of organic photochemistry which seeks to explain the mechanisms of organic photochemical reactions. The absorption of ultraviolet light by organic molecules often leads to reactions. In the earliest days, sunlight was employed, while in more modern times ultraviolet lamps are employed. Organic photochemistry has proven to be a very useful synthetic tool. Complex organic products can be obtained simply. Over the last
19539090
Mechanistic organic photochemistry


by ortho and para groups. Over the decades, many interesting but puzzling organic photochemical reactions were discovered that did not proceed by ordinary organic ground state processes. Rather, they arose from the excited states of electrons in the compounds. The real problem was that, at the time, organic chemists were not versed in quantum mechanics and physical chemists were not versed in organic chemistry. Real mechanistic treatments were not possible. Starting in 1961 it was found that one could understand organic photochemical reactions in the context of the relevant excited states
19539093
Hans Driesch


can generate every cell in an organism and one that can generate nearly every cell. Driesch's results were confirmed with greater precision, and the experiments extended, by Sven Hörstadius who showed that conclusions of equivalence between sea urchin embryonic cells were an over-simplification. Driesch, believing that his results compromised contemporary mechanistic theories of ontogeny, instead proposed that the autonomy of life that he deduced from this persistence of embryological development despite interferences was due to what he called entelechy, a term borrowed from Aristotle's philosophy to indicate a life
20499162
Pavement performance modeling


pavement performance goes back to the first half of 20th century. The first efforts in pavement performance modeling were based on mechanistic models. Later researchers also developed empirical models, which were not based on the structure of the pavement. Since the beginning of 1990s mechanistic-empirical models became popular. These models combined both mechanistic and empirical features via linear regression. In North America, AASHTO developed a guideline based on mechanistic-empirical methods. Development of such models required data. Therefore, in North America, organizations such as AASHTO and
1593968
Mechanism (philosophy)


distance of gravity. However, his work seemed to successfully predict the motion of both celestial and terrestrial bodies according to that principle, and the generation of philosophers who were inspired by Newton's example carried the mechanist banner nonetheless. Chief among them were French philosophers such as Julien Offray de La Mettrie and Denis Diderot (see also: French materialism). The thesis in anthropic mechanism is not that everything can be completely explained in mechanical terms (although some anthropic mechanists may "also" believe that), but rather that everything
18568963
Preformationism


Still, the idea that unorganized matter could ultimately self-organize into life challenged the mechanistic framework of Cartesianism, which had become dominant in the Scientific Revolution. Because of technological limitations, there was no available mechanical explanation for epigenesis. It was simpler and more convenient to postulate preformed miniature organisms that expanded in accordance with mechanical laws. So convincing was this explanation that some naturalists claimed to actually see miniature preformed animals (animalcules) in eggs and miniature plants in seeds. In the case of humans, the term homunculus was used
22212335
Philosophy in the Soviet Union


concerning "socialism in one country", was not a "mechanist" per se, but was seen as an ally.) The mechanists (A.K. Timartizev, Timianski, Axelrod, Stepanov...), came mostly from scientific backgrounds, claimed that Marxist philosophy found its basis in a causal explanation of Nature. They upheld a positivist interpretation of Marxism which asserted that Marxist philosophy had to follow the natural sciences. Stepanov thus wrote an article flatly titled "The Dialectical Understanding of Nature is the Mechanistic Understanding". To the contrary
16231185
Organ-on-a-chip


cell culture analogs (μCCAs) could be used in conjunction with PBPK models. These μCCAs scaled-down devices, termed also body-on-a-chip devices, can simulate multi-tissue interactions under near-physiological fluid flow conditions and with realistic tissue-to-tissue size ratios . Data obtained with these systems may be used to test and refine mechanistic hypotheses. Microfabricating devices also allows us to custom-design them and scale the organs' compartments correctly with respect to one another. Because the device can be
10663567
Functionalism (philosophy of mind)


be rendered in mechanistic terms. That is, instead of mental states receiving a purely functional explanation in terms of their relations to other mental states, like those listed above, functions are seen as playing only a part—the other part being played by structures— of the explanation of a given mental state. A mechanistic explanation involves decomposing a given system, in this case a mental system, into its component physical parts, their activities or functions, and their combined organizational relations. On this account the mind remains a functional
18009356
Shaper/Mechanist universe


to become "wireheads"—individuals with no corporeal body who are simply manifested as computer simulations. The Mechanist philosophy favors individualism more than the collectivist Shapers. This uneasy duality is transformed and complicated by the arrival of the Investors, lizardlike aliens that trade with both factions (who consequently compete for the aliens' favor). One recurring theme in the Shaper/Mechanist universe is that of the commodification of humanity. Both Shapers and Mechanists often treat individuals as if they were technology—subject to ownership, control, obsolescence, etc. There
13078693
Grotesque body


entire social system. It was the power of the people’s festive-carnival, a way to turn the official spectacle inside-out and upside down, just for a while; long enough to make an impression on the participating official stratum. With the advent of modernity (science, technology, industrial revolution), the mechanistic overtook the organic, and the officialdom no longer came to join in festive-carnival. The bodily lower stratum of humor dualized from the upper stratum." Before people began to develop literature or
11044816
Ethiopian World Federation


by the Internal Revenue Service as a 501(c)(4) organization, thus conferring tax-exempt status on the organization and its legal subsidiary bodies. The main purpose was set out in the following preamble: The EWF was at first made up primarily of Ethiopian students who came to America to study abroad, after the official coronation of Emperor Haile Selassie. It gained support from the Black community of Harlem, and deprecated the term "Negro" in favour of an African and Ethiopian identity. Bayen set up the EWF's newspaper, "
22062997
Mechanistic organic photochemistry


undergoes the same beta-beta bonding. This is followed by intersystem crossing (i.e. ISC) to form the singlet ground state which is seen to be a zwitterion. The final step is the rearrangement to the bicyclic photoproduct. The reaction is termed the type A cyclohexadienone rearrangement. To provide further evidence on the mechanism of the dienone in which there is bonding between the two double bonds, the case of 4,4-diphenylcyclohexenone is presented here. It is seen that the rearrangement is quite different; thus two double bonds are required for a
19539096
Kiss and cry


backdrop for television shots and photos of the skaters as they react to their performance and scores. The term was coined by Jane Erkko, a Finnish figure skating official who was on the organizing committee for the 1983 World Figure Skating Championships which were held in Helsinki. Erkko came up with the name when visiting television technicians who were mapping the arena prior to the event wanted to know what the area was called. The first formal off-ice waiting area at the Olympics appeared in Sarajevo 1984. The term "kiss and cry
19151965
Léon Croizat


To explain disjunct distributions, Croizat proposed the existence of broadly distributed ancestors that established its range during a period of mobilism, followed by a form-making process over a broad front. Disjunctions are explained as extinctions in the previously continuous range. Orthogenesis is a term used by Croizat, in his words "... in a pure mechanistic sense", which refers to the fact that a variation in form is limited and constrained. Croizat considered organism evolution as a function of time, space and form. Of these three essential factors
18097115
Cultural feminism


Josephine Donovan argues that the nineteenth century journalist, critic and women's rights activist, Margaret Fuller, initiated cultural feminism in "Woman in the Nineteenth Century" (1845). She stressed the emotional, intuitive side of knowledge and expressed an organic worldview that is quite different from the mechanistic view of Enlightenment rationalists. However, it was Linda Alcoff's argument in "Cultural Feminism Versus Post-Structuralism: the Identity Crisis in Feminist Theory" that led to the widespread adoption of the term to describe contemporary feminists, not their
20408767
Semantic spectrum


created. The job title of an individual that is responsible for coordinating an organization's data is a Data architect. The first reference to this term was at the 1999 AAAI Ontologies Panel. The panel was organized by Chris Welty, who at the prodding of Fritz Lehmann and in collaboration with the panelists (Fritz, Mike Uschold, Mike Gruninger, and Deborah McGuinness) came up with a "spectrum" of kinds of information systems that were, at the time, referred to as ontologies. The "ontology spectrum" picture
10397684
Mechanism (philosophy)


mind — and consciousness, in particular — and free will. Anti-mechanists argue that anthropic mechanism is incompatible with our commonsense intuitions: in philosophy of mind they argue that if matter is devoid of mental properties then the phenomenon of consciousness cannot be explained by mechanistic principles acting on matter. In metaphysics anti-mechanists argue that anthropic mechanism implies determinism about human action, which is incompatible with our experience of free will. Contemporary philosophers who have argued for this position include Norman Malcolm and David Chalmers. Anthropic mechanists typically respond
18568966
Narrative psychology


interested in stories and everyday accounts of life in the 1970s. The term narrative psychology was introduced by Theodore R. Sarbin in his 1986 book "Narrative Psychology: The storied nature of human conduct" in which he claimed that human conduct is best explained through stories and that this explanation should be done through qualitative research. Sarbin argued that "narrative" is a root metaphor for psychology that should replace the mechanistic and organic metaphors which shaped so much theory and research in the discipline over the past century. Jerome Bruner explored the "
11266988
Benzidine


reaction to 4,4'-benzidine. Smaller amounts of other isomers are also formed. The benzidine rearrangement, which proceeds intramolecularly, is a classic mechanistic puzzle in organic chemistry. The conversion is described as a [5,5]sigmatropic reaction. In terms of its physical properties, 4,4'-benzidine is poorly soluble in cold water but can be recrystallized from hot water, where it crystallises as the monohydrate. It is dibasic, the deprotonated species has "K" values of 9.3 × 10 and 5.6 × 10. Its solutions react with oxidizing agents to give deeply coloured
14572141
William Emerson Ritter


vitalists and the mechanists entered endless debates and wrote endless papers advocating their perspective. According to Ernst Mayr, Ritter introduced the third school of thought: organicism. While the term "organicism" had been used before, Ritter was the first to use it for biological purposes and to create a theory of it. Organicism believed that life was interrelationships between living things, living in a complex web. Today, organicism might be called systems theory. In 1918, Ritter wrote his organicist tome, "The Unity of the Organism"
8235598
Abram Deborin


Soviet philosophy found itself divided itself between two factions: the "dialecticians," headed up by Deborin, and "mechanists," whose leading figure was the philosopher Lyubov Akselrod (the then prominent Bolshevik leader Bukharin was seen as an ally of the "mechanists," although he did not entirely agree with them). In 1931, Joseph Stalin decided the issue of the debate between dialecticians and mechanists by publishing a decree which identified dialectical materialism as pertaining solely to Marxism-Leninism. He then codified it in "Dialectical and
10573719
Substantial form


A theory of substantial forms asserts that forms (or ideas) organize matter and make it intelligible. Substantial forms are the source of properties, order, unity, identity, and information about objects. The concept of substantial forms dominates ancient Greek philosophy and medieval philosophy, but has fallen out of favour in modern philosophy. The idea of substantial forms has been abandoned for a mechanical, or "bottom-up" theory of organization. However, such mechanistic treatments have been criticized for the same reasons atomism has received criticism,
6495848
Christopher J. Schofield


Christopher Joseph Schofield (also known as Chris Schofield) is the Head of Organic Chemistry at the University of Oxford and a Fellow of the Royal Society. Chris Schofield is a professor of organic chemistry at the University of Oxford, Department of Chemistry and a Fellow of Hertford College. Prof Schofield studied functional, structural and mechanistic understanding of enzymes that employ oxygen and 2-oxoglutarate as a co-substrate. His work has opened up new possibilities in antibiotic research, oxygen sensing, and gene regulation. After work on plant and microbial oxygenases
8064675
Fallout 4 downloadable content


robots, the Sole Survivor confronts the Mechanist, who claims to be saving the Commonwealth. However, the Sole Survivor convinces her that the RoboBrains misinterpreted their orders and started killing innocent people. Horrified, the Mechanist reveals herself to be Isabel Cruz, a young woman with an affinity for making robots and trouble relating to people who was inspired to create the Mechanist persona after finding a child's drawings of a robot-themed superhero in the remains of a caravan that had been attacked by raiders. Devastated that her good intentions led
4742294
Functionalism (philosophy of mind)


series of mind levels (analogous to homunculi) which became less and less sophisticated in terms of functional organization and physical composition all the way down to the level of the physico-mechanical neuron or group of neurons. The homunculi at each level, on this view, have authentic mental properties but become simpler and less intelligent as one works one's way down the hierarchy. Mechanistic functionalism, originally formulated and defended by Gualtiero Piccinini and Carl Gillett independently, augments previous functionalist accounts of mental states by maintaining that any psychological explanation must
18009355
1,3-Dipolar cycloaddition


The 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition is a chemical reaction between a 1,3-dipole and a dipolarophile to form a five-membered ring. The earliest 1,3-dipolar cycloadditions were described in the late 19th century to the early 20th century, following the discovery of 1,3-dipoles. Mechanistic investigation and synthetic application were established in the 1960s, primarily through the work of Rolf Huisgen. Hence, the reaction is sometimes referred to as the Huisgen cycloaddition (this term is often used to specifically describe the 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition between an organic azide and an alkyne to generate 1,2,3-triazole). 1,3-dipolar
6335735
Dehumanization


are denied to targets. Targets of mechanistic dehumanization are seen as cold, rigid, interchangeable, lacking agency, and likened to machines or objects. Mechanistic dehumanization is usually employed on an interpersonal basis (e.g., when a person is seen as a means to another's end). Several lines of psychological research relate to the concept of dehumanization. Infrahumanization suggests that individuals think of and treat outgroup members as "less human" and more like animals; while Irenaus Eibl-Eibesfeld uses the term "pseudo-speciation",
7504796
Vitalism


. The work of Haldane was an influence on organicism. Haldane also stated that a purely mechanist interpretation can not account for the characteristics of life. Haldane wrote a number of books in which he attempted to show the invalidity of both vitalism and mechanist approaches to science. Haldane explained: By 1931, biologists had "almost unanimously abandoned vitalism as an acknowledged belief." Some aspects of contemporary science make reference to emergent processes; those in which the properties of a system cannot be fully described in terms of the properties of
5987143
Iatrophysics


Henri Louis de Rouviere (1708) connected fermentation with health. However, it also dismissed the relationship of mechanics with health and the mechanistic model of the body. Another conflict arose in explanation of digestion. While iatrophysicists explained the event through mechanistic terms, iatrochemists argued for fermentation as the reason for the digestive processes in the body. Furthermore, while iatrophysicists rejected acid-base theory as an explanation for bodily processes, iatrochemists embraced the theory. In the Middle Ages, Galenic anatomo-physiology prevailed as the leading medical thought.
599682
Views of Lyndon LaRouche and the LaRouche movement


it takes the naive mechanistic [form] or the equivalent mechanistic outlook of empiricism—is termed "reductionism". All varieties of reductionism are formally premised on the fallacious assumption of formal logic, that the universe can be represented as discrete points interconnected by formal relations. From this it followed, Bronfenbrenner said, that LaRouche viewed bourgeois economists' concern with "prices" as reductionism, versus the Marxian concern with "values". The reductionist fallacy then lies in adjusting a value theory like labor theory to fit in with price
704624
Vitalism


failed to rule out mechanistic explanations. This is rather obvious in retrospect for organic chemistry and developmental biology, but the criticism goes back at least a century. In 1912, Jacques Loeb published "The Mechanistic Conception of Life", in which he described experiments on how a sea urchin could have a pin for its father, as Bertrand Russell put it ("Religion and Science"). He offered this challenge: Loeb addressed vitalism more explicitly: Bechtel states that vitalism "is often viewed as unfalsifiable, and therefore a
5987152
Jukka Jernvall


in teeth. He also discovered and coined the term ‘secondary enamel knot’, previously overlooked signaling centers regulating tooth cusp development. This discovery helped to mechanistically link molecular regulation of growth and differentiation to shape. Later, Jernvall has focused on the modelling of three-dimensional dentition phenotypes. He has studied why certain dentition patterns arise several times during the course of evolution, while other patterns occur only rarely. Jernvall's team has developed several methods from computer modeling of organ development to three-dimensional analysis of biological shape development
14322849
Greedy reductionism


neatly to the foundation". Using the terminology of "cranes" (legitimate, mechanistic explanations) and "skyhooks" (essentially, fake—e.g. supernaturalistic—explanations) built up earlier in the chapter, Dennett recapitulates his initial definition of the term in the chapter summary on p. 83: "Good reductionists suppose that all Design can be explained without skyhooks; greedy reductionists suppose it can all be explained without cranes." A canonical example of greedy reductionism, labelled as such by Dennett himself, is the (radical
16769569
Barton reaction


widespread use of many other organic reactions, together with the mechanistically similar Hofmann–Löffler reaction it represents one of the first examples of C-H activation chemistry, a field which is now the topic of much frontline research in industrial and academic chemistry circles. The unusual alkyl nitrite starting material of the Barton reaction is prepared by attack of an alcohol on a nitrosylium cation generated in situ by dehydration of doubly protonated nitrous acid. This series of steps is mechanistically identical to the first half of the mechanism formation of the more well
17407521
Mechanistic organic photochemistry


was shown possible to quench a triplet reaction. The groundwork had been laid by very earlier studies in Russia by Terenin and Ermolaev, who demonstrated intermolecular triplet transfer at low temperatures and described the kinetics. After the basics had been established, organic photochemistry seemed to accelerate exponentially. At Caltech, George Hammond had a remarkable group of researchers including Nicholas Turro, Angelo Lamola, Peter Leermakers, Jack Saltiel, Robert Liu and a number of others. In particular, Nicholas Turro is the most prolific and highly cited of the pioneers of
19539100
David Israel Schuster


began experimenting with some of the first applications of NMR spectroscopy to organic chemistry. Schuster next joined Howard Zimmerman's group at the University of Wisconsin as a postdoctoral fellow, where he spent a year studying mechanistic organic photochemistry. Schuster was recruited to New York University by Kurt Mislow, who was also interested in photochemistry, and joined the faculty there in late 1961 in what was at the time the University Heights, Bronx campus. He remained at NYU for his entire academic career. Schuster received tenure in 1968 and spent the 1968
2233408
Meg Wheatley


Meg Wheatley (born Margaret J. Wheatley in 1944) is an American writer and management consultant who studies organizational behavior. Her approach includes systems thinking, theories of change, chaos theory, leadership and the learning organization: particularly its capacity to self-organize. Her work is often compared to that of Donella Meadows and Dee Hock. Proposing that "real social change comes from the ageless process of people thinking together in conversation," she describes her work as opposing "highly controlled mechanistic systems that only create robotic behaviors."
7395307
Robert Rosen (theoretical biologist)


."" Rosen's demonstration of "efficient closure" was to present this clear paradox in mechanistic science, that on the one hand organisms are defined by such causal closures and on the other hand mechanism forbids them; thus we need to revise our understanding of nature. The mechanistic view prevails even today in most of general biology, and most of science, although some claim no longer in sociology and psychology where reductionist approaches have failed and fallen out of favour since the early 1970s. However those fields have yet to reach
1150799
Cytochrome P450 engineering


) improved substrate scope 4) enabled ability to catalyze unnatural reactions. P450 engineering is an emerging field in the areas of chemical biology and synthetic organic chemistry (chemoenzymatic). Rational enzyme engineering is characterized by making specific amino acid mutations based on mechanistic or structural information. While P450 enzymes are mechanistically well understood, mutations based on structural information are often limited by crystallization difficulty. Although, when obtainable, the high degree of flexibility and active site plasticity present in P450s make crystal structures largely obsolete for rational design. Another issue presents
3364639
Herbert S. Eleuterio


form. Eleuterio was born in New Bedford, Massachusetts, to parents of Portuguese descent. He completed a B.S. in Chemistry at Tufts University in 1949. He continued on to graduate school at Michigan State University, pursuing physical organic chemistry. As part of his thesis research with his Ph.D. advisor Harold Hart, Eleuterio conducted fundamental mechanistic studies on important organic reactions such as nucleophilic aromatic substitution. While in graduate school, he married the future Marianne Eleuterio (née Kingsbury) who later became a genetics professor at West Chester University. After
6787217
Organizational analysis


's (1911) Structural Perspective. Taylor was the father of time-and-motion studies and founded an approach he called "scientific management." It was Taylor's stance that organisations should be as mechanistic and efficient as possible. These Scientific Management principles served a valuable purpose for the Ford Motor Company, where the first American, mass-produced automobiles were being created. The rational model views organizations as a mechanism that is made up of various parts that can be modified in order to create an output in the shortest
13878010
Osteopathy


and seek to invalidate the "irregulars," as termed by the orthodox practitioners in heroic medicine. As each side sought to defend its practice, a schism began to present itself in the medical marketplace, with both the irregular and regular practitioners attempting to discredit the other. The irregulars — those who are now referred to as Alternative Medicine practitioners — argued that the regulars practiced an overly mechanistic approach to treating patients, treated the symptoms of disease instead of the original causes, and were blind to the harm they were causing their
8324
Urban Sax


Urban Sax is an ensemble founded by the French composer made up of massive numbers of saxophones, accompanied by percussion and sometimes voices. The group is directed by Artman and performs his compositions, which are generally repetitive and minimalist, often sounding somewhat mechanistic rather than conventionally expressive. The group was formed in 1973, when Artman organized a concert by a group of eight saxophonists he had produced at a classical music festival in Menton, in the south of France. In subsequent years, the number of players grew to 12, 16
21846516
Geopolitics


, as the profit from trade would pay for the merchant marine, unlike land power. The geopolitical theory of Ratzel has been criticized as being too sweeping, and his interpretation of human history and geography being too simple and mechanistic. Critically, he also underestimated the importance of social organization in the development of power. After World War I, the thoughts of Rudolf Kjellén and Ratzel were picked up and extended by a number of German authors such as Karl Haushofer (1869–1946), Erich Obst, Hermann Lautensach and Otto Maull.
2783375
Organic organisation


exists. As opposed to the mechanistic organization, it has the least hierarchy and specialization of functions. For an organization to be organic, the participants or workers should have equal levels, with no job descriptions or classifications, and communication should have a hub-network-like form. Organic organisation thrives on the power of personalities and relationships, lack of rigid procedures and communication, and can react quickly and easily to changes in the environment, thus it is said to be the most adaptive form of organization. Decisions arise from
14392231
Mosquito bite allergy


is by definition a mosquito bite allergy that consists of a large mosquito bite reaction that may be accompanied by a brief or longer-term (i.e. days to weeks) low-grade fever. and, on rare occasions, vomiting. The bite site shows an intense, large reaction often resembling a cellulitis infection that persists for days to weeks. The syndrome usually afflicts healthy children, immune-deficient persons, and individuals who are new to an area inhabited by mosquito species to which they have not been exposed. Mechanistically,
18816259
Mind


found it inconceivable that cognition could be implemented by a physical substance such as brain tissue (that is neurons and synapses). Descartes, who thought extensively about mind-brain relationships, found it possible to explain reflexes and other simple behaviors in mechanistic terms, although he did not believe that complex thought, and language in particular, could be explained by reference to the physical brain alone. The most straightforward scientific evidence of a strong relationship between the physical brain matter and the mind is the impact physical alterations to the brain have
19661374
Thief II


is dormant as the game begins. The game continues the story of Garrett (voiced by Stephen Russell), the cynical master thief who defeated the Trickster. Pursuing Garrett is the new sheriff, Gorman Truart (voiced by Sam Babbitt), who has imposed a zero tolerance policy on crime. Viktoria (voiced by Terri Brosius), the former ally of the Trickster, eventually joins with Garrett to combat the Mechanists. The game's primary antagonist is the founder of the Mechanists, Father Karras (also voiced by Russell)
17670399
Lamarckism


. In the 1960s, "biochemical Lamarckism" was advocated by the embryologist Paul Wintrebert. Neo-Lamarckism was dominant in French biology for more than a century. French scientists who supported neo-Lamarckism included Edmond Perrier (1844–1921), Alfred Giard (1846–1908), Gaston Bonnier (1853–1922) and Pierre-Paul Grassé (1895–1985). They followed two traditions, one mechanistic, one vitalistic after Henri Bergson's philosophy of evolution. In 1987, Ryuichi Matsuda coined the term "pan-environmentalism" for his evolutionary theory
15893813
Reactome


Reactome is a free online database of biological pathways. There are several Reactomes that concentrate on specific organisms, the largest of these is focused on human biology, the following description concentrates on the human Reactome. It is authored by expert biologists, in collaboration with Reactome editorial staff who are all PhD level biologists. Content is cross-referenced to many bioinformatics databases. The rationale behind Reactome is to visually represent biological pathways in full mechanistic detail, while making the source data available in a computationally accessible format. The website can be
14871289
Journal of Polymer Science Part A


The Journal of Polymer Science, Part A: Polymer Chemistry is a peer-reviewed scientific journal covering polymer science. The journal is dedicated to studies in fundamental organic polymer chemistry and physical organic chemistry. This includes all related topics (such as organic, bio-organic, bio-inorganic, and biological chemistry of monomers, polymers, oligomers and model compounds, inorganic and organometallic chemistry for catalysts, mechanistic studies, supramolecular chemistry aspects relevant to polymers and reactions on polymers). It is published by Wiley. According to the
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Alberta Energy


Service supported preservation of traditional attitudes and behaviour and felt threatened. By the 1980s Alberta Forest Service had a strong authority system with a military style chain of command and system of ranks. Fish and Wildlife Division were more flexible and less formally structured. Public Lands were more bureaucratic and mechanistic. The Fish and Wildlife division who emphasized long-term research and monitoring are under the auspices of the Fish and Wildlife Act. Fish and Wildlife division were with the Department of Recreation and Parks before joining Energy and Natural Resources (ENR)
10683222
Inflation (cosmology)


Guth's scenarios both predicted an initial de Sitter phase, differing only in mechanistic details. Guth proposed inflation in January 1980 to explain the nonexistence of magnetic monopoles; it was Guth who coined the term "inflation". At the same time, Starobinsky argued that quantum corrections to gravity would replace the initial singularity of the Universe with an exponentially expanding de Sitter phase. In October 1980, Demosthenes Kazanas suggested that exponential expansion could eliminate the particle horizon and perhaps solve the horizon problem, while Sato suggested that an exponential expansion could
5116237
Proneural genes


external sensory organs. Members of achaete-scute complex, such as achaete and scute, as well as ‘’atonal’’ and ‘’daughterless’’ confer to ectodermal cells the ability to become sensory mother cells (SMCs). In the development of sensory organs there are two main phases: determination and differentiation that may not be mechanistically separable. Proneural proteins are involved in both processes, through the activation of the downstream “differentiating genes” that in turn regulate the induction of sensory-organ-subtype characteristics.
8771710
Rangaku


as deceptive ones. Japan adapted and transformed the Western automata, which were fascinating the likes of Descartes, giving him the incentive for his mechanist theories of organisms, and Frederick the Great, who loved playing with automatons and miniature wargames. Many were developed, mostly for entertainment purposes, ranging from tea-serving to arrow-shooting mechanisms. These ingenious mechanical toys were to become prototypes for the engines of the industrial revolution. They were powered by spring mechanisms similar to those of clocks. Mechanical clocks were introduced into Japan by
17277293
Jean-Pierre Changeux


. The transitions between the states followed different kinetics, and those kinetics plus the differential affinities sufficed to explain the shape of the post-synaptic potential. A full mechanistic model of the nicotinic receptor from striated muscle (or electric organ) was to be provided much later, when Changeux collaborated with Stuart Edelstein, another specialist of allostery, who worked decades on hemoglobin. In addition to the allosteric modulation of the channel gating by the agonists, many other regulations of the ligand-gated ion channels activity have since been discovered.
21932490
L'Abri


of tapes of Schaeffer's lectures also helped to raise awareness of Schaeffer's work. As it grew, the L'Abri organization came to own and operate several buildings in Huémoz. It came to include four kinds of people: short-term guests; students, who divided their time between study and communal work; workers, who participated in discussions and the work of hospitality; and members, who were part of the decision-making process. Schaeffer died in 1984, but the ministry he founded has continued to grow. Now
15962822
Isolobal principle


analogy to predict M–C or M–M bonding such as (CH)M(CO) and M(CO), where M is d. Another application of the isolobal analogy is assisting in predicting reaction mechanisms. As in the other applications the mechanisms of well-known reactions can be used to help predict mechanistic pathways of lesser-known reactions. There is no limit on the potential comparisons between organic and inorganic complexes. The analogy can flow in either direction (organic to inorganic) or within each division (organic to organic). Arteaga
343373
Pangenesis


regeneration and many groups of facts pertaining to variation, inheritance and development." Mechanistically, Darwin proposed pangenesis to occur through the transfer of organic particles which he named 'gemmules.' Gemmules, which he also sometimes referred to as "}," pangenes, granules, or germs, were supposed to be shed by the organs of the body and carried in the bloodstream to the reproductive organs where they accumulated in the germ cells or gametes. Their accumulation was thought to occur by some sort of a 'mutual affinity.
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Shaper/Mechanist universe


The Shaper/Mechanist universe is the setting for a series of science fiction short stories (and the novel "Schismatrix") written by the author Bruce Sterling. The stories combined cover approximately 350 years of future history, for the period ranging from AD 2200-2550. (Note: All years given are taken from "A Shaper/Mechanist Chronology" in the book "Schismatrix Plus", which includes all the Shaper/Mechanist material.) The stories deal with a posthuman society spread across the solar system—primarily
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Efficacy


applied or dosed agent, for instance, a small molecule drug. Intrinsic activity is a relative term for a drug's efficacy relative to a drug with the highest observed efficacy. It is a purely descriptive term that has little or no mechanistic interpretation. In order for a drug to have an effect, it needs to bind to its target, and then to affect the function of this target. The target of a drug is commonly referred to as a receptor, but can in general be any chemically sensitive site on any
20008793
Cytoplasmic streaming


was as organized and consistent as the barber pole pattern found in nature, which suggests this mechanism plays role, but is not wholly responsible for the organization of actin filaments in "Chara corallina". Cytoplasmic streaming in some species is caused by pressure gradients along the length of the cell. "Physarum polycephalum" is a single-celled protist, belonging to a group of organisms informally referred to as 'slime molds'. Biological investigations into the myosin and actin molecules in this amoeboid have demonstrated striking physical and mechanistic similarities to
6990562
Thief II


nobles. Garrett travels to a Mechanist base to find out more about the Cetus Project, which is revealed to be a submarine. In order to locate and kidnap a high-ranking Mechanist named Brother Cavador, Garrett stows away in the vehicle. After delivering Cavador to Viktoria, Garrett steals a Servant mask to learn about a Mechanist technology called a "Cultivator". Meanwhile, Karras hides inside the Mechanist cathedral in preparation for his plan. Garrett and Viktoria learn that it is the Cultivators inside Servant masks which emit red vapor
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Trumbull Township, Ashtabula County, Ohio


were Holly and Hannah Turner, who came from the town of Scipio, New York. Because they soon left, the first permanent resident was Daniel Woodruff, who came from New York in 1818. Trumbull Township was organized in 1825. The township is governed by a three-member board of trustees, who are elected in November of odd-numbered years to a four-year term beginning on the following January 1. Two are elected in the year after the presidential election and one is elected in the year before it
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Intermediate sanctions


Intermediate sanctions is a term used in regulations enacted by the United States Internal Revenue Service that is applied to non-profit organizations who engage in transactions that inure to the benefit of a "disqualified person" within the organization. These regulations allow the IRS to penalize the organization and the disqualified person receiving the benefit. Intermediate sanctions may be imposed either in addition to or instead of revocation of the exempt status of the organization. The "Taxpayer Bill of Rights 2" which came into force on July 30, 1996, added
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NAS Award in Chemical Sciences


revolutionized organic chemistry by transforming asymmetric synthesis from near-impossible to routine. For defining modern physical organic chemistry – the integration of physical chemistry and organic synthesis applied to the study of the relations between the structure and reactivity of organic molecules. For his fundamental developments in mechanistic electrochemistry, electrochemiluminescence, semiconductor photoelectrochemistry, and scanning electrochemical microscopy. For his fundamental contributions to boron chemistry, especially his groundbreaking studies of boron hydrides and metallocarboranes and their uses in catalysts and radioimaging. For carrying out the pioneering work that established the new field of
18814570
Network-centric organization


between the natural tendency for disorder to increase while humans strive to impose order by developing ever more complex rigid structures and systems. It is quite a natural state of affairs that organizations can be part mechanistic and part organic with continual transformations among these forms. Network-centric organizations enact governance systems that manage these ongoing transformations. A complex environment presents an enterprise with too large a range and diversity of inputs to comprehend logically so the sensible response is not to try. Attempts to deal with complexity are unsuccessful if they aim to either
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Tom Burns (sociologist)


processes through which we move and which we help to create." The book "The Development of the Modern State: A Sociological Introduction" by Gianfranco Poggi is dedicated to Tom Burns. First published in 1961, Burns' "The Management of Innovation" remains one of the most influential books of organization theory and industrial sociology. The central theme of the book is the relationship between an organization and its environment - particularly technological and market innovations. The book presents the authors' classifications of "mechanistic" and "organic"
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Niche apportionment models


, 1996) expanded upon the broken stick model, when he generated roughly 7 mechanistic niche apportionment models. These mechanistic models provide a useful starting point for describing the species composition of communities. A niche apportionment model can be used in situations where one resource pool is either sequentially or simultaneously broken up into smaller niches by colonizing species or by speciation (clarification on resource use: species within a guild use same resources, while species within a community may not). These models describe how species that draw from the same resource pool
10817222
Bank of Thailand


, as well as to set up BOT's decision making process to ensure good governance and transparency in the organization. The Bank of Thailand Act, B.E.2551 came into force on 4 March 2008. The Governor of the Bank of Thailand is the highest position of the Bank of Thailand has a term of 5 years for a period of not more than two consecutive terms. The Minister of Finance will be the nominee and nominate to the Cabinet. When the Cabinet passed a resolution approving, would be presented to the King for His
21004681
Conatus


the ancients used the term in a strictly anthropomorphic sense similar to voluntary "endeavoring" or "struggling" to achieve certain ends, and medieval Scholastic philosophers developed a notion of "conatus" as a mysterious intrinsic property of things, Descartes uses the term in a somewhat more mechanistic sense. More specifically, for Descartes, in contrast to Buridan, movement and stasis are two states of the same thing, not different things. Although there is much ambiguity in Descartes' notion of "conatus", one can see here the
7624399
Life


void account for any other thing. He elaborates on fire because of the apparent connection between life and heat, and because fire moves. The mechanistic materialism that originated in ancient Greece was revived and revised by the French philosopher René Descartes, who held that animals and humans were assemblages of parts that together functioned as a machine. In the 19th century, the advances in cell theory in biological science encouraged this view. The evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin (1859) is a mechanistic explanation for the origin of species by means of
18728878
Schismatrix


", into a family of aristocratic Mechanists, but after being sent to the Shaper’s Ring Council, he receives specialized and experimental diplomatic training and gives his loyalty to the Shapers' cause. He, his best friend and fellow Shaper protege Philip Constantine and the beautiful and passionate Preservationist Vera Kelland lead an insurgency against the rulers of the republic, who use Mechanist technology to prolong their lives. The three of them influence the younger generation towards the Shapers' cause in their pursuit of Preservationism, a movement devoted to the preservation
4997627
Evolving digital ecological networks


On the other hand, host-parasite and mutualistic coevolution are often done in well-mixed environments, though the choice of the environment is at the discretion of the experimenter. Studies of digital organisms allows a depth of research of evolutionary processes that is not possible with natural ecosystems. They therefore provide a complementary approach to traditional studies of natural or experimental evolution. A key caveat in translating predictions of evolving digital networks to biological ones is that mechanistic details may differ substantially between interacting digital organisms and interacting biological organisms. Nevertheless,
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Business-IT alignment


role in improving the overall value chain of an organization. This increase requires business and technology management to work as a creative, synergistic, and collaborative team instead of a purely mechanistic control instance. Technology can help the organization gaining competitive advantage within the industry it resides and generating performance at a greater value,  according to Bird (). kk Typical EA Frameworks are used to achieve business-IT alignment, as these frameworks links business and technology layers of organization over common threads. TOGAF is a framework by Open Group which defines
16263750
Cardiorenal syndrome


and the timeframe (acute vs chronic) is too simplistic and without a mechanistic classification it is difficult to study CRS. They view the cardiorenal syndrome in a more holistic, integrative manner. They defined the cardiorenal syndrome as a pathophysiological condition in which combined heart and kidney dysfunction amplifies progression of failure of the individual organ, by inducing similar pathophysiological mechanisms. Therefore, regardless of which organ fails first, the same neurohormonal systems are activated causing accelerated cardiovascular disease, and progression of damage and failure of both organs. These systems are
20821967
Biofuelwatch


biofuel really is. They came up with the term "Agro-fuel", the prefix "agro" comes from agriculture. They believe this is fitting because the production of biofuels taint land and water, which are directly related to agriculture. This term "agro-fuel" is pejoratively based. Biofuelwatch has been known to join forces with various other organizations with similar views towards the biomass and biofuel industry in attempts to sway public opinion on public policies. Through actions such as public protests, demonstrations and press statements regarding
19757460
Mechanism (biology)


just because of the philosophical problem of giving some account of what "laws of nature," which CL models encounter, but also the incontrovertible fact that most biological phenomena are not characterizable in nomological terms (i.e., in terms of lawful relationships). For example, protein biosynthesis does not occur according to any law, and therefore, on the DN model, no explanation for the biosynthesis phenomenon could be given. Mechanistic explanations come in many forms. Wesley Salmon proposed what he called the "ontic" conception of explanation,
11659362
Eric Kandel


allowed analysis of the specific synaptic connections that are modified by learning in the intact animals. The results from Kandel's laboratory provided solid evidence for the mechanistic basis of learning as "a change in the functional effectiveness of previously existing excitatory connections." Starting in 1966 James Schwartz collaborated with Kandel on a biochemical analysis of changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage. By this time it was known that long-term memory, unlike short-term memory, involved the synthesis of new proteins. By 1972 they had evidence
18349206
Vitalism


a mechanistic philosophy: in his "Theoria Generationis" (1759), he tried to explain the emergence of the organism by the actions of a "vis essentialis" (an organizing, formative force), stating "All believers in epigenesis are vitalists." Carl Reichenbach (1788–1869) later developed the theory of Odic force, a form of life-energy that permeates living things. In the 17th century, modern science responded to Newton's action at a distance and the mechanism of Cartesian dualism with vitalist theories: that
5987134
Minima naturalia


thinking even among these mechanistic philosophers in the transitional centuries between the Aristotelianism of the medieval Scholastics and the worked-out atomic theory of modern scientists like Dalton. The mechanist Pierre Gassendi discussed "minima naturalia" in the course of expounding his opposition to Scholastic Aristotelianism, and his own attempted reconciliation between the atomism of Epicurus and the Catholic faith. Aristotle's "mininima naturalia" became "corpuscles" in the alchemical works of Geber and Daniel Sennert, who in turn influenced the corpuscularian alchemist Robert Boyle, one of the founders of
14972603
Young Americans for Freedom


-communism. In the late 1960s, the term libertarianism began to be used for a political philosophy. Many of those who popularized this term were initially part of the conservative movement, but came to separate themselves from the conservatives on certain issues. Libertarians within YAF believed, for example, the military draft was a violation of the individual freedom the organization claimed to embrace. To oppose it they were willing to reject existing laws against burning draft cards and supported those who fled to Canada or went underground when drafted for military service
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Organic organisation


Burns and Stalker theorized that companies facing a changing environment may have to use an organic organizational structure in order to quickly adapt to changes. These companies have a de-centralized decision making structure to facilitate quickly adapting to changes in the market place. Companies operating in a stable environment would benefit from maintaining a mechanistic organizational structure, where policies are made that stay the same for a long period of time, decision making is centralized around a few people and tasks remain the same. Christianity has been influenced by the organic organisation movement
14392234
Mechanistic organic photochemistry


modern organic photochemistry. His textbook, Modern Molecular Photochemistry, is considered the "Bible" of the field. A highly influential aspect of Turro's work involved applying the paradigms of photochemistry to more complex environments relative to small molecule solution-phase experiments including supramolecular systems, interfaces, restricted spaces and biological systems. Among the more common organic photochemical reactions there are the Norrish Type I, the Norrish Type II, the racemization of optically active biphenyls, the type A cyclohexadienone rearrangement, the type B cyclohexenone rearrangement, the di-
19539101
Charles Rees


in 1977 he succeeded Professor George Wallace Kenner there as Heath Harrison Professor of Organic Chemistry. In 1978, he was appointed Hofmann Professor of Organic Chemistry at Imperial College London and remained there until his retirement in 1993. Professor Rees' research interests ranged widely over mechanistic and synthetic organic chemistry. Much of his work was concerned with heterocyclic chemistry, particularly the synthesis and chemistry of new heterocyclic rings, with an emphasis on aromatic and antiaromatic rings, and the role of reactive intermediates in heterocyclic chemistry. Recently, he had been working
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