Shi Jingtang [SEP] spouse
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Shi Chonggui


Shi Chong'ai (石重乂). As another son of Shi Jingtang's, Shi Chonggao (石重杲), had died in childhood, all that were left of Shi Jingtang's sons at this point, other than Shi Chonggui, was Shi Chongrui (石重睿). Later in 937, Shi Jingtang summoned Shi Chonggui to then-capital Kaifeng, and made him an imperial guard general. In 938, he made Shi Chonggui the mayor of Kaifeng and created him the Prince of Zheng. In late 941, Shi Jingtang, in
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Shi Jingtang


was skeptical of this account of Shi Jingtang's ancestry, and instead merely gave Nieliji's name, further stating that it was unclear when or how he received the surname of Shi. Shi Jingtang was born in 892, during the reign of Emperor Zhaozong of Tang, in Taiyuan. His mother was stated to be a Lady He, and it was not stated whether she was Shi Shaoyong's wife or concubine. (However, after he later became emperor, Shi Jingtang honored Shi Shaoyong's concubine Lady Liu, first as
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Shi Chonggui


governor ("Jiedushi") of a number of circuits during the time of Jin's successor state Later Tang, Shi Jingtang took him to the various circuits and gave him responsibilities. It was said that his appearance was similar to Shi Jingtang, but he was shorter in stature. Other than Shi Chonggui, Shi Jingtang had six other sons, five of whom were biological. After Shi Jingtang received the command of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered at Taiyuan) in 932, late in the reign of Li Siyuan as Later
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Shi Chonggui


) During the subsequent siege of Taiyuan by the Later Tang general Zhang Jingda, Shi Chonggui personally helped to guard Shi Jingtang. Subsequently, a relief army from Khitan Empire's Emperor Taizong came to Shi Jingtang's aid and crushed Zhang's army, allowing the siege on Taiyuan to be lifted. Emperor Taizong subsequently declared Shi Jingtang to be the emperor of central China (as the founder of a new state of Later Jin). Shortly after Shi Jingtang's being proclaimed emperor, the Later Tang army, trapped by the Khitan
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Shi Chonggui


At the advice of the chancellor He Ning, Shi Jingtang left a number of signed, blank edicts, so that Shi Chonggui could react quickly if An Congjin did rebel. When An Congjin did rebel after Shi Jingtang left Kaifeng, Shi Chonggui was thus able to commission the necessary generals, with Gao Xingzhou in overall command, to attack An Congjin. Shortly after, Shi Jingtang summoned Shi Chonggui to Yedu and made the defender of Yedu, Li Dechong (李德珫), the defender of Kaifeng. After Shi Chonggui arrived at
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Shi Chonggui


Jingtang rose in rebellion against then-Later Tang emperor Li Congke (Li Siyuan's adoptive son and Shi Jingtang's brother-in-law). As a result, a number of Shi Jingtang's relatives, including two sons, were executed by Li Congke. (The two sons were recorded in the "New History of the Five Dynasties" as Shi Chongying (石重英) and Shi Chongyin (石重胤), and in the "Zizhi Tongjian" as Shi Chongyin (石重殷) and Shi Chongyi (石重裔).
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Zhao Yanshou


Liao cause. Shi Jingtang died in 942, and was succeeded by his nephew Shi Chonggui. Shi Chonggui immediately took a more confrontational stance toward Liao, as opposed to the submissive stance that Shi Jingtang took. (In particular, while Shi Jingtang submitted petitions to Emperor Taizong (showing himself to be a subject), he also referred to himself as "subject" and "son" when communicating with Emperor Taizong, whom he referred to as "father," while Shi Chonggui wrote letters (i.e., not as a
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Consort Dowager An


intended that his only surviving son Shi Chongrui (石重睿) inherit the throne and had entrusted Shi Chongrui to the senior chancellor Feng Dao, but Feng, in consultation with the imperial guard general Jing Yanguang, believed that the state needed an older emperor, and therefore supported Shi Chonggui, then the Prince of Qi, to succeed Shi Jingtang. Shi Chonggui honored Shi Jingtang's wife Empress Li as empress dowager (and Shi Jingtang's mother or stepmother Empress Dowager Liu as grand empress dowager), but did not immediately honor his
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Shi Jingtang


Daliang, Shi, under the advice of He Ning, left his nephew Shi Chonggui in charge of Daliang with authority to immediately commission generals to act against An Congjin. In winter 941, hearing that Shi Jingtang had left Daliang for Yedu, An Congjin rebelled. Shi Conggui immediately, under authority previously given to him by Shi Jingtang, commissioned the general Gao Xingzhou to assume overall command against An Congjin. Upon hearing of An Congjin's rebellion, An Chongrong also rebelled, and Shi sent Du Chongwei against him. Gao quickly
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Sang Weihan


Circuit (晉昌, headquartered in modern Xi'an, Shaanxi). In 942, Shi Jingtang fell seriously ill. He initially entrusted his young (and only surviving) son Shi Chongrui (石重睿) to the chancellor Feng Dao, intending to have Shi Chongrui succeed him. After Shi Jingtang's death, Feng, in consultation with the imperial guard general Jing Yanguang, decided to declare Shi Jingtang's adoptive son and biological nephew Shi Chonggui the Prince of Qi as emperor, because they believed that the state needed an older emperor.
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Shi Chonggui


/Later Jin forces, surrendered after Zhang Jingda's deputy Yang Guangyuan assassinated Zhang. Emperor Taizong and Shi Jingtang prepared to advance south, toward the Later Tang capital Luoyang. Shi Jingtang was prepared to leave one son at Taiyuan to serve as the titular defender, and he called out all of his sons for Emperor Taizong to choose. Emperor Taizong chose Shi Chonggui, stating, "This large-eyed child can be it." Shi Jingtang thereafter left Shi Chonggui in charge at Taiyuan, giving him the titles of defender
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Liu Zhiyuan


failed. At this time, Shi Jingtang was very ill. He intended to have his only surviving biological son, Shi Chongrui (石重睿), succeed him, and have Feng be the chief chancellor for Shi Chongrui in the coming administration. As part of what he planned, he also drafted an order summoning Liu from Hedong to assist. However, Shi Jingtang's biological nephew and adoptive son Shi Chonggui the Prince of Qi suppressed that order and did not have it actually issued. When Shi Jingtang died shortly after, Feng
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Shi Chonggui


of the northern capital (i.e., Taiyuan), mayor of Taiyuan, and military governor of Hedong. Subsequently, as the joint Khitan/Later Jin forces approached Luoyang, Li Congke, finding the situation hopeless, committed suicide with his family, ending Later Tang. Shi JIngtang then entered Luoyang unopposed. Still, the realm was not calmed, and in one of the rebellions against Shi Jingtang in 937, the general Zhang Congbin (張從賓) killed two more sons of Shi Jingtang's, Shi Chongxin (石重信) and
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Shi Jingtang


consort dowager, and then as empress dowager, suggesting the possibility that Lady He was Shi Shaoyong's wife and Shi Jingtang's "legal" mother, but that Lady Liu was his birth mother.) In his youth, Shi Jingtang was said to be quiet and stern. He studied the military strategies and particularly tried to take after Li Mu and Zhou Yafu. The region that Li Keyong ruled subsequently became the state of Jin after Tang's fall in 907 (as Li Keyong carried the Tang-bestowed title of Prince
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Consort Dowager An


, Shi Jingtang. In 936, Shi Jingtang, then a Later Tang general, rebelled against Later Tang's final emperor Li Congke and founded Later Jin. He, with aid from Later Tang's northern rival Khitan Empire's Emperor Taizong, then destroyed Later Tang and took over its territory. In 938, he created Shi Chonggui the Prince of Zheng. At some point (presumably around that time), Lady An was created the Lady of Qin. In 942, Shi Jingtang died. Before his death, he had
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Empress Dowager Liu (Later Jin)


Empress Dowager Liu (劉太后, personal name unknown) (d. August 24, 942) was an empress dowager of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period state Later Jin. Little is known about her background, including her birth date, location, or ethnicity. She was a concubine of Shi Shaoyong (石紹雍), the father of Later Jin's founding emperor Shi Jingtang. She was not stated to be Shi Jingtang's mother, as Shi Jingtang's mother was described to be a Lady He, although it is
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Empress Feng (Later Jin)


Lady Zhang, who had carried the title of Lady of Wei.) Sometime after Shi Jingtang died in 942, he married her — even before Shi Jingtang was buried, displeasing Shi Jingtang's wife Empress Dowager Li, but who could do nothing about it — even though he claimed to have married her with the empress dowager's agreement. In 943, he created her empress. After Empress Feng became empress, she was substantially involved in Shi Chonggui's governance. Further, her older brother Feng Yu was elevated to be
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Shi Chonggui


the Fenyang Neighborhood (汾陽里) of Taiyuan, during the rule of Li Cunxu the Prince of Jin. His father was Shi Jingru (石敬儒), and his mother was Lady An, likely Shi Jingru's wife. Shi Jingru served as a cavalry officer under Li Cunxu, but died early, so Shi Jingru's brother Shi Jingtang, a son-in-law of Li Cunxu's adoptive brother and major general Li Siyuan, adopted Shi Chonggui as a son. During later times when Shi Jingtang served as a military
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Du Chongwei


. Shi Jingtang died later in 942, and was succeeded by his adoptive son and biological nephew (biological son of his older brother Shi Jingru (石敬儒)) Shi Chonggui — who was therefore a nephew by marriage of Du Chongwei's. (During Shi Chonggui's reign, Du Chongwei became known as Du Wei, to observe naming taboo for Shi Chonggui.) Instead of the submissive stance that Shi Jingtang took toward Khitan (which had renamed its state Liao by this point), Shi Chonggui, at the advice of
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Jing Yanguang


son Shi Chongrui (石重睿) to the senior chancellor Feng Dao, intending that Feng support Shi Chongrui in succeeding to the throne. However, after Shi Jingtang died shortly after, Feng discussed the matter with Jing, and they decided that as the realm was troubled at the time, the state needed an older emperor. They thus supported Shi Jingtang's biological nephew and adoptive son Shi Chonggui the Prince of Qi as emperor. It was said that Jing Yanguang considered Shi Chonggui's ascension to the throne to be his doing,
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Empress Li (Later Jin)


said that Shi Chonggui served both Empress Dowager Li and Consort Dowager An diligently, often attending to them at their meals. However, he displeased her by marrying the widow of his uncle/brother Shi Chongyin (石重胤) (Shi Jingtang's biological brother and therefore Shi Chonggui's biological uncle, but whom Shi Jingtang adopted at his own son (as he did Shi Chonggui) and therefore was an adoptive brother), Lady Feng, as his wife and empress. Empress Feng became quite powerful in Shi Chonggui's administration,
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Shi Jingtang


to Chengde's capital Zhen Prefecture (鎮州). In spring 942, an officer of An Chongrong's opened up the city and surrendered; the imperial forces then entered and put An Chongrong to death. (An Congjin, however, would not be defeated until after Shi Jingtang's death.) Meanwhile, Shi fell ill. He entrusted his young (and only surviving, by this point) son Shi Chongrui to Feng Dao, wanting Feng to support Shi Chongrui in succeeding to the throne. After his death in summer
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Shi Chonggui


Yedu, Shi Jingtang made him the defender of Yedu and changed his princely title to Prince of Qi. Both An Chongrong and An Congjin were subsequently defeated; An Chongrong was killed by his subordinates, while An Congjin committed suicide. In summer 942, Shi Jingtang fell seriously ill. He summoned the senior chancellor Feng Dao, and then had Shi Chongrui come out to bow to Feng, and then put Shi Chongrui into Feng's lap, intending to show that he wanted Shi Chongrui to inherit the throne with Feng guiding the
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Shi Chonggui


mourning period for Shi Jingtang, married his deceased biological uncle/adoptive brother Shi Chongyin (石重胤)'s widow, Lady Feng, as his wife. He subsequently created Lady Feng empress. As Jing Yanguang was considered instrumental in Shi Chonggui's ascending to the throne, Jing, who was made a chancellor, became highly influential early in his administration. Under Jing's advocacy, Shi Chonggui abandoned Shi Jingtang's respectful subservience to the Khitan (whose state had since been renamed Liao) and took a more defiant stance. As
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Du Chongwei


Du Chongwei (杜重威) (d. March 13, 948), known as Du Wei (杜威) during the reign of Shi Chonggui, was a major general of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period state Later Jin, as a brother-in-law to its founding emperor Shi Jingtang and uncle to Shi Jingtang's successor (adoptive son and biological nephew) Shi Chonggui. He, however, would betray Shi Chonggui and surrender to Later Jin's rival, the Khitan state Liao's Emperor Taizong, hoping that
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Zhang Yanze


in noble title, while Zhang Shi's father, brothers, and sons were given commissions, and the people of Zhangyi who fled and returned were given tax relief. Shi Jingtang died later in 942, and was succeeded by his adoptive son (biological nephew) Shi Chonggui. Instead of the submissive attitude that Shi Jingtang showed toward the Khitan (whose state had been renamed Liao by this point), Shi Chonggui took a confrontational attitude, leading to a breakdown in relationship and frequent Liao incursions thereafter. Apparently at the behest
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Liu Xu


, the general Zhang Congbin (張從賓) rose at Luoyang (which was no longer capital at that point — Kaifeng was) in support of Fan and killed Shi's sons Shi Chongxin (石重信) the military governor of Heyang Circuit (河陽, headquartered in modern Jiaozuo, Henan) and Shi Chong'ai (石重乂) the acting defender of Luoyang, whom Shi Jingtang left in charge of the region. After Zhang's rebellion was suppressed shortly after, Shi Jingtang made Liu Xu the defender of Luoyang and the acting mayor of Henan
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Consort Dowager Wang


Jingtang died in 942, and was succeeded as emperor by his nephew Shi Chonggui. After Shi Chonggui's succession, Consort Dowager Wang and Li Congyi returned to Luoyang and took up residence there. In contrast to Shi Jingtang's view of Khitan's Emperor Taizong (who had changed the name of his state to Liao by this point) as a benefactor — going as far as referring to himself as "Son Emperor" and "subject" while honoring Emperor Taizong as "Father Emperor" — Shi Chonggui, at the advice
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Feng Yu


Shi Jingtang to rebel.) In fall 946, there were rumors that Zhao Yanshou, a major general of Later Jin's northern neighbor Liao — whose Emperor Taizong had been instrumental in Shi Jingtang's success in overthrowing Later Tang but with whom Shi Chonggui had engaged in wars — was planning to defect to Later Jin. Feng and Li Song (who was by this point also chief of staff) believed the rumors, and had Shi Chonggui's uncle-by-marriage Du Wei the military governor of Tianxiong Circuit (天雄
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Dou Zhengu


mourning period was over, he was made an assistant to Shi Jingtang the military governor ("Jiedushi") of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi). Shi considered Dou to be an honest official, and thus viewed him highly. In 936, Shi Jingtang, with aid from the Khitan Empire, rebelled against then-Later Tang emperor Li Congke (Li Siyuan's adoptive son and Shi's brother-in-law) and established Later Jin. In his nascent government, he made Dou
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Shi Hongzhao


able to cover 200 "Li" in a day. Toward the end of Later Liang, there was a conscription where every seven households were to contribute one soldier. Shi Hongzhao was conscripted at that time. He was later placed in the Kaidao Corps (開道) of Zheng Prefecture (鄭州), which Yingze belonged to, and yet later made a soldier of the Later Liang imperial guards. During the time of the subsequent Later Tang, he once served under the general Shi Jingtang, and Shi Jingtang kept him as
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Empress Cao (Li Siyuan's wife)


. Empress Dowager Cao continued to be empress dowager. After what had occurred, Shi Jingtang remained at Luoyang for some time and did not dare to speak of returning to Hedong, because there had a long-time rivalry previously between Li Congke and Shi when both were serving under Li Siyuan, and because Li Congke knew that Shi had initially intended to support Li Conghou. However, both Empress Dowager Cao and Shi Jingtang's wife the Princess of Wei often spoke in defense of Shi. Li Congke's associates who came to
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Empress Feng (Later Jin)


became the defender of Yedu in 928, he became friendly with Feng Meng, and decided to take Feng Meng's daughter as the wife for his younger brother Shi Chongyin, whom he had adopted as a son. Shi Chongyin died early, however, and Lady Feng became widowed. (Two of Shi Jingtang's sons were executed by Later Tang's final emperor Li Congke (Li Siyuan's adoptive son) when Shi Jingtang rebelled against Li Congke in 936, but the historical sources are in discord as to the identities of
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Feng Yu


the director of salt and iron monopolies. (It is unclear whether Feng Yu's progression of offices would be still during Later Tang, or after Shi Jingtang had overthrown Later Tang and founded Later Jin as its emperor.) In 942, Shi Jingtang died and was succeeded as emperor by his adoptive son (biological nephew) Shi Chonggui. Shi Chonggui had long been attracted to Feng Yu's sister Lady Feng, and married her shortly after succeeding to the throne. In 943, he further created her empress. She soon
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Shi Jingtang


Liao's adopted son (even though he was 10 years older) but also yielding the strategically crucial Sixteen Prefectures to Liao after his rise to power — an event that would shape the Chinese political landscape for the next 200 years. Shi Jingtang was likely of Shatuo descent. The official history "Old History of the Five Dynasties" stated that his family was originally descended from Shi Que (石碏), an official of the Spring and Autumn period state Wey, through the Han prime minister Shi Fen (石奮), and
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Shi Jingtang


of Jin), and after Li Keyong's death in 908, Li Cunxu succeeded him as the Prince of Jin, in rivalry with Tang's main successor state Later Liang. Li Cunxu subsequently made his adoptive brother (Li Keyong's adoptive son) Li Siyuan, a major general, the prefect of Dai Prefecture (代州, in modern Shuozhou, Shanxi). While Li Siyuan served as the prefect of Dai, he became impressed with Shi Jingtang and gave his Empress Li to Shi in marriage. Shi subsequently served under
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Shi Jingtang


Wei, while Shi himself and his followers continued on to Luoyang (to offer their allegiance to Li Congke). Shi's mother-in-law Empress Dowager Cao issued an edict deposing Li Conghou and ordering Li Congke to take the throne, and Li Congke did. He then sent an emissary to force Li Conghou to commit suicide; when Li Conghou refused, he was strangled to death. Li Congke's quick victory over Li Conghou left Shi Jingtang in a precarious spot – because it was obvious that he was initially
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Jing Yanguang


them himself. Even though Sang Weihan (who negotiated the original alliance between Shi Jingtang and Emperor Taizong) repeatedly suggested that Shi Chonggui revert to subservience to Liao to avoid a war, Jing repeatedly stopped Shi from doing so. Meanwhile, while Shi Jingtang was alive, he had lent 300 horses from the imperial guards corps to Yang Guangyuan the military governor of Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern Weifang, Shandong). Jing demanded them back. Yang became angry and believed that the imperial government was suspecting him, and
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Zhang Yanze


's son-in-law Shi Jingtang, as suggested by the "New History of the Five Dynasties"; the "Zizhi Tongjian" suggested, instead, that the political alliance by marriage was with the family of another general, Yang Guangyuan.) In 936, Shi Jingtang, with military support from Khitan Empire's Emperor Taizong, overthrew then-ruling Later Tang emperor Li Congke and established his own state of Later Jin. Shi made Zhang Yanze the prefect of Cao Prefecture (曹州, in modern Heze, Shandong
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Yang Guangyuan


general. Shi Jingtang died later in 942 and was succeeded as emperor by his nephew Shi Chonggui the Prince of Qi, who was supported in the succession by the general Jing Yanguang and the chancellor Feng Dao. As a result, early in his reign, Jing became powerful. Late in 943, there was an occasion when Jing ordered Yang Guangyuan to return 300 horses that Shi Jingtang had lent from the imperial guard corps to the Pinglu army. Yang believed that this move was targeting him and became angry. He secretly summoned
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Li Gu (Later Zhou)


imperial censor with the title of "Jiancha Yushi" (監察御史). When Shi Chonggui, the nephew of the founding emperor Shi Jingtang (Li Siyuan's son-in-law), served as the mayor of then-capital Kaifeng, Li Gu served as an assistant to him, as well as "Taichang Cheng" (太常丞), the secretary general of the ministry of worship. Subsequently, when Shi Jingtang himself took up residence at Yedu (鄴都, in modern Handan, Hebei) for some time and
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Shi Jingtang


the rest of the Shatuo people under Zhuye, in Tang territory. Shi Jingtang's father Nieliji (臬捩雞), who was referred to by the Han Chinese name Shi Shaoyong (石紹雍), was said to be a successful general under Zhuye Zhiyi's grandson Li Keyong, who was an important late-Tang warlord, and Li Keyong's son Li Cunxu, who ruled the independent state of Jin after Tang's fall. The other official history for the period, the "New History of the Five Dynasties", apparently
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Consort Dowager An


Consort Dowager An (安太妃, personal name unknown) (died 949) was the mother of Shi Chonggui, the second and final emperor of the Chinese Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period state Later Jin. As he inherited his throne from his uncle (Lady An's brother-in-law) Shi Jingtang, he honored Shi Jingtang's wife Empress Li empress dowager, leaving Lady An with the lesser title of consort dowager. After Later Jin's destruction by the Khitan state Liao, she followed him into exile deep in
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Shi Jingtang


in which Li Siyuan played a prominent role. Shi Jingtang and Li Congke both had battlefield accomplishments during the campaign, but Shi did not receive prominent honors as his contributions were not well-known — according to traditional accounts, because he did not like to brag about them. Li Siyuan, however, was aware of his contributions. By 926, however, Li Cunxu's state, which had also destroyed and annexed Former Shu, was thrown into chaos due to his misrule — as, while a fierce general, he
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Shi Jingtang


serving as military governor), but died before Li Conghou arrived at Luoyang. Li Conghou subsequently arrived and took the throne. Upon Li Conghou's assumption of the throne, he gave Shi Jingtang the greater honorary chancellor title of "Zhongshu Ling" (中書令). As Zhu Hongzhao and Feng Yun considered themselves responsible for Li Conghou's succession to the throne, they retained power as chiefs of staff after he took the throne. As both Shi and Li Congke had great battlefield accomplishments under Li Siyuan, they were apprehensive of
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Shi Jingtang


live) and a number of officers still loyal to him, and committed suicide by immolation on Xuanwu Tower (玄武樓) inside the palace. Shi subsequently entered Luoyang and assumed control over the Later Tang realm. The local military governors throughout the Later Tang realm initially all formally submitted to Shi Jingtang. Among them was Fan Yanguang, who, however, felt insecure in his position as the military governor of Tianxiong, and who also had ambitions to be emperor, and therefore was considering rebelling. Realizing that Fan was considering doing
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Li Congyi


Dowager Cao, Li Congke, Li Congke's immediate family members, and a number of officers loyal to him committed suicide by fire. Shi arrived at Luoyang shortly after and took over the realm. After Later Jin's takeover of Later Tang territory, Shi Jingtang created Li Congyi's sister, the Later Tang Princess of Jin, empress. The empress took Li Congyi and Consort Dowager Wang into the palace, personally raised Li Congyi, and honored Consort Dowager Wang like a mother. In 939, Shi Jingtang created Li Congyi
14632544
Taiyuan


, Li Cunxu, son of Li Keyong, founded Later Tang with capital of Daming, and soon conquered most of North China, and ended Later Liang. Afterwards, Li Cunxu moved the capital from Daming to Luoyang, and Taiyuan was set as a provisional capital, titled "Beijing" ("Northern Capital"). In 936, Shi Jingtang established Later Jin in Taiyuan with the help from Khitan Liao dynasty. The next year, Shi Jingtang moved the capital from Taiyuan to Luoyang, and then to Kaifeng, and
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Five Dynasties


by the Liao dynasty in a rebellion against the dynasty. In return for their aid, Shi Jingtang promised annual tribute and the Sixteen Prefectures (modern northern Hebei and Beijing) to the Khitans. The rebellion succeeded; Shi Jingtang became emperor in this same year. Not long after the founding of the Later Jin, the Khitans regarded the emperor as a proxy ruler for China proper. In 943, the Khitans declared war and within three years seized the capital, Kaifeng, marking the end of Later Jin. But while they
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Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period


rebellion against the Later Tang. In return for their aid, Shi Jingtang promised annual tribute and the Sixteen Prefectures (modern northern Hebei and Beijing) to the Khitans. The rebellion succeeded; Shi Jingtang became emperor in this same year. Not long after the founding of the Later Jin, the Khitans came to regard the emperor as a proxy ruler for China proper. In 943, the Khitans declared war and within three years seized the capital, Kaifeng, marking the end of Later Jin. But while they had conquered vast
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Liao dynasty


Emperor Mo of Later Tang). Prince Bei, who was still an honored guest at the Tang court at the time, wrote to his brother Emperor Taizong (Yelü Deguang), advising him to invade the Tang. Instead, Taizong lent military support to a rebellion led by Shi Jingtang, a Tang governor and son-in-law of the former Emperor Mingzong. With Khitan help, in 936 Shi Jingtang succeeded in replacing the Later Tang with his own Later Jin. After some negotiation with the more powerful Khitans,
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Yelü Bei


-law Shi Jingtang the military governor of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi) might rebel and enlist Khitan aid in doing so, had his officials Li Song and Lü Qi (呂琦) draft a plan under which such an alliance would occur — but then abandoned the plan. Later in the year, Shi Jingtang did rebel, and Later Tang forces was initially successful in advancing to Hedong's capital Taiyuan Municipality and putting it under siege. However, they were thereafter crushed by aid troops that Emperor
17739212
Military history of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms


of Qi submitted to Later Tang in 923. In 925, Later Tang conquered Former Shu. Li Cunxu was killed in the next year during a rebellion by one of his officers, and his adopted son Li Siyuan succeeded him. In 936, Li Cunxu's son-in-law, Shi Jingtang, rebelled with the aid of the Khitans and overthrew Later Tang, forming his own Later Jin dynasty. In return for their aid in toppling the Later Tang dynasty, Shi Jingtang turned over Sixteen Prefectures to the Khitans.
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Nanjing (Liao dynasty)


the Khitan leader Yelü Abaoji declared himself emperor in Shangjing (modern-day Baarin Left Banner, Inner Mongolia) in 918 and began to expand southward. In 936, his son, Yelü Deguang renamed their dynasty, Liao, and in 938 helped Shi Jingtang, a Shatuo Turk general overthrow the Later Tang dynasty and found the Later Jìn dynasty. In exchange for Liao military assistance, Shi Jingtang ceded the Sixteen Prefectures along the Great Wall to the Liao. The Liao then made the two principal cities acquired, Youzhou (modern
21278861
Li Jinquan


), cried out before his execution: "If you, commander, contravene imperial rescripts to kill surrendering soldiers, then you may not escape peril yourself!" Even though Shi Jingtang heard about Li's disobedience, he could not do anything. Instead, to appease Li, he appointed him military commissioner of Anyuan on 11 October 937. In Anyuan, Li Jinquan entrusted a greedy and immoral man named Hu Hanyun (胡漢筠) with the day-to-day operations of the military and government. After Shi Jingtang heard
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Shi Jingtang


and claimed the title of regent. Li Siyuan appeared to be initially hesitant to take the throne himself, as at that time, Li Cunxu's son Li Jiji the Prince of Wei, who had been the commander of the army that destroyed Former Shu, was returning from the Shu lands and heading toward Luoyang with his army, and he initially signaled support for Li Jiji. However, after apparently concluding that he would not be tolerated if Li Jiji became emperor, he sent Shi Jingtang and Li Congke to take up defensive
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History of Beijing


The nomadic Khitan people were united under Yelü Abaoji, who founded the Liao dynasty in 907 and, from 917 to 928, tried seven times to take Youzhou. In 936, a rift in the Later Tang court allowed Yelü Abaoji to help another Shatuo Turk general Shi Jingtang found the third of the Five Dynasties, the Later Jin. Shi Jingtang then ceded sixteen prefectures across the northern frontier including Youzhou, Shunzhou (modern Shunyi), Tanzhou (modern Changping) and Ruzhou (modern Yanqing) to the Khitans' Liao dynasty
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Shi Jingtang


石重英) and Shi Chongyin (石重胤), and in the "Zizhi Tongjian" as Shi Chongyin (石重殷) and Shi Chongyi (石重裔).) In 935, there was an incident in which, when the imperial envoy was at the front to review Shi's army and to deliver the imperially-bestowed supplies to the army, the soldiers began to chant, "May you live 10,000 years!" at Shi — a chant that should be reserved for the emperor. Shi became fearful, and under the advice
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Wang Jianli


), referring to his executing people so much that the bodies stacked up. Later, when he heard that Li Congke was near defeat when his brother-in-law (Li Siyuan's son-in-law) Shi Jingtang rebelled against him, he took the chance to kill his deputy military governor Wang Yanyun (王彥贇) and a secretary, both of whom he disliked. This caused people to view him even more negatively. After Shi Jingtang successfully overthrew Li Congke and established his own Later Jin as its emperor
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Shi Jingtang


Shi Jingtang (石敬瑭) (30 March 892 – 28 July 942), also known by his temple name Gaozu (高祖), was the founding emperor of imperial China's short-lived Later Jin during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, reigning from 936 until his death. Likely of Shatuo descent ethnically, he was an important military general for the Later Tang before rebelling in 936. To overthrow Later Tang he enlisted the help of the Khitan-ruled Liao state, not only humiliating himself as Emperor Taizong of
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Shi Jingtang


Emperor Taizong as "father emperor" while referring to himself as "son emperor." He also fostered relationships with high level Khitan generals and officials by giving them gifts and using humble words toward them. This caused the Later Jin officials and commoners to both feel humiliated, but was also credited by historians as what preserved the peace between Later Jin and Liao during his reign. In summer 940, when Shi Jingtang tried to have Li Jinquan the military governor of Anyuan Circuit (安遠, headquartered in modern Xiaogan, Hubei)
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Shi Chonggui


Tang's emperor, he had one Wang Zhen (王震) teach Shi Chonggui about the "Book of Rites", but Shi Chonggui was unable to understand it, stating to Wang, "This is not relevant to my family's business." While Shi Jingtang held the Hedong command, he had Shi Chonggui marry the oldest daughter of the general Zhang Congxun (張從訓). (Lady Zhang would pass away sometime before Shi Chonggui eventually became emperor, but it is not otherwise clear when.) In 936, Shi
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Shi Jingtang


the military governor of Lulong Circuit (盧龍, headquartered in modern Beijing). As Shi had recently been ill and appeared frail, Li Congke decided that he needed not be concerned with Shi as a potential threat, and therefore thereafter agreed to let him return to Hedong, stating, "Master Shi is not only a close relative, but had also shared all difficulties of mine when we grew up. Now I am the Son of Heaven; who else can I depend on but Master Shi?" (Shi, and
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Consort Dowager An


defeating and forcing the surrender of the Later Jin general Du Wei (the husband of a sister of Shi Jingru's and Shi Jingtang's), advanced on then-Later Jin capital Kaifeng. Shi Chonggui surrendered, ending Later Jin. Emperor Taizong then prepared to send him and his family into exile, deep in desolate Liao proper. Consort Dowager An was said to be old and blind at that point, but was sent into exile with him, Empress Dowager Li, his wife Empress Feng, Shi Chongrui, and Shi
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Shi Jingtang


. As Shi was still apprehensive that Li Congke might be suspicious of him, Shi maintained an information network at Luoyang to keep himself informed of the emperor's actions — the network included two of Shi's own sons, who served in the imperial guards (whose names were variously recorded, and one of whom might have been a brother whom he adopted as a son), and the servants of Empress Dowager Cao. (The two sons were recorded in the "New History of the Five Dynasties" as Shi Chongying (
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Shi Chonggui


Shi Chonggui sent the general Li Shouzhen against Yang, and subsequently, faced with certain defeat but with Yang unwilling to surrender, Yang's son Yang Chengxun (楊承勳) forcibly put Yang Guangyuan under arrest and surrendered. (Yang Guangyuan was subsequently secretly killed on Shi Chonggui's orders.) In late 944, Liao again made a major invasion, advancing all the way to the Yedu region, but soon withdrew again. Shi decided to have his uncle by marriage, Du Wei (husband of Shi Jingtang's and Shi Jingru
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Empress Feng (Later Jin)


those two sons. The "Old History of the Five Dynasties" and the "New History of the Five Dynasties" gave their identities as Shi Chongyin and Shi Chongying (石重英), thus indicating that was when Shi Chongyin was killed, widowing Lady Feng; the "Zizhi Tongjian" gave their identities as Shi Chongyin (石重殷, note different character) and Shi Chongyi (石重裔), which, if accurate, makes it unclear when Lady Feng was widowed.) Regardless, after Shi Jingtang subsequently (with aid from
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Li Shouzhen


military governorship was moved to Guide Circuit (歸德, headquartered in modern Shangqiu, Henan). In late 945, Shi stationed Li Shouzhen and his army at Chan Prefecture (澶州, in modern Puyang, Henan), to defend against another potential Liao attack. Meanwhile, still resentful of Sang, Li Shouzhen, along with Shi's close associates Feng Yu (the brother of Shi's wife Empress Feng) and Li Yantao (李彥韜), falsely accused Sang of plotting to have Shi replaced with Shi Jingtang's son Shi
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Shi Jingtang


Liu Zhiyuan and Sang Weihan advocated resistance. Accepting Liu and Sang's suggestion, Shi issued a declaration calling for Li Congke, whom he claimed to be an inappropriate person to be emperor as merely an "adoptive" son, to abdicate the throne and pass it to Li Siyuan's youngest biological son Li Congyi the Prince of Xu. Li Congke, in anger, stripped Shi of his titles and declared a general campaign against Shi. He also arrested Shi's sons, as well as his younger brother Shi Jingde (石敬德
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Sang Weihan


In 942, Shi Chonggui recalled Sang Weihan from Jinchang to again be chancellor, with the title of "Shizhong". Sang was also put in charge of editing the imperial history. Because of his being instrumental in Shi Chonggui's becoming emperor, Jing was very powerful early in Shi Chonggui's reign as both chancellor and the commander of the imperial guards, and under his advocacy, Shi Chonggui turned away from Shi Jingtang's submissive posture toward Liao, and took a confrontational stance, taking the position that while personally, he
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Consort Dowager An


Chonggui's adoptive sons (Shi Jingtang's biological grandsons) Shi Yanxu (石延煦) and Shi Yanbao (石延寶). (Emperor Taizong extended Empress Dowager Li an offer not to be exiled, but she declined, choosing to share Shi Chonggui's fate; Consort Dowager An was not said to have been given such an offer.) In 949, by which time Liao was ruled by Emperor Taizong's nephew Emperor Shizong, the Shi household had settled at Liaoyang (遼陽, in modern Liaoyang, Liaoning), but was
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Shi Jingtang


so, in spring 937, under Sang Weihan's advice, Shi moved the capital from Luoyang to Daliang, as Daliang was closer to Tianxiong's capital (which Shi had renamed Guangjin (廣晉)) and, upon the expected revolt by Fan, he would be able to react much more quickly. Fan rebelled in summer 937. Shi mobilized his army against Fan, with the main armies under Yang Guangyuan and Shi's brother-in-law Du Chongwei. The central Later Jin realm was, for a time,
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Empress Li (Later Jin)


Shi Chongrui to the senior chancellor Feng Dao, intending to have Feng support Shi Chongrui to succeed him. After he died shortly after, however, Feng and the general Jing Yanguang, believing that the state needed an older emperor, supported Shi Jingtang's adoptive son (and biological nephew, as the biological son of his older brother Shi Jingru (石敬儒)) Shi Chonggui the Prince of Qi as emperor. Shi Chonggui honored Empress Li as empress dowager, and his mother Lady An of Qin as consort dowager. It was
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Shi Chonggui


of their powerful northern neighbors was vital in the formation of the Later Jin, and the cession of the Sixteen Prefectures led to their derision as being the servants of the Khitan. However, after the death of his biological uncle/adoptive father Shi Jingtang (Later Jin's founding emperor) in 942, Shi Chonggui defied Liao's Emperor Taizong, which led to the latter invading the territory of the Later Jin in 946 and 947, resulting in the destruction of the Later Jin. Shi Chonggui was born in 914, at
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Sang Weihan


there happened to be an occasion where Sang had sent a maidservant to greet Shi Jingtang's wife Empress Dowager Li, and part of the greeting stated, "Has the Emperor's younger brother, Chongrui, been studying well?" Shi Chonggui heard of this and discussed this with Feng Yu, and Feng Yu thereafter accused Sang of considering deposing Shi Chonggui and replacing him with Shi Chongrui. As the imperial general Li Shouzhen also disliked Sang, he, Feng Yu, and Li Yantao thereafter suggested that Shi Chonggui remove Sang.
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An Chongrong


his soldiers and join Shi's army. Shi was pleased, and promised him that he would be made a military governor. An subsequently served under Shi's general Liu Zhiyuan in defending Hedong's capital Taiyuan against the siege by the Later Tang general Zhang Jingda, whom Li Congke sent to attack Shi. Shi Jingtang sought aid from Later Tang's northern rival Khitan Empire, promising to cede 16 prefectures to the north to the Khitan if the Khitan would support him as the emperor of China. Khitan's Emperor Taizong agreed and
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He Ning


) Shi Chonggui the Prince of Zheng, whom Shi left in charge of Kaifeng, so that when An Congjin did rebel, Shi Chonggui could react quickly and commission appropriate generals to counterattack. Shi Jingtang agreed. Subsequently, when An Congjin did rebel, Shi Chonggui was quickly able to mobilize a number of generals to command the imperial army against him, with Gao Xingzhou in overall command. An Congjin was quickly defeated and forced to return to Shannan East's capital Xiang Prefecture (襄州) to defend it, and later committed
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Li Tao (Five Dynasties)


while also serving as an assistant to the director of salt and iron monopolies specifically dealing with salt monopoly. In 941, there was an infamous incident where Zhang Yanze the military governor of Zhangyi Circuit (彰義, headquartered in modern Pingliang, Gansu) executed his secretary Zhang Shi (張式) cruelly and, after Zhang Shi's death, took Zhang Shi's wife as a concubine. After Zhang Shi's father Zhang Duo (張鐸) went to Shi Jingtang's then-location Yedu (鄴都, i.e., Tianxiong's capital
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Shi Hongzhao


a personal guard. After Shi Jingtang later became emperor of the succeeding state of Later Jin, Shi Hongzhao became an officer in the imperial guard's Konghe Corps (控鶴). When the major general Liu Zhiyuan became the military governor ("Jiedushi") of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi) in 941, he requested that Shi Hongzhao be assigned to him, and he promoted Shi Hongzhao to be an officer of his headquarter guards. Later, when he established the two Wujie Corps (武節
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Shi Hongzhao


Jin's emperor Shi Chonggui (Shi Jingtang's nephew and successor), whom Liao troops were delivering to Liao proper, and he had Shi Hongzhao gather them and inform them of that. The soldiers wanted Liu to take the throne immediately, but Liu declined at that time. Shortly after, Liu declared himself emperor — and while he did not initially declare a name for his state, it would later be known as Later Han. He sent Shi to attack Dai Prefecture (代州, in modern Xinzhou, Shanxi),
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Shi Jingtang


), and put them to death. Shi's cousin Shi Jingwei (石敬威) committed suicide. Li Congke commissioned Zhang Jingda to lead the imperial troops against Shi, and Zhang quickly put Taiyuan under siege, but was unable to capture it quickly, with Liu defending the city capably. Shi had Sang write a letter requesting aid from Khitan's Emperor Taizong, promising that if Emperor Taizong agreed to support him as emperor, he would cede 16 prefectures to the north (the entire Lulong Circuit and the northern prefectures of Hedong
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Shi Chonggui


an initial sign of that defiance, Shi Chonggui's did not submit a "report" to Emperor Taizong of his succession, but instead wrote a "letter" (indicating equal status and not subservience) in which he referred to himself as "grandson" (as Shi Jingtang had earlier honored Emperor Taizong as "father") but not as "your subject." This angered Emperor Taizong, who sent emissaries to rebuke Shi Chonggui, but to whom Jing responded insolently. The major Khitan general Zhao Yanshou, who had
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Liu Zhiyuan


Yellow River that Li Cunxu was trying to enlarge. During the battle, Li Siyuan's son-in-law Shi Jingtang, who served as one of the commanders under him, was stricken by a Later Liang soldier, and his horse's armor was broken. Liu Zhiyuan, who was near Shi at that time, gave Shi his own armored horse, while taking Shi's horse and moving gradually, such that the Later Liang soldiers in pursuit believed that he was leading them into a trap, and broke off the
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Shi Jingtang


prefect of Wei, Wang Hongzhi (王弘贄), who advised Shi that Li Conghou's cause was hopeless. When Li Conghou's guards Sha Shourong (沙守榮) and Ben Hongjin (奔弘進) heard of this, they cursed Shi for being faithless, and Sha tried to assassinate Shi, but he and Shi's guard Chen Hui (陳暉) ended up killing each other in mutual combat. Ben committed suicide. Liu Zhiyuan then slaughtered all of Li Conghou's guards, leaving Li Conghou alone at the imperial messenger station at
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Shi Chonggui


, he became increasingly arrogant and extravagant in collecting expensive items and building palace halls, as well as awarding his favored actors, despite Sang's attempts to discourage him. At one point in 945, Shi fell seriously ill. During that time, there happened to be an occasion where Sang had sent a maidservant to greet Shi Jingtang's wife Empress Dowager Li, and part of the greeting stated, "Has the Emperor's younger brother, Chongrui, been studying well?" Shi Chonggui heard of this and discussed this with
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Jing Yanguang


and used that to become involved in the key decisions in Shi's administration. Shortly after Shi took the throne, he was made the commander of the imperial guards, as well as chancellor (with the designation "Tong Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi" (同中書門下平章事). He was also apparently given the military governorship of Tianping Circuit (天平, headquartered in modern Tai'an, Shandong), but remained at Daliang. One of the immediate diplomatic decisions was how Shi Jingtang's death and Shi Chonggui's ascension was to be reported to Khitan
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Li Song (politician)


)) later in the year, as Shi was then anticipating a rebellion by An Chongrong the military governor of Chengde. Apparently while Li was at Yedu, his father died, and he left governmental service briefly to observe a mourning period, but Shi immediately recalled him to the imperial government without a lengthy mourning period. Shi Jingtang died in summer 941 and was succeeded as emperor by his nephew Shi Chonggui the Prince of Qi. One immediate question was how the Later Jin court would report this news to Emperor Taizong (who
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Li Tao (Five Dynasties)


promising life to Zhang Yanze. But, where is Fan Yanguang's iron certificate [(i.e., promise of life)]?" (This was a reference to how Fan had rebelled against Shi but was induced into surrendering by promise of an iron certificate guaranteeing his life, but Shi had later subsequently implicitly permitted Yang to have Fan killed.) In anger, Shi walked away. Li subsequently returned to Luoyang and wrote a poem lamenting this incident. When Shi Jingtang died later in the year and was succeeded by his
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Fu Yanqing


. While Shi then issued an edict stating that Fu Yanrao's brothers would not also be punished, Fu Yanqing nevertheless submitted a resignation, which Shi declined. However, he did recall Fu Yanqing to serve as a general of the imperial guards, but later sent him back out of the capital to serve as the military governor of Baoda Circuit (保大, headquartered in modern Yan'an, Shaanxi). In 942, Shi Jingtang died, and Shi Chonggui succeeded him as emperor. Having been friendly with Fu since their youth,
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Shulü Ping


Shi Jingtang's death and succession by his nephew Shi Chonggui, Shi Chonggui took a confrontational stance against Khitan — now known as Liao — refusing to submit to Emperor Taizong as a subject, only referring to himself as "grandson." He also had Liao merchants arrested, and their assets seized. As a result, war erupted between the states. Empress Dowager Shulü was not in favor of waging war against Later Jin. As a result, Emperor Taizong entered into some peace negotiations with Shi Conggui in 945 that, however
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Fan Yanguang


's chief of staff ("Shumishi"), and subsequently continued to serve as a general. After the Later Tang's final emperor Li Congke (Li Siyuan's adoptive son) was overthrown by Li Siyuan's son-in-law Shi Jingtang, who founded Later Jin, Fan initially formally submitted, but later rebelled against Shi. His rebellion, however, was not successful, and after Shi promised to spare him, he surrendered. He was, nevertheless, later killed by Shi's general Yang Guangyuan, probably
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Shi Jingtang


When Li Siyuan subsequently sent An to the front to monitor the campaign, Shi took the opportunity to write to Li Siyuan, explaining his misgivings from the campaign, and Li Siyuan began to be convinced. Li Siyuan subsequently forced An into retirement and then killed An, and then recalled Shi's army (although Shi already began to retreat before receiving the retreat orders). Li Siyuan subsequently again made him the deputy commander of the imperial guards (by this point, serving as the deputy to another biological son of Li Siyuan
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Shi Jingtang


Why do you not stay longer? You wanted to return so quickly. Is it that you are about to rebel with Master Shi?" When she returned to Taiyuan and informed Shi, Shi became even more apprehensive. The imperial scholars Li Song and Lü Qi (呂琦) believed that the solution was to ally with the Khitan Empire. They suggested that certain previously-captured Khitan officers be released back to the Khitan; and that a certain amount of money be given to the Khitan each year. The chancellor Zhang Yanlang
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Shi Jingtang


. He also continuously provoked Liao by intercepting its emissaries and killing them. In summer 941, he issued a declaration in which he called on Shi to renounce the peace agreement with Liao and attack it to recapture the territories and peoples that Liao had previously captured, but was not yet openly breaking with Shi. In response, Shi, under Sang Weihan's advice, headed to Guangjin — since then renamed back to Yedu — to prepare for a potential campaign against An Chongrong. Anticipating that An Congjin might rebel when he left
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Shi Chonggui


young emperor. However, after Shi Jingtang subsequently died, Feng, in consultation with the imperial guard general Jing Yanguang, concluded that as the realm was not calm yet, an older emperor was needed, so they supported Shi Chonggui, who then took the throne. Shi Chonggui honored his adoptive mother Empress Li as empress dowager, and his biological mother Lady An as consort dowager. It was said that he served both of them with filial piety. However, he displeased Empress Dowager Li when he, even while observing a
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Feng Yu


benefit, such that those who wanted posts all went to his mansion to bribe him, leading to a degradation of the Later Jin governance. (Yin, as a close associate of Feng's, also took many bribes.) In winter 945, after Feng accused Sang of wanting to use Shi's then-illness to replace him with Shi Jingtang's biological son Shi Chongrui (石重睿) and Sang's other political enemies Li Yantao and Li Shouzhen compounding the accusations, Shi Chonggui deposed Sang and made him the mayor of
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Du Chongwei


936, Shi Jingtang, then the military governor of Hedong, rose against then-Later Tang emperor Li Congke (Li Siyuan's adoptive son) and, with aid from Khitan Empire's Emperor Taizong, was able to defeat Later Tang troops, causing Li Congke to commit suicide and ending Later Tang. Shi became emperor of a new state of Later Jin, formally subordinate to the Khitan. Du Chongwei's activities during the war between Li Congke and Shi were unclear, but after Shi's victory, he made Du an
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Fu Yanqing


/Hedong army. Several times Fu and Gao tried to fight out of the encirclement, but could not. Eventually, Zhang's deputy Yang Guangyuan assassinated Zhang and surrendered the Later Tang army to the Liao/Hedong army, the control over which Emperor Taizong then transferred to Shi. Thereafter, Emperor Taizong created Shi the emperor of a new Later Jin. Fu became a subject of Later Jin's. Shortly after, with Shi's army approaching Luoyang, Li Congke committed suicide, ending Later Tang. Early in Shi Jingtang
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Li Gu (Later Zhou)


left Shi Chonggui in charge at Kaifeng, Li Gu was given the additional title of "Yubu Yuanwailang" (虞部員外郎), a low-level official at the minister of public works (工部, "Gongbu"). When Shi Chonggui was subsequently made the mayor of Guangjin (廣晉, i.e., Yedu), Li followed him to Guangjin and continued to serve as his assistant. In 942, Shi Jingtang died, and Shi Chonggui succeeded him as emperor. He made Li "Zhifang Langzhong" (職方郎中),
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Li Chongmei


), Shi Jingtang the military governor of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi), rebelled with aid from the Khitan Empire. When the main Later Tang forces Li Congke sent to attack Shi, commanded by Zhang Jingda, was defeated and surrounded by the combined Khitan/Hedong forces, Li Congke's high-level officials were all pushing for him to personally lead the imperial army against Shi. Li Chongmei volunteered to go in his stead, stating: Li Congke, who was hesitant to face Shi
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