Soil Moisture Active Passive [SEP] time of spacecraft launch
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Soil Moisture Active Passive


period of at least three years after launch. A comprehensive validation, science, and applications program will be implemented, and all data are publicly available through the NASA archive centers. The SMAP observatory includes a dedicated spacecraft and instrument suite in a near-polar, Sun-synchronous orbit. The SMAP measurement system consists of a radiometer (passive) instrument and a synthetic aperture radar (active) instrument operating with multiple polarizations in the L-band range. The combined active and passive measurement approach takes advantage of the spatial resolution
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Soil Moisture Active Passive


Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) is a United States environmental research satellite launched on 31 January 2015. It was one of the first Earth observation satellites developed by NASA in response to the National Research Council’s Decadal Survey. SMAP provides measurements of the land surface soil moisture and freeze-thaw state with near-global revisit coverage in 2–3 days. SMAP surface measurements are coupled with hydrologic models to infer soil moisture conditions in the root zone. These measurements enable science applications users to: SMAP observations will be acquired for a
8228182
Sentinel-1


due to environmental disasters, and economic applications. Recently, Sentinel-1 has worked in conjunction with SMAP (Soil Moisture Active and Passive) to help achieve a more accurate measure of soil moisture estimates. Observations from both instruments show to be complementary of each other as they combine data of soil moisture contents. Sentinel-1 spacecraft are designed to carry the following instruments: Specifications of the Sentinel-1 satellites: Sentinel-1 has four operational modes: Sentinel-1 has four types of data products: Sentinel-1 will provide continuity of data from the ERS and Envisat missions,
18640609
Soil Moisture Active Passive


and water resource managers. Additional users include fire hazard and flood disaster managers, disease control and prevention managers, emergency planners and policy makers. SMAP soil moisture and freeze-thaw information will directly benefit several societal applications areas, including: Initialization of numerical weather prediction models and seasonal climate models with accurate soil moisture information will extend forecast lead times and enhance prediction skill. SMAP soil moisture information will improve the monitoring and forecasting of drought conditions, enabling new capabilities for mitigating drought impacts. Hydrologic forecast systems calibrated and initialized with high
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Soil Moisture Active Passive


of the radar and the sensing accuracy of the radiometer. The active and passive sensors provide coincident measurements of the surface emission and backscatter. The instruments sense conditions in the top 5 cm of soil through moderate vegetation cover to yield globally mapped estimates of soil moisture and its freeze-thaw state. The satellite carries two scientific instruments: a radar and a radiometer, that share a single feed and deployable 6m reflector antenna system that rotates around the nadir axis making conical scans of the surface. The wide swath provides near-
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Soil Moisture Active Passive


-resolution soil moisture fields will lead to improved flood forecasts and will provide essential information on the potential for landslides. Soil moisture observations from SMAP will lead to improvements in crop yield forecasts and will enhance the capabilities of crop water stress decision support systems for agricultural productivity. Improved seasonal soil moisture forecasts will directly benefit famine early warning systems. Benefits will also be realized through improved predictions of heat stress and virus spread rates, and improved disaster preparation and response. In August 2015, scientists completed their initial calibration of the two instruments
8228187
Delta II


2009. The GRAIL Launch in 2011 marked the last Delta II Heavy launch and the last from Florida. The final five launches would all be from Vandenberg Air Force Base (AFB) in California. On July 16, 2012 NASA selected the Delta II to support the Orbiting Carbon Observatory OCO-2, Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP), and Joint Polar Satellite System JPSS-1 (NOAA-20) missions. This marked the final purchase of Delta IIs. OCO-2 was launched on July 2, 2014, SMAP was launched on January 31,
427375
Heather McNairn


-U.S. research effort in 2012 which gathered soil moisture and crop biomass data to assist NASA in calibrating and validating their Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) satellite – a system that provides global maps of soil moisture. This 2012 experiment involved 75 researchers from Canadian and U.S. universities, Environment Canada, the Province of Manitoba, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and NASA. The success of the 2012 campaign led to a request by NASA’s SMAP team to repeat this experiment in 2016. This 2016 data is
17592884
SAC-D


its intended three year primary mission. Aquarius' mission was to demonstrate that accurate measurements of salinity could be made from space, and was the first spaceborne instrument to use both passive radiometers and active radar in the L band. By measuring ocean salinity, scientists are better able to understand the Earth's water cycle and ocean circulation. Project scientists later derived a method of pulling soil moisture data from Aquarius' radiometer. NASA launched SAC-D from Vandenberg Air Force Base's Space Launch Complex 2W aboard a Delta II 7320-
21242372
Drag and Atmospheric Neutral Density Explorer


DANDE (or Drag and Atmospheric Neutral Density Explorer) is a 50 kg class spacecraft developed by the University of Colorado Boulder was the winner of the 5th iteration of the Air Force Research Laboratory's University Nanosat Program. Due to a failure in a spacecraft system, the ground team was unable to actively command the satellite and spacecraft became just a passive object in Earth orbit by which some passive drag characteristics might be deduced. DANDE launched on September 29, 2013 and correctly separated from the launch vehicle. After a month of assessing
7201256
Ground-coupled heat exchanger


contact with the surrounding earth. If humidity and associated mold colonization is not addressed in system design, occupants may face health risks. At some sites, the humidity in the earth tubes may be controlled simply by passive drainage if the water table is sufficiently deep and the soil has relatively high permeability. In situations where passive drainage is not feasible or needs to be augmented for further moisture reduction, active (dehumidifier) or passive (desiccant) systems may treat the air stream. Formal research indicates that earth-air heat exchangers
8725626
Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity


pull of gravity across the Earth's surface. SMOS is the second Explorer to launch; and a third spacecraft, known as CryoSat-2 (the first CryoSat failed on launch), was launched on 8 April 2010. CryoSat will assess the state of the world's ice cover. The satellite was launched on 2 November 2009 (04:50 (01:50 GMT)) to a nearly circular orbit of 763 km aboard a Rokot, a modified Russian Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) SS-19 launched from a decommissioned SS-19 launcher from Northern Russia's
4460795
Solar electric propulsion


Solar electric propulsion (SEP) typically refers to the combination of solar cells and an ion drive to propel a spacecraft through outer space. This technology has been exploited in a variety of spacecraft by the European Space Agency, the Japanese Space Agency, Indian Space Research Organisation and NASA. SEP is valued for its potential for a high specific impulse, thus allowing less mass for propellant to be launched with a spacecraft and it has been evaluated for mission to Mars. Solar electric propulsion combines solar panels on spacecraft and ion thrusters,
19663908
Kamal Sarabandi


-founder of EMAG Technologies, a high-tech company, in Ann Arbor, Michigan. Sarabandi is a member of Science Team for NASA Soil Moisture Active and Passive (SMAP). This is an orbiting observatory (a polar orbit around Earth) that measures the amount of water in the top 5 cm (2 inches) of soil everywhere on Earth’s surface. Sarabandi has received numerous awards in recognition for his scholarly activities; some of which are list below: The Detroit News, 23 March 2017, http://www.detroitnews.com/story/opinion/2017/03/23/schlissel-global-universities/99512608/ Interview
15006899
Soil respiration


values retard microbial function, this is the same pattern that is seen with soil moisture levels. Soil moisture is another important factor influencing soil respiration. Soil respiration is low in dry conditions and increases to a maximum at intermediate moisture levels until it begins to decrease when moisture content excludes oxygen. This allows anaerobic conditions to prevail and depress aerobic microbial activity. Studies have shown that soil moisture only limits respiration at the lowest and highest conditions with a large plateau existing at intermediate soil moisture levels for most ecosystems. Many microorganisms possess strategies
17959827
DPHM-RS


canopy height, evaporation from soil surface and transpiration from vegetation. A soil profile of three homogeneous layers (active, transmission and saturated layers) is used to model the soil moisture on the basis of water balance between layers. The active layer is 15–30 cm thick and it simulates the rapid changes of soil moisture content under high frequency atmospheric forcing. The transmission zone lies between the base of the active layer and the top of the capillary fringe and so it more characterizes the seasonal (instead of transient) changes of soil moisture
14813664
Passivation (spacecraft)


satellites in geosynchronous orbit be designed to move themselves to a disposal orbit some above the GEO belt, and then remove internally stored energy. Most GEO satellites conform to these recommendations, although there are no enforcement mechanisms. Within national regimes, where national governments can control the launch licenses of launch vehicles and spacecraft, there are some enforceable requirements for passivation. The US government has implemented a set of standard practices for both civilian (NASA) and military (DoD/USAF) orbital debris mitigation that require passivation. "All on
10906401
Lateral earth pressure


It is the maximum lateral resistance that a given soil mass can offer to a retaining wall that is being pushed towards the soil mass. That is, the soil is at the point of incipient failure by shearing, but this time due to loading in the lateral direction. Thus active pressure and passive resistance define the minimum lateral pressure and the maximum lateral resistance possible from a given mass of soil. Rankine's theory, developed in 1857, is a stress field solution that predicts active and passive earth pressure. It assumes that
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Soil Moisture Active Passive


global revisit every 2–3 days. SMAP is a directed mission of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration NASA. The SMAP project is managed for NASA by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory JPL, with participation by the Goddard Space Flight Center GSFC. SMAP builds on the heritage and risk reduction activities of NASA's cancelled ESSP Hydros Mission. SMAP observations are used to characterize hydrologic and ecosystem processes including land-atmosphere exchanges of water, energy, and carbon. Among the users of SMAP data are hydrologists, weather forecasters, climate scientists and agricultural
8228185
Charles Elachi


GRAIL and Juno (2011); NuSTAR (2012); Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2 (2014); Soil Moisture Active Passive (2015); and Jason 3 (2016). During flight projects for NASA, Elachi was principal investigator for the Shuttle Imaging Radar series (SIR-A in 1981, SIR-B in 1984, and SIR-C in 1994), was a co-investigator on the Magellan imaging radar, is presently the team leader of the Cassini Titan Radar experiment and a co-investigator on
19473442
Y. S. Rao


Dr. Y. S. Rao is a Professor at the Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Mumbai, India. He is working in the field of microwave remote sensing and land based applications for more than 34 years. His early research was focused on the use of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) interferometry for landslides and land deformation monitoring, Digital Elevation Model generation, snow and glacier monitoring. He is also actively involved in developing several techniques for soil moisture estimation using passive and active microwave remote sensing data
2085588
Passivation (spacecraft)


The passivation of a spacecraft is the removal of any internal energy contained in the vehicle at the end of its mission or useful life. Spent upper stages are generally passivated after their use as launch vehicles is complete, as are satellites when they for their initial design purpose. Internally stored energy generally takes the form of unused propellant and batteries. In the past, such stored energy has sometimes led to fragmentation or explosion, producing unwanted space debris. The International Telecommunications Union (ITU) and United Nations (UN) recommend that
10906400
Soil resilience


are passive and contribute to soil mass and position; the next two are climate and the biosphere, which are active and supply the energy in soil formation. Finally, there is time. It is the active factors in soil formation that vary so as to constitute an environmental change or shock. Over time, variations have been significant: If soil were not resilient, then in the face of past influences it would not be in any condition to support the natural and commercial services that we expect of it currently. So what
13424326
Chris Mattmann


IRDS includes diverse students in the areas of data science, information retrieval and informatics and the group exists within USC's Viterbi School of Engineering. The focus of the group is on cross disciplinary data and content analysis work applied to the science, business, engineering and information technology (IT) domains. At NASA, Mattmann's work has been applied to a number of space missions including, Orbiting Carbon Observatory 1/2, NPP Sounder PEATE, and the Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) Earth science missions.. Mattmann was also one
11551085
Jet Propulsion Laboratory


missions. It is also responsible for operating NASA's Deep Space Network. Among the laboratory's major active projects are the Mars Science Laboratory mission (which includes the "Curiosity" rover), the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, the "Juno" spacecraft orbiting Jupiter, the NuSTAR X-ray telescope, the SMAP satellite for earth surface soil moisture monitoring, and the Spitzer Space Telescope. It is also responsible for managing the JPL Small-Body Database, and provides physical data and lists of publications for all known small Solar System
16599635
Ustic


Ustic is a class of soil moisture regime. It is one of a range of different soil moisture regimes, such as: aquic moisture regime, aridic moisture regime, udic moisture regime and xeric moisture regime. The ustic moisture regime is intermediate between the aridic regime and the udic regime. The ustic moisture regime (Latin: "ustus", burnt) applies to soils in which moisture is present, but limited, at times in which conditions are suitable for plant growth. A suborder of Mollisol, the ustic moisture regime
3641300
Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity


Plesetsk Cosmodrome. The SMOS satellite was launched together with the Proba-2, a technology demonstration satellite. The goal of the SMOS mission is to monitor surface soil moisture with an accuracy of 4% (at 35–50 km spatial resolution). This aspect is managed by the HYDROS project. Project Aquarius will attempt to monitor sea surface salinity with an accuracy of 0.1 psu (10- to 30-day average and a spatial resolution of 200 km x 200 km). Soil moisture is an important aspect of climate, and therefore forecasting. Plants transpire
4460796
Fuk Li


study rainfall effects on ocean roughness, and the development of an airborne active/passive microwave system for ocean salinity and soil moisture sensing. From 1997 to 2001 he managed the New Millennium Program, designed to flight-validate key technologies that bring significant benefits to future science missions. He became deputy director of JPL's Solar System Exploration Program Directorate in 2001, and deputy director for the Mars Exploration Directorate in 2004, and director for the Mars Exploration Directorate in 2005. He is currently also the NASA Mars Exploration Program Manager.
20209709
Y. S. Rao


He joined the Centre of Studies in Resources Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, in 1985, as a Senior Research Assistant and then became a Research Scientist in 1999. During 2005–2009, he was a Senior Research Scientist and then Associate Professor from 2009 to 2014. He is currently a Professor since 2015. He was engaged in both passive and active microwave remote sensing for several applications viz. soil moisture, flood mapping, and crop inventory mapping. He has participated in several space borne campaigns for collecting synchronous ground-truth
2085590
Outer space


interference that hampers Earth-based observations. Unmanned spacecraft in Earth orbit are an essential technology of modern civilization. They allow direct monitoring of weather conditions, relay long-range communications like television, provide a means of precise navigation, and allow remote sensing of the Earth. The latter role serves a wide variety of purposes, including tracking soil moisture for agriculture, prediction of water outflow from seasonal snow packs, detection of diseases in plants and trees, and surveillance of military activities. The deep vacuum of space could make it
10667835
Moisture equivalent


Moisture equivalent is proposed by Lyman Briggs and McLane (1910) as a measure of field capacity for fine-textured soil materials. Moisture equivalent is defined as "the percentage of water which a soil can retain in opposition to a centrifugal force 1000 times that of gravity". It is measured by saturating sample of soil 1 cm thick, and subjecting it to a centrifugal force of 1000 times gravity for 30 min. The gravimetric water content after this treatment is its moisture equivalent. This concept is no longer used in soil
20653735
Phoenix (spacecraft)


speed at which a thermal disturbance is propagated in the soil). The probes also measured the dielectric permittivity and electrical conductivity, which can be used to calculate moisture and salinity of the regolith. Needles 1 and 2 work in conjunction to measure salts in the regolith, heat the soil to measure thermal properties (thermal conductivity, specific heat and thermal diffusivity) of the regolith, and measure soil temperature. Needles 3 and 4 measure liquid water in the regolith. Needle 4 is a reference thermometer for needles 1 and 2.
7782739
Pedogenesis


flow paths for soil gas and infiltrating water. The zone of active bioturbation is termed the soil biomantle. Soil moisture content and water flow through the soil profile support leaching of soluble constituents, and eluviation. Eluviation is the translocation of colloid material, such as organic matter, clay and other mineral compounds. Transported constituents are deposited due to differences in soil moisture and soil chemistry, especially soil pH and redox potential. The interplay of removal and deposition results in contrasting soil horizons. Key soil forming processes especially important to macro-
3599685
Phytophthora fragariae


or any other activity that will move infected soil. Also, the replanting of infected nursery stock will spread the infection of "P. fragariae." There are three main components of the environment that affect the effectiveness, speed, and ability of "P. fragariae" to infect: soil moisture, temperature, and pH. "P. fragariae" occurs frequently in wet, cool soils. Soil moisture has been proven to carry the greatest importance. Soils that receive lots of steady water from rain or melting snow, as well as soils
2235531
Lateral earth pressure


the pore pressure from the total stress as described in soil mechanics. K for a particular soil deposit is a function of the soil properties and the stress history. The minimum stable value of K is called the active earth pressure coefficient, K; the active earth pressure is obtained, for example,when a retaining wall moves away from the soil. The maximum stable value of K is called the passive earth pressure coefficient, K; the passive earth pressure would develop, for example against a vertical plow that is pushing soil
8111628
Retroreflector


There are two LAGEOS spacecraft: LAGEOS-1 (launched in 1976), and LAGEOS-2 (launched in 1992). They use cube-corner retroreflectors made of fused silica glass. As of 2004, both LAGEOS spacecraft are still in service. Three STARSHINE satellites equipped with retroreflectors were launched beginning in 1999. The LARES satellite was launched on February 13, 2012. (See also List of passive satellites) The BLITS (Ball Lens In The Space) spherical retroreflector satellite was placed into orbit as part of a September 2009 Soyuz launch
14577980
Soil erosion


moisture dependent soil microbial activity as well as plant biomass production rates; c) changes in soil moisture due to shifting precipitation regimes and evapo-transpiration rates, which changes infiltration and runoff ratios; d) soil erodibility changes due to decrease in soil organic matter concentrations in soils that lead to a soil structure that is more susceptible to erosion and increased runoff due to increased soil surface sealing and crusting; e) a shift of winter precipitation from non-erosive snow to erosive rainfall due to increasing winter temperatures; f) melting
14327624
Space rendezvous


on the target, until proximity operations (see below) can be started. In the very final phase, the closure rate is reduced by use of the active vehicle's reaction control system. Docking typically occurs at a rate of to . Space rendezvous of an active, or "chaser," spacecraft with an (assumed) passive spacecraft may be divided into several phases, and typically starts with the two spacecraft in separate orbits, typically separated by more than : A variety of spacecraft control techniques may be used to effect
11015596
Soil water (retention)


soil thermal properties has a significant effect on temperature-related biological triggers, including seed germination, flowering, and faunal activity. (more water causes soil to more slowly gain or lose temperature given equal heating; water has roughly double the Heat capacity of soil) Recent climate modelling by Timbal et al. (2002) suggests a strong linkage between soil moisture and the persistence and variability of surface temperature and precipitation; further, that soil moisture is a significant consideration for the accuracy of "inter-annular" predications regarding the
12064552
Progress M-15M


. The problem occurred at 01:23 GMT while the KURS-NA system was being activated. The issue forced the spacecraft into a passive abort mode as designed under safety protocols. At the time of the abort ISS and Progress were flying 9.3 miles apart. Two orbits after the abort, Russian flight controllers commanded the automated rendezvous system to re-activate for the collection of data. A second redocking attempt had to be delayed till 28 July to de-conflict with the arrival of the Japanese Kounotori 3 spacecraft at the ISS on
16705927
Soil respiration


is that if a chamber that is closed for too long, it can modify ambient conditions and cause measuring artifacts. Finding the optimal measuring time range is important. Tests on the soil in question can confirm the best time solution, and eliminate the partial CO pressure buildup from being a significant issue. Both individual assay information and diurnal CO respiration measuring information is accessible. It is also common for such systems to also measure soil temperature, soil moisture and PAR (photosynthetically active radiation). These variables are normally recorded in the
17959835
Ecohydrology


soil moisture over time are known as soil moisture dynamics. Recent global studies using water stable isotopes show that not all soil moisture is equally available for groundwater recharge or for plant transpiration. Ecohydrological theory also places importance on considerations of temporal (time) and spatial (space) relationships. Hydrology, in particular the timing of precipitation events, can be a critical factor in the way an ecosystem evolves over time. For instance, Mediterranean landscapes experience dry summers and wet winters. If the vegetation has a summer growing season, it
5264243
Phased array


scan, while simultaneously providing mid-course guidance updates to the MBDA Aster missiles launched from the ship. The German Navy and the Royal Dutch Navy have developed the Active Phased Array Radar System (APAR). The MIM-104 Patriot and other ground-based antiaircraft systems use phased array radar for similar benefits. Phased arrays are used in naval sonar, in active (transmit and receive) and passive (receive only) and hull-mounted and towed array sonar. The "MESSENGER" spacecraft was a space probe mission to the
19170924
Low-temperature thermal desorption


In order for desorption of petroleum constituents to occur, most of the soil moisture must be evaporated in the desorber. This process can require significant additional thermal input to the desorber and excessive residence time for the soil in the desorber. Moisture content also influences plasticity which affects handling of the soil. Soils with excessive moisture content ( 20%) must be dewatered. Typical dewatering methods include air drying (if storage space is available to spread the soils), mixing with drier soils, or mechanical dewatering. The presence of metals
1497842
Soil


(measuring light interception) and moisture loss: more generally plants prevent soil from desiccation during driest months while they dry it during moister months, thereby acting as a buffer against strong moisture variation. Plants can form new chemicals that can break down minerals, both directly and indirectly through mycorrhizal fungi and rhizosphere bacteria, and improve the soil structure. The type and amount of vegetation depends on climate, topography, soil characteristics and biological factors, mediated or not by human activities. Soil factors such as density, depth, chemistry,
17000807
Disc harrow


sizes ranging from 20", 22", 24", to 26" can be used. Other similar secondary tillage tine implements or rotary harrows are also widely used. When choosing secondary tillage equipment, soil type as well as soil moisture content at the time must be considered. Lighter secondary disc harrows are primarily used to break down soil clods into smaller pieces. By so doing, water penetrates more easily into the soil, soil aeration is increased, and the activity of soil biota is enhanced; the final result is
16835329
Rankine theory


Rankine's theory (maximum-normal stress theory), developed in 1857 by William John Macquorn Rankine, is a stress field solution that predicts active and passive earth pressure. It assumes that the soil is cohesionless, the wall is frictionless, the soil-wall interface is vertical, the failure surface on which the soil moves is planar, and the resultant force is angled parallel to the backfill surface. The equations for active and passive lateral earth pressure coefficients are given below. Note that φ' is the angle of shearing
8646604
Soil moisture sensor


Soil moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content in soil. Since the direct gravimetric measurement of free soil moisture requires removing, drying, and weighting of a sample, soil moisture sensors measure the volumetric water content indirectly by using some other property of the soil, such as electrical resistance, dielectric constant, or interaction with neutrons, as a proxy for the moisture content. The relation between the measured property and soil moisture must be calibrated and may vary depending on environmental factors such as soil type, temperature, or electric conductivity.
20011408
Soil mechanics


K=σ'/σ'). There are three coefficients: at-rest, active, and passive. At-rest stress is the lateral stress in the ground before any disturbance takes place. The active stress state is reached when a wall moves away from the soil under the influence of lateral stress, and results from shear failure due to reduction of lateral stress. The passive stress state is reached when a wall is pushed into the soil far enough to cause shear failure within the mass due to increase of lateral stress.
8546791
Low-temperature thermal desorption


typically do not retain excessive moisture, therefore, contaminants are easily desorbed. Finer-grained soils tend to retain soil moisture and agglomerate into clumps. When dry, they may yield large amounts of particulates that may require recycling after being intercepted in the baghouse. The solids processing capacity of a thermal desorption system is inversely proportional to the moisture content of the feed material. The presence of moisture in the excavated soils to be treated in the LTTD unit will determine the residence time required and heating requirements for effective removal of contaminants.
1497841
Soil moisture sensor


Reflected microwave radiation is affected by the soil moisture and is used for remote sensing in hydrology and agriculture. Portable probe instruments can be used by farmers or gardeners. Soil moisture sensors typically refer to sensors that estimate volumetric water content. Another class of sensors measure another property of moisture in soils called water potential; these sensors are usually referred to as soil water potential sensors and include tensiometers and gypsum blocks. Technologies commonly used to indirectly measure volumetric water content (soil moisture) include) Measuring soil moisture is important for agricultural applications
20011409
Frost boil


low liquid limits, low plasticity limits, and high natural moisture contents. These soils liquefy and flow readily in response to slight changes to either internal or external stress, or a change in water content. Localized stresses are often the result of moisture being confined in the active layer by the underlying permafrost and a semi-rigid carapace of dried surface mud, created by desiccation during the late summer. The moisture content of soils may increase during summer due to rain. Other stresses include the volumetric change of water during the freezing
10358769
Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity


Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity, or SMOS, is a satellite which forms part of ESA's Living Planet Programme. It is intended to provide new insights into Earth's water cycle and climate. In addition, it is intended to provide improved weather forecasting and monitoring of snow and ice accumulation. The project was proposed in November 1998; in 2004 the project passed ESA-phase "C/D" and, after several delays, it was launched on 2 November 2009 from Plesetsk Cosmodrome on a Rockot rocket. The first
4460793
Respiratory gas humidification


time. The two methods currently available for this purpose are active or passive respiratory gas humidification. An active respiratory gas humidifier ensures that patients on mechanical ventilation are supplied with optimally conditioned respiratory gas. In active humidifying processes, moisture and heat is input to respiratory gas by an electrically powered humidifier. Performance data and safety-related requirements for active respiratory gas humidifiers are specified by the standard ISO 8185. According to that standard, the minimum water content of inspired respiratory gas is ca. 33 mg/dm³ and the maximum respiratory
10890749
Russian Orbital Segment


arrives in 2018. It will be integrated with a custom Progress cargo ship and launched by a standard Soyuz rocket. The Progress using its propulsion and robotic flight controls, will deliver and dock the Node Module to the nadir (Earth-facing) port of the Nauka (MLM) module. One port will be equipped with an active hybrid docking port, which enables docking with the Nauka module. The remaining five ports would be passive hybrids, used for attaching other modules as well as docking Soyuz and Progress spacecraft. However
7988843
DAVE (CP-7)


was launched into a high-inclination orbit as a secondary payload on the final flight of the Delta II launch vehicle as part of the ELaNa-18 ride-share mission with NASA's ICESat-2 primary payload. The launch occurred out of Vandenberg Air Force Base, California on September 15 at 6:02 AM local time. DAVE was deployed alongside three other CubeSat spacecraft: University of Central Florida's SurfSat, and two ELFIN spacecraft from University of California, Los Angeles. As of November 2018, the spacecraft is active and in good health.
7307406
Ustic


the soil profile - a calcic horizon. The ustic soil moisture regime is also common in Central Africa (Zambia, Tanzania, Angola), in India, and in some countries of Eastern Europe and South America. Soil Moisture regimes affects soil genesis (formation), and the usage and maintenance of soil condition, so they are used as a soil classification criterion for soils with similar properties and Morphology. The following are the four other major soil moisture regimes: Aquic (or Perudic) Soils that have the aquic moisture regime
3641305
Space rendezvous


The standard technique for rendezvous and docking is to dock an active vehicle, the "chaser", with a passive "target". This technique has been used successfully for the Gemini, Apollo, Apollo/Soyuz, Salyut, Skylab, Mir, ISS, and Tiāngōng programs. To properly understand spacecraft rendezvous it is essential to understand the relation between spacecraft velocity and orbit. A spacecraft in a certain orbit cannot arbitrarily alter its velocity. Each orbit correlates to a certain orbital velocity. If the spacecraft fires thrusters and
11015593
Aerial seeding


top 0.5 -1 inch be moist. These conditions should be at the time of the seeding or within 10 days of the seeding. If the required soil moisture is not present at these times, the seeds may become the target of predation by insects and other animals. Along with soil moisture, surface conditions also play a key role in the success of aerial seeding and establishment of seed. The best soil surface conditions are those that are moist and friable. A loose and rough soil surface with cracks or residue cover is also
16560276
Groundwater


soil, supplemented by moisture in the air. While there are other terrestrial ecosystems in more hospitable environments where groundwater plays no central role, groundwater is in fact fundamental to many of the world's major ecosystems. Water flows between groundwaters and surface waters. Most rivers, lakes, and wetlands are fed by, and (at other places or times) feed groundwater, to varying degrees. Groundwater feeds soil moisture through percolation, and many terrestrial vegetation communities depend directly on either groundwater or the percolated soil moisture above the aquifer for
18516713
FORECAST (model)


competition for, light and nutrient resources (a representation of moisture effects on soil processes, plant physiology and growth, and the consequences of moisture competition is being added). The rates of these processes are calculated from a combination of historical bioassay data (such as biomass accumulation in plant components and changes in stand density over time) and measures of certain ecosystem variables (including decomposition rates, photosynthetic saturation curves, and plant tissue nutrient concentrations) by relating ‘biologically active’ biomass components (foliage and small roots) to calculated
12633277
Soil moisture sensor


to help farmers manage their irrigation systems more efficiently. Knowing the exact soil moisture conditions on their fields, not only are farmers able to generally use less water to grow a crop, they are also able to increase yields and the quality of the crop by improved management of soil moisture during critical plant growth stages. In urban and suburban areas, landscapes and residential lawns are using soil moisture sensors to interface with an irrigation controller. Connecting a soil moisture sensor to a simple irrigation clock will convert it into a "smart"
20011410
Pyrogeography


influences can involve grazing, logging, suppression tactics, fuel treatments (preventative measures), and land use change such as deforestation and agricultural development. Fuel moisture is the measure of amount of water within fuels, and is expressed as a percent of dry weight of that fuel. Fuel moisture is affected by wind activity, season, antecedent rainfall, relative humidity, air temperature, and soil moisture. Human influences include anthropogenic climate change and land management activity (logging, grazing, burning). Ignitions can be either natural or
8664194
Soil respiration


for growth and survival under low soil moisture conditions. Under high soil moisture conditions, many bacteria take in too much water causing their cell membrane to lyse, or break. This can decrease the rate of soil respiration temporarily, but the lysis of bacteria causes for a spike in resources for many other bacteria. This rapid increase in available labile substrates causes short-term enhanced soil respiration. Root respiration will increase with increasing soil moisture, especially in dry ecosystems; however, individual species' root respiration response to soil moisture will
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Pioneer 10


km/h (32,114 mph). After the high-gain antenna was contacted, several of the instruments were activated for testing while the spacecraft was moving through the Earth's radiation belts. Ninety minutes after launch, the spacecraft reached interplanetary space. "Pioneer 10" passed by the Moon in 11 hours and became the fastest human-made object at that time. Two days after launch, the scientific instruments were turned on, beginning with the cosmic ray telescope. After ten days, all of the instruments were active
17422823
Soil conditioner


such materials are judged most often remains their cost-effectiveness, their ability to increase soil moisture for longer periods, stimulate microbiological activity, increase nutrient levels and improve plant survival rates. The first synthetic soil conditioners were introduced in the 1950s, when the chemical hydrolysed polyacrylonitrile was the most used. Because of their ability to absorb several hundred times their own weight in water, polyacrylamides and polymethacrylates (also known as hydroabsorbent polymers, superabsorbent polymers or hydrogels) were tested in agriculture, horticulture and landscaping beginning in the 1960s. Interest
16191448
Earth observation satellite


31, 1958. The information sent back from its radiation detector led to the discovery of the Earth's Van Allen radiation belts. The TIROS-1 spacecraft, launched on April 1, 1960 as part of NASA's TIROS (Television Infrared Observation Satellite) Program, sent back the first television footage of weather patterns to be taken from space. , more than 150 Earth observation satellites were in orbit, recording data with both passive and active sensors and acquiring more than 10 terabits of data daily. Most Earth observation satellites carry instruments that
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Prichal (ISS module)


space station, while the remaining five ports are passive, enabling other spacecraft to dock with the module. Such a design is significantly different from the one of the docking modules "Pirs" and "Poisk" that have only one docking port for spacecraft each. Additionally, the port opposite to the active one would support automated transfer of propellants between docked Russian spacecraft and the space station in both directions, and automated docking of manned and unmanned spacecraft using the Kurs system. The docking compartment has an internal volume of 14 cubic
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Pratylenchus penetrans


activity a moisture film is needed for movement of the nematode. Soil moisture, relative humidity, and related environmental factors directly affect nematode survival. Moisture is needed to the nematode to survive and move. When the nematode is inside of the root, the root provides the optimal moisture and protection from desiccation. "P. penetrans" has a critical survival mechanism that during cold seasons and in the absence of the host it goes into diapause, animal dormancy resulting in a delay in development. Root lesion nematode also has the capability of
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Gemmatimonadetes


moisture. A study conducted showed that the distribution of the Gemmatimonadetes in soil tends to be more dependent on the moisture availability than aggregation, reinforcing the belief that the members of this phylum prefer dryer soils. The phylum Gemmatimonadetes is distinct from the phylum "Cyanobacteria" and may have diverged in early microbial evolution at least 3 billion years ago. The first member of this phylum was discovered in 2003 in activated sludge in a sewage treatment system. The bacterium was named "Gemmatimonas aurantiaca". This bacterium is identified as strain T-27
269378
Lateral earth pressure


from the soil until the soil active state is reached (not necessarily the actual in-service lateral pressure on walls that do not move when subjected to soil lateral pressures higher than the active pressure). The passive state occurs when a soil mass is externally forced laterally and inward (towards the soil mass) to the point of mobilizing its available full shear resistance in trying to resist further lateral deformation. That is, the soil mass is at the point of incipient failure by shearing due to loading in the lateral direction.
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Luna E-8-5M No. 412


Luna E-8-5M No.412, also known as Luna Ye-8-5M No.412, and sometimes identified by NASA as Luna 1975A, was a Soviet spacecraft which was lost in a launch failure in 1975. It was a Luna E-8-5M spacecraft, the second of three to be launched. It was intended to perform a soft landing on the Moon, collect a sample of lunar soil, and return it to the Earth. Luna E-8-5M No.412 was launched at 04:04:56 UTC on 16 October 1975 atop
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Ustic


is wetter than the aridic moisture regime and drier than the udic moisture regime. For a soil to be classified as ustic, averaged across the year, stored moisture plus rainfall is less than the amount of water lost from the soil via evapotranspiration. The ustic moisture regime is common in semi-arid and sub-humid climates. There are certain climate conditions which characterises a particular soil as ustic: the soil temperature must be 22 °C (degrees Celsius) or above annually, or winter contra summer soil temperatures must vary
3641301
Surface runoff


. Soil retains a degree of moisture after a rainfall. This residual water moisture affects the soil's infiltration capacity. During the next rainfall event, the infiltration capacity will cause the soil to be saturated at a different rate. The higher the level of antecedent soil moisture, the more quickly the soil becomes saturated. Once the soil is saturated, runoff occurs. After water infiltrates the soil on an up-slope portion of a hill, the water may flow laterally through the soil, and exfiltrate (flow out of the
10736408
Earthworm


a surface mulch , on a regular basis will provide earthworms with their food and nutrient requirements, and will create the optimum conditions of temperature and moisture that will naturally stimulate their activity. This earthworm activity aerates and mixes the soil, and is conducive to mineralization of nutrients and their uptake by vegetation. Certain species of earthworm come to the surface and graze on the higher concentrations of organic matter present there, mixing it with the mineral soil. Because a high level of organic matter mixing is associated with soil fertility, an abundance
15603725
Luna E-8-5 No. 405


Luna E-8-5 No.405, also known as Luna Ye-8-5 No.405, and sometimes identified by NASA as Luna 1970A, was a Soviet spacecraft which was lost in a launch failure in 1970. It was a Luna E-8-5 spacecraft, the fifth of eight to be launched. It was intended to perform a soft landing on the Moon, collect a sample of lunar soil, and return it to the Earth. Luna E-8-5 No.405 was launched at 04:16:06 UTC on 6 February 1970 atop a Proton-K
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Vostok programme


time than had been expected. This meant that the spacecraft would enter the atmosphere, but not over Soviet territory. For this reason the self-destruct system was activated, and the spacecraft and the two dogs were destroyed. At the time, the press reported that an incorrect altitude caused the cabin to be destroyed upon re-entry. The next "Vostok 1K" spacecraft was launched on December 22, 1960, but it was unnamed because it failed to reach orbit. It carried two dogs, named Kometa and
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Mercurialis perennis


Its period of reproductive activity depends upon a number of factors such as illumination, soil reaction, soil moisture, etc. These factors also affect the duration of reproductive activity. Dog's mercury favors alkaline (basic) soils and can be found in abundance in suitable habitats in limestone regions. It also occurs widely on neutral soils but is absent from acidic ones. Spreading by underground rhizomes, where its dense growth may shade out other woodland flowers such as oxlip, fly orchid, and even young ash seedlings, but in the
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Launch and Early Orbit phase


In spacecraft operations, The Launch and Early Orbit phase (LEOP) is one of the most critical phases of a mission. Spacecraft operations engineers take control of the satellite after it separates from the launch vehicle up to the time when the satellite is safely positioned in its final orbit. During this period, operations staff works 24 hours a day to activate, monitor and control the various subsystems of the satellite, including the deployment of any satellite appendages (antennas, solar array, reflector, etc.), and undertake critical
2263815
ARIEL


infrared spectrum. Its infrared spectroscope will operate between 1.95 µm and 7.8 µm, which requires to be passively cooled to a temperature of . The ARIEL spacecraft will be launched in mid-2028 by Arianespace's Ariane 6-2 rocket, currently in development. It will be launched from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana, from the l'Ensemble de Lancement Ariane 4 (Ariane Launch Area 4) being purpose-built for future Ariane 6 launches. ARIEL will be launched to the L Lagrangian point, in a position located at
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Spacecraft thermal control


temperatures which are too high or too low, it could be damaged or its performance could be severely affected. Thermal control is also necessary to keep specific components (such as optical sensors, atomic clocks, etc.) within a specified temperature stability requirement, to ensure that they perform as efficiently as possible. The thermal control subsystem can be composed both of passive and of active items and works in two ways: Passive Thermal Control System (PTCS) components include: Active Thermal Control System (ATCS) components include: For
6982859
Planck (spacecraft)


continued to be used until science operations ended on 3 October 2013. The spacecraft performed a manoeuvre on 9 October to move it away from Earth and its , placing it into a heliocentric orbit, while payload deactivation occurred on 19 October. "Planck" was commanded on 21 October to exhaust its remaining fuel supply; passivation activities were conducted later, including battery disconnection and the disabling of protection mechanisms. The final deactivation command, which switched off the spacecraft's transmitter, was sent to "Planck" on 23 October 2013 at
13292511
Solum


solum of a soil is not necessarily confined to the zone of major biological activity. A solum does not have a maximum or a minimum thickness. The lower limit should relate to the depth of rooting to be expected for perennial plants assuming that soil moisture conditions and soil chemistry are not limiting. In some soils the lower limit of the solum can be set only arbitrarily and needs to be defined in relation to the particular soil. For example, horizons of carbonate accumulation are easily visualized as part of the solum in many soils
7638324
Soil moisture velocity equation


Ogden and extended to the water table by Ogden et al. as verified against data collected in a column experimental that was patterned after the famous experiment by Childs & Poulovassilis (1962) and against exact solutions. The soil moisture velocity equation or SMVE is an alternative interpretation of the Richards equation wherein the dependent variable is the position "z" of a wetting front of a particular moisture content formula_2 with time. where: The first term on the right-hand side of the SMVE is called the "advection-like"
5437174
Cover crop


crop is incorporated into the soil, or left on the soil surface, it often increases soil moisture. In agroecosystems where water for crop production is in short supply, cover crops can be used as a mulch to conserve water by shading and cooling the soil surface. This reduces evaporation of soil moisture. In other situations farmers try to dry the soil out as quickly as possible going into the planting season. Here prolonged soil moisture conservation can be problematic. While cover crops can help to conserve water, in temperate regions (
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Fungal loop hypothesis


The fungal loop hypothesis suggests that soil fungi in arid ecosystems connect the metabolic activity of plants and biological soil crusts which respond to different soil moisture levels. Compiling diverse evidence such as limited accumulation of soil organic matter, high phenol oxidative and proteolytic enzyme potentials due to microbial activity, and symbioses between plants and fungi, the fungal loop hypothesis suggests that carbon and nutrients are cycled in biotic pools rather than leached or effluxed to the atmosphere during and between pulses of precipitation. The fungal loop hypothesis is similar in concept to the microbial
13867657
MESSENGER


four graphite fiber / cyanate ester composite panels that supported the propellant tanks, the large velocity adjust (LVA) thruster, attitude monitors and correction thrusters, the antennas, the instrument pallet, and a large ceramic-cloth sunshade, measuring tall and wide, for passive thermal control. At launch, the spacecraft weighed approximately with its full load of propellant. "MESSENGER"'s total mission cost, including the cost of the spacecraft's construction, was estimated at under US$450 million. Main propulsion was provided by the 645
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Podosphaera macularis


, the asci (sac-like structures) within chasmothecia will rupture and ascospores will be discharged. Specifically, the favorable conditions for ascospore release include low light, excess fertility, and high soil moisture. Additionally, optimal infection is observed when the temperature is between 18 and 25 °C. Furthermore, the ascospores act as the primary inoculum and are dispersed passively by wind. Upon encountering a susceptible host plant, the ascospores will germinate and cause infection. Following infection, masses of asexual spores (conidia) will be produced
16316673
Androgynous Peripheral Attach System


(right) and the retracted passive unit (left) interacted for gross alignment. The ring holding the guides shifted to align the active unit latches with the passive unit catches. After these caught, shock absorbers dissipated residual impact energy in the American unit; mechanical attenuators served the same function on the Soviet side. The active unit then retracted to bring the docking collars together. Guides and sockets in the docking collars completed alignment. Four spring push rods drove the spacecraft apart at undocking. The Americans selected North American Rockwell to
1449331
STS-129


environments with applications in the design of future spacecraft. MISSE-7 is composed of two suitcase-sized Passive Experiment Containers (PECs), identified as MISSE 7A and MISSE 7B. Once installed in the exterior of ISS by space walking astronauts, the PECs are opened. The orientation of MISSE 7A will be space facing/Earth facing while MISSE 7B will face forward/backward relative to the ISS orbit. Both MISSE 7A and MISSE 7B contain active and passive experiments. Passive experiments are designed for pre- and post-flight evaluation in ground
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Mercury-Atlas 8


would be tested to see how well it would stand up in an extended mission. The flight control experiments included manually turning the spacecraft around, yaw and pitch manoeuvres to determine how easy it was to control the spacecraft attitude, realignment of the onboard gyroscopes in flight, and leaving the spacecraft to drift on-orbit. Four non-engineering scientific experiments were planned, two requiring the active involvement of the astronaut and two completely passive. The first involved the astronaut watching for four high-powered flares while passing over Woomera,
2037329
Soil biodiversity


to depths and plant roots to penetrate to obtain moisture and nutrients. Biological activity helps in the maintenance of relatively open soil structure, as well as facilitating decomposition and the transportation and transformation of soil nutrients. Changing soil structure has been shown to lead to reduced accessibility by plants to necessary substances. It is now uncontested that microbial exudates have a dominant role in the aggregation of soil particles and the protection of carbon from further degradation. It has been suggested that microorganisms within the soil "engineer" a superior habitat and provide a
12064815
Pedogenesis


be important for producing the soil pattern within a region. Heat and moisture affect rates of biological activity and chemical reactions. Seasonal patterns of heat flux, water content and water movement influence the depth and pattern of removal (elluviation) and accumulation (illuviation) of soluble and colloidal constituents in soil. Climatic extremes, such as ice and wind, can cause physical weathering, soil erosion as well as deposition and accumulation of soil parent material. Stable, humid climates cause deep soil development. Soils are more developed in areas with
3599674
Christmas tree pests and weeds


different types of weeds, they fall into two different categories. Soil applied herbicides combat germinating seedlings, and some offer control of newly established plants. Uniform application over the soil followed by moisture are required for soil applied herbicides to work effectively. Foilar-active herbicides control weed growth of already established, actively growing plants. Application of foliar-active herbicides requires farmers to avoid contact with the conifers. Non chemical methods of weed control include rotary mowing and flailing. Rotary mowing is designed to cut unwanted vegetation 5–7 cm (2–3
4869958
Nimbus 4


Nimbus 4 (also called Nimbus D) was a meteorological satellite. It was the fourth in a series of the Nimbus program. Nimbus 4 was launched on April 8, 1970, by a Thor-Agena rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base, Lompoc, CA. The spacecraft functioned nominally until 30 Sep 1980. The satellite orbited the Earth once every 1 hour and 47 minutes, at an inclination of 80°. Its perigee was and apogee was . Nimbus 4, the fourth in a series of second-generation meteorological
16596410
Aquarius (SAC-D instrument)


will be archived for use by NASA's Physical Oceanography Distributed Active Archive Center (PO.DAAC) in Pasadena, CA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). After less than one month in operation, Aquarius produced the first map showing the varying degrees of salinity across the ocean's surface produced by NASA. The first salinity maps from space were provided by the European Space Agency satellite SMOS (Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity) that was launched in November 2009. Previous satellites enabled measurement of ocean currents, sea surface temperature and winds,
20366089
Project Echo


Project Echo was the first passive communications satellite experiment. Each of the two American spacecraft, launched in 1960 and 1964, was a metalized balloon satellite acting as a passive reflector of microwave signals. Communication signals were bounced off them from one point on Earth to another. NASA's Echo 1 satellite was built by Gilmore Schjeldahl's G.T. Schjeldahl Company in Northfield, Minnesota. The balloon satellite functioned as a reflector, not a transceiver, so after it was placed in a low Earth orbit a signal could be sent to it,
5823088
Humidor


or water tank into the humidor. Once the preset humidity level has been reached the ventilator stops. This way electronic humidifiers can maintain a much more stable humidity level than passive humidifiers. Also they typically will activate an alarm to notify when the moisture supply needs refilling, to prevent humidity drops. The accuracy of electronic humidifiers depends primarily on the integrated type of sensor; the capacitive type are preferred. Silica gel beads, familiar for removing moisture from packaging containers, are a third alternative. These are "calibrated" with a
11061325
Journey of Apollo 15 to the Moon


them a chance to fire the SPS engine at the second planned correction. This cancellation meant that tasks that would have been done later could be brought forward and the crew could get to sleep sooner. These tasks included a water dump and putting the spacecraft into passive thermal control (PTC) or what was often called "barbecue mode", as the spacecraft was put into a slow roll so that there was even heat distribution. Nearly 15 hours after launch, the crew switched off the lights in the cabin and went to
6759718
Luna E-8-5 No. 402


Luna E-8-5 No.402, also known as Luna Ye-8-5 No.402, and sometimes identified by NASA as Luna 1969C, was a Soviet spacecraft under Luna programme which was lost in a launch failure in 1969. It was a Luna E-8-5 spacecraft, the first of at least eleven to be launched. It was intended to perform a soft landing on the Moon, collect a sample of lunar soil, and return it to the Earth. It was, along with Luna 15, one of two unsuccessful missions which
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