B'alaj Chan K'awiil [SEP] spouse
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Second Tikal–Calakmul War


, Nuun Ujol Chaak attacked Dos Pilas and forced B'alaj Chan K'awiil to abandon the city, this time fleeing to a place named Chaak Naah. The following year Chaak Naah was set burned by the Nuun, and B'alaj Chan K'awiil was compelled to take flight again. He traveled to the kingdom of Hix Witz. It was not until Calakmul vanquished Nuun Ujol Chaak at Pulil in 677, that B'alaj Chan K'awiil is able to return to Dos Pilas. The final showdown came in 679 when B'alaj Chan K'awiil defeated Nuun Ujol Chaak and
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Calakmul


they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies, such as El Peru, Dos Pilas and Caracol. In 677 Calakmul counterattacked against Dos Pilas, driving Tikal out and reinstalled B'alaj Chan K'awiil on
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Dos Pilas


of B'alaj Chan K'awiil, Wak Chanil Ajaw, left Dos Pilas to found a dynasty at Naranjo. Itzamnaaj B'alam (c. 697) had a short reign. He was the son of B'alaj Chan K'awiil and his wife from Itzan. Itzamnaaj K'awiil (Ruler 2) (698–726), another son of B'alaj Chan Kawiil, was born in AD 673, probably in Calakmul during his family's exile after Dos Pilas was defeated by Tikal. His birth abroad seems to have been cause for embarrassment, with discrepancies in the calendar dates
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Tikal


of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and they probably felt that they had a legitimate claim to the throne of Tikal itself. For some reason, B'alaj Chan K'awiil was not installed as the new ruler of Tikal; instead he stayed at Dos Pilas. Tikal counterattacked against Dos Pilas in 672, driving B'alaj Chan K'awiil into an exile that lasted five years. Calakmul tried to encircle Tikal within an area dominated by its allies,
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Dos Pilas


are traces of an earlier indigenous dynasty predating the arrival of B'alaj Chan K'awiil from Tikal. From the Early Classic the Petexbatún region had been dominated by a Maya kingdom centred on the sites of Tamarindito and Arroyo de Piedra. B'alaj Chan K'awiil founded Dos Pilas within the territory of this pre-existing kingdom and the new city quickly came to dominate the region. The interactions between Classic Period Maya city-states is deeply linked to the long-running power struggle between the two Maya "superpowers", Tikal and Calakmul, and
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Dos Pilas


B'alaj Chan K'awiil into a five-year exile, probably in Calakmul. This exile was only ended in AD 677, on the same day that Calakmul celebrated a success over Tikal, revealing B'alaj Chan K'awiil's obvious dependency on his foreign overlord. Tikal and Dos Pilas went to battle again in AD 679 and Tikal suffered a humiliating defeat by its smaller rival. Although Dos Pilas celebrated this as the victorious conclusion of the war, neither side had gained any real advantage over the other. For Dos Pilas, this battle represented
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Second Tikal–Calakmul War


a newly founded vassal state of Tikal. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was a major protagonist in the bitter factional dispute between two lords carrying the same emblem glyph. The clash emerged from the obscurity of Tikal's 130-year Hiatus and coincided with the epic contest for political ascendency between Tikal and Calakmul. B'alaj Chan K'awiil's claim to the royal emblem of Mutal was evidently based on him being the son of K'inich Muwaan Jol, as stated on Dos Pilas Panel 6. Nuun Ujol Chaak, the other bearer of the Tikal emblem, was probably
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Second Tikal–Calakmul War


, of Calakmul attacked Dos Pilas and forced B'alaj Chan K'awiil to take refuge at Aguateca. Then in 657 the Snake Lord attacked Tikal itself and drove Nuun Ujol Chaak from his city, establishing Calakmul as the supreme power in the entire region. B'alaj Chan K'awiil accepted Yuknoom Ch'een as his overlord, and Nuun Ujol Chaak was probably compelled to pledge fealty as well, for both lords carrying the Mutal emblem witnessed a ritual performed by Calakmul prince Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ahk' at some point in the years leading up to 662. In 672
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Tikal–Calakmul wars


between major conflicts involving Calakmul and Tikal. During these times there was continuous war but no major battles or political changes took place. There were of course minor border skirmishes. As Tikal gradually regained strength, its local, smaller rivals such as El Zotz declined. The second war lasted from 650 to 695 (9.10.17.3.3-9.13.2.14.19). During the second war the vassal state of Dos Pilas and its ruler B'alaj Chan K'awiil who started a civil war in Tikal and eventually sided with Calakmul played important roles. B'alaj Chan K'awiil laid
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Second Tikal–Calakmul War


captured a Tikal lord named Nuun Bahlam. Balaj Chan K'awiil began a program of monumental inscriptions in 682, recording his travails and ultimate victory, as well as his debt of fealty to Calakmul. He stated that he celebrated the 9.12.10.0.0 period ending at Calakmul in a ceremony with his overlord Yuknoom the Great, and he returned to Calakmul four years later for the accession of Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ahk'. B'alaj Chan K'awiil's daughter Lady Six Sky re-founded the dynasty of Naranjo, while another daughter (or perhaps a sister)
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Tikal


K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635, and for many years served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king of Tikal. Roughly twenty years later Dos Pilas was attacked by Calakmul and was soundly defeated. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by the king of Calakmul but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of his former enemy, and attacked Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, the then king
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Dos Pilas


Group. These hastily built fortifications were topped with a wooden palisade. The Main Group was laid out around a central plaza by B'alaj Chan K'awiil. Stelae 1 and 2 are located in the centre of the plaza. Stela 1 depicts an elaborately attired Itzamnaaj K'awiil and dates to AD 706. It records the defeat of a Tikal lord and contains the last known reference to that city so far recovered from inscriptions at Dos Pilas. Stela 2 is badly damaged and depicts the defeat of Yich'aak B'alam of Seibal by "Master of Sun
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Calakmul


on 3 April 686 was recorded on monuments at Dos Pilas and El Peru. He was born in 649 and was likely to have been the son of his predecessor. He already held high office before he was named king and may have been responsible for the major successes of the latter part of Yuknoom Che'en II's reign. He retained the loyalty of K'inich B'alam of El Peru and B'alaj Chan K'awiil of Dos Pilas and gained that of K'ak' Tiliw Chan Chaak in 693, when he was installed on the throne of Naranjo
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Tikal–Calakmul wars


claim to the royal title Ajaw and emblem of Mutal . He won a civil war with Tikal using the help of Calakmul. He betrayed the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak and swore obedience to Calakmul, under the rule of Yuknoom The Great. From then until 695 three years after B'alaj's death Calakmul occupied Tikal. In 695 under the leadership of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I Tikal won a major battle with Calakmul and turned the tables, effectively ending the Second Tikal–Calakmul War. K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat, Ajaw of Quiriguá
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Naranjo


is written on stela 24 found in front of Structure C-7. Lady Six Sky was the daughter of the Dos Pilas ruler B'alaj Chan K'awiil. While never officially made a ruler, Lady Six Sky performed as a ruler, possibly as regent for her son K'ak' Tiliw Chan Chaak who acceded in 693 AD at the age of five, although no known inscription explicitly establishes this relationship. Between 693 and 698 AD Naranjo carried out a series of at least eight attacks, likely under the rule of Lady Six Sky, defeating Tikal
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Zapote Bobal


and Yaxchilan, for example, mention capturing, killing, and even marrying the nobility at Zapote Bobal. But not all images of Zapote Bobal are negative: King B'alaj Chan K'awiil of Dos Pilas, a major site in the Petexbatún river drainage, appears to have fled to Zapote Bobal for temporary refuge in the 8th century. He may have even taken part in the building of several monuments there, as the dates of his arrival and the largest monumental program at Zapote Bobal seem to coincide. The greatest influence on this nascent
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Calakmul


were commissioned by the king. Yuknoom Che'en II was probably responsible for the construction of the palace complexes that form a major part of the site core. In 629 Tikal had founded Dos Pilas in the Petexbatún region, some to its southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was installed on the throne of the new outpost at the age of four, in 635, and for many years served as a loyal vassal fighting for his brother, the king
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Calakmul


of Tikal. In AD 648 Calakmul attacked Dos Pilas and gained an overwhelming victory that included the death of a Tikal lord. B'alaj Chan K'awiil was captured by Yuknoom Che'en II but, instead of being sacrificed, he was re-instated on his throne as a vassal of the Calakmul king, and went on to attack Tikal in 657, forcing Nuun Ujol Chaak, the then king of Tikal, to temporarily abandon the city. The first two rulers of Dos Pilas continued to use the Mutal emblem glyph of Tikal, and
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Second Tikal–Calakmul War


his half-brother. A recently exposed section of Hieroglyphic Stairway 2 in Dos Pilas might have thrown light on the timing and circumstances of a Tikal at the time, but erosion obscures most of the details of B'alaj Chan K'awiil's early life. The text does reveal that in 648 he scored a military victory while the same day saw the death of a lord bearing the Mutal emblem. It is unclear, but these events appear to serve as preamble to what came next. In 650 Yuknoom the Great, the Snake Lord
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Itzan


won a major victory over the city. Itzan may also have gone to war against El Chorro. A noblewoman from Itzan became the main wife of B'alaj Chan K'awiil, a king of Dos Pilas, and their son was Itzamnaaj Balam. The collapse of the aggressive Dos Pilas kingdom in the late 8th century AD apparently benefited Itzan, which then experienced a period of renewed activity. The site was discovered in February 1968 by Dennis and Louisa Wheeler, two Peace Corps volunteers. The ruins were then explored by archaeologists of the Ceibal
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Calakmul


his throne. In 679 Dos Pilas, probably aided by Calakmul, gained an important victory over Tikal, with a hieroglyphic description of the battle describing pools of blood and piles of heads. Troubles continued in the east, with renewed conflict between Naranjo and Caracol. Naranjo completely defeated Caracol in 680 but Naranjo's dynasty disappeared within two years and a daughter of B'alaj Chan K'awiil founded a new dynasty there in 682, indicating that Calakmul had probably intervened decisively to place a loyal vassal on the throne. The patronage of Yuknoom Che'en
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Dos Pilas


, and west of Tamarindito. Lake Petexbatún and the Pasión River form a part of the drainage of the Usumacinta River. At the height of its power the kingdom covered an area of some 1,500 square miles (3,885 square km). The local landscape consists of heavily forested ridges interspersed with low lying wetlands, rivers and lakes. The area is subject to high annual rainfall, averaging . B'alaj Chan K'awiil (Ruler 1) (c. 648–692+) was born on 15 October AD 625. He claimed to be a member
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Second Tikal–Calakmul War


The Second Tikal–Calakmul War was the second in a series of wars between Tikal and Calakmul known as The Tikal–Calakmul wars. Tikal and Calakmul were some of the most prosperous cities in Peten during the classic period of Mesoamerican chronology. After the classic came the post classic which was characterized by a decline in Maya Civilization. During that time both Tikal and Calakmul were abandoned. In 629 Ajaw K'inich Muwaan Jol II of Tikal made his son B'alaj Chan K'awiil ( in the Maya writing system) ruler of Dos Pilas,
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Dos Pilas


of the Tikal royal line. On Dos Pilas Panel 6 he names a king of Tikal as his father. He probably saw himself as the legitimate heir to the Tikal throne and defected from Tikal in AD 648 to found Dos Pilas as a rival kingdom under the overlordship of Calakmul. B'alaj Chan K'awiil is known to have taken two wives, one of them from the nearby Petexbatún kingdom of Itzan. His father was K'inich Muwaan Jol II, who was either the 23rd or 24th ruler in Tikal's dynastic line. A daughter
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Dos Pilas


the consolidation of its kingdom and the failure of Tikal to crush its splinter state before it gained a foothold. The hieroglyphic texts at Dos Pilas describe the victory in graphic terms, recording "pools of blood" and "piles of heads" as the result of a major battle between the two cities, with Dos Pilas very likely having received military aid from Calakmul. B'alaj Chan K'awiil consolidated his power with marriage alliances. He took at least two wives; his main wife was a noblewoman from Itzan, another city in the
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Dos Pilas


Pasión drainage. Their marriage produced Balaj Chan K'awiil's heirs, Itzamnaaj Balam and Itzamnaaj K'awiil. Balaj Chan K'awiil had a famous daughter with a second wife, this daughter was Lady Six Sky who was despatched to Naranjo to refound its obliterated dynasty. Balaj Chan K'awiil is known to have made several further visits to Calakmul; in 682 he celebrated a period ending ceremony there under Yuknoom the Great and in 686 he attended the enthroning of his successor, Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak'. Calakmul and its allies suffered after the defeat of Calakmul
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Copán


. Copán's defeat had wider implications due to the fracturing of the city's domain and the loss of the key Motagua River trade route to Quiriguá. The fall in Copán's income and corresponding increase at Quiriguá is evident from the massive commissioning of new monuments and architecture at the latter city, and Copán may even have been subject to its former vassal. K'ak' Joplaj Chan K'awiil died in January 749. The next ruler was K'ak' Yipyaj Chan K'awiil, a son of K'ak' Joplaj Chan K'awiil. The early period
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Tikal Temple I


tomb of this ruler has been located by archaeologists deep within the structure, the tomb having been built first with the temple being raised over it. Construction of both were overseen by Jasaw Chan K'awiil's son and heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Jasaw Chan K'awiil probably planned the building of the temple long before his death. The temple rises in nine stepped levels, which may be symbolic of the nine levels of the underworld. The temple has grooved moldings and inset corners. A steep staircase climbs the temple to the summit shrine.
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Third Tikal–Calakmul War


In 724 (9.14.12.4.10) Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, Ajaw of Copán, installed K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat as regional ruler of Quiriguá. In 734 at Altar M in Quiriguá, K’ak Tiliw Chan Yopaat gave himself the title k’uhul ajaw, thus declaring Quiriguá’s independence from Copán. This led to a four-year revolutionary war. It was two years later in 736 (9.15.4.7.13) that Wamaw K'awiil and several ambassadors from Calakmul met with K’ak Tiliw Chan Yopaat. On April 27 738 Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil was captured by K'ak' Tiliw
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Tikal–Calakmul wars


was one of the key people during the third war. Quiriguá was a province of Copán, then in 734 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat lead a revolution against Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, Ajaw of Copán. Wamaw K'awiil, kaloomte (high king, a position higher than ajaw) of Calakmul traveled to Quiriguá and formed an alliance with K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat. Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil was executed in 738, and Quiriguá became independent. By 744 El Peru and Naranjo had been reconquered by Tikal, and Calakmul had been defeated. Having
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Dos Pilas


Balaj Chan K’awiil. At about the same time, the king of Tikal was killed. Yuknoom Che'en II then reinstated Balaj Chan K'awiil upon the throne of Dos Pilas as his vassal. In an extraordinary act of treachery for someone claiming to be of the Tikal royal family, he thereafter served as a loyal ally of Calakmul, Tikal's sworn enemy. The exact methods used by Calakmul to induce Balaj Chan K'awiil to switch sides are unknown. King Nuun Ujol Chaak of Tikal attacked and captured Dos Pilas in AD 672, driving
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Tikal Temple II


a single wooden sculpted lintel that bears the portrait of a royal woman who may have been the wife of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, who was entombed beneath Temple I. Lady Kalajuun Une' Mo', whose name means "Twelve Macaw Tails", was also important for being the mother of Jasaw Chan K'awill I's heir. In fact her son Yik'in Chan K'awiil oversaw the completion of Temple II when he became king. Temple II was visited by Modesto Méndez, the governor of Petén, in 1848 on the first expedition to
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Tikal Temple 33


in fully Maya style as the ancestral sun god. The rear face of the stela is carved with a lengthy hieroglyphic text that legitimises Siyaj Chan K'awiil's right to rule through his mother's line and the foundation of the new Teotihuacan-linked dynasty; it briefly mentions Siyaj Chan K'awiil's accession, the "baktun" ending of 435, the monument's dedication and the death of the king's grandfather Spearthrower Owl in 439. Altar 19 was buried in the fill of the final version of Temple 33, immediately in front
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Copán


in precisely the right order to be understood. Stela M bears a portrait of K'ak' Yipyaj Chan K'awiil. It was raised at the foot of the Hieroglyphic Stairway of Temple 26 in AD 756. Stela N was dedicated by K'ak' Yipyaj Chan K'awiil in AD 761 and placed at the foot of the steps to Temple 11, which is believed to contain his burial. Stela P was originally erected in an unknown location and was later moved to the West Court of the Acropolis. It bears a long hieroglyphic text that has
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El Perú (Maya site)


. Following Tikal’s re-emergence from its hiatus in the Late Classic, Calakmul fell to its military might. Calakmul’s ruler Yik'in Chan K'awiil, likely the brother of Lady T'abi, was defeated, captured, and sacrificed in Tikal’s central plaza in 732. Waka’ was converted into a vassal state of Tikal. Yik'in Chan K'awiil defeated Waka' in 743. After his victory he took an image of a celestial serpent from Waka' and brought it to Tikal. According to Robert Sharer the celestial serpent was possibly
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Motul de San José


. By the early 8th century the city had switched its allegiance to Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, king of Tikal, then falling under the power of Petexbatún, itself a vassal of Calakmul, in the middle of the 8th century, before once again switching its allegiance to Tikal. In 711, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, Lord of Tikal, was recorded as overlord of Motul, perhaps reflecting Tikal's traditional overlordship of the city. In spite of these shifting alliances, Motul de San José acted with a degree of independence and
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Tikal


Switzerland in the 19th century. It was in almost perfect condition and depicts Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a palanquin. Stelae are carved stone shafts, often sculpted with figures and hieroglyphs. A selection of the most notable stelae at Tikal follows: Stela 1 dates to the 5th century and depicts the king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in a standing position. Stela 4 is dated to AD 396, during the reign of Yax Nuun Ayiin after the intrusion of Teotihuacan in the Maya area. The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan
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North Acropolis, Tikal


originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken, probably at the beginning of the Late Classic. Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine. Stela 31 is the upper portion of a monument that was broken and interred above the tomb of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II in Temple 33. It was dedicated in AD 445 and bears images of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II and his father Yax Nuun Ayiin I, who is depicted as a Teotihuacano warrior on the sides of the monument.
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Tikal


there was no active Teotihuacan presence at any Maya site and the center of Teotihuacan had been razed by 700. Even after this, formal war attire illustrated on monuments was Teotihuacan style. Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and his heir Yik'in Chan K'awiil continued hostilities against Calakmul and its allies and imposed firm regional control over the area around Tikal, extending as far as the territory around Lake Petén Itzá. These two rulers were responsible for much of the impressive architecture visible today. In 738, Quiriguá, a vassal of Copán, Tikal's
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Tikal Temple 33


the loss to mankind is not too serious."" Stela 31 was entombed above the remains of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II during the third phase of construction, when it was moved to a new resting place within the second phase shrine. The monument consists of the upper two-thirds of the original stela, which was broken prior to being re-erected in its new location. Stela 31 was dedicated in AD 445 and depicts Siyaj Chan K'awiil II with his symbols of rulership; his father Yax Nuun Ayiin I is depicted
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Tikal Temple 33


in three places upon the monument. It was sculpted in a deliberately archaic style and copied its form from Stela 29, erected a century and a half earlier. The stela shows strong Teotihuacan influence, with Siyaj Chan K'awiil II adorned with a Teotihuacan emblem. Yax Nuun Ayiin is sculpted on both sides of the monument, flanking his son upon the front; Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted as a Teotihuacano warrior. Siyaj Chan K'awiil's father is also depicted hovering above him on the front of the monument; here he is depicted
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Twin-pyramid complex


northern enclosure. Altar 5 bears the sculpted image of two nobles on its upper face, one of these is probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Stela 16 is sculpted only on its front face, which bears a portrait of king Jasaw Chan K'awiil I and an accompanying hieroglyphic text. Tikal Group O (also known as Group 4D-1) is on the west side of the Maler Causeway, due west from the twin-pyramid groups Q and R. It differs in size
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Copán


rather than simply as a subordinate lord "ajaw". K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat appears to have taken advantage of wider political rivalries and allied himself with Calakmul, the sworn enemy of Tikal. Copán was firmly allied with Tikal and Calakmul used its alliance with Quiriguá to undermine Tikal's key ally in the south. Although the exact details are unknown, in April 738 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat captured Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil and burned two of Copán's patron deities. Six days later Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil was decapitated in Quiriguá. This
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North Acropolis, Tikal


about 350 BC. Around 250 AD the complex underwent a major redevelopment with the construction of a massive basal platform that supported a cluster of temples; this was followed around AD 450 by the addition of a row of four pyramids on a terrace to the south of the main platform. A number of royal tombs have been excavated that have been identified with named kings, including the tombs of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (ruled AD 379- c. 404), Siyaj Chan K'awiil II (ruled 411-456), Wak Chan K'awiil
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Copán


form the longest known Maya hieroglyphic text. The text is still being reconstructed, having been scrambled by the collapse of the glyphic blocks when the façade of the temple collapsed. The staircase measures long and was first built by Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil in AD 710, being reinstalled and expanded in the following phase of the temple by K'ak' Yipyaj Chan K'awiil in AD 755. The Ballcourt is immediately north of the Court of the Hieroglyphic Stairway and is to the south of the Monument Plaza. It was remodeled by Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil,
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Tikal Temple IV


, although Teotihuacan's Pyramid of the Sun may once have been taller. The pyramid was built to mark the reign of the 27th king of the Tikal dynasty, Yik'in Chan K'awiil, although it may have been built after his death as his funerary temple. Archaeologists believe that Yik'in Chan K'awiil's tomb lies undiscovered somewhere underneath the temple. The summit shrine faces eastward to the site core, with Temple III visible directly in front and Temple I and Temple II beyond it. The pyramid has a rectangular base with its long axis
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Copán


coup does not seem to have physically affected either Copán or Quiriguá; there is no evidence that either city was attacked at this time and the victor seems not to have received any detectable tribute. All of this seems to imply that K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat managed to somehow ambush Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, rather than to have defeated him in outright battle. It has been suggested that Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil was attempting to attack another site to secure captives for sacrifice in order to dedicate the new ballcourt when he was ambushed by K'ak'
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Copán


or Ruler 9, who all ruled in the first half of the 6th century AD. Structure 10L-26 is a temple that projects northwards from the Acropolis and is immediately to the north of Structure 10L-22. The structure was built by Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil and K'ak' Yipyaj Chan K'awiil, the 13th and 15th rulers in the dynastic succession. The wide Hieroglyphic Stairway ascends the building on the west side from the courtyard below. The earliest version of the temple, nicknamed Yax, was built during the reign of K'inich Yax K'uk' Mo
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Dos Pilas


by Tikal in 695, shifting the balance of power in the Maya lowlands. Around this time Balaj Chan K'awiil died and was succeeded by one of his sons, Itzamnaaj Balam, although the exact year is not clear from the hieroglyphic texts. Itzamnaaj Balam did not reign for long and he was replaced by his brother Itzamnaaj K'awiil in 698. The war with Tikal continued under the new king and in AD 705 Tikal was again defeated and its lord captured. This victory was overseen by Itzamnaaj K'aawiil's general Ucha'an K'in B'alam,
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Dos Pilas


726 and was buried four days later, as recorded on Stela 8. A royal tomb excavated under Structure 5-1 is probably that of this ruler. Ucha'an K'in B'alam was enthroned in 727, probably as regent for K'awiil Chan K'inich, Itzamnaaj K'awiil's young son and heir. By the 8th century AD, Dos Pilas was powerful enough to attack the much larger city of Seibal on the Pasión River. In AD 735 the Lord of Dos Pilas (Ruler 3, "Master of Sun Jaguar") attacked the city
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Copán


. The alliance instead seems to have been one of mutual advantage: Calakmul managed to weaken a powerful ally of Tikal while Quiriguá gained its independence. The disaster for Copán had long-lasting consequences; major construction ceased and no new monuments were raised for the next 17 years. K'ak' Joplaj Chan K'awiil was installed as the 14th dynastic ruler of Copán on 7 June 738, 39 days after the execution of Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil. Little is known of his reign due to the lack of monuments raised after Quiriguá's surprise victory
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Yax Nuun Ahiin I


is recorded as having been presided over by an otherwise unknown individual called Sihyaj Chan K'inich. This suggests that there may have been an interregnum, possibly with Sihyaj Chan K'inich governing temporarily as a regent, before Sihyaj Chan K'awiil II was enthroned in November 411. The tomb of Yax Nuun Ayiin I, known as "Burial 10", was discovered by University of Pennsylvania archaeologists in the 1950s. It was found deep within a temple built at the foot of the North Acropolis and represents one of the most spectacular and complete Mayan
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Central Acropolis


short hieroglyphic text. The scene celebrates the capture of an important person allied with Calakmul by Tikal king Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. This event took place in AD 695, and the structure was built soon afterwards. Structure 5D-57 was probably Jasaw Ch'an K'awiil's royal residence. 5D-60 has not been thoroughly excavated, and its exact nature is unknown. However, it possessed a false façade facing north towards the side of Temple I. This false front gave the impression of a high, terraced temple, although the superstructure is not laid out like
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Motul de San José


745 a lord of Motul was captured by K'awiil Chan K'inich of Dos Pilas. In the middle of the 8th century AD, Motul de San José was closely allied with the important city of Yaxchilan on the Usumacinta River, as demonstrated by the fact that the king of Yaxchilan Yaxun B'alam IV ("Bird Jaguar IV") who ruled from 752 to 768, took two wives from Motul de San José. They are named in inscriptions at Yaxchilan as Lady Wak Tuun and Lady Wak Jalam Chan Ajaw. Lady Wak Jalam Chan
19641974
Calakmul


Calakmul. In 736, only two years later, K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat received a visit from Wamaw K'awiil of Calakmul, while Copán was one of Tikal's oldest allies. The timing of this visit by the king of Calakmul is highly significant, falling between the accession of K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat to the throne of Quiriguá as a vassal of Copán and the outright rebellion that was to follow. This strongly suggests that Calakmul sponsored Quiriguá's rebellion in order to weaken Tikal and to gain access to the rich trade route
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Yax Ahau Xoc


Yax Ahau Xoc was a Mayan Queen of Copan and the wife of Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Her personal name is unknown; in official writings, her son Yax Pasaj Chan Yopat identified her by the name and title "Yax Ahau Xoc" ("A Noble Young Reader" or "The Young Lord's Counter"). She was also historically known as "Chac Nik Ye" ("Lady of Palenque"), from the family of Pacal the Great. Yax Ahau Xoc was a princess of Lakamha, and the
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Copán


of the Hieroglyphic Stairway and is accessed from it by a wide monumental stairway. This structure appears to have been the royal palace of Yax Pasaj Chan Yopaat, the 16th ruler in the dynastic succession and the last known king of Copán. Structure 10L-11 was built on top of several earlier structures, one of which probably contains the tomb of his predecessor K'ak' Yipyaj Chan K'awiil. A small tunnel descends into the interior of the structure, possibly to the tomb, but it has not yet been excavated by archaeologists. Yax Pasaj
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Calakmul


of the Motagua Valley. It is likely that contact with Calakmul had been initiated soon after K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat acceded to the throne. In 738 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat captured the powerful but elderly king of Copán, Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil. An inscription at Quiriguá, although difficult to interpret, suggests that the capture took place on 27 April 738, when Quiriguá seized and burned the wooden images of Copán's patron deities. The captured lord was taken back to Quiriguá and on 3 May 738 he was decapitated in a
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Tikal


is the tallest temple-pyramid at Tikal, measuring from the plaza floor level to the top of its roof comb. Temple IV marks the reign of Yik’in Chan Kawil (Ruler B, the son of Ruler A or Jasaw Chan K'awiil I) and two carved wooden lintels over the doorway that leads into the temple on the pyramid’s summit record a long count date (9.15.10.0.0) that corresponds to CE 741 (Sharer 1994:169). Temple IV is the largest pyramid built anywhere in the Maya region in the 8th century,
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Quiriguá


had been subordinate to its southern neighbour, Copán, and in 724 Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil, king of Copán, installed K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat upon Quiriguá's throne as his vassal. As early as 734, however, K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat had shown that he was no longer an obedient subordinate of Copán when he started to refer to himself as "k'ul ahaw", holy lord, instead of using the lesser term "ahaw", subordinate lord; at the same time he began to use his own Quiriguá emblem
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Quiriguá


, the city of Xkuy – an as yet undiscovered site – was attacked and burned by Copán under the leadership of king Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil. After the king of Copán was sacrificed in 738, Xkuy seems to have become a loyal vassal of Quiriguá and in 762 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat supervised the accession of "Sunraiser Jaguar" to the subservient city's throne. K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat, who had so dramatically changed the destiny of his city, died on 27 July 785. Zoomorph G is his memorial stone and
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Calakmul


K'awiil, king of Copán, installed K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat upon Quiriguá's throne as his vassal. By 734 K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat had shown that he was no longer an obedient subordinate of Copán when he started to refer to himself as "k'ul ahaw", holy lord, instead of using the lesser term "ahaw", subordinate lord; at the same time he began to use his own Quiriguá emblem glyph. This local act of rebellion appears to have been part of the larger political struggle between Tikal and
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North Acropolis, Tikal


The back of the stela is sculpted with a long hieroglyphic text legitimising Siyaj Chan K'awiil II's dynasty. Stela 40 was found at the base of Temple 29. It has been dated to AD 468 and depicts 5th-century king K'an Chitam. He is holding up a Teotihuacan-style headdress in one hand. The sides of the monument are sculpted with depictions of his father, Siyaj Chan K'awill II, and his mother, Lady Ayiin. A lengthy hieroglyphic text on the back details his birth in 415, his promotion
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Tikal


forcibly relocated there. During the hiatus period, at least one ruler of Tikal took refuge with Janaab' Pakal of Palenque, another of Calakmul's victims. Calakmul itself thrived during Tikal's long hiatus period. The beginning of the Tikal hiatus has served as a marker by which archaeologists commonly subdivide the Classic period of Mesoamerican chronology into the Early and Late Classic. In 629 Tikal founded Dos Pilas, some to the southwest, as a military outpost in order to control trade along the course of the Pasión River. B'alaj Chan
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Tikal


is described as performing the year-ending rituals but the monument was dedicated in honor of the king. Stela 16 was dedicated in 711, during the reign of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. The sculpture, including a portrait of the king and a hieroglyphic text, are limited to the front face of the monument. It was found in Complex N, west of Temple III. Stela 18 was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the "k'atun"-ending of AD 396. It was re-erected at the
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Tikal


who celebrated the end of the 4th K'atun in that year. Stela 10 is twinned with Stela 12 but is badly damaged. It described the accession of Kaloomte' B'alam in the early 6th century and earlier events in his career, including the capture of a prisoner depicted on the monument. Stela 11 was the last monument ever erected at Tikal; it was dedicated in 869 by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II. Stela 12 is linked to the queen known as the "Lady of Tikal" and king Kaloomte' B'alam. The queen
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Scroll Serpent


and Yuknoom the Great — Yuknoom Ti' Chan, Tajoom Uk'ab K'ahk' and Yuknoom Head — might also have been sons of Scroll Serpent. That Scroll Serpent erected no monuments of his own at Calakmul is suggested by the retrospective references to his activities by Yuknoom Ch’een II and Yuknoom Took' K'awiil, given that there are more likely to be accounts of the activities of previous rulers when their own accounts are not in evidence. An absence of Scroll Serpent’s monuments at Calakmul is consistent with the hypothesis that the Kaan dynasty was
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Tikal Temple IV


(69.1 lb/cubic foot). It was only after the installation of the lintels that the shrine was roofed and the roof comb built. The hieroglyphic inscriptions on the sculpted lintels indicate that the temple was built in 741 AD, and radiocarbon dating of the lintels and wooden beams in the vaulting confirmed this, giving a result of 720±60 AD. Lintel 3 is a wooden panel measuring that is carved in low relief. It depicts the Tikal king Yik'in Chan K'awiil seated on a litter underneath the arch of a celestial serpent
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Motul de San José


, all were found in Group C, with five of them being located in the Main Plaza. Stela 1, dating to the 8th century AD, contains the first known mention anywhere of the phrase "Itza Chul Ahau" ("Divine Lord of the Itza"). It is situated on the west side of the Main Plaza in Group C and has the most well preserved hieroglyphic text at the site. The text describes the accession to the throne of a local lord under the supervision of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I of
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Calakmul


were buried in Structure 2. The next ruler of Calakmul, Split Earth, is mentioned on a pair of carved bones in the tomb of Tikal king Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. He was ruling by November 695 but it is not known if he was a legitimate member of the Calakmul dynasty or whether he was a pretender placed on the throne by Tikal. The next known king used a number of name variants, and is referred to by different name segments within and outside of Calakmul. A partial reading of his name is Yuknoom
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Tikal


such as El Peru, Dos Pilas and Caracol. In 682, Jasaw Chan K'awiil I erected the first dated monument at Tikal in 120 years and claimed the title of "kaloomte"', so ending the hiatus. He initiated a programme of new construction and turned the tables on Calakmul when, in 695, he captured the enemy noble and threw the enemy state into a long decline from which it never fully recovered. After this, Calakmul never again erected a monument celebrating a military victory. By the 7th century,
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Tikal


ranking tomb (Burial 24) was inserted into the rubble core of the building. The pyramid was then completed, standing tall. The final version of Temple 33 was completely dismantled by archaeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction. Structure 34 is a pyramid in the North Acropolis that was built by Siyaj Chan K'awiil II over the tomb of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The pyramid was topped by a three chambered shrine, the rooms situated one behind the other. Structure 5D-43 is an unusual
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Tikal


The temple, and its associated ballcourt, probably date to the reign of Nuun Ujol Chaak or that of his son Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, in the later part of the 7th century. Structure 5C-49 possesses a clear Teotihuacan-linked architectural style; it has balustrades, an architectural feature that is very rare in the Maya region, and a "talud-tablero" façade; it dates to the 4th century AD. It is located near to the Lost World pyramid. Structure 5C-53 is a small Teotihuacan-style platform that
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Tikal


probably Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. They are performing a ritual using the bones of an important woman. Altar 5 was found in Complex N, which lies to the west of Temple III. Altar 8 is sculpted with a bound captive. It was found within Complex P in Group H and is now in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. Altar 9 is associated with Stela 21 and bears the sculpture of a bound captive. It is located in front of Temple VI. Altar 10 is carved with a captive
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Tikal


qualities, and deities from both cultures. It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other. His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent. Unusually for Maya sculpture, but typically for Teotihuacan, Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face, rather than in profile. Stela 5 was dedicated in 744 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Stela 6 is a badly damaged monument dating to 514 and bears the name of the "Lady of Tikal"
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Tikal


base of Temple 34, his funerary shrine. Stela 19 was dedicated in 790 by Yax Nuun Ayiin II. Stela 20 was found in Complex P, in Group H, and was moved to the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City. Stela 21 was dedicated in 736 by Yik'in Chan K'awiil. Only the bottom of the stela is intact, the rest having been mutilated in ancient times. The surviving sculpture is of fine quality, consisting of the feet of a figure and of accompanying hieroglyphic text. The stela
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Tikal


century or some time later, the upper portion was dragged away and dumped in a rubbish tip close to Temple III, to be uncovered by archaeologists in 1959. Stela 30 is the first surviving monument to be erected after the Hiatus. Its style and iconography is similar to that of Caracol, one of the more important of Tikal's enemies. Stela 31 is the accession monument of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, also bearing two portraits of his father, Yax Nuun Ayiin, as a youth dressed as a Teotihuacan warrior. He
21130262
Tikal


a small greenstone mask with shell-inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three-pointed royal headband. This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king. Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine, a spondylus shell and twenty-six ceramic vessels. Burial 116 is the tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. The tomb contained rich offerings of jadeite,
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Copán


the 13th king in the Copán dynasty in July 695. He oversaw both the apogee of Copán's achievements and also one of the city's most catastrophic political disasters. During his reign, the sculptural style of the city evolved into the full in-the-round sculpture characteristic of Copán. In AD 718, Copán attacked and defeated the unidentified site of Xkuy, recording its burning on an unusual stone cylinder. In AD 724 Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil installed K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat as a vassal on the throne of Quiriguá.
4446779
North Acropolis, Tikal


cut into the bedrock under the temple, to the south of the burial of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. The king appears to have been hastily interred in a tomb that was still being prepared while the burial took place, since plaster from the walls was splashed on some of the grave goods and a flint pick was accidentally left behind by a workman. The body of the king was laid upon a litter painted with cinnabar and overlain with jaguar-pelts; the corpse was laid out on the pelts and covered in layers of
532703
Dos Pilas


at his twin capital of Aguateca where it is believed that he was buried, although his tomb has not yet been found. K'awiil Chan K'inich (Ruler 4) (741–761+) was installed on the throne of Dos Pilas in June of AD 741, 26 days after the death of "Master of Sun Jaguar". It is not known when he died but he was forced to flee Dos Pilas in AD 761 and was never mentioned again after that. The early history of the Dos Pilas site is unclear, there
6103302
Quiriguá


by about 850, except for a brief period of reoccupation in the Early Postclassic ("c". 900 – "c". 1200). Quiriguá shares its architectural and sculptural styles with the nearby Classic Period city of Copán, with whose history it is closely entwined. Quiriguá's rapid expansion in the 8th century was tied to king K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat's military victory over Copán in 738. When the greatest king of Copán, Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil or "18-Rabbit", was defeated, he was captured and
9858899
El Perú (Maya site)


Waka's patron deity. Evidence for Yik'in Chan K'awiil's act can be found on Tikal's Temple IV. Not a year later he defeated Naranjo. Waka' was eventually destroyed a decade later, an event that included the capture and sacrifice of K'inich Balam's successor. As a trading power, Waka' held proximity to the San Pedro River which flowed westward from the Petén. Waka also had access to a north-south overland route. This route connected south Campeche and the Petén. The close location to the dominant
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Yaxha


the latter 8th century, king K'ak' Ukalaw Chan Chaak of Naranjo took a Yaxha princess as his wife; Lady Shell Star provided the king with his heir. This heir was unable to maintain peace between the cities and Itzamnaaj K'awiil of Naranjo went to war against Yaxha and its allies in AD 799, launching assaults against his mother's city in July and September of that year, some months after defeating a number of Yaxha's satellites. He managed to capture K'inich Lakamtuun, Yaxha's king. There is no evidence of
17037833
Tikal Temple II


Tikal Temple II (or the Temple of the Masks, alternatively labelled by archaeologists as Tikal Structure 5D-2) is a Mesoamerican pyramid at the Maya archaeological site of Tikal in the Petén Department of northern Guatemala. The temple was built in the Late Classic Period in a style reminiscent of the Early Classic. Temple II is located on the west side of the Great Plaza, opposite Temple I. Temple II was built by the king Jasaw Chan K'awiil I in honour of his wife, Lady Kalajuun Une' Mo'. Temple II had
18543446
Tikal Temple I


structure that is dated to approximately 732 AD. Situated at the heart of a World Heritage Site, the temple is surmounted by a characteristic roof comb, a distinctive Maya architectural feature. Building Temple I on the eastern side of the Great Plaza was a significant deviation from the established tradition of building funerary temples just north of the plaza in Tikal's North Acropolis. The structure is a funerary temple associated with Jasaw Chan K'awiil I, a Classic Period ruler of the polity based at Tikal, who ruled from AD 682–734. The
19694256
Tikal Temple I


the three doorways; the outermost lintel was smooth, but the central lintel was carved intricately from four planks. Two of these planks were removed in the nineteenth century and their location now is unknown. The other two were removed by Alfred Maudslay and shipped to the British Museum, where they now are warehoused. The scene carved onto one lintel shows a seated figure with an enormous serpent rising above him. The shrine bears a high roof comb decorated with a sculpture of the seated king, Jasaw Chan K'awiil, although it now
19694259
Tikal Temple I


used after the fifteenth century. The tomb of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I was discovered by archaeologists in 1962. It was entered through the roof of the tomb after exploratory tunneling from the bottom of the temple stairway. The tomb has been labeled as Burial 116 by archaeologists. It is a large vaulted chamber deep within the pyramid, below the level of the Great Plaza. Over half of the chamber is occupied by the masonry bench supporting the king's body and his jewelry. The king's remains had been laid on a woven
19694262
Calakmul


Sky Witness played a major part in the political events of the Maya region. He became the overlord of the city of Caracol, to the south of Naranjo, which had previously been a vassal of Tikal. In 562, according to a damaged text at Caracol, Sky Witness defeated Tikal itself and sacrificed its king Wak Chan K'awiil, thus ending his branch of the royal dynasty at Tikal. This catastrophic defeat began a 130-year hiatus for Tikal, reflecting an extended period of dominance by Calakmul. This event is used as a
20479515
Calakmul


at the age of five. However, the texts on sculpted monuments do not reveal the full complexity of diplomatic activity, as revealed by a painted ceramic vase from Tikal, which depicts an ambassador of Calakmul's king kneeling before the enthroned king of Tikal and delivering tribute. Just four years later, in August 695, the two states were once again at war. Yuknoom Yich'aak K'ak' led his warriors against Jasaw Chan K'awiil I in a catastrophic battle that saw the defeat of Calakmul and the capture of the image of a
20479530
Tikal


Owl by the name of Yax Nuun Ayiin I (First Crocodile) had been installed as the fifteenth king of Tikal while he was still a boy, being enthroned on 13 September 379. He reigned for 47 years as king of Tikal, and remained a vassal of Siyah K'ak' for as long as the latter lived. It seems likely that Yax Nuun Ayiin I took a wife from the preexisting, defeated, Tikal dynasty and thus legitimized the right to rule of his son, Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. Río Azul,
21130192
Tikal


authority seems to have collapsed rapidly. There is not much evidence from Tikal that the city was directly affected by the endemic warfare that afflicted parts of the Maya region during the Terminal Classic, although an influx of refugees from the Petexbatún region may have exacerbated problems resulting from the already stretched environmental resources. In the latter half of the 9th century there was an attempt to revive royal power at the much-diminished city of Tikal, as evidenced by a stela erected in the Great Plaza by Jasaw Chan K'awiil II in 869.
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Tikal Temple 33


burials were identified within Temple 33: Burial 23 was a royal tomb inserted by destroying the second phase access stairway to the shrine. The individual interred within the tomb has not been identified but the tomb is one of two proposed locations for the burial of the late 7th-century king Nuun Ujol Chaak. The tomb was cut into the bedrock under the temple, to the south of the burial of Siyaj Chan K'awiil II. The king appears to have been hastily interred in a tomb that was still being prepared while the burial
21894810
Tikal Temple 33


took place, since plaster from the walls was splashed on some of the grave goods and a flint pick was accidentally left behind by a workman. The body of the king was laid upon a litter painted with cinnabar and overlain with jaguar-pelts; the corpse was laid out on the pelts and covered in layers of marine shells. Burial 24 was an elite status burial inserted into the rubble core of the pyramid during the third phase of construction. Burial 48 was the tomb of king Siyaj Chan K'awiil II, carved from
21894811
Tikal Temple V


600–650, based on the accompanying ceramics and is not believed to be that of a ruler due to the relatively poor offering accompanying it. Temple V was one of the greatest construction projects undertaken at Tikal during the Late Classic period. It is believed by some investigators to be the funerary temple of the eldest son of Jasaw Chan K'awiil I who is presumed to have died shortly after taking power in AD 734. This is not universally accepted however. Excavations of the platform have revealed activity dating back as far as the Early Classic
3503986
Spearthrower Owl


Jasaw Chan K'awiil I celebrated the thirteen k'atun (13x20x360 days) anniversary (in 695 A.D.) of Spearthrower Owl's death by "conjuring the holy one." The connection of Spearthrower Owl to Teotihuacan as well as the precise nature of Teotihuacan's influence on the Maya has been a hotly debated topic since the hieroglyphic texts first became fully readable in the 1990s. The controversy is related to the general discussion of central Mexican influence in the Maya area which was sparked by the findings of Teotihuacan-related objects in the early Maya
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Copán


although the city's origins can be traced back to the Preclassic period. After this, Copán became one of the more powerful Maya city states and was a regional power in the southern Maya region. However, it suffered a catastrophic defeat at the hands of its former vassal state Quirigua in 738, when the long-ruling king Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil was captured and beheaded by Quirigua's ruler K'ak' Tiliw Chan Yopaat (Cauac Sky). Although this was a major setback, Copán's rulers began to build monumental structures again
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Copán


of his rulership fell within Copán's hiatus, but later on he began a programme of renewal in an effort to recover from the city's earlier disaster. He built a new version of Temple 26, with the Hieroglyphic Stairway being reinstalled on the new stairway and doubled in length. Five life-size statues of seated rulers were installed seated upon the stairway. K'ak' Yipyaj Chan K'awiil died in the early 760s and is likely to have been interred in Temple 11, although the tomb has not yet been excavated. Yax
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Copán


lengthy dynastic history. K'ak' Yipyaj Chan K'awiil built over the Esmeralda phase in the mid-8th century. He removed the Hieroglyphic Stairway from the earlier building and reinstalled it into his own version, while doubling the length of its text and adding five life-size statues of rulers dressed in the garb of Teotihuacano warriors, each seated on a step of the stairway. At the base of the stairway, he also raised Stela M, with his own image. The summit shrine of the temple bore a hieroglyphic text composed of full
4446822
Copán


Plaza by Smoke Imix in AD 652. Stela 3 is another stela erected by Smoke Imix in the Great Plaza in AD 652. Stela 4 was erected by Uaxaclajuun Ub'aah K'awiil in the early 8th century AD. Stela 7 dates to the reign of K'ak' Chan Yopaat, and was erected to celebrate the K'atun-ending ceremony of AD 613. It was found in the western complex now underneath the modern village of Copán Ruinas. It bears a long hieroglyphic text that has been only partially deciphered. Stela 9 was found in
4446832